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C549,752
i  f"I 3
OF TH2X
B-URM1ESE LANGUAGE
RAN(WON;
BArV               s   k '
AMER  AN B PT ll lISoNPS,
*.  hinney, Supt
188:3.
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77




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GRAMMAR't


OF THE


d


BURMESE ANGUAGE


/
BY A. DSON,


I                I




RANGOON;
AMERICAN BAPTIST MISSION PES
P. D. Phinney, Supt.
1883.




:          PREFATORY NOTE.
This ai the same as Appendix B in the new edition of Dr.
Judson's Burmese and English Dictionary.  It consists of that
Grammar of the Burmese language, which was published in the
quarto edition, with the addition of critical notes.  Everything
added in this way is carefully indicated by the letters st.,
which form an abbreviation for the name of the present editor,
E. O. STEVENS.
Prome, June 5th, 1883.
C7  '
'9 '.
4             '.4,s'     -,.~.-.


~




qL -  j;', I~


A GRAMMAR
OF THE


BURMESE


LANGUAGE.


PRELIMINARY REMAREKS
~1. The Burmese language is written from left to right, and
without any division of words.
~2. The pure Burmese is monosyllabic, every word consisting
of one syllable only; but the introduction of the Pali language,
with the Boodhistic religion, has occasioned the incorporation of
many polysyllabic words of Pali origin into the pute Burmese.
~3. The form of the letters, the order of the vowels and conlso
nants, and the classification of the latter, prove that the Burmese
alphabet is but one modification of the ancient Nagaii; as the
Pali language itself, as used by the Burmese, is but a modifitation of the Sanscrit.
THE ALPHABET.
~4. The Burmese alphabet consists of ten vowels (oq), and
thirty-two consonants (!gSl).
~5. The ten vowels are: —o, a, ooo, a, 4, es, e, ee, e, ~o,, oo,., aa, [or ey in they,st.] c, ai,,  co,  au, ce5, at,to which may be added the diphthong, id, o.
~6. The thirty-two consonants are:co,  ka,     a,  '7a,    o,  ya,:,   ga,    c, n,
e,  tea,   o0, 'tea,, O  a, q,      dza,,     nya,
qo,   at,    o, 'la,         da,     o,  da, f, tna,
o,   pa,    o,   pa,    a,    o,   ba,    W,   ma,
o)   ya,    q,   ra      a, Za,     o,   wa,    o, tAa,
O, ha,      g,   la;-  to which may be added the character."                             t.




6


BTRME8E GRAMMAR.


~7. According to the foregoing arrangement, the first twentyfive consonants are distributed into five classes.  The letters of
the first or om class are gutturals (ochooD *); those of the second
or o class are palatals (ooocoo); those of the third or t class are
cerebrals (g/so); those ot the fourth or oo class are dentals
(9jr-); and those of the fifth or o class are labials ((8j o).
~8. The first letter of each class is a simple articulation, smooth
and soft; the third is the same, rough and hard; the second is
the aspirate of the first; the fourth; according to the Nagari
system, is the aspirate of the third, but according to the Burmese
prolunciation, is the same; and the fifth is the corresponding
nasal]
~9. The pronunciation of the cerebrals and the dentals, though
different in the Nagari, is the same in the Burmese.
~10. Of the seven remaining consonants, five, viz; co, q, co,
o, and 9 are liquids; 0o is properly a sibilant, but pronounced
th, and oo is an aspirate.
~11. The cerebrals and the letter g are found in words only
of Pali origin.
VOWELS.
510. The names and powers of the vowels are as followsi —
on,    a or ah        as a in America.
oo),   a or ah        as a in father., ea                 as i in pin, [or ee in been.st.]
ee                as ee in feet.
'      oo             as oo in good, or u in ful.
00oo               as oo in food, or t in rate.
i3,    ta or ay       as a in fae.
-    - r -          X      - X- --
*The Sanscrit authorities, it is true, give the second lettter of the class as the
djunct to the  a  bl; but the Pali authoritie 8ive' te thir  wlwb is
left AStUPWd.




THE ALPHABET.7


7


c~.xias ai in hair.
au     as o in on.
au*         as an in audience.
0           as oin note.'
COINONA-NTS.
~ 13. The names and poweris of the consonants are as follows:
M51      great ka, g~ re k, as i n king.
OG 89    curved 6ka,A61~4&qM4k, k aspirated, [pron. as if written;Q   s.
O ccx,      small ga, ypalylza g, as in good.
W -1I    great ga, ~iayeeothe same.
co       nga      9ma      ng, as in rangj, when final; when
initial, not to be exemplified in English.
ecl,     round tsa, 4~~ts.
QO8,     twisted 'tsa4%i/2zts s aspirated.
divided dza,     dz~
qor 3, EUqS#                 theM same, [pron. as if written
to bridle dza,.W'V~/    ~   t8olt.]
eor inya, (ng9ya,Bt.] P.4y, [nDgyst.]IXf               aI 4
SeaS bier-hook ta,       t, as' In time.
2O&3c,      duck 'ta,       't, t aspirated.,/jjjpilildz2
qqc*:cS     crookedt-breast da, d,as in don&x dii
4 wter-dipper d4, the samae.          d777a        O 10
great na,        no as in not.  )
woSv        Obdoninoius ta,  t, as in time.  J14b'   -6t
9p0o8c~S,t  elephantrfetter 'ta, 't, t aspirated. Al 25ez  I?~
Qonfsedda,                d, as in done. drA~i  X4
qQOQ.)a5ia5, hottom-inden ted da,  02ei lzItA   k
(formerly written o,)  the samne.
smnall na,       n, as i n not.Al
'Pronounced with the rising inflection of the voioe.st.




8


BURMESE GRAMMAR,


ococS,
WOCeOC1,
acnoocS,
CD,
o,
0,


steep or deep pa, p, as in part. /22 -ot dc
capped 'pa,     'p, p aspirated. /an oo 8h /'o/.
top-indented ba,  b, as in book. /0ati/iA ot
hump-backed ba, the same.     /ahnoo L
ma,              m, as in fnake.  i a
supine ya,       y, as in young. y  /a..
crooked ra, Yr4tkr, as in run, or y, as above.
la,    /a       1, as in love.,
wa,    wa        w, as in word.
tha,   itia     th, soft, as in thin, or th, hard,


as in this.,           ha,   /a         h, as in home.
age,        great la,?2afyteS l, as in love./ti:/t:/: &'y.
~14. The character ( ) called cwsCxo80o8, small thing placed
above, is placed over the letter with which it is combined, and
has the power of a final q, or a final r, divested of its inherent
heavy accent (see Accents); thus oo, an, o5, than.
COMPOUND CONSONANTS.
~15. Compound Consonants are formed by combining one or
more of the letters o, GI, 0, and 0c, under symbolic forms with
simple consonants, according to the following table, in which c
Is selected as the principal, because that is thQ only letter which
admits all the adjuncts:. ~16.
Letter.


Symbol. Name of symnbol. Junction with un Power.


v


W         J
I         C
q and o
0         J
ov and oo j
0 and 00 t.
io and oW
6,0 and 0'o'
i /taht;: taite ^ WA M.
I


oous, ya combined,
6lqj, ra curved round,
oc, wa suspended,
0088s, and ot,
q$ and ot,
owc~e, ha thrust out,
oooSs and o'dcs,
qcq[ and cc8s,
o     and ocad,
qq6, ot and ocqs,


Ia
8
8
81
g
Q
~
2


inya. ^/flW - ^
mra or mya.ra
n)wa. aw /SAh4fat
mywa. hIa    '
inrwa or mywa.
'ma.  h,4:o
'mya.
'mra or 'mya.
lw wa.
'mrwa or 'mywa.




THE ALPHABET.


9


~17. The letter o, in the capacity of an aspirate, may be? combined with the nasals, as a, A, o3, A, A, and with the liquids
co and o, as o, 9u   But when combined with oa or q, the
compound has the power of sh, as   l, shan. cd, 'lya also is
frequently pronounced sha, and 0  has the same power.  @ is
equivalent to A, nya, and oc to oo, ya.
COMBINATION OF VOWELS WITH CONSONANTS.
~18. The vowel oo is supposed to be inherent in every consonant that is not furnished with the symbol of another vowel, or
marked as final.
~19. The other vowels are combined with consonants, simple
or compound, under symbolic forms, according to the following
table:~20.
Letter. Symbol.  Name of Symbol.   Junction with con Power.
o    Io or 1 a, placed down,                 00     ka. Kh i2a
/ o        c88s0oS, large round placed on,        ee. o
o  o8(c88eoo8oX S, large round           ke
on: ng  /3  '/pf laced on and kernel inserted,  B  ke
e     '       [ o0cor8cE, one line drawn,    oo     koo. '"  ~f. /           cGscpC8S, two lines drawn,    o     koo.     - ';
a     c  [   cococ8s, tha-waa thrust out,    c     kaa./%AA:;
i     s      c~oci  86, thrown back,         C     kai.n
c3 — o       c0coc8o, as above,    cm:       k au.,.
C5 C-S       oaco C8eijd8, as   above   and           a s/     A:
thrust forward,               coS * kau.
L         c88oo8ooC8o8cS, as above,              ko.
~21. The second symbol of the vowel mo (1) is used whenever the use of the first would convert the consonant into another
letter, -also with s and c, as a), not onu  The latter part of
the symbols of cfo and c5S, is similarly modified in the same
circumstances, as ca, not caSa
~22. The symbol of any vowel may be combined with'the vowel
oQ, in which case the compound has the power of the vowel which
the symbol represents; thus cd is equivalent to A, ol to e, &c.




10


BURMESE GRAMMAR.


FINAL CONSONANTS.
~23. When a consonant is deprived of its inherent vowel oo,
and not furnished with the symbol of another, it becomes final
in the syllable. The absence of the inherent vowel oo, is denoted
by the mark (c) called that, [th as in thin,st. ] signifying killed,
placed above the consonant thus, or, or by another consonant
subjoined, thus 0A; in which case the subjoined consonant becomes
the initial of the next syllable, thus c03, kat-ta.
~24. One consonant however is sometimes placed under another as a mere abbreviation, and does not therefore deprive the
preceding consonant of its inherent vowel; thus p:8 is equivalent
to o03)8, and is to be read, not thma, but tha-ma.
~25. e has two forms, e (single), and 2 (double).  In elementary works, therefore, the double form may be well distinguished by subjoining a double tail, thus 2i
~26. 0 with g subjoined is sometimes written ~, but frequently and more properly ga  A double co is written o;u
~27. Final consonants generally assume a new and peculiar
power, and also modify the preceding vowel.  These permutations, as they occur in words of pure Burmese origin, are exhibited
in the following table:~28. o                     e         c; o
o ocS, et.                            coo:)', ouk. dcS, aik.t
308 en, een,*                        cooS, oung.d 8, aing.4
oo0, eet,l
oQ~_, een, ee.
oooS, at.   do6 ~eing. ojoS, Ok.
oo, an.    odoS   eik.  o     u, Ong.
oe9, at,    8oc    eing. o618, ok.
wQS, an.    od3    eik. o06, Vng.
odoS, ai.t
D, an.                   A,    ong.
*The latter sound especially obtains, when the initial letter is 3, Os,,
or a consonant compounded with the symbol of 03 or 9i [ee, as in been.st.]
IlOr it.st.  tAi, as in air.st.  ~Ei, as in vein, skein.st. tAi, as in aisle.et.




THE ALPIUBUTO


11


~29. The final syllables, as here exhibited, are combined with
any consonant simple or compound, as mocs, ket, o98S kyeen, &c.
without any change in their pronunciation, except 'in two cases,
viz: 0 before oYS or 6', is commonly pronounce wo-t* not wat, and
before ~, St or ('), wo~n or woon not wan; and consonants cornpounded with 0, ais ag, R, &c. before oS or 6', are commonly
pronounced kooat,t tsooat; and before i, &S, or (*), kooanit
t800ant, &c.  (These final consonants are not pronounced as
distinctly as in English.st.J
~30. There are also many words of Pali origin, in which~
consonants, final in a syllable, are subject to pernrntations somewhat isimilar to the above, and others of a peculiar character.
A key to the whole is furnished in the following table:
q       e
MOoS       rc,aS, eik.~  8oS, Z~k.  occS, eet, [or c ~oS, ouk.
00~ jS, eing.       e8, Ung.    it.st.]I  c~:), oung.
00     q6   eing.  ee67 -ng. ab, e eeee.  Q  s   oon.
~co        q OS, elkg.  eoS, U3k. aoS, ee.  C~Sot
ig.eeen, ee, asD
OZO  10  qSeik  o,?kinS been~t. r.    0  0011.
an.     qJc, eing.  ec, ng. ocS, een.    C   ofS, oon.
DooS  at.~oS eik.      e8  13k.  ooS, eet.  G:oS, oat.
b  anl.  d3i  eing.    'a ng.
~3 2. In the preceding table, final consonants are marked ()
for the sake of simplifying the tabular view; but though there are
some instances of that kinda e   fS oo-pA        matei
almost all cases derived fromn the Pali, final consonants are made
so by having other consonants subjoined, as c~a eing-dray, or
by modification (see ~ 23), ein-dray, ego, 6k-tsa, or b~y modificatfion UMnt-t C083O, meet'-ta4 C~o8,38, oot-tap-pa.
'0. s0   b~t         ~        a as oo iufoot, st.  -et
$Pro*. myit-1&.9cSt.   ~       Ef asia *,,.EMi




12


12              ~BURM~ESE Ok1AMbtAR.


~33& As an, appendix to both the preceding tables, note;1st. Cerebrals, when final, are the same as dentals; thus oSgQ
is pronounced at-ta-ma, as if written woyn
2d. The third letter of each class is the same as the first; thius
~05, pronounced pyatbthat, as if written Boo6oSn
3d. The second and fourth letters of each class never occur as
finals, except in some words derived from the Pali,-when they
are mute; as qtd,.from co, the sky, pronounced mo.
4th. Co, S, S, oA, and ~, after Sq, are mute, e. g. cAod, ko,
qSs4j, Myeen-mo, AcS, bo, cS, 'to, &o, gyo, c~, Thee-ho.
5th. oo  before a final gives the syllable the same power as
ox, thus aoo   is pronounced, an, as if written ooq, e. g. ov:8oS
man-nat.
~34. The sound of a final cosonant is frequently modified by
the initial consonant of the following syllable or word, as oo~,cp)
ek-ka-ra, [ ek-kha-ra,st. ] not et-ka-ra,:xc~8, them-ban, not thenbau.   But these permutations, being dictates of nature, will be
naturally acquired without rule.
~35. There is another permutation of perpetual occurrence,
which may be thus stated:-when two syllables are in juxtaposition, so as to form one word, the first syllable ending in a vowel
(except so), [expressedist.] or a nasal, and the initial letter of
the second syllable being the first or second letter of either of
the five classes of consonants, it frequently takes the sound of the
third letter of the same class; that is, oe and a ate pronounced
as o; o and co, as oe; q and 9, as v; oo and co, as 9; o and a,
as o; thus mcs, a uford, is pronounced, not tsa-kah, but tsa-gah,
as if written 0ols, and 0oSo4o, considerably, is pronotticed, not
en-tan, but en-dan, as if written ooSo9u
~36. But there are so many exceptions to this general rule,
that regard to the coalescence of sounds as exhibited in common
practice is recommended as the only true guide.




TIMt AbtPRAT.                  13


13


ACCPWIT9.
~XT. Thore are two accents, tAh s/ort, light accent ( 6), and the,short, h 'vy accent (a )ti
~38. The short, light accent (,), called m~b the oo stop,
(formerly a smnall subscriptive oo,) or amdSS the under 8top, I's
placed under the letter, thus c*~~h  It is used with the vowels
a te) coo     -, and the nasal t6onsonants.
~39. The short heavy accent (e), Called oo~eqo.~s, the two
round Iwoot-tah, or ~cpoI63, the dote before (after), is placed
after the latter, thus o-481  It is used with the vowels ooD, d,
6, b, and the nasal consonants.  This Accent is considered as
inherent in then vowel c6 (unless superseded by the light accent),
and in the final!3onsonant &, when combined with thes Vo*el oo.
In the latter case it is frequently omitted asg superfluouis; and in
the former case, almost uniformly, in modern usage.
ABBREVIATION9.
~40.  ifor   a..a.            for..
(when placed over o, in the                      boo.
symbol of                   cjS 9or4 for.,,...scf- 8
QSs  for...     oSs   cij for     be~   o~ceS
~41. cx is aonmetimes represented by itis symbol, after aS,, as
aw.o~os fbr- emc~Scx-D, Cocaj) for Cor&>3o, &e.
~42. S o~r St Is frequently removed from its kattnral situation
in the line, istid placed over the- following letter, as oX'oJS for
SOeN    [In this position it is called omSIlssit.I I  t.cs
of Ss, the accent 'is; omitted, without affecting, the pronunciation;AS CoA   for D&CODtcmo




14


BURMESE GRAMMAR.


NUMERICAL FIGURES.
~43.   o,   j,?,?,   A,   G,  q,   o,   A,   oo.
1,   2,  3,   4,   5,   6,  7,   8,   9,   10.
PUNCTUATION.
~44. The mark n called ~cS or ooqoS, a stop, is used to separate sentences, and the clauses of a sentence.  The double mark
*,, ~c8s, a great stop, is used. to divide paragraphs.
~45. The mark JoScncoos, a little dtop, begins to be used hii
printed books, as an equivalent to the English cornma, (a great
desideratum in Burmese writing) leaving the 1 to supply the place
of the semicolon and period.
PARTS OF SPEECHT.
~46. The Etymology of Burmese Grammar may be exhibited
undei' the six classes of Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Ve'bs,
Adverbs, and Interjections.
-o
SOUNS.
~47. The usual division of nouns into common and proper
obtains in the Burmese, as in all other languages.
~48. Under common nouns are included three kinds of derivatives; tbe simple, the reduplicative, and the compound.
~49. Simple derivatives are mostly formed from verbal roots,
by prefixing om, as oc0oS8, light, from coSs to be light; but in
composition thbe, is commonly dropped; thus eoo, food, from
evs, to eat, when combined with ~, evening, becomes Aeo,
evening food, or supper.
~50. The same is true of all nouns, whose initial is a syllable
o; thus 0oo~, liquor, when combined with tos, a bee, becomes
)8Ps, honey; and sometimes even when a syllable or word is
added; thus ooccpS, brightness, when followed by   a, a ray,
becomes ceSS6 9 a ray of brightnese.




PARTS OF SPEECH —NOUNS.


15


~51. Reduplicative derivatives are formed from nouns of one
syllable, by prefixing oX to the noun reduplicated, or from nouns
of two syllables, the first being a syllabic oQ, by dropping the X
in the second number of the reduplication; and such derivations
imply generality or universality; thus from n p, a country, is
formed o        S~ Sc8. (with the plural affix), many or all countries;
and for osaos, a race, oO8qS8cJ, many or all races.
~52. Compound derivatives will be considered under the head
of verbal nouns,
lqUMBER,
~53. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and plural. The
simple noun may be regarded as being in the singular number,
as cQ, a man; though the noun in its simple state, withoqt any
definite adjunct, has frequently a generic meaning, as cc~oooo3
Xo&, man is mortal,
~54. The plural is formed by affixing c. (pronounced  o), do,
to the singular, as cA, a man, cjco, men.  The adjective p38 is
sometimes used instead of c, and sometimes both are combined,
as cOjS38, or Cqoc78n, me n.
GENDER.
~55. The Burmese language recognizes no grammatical or
artificial gender, but that only which consists in the distinction
of the sexes, viz, the masculine aud the feminine.
~56. The two genders are distinguished, sometimes by different
words, as ooooD8s, a man, 8g, a woman; sometimes by regarding the simple noun as masculine, and affixing w for feminine, as
cq 8s, a priest (of Bood4), qo  s p, priestess; and sometimes by
affixing C8s, or e, or!, for the masculine, and o for the feminine;
as cgac@8, a dog, cgaq, q hitch; fcdi, a cock,  dody, a hen;
c$.J, a gander, cisw, a goose.
CASE.
~57. The relations of nouns expressed in most languages by
prepositions or inflections, are in the Burmese language expressed




16


BURMES GRAMMAR.


by particles affixed to the noun, without any inflection of the
noun itselfL
~58. The noun affixes may be distributed into nine classes,
viz, the Nominative, the Objective, the Possessive, the Dative,
the Causative, the Instrumentive, the Connective, the Locative,
and the Ablative.
NOMINATIVE,
~59. oad is the most comlnon nominative affix, denoting the
agent or subject of the verb; as  ooompScmoSs, that man is
gaOQ; but in simple sentences, it is most commonly omitted; as
3cos.88so, he is good; also in pa:ticipij clauses, scpo'f
c~ooocoos the words which the teacher speaks,
~60. oo8, oaos8, and 1m08 (by abbreviation t), are also
nominative affixes, denoting the agent or subject, but rather more
definitive or distinctive than oaO, and froml the latter quality,
are much used in adversative clauses, as cpoa ome scmo8sdi
acSGoOvs~ooc     s8, my conduct is good; his conduct is not
good.  These affixes are frequently equivalent to qs to, concerning, in regard to, a substantive verb being  understood, as
cn   oEsrooes, as to the reason, (it is as follows).
~61.            ies is sometimes used emphatically after another noun
affix, as O    oQ~8:$JoQXCcO, can you indeed bear the beating?   Also repeated after successive clauses intended to be set
adversatively, as co~ ~vsc8@S3oo,. c6lccnv8iSE   S, on
the land it is easy to see; in the water (we) cannot see.  In such
eases 0cs is used adverbially.
OBJECTIVE.
~62. c is the true objective affix, denoting the object on which
an action terminates; as cq~co   ~ooooe~, to drink water;
sometimes, with some latitude of application, it denotes the object
to which a thing is given; as cacosol, give to mve; or the object




PARTS OF SPEECH-NOUNS.


17


to which motion is directed; as d:jcgscooo? go to the house!
or the material out of which a thing is made; as gc   9co3~
ooooo, an imtlement made of gold.     In the first and most
proper application, it is frequently understood; as cqco86o, for
c4Co8(o1, give water.
~63. c  is an objective affix, denoting the object towards
which or unto which motion is directed, as d3Sooo8scoo, go to
the house! though frequently, in colloquial style, it is superceded
by A8, as above.  Various applications may seem to require the
aid of various prepositions in English, as oac-S?8   ps, to
deliver into (his) hand, =        c8coSooe~, to follow (hie) will,
or according to (his) will,  pccpocoe, to arrive at the town;
but in all such cases, it will be evident, on a little reflection,
that the legitimate import of the affix is preserved.
POSSESSIVE.
~64. ( is the possessive affix denoting possession, as co
owc cS, the life of man.  This affix is very frequently understood; in which case the preceding syllable, if capable of taking
the short, light accent, is pronounced accordingly; thus  ~cedE
ooco, a father's father, if written 9o~eooo, is pronounced as
if written, oocoeooco
PATIVE.
~65, bo8 is the proper dative affix, equivalent in   varirious applications to to or per in English, as cmosvo8o1, give to
me.   It is sometimes used for the objective affix c11
~1, for, in order to, is used only with ocq, desire, as mev
9oqcl, for food, or for the sake of food; or with verbals in
(8~, as eos[8891, or eso8mS80), in order to eating; or with
verbs used substantively, as se38aoaov1, or oo8scq oo1, in order
to eat.  (See under verbal nouns, ~124, and verbs used substantively, ~122.)




18


1BURMESE GRAMMAR,


CAUSATIVE.
~66. cOQo, because, on account of, from oec 3,s a cause
or reason, is used with simple nouns, as ooB8cO4,  because of
the fault; but its great use is in connection with verbs used sub:
stantively, as oa8S8c~cO~, because of thefault.  (See verbs
used substantively, ~122.)  8 is equivalent to coE. but seldom
used in writing.
1NSTRUMENTIVE,
~67. @., by, with, by means of, as cocS@   Soe~,t to hold
with the hand, is the proper instrumentive affix; but it is more
frequently superceded by the connective affix p3, as c0~Ep88c
wed, of the same import; or used in connection with the secondary noun oos, in the sense of means, literally strength.  (See
secondary nouns,~74.)
CONNECTIVE.
~68. The connective affix Hi signifies 1st, with, together with,
as fol  cScS ps, to follow with the man.  In this sense it is
much used with the seccondary nouns mooo, ooa, &c.     (See
secondary nouns,~74.)
2d. It supplies the place of the copulative conjunction and
between nouns, as ~~~Cg~~va,      to seek gold and silver.
3d. It is frequently used for the iustrumnertive aflix  S, as
stated above.
LOCATIVE.
~69. o8, A, and go, are locative affixes, signifying in, at,
among, as d3cog2, G~, d3op, in the house.   They sometimes
have a possessive import, as cl~egolt:QgS, the goods with me
(or my goods) are many.
go, like the nominative affixes os8, ImO, &c., frequently
signifies as to, concerning, in regard to.
oo0 signifies in, but is commonly restricted to nouns of place
and time.




PARTS OF SPEECH-NOUNS.


19


ABLATIVE.
~70. The ablative affix 9 sighifiesfrom, out of, separate from,
besides, as covooe Ooa PS, tO come from  the wood; / ocol8s,
besides that, one (thing more);  dct.gs, beginning from that
day, that is, from that day forth, C:QSqeocepg:gon, all my
property, beginning with my house.
~71. co is an ablative affix of the same import with 9, but
has frequently the additional power of a nominative affix, partichlarly to verbs of speaking or communicating in any way, when
the speech or matter communicated comes between the nominative and the verb; as Gs38oacooco88$66@c'8.cocS.  n   God
Said, let there be light.
~72. Certain verbal affixes, as do, cb, co, oJ, and col, when
affixed to nouns, are merely expletive.
~73. The vocative is expressed by the noun in a simple state
divested of all affixes.  Sometimes in grave discourse, it is
indicated by q prefixed, as 0aoocp, 0 teacher.
SECONDARY NOUNS.
~74. Some relations of nouns are expressed by means of
secondary nouns which take some of the preceding affixes, and
are connected with the principal nouns by i, (dropping the forinative o) the sign of thl possessive, expressed or understood,
as in the following examples:I U  an upper part,      66           or 9     oT,
ood,    )       jBS}d3oooc5, above, over, or
tpon the house.
Eo0aS, anw under part; / (cao,S to, under the house.
~C, afore part; 6Sc~ go, before the house.
cQocS, a hind part; oScf~ocdSo, behind the house.
O       [ an outside; fa$oso, c8BSo8, without the house.
a?;  \ an inside; ~S&b&o, doE889oo wiithin the house.
MCR?,
Sao.




20


20             fltVMPM, GftAMMAM~


aooa ide; 3&pog, byf the house.
tea near par"t, nearne88; GSI3&890, near the Aou8&eb
mo~5, presence; 4o88O~o9, in presnene of the governor.
~, dittd;                      ditto.
oean upper part; @3,cj., up the r iver.
bc    a lower part; Sb~c~    down the river.
oooCFS, account, soake;  j8tOOS3Don account', or for
the sake of mankind.
~75. The folkiwiiig secondary noUns ariel commonly used
without an Affx; and in some instances, are connected with the
principal nouns by p~ instead of do
C*   a part, portion; d&Si or cfor the house.
elosSs summit, exrtremity;' CM'Oacooa3'es thtrough, or to
the end of life.
ootSoopg, a circuit;' f&SoopoS, round the AbUse
o~cij,  ditto;     o~S qjS        ditto.
ooc0o8  cgi8, ditto; GSoSo:OC-B jsq, ditto.
uoSc~8, a whole circuit; mo-oc&s, during or throughout
the time.
aoqc, likenems 6~glZ in like mnannel.
DOCco3c7, about so muck, (obsolete); cjcoC     r      to e
aboztt a,# large as a man..
MQJ, abowt so Much; WJ0j about -a' yelzr.
Obe'enness, aocbrdance; ooc?~$Oq, or ooam8according to (his) Will.
o=c8S, measurentent; mocqp$ oqcf8s, or oocjIooc9~8., do.
ocqoaoS, an tzgreeinV   with; Mq~ocqooS, or           oq
C*Cq~asditto.
oflds much6 tis8 aocpj  otmdjaOx, to know a* much as
the teacher.
0000s, stead; c~-5~vos, instdead Of 8erf.
moa being wit4; tcp~OOOj,~ with the teewhero
008      ditto;    00   o00ca      ditto.
N. B. -In some instances, * or 00, is optionally substituted
for the formative Ml, as c* *qS*for C)*O40cSO9', Voe~0b




PARTS OF SPEBCH- PRONOUNS.


81


~76. Some relations of nouns are expressed by means of verbs
also, as from cScog~, to arrive at, reach, may be formed,OdSoScoooS (with a continuative affix), unto, or aefar as
the house;
Moco$Sco$oS, until the time;
@godcQcS (the root doubled), through the country;
oocod~8S, during the time; in which cases c: or c   is understood after the noun, and sometimes expressed.
-0 —
PRONOUNS.
~77. c), I, masculine or feminine, is used by a person in speaking to himself of himself, and in addressing inferiors.
gSR, cgijS, or calu, I, masculine or feminine, is used in
addressing equals, and in addressing inferiors politely.
cgjcooS, a servant, cnjcaoo, to jy) or ogo, a female eervant,
ooucxooS, a disciple, and coo urSgo, a female disciple, are
used as first personals in addressing superiors.
acgr, I, feminine, is of similar import with gic, but not
in common use.
N. B. The plural affix c8 is sometimes used for the plural of
the first personal.
cfd cooS, thou, masculine or feminine, is used to a superior;
88s,* you, masculine, to an equal or an inferior; e:o8$6, yout
masculine, to an inferior; c~o8o8s, you, rather imperious and
disrespectful; 88wso, you, masculine, to an inferior, expressive
of disapprobation; S e~8 or i, you, feminine, to an equal or
inferior; oow8, you, feminine, to any woman, expressive of
disrespect or anger; and 85, you, masculine or feminine, to
children, or persons very inferior*
oaS, thou, or you, masculine or feminine, is used chiefly in
writing, and is irrespective of the relative rank of the parties.
08s, you, masculine or feminine, is used in judicial language.
#*85 is also femnme.st.
3




22


BURMESE GRAMMAS.


odoS, you, masculine or feminine, familiar, and cooS, you,
masculine or feminine, disrespectful, are used vocatively only.
doA    makes oig, and ooS, d   c,   in the plural.
oj, aperson, masculine or feminine, supplies the place of the
third personals, he and she.
o88s,* that (thing), neuter, may also be regarded as a third
personal.
'c oand doQ   8S, one's self (i. e. myself, yourself, or himself),
masculine or feminine, are of either person as the connection
requires.
88, one's self, masculine or feminine, is confined to the second
and third persons.
~78. The pronouns c?, 0A, and 6j, in the singular number,
not preceded or followed by any adjective or participiai adjunct,
become c, cva, and co, before the oblique, unaspirated affixes
(except c.), viz. cI,  8os, c~ g, oS, and a understood; but
when used nominatively, or followed by C, or by i expressed,
or by an aspirated affix, Hi, p, ~, 5o, or A, they retain their
proper form.   Other pronouns, ending in a nasal, are similarly
inflected.
ADJECTIVES.
~79. Adjectives are of three kinds, pronominal, verbal, and
numeral.
~80. Adjectives of either kind are prefixed to their nouns, by
means of the connective coo or co:o, if singular, and the same,
or (2o!ie~, or cSco6, if plural, or directly affixed.  But to
this general rule there are several exceptions, particularly in the
pronominals.
~81. An adjective and noun united in either way form a
compound word, which admits the plural affix and the affixes of
cases, the same as a eitnple nonn.
*oD like th in' te.st.




PARTS OF SPEECH-ADJECTIVES.


23


PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
~82. The following pronominals are prefixed to their nouns,
in some cases with, and in some without a connective, —ce, t5,
or t, being occasionally substituted for ~oo, before words of
time:a, this, as jcj, this man; /  ec,, thi8 day.
WOS, this.
c, that, as caj, thtperson; cqooooo, or Bcpoo, that
time.
cos8, that,-infrequent,
expl, this or that,-infrequent,
o: and cIS, that,-colloquial.
oo5d, or cod, what?- occasionally contracted to -s, before:I, as oooj, for  oozS~, who?-and to co before to, as croo,
what thing?   In negative sentences, it combines with the negative particle a, to signify none, as coooo~. there is no one.
When combined with so8s, that (thling), it means which; as
ooco.o8s, which (thing)?
oo8, what?-infrequent.
%Co9, whatever.
up, what? whatever.   N. B. Qcog, ditto, is directly prefixed or affixed.
g~g, such, referring to what has been specified.  [Its most
common use appears to be indefinite, such and such, such or
such.st.]
~83. The following pronominals pre prefixed to their nopns,
with the usual connectivesI, such.
US. adito s 8uc, of this sort,
cd v, x,8sc~, such, of that sort,
Qcx0S4cZ, MOq  ooo,    e    of what ^rt
Qo    cof whatever eort.
Al, and its coinpoqnds, such A.




24


BURMESE GRAMMAR.


~84. The following, viz. omi   and oof, some, oso8, o09s8,
and o0o8s, other, o6cS68 and ooc?8j, all, are joined to their
nouns according to the general rule, except that when prefixed,
the connective is in some instances omitted.  oSoSs68, all, is
prefixed with a connective.
~85. oos8, other, Acoro, many, Oo8scs8, all, and oocas, all, the
whole, are uniformly affixed.
~86. oAc'8, when affixed to a noun or a numeral auxiliary,
frequently drops the oo, or changes it to s, as oMScs8, or d3:oqs8,
the whole house; 3o,8cqp, or &  So8q~ 8, all the three houses.
When affixed to a singular noun, the compound occasionally
takes the numeral oo, one, before it, without a change of meaning,
as oo5rcos8, or oo&e~so8, the whole house; %cScsooos 8cs, the
whole ship.
~87. cooS', how many? is directly prefixed to numeral
auxiliaries, or words denoting a part or quantity of a thing, as
coqoc&d8OS&Scqs, how many mangoes? 0           oqgoScdy88ooS8,
How many baskets of mangoes?
~88. So much, How much? &c., are expressed by combining
pronolinials with such nouns as mot, os~coocS, &c., denoting
quantity, as |g, so much, oWOcccoS, cod9gccuo, how much
~89. Some pronominals are doubled to form a kind of plural,
as d<o4elo, those goods.
~90. Pronominals are frequently used substantively, and in
that character admit the noun affixes.
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
~91. Verbal adjectives are made by joining verbal roots to
nouns, according to the general rule, as coS~ccotc, or cotoS,
an excellent man; but as the verbal root, when prefixed, is susceptible of the accidents of verbs, it is more correct to regard that
ponstruction as participial. See under participial affixes, ~114.
~92. Verbal adjectives are also formed from verbal roots
by prefixing oa, as 03o8e, new, and by reduplicating the root,
as ccoSs6sCoo8s, good.  Such adjectives are commonly atfixed to




PARTS OF SPEECH-ADJECTIVES.


their nouns; but ops, from  cs, to be many, follows the general
rule, as  o:)8o3~oso6, or aoeopoos8, many teachers.
~93. The imperfect degree of comparison is sometimes made
by shortening and reduplicating the verbal root, as  t[~, sweetish,
from i, to be sweet, a;, bitterish, from ads, to be bitter; sometines, by affixing ac, to the root reduplicated, or reduplicated
and shortened, as a8688Qs, rather bad; and sometimes by affixing
reduplicated chiming increments, having oo for an initial to the
root in its natural state or shortened, to express a slight degree
of the quality, as ajacq, or kick, slightly sweetish.
~94. The comparative degree is made, by means of the secondary noun  macoc, or cacmS, and verb, as G8ooS:cseooC~, to
be greater than the house, or by a circumlocution of verbs, as
00o6(8o8oO, to exceed in greatness, or be greater.
~95. The superlative degree is made, by prefixing oo, and
affixing as to the verbal root, as oagoSos, most excellent; and
is joined to nouns according to the general rule, as oso38scooo
oa, or cozsao8s8, the most excellent man.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
~96. Numerals are generally combined with a word descriptive
of some quality in the noun to which they belong, and in that
state are joined to nouns according to the general rule.
~97. If the numeral is less than ten, the auxiliary word is
affixed to it (the formative O, whenever it occurs, being dropped), as cS3jSoq8, or j qsc~oooSc, two cups, from  ofS, a cup,
PS, two, and oo8s, round; if it is a capital number, as ten,
twenty, thirty, two hundred, three hundred, &c., the auxiliary
is prefixed to it, as goSos8s~soooS, or omo8iCSoooscCao cS,
twenty cups; and if it is a numeral, intervening between the
capitals, the auxiliary is both prefixed and affixed, as 8goSoQcs
j6o S8, or acsSsooS         8    g, twent-two     cups.
But in any case in which the auxiliary is prefixed, it.may be
omitted, as s   o[oqlss3oSx, or ~ozsoalio oSc~osocp, twenty
teachers, may be written pocppSiomid, or pESoo~cSoooop, and
o:e0ooos186ooS6osl8 or ooo8stjwe:oo oo8csao oO:, twenty-two




26


BURMESE GRAMMAR.


teachers, may be written QoocqaSooSol8, or p6Soo6'  ol8Coo
~98. The following is a list of the most common numeral
auxiliaries, arranged alphabetically, with the classes of things
to which they are applied:

Yummeral Auxiliaries.
oos, a chief.
oo~co8, a brute animal.
oocos88, a line.
ooaSes, a circle, or ring.
god, an individual thing.
ooqS, what isflat.
ooc~o8s, a bar, or long piece.
oSis8, voice.
oooSs, an extended line.
os8, what is ridden upon.


Classes of Things.
Rational beings, considered as
chief or having subordinates, as
2cy~ooeSoo8, one merchant.
Brute animals, as c~joS3S
cmoS, two monkeys.
Things extended in a line, as
8?8sscos8S8, three roads.
Rings, nooses, and such like, as
coaSc gcooe8ca88, four rings.
Things which admit no other
word more descriptive, as 0o08
C18e, five bedsteads, crxco8osc
cls8, five chairs,-frequently used
also instead of a more appropriate
numeral auxiliary.
Things flat and thin, as hjp
cScrOOS, six mats.
Things long and straight, or
nearly so, as o0a8  CpSS8, seven
needles.
Words, speech, as emosegs88,
eight words.
Things long and straight, or
nearly so, as oJc~8,88 nine spears,
~coCSooSeS8, ten ships.
Beasts of burden, vehicles of
conveyance, as Ssao88, one horse;
g~868ts, two carts.




PARTS OF SPEECH-ADJECTIVES.


27


oceoS (uncertain).
ooas (uncertain).
OcQoWS, a building.
Oaoo4, intervening space.
ooooPS, a piece of cloth.
000ooS a tree or plant.
mola8 (uncertain )
oogo8, what is fat.
oooS, one of apair.
oocooc, an arm, or hand.
ooc28, what is rounc.


Writings, ss soos8CoS, three
books, or writings.
Deities, as oG8Gcco08sa, four
gods; also [gardens,st.] pagodas,
and some other articles.
Buildings, as 3~c8scwo8S,five
houses.
Whatever occurs at intervals
of time or place, as =ooc48oc8S
o40, six rewards.
Wearing apparel, as oomjIS
oo, seven coats.
Trees, plants, as aqc&o6$i8oS,
tight mango trees; also thread,
hair, &c.
Deities, ecclesiatics, persons
in power, any respectable characters,  things  immaterial,  as
soopc8sols, nine teachers, -oO
oouo1s, ten duties.
Things which are flat, as (0`
oooo8, one board.
Things which are naturally
joined  in pairs, as ooc]S&oc,
twbo hands.
Weapons, tools, whatever is
used by the hand, as ccfco4s
cowS, three guns.
Things round or cubical, -or approaching those forms, as Q8Cco08
0o8, four pot, o<cX80o   8.s8, jve




28


28TRMESE (*IIAMMAR.


wcoS, what is slender.        Things small in bulk, compared to the length, as G6sEOcS
0aoS, sia rivers, co8s3aScd,
seven paths.
caocS, (uncertain.)           Rational beings, -generally
mankind, or superior beings, as
olScwoocS, eight men.
~99. Sometimes the noun itself becomes the numeral auxiliary,
or is substituted for a descriptive word, as gocs88, nine villages, vSs8oodSs, ten governors.
~100. Words denoting some part or quantity of a thing are
combined with numerals in the same manner as words descriptive
of a quality, there being no other difference in the cases, excepting that in the latter the number of individual things merely is
expressed; in the former, the number of the parts or quantities
of the thing, as cqGsgcSg, or j6goSacocq, two cups of water;
e0g3lm].   boooS~, or oocpSi}oo dcvOaeo, twenty bundles of
paper; /  jSq, two days (coco, time, being understood), literally,
two days of time.
~101. The numeral oo, one, combined with a numeral auxiliary reduplicated, as ooat, oovcocScw~c3, denotes any one,
some one (out of several); when combined with a numeral
auxiliary, and the combination reduplicated, as ooA0b0,  ~oec)S,
oocoo)cS, it denotes one after another (whether every one or
several); when combined with a numeral auxiliary, and followed
by the same numeral combined with cco, as oolocco, oococs
o0cco (sometimes reversed), it denotes a few, now and then one,
here and there one; when combined with a numeral auxiliary,
and preceded by the same numeral, combined with i, as oosood,
oot~ooc@ocB, it denotes some one, indefinite.- Such combinations may be regarded as pronominal adjectives.  They are
joined to their nouns, according to the general rule.
~102. Ordinal numerals are of Pali origin, and are prefixed
to their nouns, eas tdvods, -te second section.  Ordinals are
also made by affixing c~oS, 't raa'd, to cardinal numerals,




PARTS OF SPEECH-VERBS.


29


modified as above, as S.oocoSegodSc  xoo>os8, the second son;
qSc~:cSCiO ~6Os., the second day.
~103. There are a few adjectives which, on account of some
peculiarity, cannot be placed in either of the foregoing classes.
Some of them are prefixed to their nouns, as coo, great, Maoco,
extraordinary; some are either prefixed or affixed, as aado,
infinite,  orpe, ordinary; and some are affixed, as c=co8, small;
cooS, honorific, Q, principal, chief among many; 8s8, single one,
only, as oocSsc88o8, in a single day; ooa8 only, no more, used
with numerals, as o3ooe~8, one only.
~104. Nouns used adjectively may be distributed into three
classes, viz:1st. Names of races of men, of countries, towns, &c. when
used to qualify a following noun, as ooacoS, an Englishman,
aoocSoScj, ditto, Sooc8o~6, England, the country of the
English; @8o, a Burm-ese, Sgpomea, the Burmese language;
64c)Y, Rangoon, the town of Rangoon, qlc, ditto, ^q+?j
oo38, or q$(~cO08, a son, or native of Rangoon.
2nd. Common nouns used to qualify a following noun, as c5,
gold, qoacoos, a golden cup; ~cocS, the north, c ]oSicod8, the
northern path; wo, the u2pper part (of a country), 0,oOsO8,
an up-conntry person.
3rd. Names of trees, plants, and their parts, which are only
used in combination with a following noun; thus from o0ocS,
the olive, are formed o5c8EoS, an olive tree, o5cS 8, an olive
blossom, o5cg8os, an olive (fruit), o058s cS, an olive leaf.
VERBS.
~105. Verbs are of two kinds, transitive, which express actions
that pass from the agent to the object, as oSooSg, to strike,
si6oas, to love; and intransitive, which express being, or some
state of being, or an action which is confined to the agent, as
4




go


BURMESE GRAMMAER


~s op, to be,  noe3, to remain, cb    oso S, to be good, yco
coS, to be ruined, or in a state of ruin.
~106. Many transitive verbs are formed from intransitive
ones, by aspirating the initial letter.  If the initial is the first
letter of the first or fifth class of consonants, it is changed for its
corresponding aspirate, the second letter of the class, as crop,
to fall, 3o   to throw down, or cause to fall; cngos&, to be
ruined, (codSa, to ruin.  If the initial is a nasal, or an
unclassed letter, it is combined with the letter or, as roioops, to
be bent down, to- oop, to bend down; %cgoSpS&, to be free,
pSoaSg, to make free.
ACCIDENTS OF VERBS.
~107. The accidents of verbs, expressed in most latguages by
inflections or auxiliary verbs, are here expressed by particles
affixed to the verb, without any inflection of the verb itself,
The verbal affixes are as follows~108. ASSERTIVE AFFItESB
0o, simply assertive, as  s0800S he goes; in certain combinations, written cado
di, same as;oogN
op, simply assertive, in negative sehterinds, as  aAsgos, he
goes not,-chiefly colloquial.
o,, present, but scarcely used except substantively, as Co8s^
6Soag, he is going (see Verbs used substantively, ~122), or in a
participial clause, according to the note below, as oWs6obcoa
oog, the business that now is, or the present business.  In the
substantive construction, it may be combined with a preceding
future affix, as coqscb, or reduplicated, as o:08gs{bibcS8,
when he was just about going.
I, past, as c0sj:, he went, or has gone; sometimes future.




PARTS OF SPEECH-VERBS.


31


oi, future, as oo80os, he will go; sometimes equivalent to
the continuative affix c08, which see.
oad, future.
cooo, or cogi, future.
N. B. The assertive affixes of tense, 4S, A, A, twa, and
ooc*, occasionally lose their assertive power, and become auxiliary to a continuative, participial, or simply asertive affix, in which
case 0 becomes (~8s
~109. CONTINUATIVE AFFIXES.
cOcS, denoting the continuance of an action, or state of being
during another, as c8So0som8g, he eats as he goes; sometimes equivalent to c811
coy, equivalent to qcio, but commonly repeated after the
same or another verb, as cooaova ooSmo, joining one with
another;    cooomcovo, going up and down,-used also as a
verbal formative.
qc.S, denoting the continuance of an action, or state of
being during another, but somewhat inconsistent with it, as
o88ccS&~68as, though going he eats.
Hc8, denoting first, the completion of an action or state of
being prior to another, as 50vse8890 g, having gone, he died;
second, supposition or conditionality, as.co88co9g, if he go,
he will die.
COOS, same as c08p, Vcoo8, Q08', o000o8, and oor8qo,8, in some combinations
equivalent to oa8,
o, denoting the completion of an action prior to another.
moogn  m, from thefirst of, as co8mqSqa, from the ftr8t
of his going.




32


BURMESE GRAMMAR.


5cooScoO, though, notwithstanding, as os8co5(g     cS3,
though he go, he will not die.
oeO8, or coSmroe, c  mcos,   ditto,- infrequent.
Wep8O, mooas8 ditto,-colloquial.
coooS, first, that, noting a consequence, so that, so as to, as
~coOCOaOScg800oE, he went, so that he died; second, that, noting
a final end, in order to, as GoocSo:sco~8oeS, he went, that he
might die.
~, and, as co8~6coo, he went and died; (sometines
pronounced cq;) sometimes equivalent to c81ll
~110. INTERROGATIVE AFFIXES.
(Connected with the verbal root by the assertive affix oec,
being cotmmonly abbreviated to 1s1)
co3, — formal,
coos,-famniliar,  as              does he go
cs)s,-formaltnar
s,-form1,           Used in connection with an interrogative
c~~ s-familiar, pronominal, as omood   soo8   s8, whither.               does he go
oj8,-colloquial,
s~, or a, affixed to the root without an intervening affix, as
co8se, does he go?-rather infrequent.
~111. IMPERATIVE AFFIXES.
i, or  (, first person plural, as cgsog, let us go.
crio4, [-formal,st.] ditto, preceded by the first personal,
as ^c].ocSg8cgosoi, let us go, or we will go.
~co?, [formal,st.] imperative proper, as c —3cco,? go.
coS, ditto,-infrequent.
];, prohibitory, y being prefixed to the verb, as opev8t,
go not.
coS, ditto.
~112. The sirmple root also is imperative, as well as when
combined with certain of the euphonic or qualifying affixes, as
o1, co00, Co, Cco, e,               co, 0,,, cq?, 2o,  G8,,  S,




PARTS OF SPEECH- VERBS.


33


&c.   Some. of these affixes are also variously combined with
one another, and with the imperative affixes, to convey the ideas
of entreaty, authority, &c.
~113. PRECATIVE AFFIXES.
c~633,,way, as?o,386g6, may he go.  [It is commonly
combined witl ol, as c9o8oloecoooiit.]
cEooos8, ditto, authoritatively, as G6cecoos8, be it so.
ceo8, ditto,-infrequent.
~114. PARTICIPIAL AFFIXES.
cGo0, connecting the verb with a subsequent noun, being
equivalent to the relative pronoun in most languages, as goaSco
co, the excelling man, or the man who excels; cg8Co03S88, the
running horse, or the horse which runs; ~6CPo~Scooo C063O,   the
arriving ship, or the ship which arrives; sometimes contracted
to 0, as ~0av1, as much as there is; sometimes dispensing with
the verb altogether, as cooSoasoso, for oorS C son, (do) as,much as possible, commonly omitted after the assertive future
affix  pSll
cos, ditto.
~115. AUXILIARY AFFIXES OF TENSE.
C38, denoting present continuance, as c8:sc~s~8:, he is
still going; oso8.sc8s, he is still not gone, or he is not yet gone;
sometimes denoting beside, more than, in addition, as c~mos3o
oooSi so8csoo8e, there is not only my word, but there is
scripture also.
~, just past, as o8sb.g, he hasjust gone; frequently written
c; very frequently euphonic.
8s, past indefinite, as 0::380a8eX, he went.  In nqgative
sentences, prefixed by o, it becomes (8, and signifies (not) ever,
as ocp)sle(, he never went. *~8 and ecooo8s are of similar
import, but infrequent.




34


BURMESE GRAMMAR.


*S, prior-past, or prior-future, according to the connection,
as a8os)8(, he had gone, ~8~8ps g, he will go (before another
goes).
coS, prior-past or prior-future,-infrequent.
oS, ditto,-rather infrequent.
cA, near future, about to, on the point of, retaining its meaning, whatever affixes of tense are superadded, as cgoscgoae,
c28NLo, or cv8c)me~, he is about to go, or is near going;
sometimes used substantively, though not an assertive affix, as
SoooBc^S, ditto.
~116. AFFIXES OF NUMBER.
s, co, 6ocr       denoting the plural, as o8goeogS, they
go;- frequently omitted, and the idea of plurality left to be
conveyed by the noun affix of number, or gathered from the
connection.
~117. QUALIFYING AFFIXES,
(arranged alphabetically.)
~8 (pron. 0?8,) more or again, commonly used with an
assertive future affix, as co;cS~s89S, he will drink more, or
again; in prohibitive sentences, (not) yet, as wco8ooj>8, do
not drink yet.
~cyj, entirely, wholly, (from  ojq, to come to an end), as
~coacl, they are all dead.
~ccv8s, with the verb repeated, probably, as coGco:o88ccoog,
he will probably die.
s8, see go
~ (see Dictionary).
i|S, optative, to wish, desire, as  Soo g, to wish to do;
also, to have a tendency to, as  to8s ]oSg, to be disTosed to
fever.
j]S8, with o prefixed to the root and to itself, and a continuative affix or clause, commonly oc~oo:S, expressed or understood,
until, as aogoo8agS8   c~ SooScgS, he continued working until he went.




PA&RTS OF SPEECII-VErIMG3


35


Ob, causal (from co to send, order), as  ~ceooa, he makes
(him) do, 86ce, let it be; when affixed to intransitive verbs,
equivalent to the aspirated initial; as co6c~oae~, equivalent to
%oSo,,, to make free, from cpoSooS, to be free.
When used as an imperative or precative, the shade of
meaning is frequently determinded by an intervening euphonic
affix, as @okce, may it be, c8soqlco~e, let it run.  Combined
with og it makes 8~n
ceoS, with o prefixed to the root, and followed by cooa or
o^3c, not proper, or desirable, as QooscevoScoo?, or ohos
~cc      aco& 8okae~a, it was not well to go, (on account of some
evil that has just befallen).
A, slightly intensive or emphatic,-commonly connected with
the verb by a euphonic affix, and sometimes superseding the
assertive affix, as (s8cog, it is great, indeed.
~5, intensive,-tnostly used before the participial affix cOo,
as (ioSojOooo, a very excellent person.
ao,, with the verb repeated, just that and no more, merely,
nothing more, as (8   (oe88C  o, to be large merely.
s8o8 (from '8oS, to be quiet), to be quiet, unmoved (though
the occasion calls for exertion); as cs80oSwe, to remain
unmoved.:b, though put down by Pali grammarians as denoting the
present tense, denotes in common usage the immediate future,
as pcoSC ~j.g, to be about to arrive, or on the point of arriving, equivalent to ccpc~'o; and when repeated, and especially
when prefixed by a future affix, is more directly future, as ccpcS
isb, or s~pcE  ^b, to be about arriving before long.
oI, sometimes euphonic, but whet repeated after a following
verb, partaking of the nature of a continuative, and denoting
alternation; as joS ooToaooag, to be sinking and appearing
by turns.
coo, denoting a slight necessity.




BURME8E (GkAMMAR.


0oo, directly, at once, as 88osooDpS, to go directly,
at once.
J8, sometimes in converation ~8, potential, to be able (from
8, to prevail, overcome), as o8vSaco, to be able to go.
g3, again (from R@, to retnrn), as GROfe, to do again:
zir, with c prefixed to the root, and a continuative affix
expressed or understood, without, as oevosobcoogo, he went
without eating.
8, implying carelessness or fault, as c 8,oS, he has said it
(and therefore committed himself); sometimes euphonic.
~, with o prefixed to the root, and a continuative affix expressed or understood, before, as go8seo8s6,, he ate before going;
combined with d8so~S~, until, as C)3v8o6oScooS, nutil he
went;-sometimes taking a noun affix, as wdo8~s, before going.
q, must, as cgsqwo, he must go; frequently euphonic.
qcS, to be capable, (in regard to feeling), as oaoqcoSxoo,
to be unfeeling enough to kill; wocqoS, he cannot bear to part.
q6c, remaining behind, as &qGouo, to do (it), remaining
behind, cg~ei e~, to stay behind.
~qv, denoting disapprobation or regret; sometimes euphonic,
particularly when used imperatively..p, denoting affection or sympathy in the speaker, as cso8o
ozp, he goes, alas!
cRos, denoting excess, (from qc, to exceed), as ec6O8sc8soopS,
to be too good.
cI, very, as (gsoo, to be very great.
To these may. be added a number of verbs, which are occasionally used to qualify a principal verb, as,ooS, to be right, proper, as cso8oxS, it is right to go;
sometimes passive, in translation from the Pali, particularly
when used as an adversative to oooS; frequently euphonic.
osoe to be at leisure, as cagooosoooS, to be at leisure to go.
- cOg, to be good, as 08cC6SsaO, it is good to go.




PARTS OF SPEEOH-VERBS.


87


~, to be hard, difficult, as Gl, it is dff#cult to obtain.
e58, to try, make trial, as  8s oo~, to do by way of trial;
sometimes but little more than euphonic.
ooS, to know ho@b, be skilled in, as GoooS~oaS, to know how
to do; sometimes denoting the way, custom, usual course, as
coco~oooSoe~, man is mortal.
o    t:, to be suitable, as qooLi t, it is suitable to be done.
c-S, to be worthy, deserving of, as coocScS, to deserve
to die.
I, to remain, continue, as Kciog, to continue doing.
c8s, to be reluctant, averse to, as  8S8aoo,j to hate to see.
S6, to be practicable, as uc8os8, it is not practicable to go.
god, to be most suitable, fit for, as  0gacooos~, a wonderful affair.
cp, similar to oS9; frequently euphonic.
cokoS, to be enough, as boseooc: so)Sc j 50, there is enough
to eat;
cq, to desire, as &qcaoag, equivalent to 8Sojgeu
cod, to be easy, as Rc    Se,y it is easy to do., to dare, as a  agL e, to dare to do.
co8, to be suitable, proper, becoming, as C8~ 4coS, it is
suitable to say.
oar, to be easy, pleasant, as c~v ovS, it is pleasant to say;
with the imperative affix ol, and thl verb repeated, as eosooooet
o1, eat freely, or without hesitations
I. B. The idea of progress is conveyed by coo or opt
connected with the principal verb by i, expressed or understood,
as  &S   o>a00, it ripens,  s~Iop8so, it grows worse.
~118. EUPHONIC AFFIXES.
ct, when combined with i4, ^.; when repeated after a
following vorb, similar to 'C, Which see under Qualifying Affixes.




tURMESE GRAMMAa.


oe, mostly used before the continuative affix cos5cog8, and
the assertive future affix ao, when used for cgjS
e, in certain combinations, noticed in their places,
co, mostly used before the participial affixes, when several
successive participial clauses precede a noun, in commendatory
discourse.
ol, donciliatdry- polite-respectful.
Co, when combined witlh o, 8,n
c38 mostly  sed before the assertive affix oiS, abbrbviatbd
to 65, in eonnedtion with the noun affix c*, as c383a,.,
like as he went; also, before the closing affix  8's, in which
case it Is rather intensive, as (gtSats, there are very many.
co-, mostly used in the iinitation  to listen, iocooA,
listen ye /
cooS, mostly used befote the continuative affix coS6
cco when Combined with Co, cS&, which combination is
mostly used before the future affix oe; when repeated after a
following verb, it denotes correspondence or reciprocity, as
qc0ScoeSc8c, as (one) pursues, (the other) runs.
c-c) mostly used with transitive verbs; sometimes giving a
transitive meaning to an Intransitive verb.
egs, mostly used with arriving, coming, &c.
~119; CLOSING AFFIXES,
o, that, noting indihation,;iz, namely (from uo, to say,
declare, mean),-used at the tiloso of a sentence, which is the
subject of a subsequent assertion, as o8lqc8O~eoa, he says
that he knows,,-also, after a word  hicth is explanatory of a
subsequent word, as  l8iSEc5c cue880, he gave (him) the
title of Meheshn  au; — sometimes it takes a vetibal affix, but
ought then to be written oj, and parsed as a verb.
ogs. used at the close of a simple sentence, equivalent to
the oubstantiv vorbj aik, to, t1e goomiatioe boiDg  eaerlY




PARTS OF SPEECH-VERBS.                8


89


made by moo, as av    m0os,SGCSCY3,~es, hie name is Young
Louk,-sotnetimes taking co, or coc:28, immediately before
it; also, at the dlose of a parenthetic sentence, or a distinct
paragraph, closing in co~ commonly abbreviated to oa, as:)
naoe# he went,-somnetimies taking c2&, or om, or c(826,
immalediately before it.
coSa5) ditto, at the close of a parenthesis or paragraph.
a~~,emphatic, or indicative of some emotion, as c=8s
P.)Q 0 8C 0 (o  38my little son is dead, alas! opolpq~crpo, he
goes not, indeed.
T0os, sometimes equivalent to oooCYso
108s, ditto, commonly expressive of regret, As    qpto
it iC 80, alas!
&see under Qualifying affixes.
cols   intensive,- cormmonly conpeeted with the verb by
iAnother affix, as r'   os it is great, indeed /
00 or a0~, expletives after an assertive or preestive 4Mfx,
As op-oeo' (obsolete).
The following, are colloquial only:
cj5, soliciting acquiescence, as cq~ooosqs       will go,
ahall I?   oaa-ocS go, will you?
Qoo, or Cz08Cco, Slightly emphatic or persistive, is used
4fter the assertive affixes, as ~00ai0: Qc9   certainl.y, or I
assure you.
o, or cult fainiliar,-without or after the assertive a~x,
cm    or cmco -ditto, sometimes superseding the g~sse'rtive
Affix.
QoS (pron. 4), denoting that the words to which it is affixed,
Are repeated fromn the moipth of anothe persoe a
it.ia, he 8aV8.
NEGATION.
010    The negative is made by prefixing ra to the verb,
which, beside its negative power, lias the privilege of occasionally
dispensin~g  with the  asseti~vp a iXes  pr of eon eyi ng  an




A4


BURMESE GRAMMAR.


assertive power to the root, or to the qualifying and euphonic
affixes of number, and the auxiliary affixes of tense, all of whieh,
in affirmative sentences, require an assertive affix, thus Q:> S,
he goes, ucaps, or ~c~o8poi, he goes not;  s~csap, lie is still
going, wcoscoos, he is not yet gone; gosi=s, he can go,
Wc08s~S, he cannot go.
~121. In colloquial discourse, a strong negative is sometimes
made by affixing 8scoos, to the root, or ~os, a contraction of
~o4o~o8q, to an assertive affix, as oi38~8Oscs, or op:800gocol,
he goes not.
VERBS USED SUBSTANTIVELY.
~122. Verbs terminating in the assertive affix cSg (ocoasionally changed to co, cooo or ~coo), are frequently used
substantively, and in that character, admit the noun affixes.
Verbs terminating in an assertive affix of tense, are capable of
being used in the same manner, but the termination coe   or
coo) is, in swme cases, superadded to quality them for the substantivo construction.
~123. EXAMPLES.
apmgc   qcae~, or g803       8     g it is right, or true,
that he goes.
ooos8vo&~cpo9 (cp~  3 being a verb,) or o8oaoQ o, after
he goes.
83or       op   hek knows that he goes.
ogOss~cQ0S~    8S (c8 or c. understood,) until he goes.
csowSaiooQ Ss or cosw gm 8cS, according as he goes.
N. B. When verbs are constructed with a following nounl,
the possessive affix di is commonly omitted, as go8.oogm~?,
the place of going, or where he goes; 9osagxoo, the time of
going, or when he goes; opoaogeg, while he goes; 0omo
Oc CQ88, the reaf.on of going;?g  8xj:8pj    in the sape
mannxr as he h es; cg      0, by mains of ygfing, <ce.




PARTS OF SPEECH- VERBS.


41


ogs:89eco'I (with the assertive futulre affix), in order to go.
co3s86=6?  8, because he goes.
su800S8, ditto, —colloquial.
ovsoo6, by means of going, when he goes.
-80Qpcoe~, with going, when he goes.
c038C Sep6j>3a  in accordance with the going.
os3800o2    ~, or p, going, while he goes.
o83Smo, or y, from going.
o:80a9c, like as he goes,
as08C~o 3 goS, ditto,
osoogc8,    ditto.
o083 a9oc& c, a little like, &c.
~124. When a verb used substantively, and connected by the
affix &  witl a following noun, whose initial is a syllabic,
drops both thle noun affix and tlie verbal, and takes the noun
into union with itself, by rejecting or moditying the initial letter,
tlhe abbreviated compound becomes a verbal noun of the satme
imnport as the original clause, thus g:s080eS~&o)o becomes o8so1,
the time of going; Q6;00?    ooeeb, cseg, while remaining;
c~    Si  ~ @),, cqoe, the beginning of speaking.
~125. Several cases of verbal nouns, on account of their
frequent occurrence, deserve partcular mention.
1st. The verbal iln gS, fronm 0o 68, an act, deed, denotes
action or being, in tlhe abstract, as o,8SE8s a going, or the act
of going, mcoS88s8, being good, or the state of being good.
2nd. The verbal in cp, fromn oop, a thing, subject, matter,
denotes tlhe object of an action, or the place where a thing is,
or is done, as  SoEwcp, an object of love; ccp, a remaining
place; 8ob6Ip a place of throwing away.
3rd. Tile verbal in  p, from oaco: or oec-g, what is for,
comtnonly written esc, the verbal in Q, or, froln o m, a
portion, and the verbal in G[~ (from qcooS, to appropriate),
denote what is for some purpose, as oseap, what is for eating,




42


BURMESE GRAMMAR.


or to be eaten; 1 9@c, what is to be looked at; &jsl$, what is
to be done.
4th. The verbal in go5 or co5B, sometimes ogtSo2, from
aogoS, what is suitable, denotes what is fit for, adapted to, or
worthy of sonme use or purpose, as osooSod, what is good to eat,
an eatable;.aoSoS, what is wonderful;    ~ Sco5od, what is
lovely.  But this verbal seems fiequently to partake of the
nature of an adjective.
N. B. The terminations as8, or oos8 (according to one
acceptation), c8, and c8c8, are of similar import with the termnination g80, but used in a bad sense only.  Several of these are
sometimes combined, as goc8 (. euphonic), 8go5dc8, gScc8os,8,
what is disgusting.
The terminations os8, (according to another acceptation),
q48s, or coqi and   doooS, form verbals denoting nearness of
accomplishmient, occasionally taking o? before them, as ccooSo
o48 or    8CoScaP+s, wiat is near burning;  8cjwoooaS, what is
near sinking; cywnovoS, nearly the whole.
The termination 18, j8o8, or oJ8, followed by a verb expressive
of opinion, denotes, what is likely to be or to take place, sometimes admitting an affix of tense between itself and the root, as
oXA:ccbwcS8j8so8oSa, or pco       88s8sco83, he thinks that
the ship will probably arrive.
5th. There are several other verbals, formed from nouns,
which being obsolete, or never occurring in their full form, or in
any other connection, connot be so satisfactorily analyzed, as
most of the preceding; thus the verbal in aois, perhaps from
oo08s, time being, denotes the time of action or being, as to4v
oS8co8, or oo80?8a7o, equivalent to 3ose{o'8, or o380g
oaol, the time of going, while going.
The verbal in A, perhaps fronm os, just so much and no
more, confines the action or being to what is expressed by the
root, as cGoo       or cyt     an, he just speaks, i. e. does
no more than speaking.




PARtTS OrF S1EECAi-1TEM8.

The particle com  is of somewhat similar import with 2, as
ESnoocJootgS, he speaks illusively merely; cooc omgo!088 by
means of speaking merely.
The particle ]8Ss, single one only, limits the time to the continuance of the action expressed, as sose8s]SscooSoe, (fully)
s8e8~~so8#SSoSc'eoooe. he died as soon as he ate it, i. e.
instantly, without an interval.
The verbal formative  s8, from t9 to be right, true, is used
chiefly in negative sentences, as c66c scsoo3, or cepcSysqwo,
(he) knows not the fact of the arrival.  It is sometimes used
without a verbal root, as op8S8so9, ooals8+'oS, (he) knows
nothing about God or religion.
8-cp, affixed to the root repeated, as in the phrase, 4S8cqp
cqgS, denotes inadvertence or inconsideration.
6th. Beside verbal nouns formed from verbs used substantively, there is another kind which may be termed the honorific
Verbal, formed by combining the verbal root with the adjective
cooSu  This verbal, followed by the verb zaug, to do, perform,
is always used instead of the simple verb, in speaking becomingly of deities, kings, or any exalted personage, as 8icooSzoo~,
(the deity or king) speaks, literally, does divine or royal speaking, 8ips.6r, he speaks not; followed by a noun, it may be
regarded as a noun in the possessive, as s08cooScgS8, betel eaten
by the king, oacooSos, flowers used in royal adornment.
Most verbal nouns retain the same power of government as
their verbs, that is, cause the preceding noun to take the same
affix as their verbs do, as ho0ooc~coo:[3 S, he makes a begin.
ning of rehearsing the zat;  hoScicoco$aoS  pS, he rehearses
the zat, or he does rehearsing the zat; bait some, particularly the
verbal in @8s, govern the preceding noun in the possessiv, as
^ti r#a"4& Q/ Miu *.




44


BURMIS]E GRAMMAR.


ADVERBS.
~126. Adverbs are of nine kinds, viz:1. Adverbs proper, as Oa3, certainly, oocooo:s, in vainj
coo8coo8, an intensive before a negative, as coo8coh8wc~o, Ie 8says
nothing at all, oS, rather, prefixed to adjectives, tbrmed from
verbal roots by reduplication.
2. Pronominal adjectives used to modify a following verb,
as 9oo    c     s8 how does (he) remain? cccopS, (he)
remains thus; or combined with a secondary noun and similarly
applied, as ooSccoo.S. s soo~ 8, how large is (it)? cooSmccoovc,
properly oOQ6CCO306soCgS, (it) is so80 large. How? in what
manner? and thus, in this manner, are also expressed by conmbining pronominals, lightly accented with loS, manner, as cso',
how? oao&S, thus.
3. Adverbs formed from simple or compound verbs:(a.) from simple verbs-by prefixing oa or oo, as  cS$(,
o, ~to be very great, ooqctoB, go quick; ooc~S&'gopS,
to look sideways;-by affixing gv, as ~om)88So, well;-by reddplication, as cm~oSs~r.oSs, ~uell; -by reduplication with o'
prefixed, as oo@osgOv, variously;-by reduplication with oo
prefixed, implying repetition or continuance, as oc&&, by turns,
0oooScS, in a standing posture; by reduplication, with br
prefixed to each member, as scaowo-S, separately;(b) from compound verbs-by affixing go, as ceoSsI65go,
excellently; —by prefixing oo to each member, as og6'8iotS,
penally, by way of puni8hment;-by prefixing oo to the first
member, and oa to the latter, as ozsooooogS, quickly, aoo'o
moo8, affectionately;-by prefixing oo or oo to the first, and
reduplicating  the  latter, as Ooq~~~^~, fast, 0osq8S45,
anxioustly;-.by prefixing oo to tho first, and oo to the latter'
reduplicated, as oocjg o 8 8,la   fraJmay;-by reduplitattng




PARTS OF SPERCH —AVERBS.


46


the second member, in which case the adverb is a diminutive, as
dScdloS9cg}, rather black;-by reduplicating both members,
as.scjgsoo88ss, extraordinarily;-by prefixing om or oX to each
member reduplicated, as ocgsc~8So8s   8, ditto; Q   XoSccS)
oaoSicpd, circuitously;-by prefixing co or o (pronounced o
and o) to each member, as co cr&ecSq, disorderly, o0soq8s,
tumultuously.
Under this head may be classed a few of anomalous construetion, made up in imitation of some of the above forms, as
oaooSoob, without notice, so':0,q, as having power, 6c3oScoi
oW   s8, frightedly, scq8socSs, in expectance of payment; also
a few formed from  negatives, by affixing chiming increments,
as 8o~osocp~8s, not well, (o3oow, not handsome, not
agreeable.
4. Adverbs formed from verbal roots, by reduplication,
prefixing the negative ( to the first member, and o0 to the
second, thus intending to convey both the ideas of affirming and
denying, as ocoocooc0covoS, just enough, and hardly that,
ogovo, just reaching, and yet not quite reaching.
5. Adverbs formed from nouns by reduplication, dropping
the syllabic xo, in the latter member, if it is the initial of
the noun, and prefixing it to the fornmer member, if the noun
begins with a consonant, as oSl1o, repeatedly, from osal, a
time; occ, of one's own accord, from oc, wil4l pleasure;
oCaO8sQ6X8S8, thousands, from ooEcoSs, ten thousand; asoi
(gS, of variozu countries, orfrom country to country, from a
a country.
N. B. Adverbs formed from verbs or nouns are sometimes
used adjectively, as oo,8=8,OOooGo C 88,c, various reasons,
o~gS(~g~aoE8s, kings of sundry or all countries.
6. Adverbs formed from nouns, beginning with a syllabic
s, by dropping the o, prefixing oo, one, and affixing.oS8s,
only, as o  ao3ogo,  even, all together, from  o E, evennese,.. n  orm ity
6




46


BURMESE GRAMMAR.


7. Incomplete clauses, as oocm, certainly, for ocooSjd;
aoo2o8Z  (, exceedingly, for omogs8oo8iu
8. Adverbial affixes, as follows.:ijcb, as, like as.
S     only, merely, nothing but, as ic.sgs8, men only,
nothing but men, Opscet:gSs; he only goes, does nothing
but go.
8e, even, slightly emphatic.
8, each, as cocoCS8, each one,.c8S, ditto; apiece, as
ask, one a piece.
0G>O, same as g8U
co0 8, used to designate an object with some particularity, as
S8oo8scosoeos8Cso8    S, he gives to his youngest son,-particularly-or in distinction from the other;-in this sense, used
frequently in connection with o<~oso, or ao, after a word
explanatory of a subsequent word, as 8con8so 8oo  ~co: 8s~c9,
seed-grain, which means merit; Co8~cDOoSoCogeao'oo~~o,
he has the name of Monng Louk; —used also, in asking
questions, to designate the point on which the question turns,
and frequently repeated after those words or clauses, in successive questions, which are intended to be set adversatively, as
X863Od 8 8838~83    GO11 Os 88O^8o      8~8G33 o CCpO, do you
wish to eat cold fruit or hot?  c15~86s~&o  8sg8scYSo o  coo5
t9OcCOOu    os O 5 oO3S O0 8q(3pgo5      0ogS0SCo%600o30CO5f
Coccoo, is thy rmind distressed because there is some fault in
me, or because there is some cause of concern in thee?
oS, even, slightly emphatic.
6e, see co>SqS
coS, ditto,- colloquial.
( (-from oot, as much as), frequently pronounced I, used
ax an intensive in negative sentences, as ooSjco~, there is not
so much as one person, or there is not even one person; coong




PARTS Of SPEECH-INTERSECTIONS.


47


Vqo, or briefly cooyeq, (he) obtains nothing at all; c/c7Soco
qM8c2S, (he) knows not even of the arrival; sometimes expletive, as ~~ saS.g   oopS, to make a disturbance.
co8s, also; sometimes used familiarly for the continuative
affix c0811
cogssco8s, both -and, placed after other affixes, and
repeated at the close of successive clauses, as cqcSc 3s08cc98
Sogo, he sees both me and my son; in modern style, equivavalent to the pronominal adjective ca, that, as csc. that day,
qS9gs, in the same manner.
c28, distributive, as ocociooSoS8, a basket a month;
sometimes definitive or emphatic.
ccSq8, either-or, placed after other affixes, and repeated at
the close of successive clauses, as.Scg&cScSccgoSq8, either
with gold or withb silver.
coo, only.
9. Verbal affixes are used adverbially, when placed after
an adverbial or noun affix.  The same is true of noun affixes,
when placed after a verbal or adverbial affix (see under
Nouns,~61).
-oINTERJECTIONS.
~127. A few of the most common are as follows —
ooSo, 9ooeO, fie!
os8, eh! expressive of pain.
Koodo, c    ~cos8,  oiS    cco8, mother/ denoting surprise
or distress.
9oooS, oCco&oosC, oh! expressive of pain.
osc, scccos, oh! expressive of pain.
cs8, pronounced eh, yes! expressive of assent.
coo, don't, disapprobatory -prohibitive.
cooco, aa hAaa  aha! contemptuous. '




S8


co, cbd~o, t  3at8 rih/
cooO, 0 / of various applications.
c0oo~mnoo, 0! expressive of satisfaction.
'coo, tzh! oh!
d~q 0! vocative, or indicative of pain.
66qcotSs, 66S~coijSs, ala8 / expressive of sorrow,
cw) there nov! expressive of disapprobation.
CM0 here! take it!
CODoSo00, threatening.
cod wonderfull/ rather ironical or disapprobatory.'
cowell done!
COD, Aaa! a familiar vocative, rather disrespectful.
&~, hehl/ censuring, threatening.
cuo there-! pointing to an objects..
APP~ENDIX.
~128. srUMPfLALS.


Cardinal.
om$, br oo, o, tine,,jtwo,
A.s,tree,
MC0, cj,four;
cle, 5,five,
CSOCIS, G, 8imOi
56, o, eightA4
C~Iq e-I nine)
o00cd, oQ, ten,
C*0A    6 oo, eleven,
00 j og twentyl


Ordinal.,
o9CQ, flret,
40     8, econd,
b0C8 09 thirc4
tDC?83' -fourth,
008gj, eighth,
*M03000P~ eleventh,




4APJENDIX~-TIXK.                           4


49


300,oo, one hundred,'
00036:), o o oo, one thousand,
oocos ooooo, ten thousand,
304'.oo o o oo, one hundred thousttnd,
000048, 3000000, one million,
oMcr-q%  z000~000, ten millizone.
~129. One half is expressed by oo~oc-S, or ocS, placed after
the noun of dimension or quantity) as c3oi30oSoa, or a~oB
half a yoozana; one and a half, two and a half, &-c..by oo, jb,
&c. placed before, and ~ after, as ooqjoijo~, one yoozana and a
half, pbp~~    two yoozanag and a half, &c.     One and a
-quarter, &c. is expressed by prefixing oo, &c. and affixing,0~S connected to the noun by f~, as majmqop~o3oS, one
yqooza~na and a quarter, &c.  All fractions, except one half,
are commonly expressed by the help of oot, a colleotion; thus
40st:2ooone third, ecs~c~ot8, one quarter, cle:86o~st,
TIME.
~130. The true epoch of Burmuan time is the annihilation of
Gaudama, the last Boodh or deity which is placed five hundred
and fourty-four years before Christ; but the vulgar epoch is
placed eleven hundred and eighty-two years later, or six hundred
and thirty-eight years after Christ.
~131. Tiwe is measured by lunair months, oon6istizpg of
twenty-nine, and thirty daysa alternately.
Twelve lunar month8 waake a common year, and seven years,out of nineteen "advait an intercalar month of thirty days each.
The names of the months arb as fQllows-.
o3cvj8 April (nearly),      nooo'rcgoS, October,
cnij AMay,                  c3~w384s, November,
W94i~S Ve5Cmksr,
cS1~  July.                 64     JTanuary,
oI~tD8, 4August,            00c. Fobruaq4j
G00606(08,' &ptoertberv    c9Qd)S18, 2iaro/A.




60


BURMESE GRAMMAR.


~132. ota8 consists of twenty-nine days, co~n   of thirty,
and so on.  In leap-year, the month old is repeated, under the
name of qc8ooaE, second July.
~133. A. month is distinguished into two parts, the waxing,
coo+8, and the wane, coogcoS [or cocoSnlst.]      The full
moon, co9,  falls on the fifteenth of the waxing, after which a
new count of days begins, and the change or disappearing of the
moons coyo3d, falls on the fourteenth or fifteenth of the wane.
~134. The days of worship are the eighth of the waxing, the
full, the eighth of the wane, and the change.
~135. Time is also divided into weeks, or periods of seven
days, which are, of course, independent of the lunar arrangement,
tand follow the same order that obtains in all other parts of the
world, viz:
oos~cs, Sunday,:     oaocoos, Thur8day,
030o9, Monday,       c6oS3C   o, Friday,
o0a8, Tuesday,            ec6, Saturday.
cgt18, Wednesday,
~136. The day and the night are each divided into four
periods, which as they terminate, are designated by their appropriate beat of drum.  The single beat, ooojcSc8s, accords with
9 o'clock, morning or evening; the double beat, 3StcSost,
accords with 12 o'clock; the triple beat, os8^ScfS8, with 3 o'clock;
and the quadruple beat, ccosecds8, with 6 o'clock.
~137. A natural day is also divided into sixty equal parts,
called Ail, which are again subject to various subdivisions seldom
used but in astrological works.
WEIGHTS.
~138.  SEcQs, the seed of the abrus precatorius, marked (ct),
as ea, ICoochl
C~883s, the seed of the adenanthera pavonina, double the
weight of the above, marked the same.




APPENPIX- LENGTH.


51


8 Sc]8, or 4   g8g8, make one b great, marked (C), as ^,
oobu
6   cgS8, or 3 cgs88, make one b small, marked the same.
4 ~ great, or 5 small, make one ooS, marked (~), as 5,
4 voS make one c., marked (o), as 8, oocx&
100 0,6 make one S3o,, marked (~1), or (1), as 81, or
z1, 00 Om3:)n
N. B. The term oogc-S is substituted for 83ao, in connection with any capital number above ten, as  ScSpEjoo.   for
830o  Soo5, twenty pikthas.   Ten pikitas is written ooSc
oooa, or mooS'oou
ALSO,
2 6 great make one (8, great, marked (1i), as o,  gUso
8 I8 great make one c9u
2 a small make one 8s small, marked as above.
10 I8 small make one nSu\
~139. MEASURES OF LENGTH.
3ooo, or cocoaS, a finger's breadth, marked (~), as 5, oocobi


8 cob
12 ooS
4 emooS
7 GOOoS
1000 ao:)
6400 oo~
20 o0o
20 eo
4 mq)o
4 oC1ToS


make


one  oS,
one ogo,
one cooDS,


marked (0), 9S
marked (1), as olo
marked (6), as 6u
marked (1), as odu


one c6o
one o~o,
one cdSu
one oovu
one cmowooD
"      one ocl~ou
one qu2oifo




50


13tMMxtEE OIIAMMAa.


N. B. According to the royal cubit, which measures 19J
English inches, a yoozana is 131 English miles.
~140. MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
ocoo5, or a'i~oo, a 8Mall rnea8ure, marked (\), 6, ooecoo~u
4.coS       make      one 62~7     marked (n), as So
2             '   ~    one 8906
2             " So Sone 80S,        marked (0), as 8S
2 8done ~u
o or 16                o one cQ68,  marked (i), asgio




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