:........ Tappan Presbuterian fssociation LIBRARY. Presented by HON. D. BETHUNE DUFFIELD. From Library of Rev. Geo. Duffield, D.D. '4 7 I..... / 7',,...... r:.c~:L~L~v~ g s N Vi 1.It V - oH 1 ^- ^'C vi' I ' ( UM W 1 4 4 "(1 ' -9 " MPER r /...... -.4t Q4 -tC 43 'A GESENIUS' HEBREW GRAMMAR, WITH CHRESTOMATHY. I GE SENJUS' 'HEBREW GRAMIMAR: S E'VENTEENTH EDITION, WITH NUMEROUS CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS, BY DR. E. RODIGER. TRANSLATElD BY T. J. CONANT, PROFESSOR OF HEBREW IN ROCHESTER THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY. WITH GRAMMATICAL EXERCISES AND A CHRESTOMATHY, BY TH1E TRANSLATOR. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON & CO-MPANY, 846 & 848 BROADWAY. 1855. E'L;terd(, according to act of Congress, in the year 18t55, by 1). APPLETON & COMPANY, in the Cle.rk's offic<t of the District Court for the Southern District of New York.. TRANSLATORS PREFACE. THE apparatus for the grammatical study of the Hebrew language, contained in this volume, consists of three parts: 1) A translation of Dr. Rodiger's seventeenth edition of the Hebrew Grammar of Gesenius. 2) A course of grammatical exercises, to aid the learner in acquiring and applying a knowledge of the elementary principles of reading and inflection, and in the analysis of forms. 3) A Chrestomathy, consisting of explanatory notes on select portions of the Hebrew Bible. The translation has been prepared from the manuscript revision for the seventeenth German edition, furnished by Dr. Rodiger in advance of its publication in Germany. This has been strictly followed in the revision of the translation, which has been in great part rewritten, so as to make it an exact representation of the original work, in its present improved form, and of the present state of Hebrew philology, as it is exhibited by Dr. Rodiger.* * In consulting the references to the grammar, in Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon (Dr. Robinson's translation, fifth, revised edition, 1854), and in other works, it should be remembered that the numbering of the sections, in this edition, is increased by one after ~ 48, by two after ~ 86, and by three after ~ 126, of the former editions. X PREFACE. The grammatical exercises have been entirely rewritten, on an improved plan. The attention of teachers is respectfully requested to the method of study, proposed on page fourth of the Exercises, which has been found to lighten greatly the labor both of the teacher and learner. A new and much more extended selection has been made of Hebrew reading lessons, with grammatical and exegetical notes suited to the wants of the student. It is the plan of these notes, to repeat nothing which is contained in the grammar and lexicon, and for the statement of which they can be referred to. On a different plan, the same information might have been spread over many times the number of pages, with no other effect than to embarrass the learner, and retard his real proficiency. No pains have been spared to secure perfect accuracy in the printing of the book. My thanks are due to the conductors of the press of Mr. TROw, especially to Mr. W. F. GOULD, for the extraordinary care bestowed upon the proofs, before they were sent to me for examination. They have since been subjected to several careful revisions; and it is believed that no error, of any importance, has escaped detection. CONTENTS. Pago INTRODUCTION.... 1 Section 1. Of the Semitic Languages in General.... 1 2. Historical View of the Hebrew Language.... 7 3. Grammatical Treatment of the Hebrew Language.. 12 4. Division and Arrangement..... 14 PART I.-OF THE ELEMENTS. CHAPTER I.-Of Reading and Orthography. 5. Of the Consonants, their Forms and Names....15 6. Pronunciation and Division of Consonants... 18 7. Of the Vowels in General, Vowel-Letters, and Vowel-Signs. 21 8. Of the Vowel-Signs. 23 9. Character and Value of the several Vowels. 27 10. Of the Half-Vowels and the Syllable-Divider (Sheva). 32 11. Signs which affect the Reading of Consonants... 34 12. Of Daghesh in General, and Daghesh Forte in Particular. 35 13. Daghesh Lene...... 35 14. Mappiq and Raphe....... 36 15. Of the Accents...... 37 16. Maqqeph and Methegh..... 39 17. Weri and Kethibh........ 40 CHAPTER II.-Peculiarities and Changes of Letters; of Syllables and the Tone. 18. In General......... 41 19. Changes of Consonants...... 41 20. Doubling of Consonants....... 43 21. Aspiration, and the Removal of it by Daghesh Lene.. 45 22. Peculiarities of the Gutturals..... 47 23. Of the Feebleness of the Breathings N and,i... 49 24. Changes of the Feeble Letters 1 and 5.... 52 25. Unchangeable Vowels...... 53 26. Of Syllables, and their Influence on the Quantity of Vowels. 55 27. Changes of Vowels, especially in Respect to their Quantity 58 28. Rise of New Vowels and Syllables..... 61 29. Of the Tone; Changes of the Tone; and of the Pause. 63 Xii CON T E.NTW. PART II.-OF FORMS AND INFLECTIONS, OR OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Section 30. Of the Stem-Words and Roots (Biliterals, Triliterals, Quadri Page literals) 31. Of Grammatical Structure 66 -0 70 CHAPTER I.- Of the Pronoun. 32. Of the Personal or Separate Pronoun 33. Suffix Pronoun.. 34. The Demonstrative Pronoun 35. The Article... 36. The Relative Pronoun 37. The Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns * 71 * a 73 * 75.0 0 75 * *. 77 * 7 7 CHAPTER 11.-Of the Verb, 38-41. General View. 78 I. Of the Reg-ular Verb. 42. In General..... A. Of the Ground-Form, or Kal. 43. Its Form and Signification... 44. Perfect of Kal and its Inflection.. 45. Of the Infinitive.... 46. Of the Imperative..... 47. Of the Imperfect and its Inflection.. 48. Lengthening and Shortening of the Imperfect and Imperative (Jussive and Cohiortative Forms). 49. Perfect and Imperfect with Consecutive. 50. Of the Participle..... B. Derived Conjugations. 83 83 84 86 87 88 90 92 94 51. Niphal 52. PiO and Pual 53. Hiphil and Hophal 54. HithpaOl 55. Unusual Conjugration-s 56. Quadriliterals 95 97 99 102 103 105 C. Regrular Verb with Pronominal Suffixes. 57. In General... 58. The Suffix to the Verb.. 59. The Perfibet with Pro nominal Suffixes 60. Imperfect ivith Pronominal Suffixes 61. Infinitive. Imperative, and Participle with Suffixes 105 106 108 110 * ill CONTENTS. Xiii II. Of the Irregular Verb. A. Verbs with Gutturals. Section Page 62. In General......... 112 63. Verbs Pe Guttural. E. g. 'I1 to stand, Parad. D.. 112 64. Verbs Ayin Guttural. E. g. DM to slaughter. Parad. E. 114 65. Verbs Lamedh Guttural. E. g. rnZt to send. Parad. F. 115 B. Contracted Verbs. 66. Verbs ""D. E. g. rj~ to approach. Parad. H.. 116 67. Verbs W".. E. g. =0 to surround. Parad& G.. 118 C. Feeble Verbs (Verba Quiescentia). 68. Feeble Verbs bt'. E. g. ~nm to eat. Parad. I... 121 69. Feeble Verbs 4M First Class, or Verbs originally ~b E. g. =&,~ to dwell. Parad. K..... 123 70. Feeble Verbs "I. Second Class, or Verbs properly bin. E. g. to be good. Parad. L...... 125 71. Verbs " Third Class, or Contracted Verbs ~D...126 72. Feeble Verbs { F.. g. W'.! to rise up. Parad. M.. 127 73. Feeble Verbs F. g. 'j" to perceive. Parad. N.. 130 74. Feeble Verbs bt'b. E. g. b4'm tofind. Parad. 0.. 132 75. Feeble Verbs sibl. E. g. -1~ to reveal. Parad. P... 133 76. Verbs doubly anomalous...... 139 77. Relation of the Irregular Verbs to one another...140 78. Defective Verbs.... 141 CHAPTER 111.-Of the Noun. 79. General View.... 142 80. Of Forms which mark the Gender of Nouns.. 143 8 1. Derivation of Nouns......145 82. Primitive Nouns....... 145 83. Orflerbal Nouns in General...146 84. Nouns derived from the Regular Verb.... 147 8 5. Nouns derived from the, Irregular Verb h 150 86. Denominative Nouns.... 152 87. Ofrthe Plural.....153 88. Of the Dual....... 155) 89. The Genitive and the Construct State....157 90. Remains of Ancient Case-Endings [Paragogic Letters]. 158 91. The Noun with Pronominal Suffixes.....161 92. Vowel-changes in the Noun...... 164 93. Paradigms of Masculine Nouns......168 94. Vowel-chang-es in the Formation of Feminine Nouns. 173 95. Paradigms of Feminine Nouns......175 96. List of the Irregular Nouns...... 177 xiv CONTE NTS. Section Page 97. Numerals. I. Cardinal Numbers.....178 98. Numerals. II. Ordinal Numbers... 181 CHAPTER IV.-Of the Particles. 99. General View......... 182 100. Adverbs......... 183 101. Prepositions......... 185 102. Prefix Prepositions...... 186 103. Prepositions with Suffixes, and in the Plural Form.187 104. Conjunctions...... 190 105. Interjections......... 191 PART 1I1.-SYNTAX. CHAPTER 1.-Syntax of the Noun. 106. Relation ofrthe Substantive to the Adjective,.-of the Abstract to the Concrete...193 10(7. Use of the Genders..... 194 lOS9. Of the Plural, and of Collective Nouns...197 109. Use of the Article..... 200 110. Ditto........ 202 112. Connection of the Substantive with the Adjective..204 113. Of Apposition....... 205 114. Of the Genitive....206 115. Expression of the Genitive by Circumlocution.. 2071 116. Farther Use of the Construct State..208 117. Designation of the other Cases..... 209 1 18. Use of the Accusative.....210 119. Modes of Expreszsing- the Comiparative and Superlative. 212 120. Syntax of the Numlerals... 213'a CH APTER II.-Syntax of tihe Pron~oun. 121. Use of the Personal Pronoun......215 122. Of the Demonstrative and Interrogrative Pronouns.. 218 123. Relative Pronoun and Relative Clauses...219 124. MNode of Expressing those Pronouns for which the Hebrew has no Proper Forms.......221 CIIAPTErR I11.-Syntax of the Verb. 125. Use of the Tenses in General....222 126. Use of thec Perf'ect....... 223 127. Use of the Imperfect 2 227 -128. Use of the Lengthened and Shortened Imperfect (Cohiortative andl Jussive)...... 230 CONTENTS. XV Bection Page 129. Use of the Imperfect with Vav Consecutive.... 231 130. Of the Imperative....... 232 131. Use of the Infinitive Absolute......234 132. Infinitive Construct....... 237 133. Connection of the Infinitive Construct with Subject and Object 238 134. Use of the Participle....... 240 135. Construction of the Participle...... 241 136. Expression of the Optative...... 242 137. Persons of the Verb........ 243 138. Construction of the Verb with the Accusative... 244 139. Verbs which govern two Accusatives..... 246 140. Construction of Verbs with Prepositions... 247 141. Constructio Praegnans....... 248 142. Union of two Verbs for the Expression of one Idea.. 248 143. Construction of Passive Verbs...... 251 CHAPTER IV.-Connection of the Subject with the Predicate. 144. Manner of expressing the Copula..... 252 145. Arrangement of the Parts of Speech in a Sentence; Case Absolute.......... 253 146. Relation of the Subject and Predicate in respect to Gender and Number.........254 147. Ditto......... 256 148. Construction of the Compound Subject.... 258 CHAPTER V.-Use of the Particles. 149. In General.........258 150. Of the Adverbs........ 259 151. Construction of Adverbs.......261 152. Of Words which express Negation.... 261 153. Of Interrogative Words and Sentences.... 263 154. Of the Prepositions....... 265 155. Of the Conjunctions....... 270 156. Of the Interjections....... 275 TABLE OF THE OLDER SEMITIC ALPHABETS..'.. _~ — 'Phoenician co 1 and inscriptic ) 9 1 1 '1 I' H1 'V I IV <y i, I 1 o U If 1 A I -lu 1 l+" )insl Old-Hebrew Aram.-Egypt. Palmyrene ins. coins and gems. inscriptions. inscriptions. I.... B t bL A, AJ -- - - - - - - O O o P P A 4- x?^ r The square character. 1.I T [ 'I T1 _. ' 1? V 'U I Il I ii Y I: ~- -: INTRODUCTION. ~1. OF THE SEMITIC LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 1. THE Hebrew language is only a single branch of a great parent-stock in western Asia, which was native in Palestine, Phcenicia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Arabia; that is, in the countries extending from the Mediterranean sea to the Tigris, and from the mountains of Armenia to the southern coast of Arabia. But in very early antiquity, this family of languages had spread from Arabia over Ethiopia, and through Phoenician colonies over several of the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean sea, and particularly over the whole Carthaginian coast. There is no ancient name for the collective nations and languages of this stock. The now generally received name, Semites, Semitic languages, borrowed from the fact that most of the nations who spoke these languages were descended from Sem (Gen. x. 21), may be retained in the want of one more appropriate.* 2. From this Semitic stock have proceeded three principal branches. I. The Arabic, in the southern part of the Semitic domain. To this belongs the Ethiopic, as an offshoot of the South-Arabic (Himyaritict), and the language of the Sinaitic inscriptions, a descendant of the North-Arabic.+ II. The Ara* From Sem proceeded the Aramsean and Arabic branches, as well as the Hebrews; but not the Ethiopians (Cush), and the Canaanites. The two latter are referred to Ham (vs. 7, 15, f.); though their language belongs decidedly to those called Semitic. Among the Semites are reckoned also (v. 21) the Elamites and Assyrians, whose language has not yet been thoroughly investigated. t R6diger, Excursus to Wellsted's Reisen in Arabien, Halle, 1842, Bd. II, S. 361. TWch, in the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenl. Gesellschaft, Bd. III., S. 129. ~ 1 2 INTRODUCTION. mraan, in the northern and northeastern division. It is called sSyriac, in the form which it takes in the Christian Arameaan literature, and Chaldee, as it exists in the Aranmaan writings of Jews. To these writings belong some later portions of the Old Testament, viz. Ezra iv. 8-vi. 18, and vii. 12-26; l)an. ii. 4 -vii. 28.* To tlhe Aramacan belongs also tile Sanaariltan, in its fundamental character though, like the Chaldee, it often has a strong tincture of the Hebrew. The Aranman of tle Nestorians is a very debased and corrupted dialect, as is also the present Vulgar-Syriac. III. The Hebrewe, witl which the Canaanitish and Phcenician (Punic) nearly coincide; holding a relation, in its character as well as geographical position, about midway between the Arabic and the Araianan. All these languages are related to each other in much the same Inanner as those of the Germanic family (Gothic, Old-northern, Danish, Swedis; higl and low German, in tlle earlier and later dialects): or as those of the Slavic tongues (Lithuanian, Lettish; Old-Slavic, Servian, Russian; -Polish, Bohemian). They are now either wholly extinct, as is tlhe case with the Pholnician, or they exist only in altered and decayed forms, as the modern Syriac among the Jews and the Syrian Christians in Mesopotamia and Curdistan;t the 1Ethiopic in the modern Abyssinian dialects (Tigre, Amharic); and also the HIebrew, among a part of the modern Jews, thouglh the latter in their writings aim at the reproduction of the language of the Old Testament. The Arabic alone, has not only retained to this day its original seat, Arabia proper, but has encroached in all directions upon the domains of other tongues. The Semitic stock of languages is bordered, on the east and north. by another of still wider extent, which has spread itself friom India into the western parts of Europe. This stock, as it comprehends. under tlhe most varied ramifications, the Indian (Sanscrit), ancient and modern Persian, Greek. Latin. Slavic, the Gothic with the other Germanic languages, is hence called the IxnD-GERMANIC. With the Old-Egyptian language, an offspring of which is the Coptic. the Semitic has had. in very high antiquity, manifold points of contact. Both have much in common; but their relation is not yet precisely detcrmined.+ The Chi* The most ancient passage, where Aramean words as such occur, is Gen. xxxi. 47. Comp. also the Aramsan verse in Jer. x. 11. t See Rildiger in der Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes, B. II., S. '7. ff. t For comparisons of the Egyptian and Semitic, see Gescnius in d. Allg. Lit. Zeitung, 1839, No. '7. ff., 1841, No. 40, and in his Thes. ling. Hebrsx; Schwarze in d. Alten zEgypten; Bunsen's 8Egypten I. S. 520. ff. ~1. SEMITIC LANGUAGES IN GENERAL 3 nese. the Japanese, the Tartar and other languages, exhibit a radically different character. 3. The Semitic stock, in its grammatical structure compared with that of other languages, particularly the Indo-Germanic, exhibits many peculiarities, which collectively constitute its distinctive character, although many of them are found singly in other languages. These are: a) among the consonants (which, in general, form the body and substance of these languages) a number of gutturals, of different gradations in sound; the vowels proceeding all from the three primary sounds (a, i, u), and serving rather to mark subordinate distinctions: b) word-stems, mostly consisting of three consonants: c) in the Verb, only two tenseforms, each having a peculiarly defined usage; and a marked regularity pervading the formation of verbals: d) in the Noun, only two genders, and a very simple designation of case: e) in Pronouns, the designation of oblique cases by appended forms (s.ffixa): f) scarcely any compounds, either in the Noun (many proper names excepted), or in the Verb: g) in the Syntax, a simple succession of members, with little of periodic structure in the subordination of clauses. 4. In the province of the Lexicon also, the Semitic languages differ essentially from the Indo-Germanic; though there is here apparently more agreement than in grammatical structure. Very many stem-words and roots are coincident in sound with those of the Indo-Germanic stock. But, aside from expressions directly borrowed (see below), the actually similar restricts itself, partly to words imitative of natural sounds (onomatopoetic), partly to those in which the sameness or similarity of meaning follows of itself from the nature of the same sounds, after the universal type of human speech. Neither of these establishes any historical (gentilic) relationship; to the direct proof of which, the agreement also in grammatical structure is essential.' * The points of connection, between the Semitic stock and the Indo-Germanic, Gesenius has endeavored to point out in his later lexical works; and others have carried this comparison still farther, or have taken it up in their own way. But nowhere is illusion more easy, or more common, than in investigations of this kind; and one requires great circumspection, and especially a comprehensive knowledge of the whole system of sounds in both families, in order to be secure from error in these obscure paths. It is here as indispensable, to be strict in noting what does not fulfil all the conditions of a common origin, as to be able to discover superficial points of agreement. So much, at least, is to be held as certain: that these two 4 4 ~~~~~INTRODUCTION. As examples of stems originating in the same natural sound (onomatopoetic), we may class together the following: A IE W, lingo, San. lih.. Fr. lecker, Germn. lecken, and Eng. to lick; b-1 (kindr., b.X1W.w, i;iiw avlct, vol ro. Germ. quyellen., allen. arid Engr. to well;1'~."I l l l X ( 1 CPers. kharidlan. Ital. raae.F.gaer Germ. kratzen. and Eng. to grate. to scratch; p-. firango. Germ. brechen, EA ng. to break, &c. An example of another kind is am, hain (sam'), a. karin. in the signifilcation. together [grathered] e. gr. in Heb. res (hence people, rp asemblagre)., tgte-ih (hience als-o), Arab). Z to collect; Pers. ham. harna, at once; San. adwith. Gr. ("Ia (uptmqcw). ','c 'y~ (aio~yo,, 0"ya~o;). anil hardened, xo ruLt.m111 crooulus cucis md with th corresjpodiunrg sibilant, Sari. sain, o(IC, iur'LT, -L'r'joi~ V= xo0;'o Goth. sauna. Germ. sammit. sauimeln: thougrh (loubts; ray still be raised1 in recgard to some of the instances quoted. Essentially different fromt such internal coincidence, is the adpinand naturalization of siurgie words from other languages (borrowed words). Thus, a) When Indian. Egyptian, Persian objects are expressed in the Hebrew by their native names. E. g. (Egypt. ior. iero, iaro) river, Nile; 1ri (Egrypt. ake, achi) Nile-grass; =7aumboPersian pleasure-grounds, park; -i daric. Persian gold-coinl from the Indian (Tamul.) togaai peccks. Several of them are found al-so in Greek as ~(Sari. kapi) ape, ze~ o-, x;i,%jo'; tel (San. karp4sa) cotton, Xxoi-rw~oc, car-basuis. b) When SVrrmitiC words, names of Asiatic liroducts and articles of' trade, have passed over to the Greeks along wvith. the objects themselves.:; E. g. yW l jmucroz, byssus; 11 3a MT'Cr& frankincense; '777 /.IAYt, canna. reed; "I'm on',cummnia. cumn;1' yr~ ~~ iuxr~c'ie, cassia;b vnjo, camelus; a. ~~O~J,(ri/abon. air/ia, pledge. Such tranisitions would be facilitated, especially. by the commercial decalings of the Phmunicians. 5. The written formi of a language is never so perfect,. as to express all its variouis shades of sound. The writing of the Semnites has one, very remiarkable imperfection viz. that, only the consonants (which. do indeed constitute the kernel and body of lang~uage) were written out as real letters whilst, of the vowel-sounds, only the mnore p)rolongred ones, and not always even these, Were represented by certain consonants (~ 7'). At a later p)Criod, in ordler to represent all time vowel-sounds to the families dlo not hold a sisterly?, or any near relationship to one another; and that the characteristic structure of eoach niust first be dissected and analyzed, before any original elements, which they nmay have in common, can be discovered. This com.parison, moreover, belongs more to the Lexicon than to the Grammar. ~ 1. SEMITIC LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 5 eye, there were attached to the letters (~ 8) small, separate signs (points, or strokes, above or below the line); though, for more practised readers, they were wholly omitted. The letters are always written, moreover, from right to left.*-Dissimilar as the different Semitic alphabets may appear, they yet all proceed, by various tendencies and modifications, from one and the same original alphabet. Of this the truest copy, among all existing specimens of alphabetic writing, is preserved in the Phoenician, from which sprang the old Greek, and mediately all the European written characters. For a complete view ofthe Phoenician alphabet, and of all those which have proceeded from it, see Gesenius Monumenta antiqua Phoenicia (Lipsioe, 1837, 4.) p. 15. ff. and Tab. 1-5, and his article Paleographie, in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclop. Sect. III. Bd. 9. 6. In regard to the relative age of these languages, the oldest written works are found in the Hebrew (~ 2); the Aralnaean commence about the time of Cyrus (in the book of Ezra); those of the Arabic branch not earlier than the first centuries of the Christian era (Himnyaritic inscriptions, Ethiopic translation of the Bible in the fourth century, North-Arabic literature after the sixth). But it is still another question, which of these languages longest and most truly held to the original Semitic type; in which of them, as they have come to us, we trace the earlier phase of their development. For the more or less rapid progress of language, in the mouth of a people or of tribes of the same people, is determined by causes quite distinct fiom the growth of a literature; and often, before the formation of a literature, the organism of a language has already become shattered, especially by early contacts with other tongues. Thus, in the Semitic domain, the Aramnean dialects suffered the earliest and greatest decay,t and next to them the Hebrew-Canaanitish. The Arabic * The Ethiopic is written from left to right. But this is probably an innovation of the earliest missionaries, by whom Christianity was introduced into Ethiopia; for an ancient inscription still exhibits the reversed direction, as does also the South-Arabic (Ilimyaritic) writing, which is most nearly related to the Ethiopic, and which regularly runs from right to left. See Rodiger, in the Zeitschr. f. d. Kunde des Morgenl. Bd. II., S. 332. ff. and his Excursus to Wellsted's Reisen in Arabien, II. 376. ff. t A new element must be taken into account, should the language of the cuneiform inscriptions, found within the Aratnmean district, prove to be of the Semitic stock. But this is still so doubtful, that we here leave it out of view. 6 6 ~~~~~INTRODUCTION. longest retained the natural fulness of its formns; remainin~g undisturbed, among' the secluded tribes of the wilderness, in its fully stamped organism. B~ut at length', inl thie Mohiammedan revolutions, this also becam-e greatly impaired; and hience, at th'is SO MUtch later period, it begins to exhibit about thle same stage as the Hebrew had reached, so early as the tim-yes of the Old Tlestamient.* Hence the phenomenon, accounted so strange, thwat the anmcient Hebrew accords more, in its grammatical structure, with the later than with the earlier Arabic; and that thle latter, though first appealring as a written langruage at a late period] in comparison with the other Semlitic tongues. has yet lireserveti a strtucture in many respects more perflect, arnd greater freshness in its system of sounds; hiolding' amiono' th-iem a relation -similar to that of the Sanscrit amongr thie Inido-Germuanic lariguag1(es1 or of' the Gothic in the narrower circle of' the Germanic. How a1 langruage can preserve its fuller orgaiiism. amidlst decaying sister tongur~es, is seen e. gr. in the Lithuanian compared with the Slavic languagi~es, properly so called. So the Donec held tenaciously to earlier soundls and forms;so thle Friesic and Icelandic, among thle German and northern langruages. But even the firmest andl most enduring org'anismi of' lang~uiage often decays. in single flormis and formative tendencies; arid vice velsa, in the midst of universal dlecline. thle ancient and origrinal formn is here and] there preserved. Such is the flict, in regard t~o thle Semnitic tongrues. The Arabic too. has its chasmis. and it~s later accretioiis; huit iii general. it miay justly claim the priority, especially in the syste~m of vowel-sounils. Ti establish moie dlefiuiitely these principles, an-d carry them Out fully. belonigs to a Comparative Grammar of' thle Semnitic languarwges. But. frmwhat has beeni said it follows:1) That the. H-ebrew IanguageI7. as fouind in tlie -ancient, sacred literature of' thle people. ha;s already su Ifered miore coiisidleralble losses, in respect to its orcgaiiism. th-an the Arabic at the miuch ]later p~eriodl, whene it first comes historically within our- field of'viewv. 2) That, niotwithstandiiig this. we can-not awardl to the latter an exclusive Jpriority in aill points. 3) That it Is at mistaken view, wheh iniany regard the Ararnuman. on account of' its simplicity. as necarest to thle orci_ form of Semnitism; for thils simlplicity it owves to a decav of ortzanism tand the contraction of' its forms. Oin the character. literature, grammatical aniid lexical tireatnlierit of these langruages. see Geseiiius' preflace to his Hebrtiisches Ilaudifvrterbuch. eds. 2-L.-[Biblical Repository, vol. Ill.] *Among, the 'Bedunins of the Arabian desert, the language still preserves iiarni aintique, forms. See Berckhardt, Tnavels ini Arabia, Append. VIII. p). 46(1; his Notes oin the B~edouins aind Walhabvs, p. 211; and Wallin, in ttie Zeitsclirift der deutsceli mor~genl. Gese'lsehiaft, Bd. V. (1851,) p. S. 1. if. VI., S. 190. if. 1369). if. ~ 2. HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 7 ~2. HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. See Gesenius' Geschichte der hebraischen Sprache und Sehrift, Leipzig, 1815, ~~ 5-18. 1. This language was the mother-tongue of the Hebrew or Israelitish people, during the period of its national independence. The name, Hebrew language (nr... ^;?, lXacsca rTcvEj clrov, {63(caiL-'i), is not found in the Old Testament, and seems rather to have been in use among those who were not Israelites. We find instead of this, Langulage of Canaan (Is. xix. 18) from the country where it was spoken; and nrl', Jutdaice (2 K. xviii. 26, comp. Is. xxxvi. 11, 13; Neh. xiii. 24). The latter term belongs to the later usage, which arose'after the return of the ten tribes from captivity, and in which the name Jew, Jews, came gradually to comprehend the whole nation. (Jer. Neh. Esth.) The names, Hebrews (od,, 'l1at7ol, Hebrmei) and Israelites ('aq SB'..1), were distinguished as follows. The latter bore the character of a national name of honor, which the people applied to themselves, with a patriotic reference to their descent from illustrious ancestors. The former was probably the older and less significant name of the people, by which they were known among foreigners. For this reason, it is used in the Old Testament particularly when they are to be distinguished from other nations (Gen. xl. 18; xliii. 32); and where persons who are not Israelites are introduced as speaking (Gen. xxxix. 14, 17; xli. 12). Compare Gesenius' Hebr. lexicon, Art..?Y. On the contrary, among the Greeks and Romans, e. g. in Pausanias, Tacitus, and also Josephus, it is the only name in use. As an appellative it might mean, belonging to the other side, people of the land on the other side (with reference to the country beyond the Euphrates), from.3. land on the other side, and the formative syllable -- (~ 86, 5). It might then have reference to the colony, which under Abraham migrated from regions east of the Euphrates into the land of Canaan (Gen. xiv. 13); though the Hebrew genealogists explain it as a patronymic, by sons (posterity) of Eber (Gen. x. 21; Num. xxiv. 24). At the date of the writings of the New Testament, the term Hebrew (Eoai'arl, John v. 2; xix. 13, 17. 20. ipUx'lEt 6laExroT, Acts xxi. 40; xxii. 2. xxvi. 14) was applied also to the language then vernacular in Palestine, in distinction from the Greek. Josephus (ob. about A. D. 95) uses it in this sense, and also for the ancient Hebrew. The name lingua sancta is first given to the Hebrew in the Chaldee paraphrases of the Old Testament, as the language of the sacred books, in distinction from the lingua profana. or the Chaldee popular language. 8 8 ~~~~~INTRODUCTION. 2. In the verv earliest writings, as they have come dowvn to us in the Pentateuich, we find the languag —e in nearly the same form- which it continued to bear till the time of tlie exile, and beyond it;and we have no historical facts respecting the earlier stages Of its for'Mation. So far as we can learn from history, its homeI was Canaan. It was substantially the language spoken by the C_"anaatitfisl1, 01. 1hopnician* races, who inhabited Palestine before the immigiration of Abraham and his descendants, by whom it was transplanted to Egypt, and again brought back with themi to Canaan. That the Canaanlitish races in Palestine spoke the langruage now called Hebrew. is showvn by the Canaanitish proper names. E. g. i. e. king of rig~_(hteoztsness; "E nn' i. e. city Qfbhooks. There is an equally close agreerenet with the hlebrewv. in tile remains of the Phimnician and Punic langrua~re. 'I'h are 100ou(1, partly ill their own peculiar character (~ 1. 5) in inscri Itbonl about 130 ill nuiber, and onl coins. For copies of them, see, ee~nits. Mioiiumenta Pliiixnicia; Judas, Etude demonstrative de la lan~rue phe~nicienine, Paris 1847; Bourgade. toison (lor de la langcue phenicienne, Paris 1S52. P~artly, they are founid in Greek and Roman characters, scattered heare and there in ancient writers, andl amnong then isl one continuous passage, in Plautus, Poenulus. 5D. 1, 2. From the former, we. learii the na~tive orthographyv andl from the latter, thle, pronunciation andi vocalization. The two tooether furnish a distinct image, of this langruage, and of its relation to the Hebrewx. As examples of variations in orthogrraphiy and in florms, may be cited, 1) thle almost constant omission of the, vowel-letters (~ 7, 2); as. -,: for rill house;pfo p voice; '1: for t-; -'i fo r priests; 2) tile feminirine, cndiiig (ath) in tile -absolute stale ( 80, 2), and st (ca), bes~ides runniy othiers. Ini pronunciation thley a.re still more remarkable. especially in the Punic. In thils. iwas p~roinouncedl comnmonly as u; e. g. M~ Slmfet (judge); salares (three,);=- 7-rFzs (hiead): for sh-ort i aiid e. it has often the obscure. dufll sound y; e.g. ynmm yuann (ecce eum), r-. yth: tile Y' it sounds as o; e. g-. Jlz oca7r (cornip. Sejpt. 31itw/(). For the entire collection of these, grarnniatical lpcculiarities see Gesenuws. TMoniuir. Pliaun. 1). 430 sqq. aild Movers. Art. Pliwnizien. in.Ers'ich (Ltd Grmmber-'s Erevel op. Sect. III. 13d. 2.1. 5. 434. fl. 3. In the lang,(uagre of the ancient documents which. have comie dowvn to us in the Old Testament. we can disting-uish no more than two distinct periods:the first, extending to the end of * 1".2) is the native airiane both of the Canaanitish tribes in Palestine, andI of those who dwelt at the foot of Lebanon aa(d on the Syrian eoalst, whom we call Pliiwuicians, while they are called on their own coins. Also the p~eople of Cartbage gave themselves the samne nalme. ~ 2. HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 9 the Babylonian exile, which may be called its golden age; and the second, or silver age, after the exile. To the first belongs the greater part of the books of the Old Testament: viz. of prosaic and historical writings, the Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel, Kings; of poetical writings, the Psalms (a number of later ones 'excepted), Solomon's Proverbs, Canticles, Job; the earlier prophets, in their chronological order, as follows: Joel, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, Zephaniah, Habacuc, Nahum, Obadiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. The last two, as they lived and taught shortly before, as well as during the time of the exile, and also the latter part of the book of Isaiah (chs. xl.-lxvi. with some earlier chapters), stand on the borders of both ages. The point of commencement for this period, and in general, of the literature of the Hebrews, must certainly be fixed as early as the time of Moses; even though we should regard the Pentateuch, in its present structure and form, as modelled by a later hand. It suffices for the history of the language and for our object to remark, that the Pentateuch has certainly peculiarities of language, which may be regarded as archaisms. The words KStI he (~ 32, R. 6), and nt_: a lad, as there used are of common gender, and mean also she and maiden, like o and 7r nats; and certain harder forms of words, e.g. pr,, pn-, are here the usual ones, whilst in other books they are exchanged for the softer forms, as pIT, bpni". On the other hand, there are found in Jeremiah and Ezekiel, clear instances of approximation to the Aramean coloring of the second, or silver age (see No. 5). 4. The different writers and books, though each has certainly peculiar characteristics, exhibit no very important differences bearing on the history of the language during this period; as, indeed, the date of composition of many of these books, especially the anonymous historical ones, cannot be determined with entire certainty. On the contrary, the poetic diction is every where distinguished from prose, not only by a rhythmical movement in measured parallel members, but also by words, forms and significations of words, and constructions, peculiar to itself: a distinction not so strongly marked, however, as in the Greek for example. But most of these poetic idioms are employed in the kindred languages, particularly the Arameean, as the common forms of speech. They may in part be regarded as archaisms. which the poetic diction retained, in part as additions made to the stores of the language, by poets to whom the Aramman was 10 10 ~~~~INTRODUCTION. familiar.* The prophets, moreover, at least the earlier ones, in language and rhythm are to be ranked almost as poets; except that with these poetical speakers, the sentences often run on to greater length, and the parallelism is less measured and regular, than in the writings of those who are strictly poets. The language of the later prophets keeps mnore closely to the form of prose. On the poetic rhythm in Hebrew, see De JWette, Commentar fiber die Psalmen (4th ed. 1-eideib. 1836), Einleit. ~ 7;t Ewald, die poetischen Bticher des alien Bundes, Th. I. (Gottingen 1839); and (briefly treated) (lesenfins. Hebr. Lesebuch, Vorerinnerungen zur 2ten Abthiciluncg. Of poetic words, (occurring along with those used in prose.) thle, following are examples: t~n mIan, = I;rI path, M; to come, = ord ) w To the poetic sign~fications of words belongs the use of certain epithets in place of substantives: e. g. strong (one), for God; 'nn strong (one),, for bullock, horse; ii=~ aiba, for luna; "IIM unicus, dearest, for life. Of poetic forms, we may note, e. g. 1) the longer forms of prepositions denoting relations of space (~ 103, 3); as,. r' -ln 7T; 2) the endings '9-:-~ i, in the noun (~90); 3) the sfftlres Tn z, -- fort 0 c-, - (~ 57); 4) thle plural-ending i'I -: fo r t-1- (~ 87, 1, a). To the poetic peculiarities in syntax belong, e. g. the far more, spari ng use of the article, of thle relative pronoun, of them accusative-particle r.. the construct state before a preposition; the shortened formi of the inpe rfeet, in the signification of the usual form (~ 128, 2. R.); and inl general, a concise vigor of expression. 5. The second or silver age, from the close of the exile to the times of the Maccabees 'about 16() B. C.), is marked chiefly by an approximation in the language to the kindred Arailawan. (Clialdee); the Jews having the miore easily accustomned themiselves to the use of it, duringr their residen~ce in lBabvloniia Onl account of its near resemblance to the Hebrew. A~fter the returni frorm the exile, the Aramnean camye more and m~ore into use;its influence was felt more arid more, on. the old Hebrew language of books (and now also upon the style of prose), which wNas thus gradually banished fr-om common uIse, though it continued to be understood and written by the learned. * That in Isaiah's tine (2d half of the 8th century before Christ) the m1ore educated Hebrews,, at least the officers of state, understood Aramman is expressly mentioned in 2 Kinigs xviii. 26; comp. Is. xxxvi. 11. f Biblical Repository, No. IX.-Ta. ~ 2. HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 11 We may form a conception of the relation of the two languages, at this later period, by comparison with that of the High and Low German in Lower Saxony, or with that of the High German and the popular dialects in the south of Germany and in Switzerland; for here also, even among the more educated, an influence is commonly exerted by the popular dialect, on the oral and written expression of the High German. It is a false view, founded on an erroneous interpretation of Neh. viii. 8, that the Jews had at this time wholly lost the knowledge of the ancient Hebrew, and must learn its import from priests and adepts in the language. The writings of the second period, all of which exhibit this Chaldee coloring, though in various shades, are the following books of the Old Testament: Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles, Esther; of the prophetical books, Jonah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Daniel; of the poetical books, Ecclesiastes, and the later Psalms. In their character also as literary compositions, they stand far below the writings of earlier times; though there are not wanting productions of this period,, which, in purity of language and aesthetic worth, are little inferior to those of the golden age. Such e. g. are many of the later Psalms (cxx. ff. cxxxvii. cxxxix). Examples of later words (Chaldaisms) for which the earlier writers employ others; 'i? = rn time; pj = —nmb to take; a --- =yp end;:=br = ^1b to rule.-Of later signtficatio2ns: A'c (to say) to command;,ri (to answer) to begin speaking.-Of later grammatical usages: the frequency of the scriplio plena i and —, e. g. 'I"^ (elsewhere:.), even tlilip for n.p,.li' bor:i; the interchange of final iT- and, —; the more frequent use of substantives in "i, —, etc. But the peculiarities ofthese later writings are not all Chaldaisms. Some do not occur in the Chaldee, and must have belonged to the earlier popular-dialect of the Hebrews, especially, as it seems, in the northern parts of Palestine. There the book of Judges and Canticles may have been written; and hence the occurrence, in these earlier writings, of the form i' for '~I (~ 36), which was the common form in the Phoenician. Rem. 1. Of diversities of dialect, in the old Hebrew language, only a few, and those but slight, traces are found; namely, in Judges xii. 6, according to which the Ephraimites appear to have pronounced t as t: or 0; and in Neh. xiii. 23, 24, where an Ashdod (Philistine) dialect is spoken of. 2. The remains of Hebrew literature, which have come down to us, cannot be supposed to contain the entire stores of the old Hebrew language; and we must regard it as having been far more rich and comprehensive. than it now appears in the canonical literature of the Old Testament, which is itself but a part of the entire national literature of the ancient Hebrews. 12 INTRODUCTION. ~3. GRAMMATICAL TREATMENT OF THE LANGUAGE. (Gesenius, Gcschichte der hebr. Sprache, ~~ 19-39.) 1. At the time of the gradual extinction of the old Hebrew language, and when the collection of the Old Testament writings was closed, the Jews began to apply thenlselves to the explanation and criticism of this their sacred codex, and to the preparation of translations fiom it into the popular languages now prevalent among themn. The oldest is the Greek translation of the so-called seventy interpreters (LXX), commenced at Alexandria in Egypt with the translation of the Pentateuch, under Ptolemy Philadelphus, and completed in later years. It was in part made fiom knowledge of the original Hebrew as a living tongtue, for the use of Jews whose language was the Greek, particularly those who resided at Alexandria. Somewhat later, the Chaldec translations (the Targums, '^.'1, translations) were composed in Palestine ald Babylonia. The exlplanations, professedly derived in part froml tradition, have almost exclusive reference to civil and ritual law and dogmnatic theology, with as little scientific value as the remarks on various readings. Both are contained in the Talnmud; the first part (3lishina) composed in the third, and the second (Gemnara) in thle sixtl century. ThIe Misha i is the beginning of tile newo Hebrew literature; ill the Gemara, on tllc contrary, the language has mnore the forml of the Chaldee. 2. In the interval between tlhe composition of the Talmnud and the earliest grammarians, falls mainly the vocalization of the yet unpointel text (~ 7, 3); as also the collection of critical remarks, under the name of lIasora (~bn, traditio), to which the Ianluscript copies of the Textus Receptus of the Old Testament have ever since'been conformed, and from which it is called the llasoretic text. One of the oldest and most important portions of the Masora is the collection of various readings, called Q3ri (~ 17). The punctuation of the text, moreover, is not to be confounded with the compilation of the Masora. The former was settled at an earlier date, and is the fruit of a much more thorough work than the Masora, which was finished considerably later. ~ 3. GRAMMATICAL TREATMENT OF THE LANGUAGE. 13 3. It was about the beginning of the 10th century, that the first collections in grammar were made by Jews, in imitation of the Arabic grammarians. The first attempts, by Rabbi Saadia (ob. 942) and others, are lost; but those of R. Judah Hhayug (called also Abu Zacharia Yahya) about the year 1000, and of R. Jonah (Abu-'l-Walid Marvan ibn Ganach) about 1030, composed in the Arabic language, are still extant in manuscript. Assisted by these previous labors, Abraham ben Ezra and R. D. Kimchi, especially, (the former about 1150, the latter about 1190 -1250,) won for themselves a classic reputation as grammarians. From these earliest grammarians proceed many methods of arrangement and technical terms, which are still in part retained; e. g. the designation of the derivative and irregular verbs, after the old paradigm 5bo, the voces memoriales, as r~.~, and the like.* The father of Hebrew philology among Christians was John Reuchlin (ob. 1522), to whom Greek literature also owes so much. But he, as also the grammarians of the next succeeding period down to John Buxtorf (ob. 1629), still adhered almost exclusively to Jewish tradition. It was not till after the middle of the 17th century, that the field of view began gradually to extend itself; and that the study of the sister tongues, chiefly through the labors of Albert Schultens and N. W. Schr6der, was made tributary to the grammatical knowledge of Hebrew. The comparative value of such subsequent works as have any claims on the ground of enduring, scientific merit, must be estimated by comparison with what is required in the grammar of every ancient language: viz. 1) that all the phenomena of the language shall be fully and accurately exhibited, in their organic connection (the empirical and historico-critical element); 2) that these facts of the language shall be explained, partly by comparison with one another and with the analogy of the sister tongues, and partly from the general philosophy of language (the philosophical element, or rationale). * On the rise of Hebrew lexicography, and its early history, see Gesenius' Preface, &c. (as quoted above, p. 6); and also, on the earliest grammarians, Sam. David Luzzatto, Prolegomeni ad una gramm. ragionata della lingua ebraica, p. 26. f.; H. Ewald and L. Dukes, Beitrage z. Geschichte der altesten Auslegung u. Sprachcrklarung des A. T.; Hupfeld, de rei grammaticae apud Judaeos initiis antiquissimisque scriptoribus; and Munk, notice sur Abou'l-Walid et sur quelques autres grammairiens hebreux du Xe et du XIe siecle, in Journal asiatique, 1850. 14 INTRODUCTION. ~4. DIVISION AND ARRANGEMENT. These proceed naturally fiom the three constituent parts of every language: viz. 1) articulate sounds denoted by written signs, and their connection in syllables; 2) words; 3) sentences. Accordingly, the first part (the elements) includes the doctrine of the sounds, and of the inanner of designating them in writing. It describes, therefore, the nature and relations of the speaking sounds, the manner of reading written signs (orthoepy), and the customary mode of writing (ortllography). It then treats of the combination of sounds into syllables and words, and of the laws and conditions of this union. Tile second part (doctrine of forms) treats of words in their character as parts of speech, and contains: 1) the doctrine of the formation of words, or of tile rise of tie different parts of speech from the roots or from one another; 2) the doctrine of inflection, i. e. of tie varied forms whiclh words assume, according to their relation to one another and to the sentence. The third part (syntax) teaches: 1) the use of the various inflections, existing in the language, for expressing different modifications of the ground-thoughlt; and the manner of expressing, by periphrasis, others for which no forms have been coined in the language; 2) the laws, by which the parts of speech are combined into sentences (doctrine of the sentence, or syntax in the strict sense). PART FIRST. OF THE ELEMENTS. CHAPTER I. OF READING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. ~5. OF THE CONSONANTS, THEIR FORMS AND NAMES. 1. THE Hebrew alphabet consists of twenty-two consonants, some of which have also the power of vowels (~ 7, 2). I Form. Pronuncia-I Iebrew Sounded as Signification of the name. rial I I ~~~tion. Iname.IISinfcto ofte am.I vl. I I - Final. r ^q A'-lph Ox 1: b, bh n Beth House 2. g, gh b. Gi'-mel Camel 3 ~ d, dh nrt Da'-lth Door 4 n h Hi Window 5 v Vdav Hook 6 T z IT ZC'-yzn Weapon 7 n ch rnrn Cheh Fence 8 t rtr TJth Snake 9 y Y %1" Yodh Hand 10 1: k, kh; Kiph Bended hand 20 b 1 b5 La-medh Ox-goad 30 t m t MI'em Water 40 7 ~ n ].N Nun Fish 50 0 s:~ A3Sda-mikk. Prop 60 Y or' ' i/ IA'-in Eye 70;1 S p, ph a Pe ph Mouth 80 t ts a Tsa-dhe'cL Fish-hook 90 q pi QpAh Back of the head 100 ' r t ' Resh Head 200 1 sh tl5 Shzn Tooth 300 t, th I Tv Cross 400 I -- - 16 16 ~~~~PART I. ELEMENTDS. 2. The letters now in -use. with which tlhe manuscripts of thc Old rrestanwiellt are written (called the, Assmyrianu or sqiiare charatrare not of the origrinal formi. On the coins of' the Maccabtean princes' is fouind anothier character~t which at an earlier period was doubtless in general iusze, in formn strongly resemlblingr thle Samaritani, andl con nected immnediately with thle Phlmnic~ian letters"( 1, 05). The sqtiare letter mnay also lbe tracedl back to the i1hamician; but it has mlost agreement with certain Aramnman inscriptions found in Tcrypt~ anti at Palmyira.11 An impIortarnt document, fbi' illUs tratinig the history of' the Hebrew squa~re-letter, hass beern recently discoveredl by Col. Rawhinson iI) the Babylonian district;vanInscription 'thund at A1bushadr. juist above the junction of' the Tigris and Euphrates. In its characters. there is retained1 a, resemblance, partly to the LPhamician,,and( p-artly to the Palmyrene. Sec: The Irnscr. of' Abushadr. expi. by ProI: Dietl-ilth. Lould. 1854. 3. The five characters which heave a different formn at the end of a word (final letters), -', ""., ",,trInae(ihteecp tion of =) in a peipendicu.lar stroke dire(,,cted downwards, whilst the co~iumon form- has a horizontal connectingr line, directed towards thle followNing~ letter~. I. Hebrew is read fromi righlt to left. rphe division of a word at the end of a line, is not allowed. rp0' complete, a line- certain letters (dilatabiles) are at times dilated. Trhese are, in our printed books the five following 1. The figres of' the letters were origrinally hasty and rude representations of' visible objects. tlme nnimes of'which began wvithi the sounld.of the several characters e.g Grijmel, in the older alphabets the rude figure of'a camel's neck,! denotes properly a camrel b) but as a letter only the initial;Ayin2z prop. eye. stands only 1ibr:.the initial letter of'this wordl In thc Ph~mnician alphabet, the similarity of' thefig-ures to the obiject sicnif'ied by thle vaames may still be seen fbr the mo-st part. andl even ini the square character it appears yet in some letters; e. g.. I. I. U, 11 ) The most probable, signification of'each name is griven in the alphabet. However certain it is, on the one hand, that the Semnites were, the first to adopt this alphab~et, yet it is highly probable, on the other. that *And on some ancient sigrnet-stones. See le~diger, On the Old-i [crew sicnietstones, in the Zeitsehir. der d. morgyeil. Gesell. Bd. 1II., S. 2413 ui. 347. f Table of Alphabets, col. 2. t. Ibid. col. 1. ~ Ibid. col. 3. 11Ibid. co]. 4. ~ Ibid. cols. 1, 2, 3. ~ 5. THE CONSONANTS. 17 the Egyptian writing (the so-called phonetic hieroglyphics) suggested the principle though not the figures; for these hieroglyphic characters, for the most part, indicate the initial sound in the name of the pictured object; e. g. the hand, tot, indicates the ]etter t; the lion, laboi, the letter 1.* 2. The order of the letters (on which we have an ancient testimony in the alphabetical poetic compositions in Ps. xxv., xxxiv., xxxvii., cxix. Lam. i.-iv.) certainly depended originally on a grammatical consideration of the sounds, as we may see from the occurrence in succession of the three softest labial, palatal, and dental sounds, viz. M. a, q, also of the three liquids, i, 72., and other similar arrangements (see Lepsius' sprachvergleichende Abhandlungen, Berlin, 1836, No. 1); but yet other considerations and influences must also have had some effect upon it, for it is certainly not a mere accident, that two letters representing a hand (Yodh and Kaph), also two exhibiting the head (Qoph and Resh), are put together, as is done also with several characters denoting objects which are connected (iMem and Nun, Ain and Pe). Both the names and the order of the letters (with a trifling alteration) passed over from the Phoenician into the Greek, in which the letters, from Alpha to Tau, correspond to the ancient alphabet; whence proceeded also, directly or mediately, the Old-italic, the Roman, and those derived from them. 3. The letters are used also for signs of number, as the Hebrews had no special arithmetical characters or ciphers. But this numeral use did not, according to the existing MSS. take place in the 0. T. text, and is found first on coins of the Maccabees (middle of 2d cent. B. C.). It is now employed in the editions of the Bible for numbering chapters and verses. As in the numeral system of the Greeks, the units are denoted by the letters from M to U, the tens by e —Y. 100-400 by p —n. The hundreds, from 500-900, are sometimes denoted by the five final letters, thus, 1 500, t 600, " 700, m 800, y 900; and sometimes by n = 400, with the addition of the remaining hundreds, as pn 500. In combining different numbers the greater is put first, as of 11, sop 121. Fifteen is marked by:: == 9 + 6, and not by ns', because with these the name of God [mn1t] commences; and 16 by TU, for a like reason. Thousands are denoted by the units with two dots above, as s 1000. 4. Abbreviations of words are not found in the text of the 0. T. On coins, however, they occur, and they are in common use by the later Jews. The sign of abbreviation is an oblique stroke, as '"t for.?ts, 'm for '9bt aliquis, 'al for 'itl et completio = et cetera, 9 or Ad for * Sec the works of Young, Chatnpollion, and others on the H-lieroglyphics. Lepsius exhibits the chief results in his Lettre d Mlr. Rosellini sur l'alphabet hieroglyphique. Rom. 1837. 8vo. Comp. Gesenius in der Allgem. Litt. Zeitung, 1839. No. 77-81. Hitzig, die Erfindung des Alphabets. Zurich, 1840, fol. J. l0 -hausen iiber den Ursprung des Alphabets. Kiel, 1841, 8vo. 2 18 PART I ELEMENTS. ~6. PRONUNCIATION AND DIVISION OF CONSONANTS. 1. It is of the greatest importance to understand the original sound of every consonant, since very many grammatical peculiarities and changes (~ IS, &c.) are regulated and explained by the pronunciation. Our knowledge of this is derived partly fiom the pronunciation of tle kindred dialects, particularly of tlle yet living Arabic, partly froml observing tle resemblance and interchange of letters in the Hebrew itself (~ 19), partly from the tradition of the Jews.* The pronunciation of the Jews of tlie present day is not uniform. The Polish and Germain Jews adopt tlle Syriatc whlile the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, whoIn most Christian scholars (after tlCe exalmple of Reuchlinl) follow; more properly prefer the Arabic pronunciattion. The manner in which the Seventy have written HClebrcw proper names in Greek letters, furnishes an older tradition of greater weight. Several. howevr, of the Hebrcw sounds they were unable to reprcsent for want of corrcsponding characters in the Greek language, c. g... which is true also of Jerome's expression of IIcl)rew words in Roman letters, after the Jewish pronunciation of Iis time. For tllat of tlie Jews now in northern Africa. sce Barg7es, Journ. Asiat. 184S. 2. The following list emllraces those consonants whose pronunciation requires special attention, exhibiting in connection those which bear any resemblance in sound to each other. 1. Among the g.lttltrals. X is the lightest. a scarcely au(iblle breathing from the lunlgs, tile spiritus le7nis of the Greeks; similar to n. l)it softer. Even befbre a vowel, it is almnost lost upon the ear (m'I'- k,uu)) like tlie h in the Frenchi habit, holnme [or Engr. hou']A. After a vowel it is often not hearld at all; except in connection witli tlhe preceding vowel sound. with whichl it combines its own (2x vldtsed, o 23. 2).,n before a vowel. is exactly our h (.spiritus arsper); after a vowel at the end of words. it may like X unlite its sound with that of the precedingr vowel (n}. gdrld). or it may retain its character as a guttural (n.- gdbhah), which is regularly the case at the end of a syllable in the middle of a wordt as iln 7Ti n2ch-,pkh (~ 7, 2, and ~ 14). " IIIIporta:llt:aid ma;y also be derived froml aTn accurate physiological observation of the whole system of sounds, and of their fornat ion by the orgarns of speechl. See on this subject Lilskovies' Theorie der Stilrlme, I.eipzig, 181t, J. f[iller's IIandbuch der 1Physiologie, 3Bd. II., S. 179, &e., ralso Strodtmann's Anatomis.he Vorhalle zur Phylsiologic (der Stimmne uid der Splrachlaute, Altona, 1837. In its reference to gralmmar, see II. jIupfeld in Jahn's Jahrliicher f. Philologic, 1829, II. 4, and 11. k. Bindscil's Abhanltdlungen zut i allgerm. vergleichenden Spracllehre (ITlarlb., 1838). I. Physiologie (dcr Stimml- und Spraclllaute, S. 1, &e. ~ 6. PRONUNCIATION. 19 s is nearly related to K; and is a sound peculiar to the organs of the Semitic race. Its hardest sound is that of a g slightly rattled in the throat, as n i~, LXX. rFuoo"a;,M., F1da; it is elsewhere, like x, a gentle breathing, as in ai, 'HI1; pro, 'A4auAx. In the mouth of the Arabian, the first often strikes the ear like a soft guttural r, the second as a sort of vowel sound like a. To pass over:, as many do in reading and in the expression of Hebrew words by our letters (e. g. Aim Eli, pan. Amalek), and to pronounce it simply as g, are equally incorrect. The best representation we could give of it in our letters would be gh or rg (but softer), as:nr, something like arbag^, nt:is rgamora. The nasal pronunciation, gn or ng, of the Polish Jews; is entirely false. n is the hardest of the guttural sounds. It it a guttural ch, as uttered by the Swiss, e. g. Macht, resembling the Spanish x and j. While the Hebrew was a living language this letter had two grades of sound, being uttered feebly in some words and more strongly in others.* ' also the Hebrews frequently pronounced with a hoarse guttural sound, not as a lingual made by the vibration of the tongue. Hence it is not merely to be reckoned among the liquids (1, n, n, r), but, in many respects, it belongs also to the class of gutturals. (~ 22, 5.) 2. In sibilant sounds the Hebrew language is rich, more so than the Aramaan. which in part adopts instead of them the flat, lingual sounds. ' and ' were originally one letter m (pronounced without doubt like sh), and in unpointed Hebrew this is still the case. But as this sound was in many words very soft, approaching to that of s, the grammarians distinguished this double pronunciation by the diacritic point into t sh (which occurs most frequently), and 'i s. 'o resembled t in pronunciation: it differed from this letter, however, and was probably uttered more strongly, being nearly related to to. Hence ':t to close up, and '1i2' to reward, have different meanings, being distinct roots, as also =b: to be foolish, and b'ia to be wise. At a later period this distinction was lost, and hence the Syrians employed only 0 for both, and the Arabians only t. They also began to be interchanged even in the later Hebrew; as:_ === ' _"i to hire, Ezr. iv. 5; nr.b'- for n.bt folly, Eccles. i. 17. I was a soft, murmuring s, the Gr. C (by which the LXX. represent it), the Fr. and Eng. z. 3. p and 0t differ essentially from: and n. The former {as also 2) are uttered with strong articulation, and with a compression of the organs of speech in the back part of the mouth, answering to k and t. * In the Arabic language, the peculiarities of which have been carefully noted by the grammarians, the hard and soft sounds of 3 and l (as well as the different pronunciations of 3, 0, Y), are indicated by diacritic points. Two letters are thus made from each: from r the softer - Ain, and the harder e Ghain; from Tn the softer l HIha, and the harder, Kha. 20 20 ~~~~PART L. ELEMENTS. 3. Thc six consonants (the so-called Muites). have a twofold pronunciation:*1) a harder, more slender sound (tenuis). as b, gr, d, I,-p t, and 2) a soft sound uttered with a gentle aspiration (asp irata). The, former is the original sound. It is founid at the lbeginning of words and syllables, when there is no vowvel immnediately preceding, and it is itnilicated by a point in the letter (iDag/iesh lene), as Z b (~ 13). The aspirated sound occurs after a vowel immiediately preceding, arid is denoted in manuscripts by R~ap/Ih ( 1-4, 2), but in the lrinted text it is known by the absence of the Daglhesit. In s,-ome of these, letters (especially ~) the difference is less perceptible to our ear. The, modern Greeks aspirate distinctly id, -', 6, arid the Danes d at the end of a word. Trhe Greeks have two characters for the two soundis of the other letters of this class, as n, ' "T t lFor the p~recise cases in which the one pronunciation or the other occurs. see ~ 21. The modern Jews sound the aspirated = as v'. and the r. nearly as s, e. g. - reshis, rav. 4I. After what has been said, the usual division of the consonants according to the, organs of speech employed in uttering them, will be more intelligible and useful. The common division is as followvs a) Gutturals, M, In, V, N. (:~rl) c) Lingruals, t.,. 1, with,~ d) Denitals or sibiants, t', C,~ T, (162T) The letter 'I partakes of the character of both the first arid third classes. The liquids alsol ~,,~lwhich have in maiiy respects a common chiaracter, are to be regrarded as a sep)arate class. In the Hebrew. as well as in all the Semitic dialects. the strengrth and harshness of p)roniunciation. which characterized the earlier periods of the langruage,grad ually gave way to more soft and feeble sounidsz. In this w%%ay many nice distinctions of the earlier pronunciation were neglected and lost. *Sound rl as t, In as th in thick; 'I as d, 'I dh as th in that; n. as p, Z as ph or f; Z as b, = bh as v; A as g in go; = as k. To give the aspirated sound of I and Z. pronounce g and A-, rolling thie palate with the samne breath.-TR. ~7. THE VOWELS. 21 This appears, 1) in the preference of the softer letters; e. g. pfs, p9. (see ~ 2, 3, Rem.), Syr. p9_; 2) in the pronunciation of the same letter; thus in Syriac: has almost always a feeble sound; the Galileans uttered it as well as n like a; in iZEthiopic t3 has the sound of s, n that of h. 7. OF THE VOWELS IN GENERAL, VOWEL-LETTERS, AND VOWEL-SIGNS. 1. The origin of the scale of five vowels, a. e, i, o, u, in the three primary vowel-sounds A, I, U, is even more distinctly seen in the Hebrew, and its cognate dialects, than in other languages. Here, E and O have in all cases arisen from a blending of two pure vowel-sounds into one; viz. e from the union of I, and o from the union of U, with a preceding short A. Hence, they are properly diphthongs contracted, e arising from ai, 6 from au, according to the following scheme:* A ai, a, d / \ au, 6 I/____\ u The more ancient Arabic has not the vowels a and 6, and always uses for them the diphthongs ai and au; e. g. 1'2, Arabic bain, tar, Arab. yaum. It is only in the modern popular language that these diphthongs are contracted into one sound. The close relation of those sounds appears from a comparison of the Greek and Latin (e. g. Caesar, Kaiaco; *afivua, Ion. &fEuca), from the French pronunciation of ai and au, from the Germanic languages (Goth. auso auris, old High-Germ. ora Ohr; Goth. snaivs, old High-Germ. sneo Schnee), and even from the German popular dialects (Oge for Auge, Goth. augo; Steen for Stein, Goth. Stains). The Arabic, as now pronounced among the Bedouins, departs less from the three primary vowel-sounds, a, i, u, than that spoken in Syria and Egypt ( Wallin, as quoted p. 22, note). A similar fact is stated by Barges, respecting the Jews in the province of Oran (Journ. Asiat. 1848, Nov.). 2. With this is connected the manner of indicating the vowelsounds in writing. As only three principal vowel-sounds were distinguished, no others were designated in writing; and even * For the sound of these vowels, see note on ~ 8.-TR 22 PART I. ELEMENTS. these were represented not by appropriate signs, but by certain consonants; whose feeble sounds had a very close affinity with the vowel-sounds to be expressed. Thus, 1 (like the Lat. V and tlhe old Ger. TV) represented U and also 0; " (like the Lat. J) represented I and j'. The designation of A, the purest of all tle vowels, and of most fiequent occurrence, was regularly omitted,; except at the end of a word where long a was repre sented, in Hebrew, by:, and more seldom by N.t These two letters stood also for final e and o. Even those two voLel-letters (I and ') were used but sparingly; primarily, and regularly, only when the sounds represented were long..t In this case, also, they were sometimes omitted ( 8, 4). Every thing else relating to the tone and quantity of the vowel-sounds, whether a consonant should be pronounced with or without a vowel, and even whether I and l were to be regarded as vowels or consonants, the reader was to decide for himself. Thus for example, =.~p might be read qatal. qatel, qatol, q'lol, qotel, qitlel, qattel, quttal; 'n,5 dabhar (a word), debher (a pestilence), dibber (he hath spoken), dabber (to speak), dobher (speaking), dubbar (it has been spoken); r'^ might be maveth (death), or mZuth, moth (to die); 'pn might be read bin, bcn, bIiyin. Iow imperfect and indefinite such a mode of writing was, is easily seen; yet during the whole period in which the Hebrew was a spoken language, no other signs for vowels were employed. Reading was, therefore, a harder task than with our more adequate modes of writing, and nuch must have been supplied by the reader's knowledge of the living mother-tongue. * So in Sanscrit, tle ancient Persian cuneiform writing, and Ethiopic, short a alone of all the vowels is not indicated by any sign, but the simple consonant is pronounced with this vowel. t The close connection between 'l,:. and the A-sound, I and the U-sound, a1 and the I-sound, admits of easy physiological explanation, if we attend to the formation of these sounds by the organs of speech. The vowel A is formed by opening the mouth without changing the position of the organs; so also n and M. U is sounded in the fore part of the mouth,. with the lips a little projecting and rounded; so also [ [English?w]. I is formed at the fore part of the palate; so also ' [our y]. E is formed at the back of the palate, between i and a; 0 in the under part of the mouth, between u and a. t The Phlenicians did not indicate even the long vowels, except in very rare cases; their oldest monuments can hardly be said to have any designation of vowels. See Mon. Phonicia, pp. 57, 58: and above, ~ 2, 2. ~ 8. THE VOWELSIGNS. 23 3. But when the Hebrew ceased to be a spoken language, and the danger of losing the correct pronunciation, as well as the perplexity arising from this indefinite mode of writing, continually increased, the vowel-signs or points were invented, which minutely settled what had previously been left uncertain. Of the date of this invention we have no account; but a comparison of historical facts warrants the conclusion, that the vowel system was not completed till about the seventh century of the Christian era. It was the work of Jewish scholars, well skilled in the language, who, it is highly probable, copied the example of the Syrian and Arabian grammarians. See Gesch. d. hebr. Spr. S. 182 if. and tlapfeld in den theolog. Studien und Kritiken, 1830, No. 3, where it is shown that the Talmud and Jerome make no mention of vowel-points. 4. This vowel system has, probably, for its basis the pronunciation of the Jews of Palestine; and its consistency, as well as the analogy of the kindred languages, furnishes strong proof of its correctness, at least as a whole. It seems to have expressed, however, not so much the pronunciation of common life, as the traditional one which had become customary in the public and solemn reading of the sacred books. Its authors have labored to exhibit by signs the minute gradations of the vowel-sounds, carefully marking even half-vowels and helping sounds, spontaneously adopted in all languages, yet seldom expressed in writing. To the same labors we owe the different marks by which the sound of the consonants themselves is modified (~~ 11-14), and the accents (~~ 15, 16). In Arabic, the vowel system is much more simple. It has only three signs for vowels, according to the three primary vowel-sounds. The Syriac punctuation is likewise founded on a less complicated system. It is possible that the Hebrew also had at an earlier period a more simple vowel system, but no actual traces of it are found. ~8. OF THE VOWEL-SIGNS.* 1. The full vowels (in distinction from the half-vowels, 10, 1, 2), are exhibited in the following table, classed according to the three primary vowel-sounds. * The vowels, as represented in this translation, are sounded as follows:a and a as a in father; a as the second a in abaft; a as e in error; e and e as a in 24 PART I. ELEMENTS. ~' Vowels essentially long (~ 25, 1) are denoted by (2, e, 6 tone-long vowels ( 9,., 2; 7; 10, 3) 1by C,., C; short vowels by a, 6e o. For the i and U soLunds, only tie first and third of these sirgns ( and 2, zu and A) are required ( 9). F'irst Class. For the A sound. a) - Qamets, Ca, a(, 'l yadh, p q(nm. b) - Pauttdch, u, r,3 1lt11. c) - SdYghol, i a s in the first syllable of ^. m: l6kh, where has sp)rung firom " [':- ] lland also in union with ', as T.j. yadhlakht, *. g l/a1. like the French C in mnte [or nearly as our e in there]. Second Class..1or the I and E sound. a) "- and -l long C'/lrq, i,,.:^ tsidddiqim. b) - short COlireqy, z MS zimlo. (c) - and - ^e'-re with and without YodhI, e, r, n beth, t ' shctm. d) - S6g/Iol, obt-(c (ds, sI p sephhr, '1 / sAh6, accented t, nTh cho/z. Third Class. 'or the UJ and 0 sound. r a) I Shfire6k, u, rM,7f mt/I. U-) b) - Q-bbts, Q i, }?? sAllam: but also I2 (Shureq dcfectively \-written, No. 4 ), ^ (ifr 'I.-) mt1'thl. c) and - Cholerz, o,,,1 qol, ' roAbh. d) -Y QimG ts-ciattpl i6. ( -p ch6q. c) also -, obtluse, so f'ar as it springs fromt u or o, as in. 11t 6'i, -r^. eth. (from ll ). The names of the voxwels are. according to the usa e of the Semitic grammarians. almost all taken fi'om the form and action of the mouth in uttering the sounds. Thus nm. signifies o)peninig. ^n. (alsoo '..) burstin (of the mouth). p^r" gn7ashin, CSin fl.ss, fiom itSfii'doe its ill tone (also -Es i5. fall mouth). p^' properly,'(TlJ6o), ': closing (of the mouth). This last mcaninr belongs also to Y7,; and tlie reason why long a and short o (':r- y^ Qanietls orreplumt) have tihe satme sign anid name is. apparently, that long a was sounded rather obscurely, nearly as o. fate; c as e in met; i as i in pique; i as i in pick; a an d 6 s ol in h/ii, o a1s o in wholly; ' as oo in moon, u as u in full; au as ou? in found; ai sounded as aye. The long and short sounds of the same vowel should differ only in lelngth.-Tn. * The Jowish grammarians call Seghol also "small Pattach." ~ 8. THE VOWEL-SIGNS. 25 the full sound of which it now has among German and Polish Jews; comp. the Syr. a, among the Maronites = o, the Swedish a, and the early change in Hebrew from a to o, ~ 9,10, 2.* The distinction between them is shown in ~ 9. Only Seghol (biq cluster of grapes) appears to be named after itsform. The names were, moreover. so formed that the sound of each vowel was heard in the first syllable; and in conformity to this, some write Siighol, Qomets-chatuph, Qiibbuts. 2. As appears in the above examples, the vowel-sign is regularly put under the consonant after which it is to be pronounced, ' ra,? rd, m re, m ru, &c. There is an exception to this rule in Pattach, when it stands under a guttural at the end of a word (Pattach furtive, see ~ 22, 2, b), for it is then spoken before the consonant. We must also except Cholem (without Vav), which is put to the left over the letter, h ro. When Cholem (without Vav) and the diacritic point over D ("i, It) come together, one dot serves for both, as.iq. so-ne for.', rnro not Snrb monshe. W (with two points), when no vowel stands under it, is sho, as '0W sho-mer; when no vowel goes before it, os, as W1?9 yir-pos. The figure i is sometimes sounded ov, the 1 being a consonant with Cholenm before it, as,Tji lo-v' (lending); and sometimes vo, the Cholem being read after the Vav, as "l] a-von (sin) for ]'q?. In very exact impressions a distinction is made thus: I' or, i vo, and i O.t 3. The vowels of the first class [for the A sound] are, with the exception of -.. in the middle and of I-w, R-7 at the end of a word, indicated only by vowel-signs (~ 7, 2); but in the two other classes [for the I and E sound and for the U and O sound] the * It has been conjectured that the signs for these vowels were originally difforent (as - a, * o) and became identical only through carelessness in writing; but such a difference cannot be proved, for these two marks are quite identical, the former ( ) being only the original, and the latter ( ) the modified form. t Of late there has come to our knowledge a system of vowel-signs, differing in many respects from the common one. It is found in certain Manuscripts, originating among Persian Jews, which are now at Odessa. The vowel-signs, all except t, stand over the consonants. In form also they are almost wholly different, and even, to some extent, in respect to the representation of sounds. For example: Pattach and Seghol, when accented, are represented by one and the same sign; and on the contrary, the unaccented short vowels are indicated by different signs, according as they stand in a syllable sharpened by Daghesh forte, or not. In the accents there is less variation; and they also stand, in part, under the line of consonants. See farther in Pinner's Prospectus der der Odessaer Gesellschaft feir Geschichte u. Alterthiimer gehorenden iltestcn hebr. u. rabbin. MSS., Odessa 1845; and a general description of this Persian-Jewish vowel-system by Rodigcr, in the Halle Algem. Lit. Zeit. 1848, Aug. No. 169. 26 26 ~~~~PART I. ELEMENTS. longc vowels are m-ostly expressed lby vowel-letters, the uncertain sound of which is determined by the signs standing before, or within them. Thus. nimay be determined by Ghireq (S)Teee glol () I by &lurieq (~') and Citolemn() In Arabic the long a is regularly indicated by the vowel-letter Alepih (s)written in the text, so that there, three vowel-letters answer to thie thiree vowel-classes. In Hebrew the relation iis, somewhat (lifferent (~ 9, 1. andl ~ 23. 2). 4. XX' hen. in the second and third classes the long vowel is exlpressed without a vowel-letter, it is called scri-ptjio defecliva, when with a vowel-letter,2 8criljtio pl1ena. Thus olI- andl V' are wvritten fully, and =j defectively. rrhe Choice of the full. or the defective miode of wvriting is not always arbitrary, as there are certain cases in which. only the one or the other is admissible. Thus the full formn is necessary at the end of a word,.g but the defective is most usual when the vowel is preceded by the analogous vowel-letter as consonant. C. g. for But in other cases much depended on the option of the transcribers. so thait the same word is written in various ways, e. g. Ezek. xvi. 60, Jer. xxiii. 4, where other editions have It may be observed, however. a) That the defective writing is used chiefly-, though not constantly. when the word has increased at the end, and the vowel of the penultimia has lost somewhat of its stress in consequence of the accent or tone of the word being moved fo~rward [see ~ 29, 2], as.; b) That in the later books of the Old Testament the, full formi. in the earlier the defective, is more usualt1 *The vowel-sign. which serves to dletermijno the soundi of the vowel-le-tter, is said to be homzoqecues with that letter. MNany, after thie ex~ample of the Jewish grammarians, use here theck expression, " the vNowel-letter rests (quitscs) in the vowel-sign." Hence the letters 4and l (,with bt andl '.'I see ~ 23) are called litera; qutiescibiles;-when they serve as vowels, quiescec't~ wh a,T they are conisona nts, mob ic's. But the expression is not suitable: wNe should rather say, "The vowelletter is soundd as this or that vowel, or stands in place of the vowel." The vowel-letters are also called by grammarians, metre's lectionis [because they are used as guides in reading' the -Unpointed text.]. f The samie historical. relation may be shown in the Plicenician -and (in the case of N as at -vowel-letter) in Arabic-ia. the latter especially by means of thle older Koran MASS. and the writingr on coins. ~ 9. CHARACTER OF THE SEVERAL VOWELS. 27 5. In the kindred dialects, when a vowel-letter has before it a vowel-sign that is not kindred or homogeneous, a diphthong is formed, c. g. - au, l- eu, '-, T- ai. But in Hebrew, according to the pronunciation handed down by the Jews, ' and k retain in such cases their consonant power,-as av, ev, ay,* e. g. I vav, E1 gev, n_ choy, i. g6y. In sound T- is the same with -w, namely, av, as ~~ debharav. The LXX. give generally in these cases an actual diphthong, as in the Arabic, and this must be considered as an earlier stage of pronunciation; the modern Jewish pronunciation is, on the other hand, similar to the modern Greek, in which av, es sound like av, ev. In the manuscripts Yodh and Vav are, in this case, even marked with Mappiq (~ 14, 1)..9. CHARACTER AND VALUE OF THE SEVERAL VOWELS. Numerous as these signs appear, they yet do not suffice to express, completely, all the various modifications of the vowelsounds, particularly in reference to their quantity, as long or short, acute or grave; and, moreover, the designations of the speaking sounds, by these signs, cannot always be said to be perfectly adequate. We give here, therefore, for the clearer understanding of this subject, a brief commentary on the character and value of the several vowels, with special reference to their quantity, but having respect at the same time to their mutability (~ 25 and ~ 27). I. First Class. A sound. 1. Qamets is always long a; but yet it is in its nature of two kinds: 1) The essentially long and unchangeable d, for which the Arabic has R-, as:ar kethabh (writing), Ace gannabh (thief), 0] qam (surrexit), written at times =P. 2) The prosodially long 2,t both in the tone-syllable and close before or after it. This sound always comes from short a,+ and is found in an open syllable (i. e. one ending with a vowel, see ~26, 2), e. g. ',p * When y represents the consonant power of ', it should have its full sound, as in you.-TR. t See ~ 25, and ~ 26, 3. t In Arabic, the short a is every where retained. 28 28 ~~~~PART T. ELEMENTS. 1:,0~-1~ =i~.-. 9and also in a closed (i. e. one ending with a consonant), as =',:~ In the closed syllable, hiowever, it can- stand only when this has the- tone. 1=) eas/ but in the open, it is especially frequent befjore the tone-syllable, as ~~ ~~ ~~ When the tone is mioved forwvard or lessened. this vowel becomies, in the formier case, short at (P~attach), and in tlit latter. vocal AShtva (~ 27, 3), (debhdr,7); =:M =' As the closing soundl of a w\ord, Clam'ets can stand by itself (~~z, ~)but hiere, it is often rep~resenltedl by M. amnong the 2. Pattachc, or the shior ter a, Standls properly only in a ciosedi sy llble w ith and wvithout the tone (b,~ Most of the cases wvhere it now stand1s in an open syllable (, were originally closed ( il, 31 see ~ 28, 4); and in such cases it has generally become long at. On the union of' Pattach with.4 (i,-A) see ~ 23, 2: on a as a helping sound (Patlach furtive). see ~ 22, 2, b. 3. Sqrh ol (ii, 6) belongs chiefly to the second class of vowels, but now and then, according to its origin, to the first or the third class. It belongs to the first, when it is a modification of a (like the Gernian Gast. Gliste, e. g. 'r16 from r7X Aklthlough an obtuse so-und, it can stand in the, tone-syllable, as in the, first syllable of tsidt~q, and even in the gravest tone-syllable at the end of a clause or sentence (in p.ause). II. Second Class. I and E soundf~. 4. The long Z4 is most comminonly expressed by the letter 14 (a fully written Chir-eq -li btevnwen this isno ite, case. it m~akes no essential difference, providedl the -vowel is lonig by nature (~ S, 4), e-. g. pl.; pl. Whether a defect~ively written GChireq is long, may be best known~ from the grammatical origin and character of the formi but ofteni also from the character of the syllable (~S 26) or from the lposition of Metheg,'h (6 16, 2) at its side, as in 5* Th~ s/tort /Cir-eq (always written without 'I) is sl)ecially~ frequent in sharpened syllables (~'j "' and in closed unaccented syllables Not seldom it comnes fromn a by shorten *For this sharp i the LXX. mostly u~se e,:, 'im-00Jrov/ ~ 9. CHARACTER OF THE SEVERAL VOWELS. 29 ing, as in Flr. (my daughter) from Id, 'nM from 't, 5bpo out of bb?\. Sometimes also it is a mere helping vowel, as in Arc for A?( (~ 28, 4). The Jewish and older grammarians call every fully written Chireq Chireq magnum, and every defectively written one, Chireq parvum. In respect to the sound. this is a wrong distinction. 6. The longest d, Tsere with Yodh (-.), comes from the diphthong ai - (~ 7, 1), which also stands for it in Arabic and Syriac, as b?; (palace) in Ar. and Syr. haikal. It is therefore a very long and unchangeable vowel, longer even than, since it approaches the quantity of a diphthong. This %- is but seldom written defectively (WI for V25 Is. iii. 8), and then it retains the same value. At the end of a word -:- and t-. must be written fully: very rare is the form n b-. (~ 44. Rem. 4). 7. The Tsere without Yodh is the long e of the second rank, which stands only in and close by the tone-syllable, like the Qamets above in No. 1, 2. Like that, it stands in either an open or a closed syllable, the former in the tone-syllable or before it ('~I, 1l'i), the latter only in the tone-syllable ('I, b.). 8. The Seghol, so far as it belongs to the second class, is most generally a short obtuse e sound, a shortening of the (-.) ']i from ] (son). It arises also out of the shortest e (vocal Sheva, ~ 10, 1), when this is heightened in pronunciation by the tone, as "'l- for ons, 'b for rl; and besides it appears as an involuntary helping sound, 'It for 'I?,,? for b.? (~28, 4). The Scghol with Yodh (~-) is a long but yet obtuse i (e of the French) formed out of ai,;nm gelena, and hence it belongs rather to the first class. See more on the rise of Seghol out of other vowels in ~ 27, Rem. 1,2,4. III. Third Class. U and 0 sound. 9. In the third class is found nearly the same relation as in the second. In the u sound we have: 1) the long U, whether a) fully written I Shuzreq (answering to the -. of the second class), e. g. 5b. (dwelling), or b) defectively written without Vav - (analogous to the long - of the second class), Qibbuts, namely, that which stands for Shureq, and which might more properly be called defective Shureq (biT, 7nar), being in fact a 30 30 ~~~~PART I. ELEMENTS. long vowel like Shureq, and only an orthographic shortening foi the samne 2) rple sho2tt rt, the proper Qibbuts (analogou.-s to the short 0/ti-e q), in an unaccented closed syllable, and especially in a sharpened oJLC, as 1~P(table), Mn (bedchamber). For the hattej-r the LXX. put o. C. Wo'Ch~o'i, but it by nio means foi lows that this is the true pronunciation; indleed, they also *express Chireq by E. Equally incorrect was the former cmstomn of giving to both kinds of' Qibbuts the soundl i.. Sonmetirnes also the short ut in a sharpened syllable is expressed l)y 1, 10. Thec 0 so-und stands in the same relation to U, as E to lin tile secontl class. It has four gradations:1) the lon~gest 6,3 viz, from the diphthiongr ait (~ 7, 1); it is mnostly written in. full, (Olholem, plenum), as '6W. (whIi ip),. -Arab. saut, 0 (eIlfrn ~?Z;sometimes it is written defectively, as T-n (thy bullock), from '1Z=; 2) Thej1 long 6', which has sprung from an. original a (corruptly sountled) it is usually written fully in a tonle-syllable an d defectively in a toneless one, as Arab. and Chald. q~tel, X- Arab. and Clhald. elhth, plur. W-w~ R A~rab. and Chald. 3) rhllt tone-longr o, whichi is a lengthieningr of short o or ut by thre tonle andl which lbecomnes short aofain onl its removal, as (all) 1 el). kil 1;) T 6, 1, 6. (in. this last instance it is shorteniedi to vocal Shi'va, yiqtilu). In this case the Chiolem-i is fully writ ten only by way of exception; 4) Thbe Qamels-chatuplt (-iT), alwNays short and in the same relation to (Jholemt as thte &Serlol of the s~econld class to the Tsere, z:,51~ vay-yo-q6in. On the distinction between this and Qaes.se belowv in this section. 11. TFhe ASeh~ol belongs here also, so -far as it arises out of it or o (No. 3), e. g. in an"- (~ 27, Remn. 4, b.) On thed ha~f -vowrels see the next section. 1.2. Inl the following~ table we give a scale of the vowel-sounds in eaeh of the three classes, with respect to their quantity, from the greatest length to the utmnost shortness. Tphe table -does riot indeed suffice to exhibit all vowel transitions which occur in. the lancruare, but yet it. furnishes a view of those in more frequemit Use. ~ 9. CHARACTER OF THE SEVERAL VOWELS. 31 First Class. A. I Second Class. I and E. Third Class. 0 and U. -longest 4 (Arabic "i-ediphithongcal (from i 6' diphthongal (from K- ~~~ai). au). C'~ (from ai). ior -06 corrupted from 4. o 7long i. or ~long 4. tone-lengthened al - tone-lengthened d tone-lengthened o (f-rom short a or -) in~ (from -i or-obtuse e) (from - 6 or-7) in the and by the tone-sylla- in and immediately be- tone-syllable. ble. fore the tone-syllable. — short iz, especially in a sharpened syllable. - short d. -short i. -short 6. - obtuse a. obtuse e. -obtuse e. Greatest shortening Greatest shortening Greatest shortening to to - or ein an open. to -'or -~in an open I'-i or in an open syland to -i in a closed syllable, besides the - i lable, besides the short syllable. or - in the closed. - r-6 in the closed. ON THE DISTINCTION OF QLAMETS AND 0,AMETS-CIIATUPII.* Of the inadequate representation of the vowel-sounds, there is a strikcing example in the use of the same sign (,) both for long a (0tarets) and for short 6 (0,amets-chatuph). In distinguishing betwveen them, the learner, who has not yet a knowledge of the grammatical derivation of the words to be read (the only sure guide), wvill be directed by the two following rules 1. The sg ~ is 60 ini a closed syllable which has nzot the tone [or accent];for such a syllable cannot have a long vowel (~26, 3). Examples of various kinds area) When a simple Sheva. follows, dividing syllables, as in 11!_r chzdkhrn?4 (wisdom), Mn= zdlch.- ra; with a Methegh. on the contrary, the() is a. and closes the syllable, but then the following Sheva is a half-vowel (vocal Shjeva),asM 1= za,-kh~ra, according to ~ 16, 2. b) When Daglhesh forte follows, as WM bdttirn (houses), chdnnte-ni (pity me); also ='n b~ttekhtinrn (notwithstanding the Mletitegh, which stands by the vowel in the second syllable before the tone). c) When Mlaqqeph follows (~ 16, 1), as tlIIM~ kd6l-haadh(1m (all men). d1) When the unaccented closed syllable is final, as lo" vayyaqwn (and he stood up).-There are some cases where 4d in the final syllable loses its tone by Mafqqeph (1 16, 1) and yet remains unchanged, e. go. r''-"n- Esth. iv. 5; ',-,1 Gen. iv. 25. Metlieglh usually stands in these cases, but not always. *This portion rmust, in order to be fully understood, be studied in connection with what is said on the svllables in ~ 26, and on Methegh in 4~ 16, 2. 32 PART I. ELEMENTS. In cases likc tS'. n.,b Im,,a. where the (T) has the tone. it is a. according to ~ 26, 5. 2. Tlce sign (T) as short ( in an open syllable is far less frequent, and belongs to the exccptions in ~ 26, 3. It occurs a) when Chatct)h-Qamets folloows, as 1^)S p6-~0l (his deed); b) whlen anothler (clamcts-C1ihalitpi follows, as;.-., l i-kl-aclat (thy dced) c) in two anomalous words. where it standls mIerely for (), which arc found so even in manluscripts, viz. 0'1ii (qj-dhashim, sanctuaries. and 11. s. h-rh(-sihim., roots. (~ 93, 6, 3.) In these cases (-r) is followed by letlhe7h, although it is o, since elethleh always stands in the second syllable before the tone. The exceptions that occur can be leterminned only by the grammatical derivation. as "!:x in the ship (read: ba-~ni) 1 Ki(ngs ix. 27. with the article included; on the contrary. ^'.. b,-ch~ri aph Ex. xi. 8 without the article. ~10. OF TlE HALF-VOWELS AND TIE SYLLABLE-DIVIDER (SHFVA). 1. Besides tlhe full vowels, of whichl ~ 9 chiefly treats, the Hcbrew llas also a series of very slight vowel-sounds, which may be called haly-vot'cls.'.+ W may regard tlemr in general as extreme shortenilngs; ierlhaps mere traces, of more full and distinct vowels in an earlier period of the language. To theise belongs; first, the sign -, tlle slightest and most indistinct hlalf-vowel. somethling like an obscurle half c. It is called S't zra. and also simlp)le iS'/Lva to distinguish it from tlle comnpo.sit (see below, No. 2), and vocal,S7/,',a( (,I.taSJ t^va mobile) to distiiguishl it from the silenlt (ASt'rva quiescess), whicli is merely a divider of syllables (see below, No. 3). Tllis last can occur only under a consonant closing tie syllable, and is thus distinguished froml tli vocal SlIleva whose place is under a consonant beginnitng the syllable, whether a) at the beinningi of tile word. as.-%l qetol, '^.. mfmaq'nlle, or b) in tlle middle of the word, as T* That ht otfhe, o re to be considered and divided as an open syllable iI551 appears from 9 26, 7 1 This ea; se is cnneeted with the foregoing, the second Qamcts-CGhatuph hbaving originated in Chatcph-Qamcts. 1 In the tal.)e ~ 9, 12, the half-vowels have already been exhibited for the sake of a complete view. They are expressed by small letters. ~ The name 6^._-" (written also Sa) is of doubtful origin and signification. ~ 10. HIALF-VOWELS AND SYLLABLE-DIVIDER. 3 33 q6"-t~ld, *6 i~tl~,~ qit-telit. So also in cases like 1-b7 ha-l"'lt (which stands for I* #h al-lelti), la-mn~natst'seach (for '~;farther, ~t7 ha-ymesk~l Judges ix. 2 (where the interrogative 'il makes a syllable by itself), '1 male'1chd In the last examples the Sheva sound is specially slight, in consequence of a very short syllable preceding. The sound j may be regarded as representing vocal Shkeva, although it is certain that it often accorded in sound with other vowels. The LXX express it by -, even i1, r-',n XEvovf)iu, n- 6', ("ij).o'i, oftener by a, Z 2apovU~, but very often they give it a soundl to accord with the follwing vowel. as m i%2ooi-,17jae. ii lar accounit of the pronunciation of Sheva is given also by the Jewish grammarians of the middle ages~t How the Sheva sound arises from the slight or hasty utterance of a stronger vowel, we may see in M''n (for.;which also 1-=' occurs, see No. 2) from barakha. as this word also sounds in Arabic. This language has regularly for vocal She-va an ordinary short vowel. The vocal Sheva is ton weak to stand in a closed syllable; but yet it can with the consonant before it formn a hasty open syllable, as appears from the use of Mlethegh (see ~ 16, 2), and also from the fact, that it can become an accented -, as '91b from '9r. Comp. ~ 26, 4. 2. With the simple vocal,Sheva is connected the so-called composite SA'iva or Uhiateph (rapid), i. e. a,S1heva attended by a short vowel to indicate that we should sound it as a half d, 6', or 6. W~e have, answering to the three principal vowel-sounds (~ 7', 1), the followingr thiree: ()C~hateph-Pattach, as in chamzor (ass). ( C. hateph-&eglol, a s i n 'I b 5mo (to say). ()C~hateph- Qa?nets, as in 'lr choli (sickness). Trhe Chat ephs, at least the, two former-, stand chiefly under the ffour gutturals (~ 22, 3), the utterance of which naturally causes the annexed half-vowel to be more distinctly sounded. R~em~. Only ( -: ) and (r: ) occur under letters which are not gutturals. The C'hatep~h-Patlach stands for simplle vocal Sheva, but without any fixed law, especially a) under a doubled letter, since the doubling causes a more full utterance of the Sheva, as "~ Zech. iv. 12; also where the, sign of doubling has faillen away, for "'n Gen. ix. 14. NM~-n *This law obtains in the Phmenician laniguage, e. g. sie 3falaca, M11' gubulim (see Mon. Plhcnicia, p. 436; Movers, Art. Plh~nizien, in -E rsch and (Giruber's Encyclop. S. 436); eornp. the Latin augment, in mnomordi, pupugi, with the Greek in TSIVqca, Tsrv"qisvo; and the old form menmordi. -f See especially Juda Chlayzig, p. 4, f. and p. 200 of the ed. by Dukes, and also in JIm Ezra's Tsaehiotl), p. 3; (Jesenius, Lehirgebiiude der heb. Sprache, S. 68. 3 34 34 ~~~~PART I. ELEMENTS. Judgres xvi. 16; b) after a long vowel, e. g. tr (gold of), but ='II Gen. ii. 12; =1 (hear), but Deut. v. 24. comp. Gen. xxvii. 26, 38. The Cha~teph-Qamets is less restricted to the gutturals than the first two, and stands for simple vocal Sheva when an 0 sound wvas originally in the syllable, and requires to be partly preserved, e. g. Nst for "W visionz (~93, VI), r or the usual 'TWV' Ez. xxxv. 6 from "I V 5 his crown from 'I It is used also, like ( -:),when Dagheshiforte has fallen away,.r for ~ Gen. ii. 23. In I Kinas xiii. 7 and '9nl Jer. xxii. 20. the choice of thisi composite Sh'eva is occasioned by the followingr guttural and the preceding Usound. 3. The sign of the sinmple ~Sh'va ()serves also as a mnere syllable-divider, without expressing any sound, and therefore called in this case silent AN~t'va (ASh ia quiescens), the Arabic Sukun, i. e. rest. It stands in the rmidst of a word under every consonant that closes a-.syllable at the end of words, on the other hand, it is omittedWexcept in final 1, e. g. (igand in the less frequent case where a word ends with two consonants. as in 'Il (nard), M tofen) (thou. hast killed) n.-. -1 (proper namie), &c. Yet in the last examples Sh'va under the last letter might rather pass for vocal, since it is pretty clear that a final vowel has been shortened, e. g. %IX atle from "n atti, from yishb", from n'6.* &c. The Arabic actually has a short vowel inl the analogouls forms. In '-n~ borrowed from the Indian, this is less clear. (truth) Prov. xxii. 21. seems to have been sounded qoslit. SIGNS WHICH- AFFECT THE READING OF CONSONANTS. In intimate connection with the vowel-Jpoint's stand the read-ing-si~grns, which were probably- adopted at. the saine time. Besides the (hiacritic point of t, and 1i, a l.)oint is used in a letter in order to show that it has a stronger souiid or is even doubled; and on the contrary a small horizontal stroke over a letter, as a sign that it has not the, strong sound. rphe use of the ipoint in the letter is threefold: a) as Da-,glesit forte or sign of doubling; b) as Dag,-hesh lene or sign of hardening.-; c) as Ma1pp~iq, a sign that the vowvel-letter (~. 7, 2), especially thec M at the end of a word, has the sound of a consonant. r'lie stroke over a letter, Raplie, is scarcely ever used in the printed text. *So thoughit Juda Chayftg amnong the Jewish grammarians. ~~ 12, 13. DAGBHESH FORTE AND DAGHESH LENR 3 35 ~12. OF DAGHESH IN GEN~ERAL, AND DAGHESH FORTE IN PARTICULAR. J.Daghesh, a point written in the bosom' of a consonant, is employed for two purposes: a) to indicate the doubling of the letter (Daghesh forte), e. g. qift-tel; 6) the hard sotnd of the aspirates (Daghesh lene). The root t:11 from. which t5X- is derived, in Syriac signifiesito thrust through., to bore through (with a sharp iron). Hence the word Daghesh is commonly supposed to mean, with reference to its figure merely, a prick, a point. But the names of all similar signs are expressive of their grammatical power-; and in this case, the name of the sign refers both to its figure and its use. In grammatical language trii means, 1) acuere literam, to sharpen the letter by doubling it; 2) to harden the letter to utter it without aspiration. Accordingly t~l- means sharp and hard, i. e. sign of sharpening or hardening (like Mapp~iq, "pqV proferens, i. e. -signumn prulationis), and it was expressed in writing by a mnere prick of the stylius (punctum). In a manner somewhat analogrous, letters and words are represented, in the criticism of a text, as expunged (ea-puncta) by a point or pointed instrument (obeliscus) affixed to them. The opposite of Daghiesh lene is b1V1soft (~14, 2). Thatt ~Iin gramm atical language, is applied to a hard prvonunckation of various kinds, appears from ~ 22, 4, Rem. 1. 2. Its use as Daghesh forte, i. e. for doubling a letter, is of chief importance; (compare the ~Sicilicus of the ancient Latins, e. g. Luculus for Lucullus, and in German the stroke over m and n.) lIt is wanting in the unpointed -text, like the vowel -and other signs. For further particulars respecting its uses and varieties,.see ~ -20. ~ 13. DAGHESH LENE. 1. Daghesh lene, -the sign of hardening, belongs only to the aspirates (literce aspiratce) 11=71 (~ 6, 3). It shows -that they are not aspirated, but have their original slender or pure sounds * Dagisesh in Iis easily distinguished from Shureq, which never admits a vowel or SA'va under or befolre the 'L. The V~av with Daghesh ( n,) ought to have the point not so high up as the Vav with Shureq, ( i). But this difference is often neglected in typography. 36 36 ~~~PART L. ELEMENTS. (Jitcra(V tenueS), e. g i. md -lelk, but n mal-ko; 'I~ ta-phlar, but yith poa, 'M"M s/ia thi2 butit yish-td'. 2. IDaghes.h lenie as is s-hown in 21, stands only at the beginning of wxoids, and s l1lables. It is thus easily distinguished from Dagheslhfo?-te since ni these cases the doubling of a letter is in-possilite rims the IDaglhesh is for-te in t'V rabbirn, but lone in 07' yirrh-dald 3. Daghesh for-te in a.n aspirate. not only doubles it, but also excludes aspiration, thus serving at once for both forte and lene, as ap-pi; m rai-koth. (Compare in German steelien and stecicen, wrache-n and weeken.) This is accounted for by the difficulty of doublin(_ an aspirated letter in pronunciation. In confirmation of this rule we may refer to certain Oriental words. which, in the earliest times, passed over into the Greek langruage, as NM. Y."'aa (not uU'7f ), E urmi Qo;. The (loubling of a letter does riot occur in Syriac, at least in the western dialects. Where it wouldl be required, however, according to, etymnologyv andl analogy. the aspiration at least is excluded:, thus in Syriac is read ap~eq, for appeq.;t1I4. MAPPIQ AND RAPIIE. 1. Mappj~jiq, like, Daghiesh, to. which it is analogous, is a point in a letter. It belongs only to the vowxel-'letters, and the breathings 4, M. and shows that thev are to lbe sounded with. their full consona iii powver, iniste~ad of ser%-i10 as vowNels. It is at present used only in final MM; e. g. 'M~ ga-b/ia/i (the ih havino itsT ~ ~ ~ a full sound), 'IIR ar-tsah (/ic imlad>, in distinction from MM~ 2r-tsit (to the eartht). Without doubt Such a M was uttered with strongrer aspiration, like. the Arab. lie at the end of the syllable, or like h in the German Schueh, which in common life is pronounced Schuch.. The use of it in and. u-nder N.~. is confined to manuscripts,. e. gr. (goy),,(qv) The name ',!W signifies producens, and indicates that the sound of' the letter should be clearly expressedl. The same Sig(n was selected for this andI for Dag(,hesh, because the design was analogous. viz. to indicate the strongr sound of the letter. Ilence also Rap/ie is the opposite of both. 2. Raphe (,al) i. e. soft, written over- the letter, is the opposite of both Daghesh and Mappiq, especially of Daghesh lene. ~ 15. THE ACCENTS. 37 In exact manuscripts an aspirate has generally either Daghesh lene or Raphe, e. g. T'U miilekh, 'ln; but in printed editions of the Bible it is used only when the absence of Daghesh or Mappiq is to be expressly noted, e. g. tm.5'_ for.t ^1,, Judges xvi. 16, and v. 28 (where Daghesh lene is absent), Mappiq in Job xxxi. 22. 515. OF THE ACCENTS. 1. The design of the accents in general is, to show the rhythmical members of the verses in the Old Testament text. But as such the use is twofold, viz. a) to mark the tone-syllable in each word; b) to show the logical relation of each word to the whole sentence. In the former respect they serve as signs of the tone, in the latter as signs of interpunction. The Jews, moreover, regard them as signs of declamation, by which they regulate the accentuation in reciting, or rather cantillating the O. T. in the Synagogue. This use of them also is connected with their general rhythmical design. 2. As a sign of the tone in single words, the accent, whatever may be its rhythmical value in other respects, stands regularly on the syllable which has the chief tone; (comp. Rem. 2.) In most words the tone is on the last syllable, more seldom on the penultima. In the first case the word is called mil-rd (S_.lt Chald., from below), e. g. 5:_ qatal; in the second, mtl-el (bain Chald.,from above), e. g.: 'Q mdlekh. On the third syllable from the end (antepenultima) the chief tone never stands; but yet we often find there a secondary one, or by-tone, chiefly indicated by the Methegh (~ 16, 2). 3. The use of the accents as signs of interpunction is somewhat complicated, as they serve not merely to separate the members of a sentence, like our period, colon, and comma, but also as marks of connection. Hence they form two classes, Distinctives (Domini) and Conjunctives (Servi). Some are, moreover, peculiar to the three properly poetical books (Job, Psalms, and Proverbs), which have a stricter rhythm. The following is a list of them according to their value as signs of interpunction. 38 38 ~~~PART I. ELEMENTS. A.- Distinctives (Domnini). I. Greatest Distinctives (Imperatores,), which may be compared with. our period and colon. 1. (-n) lliiik (end), only at the end of the verse, and always united with (:#) 8op1th-pasdk, which termiinates each verse, e. g.: wn 2. (W Athn(2ch (resp)iration), generally in the middle of the verse. 3. (L) Mcyka with Mlahpak/h;* in Job, Ps., Prov., greater than No. 2, marking the chief division of the verse, of which At/mach then divides the second half. II. Great Distinctives (Reges~): 4. (1) gholta.tt 5.() Zazqeph-qaton.- 6. (1 Zdqeph-gadhtol. 7. (-c) Tiphchd. III. Smaller (Duces): 8. (.1) Reblia. 9. (L') Zarqa.tt IV. Smallest (Comites): 15. (2.) Pctzjr.,16. (-"-) Qar-ned phara. 17'. (2.) Great Telishta.t 18. (L') Giiresh. 19.(L Double Gd~resh. 20.. () Pesiq, between the words. B. Conjuncti'ves (Servi). 21. (-v AlHrcYk. 22. ( M)iinach. 23. (.)Double Mierka. 24.,(- Mathp41kh. 25.(~ Qddhmci. 26. (-) Darga. 27.() Yiirdch. 28. (2)Little Telis/h2.tt 29. (-T) Tiphchd.* 30.(.) Merkca with Zdr-qa.* 31. (- i MAhak/t. with Zdrqa.* REMARKS ON, THlE ACCKNTS. I. As Signs of the Tone. 1. As in Greek (comp. tslut and J~~,words which' are written with,lie, same consonants and vowel-signs are often distinguished by the accent, e. g. I= band' (they built), I= bdnu (in us); Mr," qdma (sihe.stood up), IsM-zilf,- qafind (standing up fr.). [Compare in English cornpe~tc and co'mpact.] 2. As a rule the accents stand on the tone-syllable, and properly on its initial consonant. Some, however, stand only on the first letter of a wordl (prepositive), others only on the last letter (postpositive). The former are designated in the table by t, the latter by tt. These do not, therefore, determine the tone-syllable, which must be known in some other way. Those marked with an asterisk are used only in the poetical books. 3. The place of the accent, when it is not on the final syllable, is indicated in this book by the sign ( )e. g. n q-tcitta ~ 16. MAQQEPH AND METHEGH. 39 II. As Signs of Inte7punction. 4. In respect to this use of the accents, every verse is regarded as a period, which closes with Silluq,* or in the figurative language of the grammarians, as a realm (ditio), which is governed by the great Distinctive at the end (Imperator). According as the verse is long or short, i. e. as the empire is large or small, varies the number of Domini of different grades, which form the larger and smaller divisions. 5. Conjunctives (Servi) unite only such words as are closely connected in sense, as a noun with an adjective, or with another noun in the genitive, &c. For marking the closest connection of two or more words, Maqqeph is also used (~ 16, 1). 6. In very short verses few conjunctives are used, and sometimes none; a small distinctive, in the vicinity of a greater, having a connective power (servit domino majori). In very long verses, on the contrary, conjunctives are used for the smaller distinctives (fiunt legati dominorum.). 7. The choice of the conjunctive or distinctive depends on subtile laws of consecution, with which the learner need not trouble himself at present. It is sufficient for him to know the greater distinctives, which answer to our period, colon, and comma, though they often stand where a half comma is scarcely admissible. They are most important in the poetical books for dividing a verse into its members. ~16. MAQQEPH AND METHEGH. These are both closely connected with the accents. 1. Maqqeph (.? binder) is a small horizontal stroke between two words, which thus become so united that, in respect to tone and interpunction, they are regarded as one, and have but one accent. Two, three, and four words may be united in this way, e. g. S-;3? every man; Mt-)-ns- every herb, Gen. i. 29; q - te-b-r2 all which to him (was), Gen. xxv. 5. Certain monosyllabic words like -bs to, -rt sign of the Acc., -b3 all, are almost always thus connected. But a longer word may also be joined to a monosyllable, c. g. nt-:nn t Gen. vi. 9; or two polysyllables, e. g. Geng.rr Gen. vii. 11. 2. Methegh (rlt a bridle), a small perpendicular line on the left of a vowel, forms a kind of secondary tone, or a check upon the chief tone indicated by the accents, and shows that the vowel, * This has the same form with Mlethegh (~ 16, 2); but they are readily distinguished, as Silluq always stands on the last tone-syllable of a verse, while Methegk never stands on the tone-syllable. 40 PART I. ELEMENTS. though not accented, should lnot be hlastily )assed over il pronunciation. It standsl therefore, rcgularly by thJe oi-el ofJ the antcepenltima iheen the last syllable hcts ite tone, w-lhether that vowel be long, as 3 i^. i, or short, as:'j qodashinm...r'3 bIttc,'Al em. ]Btt here it is to be observcd. tlat the lhalfvowel also (simple S"/i'va vocal and composite Sht(va) is to be regarded as forming a syllable (o 10, 1 and 2(6, 41) accordinlgly MctheCgr stands a) by the vowel whliclh precedes a vocal SC/t^cva (simple or composite), nT q-FI-lT,: ' yif-r, Y'; -7 1..;iI Sl p-~-l6, and b) even by vocal S1'va, e. g.:' Job v. 1. When it stands by Sh0va. nmany Jewish grammarians call it Ga'ya ws;,. while others use this name in general tor every Mlethegh. N. B. It is of special service to the beginner, as in(lic;ting (according to letter a above) the quan.tity o' Qamels 1and Chireql beibre a;. Sh^va. Tlus inl t^, za-khle-7r the dffijthehr shows. that the (T) st.;andl in the an7le7petltiema. and thlat the ShleL is here vocal and borins a syllable; but the (-) in an open syllable before ( ) must be log1, (~ 26. 3). consequently Qamets not Qa nots-chatfqp)h. On the contrary i,^T without Methegh is a dissyllable [z6kh-ra],. and ( ) stands in a closed syllable. and is consequently short (Qaiets-chaluph). Tllus also.is. (they f(ialr) with Mlethegh is a trisyllable with a long i. yl-I —t; but.'X1. (thcy s(c) without it. a dissyllable with short i. ytr-'.. See above. the rules for Qamets and Qaimets-chaltiph in ~ 9 at the end.. 17. Q(RI AND KTIIIBIT. The margin of tle Bible elxhibits a nulmber of various readings of an early date (~ 3; 2) called '.,t (to be read), because in the view of the JewislI critics tllhe are to be preferred to the reading of the text called ^rT ('written). T'lhose critics have therefore attached the vowel-signsl appropriate to tlle marginal reading: to the corlresponding word in tile text. E. g. in Jer. xlii. ( tlhe text exhlil)its -^.' tlee ]margint 'i. ^:^mS. lIfere the vowels int tie text elong t te the word in tle margin,l which is to be. pronounced. ':,e I but in reading thie text:o, thle proper vowels must be supplied, making.:.. iA small circle or asterisk over the word in tlhe text always directs to the marginal reading. Respecting tile critical value of the marginal readiigrs, see Gesenius Gescli. der hebr. Sprache. S. 50, 75. ~~18, 19. CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. 41 CHAPTER II. PECULIARITIES AND CHANGES OF LETTERS: OF SYLLABLES AND THE TONE. ~18. IN order fully to comprehend the changes which words undergo in their various inflections, it is necessary first to survey the general laws on which they depend. These general laws are founded partly on the peculiarities of certain letters and classes of letters, considered individually or as combined in syllables, and partly on certain usages of the language in reference to syllables and the tone. ~19. CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. The changes occasioned among consonants by the formation of words, inflection, euphony, or certain influences connected with the history of the language, are commutation, assimilation, rejection and addition, transposition. 1. Commutation takes place most naturally among letters which are pronounced similarly, and by the use of the same organs, e. g. fyi, bY, TY to exult; Atb,,, Aram. t'i to tire; 1-_ and ' — (as plural endings); pn_, nl'_ to press; 5D, 'It) to close; t'_, t~_ to escape. In process of time, and as the language approximated to the Aramaean, hard and rough sounds were exchanged for softer ones, e. g. ar for b_3 to reject; prt for p_2 to laugh; for the sibilants were substituted the corresponding flat sounds, as ' for T, t for X, h for I~. This interchange of consonants affects the original forms of words more than it does their. grammatical inflection; the consideration of it, therefore, belongs properly to the lexicon.* Examples occur, however, in the grammatical inflection of words; viz. the interchange a) of r and:6 in Hithpael (~ 54), b) of I and ' in verbs Pe Yodh (~ 69), as ";_ for Ci1. 2. Assimilation takes place most frequently, when the closing consonant of a syllable is exchanged for the one with which the * See the first article on each letter in Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon. 42 42 ~~~~PART I. ELEMENTS. following syllable begins, forming with it a double consonant, as illustris for inlustris; diflfusus for disfusus; 6uv)JaY,8'c~vcd for 6?hl)vcetl*6aJ/. In IHebrew this occurs inost frequently, a) with the Ifeeble, nasal '. before most other consonants, especiallv the harder ones, e. g. for C"' fromt the east; ~dfor MY~f front this; for 'n r.rj for ri'r- Before gutturals is commnonly retained, as MI lhe will possess; seldoin before other letters, as r.= thouz Ihast dwelt; b) less frequently and only in certain cases, with., 2,~.g for "`-MZ for fo~$(~3) In all these cases, the assimilation is expressed by a Daghesh forte in the following letter. In ajinal consonant, however, as it cannot be doubled (6. 20, 3, a), Daghesh is not written, e. g. ComDp. z-uyd;c- fori-v ytccv;1. In the last cases the assimilated letter has not Sheva, but the helping vowel Segrhol. (~ 28, 4), which, however, does not render the assimilation impracticable. In the way of assimilation, we occasionally find a second weaker sound swallowed up by the stronger one before it; e. g. from 6 ( 59). uva for NM fromn him (~ 103, 2). Here we myay also refer for "p' he sur7,rounds (~ 67. 05) 3. The rejection or fallin-g away of a consonant easily happens in the case of the breathings and vowel-letters N, '#, 1,2~ and also of the liquids. It takes place, a) at the beginning of a word (aphwzresis), when such a feeble consonant has no full vowel, and its sound is easily lost upon the ear, as 1.M and ".MI (we); =6sit for -=; 'M (give) for; for bl~ who, comnp. No. 2, b; 6) in the m-idst of a word (contraction), when such a feeble consonant is preceded by a She'va, e. g. J.` the prevailing form for for (6 23, 4. i6 305, R.. 2. 6 5-3, ) c) at the end of words (ap ocop e), e. g. I-Stn for I* ); sons, before the genitive "It Bolder changres were made in the infancy of the language. particularly in casting away consonants at the end of a word; thus from ",. wvas formed njX%~; from ret, from ~, r7 (see ~ 99). Here belongs also the weakeningr of the feminine ending n- ath to In a (see ~44, 1, and ~ 80). 4. In other cases a harshness in pronunciation is prevented by the addition of R (Aleph prostheticum) with its vowel at the ~20. DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. 43 beginning of a word, e. g. an'T and S-' T arm; (comp. Xt9Eq, X/9T~5, spiritus, Fr. esprit.) 5. Transposition, in grammar, seldom occurs. An example of it is '.'ntl for '.ttt', (~ 54, 2), because st is easier to sound than ths. Cases are more frequent in the province of the lexicon, as ito and I:. lamb;, i. and,n7';t garment; they are chiefly confined, however, to the sibilants and liquids. Consonants may also, especially the weaker, at the end of a syllable be softened to vowels, like JEs from Ysc, chevaux from cheval (compare, below, ~ 30, 2, e); e. g. 3'31 star from =33r, 313; at man from r.:X or =12 (where the Seghol is merely a helping vowel, see above, No. 2).*. 20. DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. 1. The doubling of a letter by Daghesh forte takes place, and is essential, i. e. necessary to the form of the word (Daghesh essential), a) when the same letter is to be written twice in succession, without an intermediate vowel; thus for 5te:~ we have.ain we have given; for 'Int, In.D I have set; b) in cases of assimilation (~ 19, 2), as ].3 for 1.:. In both these instances it is called Daghesh compensative; e) when the doubling of a letter originally single is characteristic of a grammatical form, e. g. '=b5 he has learned, but '.?b he has taught (Daghesh characteristic). The double consonant is actually and necessarily written twice, whenever a vowel-sound, even the shortest (a vocal Sheva), comes between. Hence this is done a) when a long vowel precedes, tbn1.1n which is read ho-l'lim (~ 26, Rem.), and even after a merely tone-long vowel, mDV, where compensation is more usual; b) when a Daghesh has already been omitted, as.tb1. ha-lelu for.~bn h7l-1lu; c) when by composition the two consonants have come to stand together, but properly belong to two words, as:.. (he blesses thee), s.. (they call me), where a and ^ are suffixes; d) when the form has come from another which has a full vowel, as rbbp construct ofsmbj. Sometimes the same word is found in both the full form and the contracted, e. g. nitr l Jer. v. 6, and Ont'. Prov. xi. 3, Qeri; san Ps. ix. 14, and:snr Ps. iv. 2. * In the Punic,n "'" malkh (king) is in this way contracted to mL6kh, see Mon. Phcenicia, p. 431. 44 44 ~~~~PART I. ELEMENTS. 2. A consonant is sometimcls doubled m-erely for thie sake of euphony. Thie use of Daglhesli in Su~ch cases (Daghesh euphontic) is onl'y occasiowal, as heing not- essential to the forms of wordis. It is einployed, a) whecii twoN- words, of iNvhiitli thie first ends iii a vowel. are m~ore closely united in pronuin t-,ation- by doubling tile initial consonant. of the second (JDaghcdtfor-te conjunctive), as O'7i whkat is this? for 'MT M rj t-as-/ (arise! dep~art! Gen. xix. 14; r:, ZX Deut. xxvii. 7.* In sme istanes wo\rds thu~s united are contracted into one, as M for,= -D for Mcl ) 'Mr what (is) to You?2 Is. iii. 15. Analogrous to tile above usage is tile Neapolitan le liagrime for le lagriiiie. andl (including the union of the two words in one) the Latin reddo for 7re-(1o,and the Italian alla, for a la. della for de la. b) whiei the final consonant of a closed syllable, preceded by a shiort, vowel, is doubled in order to sharpen the syllable still more, e.. g. 'V! for '1%, grapes, Dent. xxxii. 32. Compare Gen. xlix. '10, Ex. ii. 3, 'Is. lvii. 6, lviii. 3, Job xvii. 2 1 Saim. xxviii. 10. Ps. xl\v. 10. Examples of this, hiowever, are coinparatively rare, and withiout any reg-ard to uniformity. Compare the i'olloxving forms as fbund in very -ancient Greek inscriptions. viz. (x(VloUrro;, -rs).EUUTUw, ~Ao-o-x2.Irio; (Iikickh, Corpus Inscr. Gr. I. p. 42), and in Germian annderc. unnscrc (Ibor andere. unser-e) as written in the time of Luther. c) whien. it is inserted in the final tone-syllable of a sentence ( 2-9, 41), in order that it mnay furnish a more firml Sul )ort fortnle tonle e. g. -for th 1/ygive, Ez. xxvii. 19, 1.-7' for they wvaited, Job xxix. 21., Is. xxxiii. 12. 3. The Hebrews omiitted, hiowever, the doubling of a letter by IDaghesh4i forte, in mnany cases whtere the analogry of the formns required it; viz. a) al~vays at the end of a word because there, at least in the p)ronuncL~iatio wih ascm donto us, tile syllable dlid not admit of sharpenhing. Thus tlhe syllable all would be pronounced, not as in Germanl withi a sllarpened tone, butt * Here belongc such Cases aS IM~ rnq 'Ex. xN-. 1, 21 so that the assertion is not orret, tatlte first of thie two words must be a monosyllable, or accented on the p~enultim"L ~ 21. ASPIRATION AND ITS REMOVAL.4 45 like the English all, call, small. Instead, therefore, of doubling* the consonant, they often lengthened the preceding vowel (1 27, 2). E. g. W (people), with a distinctive accent (~15, 3), for =V from =.V The exceptions are very rare, as PN thou, f. M thou hast given, Ez. xvi. 33; b) often, at the end of a syllable, in the body of a word (where the doubling of a letter is less audible, as in Greek cLkr-o Homeric for ~)r).g o c) in the gutturals (6~ 22, 1). In the case b, it may be assumed as a rule, that the Daghesh remains in the letter with Sheva (which is then vocal, 1 10, 1), and is never left out of the aspirates, because it materially affects their sound, e. g. =. akha perd (not ~. akhaphret) Gen. xxxii. 21, ltrnn Is. ii. 4, ~2?~i, ~On the contrary, it is usually omitted in the preformatives '~and M in Pie, as n='i; l for rint-; so also in and in cases like *tn'for "Inph for ~i In some cases a vowel or half-vowel. was inserted to render the doubling of the letter more audible, e. g. M=1 with you for v; ilrofor Rem. In the later books, instead of the sharpening of the syllable by IDaghesh forte, the preceding vowel is sometimes lengthened (comnp. mile for mille), as "n9i he terrifies themt for ' (Hab. ii 17), threshing-sledges for M"'-' 1 Chron. xxi. 23. 121. ASPIRATION, AND THE REMOVAL OF IT BY DAGHESII LENE. The pure hard sound of. the six aspirates (rl, -D, z) 1,7 2, =) with Daghesh lene inserted, is to be regarded, agreeably to the analogy which languages generally exhibit in this respect, as their original 'pronunciation, fr-om wvhich gradually arose the softer and weaker aspirated sound (1. 6, 3 and ~ 13). The original hard pronunciation maintained itself in greatest purity,. when it was the initial sound, and after a consonant; but when it followed a vowel-sound, or stood between two vowels, it, was softened by partaking of the aspiration with which. a vowel is uttered. Hence the asJpirates take Daghesh lene: * So in Latin, fel (for fell) gen. fetuis; mel, mnellis; O.,% ossis. In mid. highGerman a consonant is doubled only at the beginning of a syllable, as was the case in the old high-German. E. g. vet (Fall) valics; svnam (Schwainm), &e. Grimim,.1. Grammn. 2. Ausg. 1. 383. 46 46 ~~~~PART I. ELEMENTS. 1. At the beginning of words, when the preceding word ends %vith a vowelless consonant, as dl-kJnt (therefore), "'DV ets peri' (fruit-tree); or at the beginning of a chapter or verse, or even. of a minor division of a verse (consequently after a distinctive accent, ~ 15, 3),. e. g. r~wi ini the beginningr, Gen. 1. 1 and it happened, when, Judg. xi. 5-; on the contrary 7~'M1 and it 'was so, Gen. i. 7. Also a diphthong (~ 8. 5) so called, is here treated as ending in a consonant, e. g. nn j Judges v. 15.* 2. In the middle and at the end of words after silent 8/tva, i. e. at the beginning of a syllable, and in fimmediate connection with a preceding vowelless consonant, e. g. ye hve klled 1= he is heavy, r-1 bibat. On the contrary, after vocal AS~h'a they take the soft pronunciation, e. g. ~I= dwvellinzg, she is heavy. Exceptions to No. 2 are: a) Forms which are made, by the addition or omission of letters. irmme(liately from other forms in which the aspirates had their soft sound. E. g.t IM1 (not 1M'Il from J~ n; %)~ (not formed immediately from (on the contrary '1~ midi-ki, because it is formed directly from.~rdl) (not _"Inz) from '-nn. In these cases. that pronunciation of the word, to which the ear had become accustomed, was retained; hence, 7ridhe-jphzi. 7ndle-lche, bikh1-the2bhb.t b) The = in the siuffixes =-;-, has always its feeble sound, because vocal Shlt'-a is before it. Sec ~ 57, 3, b. c) Finally, certain classes of forms are to be noticed, e. g. ll~ (nale~khttlh). nin't). IBein. 1. In we might, expect the feeble pronunciation of n on account of the preceding vowel. But the original form was lrt5 and the r~elation of' r. notwithstanding the slight vowel-sound thrown in before it. remained unchangred. Comp. ~ 28, 4. 2. Trle tone sornetimres affects the division of' a word into syllables. and corwequcntly the sound of the aspirates; thus r-~bt Num. Xxxii. 14, but.%kt): Ps. Axl. 1; (q6rb~n). but (in pause) E z. x1. 43. That the hard or soft pronunciation of these letters did not affect the sig-n.,fication ofrwords, affords no reason to doubt that such a distinction was made. Compare in Greek T 7Q1?0*; *Hence -the use of Daghesle lene after MII because instead of it %1. was read. t A particularly instructive ease occurs in ~ 4-5, 3. ~ 22. PECULIARITIES OF THE GUTTURAIS 47 ~22. PECULIARITIES OF THE GUTTURALS. The four gutturals, a, n, h, >, have certain properties in common, which result from their peculiar pronunciation; yet N and y, having a softer sound than o and M, differ from them in several respects. 1. The gutturals cannot be doubled in pronunciation, and therefore exclude Daghesh forte. To our organs also there is difficulty in doubling an aspiration. But the syllable preceding the letter which omits Daghesh naturally loses its sharpness by the omission;* hence its vowel is commonly lengthened, especially before the feebler letters N and 2, e. g. ]jV the eye for 1?%V; ' t. for Cub, &c. The harder gutturals r and n allowed a sharpening of the syllable, though orthography excluded Daghesh forte (as in German the ch in sicher, machen, has the sharp pronunciation without being written double), and hence these letters almost universally retain before them the short vowel, e. g. bthn the month, 'W3N that. As these last forms are treated as though the guttural were doubled, the grammarians not inappropriately speak of them as having a Daghesh forte implicitur, occultum, or delitescens; e. g. trns for osbl. brothers;.rnr snares; nrM. thorns. See more in ~ 27, Rem. 2. 2.. They are accustomed to take a short A sound before them, because this vowel stands organically in close affinity to the gutturals. Hence, a) before a guttural, Pattach is used instead of any other short vowel, as i, g (Chireq parvum, Seghol), and even for the rhythmically long e and o (Tsere and Cholem); as, n'T sacrifice for nIT, Ws. report for V=5. This preference was yet more decisive when the form with Pattach was the original one, or was used in common with another. Thus in the Imp. and Impf. Kal of verbs; rl.t' send, RSt (not r'1.?); Perf. Piel,.tt (not bnt.); -yI_ a youth, where Pattach in the first syllable is the original vowel; 'bnr for 'tnr?; * Comp. terra and the French terre; the Germ. Rolle and the French role, dro7lig, Fr. drole. The Hebrew here betrays its decline; while the Arabic, where the pronunciation retains more of its original freshness, allows the doubling of the gutturals; 48 PART I. ELEMENTS. b) but a strong and unchangeable vowel, as ', I,.- (~25. 1), and ill any cases 7Ts're. wvas retained. Between it and the guttural, however, there was involuntarily uttered a hasty d (Pattach furtic), whlliclh was written under tlh guttural. This is found only in final syllables, and never under R. E. g. r_ rIch i - ch, F 'l tsha-lO h, _. '. cl,.'r., gn - bho" h, hk'~. lts/h-lc/h, &c.* For the same reason the Swiss pronounces ich as iach. and the Arabian nr minesieh. though neither crrites the supplicd vowel. The PattachJitrtive fills away when thle word receives an accession at the end, e.. nr. ^ 'l,'. whlere the n is made the beginning of the new syllable. The LXX write E instead of'Pattach lurtive. ats ni tSe. Ilem. 1. The guttural sometimnes exerts Lan influence ol tlhefollOUing vowel. But tie cxamples of tlis usage are fewx. anid are rather t.o be regarded as exceptions than as estatlblisling a general rule. e. g. -'5 for '*~}; -_E f)r:.. The A sound is preferred wllerever it would be admissible without the influence of the guttural. as in thle Imp. and Impf of verbs,.... P;, '. f. ifhowever, another vowel serves at all to characterize the form. it is retained. as -rM" 1, nbm; not MI^-. 2. Seghol is used instead of Pattach both bZfore anld undZe2r the guttural, )but only in an initial syllable, aIs:n.,:n. Without the guttural thesc forms would have Chireq in place of Segliol. Whien the syllable is sharpened by Daglhesli. tile mrore slender and sharp Chireq is retained even under gutturals. as k'k, n,.^; -'^^; but when the clharacter of tlc syllablle is changed by tlhe flling away of Daghesh. the Seghlol. whlichl is required by the guttural, returns,. g. iT"ln. const. state "; ~ '. i".3. Instead of simp)le,ScY.vaZ vocal, tlle gutturals take a conmp)osite ASt'va (~. 10, 2), e. g. '.,. ' ^, *-.. This is the most commoIIn use of tlhe conmlosite Sll'vas. 4. W-hen a guttural stanl(s at tlie cnd of a (closed) syllable, in tlhe midst of a world and lias inder it the syllable-divider (silent KS/v(a,l 10, 3), tlhen tile divisioll of syllables often takes place as usual, especially when that syllable has the tone, e. g. Pr'Wi (thou hast sent). But when tlie syllable stands before the tone, there is usually a softening of thle sound by giving to the guttural a slight vowel (one of the coml)osite SA'vat), wliicl has the same sound as tlhe full vowel preceding, as ^.In' (also tn) 'tn.. (also '.n), pn (also p7.r) this composite Shlva is " T'lie acce(nt is oni tie proper final vowel, and P)altoch furtive is sounded like a in real, denial.-Tu. ~23. FEEBLENESS OF t AND t. 49 changed into the short vowel with which it is compounded, whenever the following consonant loses its full vowel in consequence of an increase at the end of the word, e. g. ip:T.., y6-6bhe-dhu (from V;_), t:Dn ya-hd-pha-khau (from q). Rem. 1. Simple Sheva under the gutturals, the grammarians call hard ( an), and the composite ShIevas in the same situation soft (irS). See observations on verbs with gutturals (~~ 62-65). 2. Respecting the choice between the three composite Shevas it may be remarked, that a) m, n, sr, at the beginning of words prefer (-:), but t (.:), e. g.:%,X 'an., *in'. But when a word receives an accession at the end, or loses the tone, t also takes (-:), as.is. to, =.b1. to you; bn5 to eat, but -b"= Gen. iii. 11. Comp. ~ 27, Rem. 5. b) In the middle of a word, the choice of a composite Sheva is regulated by the vowel (and its class) which another word of the same form, but without a guttural, would take before the Sheva; as Perf. Hiph. rtns.1 (according to the form 9bi;m), Inf: 'irrs (conformed to 3b-r,), Perf Hoph. '_rt' (conformed to i^pt). For some further vowel-changes in connection with gutturals, see ~ 27, Rem. 2. 5. The ', which the Hebrew uttered also as a guttural (~ 6, 2, 1), shares with the other gutturals only the characteristics mentioned above in No. 1, and a part of those given in No. 2; viz. a) the exclusion of Daghesh forte; in which case the vowel before it is always lengthened, as J:? for 3, mi for:l 1; b) the use of Pattach before it in preference to the other short vowels, though this is not so general as in the case of the other guttural sounds, e. g. N:~. and he saw from mie; d'lfor '01 and he turned back, and for "p.4 and he caused to turn back. Unfrequent exceptions to the principle given under letter a are MTb mor-ra, Prov. xiv. 10; -7j' sh6r-r&kh, Ezek. xvi. 4, where m is doubled; in Arabic also it admits of doubling, and the LXX write t'~ 2,aQeQa. In a few other cases, there is neither the doubling of the Resh nor the lengthening of the vowel; as;p'. (for q91;) 2 Sam. xviii. 16. ~23. OF THE FEEBLENESS OF THE BREATHINGS X AND r'. 1. The x, a light and scarcely audible breathing in the throat, regularly loses its feeble power as a consonant (it quiesces), whenever it stands without a vowel at the end of a syllable.. 4 50 PART I. ELEMENTS. It then serves merely to prolong the preceding vowel (like the German h in sah), as btt he has found,.b. he has filled, b,1 she, Nk to find, Si, he; t2N, n^.an. This takes place after all vowels; but in this situation short vowels with few exceptions become long, as god for gd, Ott for NlV'. 2. On the contrary,: generally retains its power as a consonant and guttural, in all cases where it begins a word or syllable, as "'ut he has said,.Ic' they have rejected, j..b for to eat. Yet even in this position it sometimes loses its consonant-sound, when it follows a short vowel or a half-vowel (vocal Sh'va) in the middle of a word: for then the vowel under N is either shifted back so as to be united with the vowel before it into a long sound, as 'b fb for 'bS >x for 't, also bz? (a obscured to 6) for 5b)' or it wholly absorbs it, as in =x'.i for T'. Neh. vi. 8 3tINUh (chotim) for:t:nh (sinning) 1 Sam. xiv. 33,:rI (two hundreds) for::St, 11=, (heads) for 1t7b.' Sometimes there is a still greater change in the word, as b'9v1. for btq., no~ b' (business) for. 6x". Sometimes also the vowel before N remains short when it is a, e. g. '.,X_ for adds, ^._b for.7,, ^,_p. for ~tn.. Instead of the t thus quiescing in Cholem, Tsere, and Chireq, we often find written, according to the nature of the sound, one of the vowel letters I and I, e. g. t'i for 's- (cistern),:M: (buffalo) for 0:.:, itt'. (the first) for liw. Job viii. 8, comp. 5 for Ab (not) 1 Sam. ii. 16 K'thibh; at the end of a word, also is written for l, as thu_ (he fills) for N7_ Job viii. 21. 3. Such a quiescent: sometimes falls altogether away, e. g. a.I (Iwent forth) for 'to.n(,.n5[ (I am full), Job xxxii. 18, for 'nr5n, '[rq (I say) constantly for 'It9t, nirb (to lay waste) 2 Kings xix. 25, for nriA_ Is. xxxvii. 26, I= for lbtt Ezek. xxviii. 16. Rem. 1. In Aramuean the s becomes a vowel much more readily than.in Hebrew; but in Arabic, on the contrary, its power as a consonant is much firmer. According to Arabic orthography, x serves also to indicate the lengthened 4; but in Hebrew the examples are very rare, in which it is strictly a vowel-letter for the long A sound. as CW Hos. x. 14, for the usual rD, t;sl Prov. x. 4, xiii. 23, for 1. Hebrew orthography generally omits, in this case, the prolonging letter (~ 8, 3). * The feeble X being lost to the ear, the previous vowel is naturally prolonged (lI-'mor, then le-mor); and its vowel, when its own sound is lost, is heard with the previous vowelless consonant, first bo-th'am, then bo-tham.-TR. ~ 23. FEEBLENFIS OF Mt AND i. 5 51 2. In Syriac, M even at the beginning of words cannot be spoken with;a half-vowel (vocal Sheva), but always receives a full vowel, usually E, as e. g. the Chald. is in Syr. ekhal. So also in the Hebrew, instead ofa composite Sh~va, it takes, at the beginning of many words, the -corresponding long vowel, as 'ni girdle for 'Ii9ltt tents for tr~n ni1%.% stalls for ni9"X. 3. We may call it an Arabism, or a mode of writing common in Arabic, when at the end of a word an R~ (without any sound) is added to a.1(not being part of the root), as btI~1 for lt~j (they went), Josh. x. 24, WI (they were willing), Is. xxviii. 12. Similar are K", for ~ pure, r.!i for tb if Miltb for it5. The case is different in RtI~ and Dt1P see ~ 32, Rem. 6. 4. The bo is stronger and firmer than bt, and scarcely ever loses its aspiration (or quiesces) in the middle of a word;* also at the end it may remain a consonant, and then it takes Mappiq (i 14, 1). Yet at times the consonant-sound of the M. at the end of a word is given up, and TM (wvithout Mappiq, or with Raphe '9) then remains only as representative of the final vowel, e.g (to her), Num. xxxii 42, for ~ Job xxxi. 22; Ex. ix. 18. AtT the beginning of a syllable 'M is often not heard, and is omitted in writing, as 1# (.in the morning-) -for T r (inth land) for T~tol. jnni'#1 contracted IMdi. In these cases -of contraction, the hal-f-vowel (-_- bef.ore on, is absorbed by the -full vowvel under it. In other cases, however, the vowel under r1 if, displaced by the one before it, as MI (in them), from =,1, or both are blended into a diphthong, as 1'0 (also bobo from -1,111 *=P? from Vo~L (ahu, a-u, 6). Accordingly, the so-called quiescent ri at the end of a word stands, sometimes, in the place of the consonant Iri. But-usually it serves quite another purpose, namely, as an orthographic expression, in the consonant text, of final a, as also o, eJ, and a (Seghol), e- g. riMwrl, ib, r~ ~7, 2and ~8, 3. Rem. In connection with o and e it is occasionally changed for I and 4 (ixi -- ~iI 'am=- iIMM Hos. vi. 9), and in all cases for bt according to later and Aramman orthography, particularly in connection -with a, e. g. M-z6 (sleep), Ps. c-xxvii, 2, for IM15, - (to forget), Jer. xxi-ii. 39,* for Mt &C. *A very few examples are found in proper names, as ~btllli=~ whichl are compounded of two words, and in many MSS. are also written in two separate words. One other ease, M'40MID Je r. xlvi. 20, is also in the printed text divided by Maqqepth, in order to bring the quiescent ri at the end of a word. 52 52 ~~~~~~PART I.- EL3EMENTh. ~ 24. CHANGES OF THlE FEEBLE LETTERS ", AND 4. The- I (uw) and the " (y) are as consonants so feeble and soft,. approaching-c nearly to the corresponding vowel-sounds ut and i, that they easily flow into these vowels in certain conditions. On. this depend, accordingf to the relations Of soUnds and the character of the grammiatical forms, still furthier changes which require, a general notice in this place, but wvhich will also be explained in detail wherever they occur in the inflections of words. This is especially important for the, form and inflection of the feebleSteinis in which a radical I or occurs (~. 69, &c. ~ 85,- ILL-Vl). 1. The cases where I and lose their power as consonants and flow into vowel-sounds, occur only in the miiddle and at the end( of words, their consonant-sound being always heard at the beg-inningr.* These cases are chiefly tlie following a) when I or " stands at the enld of a syllable, imimediately after a vowel. T~he feeble letter has not strength enough, in this position, to maintain its consonant-sound. Thus =117 for =IMor =~'7 for M7p"M M for:. so also at the end of the word, e. g. *Nt y al2W (properly, -liy, hence fern. -liyya), ~7(made, Job xli. 25) for: ~~ (comp. 1Sam. xxv. 18, IKel'hibh). After homogeneous vowels, particularly pure u. and i, "' and constantly quiesce in thes C cases. But after a lieteroogeneousvv~oxxel they- sound as con:,so — nants (accordingr to 6~ 8, 5), as "'ts (Jit; ci, lI1ay monthi, nation, disclosed. But withi slicit a. I and " miostly form a diphthongal 6' and d' (see below, No. 2, b) bt) after a -vocal ASh'va, when such syllables would be formed as qevom, bVvo. Hence W= for N' V1' for t~i. So, especially. wlhen they stand at the end of a word and are lpreceded by a Sheva; as "i for "'n (from "), 'firuit for "':1 C) When the feeble letter has a full vrowel both before and afterit as Mtj for t: 1 for Comnp. mihi contr. nii, qaurn121 contr. cumT. In Syriac, where these letters flow still more readilyr into vowvelsoundls. '9is sounded, even at the beginning of -words, merely as i,. not as '9-o' (as fo 1A e); and so in the LXX MI'1 is written,l~" —1. 3JacUx.- Hence' may be explained the Syriac usagre, examples of which *Except 4 for ' ~ and, ~ 26,.1, and 6 104, 2),6. ~ 25. UNCHANGEABLE VOWELS, 5.53 occur also in Hebrew, which transfers the vowel i, belonging to the feeble letter, to the preceding consonant, which should properly have simple Sheva, e. g. "j'r" for bj'n"n Eccles. ii. 1~3,.6 " (in some editions) for i~il Job xxix. 21. 2. When such a contraction hasutken place, the vowel-letter quiesces regularly in a long vowel. Respecting the choice of this vowel, the following rules may be laid down: a) when the vowel, which an analogous form without the feeble letter would take, is homogeneous with the vowel-letter, it is retained and lengtitened, as ='b for =3b (analogous -form ~tj- -0 (habitarefactus est) 'for =3-0 b) when a short a stands before " and 1, it forms with- them a diphthongal ed and 65 (according to.~ 7', 1); thus ="M"' becomes V'i-0, '1i I *.V,,c) but when the vowel-sign is heterogeneous, anid at the same time is an essential -characteristic of the form, it controls the feeble letter, and changes it into one which is homogeneous with itself. Thus tel becomes 161&"; Mj becomes Cj) '* and!ba become F'1~ -and o'b-i..i An original "- at the end of words becomes:,a) -m- (for ~-is never written at the end of a word), when the impure sound a is to be used; e. g. rI'~' for (~ 75, 1); Mb-i form, for _~3'~ field (poet.), common form Mliuz; +.) 5, when the A souand prevails, as being characteristic of the fr i; as 11 r*, r for 4 ",. UNCHIANGEABLE VOWELS. What vowels in He~brew are fix m and unchangeable, can be known, with certainty -and in all cases, only from the nature of the grammatical forms and from a comparison with the Arabic, where the system appears in a. purer 'and more original form *Instances in which no contraction takes place after a short a are VWI 1 Chron. xii. 2; t~i6. Hos. vii. 12; -1* Job iii. 26. Sometimes both forms arc found, as rIbTY and 'Iis evil; ~'?t (living), construct state "Mi. Analogous is the contraction Of M M7 death, constr. rlin,. eye, constr.TV f In Arabic is often written, etymologically, but spoken gala. So the LXX write '9O1 Xtva. But for 1b~Z3 is written in Arabic M~5 When an addition is made to the ending I-, it is written -;and sometimes the -original i-. r~eappears (~ 93, 9, Rem.). PART I ELEMENTS than in Hebrew. This holds, especially, of the essentially long vowels in distinction from those which are long only rhythmically, i. e. through the influence of the tone and of syllabication, and which having arisen out of short vowels readily become short again by a change in the position of the tone and in the division of the syllables. The beginner may be guided by the following specifications: 1. The essentially long and therefore unchangeable vowels of the second and third class, namely, z, i2, e, o, are regularly expressed among the consonants [or in the line] by their vowelletters, i and e by ", 2 and 6 by 1, with their appropriate vowelsigns, thus '-, A_, 1, as in rplCt anointed., D171 palace, ~.~ a bound, 'p voice. The defective mode of writing these vowels (~ 8, 4) is indeed pretty frequent, e. g. n. for rn7W't, ritp voices for t, b 5 for 'm; but the difference is merely one of orthography, not affecting the nature of the vowel, which still retains its character as essentially long. Comp. ~ 8, 4. Occasionally, a merely tone-long vowel of these two classes is written fully, but only as an exception; e. g. the o in bq-p., for pE.. 2. The unchangeable e has in Hebrew, as a rule, no representative in the consonant-text, though in Arabic it has, namely the M; which occurs here but very seldom (~ 9, 1, ~ 23, 3, Rem. 1). For ascertaining this case, therefore, there is no guide but a knowledge of the forms; see ~ 84, Nos. 6, 13, 28. Such cases as sxn (~ 23, 1) do not belong here. 3. Unchangeable is also a short vowel in a sharpened syllable, followed by Daghesh forte, e. g. '3= thief; likewise in every closed syllable, when another of the same kind follows, e. g. tD.b' garment, ]'p poor, 7Ta wilderness. 4. So are also the vowels after which a Daghesh forte has been omitted on account of a guttural, according to ~ 22, 1 (forma dagessanda), e. g. b'~.. for "I.-'. mountains of God; '-h for ST he has been blessed.* * A convenient division is: 1) vowels unchangeable by nature (Nos. 1, 2, 4); 2) vowels unchangeable by position (No. 3). In the first class, the vowels of No. 1 and 2, being representatives of original and essential elements of the word, are unchangeable; as for a like reason are those in No. 4, the omission of a letter being indicated by the consequent lengthening of a vowel in the open syllable. In the second class (No. 3), the position requires a vowel, and it is already short -TR. ~ 26. SYLLABLES. 55 ~26. OF SYLLABLES, AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE QUANTITY OF VOWELS. A survey of the laws which regulate the choice of a long or a short vowel and the exchange of one for the other, requires a previous knowledge of the theory of the syllable, on which those laws are founded. The syllable must be viewed with reference to its initial sound (No. 1); and also to its close, or final sound (Nos. 2-7), which is the more important of the two. 1. With regard to the commencement of the syllable it is to be observed, that every syllable must begin with a consonant; and there are no syllables in the language which begin with a vowel. The single exception is. (and), in certain cases for 1, e. g. in ^?... The word 'It is no exception, because the t has here the force of a light breathing. 2. With regard to the close of the syllable, it may end: a) with a vowel, and is then called an open or simple syllable, e. g. in i??.. the first and last are open. See No. 3. b) with a half-vowel or vocal Sheva, as p5 in ll. p'-ri (fruit), cha iln n. cha-tsi (half), te in -i*b qa-t-lu. Such we call half-syllables, or prefix-syllables. See No. 4. c) with one consonant: a closed or mixed syllable, as the second in b_,: b. See No. 5. Here belongs also the sharpened syllable, as the first in b.P? qdt-tel. See No. 6. d) with two consonants, as ATp, b.P?. (~ 10, 3). We shall now (in Nos. 3-7) treat in particular of the vowels that are used in these various kinds of syllables. 3. The open or simple syllables have, as a rule, a long vowel,t whether they have the tone, as -1 in thee, Itf book, * See ~ 104, 2, b. The word wmilekh, in pronunciation, readily becomes umalekh, as the sound oo precedes the formation of the feeble consonant w. Comp. Note *, p. 22.-TR. t This is certainly a fundamental law in Hebrew, as its pronunciation is now indicated by the vowel-signs, but not a matter of absolute necessity, for other languages very often have short vowels in open syllables, as EyEvsro, Arab. gqtal&. At an earlier period the Hebrew, like the Arabic, most probably had short vowels in those open syllables in which the vowel was not essentially long; and the present pronunciation is derived in part from the solemn, slow, and chanting way of reading the Old Testament in the synagogues. 56 56 ~~~~PARTLI EIEME'NT-~. VPsanctuar-y, or not. as -n=- heart, they wvill fiear. Usually there is a long vowel ( Qametv, less frequen-tly Tser-e) in an open syllable before the tone (pretonic vowel), e. g. =,H S/tort vo-wels in open syll-ables occur only in the following cases: a) In dissyllabie -words forrmed by mneans cof a, helping-vowel. (~ 28, 4) from inoniosyllablIes (Segholates), as IN youth, house. m:; frorn ~'7'. 11Vn rl!= The reason is that the final helping-vowel is very short. and the word sounds almnost as one syllable. Yet the first vowel is also lengrthened, as in ( another form fbor VI (~ 75. Rem. 3. b) b) In certain florms of the siafixes. as (front ~) c) Before the so-called THe local. which. has, not thn. tout (~ 90, 2), e. gr. towards Carmnel, "I InZ1 towardls the?vildcrness. In all these cases the Thzlort vowel is suplported by the chlief tone of' the wordl. Els-ewhiere it ha a~ t least the suplport of MI the Ih. viz. d) In these connections — as his taste. "N hie will bind. his deedl. anthoraet e) In forms like ~1pr, ye c/hc ZeqU (they are strong,) p jo-olekha (thy deed); also in s/hO-r&t-shini (roots), conip. page 32. and;. 28. 3. The first syllable in and similar forms. dioes riot belong here. but to No. 6, below. 4. There is also a slighrjter sort of open syllables, consistitig of one consonant and a half-vowel (or vocal sSlt'va, 10, 1, 2). They may be called ha if-syllables,, or pr~/ix-syllables, as beingr so slighlt and unsubstantial that they alwxays attach themselves to the following stronge~r syllable eg. (cheeky) I5-Chit. ydl-m5-dhin?, "b1 (sickness) ch0-1l', *.- po-`-16. 'IModern. grammarians (10 not regrard these ais actual syllables. but always reckon them as part of that which immediately fbllows. Trhe h~alf-vowel is certainly not such as to serve for the final sound of' a full syll~able; and accordfing to the pronunciation handed down to us. this syllable with Sheva is obviously of a dlifferenit kind fromi the open syllable with a full vowel (No. 3). But that h~alf-vowel. is in greneral a shiortening of an original flull, vowel, which is comnionly still retainedl in Arabic; andl the Jewvish granmmarians, from whom came the, vowels and accents, *For this, the Arabic has always a short vowel. The Clialdee, ha.S onlyj tocal Sh1e va, `jii; to 1thc-n, ' bP p b into which, in Hebrew also, this vowel passes over so sooa as the tone is thrown forward (~ 27, 3, a). Not that this pretonic vowel was adlopted (p-erhaps in place of a Sh~eva) onl accounit of the accentuation of the following, syllable. It is thle original vowel of the syllable, retained on account of its position immediately before the tone, on the remroval. of w-hich it is reduced to a -vocal Sh~eva. ~ 26. SYLLABLES. 57 have assigned to the union of a consonant with a half-vowel the value of a syllable, as appears especially from the use of Methegh (see ~ 16, 2, b). 5. The closed syllables, ending with one consonant, have necessarily, when without the tone, short vowels, both at the beginning and at the end of words,* as:n.b_ queen, 7'tt understanding, Mn=M wisdom; 10`_ and he turned backc, t..l and he set up,.S'? and he stood up. When with the tone, they may have a long vowel as well as short, e. g.:I_ he was wise, S:M wise; yet of the short vowels only Pattach and Seghol have strength enough to stand in such a syllable having the tone.t Examples of long vowels, in the final syllable, are 'i, bp, b:j; in the last but one,,mbt3P, nbiV.. Examples of short vowels, bp, D., tn; in the penultima, ~r.bb, up?. 6. A peculiar sort of closed syllables are the sharpened, i. e. those which end with the same consonant with which the following syllable begins, as m.p aim-mi, 3m- kil-li. Like the other closed syllables, these have, when without the tone, short vowels, as in the examples just given; when with the tone, either short, as I-s, -3,;, or long, as,n't, nr^. - 7 * ) 0 T S 7 T *Sharpened syllables are wholly avoided at the end of words, see ~ 20, 3, letter a. 7. Closed syllables, ending with two consonants, occur only at the end of words, and have most naturally short vowels, as rb*I_, Iw.., yet also Tsere and Cholem, as to.:, '-, Ap. But compare ~ 10, 3. Most commonly this harshness is avoided by the use of a helping-vowel (~ 28, 4). Rem. In the division into syllables, accordingly, a simple Sheva after a short vowel belongs to the foregoing syllable and is quiescent, as,V'T mir-ma; but after a long vowel, to the following, and is vocal (~ 10, 1), as,Sinp q6-te-la, t' bir h6-lelm. The composite Sheva belongs always to the following syllable, as b'ab po-alo, even after a short vowel, as i;U t,-amd ^Sh 6-h~l6. * There are some exceptions, when a word loses the tone through Maqqeph, as 'nT-nM (kethabh), Esth. iv. 8. f See ~ 9, 2. Short Chireq (I) occurs only in the particles t. and O., which, however, are mostly toneless because followed by Maqqeph. 58 PART I. ELEMENTS. ~ 27. CHANGES OF VOWELS, ESPECIALLY IN RESPECT TO THEIR QUANTITY. As to the changes which the vowels undergo by the inflection of words, we may lay down these fundamental principles: a) that they generally occur only in the last syllable and the last but one, very seldom in the antepenultima, e. g. 3, _ *; rh T * r..; 7 *)..; b) that they are usually made within the limits of one and the same vowel-class (~ 8). Thus a may be shortened into a and a, e into z and c, 6 into 6 and i; and with the same limitation the short vowels may become long. But such a change as a into it never takes place. The most material exception is the approximation of the first class to the second, when Pattach is attenuated to Chireq or blunted to Seghol; see below, Rem. 2 and 3. So also in the origin of obtuse Seghol out of vowels belonging to all three classes, see Rem. 4. The vowels with the changes of which we are here chiefly concerned, are the whole of the short ones and as many of the long as owe their length simply to the tone and rhythm, viz.: Long vowels (sustained by the tone). Corresponding short vowels. - a -a - O{ -T 6 (Qamets-chatuph) To these add the half-vowels or Shlvas, -,, -, as extreme shortenings. Let the student compare here again what was said in ~ 9 on the character and value of the several vowels, and in ~ 25 on the unchangeable vowels. According to the principles laid down in ~26, the following changes occur: 1. A tone-long vowel is changed into a kindred short one, when a closed syllable loses the tone (~ 26, 5). Thus when the tone is moved forwards, 'I hand becomes?, as,TT- handof-Jehovah; 7. son, ntt?- son-of-man; S. whole,:tiW: the ~ 27. CHANGES OF VOWELS. 59 whole-of-the-people; also when the tone is moved backwards, e. g. 0i, 1:_4; ]5, ~t'. Farther, when an open syllable with a long vowel becomes by inflection a closed one, e. g. w56 book, e.b. my book; tp~ sanctuary, =j my sanctuary. In these cases, Tsere (e) passes over into Seghol (6) or Chireq (i), Cholem (o) into Qamets-chatuph (6). But when a closed syllable with a long vowel becomes a sharpened one, i. e. ending with a doubled consonant, Tsere is attenuated into Chireq, and Cholem into Qibbuts; as Sb mother, a.y my mother, ph statute, plur. TO;.M The short vowels i and f are more pure, and hence are accounted shorter than e and 6. 2. On the contrary, a short vowel is changed into a corresponding long onea) when a closed syllable, in which it stands, becomes an open one, i. e. when the word receives an accession, beginning with a vowel, to which the final consonant of the closed syllable is attached, as b3], 'ibn: he has killed him; Wr, plur..I-M! give ye,; r?:, directly from rn0.; b) when a syllable, which should be sharpened by Daghesh forte, has a guttural for its final consonant (see ~ 22, 1), or stands at the end of a word (see ~ 20, 3, a); c) when it meets with a feeble letter (~ 23, 1, 2; ~ 24, 2); as M for Nf= he has found; d) when the syllable is in pause, i. e. is the tone-syllable of the lasts word in the clause (~ 29, 4). 3. When a word increases at the end, and the tone is at the same time shifted forward, all vowels (long and short) may, according to the effect on the division of the syllables, either pass over into a half-vowel (vocal Sheva), or wholly fall away, and give place to the mere syllable-divider (silent Sheva). An example of the former is =: (name),.ttS (my name); plur. rifyt (names), Ciot (their names): of the latter, nI (blessing), constr. nroM. Whether the full vowel remains, or becomes a half-vowel (O, '.; Ot, 'd), and which of the two vowels in two successive syllables disappears, depends on the nature of the word. In general it may be said, that in the inflection of nouns, the first vowel is usually shortened, while the second, if immediately before the tone (pretonic vowel), remains; as p, pre 60 60 ~~~~PART I. ELEMENTS. cious, fern. y~qa-rd: but in verbs, the second is commonly shortcncd. as 'I was Precious, fern. yd-q'rat: Thus a halfvowvel comoes in place of — a.) Qarnets and Tscre in the first syllable (principally in the, inflection of' nouns), as a word,. plur. great, fern. ~ ~heart, 5M.-ny heart; =I1V- she will return. VI.tn they (fcrn ) will return 6) the short or merely tone l1ono Vowels, a, e, o, in the last syllable, especially in the inflcction of verbs, e. g. 6Ffrn helping Vowel 8echol, -wholly falls a way (becomes silent S vae. g.~ (for ~ If there is no shiftingr of the tone the vowel remains notwithstanding the lengthening of the word, as =Ai dil nll~n Wh~ere the tone is advanced two places, bo0th the vowels of a dissyllabic. word miay be so much shortened, that the first becomes i anti the second a Sh'va. From 1 a word, we have in the plur.:j;and with. a grave su~ffix this becomes their words (comip. ~ 28, 1). On the shortening of 4, into i, see especially in Rem. 3, below. Some other vowel changres, mostly wvith respect to quantity-. ate exhibited in the following remarks Rem. 1. The diphthongal 6 O (from au), as also the 61 sprung from the firm (2 (~ 9, 10, 2), is longer than I 2; arnd hence, when the tone is moved forward, the former ii often shortened into the latter. E. g. t~ip r~~(see Paradigm M.1 Nip/h.); t~n flight, fern. nw with Stff ThWIM DI sweet, fern. MT1-M The I~ standls sometimes even in a sharpened syllable, MIV Ps. cii. 5, E Ez. xx. 18, 'iW Judgr. xviii. 29. About the same relation exists between ' — C' and '1- i (see ~75, 2). On the contrary -s U is shortened into 6, -which appears in the tonesyllable as a tone-longr o (Gitolein,), but on the remov~al of the tone becomes agrain 6 ( Qamets-clhatuph). as (he wvill rise), t'p (jussive: let hinn rise), t:I'" (and he rose up),. see P~arad. 11!, Kal. So also from -:comes the (less lengthened) tone-longr Tser-e (0), and without the support of the tone, Seghol (j), as (he will set up)), r:rt (let him set up)) cr~" (and he set up), see Parad. ill, HIjphil. 2. From a Pattach (di) in a closed syllable there arises a Seghol (e), through a farther shortening, or rather weakening and blunting, of the sound. This happens, * The vowel, which hero passes into a hialf-vowel. (vocal She va.) when the tone is thrown forward, is the so-called pretonic ivouel in an open syllable; see ~ 5, 1, 2, arid ~ 26, 3. ~ 28. RISE OF NEW VOWELS AND SYLLABLES. 6 61 a) Sometimes when the tone hastens on to the following syllable, as your hand for =14 nn= (prop. n.) for 'Il"=; especially when a syllable loses something of its sharpness by the omission of Daghesh forte, as ~1~Ex. xxxiii. 3 for jb I destroy thee, ~Nn Ezekiel for ~Ip-j (whom God strengthens). b) More regularly when Daghesh forte is omittcd in a guttural that has a Qa-mets under it. Thus, M- for rl-: (v-),, e. g. Ti his brothers for TIM fr~om. trlb; 'lI. the vision; uZ~n= false for t13 M:-, and so always with Mi. With M' and Y' the Seghol is used only where a greater shortening is required on account of the distance of the tone; hence WIMs 1br W'N the mountains, but nil' the mountain; the misdeed, but r-' the people. Before bt and -i, where a short sharpned vwel annot so easily stand (~ 2,1, Qamets always remains, as r&$N~0 the fat hers, thefirmainent. Comp. further, on the interrogative 'n (tI 1 ~) ~ 100, 4. e) In syllables properly ending with two consonants, e. g. =1 (also in Arabic pronounced kaib) from which comes first =~= and 'then with a helping Seghol (~ 28, 4) =~ dog; ~; (jussive in. HiJhil from then ~-V and finally 3. In a closed (and sharpened) syllable, which loses the tone, a' is at times attenuated into i, e. g. tZ- your blood for =V1 i'm his measure for Ji; 9l' I have begotten, I have begotten thee.t Comp. above, 4. The Seg-hol arises, besides the cases given above in Rem. 2, also a) From the weakening of ct (Qa-mets) at the end of a word (comp. Roma, French Rome; Arab. -M~r read kh-alife), as Mm' and Mm' what? ~37, 1, c; see similar examples in Ps. xx. 4; Is. lix. 5; Zech. ix. 5. b) Even from the weakening of u, as WI (you) from the original attumt (Arab. antutm), ~ 32, Reins. 5, 7; tlr (to them) from the original lahum. Comp. page 24. 5. Amongr the halt'vowels, (-:) is shorter and lighter than (..)and the group (-)than (-7-~) e. g. r-5 Edom, 'qq~ Edomite; M2. truth, ra. o his truth; - - hidden, plur. -r.; 'tl; ~ ~2. RISE OF NEW VOWELS AND SYLLABLES. 1. When a word begrins with a half-syllable (~ 26, 4), i. e. with a consonant which has a half-vowel (vocal Sheva), and there comes another half-syllable before it, then this latter receives instead of the Sheva an ordinary short vowvel, which is * So the LXX also say MEXicuruJ-Bx for 1- Analogous to this attenuating of d into I is the Latin tango, attingo; taxus, prolixus,?; and to that of 6 into ~' (in Rem. 2) the Latin carpo, decer o; Vpargo, eonspergoe 62 62 ~~~~PART 1. EEMIENTS. regularly i (Chireq), but with gutturals a (Pattach). E. g.~ (to fall) nep~h~l, with the preposition - no 0t 1 b 'ne p h C l, buLIt ~ b7inephol; so also bl:- kilnepho~l for for T (whence according to ~ 24, 1) for '1,1,11; V (num parunt est?) lhdmneat for =X.M h~t meat. At times another division of syllables takes place. so that the second consonant gives LIP its half-vowel and formis a closed syllable with the first, as 'k: Unpo1 Numn. xiv. 3, '1~T Jer. xvii. 2. A -similar process occurs in the body of a word, as "D' 7rishep/U2 and rishp~, '1,n from tit3:x; but here the initial vowel comes immediately fr-om a full vowel, and is more like i in t:MV1' (~ 277, 3). In Syriac, the usual vowel here is a' (j). even in the absence of' gutturals; in Clialdee it is the same as in Hebrew; the Arabic has retained every where, in place of vocal Sheva, the usual short vowel. 2. When the second of the two consonants is a guttural with composite 1iS'hva, then the first takes, instead of simple Sh'va, the short vowvel with which the other is compounded; whence proceed the groups ~ ~-,e. g. so as, 11'17 to serve, to eat, in sickness, for -I5N ~ ~ The new vowel in such cases has Allethegrh according 'to 16, 2, a. 3. When the first ~Sh'tva is comiposite and stands after an open syllable withr a short vowel, then it is chianged into the shout vowel wxith which it is compounded, e. g. yddmedh~ for 17= they will staned, Cao.?ih~J)hek?' for they have turned themselvesi pb~l~kha, thy work (i26, 3, e). 4. At the end of' words, syllables occur which -close with two consonants (~ 10, 3, ~ 26, 7); yet thiis takes place only wvhern thelast of these is a consonant of strong sound, U, P, or an aspirate with its hard sound (tennis), namely, M, '7, n, * e. g. t~t let himt turn aside, 'tl and he wcatered, n"'1 thou -(f.) hast killed, J:'1 and he wept,!I let him rufle, 1=" and he took captive. This harsh comnbination of letters is, however, avoided in general by supplyingm between. the two consonants a Akelpingr-vowel, which is mostly &eghol, but P attach under gutturals,f and Chri* An instance of A and It (which should likewise harve Daghesh) scarcely occurs. Alotie stands "Vi (shortened from "'trn) Prov. xxx. 6; in several MSS. (wit~h Daghiesh). f Withi the exception, however, of N, as M' U wild ass, fresh grass. On account of thre feeble sound of the bt the helping-vow-el may also be omitted, as MU sin, WMD valley. ~ 29. THE TONE AND ITS CHANGES. 63 req after I, e. g. b for 1; for fbor; f j for -; nr5t* for rsnrbt; rl. for t".. These helping-vowels have not the tone, and they fall away whenever the word increases at the end. These helping-vowels have inappropriately been called furtive, a term which should be restricted to the Pattach sounded before a final guttural, according to ~ 22, 2, b. 5. Full vowels arise from half-vowels also, by the influence of the Pause; see ~ 29, 4. ~29. OF THE TONE; CHANGES OF THE TONE; AND OF THE PAUSE. 1. The principal tone, indicated by the accent (~ 15, 2), rests on the final syllable of most words, e. g. b__, '~; h1n1,::iv?_, (as these two examples show, even on additions to the root); less frequently on the penultima, as in.5.., h15_ night, n.56b. Connected with the principal tone is Methegh, a kind of secondary accent (~ 16, 2). Small words which are united by Maqqeph with the following one, are destitute of 'the tone (~16,1). It is not necessary here to single out the words accented on the penultima (voces penacute); for the sake, however, of calling attention to these words, they are generally marked in this book with -, as a sign of the tone. In Arabic the tone.is more on the penultima, and even on the antepenultima. The Syriac accents mostly the penultima; and the Hebrew is pronounced thus, contrary to the accents, by the German and Polish Jews, e. g.. nl ru.xt' breshis b6ro. 2. The original tone of a word frequently shifts its place on account of changes in the word itself, or in its relation to other * In this and the analogous examples (~ 65, 2) Daghesh lene remains in the final Tav, just as if no vowel preceded (~ 22, 2), in order to indicate that the helping Pattack has a very short sound, and at the same time to suggest rnbwu as the original form. (Accordingly Mhb thou hast taken is distinguished also in pronunciation from MlrD2S ad sunendum.) The false epithet furtive given to this helping-vowel, in connection with the notion that such a vowel must be sounded before the consonant, caused the decided mistake which long had its defenders, namely, that nnb1t should be read shaldacht; although such words as 1nrt, 5n: were always correctly sounded shdchath, ndchal not naachl. Strictly analogous is.nd9 yt-had (from?qMn, ~ 75, Rem. 3, d). 64 64 ~~~~PART I. ELEMENIS. words. If the word is increased at the end, the tone is thrown forward (descendit) one or two syllables according to the length of the addition, as - ~ ~~ For the consequent shortening of the vowels, see ~27, 1. 3. In one., casc the tone is thrown forward in consequence of accession at the beginning of the word. See ~ 44, Rein. 5, b. 3. On the contrary, the original tone is shifted from' the final syllable to the penultima (ascendit), a) when the syllable (s,49, 2, is prefixed, as 'Ir9 lhe will say, and, hie said; lie will go, ~1 and lhe went; M ~ let him r-ise and lie r-ose NJ) 6) when a monosyllabic word, or 01o ith the tone on the penultuna follows (in ordier to avoid the mre-etingr of two tone-syllaxli. 7, for =; Gen. 1. 5, iii. 19, iv. 17; Job xxii. 28 Ps. xxi. 2; c) in Pause. See No. 4. The meeting of two tone-syllables (letter b) is avoided in another way, viz, by writing the words with M.aqqeph between thern, in which case the, first wholly loses the tone. as, T fhe above method is adopted whenever the, penultirna is an open syllable with a long vowel. Compare. 4`7, Rem. 1. ~ 51. Rem. 3. ~ 52. Rem. 2. 4. Very essential changes of the tone., and consequently of the vowels, are effected by the Pause. By this ternin is meant the strong accentuation of the tone-syllable of the word which closes a p)eriod or mnember of a period, andI on which the tone of the -whole rests. This syllable is marked -with one of the great distuictive accenits, as Y~~1 =4 The changes are as follows a) when the syllable has ashort vowel. nIuei eoe long; as -1 6!?; lr M-In;r 6.' n" y":, 16, Jer. Xxii. 29; (conspiracy), W1", 2 K. x i. 14; b) whene a final tone-sylla-ble hias a l)refi~x half-syllable (as ~26, 4), the half-vowel of the latter gives place to a full Vowel, which takes the tone. A miore fitting cadence is thus produced, than by the accentuation of the final syllable. E. g. 1,-0 6w; ) dThe, vowel select*Even the pro~se of the Hebrews proceeds, according to the accentuation, in a kind of Iambic rhyth-m. That the authiors Of the systemr intendled to secure this object is evident, partictflarly,, fromn the application of Mctheglh. ~29. THE TONE AND ITS CHANGES. 65 ed is always that which had been shortened, in the same syllable, to vocal Sheva.* Moreover, vocal Sheva in pause becomes Seghol, as Tb., nrb; and a Chateph gives place to the analogous long vowel, as:., A t; on., in; c) this tendency to place the tone on the penultima in pause, shows itself moreover in several words which then regularly retract the tone, as?^, n.; nbi_, 'EI; r, T 'Ir.; and in single cases, like i: Ps. xxxvii. 20, for -b;, and also -SH Job vi. 3, for 'b from,Sb. The rule given under letter a respects principally Pattach and Seghol. Seghol is however strong enough to be retained in pause (:I~, pp!) especially when the syllable is sharpened by Daghesh forte, as.t.rI. Pattach is sometimes adopted in place of Seghol, as q, in pause '.'1; 5b.f-bt, in pause?'t Jud. xix. 20. Pattach even takes the place of Tsere in pause. E. g.::~m for tti Is. xlii. 22; btt, in pause bts Is. vii. 6. But more commonly, Tsere is retained; and on the contrary, Pattach sometimes takes its place out ofpause, as "_'I for 1nn Lam. iii. 48. Some other changes, occasioned by the Pause, will be noticed as they occur, in the next division. * Such a Pause-syllable is sometimes strengthened by the doubling of the following consonant; ~ 20, 2, c. 5 PART SECOND. OF FORMS AND INFLECTIONS, OR OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. ~30. OF THE STEM-WORDS AND ROOTS (BILITERAIS, TRILITERALS, QUADRILITERALS). 1. THE stem-words of the Hebrew and of the other Semitic languages have this peculiarity, that by far the most of them consist of three consonants, to which the essential meaning is attached, while its various modifications are expressed by changes in the vowels, e.. g. t' he was red, t"i red, OTI man (prop. red one). Such a stem-word may be indifferently either a verb or a noun, and usually the language exhibits both together, as:~_ he has reigned,:.b king. But it is customary.and of practical utility for the beginner, to consider the third person singular of the Perfect, i. e. one of the most simple forms of the verb, as the stem-word. and the other forms of both the verb and the noun, together with most of the particles, as derived from it; c. g. TW he was righteous, p righteousness, pu"ll righteous, &c. Sometimes the language, as handed down to us, exhibits only the verbal stem without a corresponding form for the noun, as 5'_ to stone, p"' to bray; and occasionally the noun is found without the corresponding verb, e. g.?>. south, Vt nine. Yet it must be supposed that the language, as spoken, often had the forms now wanting. Rem. 1. The Jewish grammarians call the stem-word, i. e. the third person singular of the Perfect, the root, tJ:5W, for which the Latin term radix is often used; and hence the three consonants of the stem arc called radical letters, in contradistinction from the servile letters, namely x,:,,,,,, i, A J, 3, ' which are added in the derivation and inflection of words. We however employ the term root in a different sense, as explained in No. 2. 2. Many etymologists give the name root to the three stem-consonants, viewed as vowelless and unpronounceable. from which the stems ~ 30. STEM-WORDS AND ROOTS. 67 for both the verbs and the nouns are developed, as in the vegetable kingdom (from which the figurative expression is taken) the stems grow out of the concealed root. Thus for exampleRoot: 'bun (to reign). Verb-stem: 'bm he has reigned. Noun-stem: i. king. This supposition of an unpronounceable root is, however, an abstraction too remote from the actual state of the language; and it is better, at least for the historical mode of treatment, to consider the concrete verb [3 pers. sing. Perf] as the stem-word. 3. These triliteral stems are generally of two syllables. But among them are reckoned also such as have for their middle letter a 1, which is uttered as a vowel (~ 24, 2, c), and thus reduces the form to one syllable, e. g. 0: for lbi. 2. The use of three consonants in the stems of the verbs and nouns is so prevalent a law in the Semitic languages, that we must look upon it as a characteristic peculiarity of this family. Even such monosyllabic nouns as might be deemed originally monosyllables (biliteral roots), since they express the first, simplest, and most common ideas, as = father, ~t mother, Mt brother, come under this law; thus we have 'I. my mother, as if derived from =ll. But, on the other hand, stems with three consonants (triliteral roots) may be reduced to two consonants, which with a vowel uttered between form a sort of root-syllable, frnn which spring several triliteral stems with the same fundamental meaning. Such root-syllables are called primary or biliteral roots. They are very easily made out when the stem has a feeble consonant or the same consonant in the second and third place. Thus, the stems J 1, TN ', fi,,-j, have all the meaning to beat and to beat in pieces, and the two stronger letters 'I dakh constitute in each of them the monosyllabic root. The third stem-consonant also may be strong. To such a monosyllabic root there often belongs a whole series of triliteral stems, which have two radical letters and the fundamental idea in common. Only a few examples can be presented here:From the root yp, which imitates the sound of hewing, are derived immediately ys;x,,rxj to cut off; then:,? 2i, 'y, with the kindred significations to shear, to mow, and metaph. to decide, to judge (hence ]gsp, Kadi, a judge). Related to this is the syllable 1p, )p from which is derived Atp; to cut into;:0' to sharpen; nrmp to pare. With a lingual instead of the sibilant, tp, 'p; hence =pq to cut down, 68 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. to destroy; Ub to cut down, to kill; "di to cu1t ff, to shorten; Ag to tear o(f to pluck off; 'n_ to cut asunder. to split. A softer form of this radical syllable is V-; hence tt3 to cut off; to shear off; 0:= Syr. to sacrifice, to slay for sacrifice. Still softer are T. and i; hence T!A to mow. to shear; n,: to hew stones; Wt, S'r. b^T, '_T> to hew off. to cut off to eat off to graze; and so 'i to cut, Y'_ to cut off; compare also n18y, ~j_. \WTith the change ofthe palatal for the guttural sound.,.n, Un_ to hew stones and wood, Y'n, n n to split, diride. yn. arrow ((rlra), ' rn to sharpen, TIr arrow, lightningr also sT, to see (Lat. cernere, Germ. scheiden), and many others. The syllable et expresses the h1umming sound made with the mouth closed (ftaf)); hence tri,?r (c:),. Arab. w~an to hum, to buzz. To these add ==3 to be dumb; cry' to become mute, to be astonished. The radical syllable:", of which both letters have a tremulous sound, means to tremble, in the stem-words b'a, b_3' tI::,?.:" then it is expressive of what causes tremulous motion or agitation, as thunder (C.'), the act of shattering, of breaking in pieces (3r3, ye'). Compare further, on the radical syllable by with the idea of elevation, curving upward (gibbous), and on A' to break, *, nb, to lick, to sup, the articles =n_, _,~, b in Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon. From a further consideration of this subject we may draw the following observations:a) These roots are merely deduced from stems in actual use, and are themselves not in use. They merely represent the hidden germs (se:nina) of the stems which appear in the language. Yet the latter have, now and then. so short a form that they exhibit only the elements of the root itself, as t: perfectusfuit, bi light. b) Most of these monosyllabic roots are imitations of natural sounds, and sometimes coincide with the roots of the Indo-Germanic stock. E. g. ~q>l [comp. Eng. tap]. vn7rw (IrV ) w).s (:5r^ O (x(rbi ), _ J,) xoAn7rrw,;: Au Iic, lA(Ov>vw. c) The stems with hard; strong consonants are to be regarded, according to the general progress of language (~ 6, 4), as the oldest, while the feebler and softer consonants distinguish forms of a later period. which consequently are more frequently used for the derivative and metaphorical significations. E. g. n'nD and tn. to be smooth, to be shorn, to be bald; and even,fbt to be bare. Sometimes, however, the harder or softer sound is essential to the imitative character of the word, as 5b to roll (spoken of a ball. of the rolling of waves), but T2: rather of the rough sound made in the act of scraping = aalQw, urao, verro; =S to cut stones or wood, requires a stronger sound than TSt, to cut grass, to mow. d) It appears also that those consonants which resemble each other in strength or feebleness, arc commonly associated in the formation of root-syllables, as yp,:, 7T, (never y:, - f,, Tp); 7y, 'T (seldom T5); tp, 8' (not W). Scarcely ever are the first two radi ~ 30. STEM-WORDS AND ROOTS. 69 cals the same (,'t1) or very similar (brt). On the contrary the last two are very often the same (i 67).* e) The tendency to substitute smooth for harsh sounds (see letter c) is sometimes so great that 1, n, r, especially when used as middle stemletters, are even softened to vowels, as jti'n, j. to tread down, to thresh; Ybe, y. (comp. tNt), to press, and many others. Comp. salvare, French sauver; calidus, Ital. caldo, in Naples caudo, French chaud; falsus, falso, in Calabria fauzu, French faux; and the pronunciation of the English words talk, walk. Comp. ~ 19, 5, Rem. f) Often, however, the three stem-letters must all be regarded as original, since all are necessary to make the sound of the word expressive of the sense, e. g. ^. pa:, p'_ ~ to be narrow, to afflict; iyX, ango; 7.q to tread; t:a, %tQ4pw, fremo, to make a humming sound (to buzz, hence to spin), &c. A full development of this action of the living elements of the language, may be found in the later editions of Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon. It is important that even the learner should be taught to regard the roots and their significations, not as the arbitrary creation of a people secluded from all the rest of the ancient world, but as imitations of nature, and as intimately connected with the well-known treasures of other languages, spoken by nations more nearly related to ourselves. 3. To a secondary process, or later epoch of the language, belong stem-words of four and, in the case of nouns, even offive consonants. These are, however, comparatively far less frequent in Hebrew than in its sister dialects.t This lengthening of the form is effected in two ways: a) by adding a fourth stem-letter; b) by combining into one word two triliteral stems, so that then even quinqueliterals are formed. Such lengthened forms as arise from the mere repetition of some of the three stem-letters, as.;_!, b?..; '5A, To, are not regarded as quadriliterals, but as variations in conjugation (~ 55). So likewise the few words which are formed by prefixing t, as *nht~.flame from n:, Aram. conj. S/hafel '=.t. Rem. on a). Some forms are made by the insertion particularly of I and r between the first and second radicals; as =3, tV:V to shear off to eat off;:':nt = 5.. sceptre; ts.T to glow; nsi' hot wind (the * Letters which are not found associated as radicals are called incompatible. They are chiefly such as too strongly resemble each other, as Mp, pa, P t, b. Some letters, however, have been falsely considered incompatible, as by', which are sometimes associated, e. g. in it and in, from the harsher forms 'L_, 'tM. Comp. yeqaios, together with yea'QrlJ, oxTo, along with oyooS, and much that is analogous in Sanskrit. t Especially in liEthiopic, where these forms are very fiequent. 70 70 ~~~PART If. PARIS OF SPE ECH. first form with 'I frequent in Syr.). This mode of formation is analogous with P0i, and in Aramman the two forms exist togrether. as In Latin there is a correspondent lengthening of' the stem; as findo, scindo, tundo~jungo (in Sanscr. Class VII), fromfid. scid (uxE&;ft), tud, jug-c. Additions are also made at the end, principally of' I arnd n; as an are, from the stem rn to cut;,Mi an orchard,. from Cflower-cup. fromn Y'= clip; from "' Mto tremble. rl to hop. The terininiation -l has perhaps a diminutive florce, as it has in many languages. Rein, on b). In the combination of triliterals, it generally happens that letters common to them both are written but once in the compound for. a. a fro, perhaps prop. marsh-hopper, from 'n-: to hap, and Arab. Ne'x5e a marsh; ',,.l tranquil, from -1' to be que.and,;~1 to be at rest; or a feeble letter is cast away. as (,Lya bat. from I.z= dark and rI flying. Still holder changes are sometimes made in the amalgamation of words, as "Dlt (O' i7-vu) Dan. viii. 13 fromn 11)-1 L,I It should be remarked that quadriliterals may be shortened again intoi triliterals. E. g. from ~Yr (hop, see -above). with the same signification; hence n ~, a partridge (from its hopping, limping gait); n-il5a chain 1br -I~n6 from 'IS, t 4. To an earlier stage of the langruage, on the contrary, belong the p7ronomis (~ 32 foi`6l.), and somec particles, especially interjeclions (~ 1015), 1.),. which as an ancient and crude formation have not attainled to the model of the triliteral stemus, and follow peculiar anid fleer laws of inflection.' M-ost of the particles, however, are either derived from nouns or resemble themn in inflection, althioughl their forin is often very much shortened on account. of their enclitic nature, and their origin can no longer be known. (See ~6 99, &c.) ~31. OF GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE. 1.'The, formation of the parts of speech from the roots, and their inflection, are, effected in two ways:1) by changes in the stem itself. particularly in its vowels; 2) by the addition of formative syllables. A third method, viz, the use of several separate -words in place of iuflection (as in expressing the comparative *Com-rp. Ilup~feld's SvstAem- der semitischen Demoristrativbiduung und der damit zusammtrenliin-zend-en 1Pronomninal- und IPartikel iibilduing, inl the Zeitschrift ffjv dlie Kunde des Morgeniarides, Bd. IIL, 5. 124 if. 42'7 if. ~32. THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 71 degree and several relations of case), belongs rather to the syntax than to that part of grammar which treats offorms. The second mode of forming words, namely, by agglutination, which is exemplified in the Egyptian, appears on the whole to be the more ancient of the two. Yet other languages, as the Semitic stock, had early recourse also to the first mode, namely, internal modification of the stem, and in the period of their youthful vigor this formative tendency was actively developed; but in later periods its force continually diminished, and it became necessary to resort to the constructions of syntax. This is exemplified in the Greek (including the modern) and in the Latin with its corrupt branches, the Romanic languages.-The formation of words by agglutination is prevalent in ancient and modern Egyptian; that by internal modification in Sanskrit and Greek; the Chinese is almost entirely destitute of any grammatical structure, and supplies its place by the relations of syntax. 2. Both methods of formation and inflection are found in Hebrew. That which is effected by vowel-changes exhibits considerable variety (bpt_, btp, bbji, 'bp, bji). We have an example of the other method in buptn, and of both in the same word in bcp~n. Inflection by the addition of formative syllables occurs, as in allnost all languages, in the formation of the persons of the verb, where also the import of these annexed syllables is still, for the most part, perfectly clear (see HI 44, 47); moreover it occurs in the distinction of gender and number in the verb and the noun. Of case-endings, on the contrary, there appear in Hebrew only imperfect remains (~ 90). CHAPTER L OF THE PRONOUN. ~32. OF THE PERSONAL OR SEPARATE PRONOUN. 1. THE personal pronoun (as well as the pronouns generally) is among the oldest and simplest elements of the language (~ 30, 4). For this reason, and as forming the basis of verbal inflection (~~ 44, 47), it properly claims our first attention. 2. The pronouns in their separate and full forms, or as expressing the nominative, are the following: 72 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. Singular. Plural. 1 comm. ".^, in pause 1 comm.. _,.( ) e a..; ^., in pause ) j e. ( [i tm.u. S-ir^ (r^), ir nr^ 2 pause mrn~. thou.. ye. ^. iPr.^ ) he. Mf. ( _ rhe. M. )m tn 3 f., se. 3 f r; n they. The forms included in parentheses seldom occur. A complete view of these pronouns with their abbreviated forms (suffixes) is given at the end of the grammar in Parad. A. REMARKS. I. First Person. 1. The form $is is nearly as frequent in the Old Testament as And. The former exists in the Phoenician, but in no other of the kindred dialects;* from the latter are formed the sufi xes (~ 33). In the Talmud ^'. is constantly used, and C"b. very seldom. 2. The formation of the plural in this and the other persons, though analogous with that of verbs and nouns, exhibits (as also in the pronoun of other languages) much that is irregular and arbitrary. ^1:.SM is made from A:.] (with the exchange of fobr n) by the addition, as it seems, of.3:. The form.3t, from which the suffixes are derived, occurs only in Jer. xlii. 6 (Kethibh). The form I.. is found only six times; e. g. Gen. xlii. 11, Numb. xxxii. 32. (In the Talmud.:, alone appears.) 3. The first person alone is of the common gender, because one that is present speaking needs not the distinction of gender as does the second person addressed (in Greek, Latin, and German the distinction is omitted here also), and the third person spoken of. II. Second Person. 4. The forms Ms,,x.,s:, in.S are contracted from, <, &c.; the kindred dialects yet have n before the r, Arab. anta f. anti thou, plur. antum f. antunna ye. The essential syllable is,I ta to which the meaning thou belongs (sec ~ 44. 1); the an prefixed is demonstrative, and gives more support to the form.?M without,n occurs only five times, c. g. Ps. vi. 4. and each time as Kethibh with the Q4ri,nr,. As the vowels of the text belong to the Qeri (~ 17), the reading of the Kethibh may have been as as an abbreviation from,ns..................... m.. * In Phcenician it is written 1'X, without the ending - and spoken somewhat like anekhi (Plauti roPnulus, V. 2, 35., Gesenii Mon. Ph(enicia, pp. 376, 437). A trace of this form is found in the zEthiopic qatalku (Ihave killed). In ancient Egyptian ANK (pronounced anok). ~ 33. THE SUFFIX PRONOUN. 73 The feminine form was originally pronounced.rm (with the feminine designation ' —, probably from St. she, properly thou she, compare ~bapj, ~ 47, 2), as in Syriac, Arabic, and IEthiopic. This form is still found in a few instances (Judg. xvii. 2, 1 Kings xiv. 2). Some forms in the inflection of the verb are derived from it (~ 44, Rem. 4, ~ 59, 1). The final '- being gradually lost to the ear (in Syriac it was at length only written, not pronounced), its Yodh was omitted, so that the Jewish critics, even in the above-mentioned passages, place in the Qeri,bt whose Sheva stands in the punctuation of the text (~ 17). The same fin:l '-7 appears, moreover, in the unfrequent forms of the suffix n'-7.. ':7 — (1 58). 5. The plurals:t,.(_ are blunted forms (comp. ~ 27, Rem. 4, b) of!:n. (Arab. antum, Chal. '.nm, a form which lies at the foundation of some verbal inflections, ~ 59, 1), and 'lmn or E"ms, the full final vowel giving place to the obtuse sound of e, somewhat in the manner of the third person. Aqd is found only once (Ezek. xxxiv. 31, where another reading is "5i): and,T~q (for which MSS. have also,tIs (occurs only four times, viz. in Gen. xxxi. 6; Ez. xiii. 11, 20; xxxiv. 17. For the ending '-n see No. 7. III. Third Person. 6. The X indicates a kind of half-vowel heard at the end of Mt.n and t'n, huia, hia, like e in the German die (old Germ. thtu, thia), sie, wie. A trace of this appears in the Arabic; as huwa, hiya, in the common dialect hita, hia. The masculine s1.n is of common gender in the Pentateuch, in which it is used also for she. (See ~ 2, 3.) The punctators, however, whenever it stands for sat, give it the appropriate pointing ofthis form (Knr), and require it to be read INt (comp. ~ 17). It is, however, to be sounded rather according to the old form Mirt. 7. The plural forms Vn and l. come from t., and,sw. in the same manner as tr from,rIt. In Arab. where they are pronounced hum, hunna, the obscure vowel-sound is retained; for which the suffixes o:, ].( still have Seghol (~ 27, Rem. 4, b). The, — in both forms has a demonstrative force. (See ~ 90, 2.) - In Chald. (]io, inn), Arab. and.iEthiop. (hiuma, homi) there is an appended o, u, which occurs in Hebrew in the poetical forms in, i' -, in-' 58, 3, Rem. 1). 8. The pronouns of the third person tn, St., Wa, 'j, are also demonstrative pronouns (see ~ 122, 1). ~33. SUFFIX PRONOUN. 1. The full and separate forms of the pronoun, as given in the foregoing section, express only the nominative:* the accusa * See an exception in ~ 121, 2. 74 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. tive and genitive, on the contrary, are expressed by shortened forms or fragments which are joined to the end of verbs, nouns, and particles (suffix pronouns, usually sffixes), e. g..n him and i his (from Wn he), thus.n'iW.: I have killed him, Om his horse. Instances of the like contraction occur in Greek, Latin, and German, as arti r; ov for hrae E4pov, Lat. eccum in Plautus for ecce eum, Germ. du hast's for du hast es. In Hebrew this is done systematically, as in Egyptian, Hungarian, and some other languages. 2. Concerning the cases which these suffixes denote, let it be remarked: a) when joined to verbs, they denote the accusative (but comp. ~121, 4), rii P I have killed him; b) when joined to substantives, they denote the genitive (like /zccTrji YuOV, pater ejus), and then serve as possessive pronouns, as em.s (abh-i) my father; IC, equus ejus, and equus suus (~ 124, 1, b); c) when joined to particles, they denote either the genitive or the accusative, according as the particle has the meaning of a noun or a verb; e. g. A. (prop. my vicinity) with me, like mea caussa, on the contrary ^':;' behold me, ecce me; d) the dative and ablative of the pronoun are expressed by combining the prepositions that are signs of these cases ( sign of the dative, m iit, " from, ~ 102) with the suffixes, as ii to him, 13. in him, 7Tfrom mne. 3. Some of these suffixes are probably derived from forms of the separate pronoun of which no trace now remains, as I- thee from a form like.~nt =-;ln thou. This applies also to the afformatives of the verb (~ 44, 1). 4. The suffix of the verb (the accusative) and the suffix of the noun (the genitive) are mostly the same in form, but sometimes they are different, e. g. At me, A- my. A tabular view of all the forms. both of the separate pronouns and of the siffxes, is exhibited in Paradigm A. In ~~ 58-61 are given more full explanations of the forms of verbal suffixes and of the modes of attaching them to the verb, and in ~ 91 of the forms and attachment of nominal suffixes. On the prepositions with suffixes, see ~ 103. ~~34, 35. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN AND ARTICLE. 75 ~34. THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. Sing. m. * ) s. f. S'T (ST, nt) this. Plur. comm.,. (rarely ts) these. The feminine form thT is for 1IT (from MY=nt and the feminine ending r, see ~ 80, 2); and the forms iT, nT, which are both of rare occurrence, come from rnT by dropping r. The forms b5 and,n (related to the Arabic article b5, ~ 35, Rem. 1) are plural by usage, and not by grammatical inflection. The form 5b occurs only in the Pentateuch and 1 Chr. xx. 8, and always with the article b5n (Rem. 1). The ending n. in Jni (same as in) is a demonstrative appendage, as in sd,. (~32, Rem. 7). Another form of the demonstrative is IT, used only in poetry. It stands mostly for the relative, like that for who, and is used for all numbers and genders, like m'1. (~ 36). Rem. 1. This pronoun receives the article (,r-,,hs, St) according to the same rules as the adjectives, ~ 111, 2. There are, besides, some peculiar forms in which b is inserted after the article,:nt, Gen. xxiv. 65; xxxvii. 19;.si-i fern. Ez. xxxvi. 35, and shortened T.n usually masc. Judges vi. 20; 1 Sam. xiv. 1; xvii. 26; but fer. in 2 Kings iv. 25. In Arabic there is a corresponding form alladhi as relative pronoun. 2. Some other pronominal stems occur among the particles, ~ 99, &c. ~ 35. THE ARTICLE. Originally the article was a demonstrative pronoun, akin to the pronoun of the third person, but of so feeble import that it was never used except in connection with the noun. Its usual form is *,_, with a short sharp-spoken d and a doubling of the * In most languages the demonstratives begin with d, hence called the demonstrative sound, which is, however, interchanged with a sibilant [as in Heb. rnI] or a rough breathing. Thus in Aram. An, j1,:lf this, Arab. dhu, dhi, dha; Sansk. sa, sa, tat, [Gr. o, c, To], Goth. sa, sd, thata; Germ. da; der, die, das [our the, this, that], &c. 76 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. following consonant (by Daghesh forte), e. g. 0t5t the sun, '^n the river for ',^_ (according to ~20, 3, b). When the article '* stands before a word beginning with a guttural, then the Daghesh forte cannot (according to ~22, 1) be used, and hence the short and sharp a (Pattach) is lengthened into a (Qamets) or a (Seghol). But to be more minute: 1. Before the weakest guttural: and before ' (~22, 5) the vowel of the article is always lengthened to Qamets, as =U the father, _lMy the other, n7 the mother, jIN. the man, 57nN the foot, tWIM the head, I"7 the evil-doer. 2. For the other gutturals it is in general the rule, that the stronger the guttural, the more firmly does the sharpness of the syllable, and consequently the short a, maintain itself. But there are then two cases to be distinguished: A) When the guttural is followed by some other vowel than a (T) or ~ (-), then a) before the stronger l and t, the article regularly remains U, as N^Ir that, tnrH the month, '?nU the strength; with rare exceptions, as ^U1 Gen. vi. 19, and always tU!U those; b) before S the Pattach is generally lengthened, as j"?V the eye, 'f, the city, ~^ the servant, pltr. =1.=77. (Exceptions in Jer. xii. 9, Prov. ii. 17.) B) But when the guttural is followed by a (-), then a) before n and V the article is always U, provided it stands immediately before the tone-syllable, else it is., e. g. DM^ the people, ~> the mountain, ]7p1 (in pausEC); r towards the mountain; on the contrary tPhr the mountains, 15' the guilt; b) before t the article is always -,., without regard to the place of the tone, as:?M the wise, n? the feast; so also c) before M, as ~bM, the sickness, Vt'lnn the months. (On the contrary,rnni according to A, a.) Gender and number have no influence on the form of the article. Remi. 1. The form of the Hebrew article *n appears to have come from,:n the b being always assimilated to the following letter (as in n?. from ni?,; ~ 19, 2). The uniform assimilation is explained by the enclitic nature of the article. In Arabic, its form is bX (spoken hal among the Bedouins*). in which also the b is assimilated, at least before all s and t sounds, as well as before l: n. and '. E. g. al-lforan; but, * Sec IVallin in d. Zcitschr. der D. Morgenl. Gcs. Dd. VI., S. 195. 217. ~~36, 37. RELATIVE, INTERROG. AND INDEF. PRONOUNS. 77 as-sana (Bedouin, has-sana), the same as T1:- the year.-The Arabic article itself occurs in the Old Testament, in the Arabic name Vlimx Gen. x. 26, and perhaps in t3.b.S ice, hail= —. Ez. xiii. 11, 13; according to others, in t:.pbS (the people), Prov. xxx. 31. 2. When the prepositions a, b, and the m of comparison (~ 102) come before the article, the n falls away (by contraction) and the preposition takes its pointing (~ 19, 3, b, and ~ 23, 5), as Ot;: in the heaven for 'rtnnM t; to to the people for t Wsb IN, snm on the mountains. With, however (which is less closely connected with the word), the, very often remains, as Ii::t. Gen. xxxix. 11, but also ltiq Gen. xxv. 31, 33; seldom with other prefixes, except in the later books, as b..1 2 Chron. x. 7. (But see 1 Sam. xiii. 21; Ps. xxxvi. 6.) With ', which in conception is still less closely connected with the word, the,t always remains, as t:?T and the people. ~36. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. The relative pronoun for both genders and numbers is ntb who, which. In the later books, and even in some of the earlier, as in Canticles throughout, and occasionally in Judges, it takes the form *. by the elision of g and assimilation of '. according to ~ 19, 2, 3; more rarely the form * tJudges v. 7, Cant. i. 7, and before g in a single instance t Judges vi. 17, though elsewhere 1 before the gutturals. The still more abbreviated form t5* occurs Eccles. ii. 22 [in some copies]; iii. 18. For the manner in which the cases of the relative are expressed, see ~ 123. 1. t.A is used also as a conjunction, like quod, OT`, that. Closely connected with it in meaning is '-, which also belongs to the pronominal stems, ~ 104. ~37. THE INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 1. The interrogative pronoun is nI who? (of persons), and oa what? (of things). The pointing of,m with Qamets is seldom found out of pause, except before t and n, as ti:s,n what are ye? tr.Wn nM what do ye see? rarely before In as in Josh. iv. 6, 21. It is commonly written in close * In the Phoenician it never occurs in the full form, but as 1D, and 1N, spoken sa, se, si, and ys, es. Gesenius Mon. Phoen. p. 438; Movers Phoenic. Texte I., S. 81, ff. II., S. 44. Comp. above ~ 2, 5. In modern Hebrew also, t has become the prevailing form. 78 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. connection with the following word: a) 'n~ with Maqqeph and Daghesh forte conjunctive (~ 20. 2), as T71-nm quid tibi? and even in one word, as cr.2 quid vobis? Is. iii. 15,,ni_ what is that? Ex. iv. 2; b) before the harder gutturals tm, n,., it also takes Pattach with the Daghesh implied in the following guttural (~ 22, 1), m.n-'n n Num. xiii. 18; c) before a guttural with Qamets. it takes Seghol (according to ~ 27, Rem. 2), as r?;z-,an what hast thou done? This Seghol stands also occasionally before letters that arc not guttural, as '51. bip in what voice, &c.? 1 Sam. iv. 6; 2 Kings i. 7, but only when the tone of the clause is far removed from the word; moreover in the form nu.,,M.3 (see more in the Lexicon under,In in the note). 2. Both A and;n occur also as an indefinite pronoun, in the sense of whoever, whatever. CHAPTER II. OF THE VERB. ~38. GENERAL VIEW. 1. OF the Hebrew parts of speech, the verb exhibits the greatest completeness and variety of development. It is also, in several respects, the most important; especially, as it generally contains the word-stem (~30), and as its various modifications furnish, mainly, the forms of the other parts of speech. 2. All verbs, however, are not stem-words. They may be divided, in respect to their origin, into three classes: a) Primitives, e. g.:~ to reign; t_' to sit. b) Verbal Derivatives, derived from other verbs, e. g. po. to justify, ptt3= to justify one's self, from p32 to be just; commonly called conjugations (~ 39). c) Denominatives, or those derived from nouns; e. g. ibD and oM. to pitch a tent, from bri a tent; Wt.. to root out and &em.SU to take root, from t:'i a root. These appear to be of later origin than the two preceding classes, which they imitate in their forms. The noun from which the denominative verb comes, is in most cases itself derivative; e. g. "(b to be white, hence nb1q. a brick (from the color), and hence again ^b to make bricks; from,n] to increase greatly, 1 a fish, and hence again.t. tofish. ~ 39. CONJUGATIONS. 79 A peculiar kind of secondary verbs, and at least of rather late formation in the language (hence frequent in the later dialects), are those denominatives, one of whose consonants, originally a servile, has become a radical. E. g. rn: to rest, to set one's self down; hence the noun nr5_ a setting down; hence again rnn to descend; in like manner nn5, a pit, destruction (from _nij), hence rni to destroy. ~39. 1. The third person of the Perfect, in the simple, primitive form of the verb (i. e. Kal, see No. 4), is regarded as the stem, or ground-form; as hbj? he has killed, ap he was heavy.* From this come the other persons of the Perfect, and with this the Participle connects itself. There is still another, of the same form as the Infinitive (b:p, also btp), with which are connected the Imperative and the Imperfect. The first ground-form, of two syllables (Arab. qatala, qatila, qatula), may be called the concrete; and the second, which is generally monosyllabic (Arab. qatll, qitl, qutl), the abstract. The same analogy prevails in the division of nouns into abstract and concrete. In verbs whose second radical is 1, the full stem appears only in the second form; e. g. g-l.j, of which the third person Perf. is d5. 2. From this stem are formed, according to an unvarying analogy in all verbs, the verba derivata, each distinguished by a specific change in the form of the stem, with a corresponding definite change in its signification (intensive, frequentative, causative; passive, reflexive, reciprocal). E. g. STb to learn,.rB to cause to learn, to teach; =t to lie, 't~t to cause to lie, to lay; Ut3 to judge; UtS to contend before a judge, to go to law. In other languages such words are regarded as new derivative verbs; e. g.'to fall, to fell; jacere to throw, jacere to lie; yivojucaz to be born, yvvcco to bear. But in Hebrew, where these formations are far more regular than e. g. in German, Greek, or Latin, they are called, since the time of Reuchlin, conjugationst (Hebr..^53, more correctly species, modifications) of the ground-form, and both in the grammar and the lexicon are always treated of in connection, as parts of the same verb. * The infinitive is here used for the sake of brevity in most grammars and lexicons, thus "'Q to learn, prop. he has learned. t Not in the sense in which this term is used in Greek and Latin grammars. 80 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. 3. The changes of the ground-form consist partly in varying its vowels, or doubling one or more of its letters (^'p,.i?; p?, p b; -?., b^: 6 p; comp. to lie, to lay; to fall, to fell); partly in the addition of formative letters or syllables (-^p?, ip..; comp. to speak, to bespeak; to count, to recountC; bid, forbid)' sometimes in both united, as 5~,'n. (Comp. ~31, 2.) In the Ararnman this is effected less by the change of vowels than by the addition of formative syllables; the variations by vowels having almost gone out of use; so that, fbr instance. all the passives are supplied by the reflexives. with the prefix syllable rx. rx. The Arabic is rich in both methods. while the Hebrew holds also here the middle place (~ 1. 6). 4. Grammarians differ as to the number and arrangement of these conjugations. The common practice, however, of giving to them still the old technical designations, prevents any error. The ground-form is called Kal (5p light, because it has no forinative additions); the others (:..: heavy, because burdened with formative additions) derive their names from the Paradigm used by the old Jewish grammarians, 52 he has done.' Several of themn have passives which distinguish themselves fiomn their actives by the obscure vowels. The most common conjugations (including Kal) are the five following; but few verbs, however, exhibit them all. Active. Passive. 1. Kal, _.0 to kill. (wanting.) 2. Niphal, to kill one's self. (very rare.) 3. Piel, j{ to kill many, ul to massacre. i P 4. Hiphil, bn"~t to cause to kill. Hophal, 5'n 5. Hithpael, b r'l to kill one's self. Hothpaai, bnpj * This verb, on account of the guttural which it contains, is unsuitable for a Paradigm, and was accordingly exchanged for i1t, which lhas tllis advantage, that all its conjugations are actually in use. There is, however, some indistinctness in the pronunciation of some of its forms, as 1^,,) tt.i2. The Paradigm bp, in common use since the time of Danz, obviates this inconvenience, and is especially adapted to a comparative treatment of the Semitic languages, inasmuch as it is found with a slight change (Arab. and IEthiop. ~n,) in all of them. In Hebrew, it is true, it has only the forms of Kal, which are not frequent, and occur only in poetry; yet it may be retained as a type or model sanctioned by usage. ~ 40. CONJUGATIONS. 81 There are several other less frequent conjugations, of which some, however, are more common than these in the kindred languages, and in the irregular verb in Hebrew they sometimes take the place of the usual conjugations (~ 55). In Arabic there is a greater variety of forms, and a more perfect arrangement, than in Hebrew. Arranged after the Arabic manner, the Hebrew conjugations would stand thus:-1. Kal. 2. Piil and Pual. 3. Po;l and Poal (~ 55, 1). 4. IIiphil and IHophal. 5. Hithpael and Hothpaal. 6. Ilithpoel (~ 55). 7. Niphal. 8. Wanting in Hebrew. 9. Pilel. The most appropriate division is into three classes; 1) The intensive Piel, with the analogous forms derived from it; 2) The causative Iliphil, and its analogous forms (Shaphel, Tiphel);- 3) The reflexive and passive Niphal. ~40. 1. The Hebrew verb is indebted, for whatever copiousness it exhibits, chiefly to these conjugations or derivative verbs. In moods and tenses it is very poor, having only two tenses (Perfect and Inperfect*), an Imperative, an Infinitive (withl two forms), and a Participle. All other relations of time, absolute and relative, must be expressed by these, either alone (hence the multiplicity in the uses of the same form, ~ 125, &c.) or in syntactic connection with other words. The jussive and optative are sometimes indicated by peculiar forms of the Impf. (see ~ 48). In the Germanic languages also there are distinct forms for only two tenses (the present and imperfect). In the formation of all the others, auxiliary verbs are employed. Comp. Grimm's d. Gram. 2. A. I. 835. 2. In the inflection of the Perf. and Impf. by persons, the Hebrew differs from the Western languages, having in most cases distinct forms for both genders, as in the personal pronoun, which is incorporated in the forms of these tenses. The following table exhibits the formative syllables (afformatives and preformatives) of the two tenses. The stein-letters are indicated by dots. For the details, see ~ 44 ff. * See ~ 47, note *, where the relation of these two terms to each other, and their general import, are explained. The learner will observe, that the corresponding terms in the Hebrew lexicon of Gesenius (translated by Dr. Robinson, fifth edition, 1854) are Prceter for Perfect, and Future for Imperfect.-TR. 6 82 PART IL. PARIS OF SPEECH. PERFECT. 'Sing. Plur. 3 m...3 c. 3f 2f nt. 2f l C. n.. C. IMPERFECT. 3fn....r 3fm. ~ 41. In the formation of all the verbs there is the samie general analogy; and the Hebrew has properly no anomalous verbs, like those, for instance, in Greek, which end in izz. The deviations which occur from the, oeneral model of the regrular verb are owinga) to the presence of a guttural as one of the stemi-letters or radicals, which occasions various vowel changes according to ~22 (guttural verb, ~~ 62-65); 6) to the, fallingr away of a strong stem-letter by assimilation or contraction (contracted* verb, H~ 66, 637), as 1Z=, =0 c) to the presence of a feeble letter as one of the radlicals (~~ 23, 24), 50 that miany changes occur through its commutation, omission, or quiescence (quiescent or feeble verb, H~ 68-715), as The letters of the old Paradigm ~Y are used in nzamiing the letters of the stemn, 1) designating the first, YV the sccon(]. arid the third. Hence the expressions, verb NE for a verb whose first radical is X (pr7i11oe, radicali tt); verb M" for one whose third radical is -b (terticve radiculi M); verb Y'T (V doubled) for one whose. second and third radicals are the same (mnedice radicalis gemninatce). * The term defective, b~y which somie designate this class, we apply to those whose forms are not all in use (~ 78). ~~42, 43. THE REGULAR VERB; KAL. 83 I. OF THE REGULAR VERB. ~42. As the rules for the formation of the regular verb apply, with only occasional modifications, to all the irregular verbs, it will be most convenient (and will also exhibit the subject in the most clear light to the learner) to present, while treating of the former, whatever belongs to the general analogy of the verb. In Parad. B, and the above table ~ 40, 2, are given the usual and normal forms, with full explanations in the following sections (43-55). In these, each subject is explained where it first comes under notice; e. g. the inflection of the Perfect and Imperfect, with the modifications of the latter, in treating of Kal-as also the forms and significations of the several conjugations in treating of the regular verb, though the same things are applicable to irregular verbs, &c. A. OF THE GROUND-FORM, OR KAL. ~43. ITS FORM AND SIGNIFICATION. 1. The common form of the 3d person Perf. in Kal is j?(middle A),' especially in transitive verbs. There is also a form with E (Tsere), and another with O (Cholem), in the second syllable; the two latter usually employed in an intransitive sense, and for expressing states and qualities, e. g. 'In to be heavy, ]b: to be smnall. Sometimes both forms, the transitive and the intransitive, exist together, as abd to fill (Esther vii. 5), W' to be full (comp. ~ 47, Rem. 2), yet also with the same sense for both forms, as 3i? and ~eP to approach. A verb mnildle E will be found in the Paradigm by the side of a verb middle A. The example selected shows, at the same time, the effect of inflection on Daghesh lene in the middle stem-letter. Remn. 1. The vowel of the second syllable is the principal vowel, and hence it distinguishes between the transitive and intransitive. The pretonic Qamets in the first syllable has little strength, and becomes vocal Slieva on the shifting of the tone, as C:z~. In Arammcan it wholly fills away in the root itself as bzp, b5p. Rem. 2. Examples of denominatives in Kal: 'n.r to cover with pitch. from lan pilch; nrb to salt, fiom nri salt. * A verb middle A is one that has Pattach (short a) under the middle radical or in the second syllable; a verb middle E, one that has Tsere; and a verb middle 0, one tiati has Cholem.-TR. 84 84 I~~~ART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. ~44. PERFECT OF KAL AND ITS INFLECTION. 1. The inflection of the, Perfect in respect to person, number, and genider, is effe~cted by appending fragmnents of the personal pronouns, plural and feminine endings, (as afformatives,) to the end of the ground-form. In explaining this connection, we may treat the ground-form as a partlicijl~e, or a ver-bal adjective,.' expressing by itself tile 3d sing. Peif.; as he has killed, n-'16 thou ha~st killed ( killingr-thou, or killer-thou, a killer- xast thou, r in b p),, he was fearing, =1W1 fearingr were ye, for ~~ ~~ In tile -second person this is readily seen, as wvell as in 1-, for nd % In the first person singe. 'In we Ilave 'I-, the simple germ of the pronoun, united with the (lemonstrative soutidi r, by -which the afformative is at tile saile time distingriiild from tile suffix forms and 1-:- (as if one would form r-,. i.~641 after tile analog-y of 'M) In tile thir-d person, 'ol (originally r —, comyp. Renl. 4) is a designation of tile femi-inine (as lfl tile noun. 80, 2), and I (originally "p) is a sign of tile iplural. In the Indlo-Germanic tongues the inflection by persons originated in the same manner, nam-ely, by appending pronominal forms; as. e. g. in the Sanscrit and Greek, from tlie stein as (to be) Sanscr. asmi'. vaDor. '-pi forf 'up'd (I am), where tile ending piL belongs to poiand pl; Sanscr. asi, Dor. lri(tlhozz art), where ui is about = arv; Sanser. asti, ci(e is), where -mc corresponds to the pronoun -to', and so forth. For the most part. indle ed. tile etyinologry is mnore obi iterate(.l here,. as it sometim-res is in the Semlitic alamiglages.; e. g. 1 st pen-s. sing~.. Arab. kataWlft, Syr. ketlel, where, the characteristic i is wholly lost. 2. In respect to vowel changes, the, analogy of the 3d fern. sing. is followed by tile 3d masc. p)lur- 1:6. '1 and that of the 2d rnasc. singr. rabi by all tile forms of the first and second persons.t *On the intimate connection between the Perfect and the verbal adjective, see what has alrcady beeii said ~ 39, 1. In initransitives, they often have the same formn, as zx~ fill, or lie was full; sinall, or he was smtall. In transitives the participle has, indeed, a different form (`-::);but the adIjective-form, j7 may he conmpared wih~ althiough it genierally denotes properties, as 1== wie t~(inimical) adversary, ~ 84, 1. f In the Paradigms thle forms M~:1 aiid r-'un are, therefore, designated with an asterisk as miodel-forms, for the niot~ice of the beginner. ~44. PERFECT OF KAL AND ITS INFLECTION. 85 Only tbrf),?r.biT have the tone on the last syllable, and, in consequence, Sheva under the first radical (~ 27, 3). N. B. Rem. 1. Verbs middle E, falling back in their inflection to the type of verbs middle A, generally lose the E sound, which passes over into (-), as the Paradigm shows. The original E remains, however, regularly in the feeble stems i' (~ 74, Rem. 1); in strong stems only in pause, i. e. when the stress of voice falls upon it, as nrm, Job xxix. 10; comp. 2 Sam. i. 23; Job xli. 15. 2. In some feeble stems middle A, the a under the second radical, sometimes passes over into -or -, when the syllable is closed and toneless, and the first radical has not a full vowel (~ 27, Rem. 2, 3). Thus::lBb ye have asked 1 Sam. xii. 13, t=t1&. ye possess Deut. iv. 1, 22; so also before suffixes 'n'i r I have asked him 1 Sam. i. 20, rih.1 I have begotten thee Ps. ii. 7. Such forms must not be considered verbs middle E: the weakening of the vowel is owing simply to the general weakness of the form, and the 3d person Perf. is bt1t, 1~j_, it, not It ij, -m, '';. See ~ 64, Rem. 1, and ~ 69, Rem. 4. 3. In verbs middle O, the Cholem is retained in inflection where it has the tone, as PW?. But when the tone is thrown forward, Cholem becomes Qamets-chatuph, as 1'P.b1. I have overcome him, Z:`1 (see ~ 49, 3) and thou wilt be able, Ex. xviii. 23. 4. Unfrequent forms.* Sing. 3dfem. in n- (as in Arab. XEthiop. Aram.), e. g. nrif, Deut. xxxii. 36. Before suffixes this is the prevailing form (~ 59, 1); more frequent in stems a2b and rib, ~ 74, Rem. 1, ~ 75, Rem. L.-2d masc. Mts for t (differing only in orthography), as 1mn=. Mal. ii. 14, comp. Gen. iii. 12.-2dfem. sometimes has still a Yodh at the end; as ir:bm. Jer. xxxi. 21 (according to one form of the pronoun "m', ~ 32, Rem. 4). especially in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. It is properly pronounced?.b5, and the vowels of the text belong to the marginal reading (without a) as in the corresponding pronoun. With this is connected the form i. b~. before suffixes ({ 59,, c).-lst con,. sometimes without Yodh, as nb_~, Ps. cxl. 13; Job xlii. 2; 1 Kings viii. 48. This however is found only in Kethibh; the Qeri substitutes the full form.Plur. 2d fem. tn: (or mit) Amos iv. 3.-3d corn. seldom with the full plural ending "I (often in Chald. and Syr.), as "^,n, Deut. viii. 3, 16, or with a superfluous t (after Arabic orthography), as.:b.n, Jos. x. 24. In the Imperfect the form with "i is more frequent, see ~ 47, Rem. 4. N. B. 5. In connection with the afformatives l,, u, the tone is on the penultima. and the word is Milel; with the others it is Miilra (~ 15, 2). The place of' the tone is shifted, a) in several persons by the Pause (~ 29, 4), where it is moved backwards and at the same time the vowel of the second syllable, if it had become (.), is restored, as * Almost all these forms, which in Hebrew are unfrequent, are the usual ones in the kindred dialects, and may, with a proper understanding of the terms, be called Chaldaisms, Syriasms, and Arabisms.. 86 86 ~~~PART II. PARTh OF SPEECH. mx~t b)by av onsecutive of the Perfect. wher it is T AT -,T bJyravc er moved forward one syllable (6 49, 3). ~45. OF THE INFlNITIVE. 1. The Infinitive, originally a verbal-substantive, has two forms. The shorter, in Kal ~;- is the prevailing form (Injin. construct). In this form it is united with suffix pronouns, and with prepositions to kill, ~ 132, 2), and takes after it a nominative of the subjec ora cuaieof the object (~ 133). The longer form (Infin. absolute, or emphlatic) in Kal is usedi when the action of the verb is presented by itself, without direct connection wvith other wvords and most frequently, when the Infinitive, as an adver-bial accusative, is added to the finite verb for the sake of emphasis. The first is the more original form, and has more of the nature and mobility of the verbalsubstantive; the second is somiewhat rigrid and imm-ovable, expressing the verbal idea more in the abstract. For the details, see Syntax, ~ 131-133.* 2. In form bb, and Blw are distinguished, by a firmi immnutable 6' in the latter, and a mutable 0 inl the formier (hience with. sff. 1%:) In the derived con~jugrations, except HIp/. and Hoph. the ktf. absol. has generally an immutable 6', although the Inf. constr. has other vowels; e. g. Pill, 1 with '.. Besides bt'j the Infin. eonstr. has tlhe following unusual forms in Kali a) be. g. to lie Gen. xxxiv. 7. b) rn= and — *u (fminine forms from ~=p and ptn);as lbnMiz to hate, " "- to approach Ex. xxxvi. 2, Mzr 'to pity Ezek. xvi. 5. (As a verbal noun, the Infin. may also take the feminine ending.) c) (as in Chaldee); e. g. btp to call Numb. x. 2. These unfrequent forms are in more common use as verbal nouns (~84, Nos. 10. 11, 14). 3. A sort of Gerund is formied. in Hebrew by the Jinf- constr. with. the preposition ~,as interjlciendo, ad inter:ficiendum, ad cadendum (fo-r to fall). *In the Paradigms the Inf. constr., as the predominant form, is put before the other under the name of Infinitive, xur' E'lo:iV. ~46. THE IMPERATIVE. 87 The 7 is here closely combined with the Inf. into a grammatical form, as is shown by the division of syllables and the use of Daghesh lene, namely b?5 lin-pol (~ 28, 1), so also liq-tol, just as in the Impf. 'l?, bbpi. On the contrary 5be. Job iv. 13, b.n3 2 Sam. iii. 34, where the prepositions Z and 3 are conceived to be less closely connected with the infinitive: so also i, as an exception; irkb l tjiMnr, Jer. i. 10. 46. OF THE IMPERATIVE. 1. The chief form of the Imperative bbp (t?) is the same that lies also at the basis of the Imperfect (~ 47), and which in another view, as Infinitive (~ 45), connects itself with the noun.* It expresses only the second person, but has inflections for the feminine and the plural. For the third person it has no form (see ~ 130, Rem. 2), and supplies its place by the jussive Imperfect; and even the second must be so expressed when a negative precedes, as bp.n bN ne occidas (not bp: bN). The proper passive conjugations have no Imperative;t but the reflexives, as Niphal and Hithpael, have it. 2. The inflection is analogous to that of the Imperfect, and will be understood from the explanations given below in ~ 47, 2. Like the Imperfect, the Imperative also has a lengthened and a shortened form, the first in the manner of the cohortative, the second after the analogy of the jussive (see ~ 48, 5). Rein. 1. Besides the form tbt there is also one with Pattach, as 33w (as in the Inf and Impf) 2 Sam. xiii. 5. The Pattach is regular in in3 from I=; see the Paradigm. 2. Less frequently there is found in the first syllable of the feminine and plural form an 6 (Qamets-chatuph) instead of the a, as t1nt draw ye Ez. xxxii. 20;:in reign thou f Judges ix. 10. * Also the Inf. absol. is occasionally used, like the Greek Infinitive, for the Imperative (~ 131, 4, b). But this is no ground for taking the Imperative to be properly an Infinitive; for the Inf. absol. stands also for a Present, Perfect and Imperfect. It might rather be supposed, that the Imper. is a shortening of the 2d person of the Impf. (t3p from bptr i); but in reality these three forms are each independent, and have not arisen one from another, but all alike have been formed on the basis of the abstract verb (~ 39, 1). The inflection of the Imper. may certainly have been borrowed from the Impf. t An Imper. is found twice (Ez. xxxii. 19, Jer. xlix. 8) in Iophal, but with a reflexive meaning. 88 88 ~~~PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. 3. In the form the ','- at, tirmes fihuls away. and then a helpingvowel is introduced, as in hear ye f. lbr Geni. iv. 23; coinp. call ye f: for Ex. ii. 20. The shortening is prob'ably owing to the guttural. ~6 4 7. OF THE IMPERFECT AND ITS INFLECTION.* 1. Frag(ments of the lpersonal pronoun are employed in the inflection of the Imperfect as well as of the LPerfect hut in the Imperfect these fragments are pr-efixed (pr-efo-m-at-ives) to the root in the, albstract form. viz, the Inf. constrb% ) These formative particles, inasmuch. as they stand 157/ore the verbal form, towards the end of whichi the tone continuially tends, are inuclei more abbreviated th-an thec allormnat~ives of the P~erfect. so that in every case, only one consonant remains ('. L4 1:),. mostly wvith a very short vowel, viz, vocal Sh'xva. Butt as this is niot always sufficient to mnark at the samie timre the (listinction of gender and of number, the defect~ is supplied by additions at the end. Comp. the table, ~6 40, 2. 2. The derivation and sigrnification, both of the preform-atives and afrormatives, are still in m'ost cases clear. In the 1st per-s. plur. Z ~ is an abbreviation of ~ of %,. This person. required ol addition at the enid. In the 2d p~ers. sing. the r- in L.t'~ is from -#N" the 'I- in,,i is the sign of thme femninine, as in "4 1/hou (f -mi-nine. see ~' 32, Rem. 4). In the 2d per-s. plIur. tlie (m-ore fu~lly ~ see Remn. 4) in n. is the sign of the plural as in the:3(1 person. *The name lInperfect is here used in direct contrast with P)erfect; in a wider sense, therefore, than in the Latin and Greek. grammnar. The hlebrew Perfect dcnotes, in general, thle finishedi a-nd lpast, what is comne to pa~ss or is, gone into effect; but at thle same timie, thwat which is re~presented as perfected, whether extending still into the p~resenit, Or. in reality yet futuiie-. The 2Imperfect, on the contrary denotes the unllnislhed and continuing, th st whieli is being done, or comning~ to pass, and is future (hence called also l7'uture) h ut abso that which is ilrors and in connected snecession, in pas time (tile Lastin. fbnperfeet.). This distinction shlows itself in tihe 1110de of their fo)rmation. Thius in the mnore objective Perfect-, the. verbal-stem prleedees, arid the designaition of the personi follows as, s-oniethiuig subordinate;but in the.1imperfect, thle subject, from W lich the,action prioceeds, is expressed by a prefixed pronouni.-A like twofold division of the tense-forms oeeurs in the older branchies of thre Arie faufily, and as reviveed again inl the Parsi and Modern Persian.-See farther, in the Syntax, ~ 125, if. ~47. THE IMPERFECT AND ITS INFLECTION. 89 and as in the Perfect also (~44, 1), and is here appropriated to the masculine;*.it in t:bi3. is the sign of the plural feminine (in Chaldee I- ), or borrowed from h.3. et. In the 3d person 5;p?, the " is less easily explained, there being no clearly corresponding pronominal form in Hebrew. It stands, perhaps, as a stronger consonant for I (from X. a), properly bFl. (comp. 3&' for e:1. ~ 69). The plur. (fully J1.;P.) is formed by the plural ending f1, shortened 1. The I~ in thefeminines ip,,':56pi, which are precisely the same as the second person, may be connected with the feminine ending T-. 3. In the course of inflection the final vowel is dropped in some forms, while in others it is retained. In this respect the analogy of b5p:? is followed by all the other forms which receive no addition at the end, and that of Z.Ip by the forms -top.?, ~aZ'=; analogous to nb..pi. is:ib6i in the Imperative. Rem. 1. The final o (Cholem) is only tone-long (~ 9, No. 10, 3), as in the Infin. and Imper. Hence, a) The examples in which it is written fully are very rare, and are to be regarded as exceptions. b) Before Maqqeph it becomes Qamets-chatuph; e.g. t:'nr:.. _ and he wrote there, Josh. viii. 32. c) It becomes vocal Sheva before the afformatives i- and.i. In the few instances in which it remains before such afformatives, the pointing becomes., because it stands close before the pause, e. g. unS li yish-puta (they will judge), Ex. xviii. 26; Ruth ii. 8; comp. Prov. xiv. 3. N. B. 2. This Cholern is confined, almost exclusively, to verbs middle A, like -iq. Intransitive verbs (middle E and 0) take a (Pattach) in the Imperf., as 5bt to be great, Impf. b53; I:bi to be small, Impf. -?. Sometimes both forms exist together; the Inpf. with o is then transitive, and that with a intransitive. E. g. 'S? he will cut off will reap; 'Y.? he will be cut off, i. e. will be short. So also in, Impf. o, to subdue; Impf. i, to be subdued. Ex. xvii. 13; Job xiv. 10. More seldom both occur without any difference in signification; e. g.?t' and iT. he will bite. In the irregular verbs, the feeble e (Tsere) is also found in the final syllable, as "t.. for "r?. These three forms of the Imperfect are called Impf. 0, Impf. A, Impf. E. 3. For the 3d plur.fem.,::pftr occurs in three instances (as if to distinguish it from the 2d pers.), the form:b..~p, as in Chaldee and Arabic. E. g. tng they will arise, Dan. viii. 22; comp. Gen. xxx. 38; 1 Sam. vi. 12. In several instances nbtip. seems to have been used improperly for the 3d pers. singular, Ex. i. 10; Judg. v. 26 (and accord* This is also the proper gender of the plural-syllable an, u. It is true that in the Perf. the Hebrew employs it for both genders, but in the kindred tongues, it stands even in the Perf. for the masculine alone; as in Syriac, masc., qetalun, fern. qetalen, so in Arabic, masc., qdtalu, fer. qatdlna. 90 '. ' i'. i'. '' SPEECI. ing to some Job xvii. 16; Is. xxviii. 3). (In the vulgar Arabic, necul, properly wue eat, is the common form for I eat; and in the French patois, j'avons for j'ai.)-In the Pentateuch 1 (na) occurs in place of n?, especially after Vav consecutive (~ 49, 2); e. g. Ex. i. 18, 19, xv. 20, as in Arabic. and in a still more abbreviated form in the Imp. (~ 46. Rem. 3). -Once occurs (Ezek. xvi. 50) the anomalous form z^..~;n with ~inserted, after the manner of verbs s'o and 51 (~ 67, 4, 9 72, 5). N. B. 4. The plural forms ending in. appear also not unfrequently with the fuller ending.I, most commonly with obvious stcess on the word at the end of a clause, where the vowel of the second syllable is then retained, as ).:S^ they tremble, Ex. xv. 14, p^.'n ye shall hear, Deut. i. 17. But it is not confined to this position; see e. g. Ps. xi. 2, r_ ~.~=~; comp. iv. 3, Gen. xviii. 28, 29, 30, 31, 32; Is. viii. 12; 1 Sam. ix. 13. But the preference for this form at the end of a clause is clearly seen in Is. xxvi. 11, M'.j^ r ". b.:3_n they see not; let them see and be ashamed.* This original ending ". is common in Aramrean and Arabic; but in the vulgar Arabic it is shortened. Of the Impf with N (the Arab. orthography, ~ 44, Rem. 4), s.""' Jer. x. 5 is the only example. 5. In like manner ~5p;B has a longer form with final i. namely -.^TB, which is also common in Aram. and Arabic. The i'- here is scarcely original; perhaps it arose from imitation of the plural ending "j. See examples in 1 Sam. i. 14; Ruth ii. 8, 21; iii. 4, 18. 6. In Pause, the vowel of the second syllable, if it had become Sheva. is restored and takes the tone, as,b.)lm, o;=?. Comp. ~ 29. 4. ~48. LENGTHENING AND SHORTENING OF THE IMPERFECT AND IMPERATIVE. (Jussive and Cohortative Forms.) 1. The want of definite forms for expressing the relative tenses and the moods, in Hebrew and the kindred dialects, is partially supplied by changes in the form of the Imperfect, to which a certain signification is either exclusively or principally appropriated. 2. Thus, the language distinguishes between the common form of the Imperfect and two others, viz. a lengthened form (with a cohortative force) and a shortened form (with a jussive force). The lengthened Imperfect, however, occurs only in the * It is worthy of remark, that the Chronicles often omit the Nun where it stands in the books of Kings; see 1 Kings viii. 38, 43; comp. 2 Clron. vi. 29, 33. -1 Kings xii. 24; 2 Kings xi. 5; comp. 2 Chron. xi. 4; xxiii. 4. ~48. JUSSIVE AND COHORTATIVE FORMS. 91 first person (with unimportant exceptions), while its shortened form is confined to the second and third. In Hebrew, however, the short-spoken Jussive is not always orthographically distinguished from the common form of the Imperfect. In Arabic the distinction is always clear. Besides the common Indicative Imperf. yiqtulu,. it has, a) a Subjunctive, yaqtula; b) a Jussive, yiqtul; and c) a so-called Irperf. energic, yaqtulan, which is nearly related to the Heb. Cohortative. 3. The characteristic of the Cohortative is a long a (r;-) appended to the first person; e. g. ri?~} for ^bp~. It is found in all the conjugations and in all classes of regular and irregular verbs (except in the Passives), and has the tone wherever it is taken by the afformatives - and -, and hence it affects the final vowel in precisely the same manner as these do. E. g. in Kal,,~; in Piel, nrp_ Ps. ii. 3; but in Hiphil, T.: -- Very rarely, the duller sound n-. takes the place of '- (~ 27, Rem. 4), e. g. I Sam. xxviii. 15; Ps. xx. 4. As rarely is it attached to the third person (Is. v. 19; Ez. xxiii. 20; Ps. xx. 4). The second person. however, receives it in the Imperative. See No. 5.,- denotes, as accusative ending to a noun, motion or tendency towards a place (~ 90, 2); and after the same analogy, the Cohortative with this ending expresses effort and the direction of the will to an action. Accordingly it is used especially to express excitement of one's self, determination, wish (as Optative), &c. (see ~ 128). 4. The Jussive occurs only in the second and third persons. Its form is often orthographically the same as that of the Indicative; e. g. ~b~;, as Indic. he will kill, as Jussive let him kill. It is sometimes, however, plainly distinguished by the orthographic shortening of the form, as will be shown in every instance in the appropriate place. In the regular verb, it is externally distinguished from the Indicative only in Hiphil; Indic. bp.:? Jussive,?. It is found in Kal and -liphil of verbs 'b, as rit and rn" for no, and nry; and in all the conjugations of verbs wi, where it consists in the removal (apocope) of the ending n-. e. g. b. for r?.. (The name Future apocopated, derived from the mode of forming it in verbs 'i, is applied generally to this form of the Imperfect.) But in all cases the plural forms of the Jussive coincide with the common, except that the ending In is 92 92 ~~~PART II. PARTS OF SPEECIh excluded. So also the 2d sing. fein., as * ~ M &c.; arid all forms, sing. andl plur., with pronominal suffixes, as "",- lindicative Jer. x.xxviii. 15, Jussive Xli. S. 'In signification this formn is sirniliar to the other,7 with some modification occasioned by diflebrence, of person. In general it is use(] where a command, wish, or (odto sepesd 5.Te persons of thre Imperative, as it is alliedl in formi and mean inig to the Impjerfect, are also lengthened (by wi-) an(d shortened, in a manner perfectly analogrous. So also the Arabic has an Inqperativus energricits. In. most conjugations only one of these formis is found, in others bo0th are employed. The lengthened 11)1]). occurs, e. g. ini Kal of the recgiar verb, as 1~= 71t~:~~;the shortened Impj. in verlbs -M, as fo r ~ both tog-ether in Iliphil, as -,,,- and 0 * for F6. rp II. he signification of these forins is not always so strongly miarked as in the I1niperfect. The longer form, however, is often emphatic, as MIr stand utp, Mr up!?q give, 'Mr give up. ~649. PERFECT AND IMPERFECT WITH I CONSECUTIVE. 1. The use of the two tenses, as w\ill more clearly appear in the Syntax (;i~ 126, 127'), is by no means confined to the. expression of the past and the future. One of' the most striking peculiarities in their use, and, Indeed, in the Hebrew diction generally, is this:that in continu~ed narrations of the past, only the first verb stands in the Perfect, the niarrative conmmencing with the Pleif. and proceeding with the i~npjf.; and, on the contrary, continuous description of the future is commienced wvith the I'npf and1 procecols wvith the Peif. Gen. i. 1: it. the becinniuct God created (Perf.) the heavens and the earth. Yer. 3: And God said (Impf.), Let there be light, and there?was (Impf.) ligh-Pt. Ver. 4: Aznd God saw (Impf.), &c. Just the reverse in Is. xii. 17: J'ehovah will brin-cr (Imnpf.) up~on thee, and upjon thy p~eop~le,. and up~on thy father's house, days, switc as have not come since. &c. Ver. 18: And it will hapIpen (Perf. 'Il! on, that day,. Ver. 19: and they will come (Perf.). Th is progress of timre, this succession of thought, is usually indicated by the, Vav copu1lative; wvith a change, however, partly affecting the form of the ~49. PERFECT AND IMPERFECT. 93 Vav, and partly that of the Perfect and Imperfect to which it is prefixed.* 2. The Vav consecutive of the Imperfect is the most important. This a) is regularly prefixed with Pattach and a Daghesh forte in the next letter, as bb:P and he killed, but to the 1st pers. sing. with Qamets (according to ~ 22, 1), as -bjbp and I killed [see another exception with Dagheshforte omitted, as '~gq? and nl, in ~ 20, 3, b]; b) it takes a shortened form of the Imperfect, when that exists (comp. ~ 48, 4), e. g. in Hiphil bu..]3 (~ 53, Rem. 4), and often at the same time draws the tone back to the penultima, as ^.2, shortened rni5, with Vav consecutive t}l (and he died), ~ 67, Rem. 2, 7; ~ 68, 1; ~ 69, Rem. 3; ~ 71; ~ 72, Rem. 4, 7; ~ 73, Rem. 2.t To the 1st pcrs. on the contrary, especially in the sing., the ending,-l is often appended, but chiefly in the later books; e. g. 71,rWS and I plucked out, Ezra ix. 3. See more in ~ 129. This ' is a strengthened form of Vav copulative (comp. t=m, Inn. rnb, where the prepositions a, 3, b are strengthened in a similar way), in the sense of and then, and so. The drawing back of the tone is found also in similar connections. like Mn; and the shortening of the verb at the end (apocope) is merely an accidental coincidence with the form of the Jussive, though it seems to have favored the increasing use of the Cohortative form in the first person.+ 3. As the opposite of the above, we have Vav consecutive of the Perfect, by which it is joined to a preceding Imperfect. In form it is the usual Tav copulative (), e. g. ';,11 (after Impf.) * Since it affects in some measure the use of the tenses, it is called by grammarians Vav conversive (i. e. converting the Impf. into the Perf., and the Perf. into the Impf.). The name Vav consecutive is more appropriate, since it essentially denotes sequence or progress. t Also the forms in 'I and '1- occur very seldom after Vav cons.,.'jm~_ Judg. viii. 1; Ez. xliv. 8. t The opinion of earlier grammarians, that bp_ is a contraction of b'? tn (which was explained, it happened that he killed), is in every respect erroneous, and is now antiquated. The '1 is always an emphatic and; and when it begins entire divisions and books of the Old Testament, it indicates, that theyT were either originally connected with what goes before, or have been brought into connection with it (e. g. Levit., Num., Josh., Jud., 1 and 2 Sam., Esth., Ruth); just as some other books, for a like reason, begin with the simple copula? (Ex., 1 K., Ezra).-Equally false is its derivation, according to some, from ^;b n^? n. 94 94 ~~~PART IL. PARI'h OF SPEECHL and it will be; but it has generally the effect of shifting the tone to the last syllable, in those verbal forms wvhich would otherwise have it on the penultima,* e. g. "r D' I went, (with preceding Impf.) and I will go, Judges i. 3;: "14 Perf., '0511n and it s/hall divide, Ex. xxvi. 33. See miore on the use of the Perfect,2 in.6 126. This shiliting forward of the tone does not always take place, and the exceptions are sometimes strange. It is onmittedl. specially. a) in the 1St per-S. PI. Gen. xxxiv. 16; b) in verbs ~ anid M"; C. g. r"T" Ex. xvi 4,6, 7;iO if. (on thie contrary, r ml the 9th and other verses). ~ 50. OF THlE PARTICIPLE. 1. Kal has two forms of the Participle, viz, an active, called also Po~l, and a passive or Pa-ui (nI:M ). t The latter is to be regrardled. without doubt. as aI remnant ofra lost passive flrat of'~ In the Aramwana the pnssives of Piel anti Hiphil are in like rnanner lost, except in the participles. 2. In intransitive verbs maid. ' Cand mnid. 0, the active Participle of Kal coincides in form wvith the Perf. 3(1 sBing.; as slep ill.r from 1 fearingr fr-om Comlp. the formation of the P'articiple in NVip/al, ~ 15'1, 1. BUt inl verbs mzid. A, it has th 'ort;! in wich the 6 is a corrut.1Ition of the original (qevel froin qr'd61, ~9, 10, 2), anld is immniutable. (Thie Ibrm11 ~U is inl cotumnoir use only as a verbal nouin, ~ 84, 1.)- In Phiol, Hiphil, atid Hitt/tacl. thie P~articiple is formed after a diflerent manner. 3. Participles form their femlinine and plural like other nouns (Hi 87, 94). _Reni. 1. An unfr-equent form is 1 Pr-emlmC ens. Ps. xvi. 5 (1>o isvii21 nnd thre p~rop. n fihorn 71n) cotoip.::1 2 LKint vii.21 1 Chron. xxvii. 30. 'Many reckon. here also Is. xxix. 1.4. xxxviii. 5; hut thins is erather the 3d sing% im~pf. Fliphil of.Cornp. a quite sirnilar constr-oct-ion Is. xxviii. 16. Thme Cholera in ~ sUnclantreable. thougrh * N\lretlirr tlme hastening of thie tone.'forward expresses tlie reference t~o ltre future, ind, o lie contrarrv tire shifting of it 6ack-arda Clscontinwh what is pest, is left undecidfed. f Tire Jewishi gr-ammarians call the P~articiple also ~I!(middle wcord); vet not in tire sense of the Latin namne, but as used for a present tense, arrid accor-dingly hoiding the middle p-lace betwveen the Per-fect and the Imperfect (~ 134, 2). ~ 51. NIPHAL. 95 it is generally written defectively. The form t~iri, Is. xli. 7, for t:t is explained by ~ 29, 3, b. 2. The participle in the passive form has not unfrequently an active signification, especially when it belongs to an intransitive verb, which cannot take a passive meaning. Compare in English risen.flown. Thus VIMmeans holding -(not held), Cant. iii. 8, M.=z confisus for confidenls. Ps. cxii. 7. Comp. the deponent verbs in Latin. B. DERIVED CONJUGATIONS. ~ 51. NIPHAL. 1. The full characteristic of this conjugation is the syllable VI (in the corresponding seventh conjugation in Arabic '~) prefixed to the ground-form. It appears only in the lu1f. constr. contracted from With the inf- are connected, in frthe Imp. ~t - and the Imp/f. contracted from b'P In the Perf. the (less essential) He has been suffered to fall away, and only Nun remains as the characteristic, hence This applies also to the Participle, which is distinguished from the Perfect only by the long (,), as bt, fem. Mbup~ or r 1 The inflection of Niphal is perfectly analogous to that of Kal. Niphal may be distinguished in the Perf'. and Part. by the Nun prefixed; in the Imp., Inf., and Impf. by the Daghesh in the first stem-letter. The same marks are found in the irregular verbs; except that where the first stern-letter is a guttural, Daghesh forte must be omitted (~ 63, 4). In consequence or this omission, the preceding vowel is made long 022, 1). 2. In signification, it bears a resemblance to the Greek middle voice; and hence a) It is primarily re~flexive of Kal, 'e. g. 'It to look to one's self; to beware, qfv).C~kw6.6zO)a, 'I. to hide one's self; often of emotions which act upon the subject, e. g. tro to trouble one's se~,f, to grieve, rl~t to bemoan one's self, to bewail, comup. 0~VW`(1 —&L,, lamentari, contristari. b) Then it frequently expresses reciprocal action, as =)t to contend with another at' law; to counsel, Niph. to consult together; comp. the middle and dep.onent verbs ~douX,,m,,;d-cct, yua i a6sel altercari, luctari, prciliari. c) It has also, like Hithpa~I (154, 3, c) and the Greek middle, the signification of the active with the addition of sef, for one's self e. g. to ask for one'7s self (1 Sain. xx. 6, 28), precisely like cei'roiItuai Gtb Un/ol 96 96 ~~~~~ART II. PARTS OF SPEECIh. &EVU~v)aW9'Cae 7/17-on/a to jntt onl (one's self) a coat. Here, iiistead of the accusative (se), thre remote object (expressed by the dative,2 sibi) lies in the idea of the conjuigation. d) It is often also passive of Kal, e. g. 'i" to bear-, Niphi. to be bor-n; likewise, of PiA and Hhiphil, wN.hen Kial is intranisitive or not in use, e. g. (from; to be in honior) Pii~l to honor; '71.0 in PiMA to conceal, iHiph. to mnake disappIear, to destr-oy; Niph. passive of each and in this case its meaningr mnay again coincide with Kal Kal and Niph. to be sick) and eveit take an accusative (i. 138, 2, Rein. 1). Examples of denoininatires are; 'nv to be born a miale. Ex. xxxiv. 19, firom. '): a mnale; cordaltonfieri. Job xi. '12, from cor. The ol'ler grammarians have representedl Nipiral its the proper Passive of' Kal. This representation, however. is decidedly incorrect. Niphal has not the characteristics of the othcr passiv s. There, are s till found in Kal traces of another passive form (~ 50O 1) and the Arabic has an independent conjugation, corresponding with Niphail (in qat ala), which has its own Passive; nay, in Hebrew itself there is probably a trace of the Passive of Niphal in the ibrrai ~~ Is lix. 3;Lam. iv. 14. Accordingr to the usage of the langruagfe. the pa~ssitc -siinification is certainly a very cornmon one; but it was first derived fromn the reflexive. The ',' prefixed has the force of' at reflexive pronoun,. like MM in HithPaOl.* Rean. 1. The Inf. absol. b~ connects itself, in form, with the Perfect, to which it bears the same relation as to.Examples of this form, Miro rogando 1 Sani. xx. 6, ~ esiderando Gen. xxxi. 30 of the other. '11~- Jer. xxxii. 4; once exaudiendo Ez. xiv. 3. The ill the final syllable (which is essentially longI~), thle Infinitive form has also in Phid and Plual, and it resembles. iri this rcslpect, several Arabic Infinitives, in which there is a correspon-ding 42. Not unfirequent is the form as InfJ absol.; e. g. Nuin. xv. 31; Deut. iv. 26; 1 K. xx. 19. 2. In Pause, Pattach often takes the place of T'sere in the final syllable, e. g.;rj;n and he was weaned. Gen. xxi. S; as also in other cases (see p. 65). In the secondl and third persons plural feminine, the form with Pattach is more common th~an that given in the Paradigrm, e. g. i~nn they shall be 7emeemberecl. Is. lxv. 17; but these forms are unfrequent. 3. When the Impf.. or the Inf., or the Imp. is immediately followed *In othier lanfguacges, mdso, may be observed the transition of the reflexive into the passive. So in Sanserit and in Greek, it is still clear, how the foimation of the middle pree~e(es thwat of the passive. The r, in the termination of the Latin passive, is the reflexive pronoun se. In the old-Slavic and Bohlemian, amat-se stands for amzatier; in the Dacoromianic, io gne laude =1 amn praised. See Pott's Etymologische Forsehungen, Th. 1, S. 133 ff. Tb. 2. S. 92. Bop~p's Verglciehiende Gramrmatik, S. 686 if. ~ 52. PIEL AND PUAL 9 97 by a word of one syllable, the tone is commonly drawn back upon the penultima, and consequently the final syllable, losing the tone, takes, Seghol instead of Tsere. E. g. Ir Z he stumbled at itt Ez. xxxiii. 12; ~b 'ny'i and he heard him, Gen. xxv. 21, coT n God heard, 2 Sam. xxi. 14; xxiv. 25. In a few words. this form with the retractcd tone has become the usual one; as 'IMYN take heedEx xxiii. 21; r-B and he fought, Num. xxi. 1.Ex 4. A frequent form of the 1st pers. is ~un as tnZ-ix I will be found. Ez. xiv. 3, =V I swear, Gen. xxi. 24. Comp. ~ 69, Rem. 5. ~ 52. PIEL AND PUAL. 1. The characteristic of this conjugation (Arab. Conj. IL. qattala, Aram. ~V~ is the doubling of the middle stem-letter. In the active, the Impf. ~r~and the Part. 'Inr' (whose preformatives retain their original Sheva) are formned, according to the general analogy, from the Inf. and Imp. ~M"r1 The passive (Pual) has a more obscure vowel, of the 3d class, under its first radical, and a under the second. In other respects the active and passive follow the same analogy. In the inflection of the Perfect of Pi~il, Pattach takes the place of Tsere in the first and second persons ( P, 'I which, properly, have for their basis the form ~t See Remn. 1. The M which occurs also in the succeeding conjugations as the characteristic of the Part. is related to "M who? = — whoever. one who. Piel and Pual are throughout distinguished by the Daghesh, in the middle stem-letter. It is omitted only in the following cases: a) Always when this letter is a guttural (~ 64, 3). b) Sometimes, though rarely, when this letter has Sheva (~ 20, 3, b); as Job xxxvii. 3, for.N'Vntl~S he directs it; 11Mt:Z' for Mrib6 E z. xvii. 7; xxxi. 4; then also the omnission is at times indicated (~ 10, 2, Rem.) by a Chateph under the littera dagessanda; e. g. 61MID for Mrr:5 she is taken Gen. ii. 23; comp. ix. 2; Judges xvi. 16. In the Impf. and Part. the Sheva under the preformativ~es may also serve as a mark of these conjugations. 2. &ignifications of Piel. a) It denotes intensity and r-epetition (com~p. the Nomina intensiva and iterativa, which are also formed by doubling the middle stemn-letter, ~ 84, 6-9);* e. g. *Analogous examples, in which the doubling of a letter has an intensive force, are found in the German words reiciten, recken; streichen (stringo, Anglo-Saxon strecan), strecken; comp. Strich, iStrecke; Wacker, from wachen: others in which it has the causative signification. are steclien, stecken; wmachen, wecken; in Greek, 7 98 98 ~~~PART IL. PARTS OF SPEECH. -r=to laugh, Pi~l to sport, to jest (to laugh repeatedly); 'Ibt to ask,0 lPiM~ to begz; hence it denotes that the action is performed upon many, as '=I to bury (one), Gen. xxiii. 4, Pii~l to bury (many), 1 K.- xi. 15. (So in Syriac frequently.) T1his sigrnification of Pi~l is found with various shades of difference, as MN to Op~efl PiPM to loose; -7E to count, MO~ to recount. With the eager pursuit of an object is connected the influence which the subject of it exerts upon others. Hence, b) It has a causative signification (likze H-iphil), e. g. to learn,. Pi~l to teach. It often takes the mnodifications expressed lby to permit, to declare or to regrard, to help), as M-1 to let live; to declare innocent; i~' to (assist in, childi-bearingr. c-) iDenoininatives are frequently found in this conjugation, wvhich. in general m-ean to mia/e a thing (sc. th1at whtich. the noun expresses), or to be in any way occupied?wit/i it; as from '1 nest, ':I to ma/ke a nest; from n dust, 'I- to throw dust, to dust. It also expresses the takin away or injuring.) the thing or part of whtich thte nioun is the name (as to headl, old Engi. for behead, to skini), e. g. (froin LI II a root) to root out, extirpate;.`;!P (from 'l" tail) pioperly to i'ljnre the tail., hence to rout the rear-,,cuard of an armly 'V- to remove the ashes. So also in verbs whose origin cannot be traced to a noun, e. g. ~17~ to stone, and also to remove the stones, sc. from a field.',rhe sig-nifications of the passive will present themnselves spontaneously, e. g. ""; to steal, LPii1 to steal, Pual to be stolen. In LPil the proper and literal sigrnification ol a wordl is often retained when Kid has adop1ted a figurative1 oie, the former beingr thie stronger and more prorninen-t (lea. E. gr. Nmr in IPiO to sew up, in Kal to heal; tw PiiPl to cut, to hewv out. Kal to form, to minake; 1, Pi~l. to uncover, Kal to r-eveal. In anm intranisitive sense. PiA occurs as an intensive florm. b~ut only in p~oetry. a-s ~ raon I er. Ii. 56; rin to be open Is. xlviii. S; lx. 11; ri,' to be (Irienken. Is. xxxiv. 5. 7. Tijc t /rn to oin cadl, from, the stem -di~c to end(, y'ES'v 6 to beget, and to bear, from 755W~c to Cone in(to bcIng. The above examples from the German show also that c/h when:Ionblcd takes the form of k/c, c/c, in accordance with the laws relating to the Daglhesh in Hebrew (~ 13, 3). *In Ar-abic, Denominiataives of Conj. HI. often express injury done to a member, the removal of verm-in or of any injuriotiS thing. This force is not wholly waninger,, also, in the simplest Corj. T. Comp. Hebrew Kal 'I-' (from n-=):)buy and sell grain; Lat.. causari, prad~ari, &-c. ~ 53. HIPH[L AND HOPHAL 9 99 N. B. Remn. 1. The Perf. PiOl has frequently ( -) in the final syllable instead of (..), e. g. nn to, destroy, 'ir to break in pieces. This occurs especially before Miaqqeph (Eccles. ix. 15; xii. 9) arid in the middle of a period, when other words immediately follow; but at the end of a period, Tsgere is the more common vowel. Compare bI- Is. xlix. 21 with b Josh. iv. 14; Esth. iii. 1. Some verbs have &eghol, viz. 'I. to speak, 'IU to atone, I=- to wash clothes. A single instance of (-) in the first syllable (after the manner of the Chaldee) is found in Gen. xli. 51, i~~to cause to forget, occasioned by the play upon the name -M5: Compare the quadriliteral TrnU which is analogous, in form, with Pi,61 (~ 56). 2. The Impf., Inf., and Imp. when followed by Maqqeph, generally take Seghol in the final syllable, e. g. he seeksjfor himself Is. xl. 20; ~3i sanctify to mne Ex. xiii. 2. So in Hithpand. In the 1st pers. sing. Impf. besides Moz there occurs also (very seldom) the form rr11T Lev. xxvi. 33, and wi~ Zech. vii. 14 (according to ~ 23, 3, Rem. 2). With Vav cons. we have also br- ij:~ for br- -iN$ Judges vi. 9. Instead of 5 rt are found such forms as 11: e. g. Is. iii. 16; xiii. 18. 3. The nf. abs. Pual has sometimes the separate form given in the paradigmn, as 'lb castigando, Ps. cxviii. 18; but far more frequently, that of the Inf. constr.. 4. In Pual, instead of Qibbuts is found less frequently Qamets-e-hatuph. e. g. Vim dyed red Nah. ii. 4; comp. iii. 7; Ps. xciv. 20. It is merely an orthographic variation, when Shureq takes the place of Qibbuts, as -11 Judges xviii. 29. 5. As I-nf abs. Pual we find MiZZ, Gen. xl. 15. An Inf. constr. Pual does not occur in the regular verb. 6. The Part. Pual som'etimes occurs without the prefix M; it is then distingcuished, like the Part. Niph., only by the Qamets in the final syllable, e. g. mr) taken 2 Kings ii. 10; comp. 'Ib9 for 'Il7 Judg. xiii. S. also Eccles. ix. 12; Hos. i. 6, 8; Prov. x xv. 9. ~ 53. IIIPHIL AND HOPHAL. 1. The characteristic of the active is '7, in the Perf. r, malking a closed syllable with the first radical, and i ('I-.)isre after the second. From the Inf. are formed the Ilnpf. and the Part. for ~ — bl- (~ 23, 4). In the, passive, 71 is uttered with an obscure vowel, and the second svliable takes a in place of i; ~=f or Impf. or? U or Inf. absol. ~p;in other respects the formation is analogyous. Of the inflection it is only to be noted, that in the 1 st and 2(1 pers. Perf. the - falls awvay and Pattach takes its place, 'as, 1~ Tpi2l;~ which is explained by the analogy of the A ra 100 100 ~~PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. mwan (Tety, and of the Arabic (Z ),where the 4- is not found. it is not an essential characteristic of the form, and undoubtedly arose fromi an. origin ally shorter vowel. The miarks of this conjugtion are, therefore, in the Perf., Imp., and Inf., the prefix M; in the Imnpf. and Part., the vowel under the preformatives, which in Iliphil is Pattach, in Hophal Qibbuts or Qamnetschat uph. 2. &ignifications of Hip/hid. It is properly causative of Kal, and in this sense is m:ore firequently employed than PiUl (~ 52, 2,b), e. g. N — to go forth, Fliph. to bring out of, to lead forth; t5" to be holy, Hiph. to sanzctify. When Kal is transitive, iliph. takes two accusatives (~ 139, 1). Frequen~tly PiiA and Hiphil are both in use ini the samie signification, as i~to perish, Pi~l and Hiph. to destroy; but generally only one of them is found, or they have som-e difference of signification, as in- -=- to be lieta y, Pi~1 to honor, H-iph. to make heavy. Intransitive verbs mnerely becomne transitive, e. g. 'It~ to bow (intrans.), Iliph. to bow (trans.). The causative and transitive signification of Hiphil is employed, in accordance with a mode of conception fhmiliar to the Hebrew. for the expression of ideas, which take in other langruagres an intransitive form. Especially was any change in one's habit Qf) body conceivedl (and often rightly) by the Hebrew as the result of personal agency, arid was represented, in the mode of expression, as produced by the individual hirnself';* e. g. '"; Hiph. to become fat (properly to produce fat); rn and 7r~s Hiph. to becomne strong (properly to develop strength); Hiphi. to become feeble. After the samne anialogy- ih to becomne rich (properly to miake, to acqnire, riches); and] particularly, wordls which express the taking of a new color, is c"i' to beconie red, to become white, &C. Moreover, what is merely state or condition becomes, in tlie Hebrew mode of conception, an act; e. g. not to be silent, but properly to keep) silence (silentium facere, 1Plin.); ~-,n quietens agere. to Prolong (one's stay), to tarry. In such cases there is ofters an ellipsis, as ~ todealwell ~ t do ickelyproperly to make good, or bad (SC. which are also often expressed). Trlese remarkis apply also to Denomzinatives, i. e. the verb often expresses the, idea of producing or putting forth that of which the original noun is the name; e. g. &9l~ to puttforth roots, to put forth *The verb M`= to mnake, is employed in the expression of the same ideas, e. g. to mnake fat (fatness), for, to produce fat upon his body, Job xv. 271 to make. f1ruits, to m)ake branches, for, to produce, to put forth, H-os. viii. 7 Job xiv. 9. Compare in Latin corpus faccre, Justin. 11, 8; rolbur facere, IHirthis, Bell. Mfr. 85; sobolem, divitias, facere, P] in., -and in Italian far corpo, far fo'rze, far frutto. ~ 53. HIPHIL AND HOPHAL. 101 horns. It also expresses the active use of a member, as ^,It to listen (properly to make ears);.b.=!. to chatter, to slander (after the same analogy, properly to make tongue, to use the tongue freely). 3. The signification of Hophal, as of Niphal, may sometimes coincide with that of Kal, e. g. bit potuit, Impf. Hoph. potens fiet, i. e. poterit. Remn. 1. Only the Perfect of Hiphil retains always the -.- of the final syllable (in 3d pers. sing. and plur.); the Imp. and Impf. often take - instead of it, in the 2d and 3d m. sing. (in Chaldee the usual form), although usage generally makes a distinction between forms with ' and e. Tsere is in this case only tone-long, and hence in the lengthening of the forms it becomes vocal Sheva, and with gutturals it is changed into Pattach. The Inf. abs. has a firmer and longer e. More particularly: 2. The Infin. absol. has generally Tsere, with and without Yodh; as j&p-r.. Judg. xvii. 3; ':1=. Ex. viii. 11; 'nrn Amos ix. 8. Strictly Chaldee, with K instead of the n, is o:: xq mane'surgendo Jer. xxv. 3. Unfrequent exceptions, in which the form with Tsere stands for the Inf: constr., are found in Deut. xxvi. 12; xxxii. 8. 3. The Imp. but seldom takes the form b'qpS (Ps. xciv. 1 in pause, perhaps also Is. xliii. 8); instead of it, the shortened and the lengthened forms b,?jr (- tone-long) and,n-b1, as mt., make fat, t p attend! The first takes Seghol before Maqqeph, as M-]'3q5 Job xxii. 21. ~b.pn and t.ep are never shortened. N. B. 4. In the Impf. 2d and 3d m. sing. the form with - is the usual one for the Jussive, as brn-bq make not great Obad. 12, rM.V let him cut off Ps. xii. 4, and also with 1 consec., as b'l.. and he divided Gen. i. 4. Before Maqqeph this Tsere becomes Seghol, as ia-.'P-.l and he held him Judg. xix. 4. In the plural, the full forms are used for the jussive also, and with I consec.; as.p>q.. and they pursued Judg. xviii. 22. The single exceptions, where i (as in Aramaean) is shortened to vocal Sheva, are.:mb.. Jer. ix. 2,.i=..a 1 Sam. xiv. 22; xxxi. 2. The defective mode of writing Chireq, e. g. CDI1, is not an essential variation. 5. The form of the Part. with (..) in the sing. is doubtful (Is. liii. 3); but perhaps the plurals owb.na dreamers Jer. xxix. 8, btaT'3 helpers 2 Chron. xxviii. 23, are derived from this form. The fem. is -r5pn, e. g. rS'Q Lev. xiv. 21. Comp. Gen. xxxv. 8. 6. In the Perf are sometimes found the forms -:n:,n we have reproached 1 Sam. xxv. 7, and nbx.A I have stained (with K as in Aram.) Is. lxiii. 3, comp. Job xvi. 7. 7. In the Impf. and Part. the characteristic 'I regularly gives place to the preformatives, as o9p, b.in, but not to prepositions in the Inf. b".tbi, because their connection with the ground-form is less intimate than that of the preformatives. To both rules there are some few exceptions, as srjin, he will save Ps. cxvi. 6, for g'9at, t'1in9 he will praise for rti (in verbs In only); on the contrary antes for V'oni1, to sing Ps. xxvi. 7, 9's'b for "'9N.Mi to cause to faint, 1 Sam. ii. 33; comp. Is. xxiii. 11; Ps. lxxviii. 17. 102 102 ~~PART IL PARTS OF SPEECH. N. B. 8. The lone, in Hiphil, does not fall on the afl'ormatives II Mand- T hey take it, however, in the Perf. when Vav consecutive is p~refixed, as E Ex. xxvi. 33. 9. In the Passive (Hophal) Pert, Impf., and Part. ft (-.) is found in the first syllahle as wvell as 6 (-r), but not so often in the regular verb, e. cr=; Ez. xxxii. 32, and xxx ii. 19; ~,Part. rL6 2 Sam. xx. 21, and Is. xiv. 1 9; but verbs 'M have i constantly, as (according to ~ 9, 9, 2). 10. The Inf. abs. liophal (as in Hiphil) has (..) in the final syllable; e. g. '~r -fasciandlo Ez. xvi. 4; nuntiando Jos. ix. 24. Of the Infinitive construct there occurs no example in the regular verb. I11. On the Imp. Ilophal, see ~ 46, 1, note () IIITIIPAE,,L. 1. This conjugation connects itself with Pi~3l, inasmuch as it prefixes to the form ~Vl the syllable rl- (Chald. rlbt Syr. M*), which, like 41 in Niphal, has undoubtedly the force of a reflexive pronoun (~'51, 2, Rem.). 2. The ri of the syllable rpni suffers the following changes, as also in Hithpoi~l and flithpaiel (~ 55): a) when the first radical of the verb is a sibilant (0, V, ), it changes places withi l- (~ 19, 5), as -/r'' to ta/ke heed, for I n to be burdened, for With 2 mIoreover, the transposed rl is chang-ed into the more nearly related t:as to just'lf~y one's se~,/ for (Single exception in Jer. xlix. 3.) b) before 1T, t6Z, and ri, it is assimilated (~19, 2), e. g. mlV-n to converse, 'VU to cleanse one's self, =Mi to conduct one's self upr'i~ghtly; sometimes also before and n, as N"20 to prophesy, elsewhere K=Tl for to mYake one's self ready. Once before T, Is. i. 16 before -5, Eccl. vii. 16 before 1, Is. Xxxiii. 10. 3. The significations qf Hithpat~l. a) Most frequently it is reflexive, primnarily of Pitil, as t'-p7o to sanctlfy one's se~f/ to avengxe one'7s self, to gird one's self. Then farther it means: to make one's self that which is expressed by the first conjugation: hence, to conduct one's self as such, to *See also, in Ilebrew, '1M1 2 Chron. xx. 35. ~ 55. UNUSUAL CONJUGATIONS. 103 show one's self, to imagine one's self, to affect, to be such; properly to make one's self so and so, to act so and so. E. g. b~,h. to make one's self great, to act proudly, brs to show one:s self cunning, crafty, also, Eccles. vii. 16, to think one's self wise; 'tI.a'l to make, i. e. to feign one's self rich. Its signification sometimes coincides with that of Kal, and both forms are in use with the same meaning, e. g. 5b Kal to mourn, is found only in poetry; Hithp. in the same sense, is more common in prose, and even takes an accusative (~ 138, 2, Rem. 1). b) It expresses reciprocal action (like Niph. ~ 50, 2, b), as. nrln, to look upon one another Gen. xlii. 1. More frequently c) It expresses what one does indirectly to orfor himself (comp. Niph. ~50, 2, c). It has then an active signification, and governs an accusative, e. g. 'StTn exuit sibi (vestem), nrS solvit sibi (vincula). So without the accusative,:tr. to walk about by one's self (ambulare). Only seldom d) It is passive, e. g. 'j~,. to be numbered, mustered, Judges xx. 15, 17, xxi. 9. Comp. Niphal, ~ 50, 2, d. The passive Hothpaal is found only in the few following examples: ~I'nrln (so always for 'ir.nn) they were mustered, Num. i. 47; ii. 33; 2u. n to be rendered unclean Deut. xxiv. 4; t.rn to be washed Lev. xiii. 55, 56;:.s_ it is smeared with fat Is. xxxiv. 6. Denominatives with the reflexive signification are: 'l~_nn to embrace Judaism (make one's self a Jew), from ns ", siinT Jews; nsrn to provide one's self withfoodfor a journey, from,*inT. N. B. Rem. The Perfect, as in Piel, has frequently Pattach in the final syllable, as prnrn to be strengthened, 2 Chr. xiii. 7; xxi. 4. Final Pattach occurs also in the Imperf. and Imper., as er}nn? he deems himself wise, Eccles. vii. 16; Ajnn sanctify thyself Jos. iii. 5. In Pause these forms take Qamets, and are the usual ones, as b4xn. Ez. vii. 27, strn. Job xxxviii. 30. With the form in Piel:nO Sf (~ 52, Rem. 2) comp. Hithp. n:mrsfinn Zech. vi. 7. ~ 55. UNUSUAL CONJUGATIONS. Of the unusual conjugations (~ 40, 2), some are connected, in form, with Piel, and are made by the doubling or the repetition of one or more stem-letters, or by the lengthening of a vowel, i. e. by changes within the stem itself; others are analogous to Hiphil, and are formed by the addition of prefix letters or syllables. To the former class, besides a passive distinguished by 104 104 ~~PART If. PARTS OF SPEECHL the vowel in the final syllalble, belongs also a r-ejiexiuce formn with the prefix rIn0, after the analogy of Hlitbpaei. Those which are analogous to Pii~l. and which follow it in thecir inflection, are 1. Po-il; as ppass. ~,reflex. ~=p~- (corresponding to Conj. III. -and VI. in the Arabic. q~taia, qutlila, taqeitala), Iinpf..'.Par-t. L nipf- pass. &c. In the regrular verb it but seldom occurs. E. g. Part. "r~ ic ay opposer. he iLho pleads wvithnme. Job ix. 13; I have aippoinitedl Sara xxi. 3 (uniless wve should read:T); to ta/ce root, Denoni.. from n root. In verbs i5y (~ 67) it: is Elir more frequent; e. g. ~11 ==t, rl Its sig nfficatlion, like, that of" 11iW, is often causative of' Kal. Sometimes both -ar inue in the sarne signification, as j rd,t oppress; sometimes each hais its p~eculiar modification of mecaning, as 'MC to turn, about, to chan o-e, to go about. to surround; M to exult. 5LIr to mnake foolish (from ~'~ to be brilliant, but also to be vi-lros foolish); ',r to make pleasant, t comnmisrc; trotot t-nir5 to take root. With is connected the formation ofquadriliterals by the insertion of a consonant at the endl of the first syllable, ais ~:~p (~ 30. 3). 2. Pilel, Pulal, IHit/hpalel; as and,I 6f_. pass. - reI7-flex. like the Arab. Conj. IX. iqtalla, and XI. iqtdella, usedl especially of permanent states or conditions.e g. of colors, -.is 'j-W to be at rest, "I~ to be green, Pass. to be wvithered.; of these v erbs there is no example in Kal. It is snore, frequent in verbs I':. where it takes the place of PiOl and HitlhpaMl (~ 72, 7). 3. Pealal; as i with relpetitioii of' the last two stern-letters. use(I especially of slighrlt mnotions repeated in quick succession; e. g. _ to o about writh quick iniotion., hence (of the heart) to paptae, Ps. xxxviii. 11, from ',t to go about; Pass. 'm ror to fermient wvith violence, to make a runs blinc- sound, Lain. i. 20. Nouns of this form are dinsinutives (~ 84, 23). Nearly related to this is, 4. Pilpel, formed from verbs ~"and ~'.v by doubling both of the essential stern-letters; as `!=' fromn =3 =:!' from 7.1 (bzd). This also is used of motion rapidly repeated. which all languages are prone * tLo express by repetition of the samne s ound, as to chirp, bNbu to tnl, to gurgle. to flutter (from M1V to fly). With Hiphil are connected: *Compare tinnio, tintinnus, and in Glermnan Tick-taeck, Wirrwarr, Klinglclang [our ding dong]. The repetition of the saran letter in verbs Z~'" produces also the same effect; as in to lieck, to beat, to trip along~. Otlher languagejjrCs express the same thing by disninutite forms; comnp. in Lat. the teririination -jill, as in eantitlo, in Germn. -eln, era, in flimmern, triltern, trdpfeln. Hence we may explain the relation, mentioned under No. 3, between these forms and the dimninutives. ~g 56, 57. REGULAR VERB WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. 105 5. Tiphel; as b>.pt, with n prefixed, as bt-t to teach one to walk, to lead (dcnom. from ' afoot); nnn, Impf. 'inns to emulate Jer. xii. 5; xxii. 15 (from lnn to be ardent, eager). The Aramaean has a similar form nt.rn to interpret. 6. Shaphel; as b'.?r', frequent in Syriac, as =.t.' to flame, from:,b. In Heb. it is found only in the noun rmn.b flame, ~ 84, No. 35. * * ' * Forms of which single examples occur:-7. Vjp, pass. bqp; as =t3rm scaled of, having theform of scales, Ex. xvi. 14, from &rO, ti_ ' to peel, to scale.-8. bA, as.. a violent rain, from i.-9. '.S.n (frequent in the Rabbinic), a form compounded of Niphal and Hithpael, found in the examples.?'? for.'11.M they sffer themselves to be warned, Ez. xxiii. 48, '33 for 'IMn. to be expiated, Deut. xxi. 8. Worthy of note is also,-10. the form 'Wns to sound the trumpet, commonly derived from the stem ':ri. But it is probably a denom. from n'..Y'2 a trumpet, an onomatopoetic form like the old Latin taratantara, from the sound of the trumpet. Ennius apud Servium ad AEn. 9, 503. ~56. QUADRILITERALS. Of the formation of quadriliterals we have already spoken (~ 30, 3). The few verbs of this kind (of nouns there are more) are formed after the analogy of Piel, once after Hiphil. The following are all the examples that occur: Pret. TsIw he spread out, Job xxvi. 9 (with Pattach in the first syllable, as in Chaldee). Impf.,t;, z:9 he will devour it, Ps. lxxx. 14. Pass. wr-'; to become green again, Job xxxiii. 25. Part. b.vmb 1 Chr. xv. 27. After Hiphil b n.tiz' contracted ba.i.n. to turn to the left (denominative from bNbie), Gen. xiii. 9 and other places. C. REGULAR VERB WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES.* ~57. The accusative of the personal pronoun after a verb active may be expressed 1) by a distinct word, trI (the sign of the accusative) with the suffix (~ 101), as rnk bto (he has killed him); or 2) by a mere suffix, as t,'i: or *ip: (he has killed * We treat this subject in connection with the regular verb, in order to show here the general analogy. As to the irregular verbs, the shortening of their forms before the suffixes will be noticed under each class. 106 106 ~~~PARIT IL PARTS OF SPEECII. /hi;m). rThe second method is the usual one, and of this only we Two things are to be considered here,, viz. 1) the form of the suffix itself (treated in ~ 58);2) the changes in the verbal stemn to -which it is attached (ii 59-61). S 5. THlE SUFFIX TO THlE VERB. 1. The su~flixes appended to the verb express the accusative of the personal pronoun. They are the following: sSingcular. 1 comm. ",; 1:;; 1, me 2 ~pause IT1tee Plural. 1 comm. 1-~; 1~ US. 2 m., }?I~~ou. M. T t~ - (con- N (contr. from 3;;poet. -them. Vh ~r T 34 M., I; "M, T rn. f. -0 1 -7 ~ her. 2. That these suffixes are shortened forms of the personal pronoun, is for the mnost, part clear of itself, and only a few of them require any explanation. In the suffix of the second person ('an; ~ the basis appears to be a lost form of the pronoun rr with instead of rn( -.,N w) Xlich was employed here in order to distinguish the sufixs rom the afformiatives of the Perfect ( 44, 1). * Onl thle eases where the former must be employed see ~ 121, 4. f occurs very seldom as verbal suffix (Deut. xxxii. 26), 'Jr not at all. But they are given in the list as being ground-forms, which frequently occur with nouns and prepositions. t Traces ef this lest form appear still in the afformatives of thle i1,thiopic Perfeet, as qetalA-a (thou hast killed), and also ia the Samaritan (see Gesenii Aneedota Orientalia, 1. 4-3). Comp. what was said in ~ 44, 1, onl gr'LV.-The sounds t and k are not unfrequently interchanged. ~ 58. THE SUFFIX OF THE VERB. 107 In the 3d pers. rnasc., from 1,1- by dropping the feeble h there arose a-u, and thence 6 (~ 23, 4), usually written 1, m'uch more, seldom Mi. In the fern. the suffixes from WM ought, according to analogy, to sound ~lo In but instead of '#I- we hiave, T, T,. for the sake of euphony, simply 1M. where the I, is regularly a consonant, and therefore marked wvith Mappiq. Once (Ez. xli. 15) NM stands for '7, as in Chaldee and Arabic. 3. The variety in the forms of the suffixes was occasioned chiefly by the regard had to the form and tense of the verb which received them. Thus three forms of almost every suffix may be distinguished: a) one beginning with the consonant itself as ID ~ C11 t, &c. This is appended to verbal forms which end with a vowel, as % 15p; b) a second and a third with the so-called union-vowels* ' *.,for the verbal forms which end with a consonant (with one exception, ~ 59, Rem. 3): with the union-vowvel a for the forms of the Perfect, as " ' 3up with the unionvowel e (rarely a) for the forms of the Imperfect and the Imperative, as 1-1U" Mb4) To the Perfect belongs also ~ from l4. With "T, =, lp the uniting sound is only a halfvowel (vocal sSlhva), as IT 2 - e. g. JTtr (qeta-lekkha); or when the final consonant of the verb is' a guttural, ~e. g. 11b5 In Pause this Sh'va becomes a &eghol with the I?ern. 1. As r-are forms may be mentioned: Sing. 2d pers. masc. -i 1Kings xviii. 44, in pause 7j'- Is. lv. 5, and nn — Prov. ii. I11; fem. 9M '-7P.cxxi.6 and in the later Psalms frequently. (71-, contrary to the rule, appended to the Perf. in Judges iv. 20.)-In the 3d pers. mac iEx. xxxii. 25; Num. xxiii. 8: fern. ihu apqNm xv. 28; Jer. xliv. 19.-The forms i'ml i7 — i MC are strictly poetic, (except Ex. xxiii. 31); instead of i'n we find I- once in Ex. xv. 5. On the origin of these forms see ~ 32, Rem. 7. 2. By comparing these suffixes of the verb with the suffixes of the noun (~ 91) we observe: a) There is here a greater variety of forms than there (because the forms and relations of the verb are themselves more various); b) the verbal suffix, where it differs from that of the We retain the common -name union-vowel, although it rests on a rathier superficial view and is somewhat vague. These union-sounds seemn rather to be remriants of old verbal-endings, like the i in N'l'Up Comp. e. g. the Hebr. form qetal-ani with the Arab. qatala-ni; and on the contrary,, I-Ibr. qetalat-ni, Arab. qatalatni. 108 108 ~~PART IIL PARTS OF SPEECH. noun. is longer, as '9:=-, '9- (mie); -9 (my). The reason is, that the obj'ect of the verb is less closely connected with it, thian the possessive pronoun is with the nouni; on which account also the former may even be expressed by a separate, word (~ 11 7, 2). 4. rThe suffix gains still miore, strengrth, when instead of the union-vowel there is insertedl a union-syllable:-, (common11 -ly called Nun ep~entlhetie, hut lbetter Nrun dlenonstrative) which, however, occurs only in the in perfect and in Pause, e. g. lie will bless, hiim (Ps. lxxii. 15), ""= he will honor mHe (Ps. 1. 23). This Nun is, however, for the mnost lpart incorporated with the suffixes, and hence we, have a new series of forms, namely, 1st pers. % for 2d pers. once ~4(Jer. xxii. 24); 3d pers. fo r a as o N (urn. xx i ii. 13);fenm. IM1 for 'M-; 1st pers. piur. for 1" In the- other persons this Nun does not occur. Rem. The forms with Nun written out are rare, merely poetic (Jer. v. 22), and (10 riot occur at all in 3dfe~n. simg. and 1st pl1ur. The contractedl forrms (wvith, the Nun assimhilated1) are prett~y frequent. especially in pause.anbeostotepedd Thiis Nun is in its nature demonstrative, i eog oteapne accusative of the personal pronoun, to which it serves to direct attention, as thec object of' the verb. In Chialdee, besides the Nuin there is also inserted a consonant Y (ih; in Samaritan a is appended also to thre Perfect. and in similar cases a r inserted. ~59. THlE PERFECT WITH PRONO.MINAL SUFFIXES. 1. The endlmgs (afformiatives) of the Per-fect have in parit a somewvhat different form, wXhenl connected with tire suffixes. Namelv: a) in the 3d sing.fern, the original femninine ending ri r,for b) thre 2d sing. masc. besides r. has also r. to which the unionvowvel is attached; but the only clear instance of it is with A Ifere, also, the short d probably belongs to the verbal formi; see 4 58, 3, 6, note (*). ~ 59. PERFECT WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. 109 c) the 2d sing. fern. has k., likewise an older form for. (comp., _,.bUp ~ 32, Rem. 4; ~ 44, Rem. 4). This form is to be distinguished from the 1st pers. sing. only by the connection; d) the 2d plur. masc. has in for DP, which is explained by the Arabic antum, qataltum, Chald. IfV., ]1.t?!? for:t, cr1.??p (~ 32, Rem. 5). Of thefem. 7br..jp with suffixes no example occurs, but it probably took the same form as the masculine. We exhibit, first, the forms of the Perfect in Hiphil as they appear in connection with the suffixes, because there is here no change in the stern itself, except in reference to the tone (see No. 2). Sing. Plur. 3d m. ttp 3d c..tib:. 3d f. rbpn 2st c. 1~st:c. i?:-1 1st c. eb:~p: 1st c..;b.. The learner should first exercise himself in connecting the suffixes with the forms of Hiphil, and then with those of the Perf. Kal (in No. 2). 2. The tone inclines towards the appended suffix, so that it seldom remains on the stem itself. This occasions certain changes of vowels, particularly in'the Perfect of Kal, in consequence of which it takes the following forms: Sing. Plur. 3d m. bu (tr, Rem. 1), 3d c..hb 3df. Trh 2dm. rht (rn?, Rem. 4) 2d m. inbp 2d f..Mp (nt, Remn. 4) 1st c. n.up 1st c.. t:bP The connection of these forms with all the suffixes is shown in Paradigm C. It will there be seen also, that Tsere in Piel is shortened sometimes into Seghol and sometimes into vocal Sheva. Rein. 1. The stffixes for the 2d per. plural, rt: and, are (together with In: and ]7) rather weightier (more strongly accented) forms than the others, and hence are called grave stffixes. They always have the tone, and cause in the 3d m. sing. of Perf. Kal a greater shortening than the others (called light suffixes), e. g. -,.:^.i' *.. The difference has still greater effect in the case of nouns (~ 91). 110 PI' AIT II. PARTS OF SPEECII. 2. In the 3d sing2. mase. n^" - is also contracted into 'i'p according to ~ 23. 4. and so likewise in the 2d sing. masc.:n,; into 'i.,bj: 3. The 3d sing-. fern. rb — (=- -n,) has the twofold peculiarity, a) that it constantly draws tlhe tone to itself, except with r: and. (sec Rcin. 1). and then takes the suffixes tliat make a syllable hy themselves (,':, w.. ^, n, 1: ) without a union-vowel, contrary to tlhe generall rule (~ 5S. 3. a); b) that with the other suffixes it takes indeed the union-vowel, but draws the tone back on the pcneltima. so that they appea;r witih shortened vowels (..T.-, c-). g. -, e. she loves fhee Ruth iv. 15.:r; it burneth them Is. xlvii. 14.,,: she has stolen them Gen. xxxi. 32. For:'1 —.,-. &c. are found in pause '^r -- Ps. lxix. 10. r — Cant. viii. 5; and also without pause, for the sake of correspoidlence in sound(, q'rn (she has borne thee). in the same verse.-The forrms,^-.-, atr;5- aire contr. frorm t.n;-?.tr. p, after the analogy of '-, for.In.. — (~ 58. 4). 4. In the 2d sing. cmasc. L is always used; and the suffixes have no union-vowel, except in ^ from M.1.p and '. -. e.g. l. n thou. searchest me Ps. cxxxix. 1. but also r.:T thout hast forsaken me Ps. xxii. 2.-In tlhe 2d sing. fern. 'n is written also defectively t.:~. Jer. xv. 10 Cant. iv. 9; Ex. ii. 10; instead of it the masc. form is also usedl ' t.u thou (fern.) adjurest us Cant. v. 9; Jos. ii. 17; and with T'ere.:"''_n ^ thou hast let us down, ver. 18. 5. O' a verb miiddle 0 there occurs the form lri;. I have prevailed over him. Ps. xiii. 5. with a shortened o in a syllable that has lost the tone (~ 44, Rem. 3). ~60. IMPERFECT WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. In the forms of tic Imnperfect Kal which end with the last stem-letter, tlhe vowel o of the final syllable is shortened generally to simple,S/eia vocal (), sometimles to Chateph- Qanmets (_ ) Jer. xxxi. 33, but before, ~, to Qamets-Chatuph (-). Instead of r^n: the fbrmn "r. is used as 2d and as 3d pers. Cant. i. 6; Jer. ii. 19: Jol xix. 15. The form with Nun demonstrativec (~t5S, 4) stand(s mrost naturally at the end of the clause or periol. N. B. wl... 1. Verbs with I1if. A (such are all verbs b?el tiral), preflr' the fjill A in the In7lf: and ml/.; andl the IPaltach. whlen it comlles to st;ndll i r aIn open syllatble before the tone. is lcn'tlthcnedl into Qameflst.. (. '. ^'^.f s.end( me Is. vi. 8. ',;:'- s it put 'ie on, (as a gar7i.et) Job xxix. 14. -1,n,? let them demand it back Job iii. 5. * Wlich occurs also ns fcniine without a suffix, Jer. xlix. 11; Ez. xxxvii. 7. ~ 61. INF., IMP., AND PARTICIPLE WITH SUFFIXESS. 11 ill 2. Not seldom, by way of' exception, suffixes take also in the, Impf. the union-vowel a, as rnlj~ Ex. xxix. 30; comp. ii. 17; Gen. xix. 19; xxix. 32. 3. The siftxes are sometimes appended also to the plural forms in,e. g. bi..1 ye crush me Job xix. 2, elsewhere always without a union-vowel they will find mne Prov. i. 28; Is. lx. 7, 10; Jer. v. 22. 4. i n Pici th e Tserc of the final syllable, like the Gholem in Kal, becomes Sheva; but before the suffixes j n~, "j it is only shortened into S'egol e.g ewl ahrthee Deut. xxx.4, more rarely into C'hireq, as =n.. I wvill strengthen you, Job xvi. 5; comp. Ex. xxxi. 13; Is. xxv. 1. 5D. In Hiphil the long i remains, as %-=~ thou clothtest me Job x. 1 1; rarely there are forms like MZ5Yrnl thou enrichest it Ps. lxv. 10; 1 Sam. xvii. 25. Comp. ~ 53, Rem. 4. ~61. INFINITIVE, IMPERATIVE, AND PARTICIPLE WITH SUFFIXES. 1. The Infnitive of a verb active can be construed with an accusative, and then it takes the verbal suffix (i. e. the accusative of the personal pronoun), as "*:j to kill me; but as a noun, it can take also tihe nominal suftixv (the genitive), as my killing (~ 131, 1, 2). In Kal it then has usually the form L (short 6, q~tl); comp. nouns of the forml jto wvhich ~b- is nearly related (~84, No. 10, 1.1; 1 93, Parad. VI.). Roni. 1. The Infi. of' the form becomes with suffixes =rj e. g. ri=t Gen. xix. 33, like nouns of the form 2.Before ~,~,are found forms which depart from the analogy of segholate nouns, e. g. = b your eating Gen. iii. 5, 'qj~ thy standing Ohad. 11. The analogy is adhered to, however, in V yur arvst ing Lev. xix. 9, and =0X- (m6-6se-khjmn) your contemnning Is. xxx. 12. 2. What has been said of the Inf. applies also to the leading form of the Imnp. Kal. The forms 'le * wichar not presented in the Paradigm, suffer no change. For the fern. is substituted the masculine form l a i te mprf On %MI see ~ 60, Rein. 1. In Hi~ph. Imp. the form (not is chosen; e. g. q ffer it, Mal. i. 8. 3. In the Participles the shortening of the vowels is the same as in nouns of the like formn, e. g. according to 193, Parad. VlI. On the difference between "~' and -)up see ~ 135, 2. 11-2 112 ~~PART II. PARTS OF SPEECIL II. OF THE IRREGULAR VERB.* A. VERBS WITH GUTTURALS. 6.62. Verbs which have a guttural for one of their three stemi-letters are go-,verned, in their deviations fromn the regular verb, by the general principles laid down in ~ 22. Of course N. and 'o come under considcration here, only when they retain their power as consonants; ". also lpartak~es only in part of th~ese anomnalies (~. 22, 4). For convenient representation, wve distinguish the cases in whx-ichl the guttural is tlie first, secon~d, or third steinletter. Their inflection is showvn in Paradigims DE, and P (omittin'g tho0se conjugrations w Ii ich are wvholly regular), and explained miore fully in the following sections. ~ 63. VERBS PE GUTTURAL. (E. g. 'in to stand. Paradigm D.) The deviations fromi the regular verb are as follows 1. When the first stemi-letter, at the beginnin~g Of the word, requires a Sh'va (~V~ -- in these verbs it takes one of the comlposite Shevas (6 10, 2; 22, 3), e. g. 1if. t5N to eat, Pe2:f. In-= =-sI fomn 71~ to be inclined. 2. Whien a preformnative is priefixedi to such forms, it takes the vowel corresponding 1.0 the Uliatep~h (; 28, 2), as 11=" ter he will dr-eam?,, he will gather; or the composite Sh'va conforms to the vowvel of the preformiative, when the latter is an essential characteristic of the formn; e. g. Peif. Nip~h. "'t (for )T,) Ilip~h. (for 1*=) lkf. and Iin p~f., Hop~h. Perf. L, npf. ~.(On the Methegh in these, forms see e~16 2, a.) In inany verbs, however, the guttural, especially 1j, when it stands after a preformnative at time end of a syllable, retains the simple Sheva;but in this case the preformnative always has the vowel correspondinig 1.0 the composite Slh'va, which die guttural *See the general view of the classes in ~ 41. ~63. VERBS PE GUTTURAL. 113 would take according to the above rule. E. g. Impf. Kal 'nM1 he will desire, t'r- he will bind, Niph. J:~rI he turned himself, 8'YK girded, Hiph. ^'?.1 to cause to fail. The grammarians call the latter the hard, the former with the comp. Sheva the soft combination. Both often occur in the same verb. 3. When in forms like b5;7, IYa,, the vowel of the final syllable becomes a simple Sheva vocal, on the addition of a sufformative (1, -r), q-), the composite Sh'va of the guttural is exchanged for its short vowel, as l';., plur..I_? (pronounced yd-dam-dhzu); h.T= she is forsaken. But here again there is also a harder form, as t3n? they take a pledge, PpT1 as well as ~'Trt they are strong. See ~ 22, 4, ~ 28, 3. 4. In the Inf., Imp., and Irnpf. of Niph., where the first stem-letter would regularly be doubled (by,?-.), the doubling is always omitted, and the vowel of the preformative is lengthened into Tsere, as ~'=V for h1.1. REMARKS. I. On Kal. 1. In verbs m5 the Inf constr. and Imp. take (-) under the first letter (according to ~ 22, 4, Rein. 2); as -ix gird Job xxxviii. 3, arn love thou Hos. iii. 1, bs. to eat, with a prefix hirs, bg.. The (-) is found here only when the tone is forcibly thrown forward; e. g. t5sJn bb: Num. xxvi. 10. For the same reason was written tzrmo not rmnwS. --: -:. -: In the other forms also of the Imp. the guttural often exerts its influence upon the vowel, which becomes Seghol, as!"tl set in order Job xxxiii. 5, 'nrl uncover Is. xlvii. 2, especially when the second radical is also a guttural, as.tmnr' Ps. xxxi. 24. Pattach occurs in.bln_ take a pledge of him Prov. xx. 16. 2. The Impf. A, as the Parad. shows, has regularly under the first two letters-; and with the hard combination -, as bIn he ceases, =rn he is wise. This is also true of those verbs which are at the same time nib, as ",rn he sees, nrln he divides. Less frequently the pointing - is found also in verbs Impf. 0; as rbX..,;,nr he uncovers. Quite unique is the form 3~~ and she loves Ez. xxiii. 5. In these forms the pointing -— is very frequently shortened to - (according to ~ 27. Rem. 5); as miba he binds, plur. with suff., -1O,:; also buns, r.ens_. II. On Hiphil and IHophal. 3. The rule given in Rem. 2 respecting -- and -- applies again here in the Perf. after Vav consecutive; i. e. the throwing forward of the tone occasions a change of ee into aa, as,na71 thou didst set, nam.S!. and thou wilt set, Num. iii. 6; viii. 13; xxvii. 19; '.5, m:sn.'. 4. In the Perf: of Hiph. -- is sometimes changed into —, and 8 114 114 ~~PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. into — in 1opl. Perf. by prolonging the short vowel, which was sustained by Mlethegh., e. gr. thou hast brought over Jos. vii. 7; M~' he brings zip Hab. i. 15; M~` Nalh. ii. 8. III. In General. 5. In the. verbs 111" to live, and to be, the guttural is treated as such in very fbw forms; Iinpf. M"'9 M~i The rule, griven under No. 1 is indeed truc of these verbs. hence rl~ but so soon as a letter is preflxedl, the first radlical drops the peculiar pointing of the gruttural, as nir~ rii~ trli Ez. xxxvii. 5, 6. 6. For stemis in which the initial -%t loses its consonant-power, see ~ 68. t64. VERB3S AYJN GUTTURAL. (E. gr., to slauz lhter, Paradigm E.) The deviations fr-onm the regular verb ale not so great as in the former class, and are mnainly as follows:* 1. Where a Sh'va is required, the guttural takes without exception a comiposite Sh'va, namely (..E. g. Perf. 6w Iniupf. "i:V i/Ln). INVip. In the imp). Kal the, vowel, supplied under the first radical, conforms to the Chateph of the second; as '1=16 So in the 1aifJ Alfajfin.. as '-1-1' to love. ~XTto lani?-rish. 2. The preference of the gutturals for the A sound has generally less influence on the following than on the preceding vowNel (122, 2, a, and Remn. 1); accordingly, not only is the Oholem in Junf. Kal " tZab retainedl, but also, for the most lpart, the Tsere in Iinqf- Niph. and h~il~ le fights, Wi'. he consoles, and even tlmc mnor feeble KSe-h ol (after Vav consecutive) 071'" But in thelit fJ)f and Intl. K.al the last syllable Tenerally takes (.,throu h-l the influence of tile guttural, even in transitive v erbs, e. (Y.; n?!, MZT'; = (seldom as ' and in the Perf. Pif I also, iPattach occurs somewhat more fre(quently than in m the regular verb, as =".r 3. In Ridl, Pital1, and Ilit/ip., tile Dagrhesh for-te cannot stand in the middle stemn-letter; but in thle greater number of examples, particularly be-fore MM, M, and:', the preceding vowel * Ilophal, which is not, exhibited in the Paradigmr, is varied Ilike, Kal. H-iphil is regrular. ~ 65. VERBS LAMEDH GU[TrURAL.11 115 remains short and sharp, the guttural having Daghesh forte implicitum, (~ 22, 1). E. g. Piel rrir Inf,. ~'M to jest; Pual V11 to be washed; Hithp. M cleanse yourselves. Before bt the vowel is commonly prolonged, and always before 1, as Piel jtfl to refuse; J-~ to bless, Impf. J-~l Pass. J — h, seldom as ~t to commit adultery. Rem. 1. In the Perf. Kal of the much used verb ~bt to ask, to demand, the peculiar feebleness of the bt occasions a Weakening of its 1 to ->and in a closed syllable to -7 and -:~ when the syllable loses the tone and x is not preceded by a full vowel (as in some verbs -"D, I 69, Rem. 4). E. g. with suff. nj!g Gen. xxxii. 18, Ps. cxxxvii. 3; 2d plur. cri~t 1 Sam. xii. 13; xxv. 5; 1st sing. with suff. lr~l.t Judgr. xiii. 6; 1 Sam. i. 20; also in Hiph. ~0'f~-0; 1 Sam. i. 28. Comp. 144, Rem. 2. 2. In Pie and Hithp. the tone is sometimes drawn back upon the penultima, and the Tsere of the final syllable, shortened to Seglhol; viz. a) Before a word of one syllable (according to ~ 29, 3, b), as C16 nnrib in order to serve there Dent. xvii. 12, comp. Gen. xxxix. 14; Job viii. 18. b) After Va-v consecutive, as 1~'9 and he blessed Gen. i. 22, ri.'" and he drove out Ex. x. 11, comp. Gen. xxxix. 4. 3. The following are unfrequent anomalies in the Perf. PiO: I.nb they delay Judges v. 28 for ltrp and the similar form "=rl she colnceived me Ps. Ii. 7 for 491Urk or %5~9 4. For some examples, in which a middle x loses its feeble consonantpower, see ~ 73, Rem. 1. ~65. VERBS LAMED11 GUTTURAL. (E. g. M~r to sendl. Paradigm F.) 1. According to ~ 22, 2, a and b, we here distinguish two cases; viz, either the regular vowel of the final syllable remains, and the guttural takes Pattach furtive, or the full vowel Pattach takes the place of the regular vowel. The more particular statement is as follows a) the strong unchangeable vowvels I (~ 25, 1) always remain; hence Luf. absol. Kal rlt Part. pass. Mlt Hiph. imnpf. Part. rji1t; as also the less firmn C of the inf- coustr. rft5 which is thus distinguished fromi the Imp. (as in verbs V guttural); b) the merely tone-long 0 of the impf. and imp. Kal becomes Pattach, as r, t. (With suf '.":i see ~6 60, Rem. 1); 116 116 ~~PART IL. PART'S OF SPEECI. c) where T,4ere is the regular vowel of the last syllable, the forms with final Tser-e (0) and final Pattach are both, employed, but are generally distinguished in usa~ge. Thus In the Part. Kal arnd PiU rbl5 ~ is the exclusive form. and the full Pattach first appears in the consir. slate rl -6 In t~he Imipf. and Ifi. NIph and in the Perf. Inf. and nImpf. Pid, the form. with (-) is emlployedl at the beginning and in the middle ofr a clause, the one wvith —at the end, and in Pause. E. g. it is dimninished Num. xxvii. 4 andl VIV xxxvi. 3; he cleaves flab. iii. 9. and Ez. xiii. I11 to swallow Hab. i. 13; Num. iv. 20. It may further be observed that the Inf. absol. retains Tsere, which is lost in the Jnf. constr. E. gr. r*' Deut. xxii. 7; 1 K. xi. 22; but r~. to send. In Iliph. the shortened forms of the lInp. and Jinjf. admit only(-) e. g.rlS prosper, M"!1 and he trutsted. The Inf. absol. takes() as 11z;i to make high; but as Ikf. constr. occurs also r-'i' Job vi. 26. 2. The guttural here has simple Sh.'va whenever the third radlical regularly takes it (because it is,Sh'va quiescent, which is generally retained even under gutturals, ~ 22, 4), as r-ri 36 But in the 2d fern. Perf. a helping-Pattach takes its place, as IVV (~ 28, 4), yet also more rarely (without Daghesh in ri) Gen. xxx. 15 and r.11) 1 Kings xiv. 3. The softer combination with composite Shteva occurs only a) In some examples of the Ist J~u.Perf. when the tone is thrown forward, as,7'1'"we know thee Hos. viii. 2; comp. Gen. xxvi. 29. b) Before the suffixes -To: ~ as ~~XI will send thee 1 Sam. xvi. 1, Gen. xxxi. 27, Jer. xviii. 2. On the feeble'verbs 64"' see especially ~ 74. B. CONTRACTED VERBS.* t6 66. VERBS It. (E. g. to appIroach. Paradigm H.) The irregularities of these verbs are caused by the feebleness of the nasal letter Nun, and are as follows 1. The ImpJ. and In~f.. constr. often lose their Nun, which would here take Sh'va, as -iZl for t (~ 19, 3). The nf. then, Includingc the two classes, Pc' ANun and Ayin doubled, -which have this in comimoi, that one of the stemn-letters is in many formis expressed by a Dagheslh forte. Str-ictly speaking, however, the term applies only to the latter class, the former belonging rather to the feeble verbs.-Ta.N ~66. VERBS i-. 117 however, has regularly the feminine ending rn, or, with a guttural, r ' ( 80, 2), as nt, r _ (from Z_) to touch. The Imp. has usually Pattach; but also Tsere, as J1. give (from in__). The lengthened form is frequent here, as 'n}> give up. 2. In forms which take a preformative, where the Nun is thus made to stand at the end of a syllable, it assimilates itself to the following stem-letter (~ 19, 2, a): viz. a) in the Impf. Kal, e. g. bai he will fall, for be:; An for hw?; 7 he will give for ]..: (the Impf. 0 as in the regular verb most common, the Impf. E only in this example'); b) in the Pef. Niph., e. g. t1? for lZS:; c) in the whole of Hiphil and Hophal (which here has always Qibbuts, ~9, 9, 2), e. g. 1ON, Ad. for The other forms are all regular, e. g. Perf., Inf. absol., Part., of Kal, Piel, Pual, &c. Only those conjugations which are irregular aie included in the Paradigm H. The characteristic of these verbs in all forms which begin with a formative letter, is the Dagheshforte following it in the second radical. Some forms, however, of one class of verbs 4" (~ 71), and even of verbs 3' (~ 67, 5), exhibit the same appearance. Verbs I' likewise exhibit such forms of the Imp. as rJ, also 'rz (Gen. xix. 9), and l".. Rem. 1. The instances are comparatively few in which the forms mentioned in Nos. 1 and 2 retain their Nun, e. g. Imp. it5tJ permit,.5:. fall ye; Inf. SiA (but also nr)) to touch; Impf. nb i he keeps Jer. iii. 5 (elsewhere 'i-.). In Niph. this never occurs, and in Hiph. and Ioph. very seldom, as..qi^r to melt Ez. xxii. 20, IpPr-: they are cut off Judges xx. 31. It regularly occurs, however, in all veris which have a guttural for their second stem-letter, as bnM' he willpossess. In these verbs the Nun rarely falls away, as rnn and rnM_ he will descend; Niph. tr_ for,n:: he has comforted himself N. B. 2. These anomalies are in part shared by the verb nrub to take, whose b is treated like the Nun of these verbs (~ 19, 2). Hence, Impf nMi, Imp. no (seldom rp?), Inf. constr. rMn, tloph. Imf. nip. Niphal, however, is always rnip. N. B. 3. The verb 1r3. to give has the further irregularity, that its third radical (as a feeble nasal sound) is also assimilated; e. g. '9n. for mn;r, mnn for tn3:; Inf. constr. nn for rnM (see ~ 19, 2), with suff. 'n. my giving. * The verb Wan, employed as a Paradigm, has the Inpf. A, which is not presented, however, as the most usual form of the Impf. in verbs of this class, but only as the actual form of this particular verb. The 'sere in "I'.! is owing to the double feebleness of the stem ']n (comp. Rem. 3). US 118 ~~~PART II'. PARTS OF SPEECH. ~67'. VERBS VV. (EA. g. to surr-ound. Paradigm G.) 1. The principal irregularity of these verbs consists in the contraction of the second and third radicals often into one double letter, as ".= for I= even when a full vowel would regularly stand b)etween them, as =0 for:11, '1 for =0 Only those forms are not contracted which contain unchangeable vowels, or a Dagrhesh forte, as =~O w., t 2. The mi-onosyllabic stemn thus obtained takes, throughout, the vowel which the full form. would have had in its second syllable, and which, in the regrular verb also, is the characteristic of the form ( 43, Rem-. 1); e. g-. Pepf. =0 for ='n; h~f =b for =11 Hipit. =.'# for =MI' (comnp. No. 6). 3. The Daghesh forte, whlich, after this contraction, properly belongrs to the final stemi-letter, is excluded fromt it (~ 20, 3, a), except when formative additions are made at the end, as P' 0 b, Imnpf. 1=6, but not M0, t-b. 4. W~hen the afforinative begrins with a consonant(, ) a vowel is inserted before it in order to render audible the Daghesh of the final stem-letter (~ 20, 3, c, Rem.). This vowel in the Perf. is ~, in the Imnp. and J1inpj. e. g. L Inpf. The Arabian wr-ites indeed regularly Inilm but pronounces in the popular language especially %Ji maddeit, rnaddd also mladdot, which last is exactly analogous to the Hebrew inflection.* 5. The preformatives of Imp~f. Kal, Peif. Nip~h., and of HIAh and Hop/i., which in consequence of the contraction stand in a simple syllable (Zb'! instead of ),take, instead of the short vowel of the regrular form, the corresponding -longr one (~ 27', 2, a). Hence Kal lImpf. 0 'lb for thc ===V;t irnpf. A;'t"for '171; *The explanatioa here given, of this inserted vowel, mnay perhaps suffice, especially if a certaini approximation be supposed to verbs of thle class H;compare rl." and Arab. maddita with or and im~b with ~ ~It might seem an easier explanation of the Imipf. -'0 (as wvell as of the 1Jnpf. ia verbs ~.V ti" to regard it as formed from the contracted stem-syllable -..b' by prefixing ~ so also ini Ilipht. and Iloph. But the mechanically easier way is not always the natural one. ~67. VERBS 11. 119 Hiph. ton for 33-n, Inf. onl for.n; Hoph. >_n.s for 3:O,. This long vowel (except the.1 in Hophal) is changeable. There is still another mode of constructing these forms (the common one in Chaldee), according to which the Impf. Kal 'b comes from h'1,, Impf. Hiph. ol from tan_, Hoph. Ire from nr:r, the first syllable being sharpened, with a consequent doubling of the first radical. When these forms receive an addition at the end, the first radical commonly appears single (i. e. without Dagheshforte, as if the sharpening of the first syllable sufficed for this), the tone at the same time falling on the accessory syllable. E. g..n they bow themselves (from i.bt), ~rn'l (from nn); but see ''a'l Judges xviii. 23,.t-r Job iv. 20. They omit also the vowels i and '-, e. g. Mthr_ (from bb_) Jer. xix. 3. The Parad. exhibits this form by the side of the other in Impf. Kal. 6. The originals of these contractions are several unusual forms, which in part are older and more nearly primary than those of the regular verb. Thus, 3nd is contracted from 3 '-_, the preformative having a as in the regular verb in Arabic;* Hiph. 3t' for 330S has in the contracted stem-syllable the shorter e (like the Aram. bupt comp. ~ 53, 1 and Rem. 1); Perf. Niph. 3D? for >>D:; Inf. Niph. 3c_ for 33p'?, comp. tj?., ~ 51, Rem. 2. 7. The tone has this peculiarity, that it is not thrown forward upon the formative syllables beginning with a vowel ( —, ', -), but remains before them on the stem-syllable, as.16.t Before the other afformatives, it rests upon the inserted syllables i and -_ (with the exception of r. and ]1, which always take the tone), and in consequence the vowels of the word are shortened, as 36n.,,I i;n; t-|on, but r.iAtn. 8. Instead of Piel, Pual, Hithp., and in the same signification, is found in numerous verbs of this kind, the unfrequent conjugation Poel (~55, 1), with its passive and reflexive, e. g. bY to treat one ill, Pass. Ri, Reflex..ib.i (from b); in some is found Pilpel (~ 55, 4), as btb: to roll, bitnW to roll one's self (from bb~), Pass. twt_ to be caressed (from ~2). They are inflected regularly like Piel. * Hebrew bitz from bp_, ~ 9, 5. The a appears also in verbs D guttural, especially in verbs REb ~ 68, and verbs 1S ~ 72. t The terminations for gender and number in the Participles take the tone, these not being a part of the verbal inflection, as tip:, td.. 120 120 ~~PART II. PARTS OF SPEECIL REM._1ARKS. I. On Ital. 1. In the Perf. are found some examples with (Cholemn (comp. ~ 43, 1). as ~M from C5zl they are exalted Job xxiv. 24. -1= from ='. Gen. xhix. 23. 2. The Ciholein of the Pf?.. Ipanid Imnpf: (=b:"). is a changeable vowel. and is written djfectirely, wvith a f`ew exceptions, which are found especially in the later orthography. E. g. li-b for Tb" to plun~der Esth. iii. 1 3; viii. 11. It is consequently shortened into Qamets-chatutph or Qibbitts, whenever it loses the tone. ais Iif. -',' to rejoice Job xxxviii. 7, with soff ~p~ w-hen h efounded Prov. viii. 271. Imip. %;r pity me, Inipf. with Vav consec. -!. Judgres xi. 18. With sijfT t~d he lays them wvaste Prov. xi. 31. QWri. 3. Of final Pattach in the iif:. Imjf.. and Iimp. (. the followingr are examples: 1I)to stool) Jrv.26. L -p rlI-s. cxix. 22. Iitnpf 11' he is bitter Is. xxiv. 9. b9 lhe is desp)ised Geii. xvi. 4, 5. 7-. he becomes wveak. Is. vii. 4I. Examp~les of' the, Chaidaizing Iinm)J are =b' even thoug(h ='V is also i n use; rX he is astonished 1 King(-s ix. 8 -1TD1 andl they bowed theniselves, from I'ln 4. In the Participle occurs the Ararnman form t)X for V0-0 Jer. xxx. 16, Kethibhi. II. On Niphal. 5. Besides the most usual form wvith Pattach in the second syllable. as griven in the Paradiffrn there is still,another with Tsere. and(lanother with Cholemn (analogo~us with b, 4.),extendingr through the whole conjuglation. E. g. Peif b (also ) it is a light th iog Is. xlix. 6, Part. % Wa ted an ay, 1 Sarri. xv. 9; wvith Chtolem. they are rolled together Is. xxxivx 4I Iiopf. thou. art destroyed Jer. xlviii. 2. In the Inf_ and Imp). there uoccur no florms with Pattach, but only with. Tsere anid Cholem; e. rr Inf. b=, to melt Ps. lxviii. 3, nf. abs. ii~zl to be plundered Is. xxiv. 3. 10/). Brzi get yon up Numn. xvii. 10. Examples of N-ip/. wNith the sharpeninig of'the first syllable are: I.I is profaned Ez. xxv. 3 (firom b), M.: (fromi -Ml Ps. lxix. 4; cii. 4 (also 'I Jer. vi. 29), rmfractns est (from r~a~l Mal. ii. 5. 111. On HIphil and ilophal. 6. Besides Tsere the final syllable in iHiph. has also Pattach. especi~ally wvith gutturals, as he made bitter; Inf. ')-b to cleanise Jer. iv. 11. But also without a g-uttural, as h le broke in pieces 2 Kings xxiii. 15, Plur. 16.1 Sam. v. 10, Part. bXm shadowing Ez. xxxi. 3. 7. Thie Imperflect wvith retracted tone tak~es the form Tip he protects Ps. xci. 4. anid he r-olled Gen. xxix. 10. 8. Chaldaizing formis of!Iiphil and Hophal: =)n Ex. xiii. 18. and they broke Deut. i. 44. brl profanabo Ez. xxxix. 7,. they a're destroyed Job xxiv. 241, is broken Is. xxiv. 12, 1 ) in pause (Job x ix. 23) f'or 1-r'i'. ~68. VERBS XI. 121 IV. In General. 9. Verbs S?: are very nearly related to verbs US (~ 72), as appears even from the similarity in their conjugations, which are parallel throughout. In form the verb 3'" is generally shorter than the other (comp. 3b0 and e:pt, t.n and D':1). In some cases they have precisely the same form. as in the Impf. consec. of Kal and Hiphil, in Hophal, and in the unfrequent conjugations. On account of this relation, they have sometimes borrowed forms from each other, e. g. Ins. for ih~ he rejoices Prov. xxix. 6. 10. Along with the contracted forms there are found, especially in certain conjugations and tenses, others which are wholly regular. E. g. Perf. Kal TM. to plunder, Plur. ITTZ,.T. (also.a,, Deut. ii. 7); Inf. 'ho and:b; Impf. 'len he is gracious Amos v. 15, elsewhere in; Hiph. p.?:n, Impf..n.? he will rejoice (which is never contracted), Part. a::7r astonished Ez. iii. 15. The full form is rather poetic, and is used with some degree of emphasis (Ps. cxviii. 11). 11. We have seen above (No. 5), that in the Impf. of the Chaldee form, the Daghesh of the third radical, together with the preceding vowel, is omitted before afformatives, the tone at the same time falling on the latter, as 1.?. This sometimes occurs also in other forms, as 5.: Gen. xi. 7 for rn': 'we will confound (cohortative from 1-3);.OS for.q'% ver. 6 they will'devise; Perf. Niph.,t.: for.nr67 Ez. xli. 7; orn. for r3.n. Gen. xvii. 11 (from bn ==- - to circumcise); comp. Is. xix. 3; Jer. viii. 14. Without Daghesh, but with the accented full vowel: 'rt for nri Prov. vii. 13, ntI3 1 Sam. xiv. 36; comp..rnm Is. lvii. 5 for 3an3. 12. Although the tone falls less on the afformatives here (see No. 7), yet this occasionally takes place; sometimes as an exception, e. g..~i Jer. v. 6; Ps. iii. 2; civ. 24,.qbT Gen. iv. 13; sometimes on account of appended suffixes, as.s., U:.. Ps. cxviii. 11. The vowels suffer before Daghesh the changes pointed out in ~ 27, 1, viz. Cholem in the Impf. becomes Qibbuts, less frequently Qamets-chatuph. Tsere in Hiph. becomes Chireq (after the analogy of;nMi..,,niMtr.); the preformatives then, in place of the full vowel, take Sheva. E. g..t s. Ps. xlix.6, tn.3- Job xl. 22, tune Ps. lxvii. 2. Hiph. i. 9 Ez. xlvii. 2. C. FEEBLE VERBS (VERBA QUIESCENTIA). ~68. FEEBLE VERBS D. (E. g. b:s to eat. Paradigm I.) So far as t retains its power as a consonant and a guttural, these verbs have all the properties of verbs Pe guttural exhibited in ~ 63. Here we treat of them, only so far as their b quiesces, i. e. loses its consonant-sound, and is blended with the preceding 122 122 ~~~PART IL. PARTS OF SPE ECHI. vowel. This happens only in a few very common verbs and forms, wvoin away as it were by frequent use. Thle limlitations are as follows 1. In the irnpf. Kal of five verbs, viz., 1= to per-ish, #In to be wiliingc t et rtosy to bake, the X always (IluieSCeS in a long 6' (0/holemt), as 'MI In somne others, thle fonn in which it retains its power as a consonant is also in use. as Tjj~~ anil TH lie takes hold of. The 63 in this case is a corrupjtion of the vowvel a2 (6i 9, 10, 2), which is itself derived by contraction fr-om or.Trh0 feebleness of these verbs (~ 41, c) affects also their last, syllable, so that it takes instead of the storoner vowel 6 an 7 (T7sere), particularly with distinctive accents at the end of a period or clause; but with conjunctive accents. which mark the continuance of the discourse, it takes a (P3a/tacit), e. gr. liV Ia Ps. ix. 19, on the contrary 'MM Ps. i. 6 (colinp.a simiilar exchanoe of andl a ~ 655, 1, c). When the tone mnoves back, the last stemi-syllable has somietimies Pattach, as 0`1 'M jPerish the day Job iii. '3, 411.1 and lhe ate, and somietimes,Se-rrhiol, as (AR1d1l), with. conjunctive accents, but Iilr17a) with. distinctiv~es (but in Job a few timnes 'Imi in pause). Very seldom does Tgere stmnd in the first syllable in the, AIof. Kal, as nnx it shall come Mlic. iv. S. contracteil from always, however. in the form nm5zD dicendo (Inf. with ).for nt'". 2. In the 1st pei-s smo7, irnpf. the radical N (to avoid the repetition of this letter) is regularly dropped (6. 23, 3), as lti for 'Ig I1will say. Except in this case the radical N seldom falls away. as 'Z~ for -q-~ thouz takcst away Ps. civ. 29, n~'i' for!qir_~ they sp1eak of thee Ps. cxxxix. 20, "~r thou goest away (from Fia$),, Jer. ii. 36. rThe, Paradigmi I. gives the feeble forms (namely, ZImpf. Kal), and indicates the other mnore regular forms. Rem. 1. Out of Kal x seldom quiesces, as Perf. Nip/h. Jos. xxii. 9; Iliph. and he took away Nurm. xi. 25, 'j$ I hearken Job xxxii. 11. ri,4 (6 from 62) I will destroy Jer. xlvi. 8, '11i attending Prov. xvii. 4, Imp. Ili bring ye (from — $n) Is. xxi. 14. 2. In Pid 4 sometimes falls away by contraction (like "i in e,. gr. (so, regularly, in Syr. Chald. and Samar.) for ',g teaching Job xxxv. 1i. ~ 69. VERBS s-M. ~69. FEEBLE VERBS %. First Class, or Verbs originally it. (E. g..ov to dwell. Paradigm K.) Verbs -i fall principally under two classes, which are wholly different fiom each other in their origin and inflection. The first embraces those verbs which have properly a 1 for their first stem-letter. In Arabic they are written with ' (e. g. f, Arab. walada); but in Hebrew, by a difference of dialect, they take ' instead of it, wherever the first radical is the initial letter. The second embraces those which are properly 'E, and which have Yodh also in Arabic (~70). There are also a few verbs A, partly of the first and partly of the second class, which in certain forms sharpen the first syllable like verbs f7, and thus form in some measure a third class (~ 71). In the verb 'm_ the forms are divided according to their signification; viz. 1) 'm9 (of the first class), Impf. -in, '.l to be in a strait; 2) 'Am (of the second class), Impf. 'sian toform. The peculiarities in the inflection of the first class, which is analogous with the Arabic A', are the following: 1. In the Impf., Imp., and Inf. constr. of Kal there is a twofold form. About half the number of these verbs have here the feeblest forms, namely: Impf. ~t with a tone-lengthened e in the second syllable, which may be shortened to Seghol and vocal Sheva; and with a somewhat firmer e in the first syllable, which in some degree still embodies the first radical " that has fallen away (though scarcely ever written It ); Imp. =.t contracted from:r. by the falling away of the feeble I; and Inf. t IT shortened in like manner at the beginning, and with the feminine ending r.-_, which again gives to the form more length and body. The other half of these verbs are inflected with stronger forms; they have the Impf. A and retain the Yodh initial: e. g. Imp. t1 and Inf. 'bl, where it is a consonant; Impf. tre, where it is resolved into the vowel z (~ 24, 2). 124 PART IL. PARTS OF SPEECH. That the latter mode of' inflection belongs to verbs actually ~'= (which has often been overlooked and failsely dlenicil) is shown., partly by the numerous verbs which take these forms in Kial. -and at the, same time have ' in Niphal, iTiiphd and Iloplal; partly by the -analogry of' the Arablc, where the verbs i"M have lik~ewise a double iniflection. Even in the same, verb are f'ound tboth forms. the- weakher and the stroll rer. as r-: 2 Kino's iv. 41- and pour Ez. xxiv. 3. 1& I Ki n cs xxi. 15, ' Deut. ii. 2.4, a n d.:r'' e~os~,wt eitiii Deut xxxiii. 23; Jmpj -17'' Dent. xxxii. 22. anid -i' lhe will burn,ip is. x. 1 6. To the first mode of inflection belong. e.g(. n` to bear. X` to go for-th, ="; to sit. to dIwell. '11' to dIescendl. 3!i to know. (Impf.:!v with Pattacih in the last syllable on account of the gruttural); to the second b)eIo ng (r',- to weary, yv' to counsel., mg to be, dry, though the latter is in Arabic "'.n 2. The original IEav m'aintains itself, as a consonant. wherever it niust be (iotllledl; namnely, in the knf. Imp., and imjf. of Nip/wi, as =t,: 1 (precisely as ~ ~;moreover, inl Ilithp. of soni, verbs, as from and in a few nominal formis, as 1'~ /)roles,, from '1 to bear-. As a vowel, at tile end of the syllable, it is sounded i'l2 i~ in itle whole of I-op/ai (e. g. for:1for M'); and, combined witih a precedingr a, as a diphithongal 6, (M inl the.Perf. and Part. o~f N-ip/wi, arid thiroughout Iliphil (e. g.:12 for znbi- -for 3. rThe other form'ls, with fewv exceptions (see Rein. 3, 4), are reglular. In those forms in which Yodh does not appear, these, verbs mtay he dlistinguished. in the Iijp!. of Ka~l by the Tsere under the preformatives; in Niph.. Iliph., and 1101)/ by thit Vd7a (1, 41, ~) before the second radiical. (Forms written dfetitely, like -19h are rare.) Forms like 5 they have in conimon with verbsi H.Iophal has the same formn as in verbs ~Yandl ~Y. Renm. 1. The hnf. orfKal, of the weaker form (see No. 1). has very seldom the masculine form like ~!i to know Job xxxii. 6. 10. or the femninine curlingr -,eg. w'id Ex. ii. 4. With a guttural, r5 becomes n-~ e. gr. r:~ to know. M", to bear in 1 Sam. iv. 19 is contracted to r~ (~19. 2). E xamples of the refrulair full forni occur with sufflixes. 'qiv Job xxxviii. 4. ~.1' Ezra iii. 12. The full form has seldom the femninine ending. as %1;)-' to Tbe able. 2. The ILop. Kal oft~en has the lengrthening - as rnm, seat thiyse~f.bl descend. From =M to gi-ve the lengthened Imp, is I-'I give vp, Jer. b ier. with accented Qarnets, owing oteifuneo the guttural. 3. The Impf. of'the form ":j6 takes Pattach in its final syllable when it has a guttural, as t'V ire will knzow, also 'In Jer. xiii. 17. When the tone is drawni back upon the penultima, the final syllable takes Seghol. ~ 10. VERBS -i.12 125 namely, before a word of one syllable and after Vav consecutive. E. g. M-'6 Gen. xliv. 33; '1 1 but in Pause =&N and '01. A very rare exception, in which an Impf. of this kind is written fully, is M~' Mic. i. 8.-The form tZ5l"9 when lengthened can also lose its radical 9 as MW Is. xl. 30, I-. lYxv. 23. Yet the cases are rare and questionable where this occurs after other preformatives than " (see Is. Xliv. 8). 4. In some stems the feebleness extends also to the Perf. Kal, so that the a under the second radical becomes e or i. as Ml'l.: from &Y, Examples are found in Num. xi. 12; Deut. iv. 1; viii. 1; xiX. 1; xxvi. 1; Ps. ii. 7; lxix. 36, &c. In Syic e is here predominant; in Hebrew the feeble vowel is found only in such forms of the Perf. as have no full vowel under the first radical. See a similar case in ~ 73, Rem. 4. 5. As an exception, the Impf. Niph. has sometimes Yodh instead of Vav, e. gr. and he waited Gen. viii. 12; comp. Ex. xix. 13. The 1st pers. sing. has always the form:1CN not "t1-' comp. 5 51, Rem. 4. 6. In Pii0 the radical Yodh sometimes falls away after preformative, which takes its punctuation (comp. ~ 68, Rem. 2). E. g. 1j1 1 for and he drieth it up Nah. i. 4. 7. In Hiphil, as in Kal-, the Impf. with retracted tone takes Seghol, as Z~l~ let him, add Prov. i. 5, ~q~ and he added. On forms like W11,11 see ~ 53, Rem. 7.-In Hophal, there are some examples of i in place of.1, as ~)IiM (for V1-1) Lev. iv. 23, 28. N. B. S. With verbs 9 of the first class is connected, also, the verb '7~- to go; for it formis (as if from '71~) Impf. 71~, with Vav '7~'1 in pause nj~ I!f. constr. rm~, Imp. 71, lengthened -M and also ~ and so Hiph. Rarely, and almost exclusively in the later books and in poetry, are found also the regular inflections from njtn; e. g. Imnpf1514 Inf. '7brj (Num. xxii. 14, 16; Eccles. vi. 8, 9), imtp. 'pl. 1-L, (Jer. li. 50). On the contrary, Perf. Kal is always ria Part. 11,4n lf. abs. ~ Piel~ Iiihp. ~ir~r~;so that a 4 nowhere appears decisively as the first radical. An obsolete stem 'q~' is commonly assumed, however, for the explanation of the above forms; though, in a word of so frequent use, the stem with the. feeble breathing nj' may itself be supposed to have admitted those forms, after the -analogy indeed of verbs 9.Comp. also the feeble A forms. e. g. &Wi from b~tx (5 68, 2), like -q~ from 71jm; Intpf. Hiph. rv11' —;x from like nz'9~ist2 Kings vi. 16 from '7~11 5 70. FEEBLE VERBS I.D S~econd Class, or Verbs properly It). (E. g. '=' to be good. Parad. L.) The most essential points of difference between verbs properly -11 and verbs ~n are the following: 126 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. 1. Kal has only the stronger formation described in ~ 69, 1, namely, that in lwhich the radical " remains, Inf. nb, with the Impf. A, as w-2, f'"; witl retracted tone, the Pattach becomes &Sg((.hol, as ]RI and he awoke Gen. ix. 24, 'In1 (fiom 'Z") and hefor'med Gen. ii. 7. 2. Inl iphil tile ' is pronounced as a diplltllongal e (Tsere), and is regularly written fully, e. g. ZZ.3.M (for:1':','-), lmpf.:'^.'.; seldom with the diphthong ai, ay, as in.'T?? they nmake straight Prov. iv. 25; Ps. v. 9, Qeri. Tile fbllowing are the only verbs of this kind: -.' to be good, p^ to suck, yp'q, to awake. ^'_ to form., bb Iliph. 5b',0 to bewail, nrt to be straighrt. Of the Tmpf Hi/ph. there are some anomalous forms with preformatives attached to the 3d pers. bb.~; as ',.9I' he wails. bb I wail, ~~115..m; ye wail. Is. xv. 2; Ixv. 14; Jer. xlviii. 31.; Hos. vii. 14; and besides. ^'?' Job xxiv. 21; once even in Impf. Kal.t;' Ps. cxxxviii. 6 from.Th. This anomaly was caused by mistaking. from a superficial view the Yodh of the simple form for a part of the stem. ~71. VERBS 3D. Third Class, or Contracted Verbs qS. Here are reckoned those verbs 4" of the first and second classes, whlose T5odh is not resolved into a vowel. but is assimlilated like a Nunt. In some verbs thlis is the invariable usage, e. g.. to slpread utnder, Hiph. -, oph. rm; rz to burn' t7j), Imlnf. f_.tIiph. ^J: R' in others, such sharpeled forms occuri aloing wxitll tle weaker ones of tlhe first and second classes e. g., t' o 1poIr mnpf. P'. and p-^-' (1 Kings xxii. 35); '2~ to form, Impf. " 1" and. (Is. xliv. 12 Jer. i. 5); '~2 to be straigctt, Irpf. '"tr and ';. (1 Sam. vi. 12). Tlie lIcl:rnr nl av easily mistake tliese for forms of a verb i!; and when suttel;an one is not found in the lexicon. he should look for a verb h'. The P.r;adlirrns K and L exhibit the characteristic forrrs of the first and second classes; lhose of the third conform wholly to verbs j':, and are, moreover, of very rare occurrence. ~872. VERBS I. 127 ~72. FEEBLE VERBS ~I. (E. g..p to rise up. Paradigm M.) 1. The middle stem-letter i gives up its consonant sound in these verbs (with the exception of a few stems, see Rem. 10), and is lost in the sound of the chief vowel of the form; and this not only in the more usual cases (~24, 1) where Sheva precedes or follows, as ti: bosh for 3 bevosh, but also where the Vav stands between two full vowels, as PI- Part. Pass. for =), Dp Inf. abs. for LI. The stem is, therefore, always monosyllabic. 2. The vowel of the stem thus contracted is, essentially, the vowel of the second syllable, which almost every where, in the verb, contains the characteristic of the form (~67, 2). This vowel, by its union with the Vav, gains greater fullness and stability; e. g. Inf. and Imp. A.p for Ql. It cannot, therefore, be displaced; but it may be shortened, as in i.p (with short d) from O, and in the Jussive Impf. of Hiph. P3: shortened from ="R" (from CI.?). The Perf. Kal, in intransitive verbs middle E, takes the form n (from Mta) he is dead; and in verbs middle 0, the form i~n (from?t~) luxit, tth' (from tiD:) he was ashamed. Comp. Rem. 1. 3. The preformatives in the Impf. Kal and Perf. Niph. and throughout Hiph. and Hoph., which before the monosyllabic stem form a simple syllable, take instead of the short vowel of the regular form the corresponding long one (~27, 2). E. g. -pT* for nip_:; Op.! for 1::1"; =pIn for ripn. This vowel is mutable, and becomes Sheva when the tone is thrown forward; e. g. before suf:. In'n he will kill himn and in the full plural form of the Impf. 'p.ni. they will die. The only exception is the 1 in HIophal, which has become a firm and unchangeable vowel; as it by the transition of' to the first syllable, tCaln had become o^t, and then =in. 4. In some cases, forms of the regular verb not now in use lie at the foundation of those of which we are treating. E. g. Impf. Kal Wp, for ip? (see ~ 67, 6), Part. Qp, either for.p. (after i?, the original form of bp, Chald. and Arab. qatel, ~ 9, * For tie a sound under the preformiativc, see No. 4. 128 128 ~~~PART 11. PART'S OF SPEECIL. 10, 2, and ~ 0 2).rJfr, (after the form — of tile verbal adjec tive I conip. ~ SI,. -No. 1. rjI1hose. which conformn to the regular Hebrew v eib, ai e (enerally the most unfrequent, as tjv (after the form t"IM). The o in Nipi. comes from' wva (=: ua), as lp from ImJI)f. M~ from T 5. In the 71 cif. Nip/I and lip/i. the harshness of pronunciation in such forms asr is avoided by the insertion of ~ before the aff'ormative(s of the first and second person. F'or the samne puirpose 'I is inserted in the Imp~f. Kal lbefore the termnination (comip.;. 675 4). These inserted syllables take the tone and shorten the p)Leceditig vowels, as M~! Fi -; r, or., also rl" ~ But in some cases the harder forms, -without the inserted syllable, are also in use. Thus Ioipf. K't l Ez. xvi. '55 (also in the same verse); somewhat oftener in IHiph... as -,re- Ex. xx. 25, 1)utfliso Job xxxi. 21, ri'i Job xx. 10, once Jer. xliv. 25. The Imp. has only the harder form- M='n-5 6. The tone, as in verbs ~,is not throwvn forward upon the aff'ormatives n-, as Mlas j ~,, except in the full plural form i On the accentuation of ~ and - see No. 5'. Where these are not inserted, the, accentuation is regular. sM b,as ~~ so always in Hop/ial, asMr 7. The conjugrations Pii~l, Putal, and Ilit/ipaill are very seldomi found in feeble verbs V. The only instance in which I appears as a consonant is"IVt miou.tePWof (but see Rem. 1-0). In some others I has become 'I, as in fromt =', n fromn =!M a formation whiiclh beloiigs to the later lHebrew, havingr been borrowed fromn the Araiwean. Onl the contrary, the tunfrequent conjugi~ation Pilel (~55, 2), wxith its passive anti reflexive, is the commnon formn employed in the signification of Pitil and as a substitute for it.. 1E. g. Mr,'. to r-aise up), from to elevate, P'ass. =~ from- =1t 7os one's seVf from Less frequent is the conjugation Pilpel (~55,p) 4), e. g. to sutstain, to nourish, from '0 I I. On Kfal. N. B. 1. Of'verbs mniddle E andI 0, which in the regular verb also have their Perf. a(nd Part, the same (~ 50, 2), the follo0wing are exampies; viz. Perf. rm (for Mr) h~e 'is dead'. 1st sing. I lst plur. u-'-1, ~M'2 VERBS 12 129 3d piur. lmt;nz- i (for t~itt) he was ashamed, 5in, 1.101 -Iti - 'lts he has shined; *,Part. nm dead; Wii ashamed Ez. xxxii. 30. The form =p as Perf. and as Part., is very seldom written with bt (the Arabic orthography), as tnv Hos. x. 14, cluxt despising Ez. xxviii. 24, 26, compl. xvi. 57. The Part. has rarely thc lbrm Vip instead of Ira 2 K. xvi. 7, and even with transitive signification, as U* occultans Is. xxv. 7; Zech. x. 5. 2. In the Inf. and Inp, of some verbs, Ialways quiesces in Cholem, as xi =iti, '1 1. In most verbs, however, it quiesces only in ~Shureq; but even in these the Inf. absol. has i in the final syllable (after the form as I-), as tibp surgendo surgent Jer. xliv. 29. Those verbs which have in the Inf. retain it in the Impf., as R~= he will come. In one verb alone the preformatives of the i1mpf. have Tsere, viz. t~5in, Impf. t~n (for t~9) See No. 4. 3. In the Imp. with afformatives ('mf 1 mp the tone is on the penultimna, with a few exceptions as in Judges v. 12. The lengthened form, on the contrary, has the tone usually on the last syllable ('-M~ Inlt ~) with a few exceptions where the word is Mil'l (Ps. vii. 8;"Jer. T. 12; x.5). N. B. 4. The shortened Impf. as Jussive (~ 48, 4) has the form ti1 (very seldom mi)9 =1) E. g. =& let him return Deut. xx. 5-8; ~h let him not return Ps. lxxiv. 21; nt59 1 Kingxi.1anle him die; in poetic language, as indicatire, M~9 tri he, it shall be high, Num. xxiv. 7; Micah V. 8. With Vav consecutive, and before words of one syllable, the tone is also drawn back upon the penultima, and the vowel of the last syllable is shortened to Qamets-chatuph, as tj11 19~ Job xxii. 28. In Pause, however, the tone remains on the last syllable, as ri-ll; comp. Gen. xi. 28, 32,1 withyv. 5, 8. With a guttural or a Resh, the final syllable may take Peattach, e. g. '101 and he turned aside Ruth iv. 1 (from '11). The full plural-ending 11 has the tone (according to No. 6 of this section); hence rIltnm Gen. iii. 3, 4, "1-0V Ps. civ. 7, "'I1.2VV, Joel ii. 4, 7, 9. II. On Niphal. 5. Anomalous forms are: Perf. tn~ ye have been scattered Ez. xi. 17; xx. 34, 41, 43; Inf. constr. hZ5lT Is. xxv. 10. Comjp. Rem. 9. III. On Hiphil. 6. Examples of the Perfect without the inserted i: r-m~' thou wavest Ex. xx. 25; Mn' thou killest, and even =W Num. xvii. 6, &C. 7. In the im. besides the shortened form t~-M occurs also the lengthened one M'tM N. B. The shortened Irnpf. has the form =14 as '10" that hema..T " r may take away Ex. x. 17. With Vav consecutive the tone falls back upon the penultima, as mbn2); yr-' and he scattered. The final syllable when it has a guttural or Resh takes Pattach, as in Ka l,e. g. ntiland he remnoved Gen. viii. 13. 9 130 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. V. In General. S. On account of thc intimate relation between verbs ~'"' and i(~67), it is necessary, in analyzing forms, to note particularly the points in which these classes differ. Several forms are exactly the same in both, e. g. Irnpf. K'al with Vav consecutive; Pilel of 1" and PoM of Y". Hence it is thift they often borrow forms firom one another, as in Kfal 7= he despised (Peif. of' II= as if from ',I=) Zech. iv. 10, nu he besineared (for MU) Is. xliv. 15. 9. In common wvith verbs ~ ~67, 5), those of this class have in Niphal and IIliphil the Chialdee anid Rabbinic formation. which has, instead of the long- vowel under the preformatives. a short one followed by Daghesh forte. Trhis form and the common one are often both in use. E. g. r-V' to incite, Imipf. In'c (also ); r andi he shows the way 2 Sam. xxii. 33 (,and n — Prov. xii. 26); sometimes w ith a di f ference of signification, as M";r to cautse to rest, to give rest. ~Ij M'i to set down, to lay down; to spend the night, to abide; '1"n to be headIstromng rebellious. Other examples: N ip)h. (romn znot ~r= to be c~rircumcised Gen. xvii. 26, 27; xxxiv. 22, witli a gnttural '1" Zech. ii. 17; Iliph. '."I to despise Lam. i. S. i th ey depart Prov. iv. 21. Here, too, may be classed somec forrms of' verbs Pe guttural with Daghesh forte imiplied, which othersW wUld dlerive from a stern of -a different form, or emend; viz. for rl~ and she hastens (from ~ Job xxxi. 5, =:M -6:!, I Sam. xv. 19; xxv. 14. from t:Y. to rush upon. 10. Verbs whose middle stem-letter remrains a consouant Vav' are, in respect to this letter. perfectly regular. E. gr. 'ir to be white,Iuf to~ expire, Inp.~I'9; particularly all verbs that are also ~ ~ 73. FEEBLE VTERIBS (E. g. 'j1 to perceive. Paradigm N.) 1.These verbs heave the same structure as verbs!", and their is treated in thie samie manner as the 1 of that class. FL g. Perf. Kal M6 (for ~C)he has set, Iqf. r-t hnf. absol. r.H;' (for ~~z5), imp.:, Im2pf. I M.Jasive rl& withl Vav conls. 6 But the, 1Puf K-al has, in several verbs, still a second set of forms, %which resemble a Ifiphil shortene-d at the begrinn-in,j eg. b, (sante as Dan. ix. 2, also r.;: Ps. cxxxix. 2, thout contendest Job) xxxiii. 13. also =1 Lamn. iii. 58. Often also full forms of iliphil occur, e. g. Peif. T"#, -1I~f. t: (also t.3), Imp. 'II (also IZ), Part. 'j;' so likewise =11 (also ~73. VERBS MY. 131 3^), St. setting (also tt), b'u. glittering, also in Perf. ]2. Moreover, as Passive we find a few times Hoph. Impf. m''. fiom '.t' to sing, rt-'. from rial to set. 2. These Hiphil forms are as easily traced to verbs ~', and may in part belong strictly to that class. The same is true of Niph. ]^=, Pil..i# and Hithpalel ^-itin (as if from In). In every respect, these verbs are closely related to verbs;7. Hence, several verbs occur, promiscuously and in the same signification, as I' and 'b; e. g. '.5 (denorn. from bb_) to spend the night, Inf. also ]b5; it to set, Iff. also Mt, Impf. 'th., once am.. In other verbs one of the two is the predominant form, as b l to exult (b only in Prov. xxiii. 24). But few are exclusively %V, as th. to set, =. to contend, tt to rejoice; to which should be added by (in Arabic middle Yodh) to contain, to measure Is. xl. 12, and the denom. y- (from YTp) to summer Is. xviii. 6. The older grammarians did not recognize this class of verbs, but referred all the forms to verbs i:. This may, in some instances, be quite right; the later Arabic has an exactly corresponding abbreviation of the Iitphil (Conj. IV) in verbs {Y. On the contrary, the Arabic, as well as XEBthiopic, has also actual verbs U'Y; nor is the Hebrew without such, in which Yodh even retains its consonant power, as "." to hale, and DA to faint. There is certainly to be assumed a vacillation among stems so nearly related; and encroachment of one upon the other. The Paradigm N is placed in connection with that of verbs '.3, in order to exhibit more clearly the parallelism of the two classes. The conjugations which are omitted in it, have the same form as in Paradigm A. REMARKS. 1. Examples of the Inf. absol. are mm litigando Judges xi. 25, ri ponendo Is. xxii. 7, but also =n. Jer. 1. 34. 2. The shortened Im pf is ]q; with retracted tone it takes the form In:m Judges vi. 31. So with Vav consecutive,:t. and he set, ]. and he perceived. 3. As Part. act. Kal we find once 5b passing the night Neh. xiii. 21; Part. pass. o'z or:tid (a various reading) 2 Sam. xiii. 32. 4. Verbs t ' retain the consonant-sound of their X almost invariably, and hence are irregular only as represented in ~ 64. Of its quiescence in these verbs there are, however, some examples; as -i'. they are beautiful Is. lii. 7 (from 'r); 'yt'. he blooms, Impf. Hiph. from yX, for y E?, Eccl. xii. 5. [~ 23, 2]. 132 132 ~~~PART II. PARTS OF SPEE CH. ~74. FEEBLE VERBS N6. (E. gr.x%' to fnd. Paradigm 0.) The N appears here, as in verbs N'', partly as a consonant with a soft guttural sound (scarcely audible at the end of a word), partly as a quite inaudible (quiescent) letter, according to the, followvingc rules 1. In those forms whlich. end wvith. the third radical, the final syllable has always the regrular vowels, e. g. N2: N2= N1";but 1'attach before the feeble letter N is lengthened into Qamnets (~ 23, 1), viz. in thle Peif. nipf. and nimp. Kal, in the Peif. Aiph., Pital, and Hoph. The ()however is mutable (1 205, 2, Rein.), hience, in the plural ~ The Irnpf. and Imp). Kal have A, after the analogy of verbs Lamnedh 2. Also before afformiatives beginning wvith a consonant (r, ~ bt is not heard. Thle vowvel which precedes it in the Perf. Kal is Qam~ets, rn~; in the Perf. of all the other conjugations it is Tser'e, in thle Intp. and Implf. of all the conjugations it is ASegrhoi, ~,,:Al rim The Tiere and] Seghol of these forms arose doubtless from the close resemblance of these verbs to the rmb class (comp. ~75, 2), and from an approximation to the, latter. Before the suffixes I-li ~ te.4 retains its character as a guttural, and takes ();as Cant. viii. 1, 9:'~ Ez. xxviii.'13, comp. ~ 65, 2, Remn. The reason (as in verbs Lamedh guttural) is, that those suffixes require before them a half-vowel. 3. Before afformnatives beginning with. a vowel, N remains a consonant, and thle form is regrular, as A complete view of the inflection is given in Parad. 0. REMARKS. 1. Verbs middle E. like %6 to be full, retain Tsere in the other persons of the Perf, as ~9~'.In-stead of -IT is sometimes found the Aramituan form M.Il for nw'l she nanies Is. vii. 14; comp. Gen. xxxiii. 11 (after the form rae, 6.44, Rem. 4). 2. In the 14f occurs thefem. form mi; to fill Lev. xii. 4, for r,4m 3. The Pa'rt. fern. is commonly, by contraction, r-~n more rarely ri.S Cant. viii. 10. and without.4 (see Rem. 4) ni (from. Ns) Deut. xxviii. 57. In the forms t"su peccantes I Sam. xiv. 33, and W4~_ ~75. VERBS,ib.. 133 feigning them Neh. vi. 8, the vowel is drawn back in the manner of the Syriac [~ 23, 2]. 4. The t sometimes falls away, as in ano. Num. xi. 11, 9n'. Job xxxii. 18. Niph. r.r-i ye are defiled Lev. xi. 43. Hiph. c.nt Jer. xxxii. 35. See the Remarks on verbs fib, No. VI. ~75. FEEBLE VERBS ib. (E. g.,bA to reveal. Paradigm P.) These verbs, like those ^' (~~ 69, 70), embrace two different classes of the irregular verb, viz. b and 15, which in Arabic, and especially JEthiopic, are still more clearly distinguished. In Hebrew the original ' and 1 have given place to a feeble h, as a representative of a closing vowel-sound (~ 23, 4), in all those forms which end with the third radical. Hence they are called in Hebrew verbs ti; e. g. nlb for *; he has revealed,,bit for its he has rested. By far the greater number of these verbs are originally b; only a few forms occur of verbs Ib. The two classes are therefore less prominently distinguished than verbs ID and >. A true verb fb is,tbt to be at rest, whence.vwb, Part. 1,. and the derivative,bt.t rest; yet in the Impf. it has'.T5 (with Yodh). In n-g (Arab. h:Y) to answer, and n;r (Arab. tar) to suffer, to be oppressed, are two verbs originally distinct, but with the same form in Hebrew (see Gesenius' Lex. art.?Mn). In Syriac the intermingling of these forms is carried still farther, verbs 'b also being confounded with those rib, i. e. with the two classes 'b and;5 of the Arabic. Wholly different are those verbs whose third stem-letter is a consonant in (distinguished by Mappiq); e. g. m.; to be high. They are inflected throughout like verbs Lamedh guttural. It is certain, however, that some feeble verbs:ib originated in verbs with final.r, this letter having lost its original strong and guttural sound, and become softened to afeeble r, e. g. anMn, Arab..tI: to be blunt. Hence it is that verbs ib5 are sometimes related to those hrb, for which the verb.b may be assumed as an intermediate form; e. g. Wb. and rnOt to be hard, rmn properly = rnM to be open. The grammatical structure of these verbs (whih4 Paradigm P exhibits) is as follows: 1. The original Yodh or Vav, in all forms which end with the third radical, gives place to n as a vowel-letter, which repre 134 134 ~~PART IL PARTS OF SPEECI. sents the closing vowel. Trlhis vowel is the same in each form througrh all thie conjugations, namely In all the Perfects _ &. In all the Inmperfects and Participles Active, In all the Imperatives, ' # - &c. In the Inf. absol. (except in Hiph. and Hop~h., Rein. 13), 'fl: The Par-t. Pass. Kal formis the only exception, in which the original " appears at the end, as also in some derivatives (~5, V). The It~f. constr. has always the feminine form in 11, viz, in Kal rl* in Piel n* &C. In explanation of these forms we observe: Thlat in the Perf. Kfal, standls for according to ~ 24, 2, c; so in Xiph. andl Hop~hal. Piji and IHithp. are based on the forms ~U b ~P~(~ 529, Rein. 1), Iliph. on the form r-,' after the manner of the Arabic aqiala (~ 53, 1). The Im~f. Kal1, rin,,i an IrnI~f. A for (according to ~ 24, 2, Rem. a), whence also are such plural forms as 1-~,- (see Rem. 4). The same is true of the other conjugations, all of' which have, even in the regular verb, in connection with the usual form, another with Paltach in the final syllable. See ~ 51, Remn. 2, ~6 54, Rem. The Tsere of the Imp. M~~ is, at any rate, a shorter vowel than the accented Seghol, with its broader sound, in the Impf. 1'~Y; comp. the constr-uct slate of nouns in.-,- ~8S9, 2, c. 2. Before the afformatives beginning with a consonant (ri~) the original " remains, but not as a consonant. Properly it would here form with the foregoing d (Pattach) the diphthong ai; wvhich, however, in the Peif., is first contracted into ' (ll) and then farther attenuated into Z" (~27, Remn. 1), but in the Imp~f. aiid imp). passes into the broad and obtuse >* Thus in Perf. Piel, from n-~ (after 1. comes first and then by attenuating the d into i rl*; in the Iinpf. Piiel In the, passiesth i awys reand; in the actives of the derived conjugrations anti in the reflexives e' and iare both used (see Rem. 7, 9, and 13); but in Kal (the most frequent of all), only Zi is found. Accordingly: The P-erfect, of Kal has i, as Perfects of the other active as well as reflexive conjugations have promiscuously 6 and i', as n'5 and rl"" ~75. VERBS,1. 135 Perfects of the Passives have only e, as.45; Imperfects and Imperatives have always ', as.M5,,?}. In Arabic and ZEthiopic, the diphthongal forms have every where resisted contraction, which takes place only as an exception and in the popular idiom. In Chaldee and Syriac, the contracted forms prevail. though the Syriac has e. g. abi_ in Kal, and so also the Chald. along with rnba. 3. Before the afformatives beginning with a vowel (., -., i_) the Yodh, together with the preceding vowel, is usually displaced, e. g..5b (for.~i,), (.^ (rn.), Part. fer.,'s*, plur.::i.; yet it remains in ancient full forms, particularly in pause, as T5? (see Rem. 4 and 12). Before suffixes also it falls away, as ITI (Rem. 19). 4. The Yodh disappears also in the 3d Perf. sing.fem., when rh- is appended as feminine ending, namely rbt. But this ancient form is become rare (see Rem. 1); and to this mark of the gender, as if it were not sufficiently clear, a second feminine ending r-.\ has been appended, so as to form nrib. So in all conjugations, e. g. Hiph. thni, common form..trft, in pause TAT: T See analogous cases in ~ 70, Rem., ~ 91, 3. 5. The formation of the shortened Imperfect, which occurs in all the conjugations, is strongly marked in verbs of this class, and consists in casting away the ni —, by which still other changes are occasioned in the form (see Rem. 3, 8, 10, 15). A shortened Imperative is also formed, in some conjugations, by apocope of the n-(Rem. 11, 15). REMARKS. I. On Kal. 1. In the 3d Perf. fer. the older and more simple form rni. (from nb;?, comp. the verb bh, ~ 74, Rem. 1), is almost entirely banished from common use (see above, No. 4). An example of it is niw she makes Lev. xxv. 21. So in Hiph. and Hoph., e. g. r^sln she pays, Lev. xxvi. 34, nn1 she is carried captive, Jer. xiii. 19. But with sffixes it is always used, see Rem. 19. 2. The Inf. absol. has also the form iWn videndo Gen. xxvi. 28. As Inf. constr. occurs, rarely, nW. Gen. xlviii. 11, niD 1. 20, or Ii; xxxi. 28, as well as the feminine form MnXt to see Ez. xxviii. 17, like nT? ~ 45, 2, letter b. N. B. 3. The shortening of the Impf. (see above, No. 5), occasions in Kal the following changes: 136 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. a) The first stem-letter most commonly takes the helping-vowel Seghol, or, when the middle radical is a guttural, Patlach (~ 28, 4). E. g. ba for ^b.; l1_ and he built; W2; let him look, for Pow. b) The Chireq of the preformative is also sometimes lengthened into Tsere (because it is now in an open syllable), as WtI let him see from,n M, Im_ from,n to become weak. c) Elsewhere, and chiefly in the cases mentioned in ~ 28, 4, the helpingvowel is sometimes omitted; e. g. a_1 and he took captive Num. xxi. 1, 1tW. and he drank, '?. and he wept. The verb,nO has the two forms an let him see, and a?'1 and he saw, the latter with Pattach on account of the Resh. d) Examples of verbs which are Pe guttural (~ 58) as well as Lamedh He: '?_ and he made, from n'S3, HM_ and he answered, fronm t. Sometimes the punctuation of the first syllable is not affected by the guttural; as in 'Iril and it burnt, ]IT_ and he encamped, an (with Dag. lene in second radical) let hint rejoice Job iii. 6. e) The verbs,nt to be, and n'n to live, which would properly have in the shortened Impf. ero, ink, change these forms to '9I and End, the Yodh drawing the i sound to itself, and uniting with it in a long i (comp. the derivative nouns '.3 for m=-, %: for cur, &c., ~84, No.V). From,n, to be occurs once the form S1'. for.rm he will be Eccles. xi. 3. With Vav consecutive occur not unfrequently the full forms (viz. without apocope of the;n-), especially in the first person, and in the later books; e. g.:sXnM and I saw (in twenty places, but not in the Pentateuch), niD'9_ and he made (four times). 4. The original ' sometimes remains also before the afformatives beginning with a vowel (comp. No. 3. above), especially in and before the Pause, and before the full plural ending. —, or where for any reason an emphasis rests upon the word. Perf. nonr she takes refuge Ps. lvii. 2,.9n Deut. xxxii. 37; Imp..t"p ask ye Is. xxi. 12; Impf. I.n? they increase Deut. viii. 13, more frequently like r.1V, 1 they drink Ps. Ixxviii. 44 (comp. Rem. 12). 5. The Part. act. has also a fern. of the form nt.i^ spying Prov. xxxi. 27, nr.in fruitful Ps. cxxviii. 3, in the Plur. like rn'niM coming (things) Is. xli. 23. The Part. pass. is sometimes without ', as t'w: for 'it.Y made Job xli. 25,.t1 xv. 22. 6. Rare are such defectively written forms as n;i 2 Sam. xv. 33,,:',:r Job v. 12, and the pronunciation vn S -t Mic. vii. 10. II. On Niphal. 7. In the Perf 1st and 2d pers., besides the forms with a-. are found others with a-.; as.153. 1 Sam. xiv. 8, nt;. Gen. xxiv. 8. 8. The apocope of the Impf. occasions no other change than the rejection of m-, as bo. from n1'; but in a verb " guttural we find a form with (-) shortened to (-), viz. nl. (for rin) Ps. cix. 13. Simi ~ I 5. VERBS.13 137 lar in Pie is 'IM (from lh"Trl) Ps. cxli. 8, and in Hithp. T'in (from Mvlln) Prov. xxii. 24. III. On Pi0l Pual, and Hithpael. 9. In the Perf. Pidl, the second syllable has the less prolonged Chireq instead of the diphthongal 4- in the greater number of examples, as n-fl '9~11 adawybeore suffixes, e. g. -1i'9' Ps. xliv. 20. In the Paradigm, the older form with '9- is placed first. Ilithp. has - but smeties aso. (Ps. xxvi. 10; 1 K. ii. 26; Jer. 1. 24); Pual, o the contrary, always retains ".. 10. The Iinpf. loses, after the apocop~, the Daghesh forte of the second stemn-letter (comp. ~ 20, 3, a); hence Piel 124 and he commanded; Hilhp. ~.-q and he uncovered himself Gen. ix. 21. Less frequently is the Pattach then lengthened into Qamets, as In9 and he scrawled 1 Sam. xxi. 14, I$r2 he desires Ps. xlv. 12. Comp. Rem. 8. 11. In Pi0 and Hithp. are found also apocopated forms of the Imp., as W for MI prove Dan. i. 12; btMrn feign thyself sick 2 Sam. xiii. 5. 12. Examples of Yodh retained in cases where more commonly it is omitted: Inipf. '91Ml will ye liken, me Is. xl. 25, -I"91 they cover them Ex. xv. 5. IV. On Hiphil and Hophal. 13. In the Perf. Hiph. the forms nr~,! and n',r are about equally common; before suffixes the latter is used as somewhat shorter than the other. In the Paradigm, the older form with '9- is placed first. Hoph. has always '9-. 14. In the Inf. absol. Hiph. Tsere is the regular vowel (as in r);but to this the Inf. absol. Iloph. also conforms, as in MUM~ Lev. xix. 20. The verb 11= to multiply, has three forms of the Inf. Hiph., viz., 11V- much (used adverbially), 11*11 used when the Inf. is pleonastic [see ~ 131, 3, a], teIn.Constr. Comp. Gen. xli. 49; xxii. 17; Deut. xxviii. 63. 15. The shortened Impf. Iiph. has either the form '.'l let him subdue Is. xli. 2, r-W let him enlarge Gen. ix. 27, ~,~t and he watered, or (with a helping-vowel) b1; (for ~?~;as b~; and: he carried captive 2 Kings xviii. 11. 'IV and he made fruitful Ps. cv. 24. Examples with gutturals: bVl Num. xxiii. 2, bTk &C., which can be distinguished from the Impf. Kal only by the signification. The Imp. apoc. has invariably the helping-vowel Seghol or Pattach, as M'' multiply, for ZIMIM 11 Ps. li. 4 [Qeri]. 01~ desist for ~ l et i.1,b'2fr, Ex. xxxiii. 12. 16. The Impf. with Yodh retained occurs only in "jTlj1 Job xix. 2, from ~1?. V. In General. 17. In the Aramnman, where, as before remarked, the verbs M'I$ and rl'b flow into one another, both classes terminate, in thi~ Impf. and Part. of all the conjugations, without distinction, in M.- or -.As imitations 138 138 ~~PART IL PARTS OF SPEECH. of this mode of formation we are to regard those forms of the Inf., Imp., and Impf. inll-:, more seldom ts- and "l-, which are found in Hebrew asespecially in the later writers and the poets. Inf. I'" to be Ez. xxi. 15; Imp. WI be thou Job xxxvii. 6; Impf. M'ln~% Jer. xvii. 17, bir- ~b follow not Prov. i. 10, lril —. do not 2 Sam. xiii. 12;* Piel I~f. ~Z2r Hos. vi. 9. The ending in 4-. occurs (also a Syriasm), in place of' M- in the Impf. Kal, as "M1 Jer. iii. 6, and even (according to others) in place of 161-. in the Perf. Hiph. "~M he made sick Is. liii. 10; comp. the Plur. Y'a' they caused to melt Jos. xiv. S. 18. In three verbs is found the unfrequent conjugation Pilel, or its reflexive (~ 55, 2), where the third radical, which the conjugation requires to be doubled, appears under the form MI; viz. IM contracted 1111~ to be beautif/ul, from MM; t:'r1' the archers Gen. xxi. 16; but especially IMMO to bow, Pilel IMMO hence the reflexive IMMO to bow one'7s self to prostrate one's self, 2d pers. n"- and nb-: Impf. rim apoc. I-i01 for Imtb (analogous with " for '9-T9). 19. Before suffixes, in nll forms ending with in, the so-called unionvowel (~ 58, 3, b) takes the place of Mn and of the preceding vowel; e. g. '95- he answered me, -TI, v Impf, ", iph ~.Very seldom '9- takes the place of the final Mn- o r M as in im9&' he will cover them, Ps. cxl. 10, '9' smite me 1 Kings xx. 35. The 3d Perf. fern. always retains before suff, the older form MrD (see No. 4), yet with a short d, as in the regular verb, e. g. Irli for Vlbn Zech. v. 4; in pause I~t- Job xxxiii. 4. VI. Relation of Verbs lbl and X'I~ to each other. 20. The verbs of each of these classes, in consequence of their intimate relation (see second paragraph of this section, and Rem. 17), often borrow the forms of the other, especially in the usage of the poets and of the later writers. 21. Thus there are forms of verbs M a) Which have adopted the vowels of verbs ini', e. g. Perf. 'rn&3 I restrain Ps. cxix. 101; Part. bttPI sinning Ecc les. ix. 18; viii. 12; Piel Perf. N~ he fills Jer. Ii. 34, 'ix' I heal 2 Kings ii. 21; Impf. Mt he swalloweth Job xxxix. 24; Niph. Perf. fern. I n6 was extraordinary (after inf)~l-') 2 Sam. i. 26; Hiph. Perf femn. MnlbAWI she concealed Jos. vi. 17. b) Which retain their own vowels, but are written with ini, e. g. Imp. Win heal Ps. lx. 4; Niph. inIMl to hide one's self 1 Kings xxii. 25; Piel Impf. inIm he willfiul Job viii. 21. *The examples of the Im~pf. here quoted have the Jussive signification, and their agreement in pronunciation with the Imp. (in the - common to both), can certainly be explained on this ground. But this will not apply to other examples; and the reading, moreover, varies in most passages between - and- See Gen. xxvi. 29; Lev. xviii. '1; Jos. vii. 9; ix. 24; Dan. i. 13; Ez. v. 12. ~ 76. VERBS DOUBLY ANOMAL OUS.13 139 c) Which in all respects have the appearance of verbs ri'b, e. g. rtIn2 thou thirstest Ruth ii. 9; tbm they are full Ez. xxviii. 16; 1sf,. ~:,r to -gin Gen. xx. 6; Imnpf., ~qln- they heal Job v. 18; Part. fern. 0.& Eccles. x. 5'; Part. pass. I~. V Ps. xxxii. 1; Niph. lllnn Jer. Ii. 9; Hithp. rn'b thou prophesiest 1 Sam. x. 6; Inf. n~M 1 Sam. X. 13. 22. On the contrary there are forms of' verbs H "b which, in some respects, follow thie analogy of' verbs t6'. E. g. in their consonants, Wt' it is changed Lam. iv. 1;t 2 Kings xxv. 29; N&rl4 and he was sick 2 Chron. xvi. 12; in their vowels, 1 Kings xvii. 14; in both, M-Mr 2 Sam. xxi. 12. 76 VERBS DOUBLY ANOMALOUS. 1. Such are verbs wvhich have two stem-letters affected by the anomalies already described, with the exception of those occasioned by gutturals. These verbs exhibit no new changres; and even in cases where two anomalies might occur, usage must teach whether the verb is actually subject to both, or but one of them, or, as sometimes happens, to neither. Thus from T12 to flee are formed Impf. '* Nah. iii. 7, and 'IT' Gen. xxxi. 40 (-after the, analogy of verbs M) lph. '= (as a verb i~,but in impf. Hoph. Vi (as j) 2. The following are examples of doubly anomalous verbs, and of difficult forms derived from them: a) Verbs ', and z'b (comp. ~~ 66 and 74); e. g. hti~ to bear, Imp. WV lu~f. constr. rIn.t (for r~lu'), also rxiv (comnp. ~ 74, Rem. 3), Impf. for bit"On Ruth i. 14. b) Verbs "I and 1Hb` (comp. H~ 64 and 75), as I-=~ to bend, ri= to smite. Hence Impf. Kal i'-:, apoc. Wil and he bowed, I and i4 and he sprinkled (from llnl); Perf. Hiph. Mn- he smote, Imipf. 1= apoc. 11, so also I'l; Imp. hapoc. 711 smite; Inf. Mi'l Part. MVM. c)Verbs MD and t011 (comp. ~~ 68 and 75), as runM to co-me, Mr$% to bake. Hence Irnpf plur. 1-R-, Mr'l Deut. xxxiii. 21 for Mrl!4'4; Impf. apoc. r-i Is. xli. 25 Cor r-N11; Imp. 1t4h.H for IrM 1r'iA (~ 23, 3, Rem. 2, ~ 75, Rem. 4); Hiph. imp. 4"N for ~~t Is. xxi. 14; Impf. apoc. ~X~ and he adjured 1 Sam. xiv. 24, frm d) Verbs and MNb (comp. ~~ 67, 70, and 74) as NT to go forth,7 Imp...s Inf. rsts, Hiph,. ttier3 to bring out. e) Verbs and t,11 (comp. ~~69, 70, and 75), e. g. 111 to throw, in Hiph. to profess, to praise, properly ~M and rr"to throw 111V to be beautiful, 140 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. which are really 4b. Inf- Min Imp. 114; Jmpf. with suff rzn" we shot at them, (from Numn. xxi. 30; Pid for (~ 69, Rem. 6); HIp/h. I'Mi, 1-1,1161 nf. n~Th;l' hnpf. 1j9,11 cipoc. 'fl. f)Vrs~aId particularly the verb x.I to coze; Perf. s,. o n ce 1 fo r I Sam. xxv. 8; IlIiph. x,1vi and MR9'1"' Impf "i for x"- Mic. i. 15; Imnp. 'I' Ruth ~iii.-156; Ii-oph. Par?'t. x=, 2 K. xxii. 4. So "~' he refuses, Mhph. from W~ Ps. cxli. 5. DeservingI of notice also, g) is the verb '9r' to live, which is treated as a verb ~ and hence has "M in the 3d Peif. Ial, Gen. iii. 22. In H-ebrew it occurs only in this form, the synonymous and kindred stem riM, as averb ln$ beingr the one in common use. ~77. RELATION OF TIIE IRREGULAR VERBS TO ONE ANOTHER. 1. Several classes of irregular verbs, e. g. those I'' and -in N~ and ~,~and Z, stand in a ver-y intimate relationship, as appears from thie similarity in their meaning and inflection, from the forms which they have in common, and from their mnutual interchange of forms. rrhe relation is based, as a rule, on the essential sameness of two firmn stem-consonants, to which the common sionification attaches itself (the, biliteral r-oot, 30, 2), time third weaker radical not being taken into account. Thus -IM, 2 Z. all mean to smite, to beat in pieces; 1" and 167 to flee. In this manner are related in form and signification, ItVeb ' n (in which the essential stein-letters are the first andl last). e. g. '71. andl J= to become poor; ril and to fel, to touch; '11 and '11 to fee. 2. Verbs and "Ili (in which the two last are the essential stemletters). both to each other and to the former class. They are related to each. other in the verbs =1 and I. to place, t;r and '~~(yeqosh) to fowl; to the former class, especially to verbs I.V in "';" and to fear; =i: and to be good; 11D and ',~n to blow; Vr-I and '(t. to dash in pieces. Verbs X" are, more seldom found connected with these classes, as ='; and C16 to be destroyed; and &t!~r to thresh, &c. 3. Verbs X':) and b(in which the first two consonants properly form the stem), both to each other and to the former classes; to each other in anld M" to crush; Wir and "TI to mzeet; to verbs of the former classes, in and '~to suck, 111M' and Ml to thrust, &c. ~ 7 8. DEFECTIVE VERBS.14 141 ~ 78. DEFECTIVE VERBS. It often happens, when two related irregular verbs are in use in the same signification, that both are defective, i. e. do not occur in all the verbal forms. As these, however, are not generally the same in both, the two taken together make out a perfect verb, as in Greek ~' %ouas Aor. ri X#o, ut 'Xv60o~z1, and in Latin, fero, tuli, latuzm, ferre; with this difference, that in Hebrew these verbs are almost universally related in form as well as signification, like the Greek /flaivwo, Aor. 2 i~8ipv, from the same stemn&-c) Of these -verbs the following are the most common t~5i~a to be ashamed, Hiph. tral but also tjz4ini (from tm54), especially with the intransitive signification to feel shame. =~U to be good, Perf. =iu Impf =U (from zuq) Hiph. villb (from -1~ to fear. Impf. 'i' (from ) =2 and M% to place, neither used in Kal. Niph. =2 to stand. Hiph. and Hoph. =% and =2,y Hit hp. =1rN'1. VI3to dash in pieces. I-mpf. yr.nh (from yl-n). Imp. yrn.. Niph. yi.Pie yr (from "(p Pil. y~ii: (from yen). Reflex. y~isnrn. Hiph. ylmn Pilpel Job xvi. 12. 'n1 and n% to be strait. Hence Perf. '1 I am in a strait, lit. it is strait to me. from '112 Impf. 'n (from,n%) and Hiph. In Y.111 111,t bring into a strait, to distress. The related form bi; is transitive, to press, hence to besiege. nM to drink, used in Kal; but in Hiph. ri~r~th to give to drink, from Mit On J~r to go, see above, ~ 69, Rem. 8. Rem. 1. The case is similar when different conjugations of the same verb, having the same signification, borrow tenses from each other: b~' he is able, Cri Impf. Hoph., he will be able, used for Impf. Kal which is wanting. qV he has added, borrows its Inf. and Impf. from Hiph. jviii tMh to approach. Perf. Niph. 't5~ for the Perf. Kal which is not in use; but Impf. t~,g Imp. iz5:~, and Inf. nrj, all in Kal. Rem. 2. The early grammarians often speak of mixed forms (formis mixtis) in which, as they maintain, are united the character and significations of two tenses, genders, or conjugations. On correct grammatical principles most of the examples adduced are at once set aside (e. g. 142 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECI. n3r. " ~ 47. Rem. 3); in others, the form seems to have originated in misapprehension. e. g. ri-.n: thy building Ez. xvi. 31 (where the plural suffix is appended to the ending mn, which had come to be regarded as plural). Others again are merely false readings. CHAPTER III. OF THE NOUN. ~79. GENERAL VIEW. 1. IN treating of the formation of the noun, it is necessary to keep in view its relation to tlhe verb, since most nouns ]nay be derived fromt verbs (namely, the 3d silfr. Peif. as thle steml-form, according to ~3(), 1); and even those which are not, whether I)rimlitives or derived froti other nouns, follow tlhe form and analoby: of tlie verbals. On tlis connection, moreover, is based the explanation of tlhe foirms by which the gender of nouns is distinguislled (~ S0, conp. ~ 94). The adjctclive eagrees entirely with tle substantive in form. tlough it is lrmailfest lv on-ly )by a metapiho tlthat fotrmls with a;n abstrtact siglification can b( treated as adljectives (~ S3, Rern. 1). 2. '1The HIebrew lhas no proper inflection of the noun by cases; some ancient, almiiost wholly extinct remains of case-endinrs (~ 90) beinig barely traceable. 'hle relation of case is either known merely fioml tlie positionl of thle noun in the sentence, or is indicateld 1b pre)positions. 'rlle Jforin of tlie noun stlufers no chantlge; and tlhe subject belongs, tllereforc, to tile Syntax. (See ~ 117.) On tile (contrary, tlle conIlectionl of tlle 1noun withl stuffixes, witlh tlhe feliniie; dual. and(l plural terminaltions, and wit1i a 1noltin following ill tle genitive, jproduces nulllmerous clianges in its lormt ant(l to thelse is li1itce tlie 'il!fection. of nouns ill lelbrew.* Evenl for tlie comparative tand superlative tlie Ilebrew ias no aplpro)priate forml, and tlhese relations must be expressed by circumlocution, as taugllt ill the Syntax ( 1 1.9). * this i1s1 beent called( tlie declension of the HeIbrew nouln. ~ 80. THE GENDER OF NOUNS. 143 ~80. OF FORMS WHICH MARK THE GENDER OF NOUNS. 1. The Hebrew, like all the Semitic languages, has but two genders, the masculine and feminine. Inanimate objects properly of the neuter gender, and abstract ideas, for which other languages often have a neuter form, are regarded in Hebrew as either masculine or feminine, most commonly the latter (Syntax ~ 107, 3). 2. The masculine, as being the most common and important form of the noun, has no peculiar mark of distinction. The ending for thefeminine was originally ri, as in the 3d sing. Pelf. of verbs (~ 44, 1). But when the noun stands absolutely, i. e. without a genitive following (~ 89), the r- usually appears in the truncated form '-, or is shortened to an unaccented * —. The original -n_ very seldom remains, except when the noun is in close connection with a following genitive or pronominal suffix. Except in this case (for which see ~ 89, 2, b, ~ 91, 4), the feminine ending is, therefore: a) most usually, an accented "q-v, as C.r horse, ntf. mare; b) an unaccented rl, after a guttural rA (which also remains unchanged before the genitive), as.?p, fern. nr.btp killing, g-iX, fern. rfhi acquaintance. Here the final syllable of the word follows the manner of segholate forms (~ 94, 2). When the masculine ends with a bowel, a simple ri takes the place of nr, as ^.l Moabite, n"rp3 M7oabitess; btt3 sinner, atorn sinfulness, sin. The vowel-changes occasioned by these endings are shown in ~ 94.* REMARKS. 1. The feminine form in n- is. in general, less frequent than the other. and seldom occurs except when the other is also in use. It is only in the Participles and Infinitives, that it is found more frequently than the other (e. g. ri~up oftener than mnnp, r.? than mb.); it is employed, moreover, in common with n-, as a form for the construct slate (~ 95, 1). 2. Unusual feminine terminations: a) n- accented, as rnr: emerald Ez. xxviii. 13, rFs pelican Is. xxxiv. 11, r '.-E2 crowd 2 Kings ix. 17; and often in proper names among the 0: 0:i the feminines not distinguished by the form, see ~ 107, 1, 3, 4. 144 1A4 ~~PART IL. PARTS OF SPEECH. Plhmnicians (in whose language r- was the prevailing form. 2, 2) and other neighboring tribes, as Sarepta, r')%% X1,lath in Idumnea, on the Ara'bian Gulf. b) n —, almost exclusively poetical, e. g. n"11 help Ps. lx. 13, but in prose also is found morrow Gen. xix. 34. c) ~, Aam~n othogaphC fo nI, found chiefly in the later writers, e. gr. xr sleep Ps. cxxvii. 2, baldness Ez. xxvii. 31, N''U mark Lamn. iii. 12. d) Very rarely -'I- a weakened form of h.'-T (~ 27, Rem. 4) as ',1'1 for.11i I's. liX. 5. e) M-', without the, accent, as Ibt' Deut. xiv. 17, ri," "It burning oven I-os. vii. 4; comlp. ElZ. Xl. 19; 2 Kings xvi. 18. In all these examples there should be the usual accented n —; b~ut the Punctators, deemning the fleminine-endingr unsuitable, here, sought to conceal it by the retraction offthe tone. Their olpinion, howvever, is not binding on us. The accentuation of?bzb nuht seemis to indicate a'nzasc. form, especially since it is always construed as masc.. -andl as bb are concurrent forms. Ofasmlrcaatraethe lbrmis (also construed as mnasc.) M)'f- the sun Judges xiv. 18 (elsewhere 'l) r! brook Ps. cxxiv. 4, 1141= death Ps. cxvi. 15, and somec others. But there is much here that is yet doubtful.* f) ' in poetry, properly a, double ending (as in ~x~this fr-~b Je r. xxvi. 6 Rethi bh, and in the verbal form ~74, 4), e. g. nV hell) Mn~), 9 salvation (=ir) lbw wickedness (~~~;see Ps. iii. 3; xliv. 27; xcii. 16; Job v. 16; Ex. xv. 16. and other passages.t 3. It is not at all to the purpose, to regard the vowel-ending as the original termination of the f'eminine, and. the consonant-ending r-. as dherivedl from it. The j~thiopi c every where retains the r; and in the Plhmnician,also. fbmininrles end mnostly in n (sounded at/h in the words found in Greeki and Rlomian writers), mrore rarely in 4 (see Gesenii MNon. Phon. pp. 439., 440;.1overs, in Ersch u. Gruber's Encyclop. Sect. III. Bdl. 24. S. 439. f:). The 01(1-Arabic scarcely admits the truncated vowelendingf except in pause; in modern Arabic. the relation has become about the same as in Hebrew. *The ending ~-I- in these words has been ta~ken for that of the Aramocan enmp/hatic state, as if w evere Against this are the follow~ing objections: 1) that some examples have the iHeb. article, whichi would have beeui inconsistent with the recognition of the Aranimean form.; 2) that the examples belorig in part to the older books; 13) that among them is so old and common a w,~ord as But this word might prolperly be an accusative with the adverbial signification noetu, andl then 1)0 usedl for nox -%vithout reference to the ending, somlewhat like ~ 88, 2, c. 'See Gescnizis' Lexicon, Art. b Note. This~ endling hias also been compared with that of the Aram. emphatic state, or been regarded as ani accusative endling(. A consonant M hi, in this exiding, is out of the question. ~~ 81, 82. DERIVATION OF NOUNS-PRIMITIVES. 145 ~81. DERIVATION OF NOUNS. Nouns are either primitive (~ 82), as ts father, M3 mother, or derivative. The latter are derived either from the verb, Verbals (as explained ~79,, 1, ~83-85), as pat just, p1, '~;righteousness, from 72~ to be just, 01 high, ntW high place, &i'M height, from.'n to be high; or from another noun (Denominatives), as n'ibn_ place at the feet, from n o foot. The verbals are by far the most numerous class. Rem. 1. The older grammarians admitted only verbs as stem-words. and classed all nouns as verbals, dividing them into a) Formea nudce, i. e. such as have only the three (or two) stem-letters, and b) Formre auctae, such as have received formative letters or syllables at the beginning or end, as,: bira, nr.in. These formative letters are: ')1, r.,, a,: a,,( r.:_:):.. According to the view of roots and stems given in ~ 30, 1, the relation of the noun to the verb is strictly somewhat different, since according to it many nouns are formed immediately from the (ideal) root. But we here retain the common view, as being easier for the learner. 2. Of compound nouns, as appellatives, the number in Hebrew is very small; e. g. be_- properly worthlessness, baseness. As proper names, they occur very frequently; e. g. ub'r. foundation of peace, bs.n. man of God, zp'in1^ whom God raises up,.itn' whom Jehovah strengthens, 7^].b.. father of the king. ~82. PRIMITIVE NOUNS. 1. The number of primitive nouns, in the stricter sense, is very small, those which are in most languages primitive being here usually derived from verbal ideas; e. g. most of the names of natural objects, as to. he-goat (prop. shaggy, from Ya?),,rb;.t barley (prop. bearded, also from Add),,n#. stork (prop. pia sc. avis), 'IT gold (from aT= 3- t to be yellow). There are only a few nouns (as e. g. many names of members of the body, in men and beasts), for which no fitting stem-verb can be pointed out; as 1i? horn, 'Y_ eye, 5 foot. * From this vox inemorialis (~ 3, 3, 2d ~) the nomina aucta are also called, by Ile old grammarians, nomina heemantica. 10 146 146 ~~~PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH1. 2. The fornm of the primitives is that of the simple verbals, as L, 'j &c.; and in the grammatical treatment of nouns, it makes no difference wvhether they are accounted primitives or verbals. E. g. Cl vian follows the analogy of verbals, whether it has come from t% to be red, or not; ",v father, t- mother, have the form of verbals from the Stemns nnx rzx thoughl such a derivation is hardly possible. ~83. OF VERBAL NOUNS IN GENERAL. 1. In Hebrew, as in Greek and Latin, the verbal nounns are connected in formn and signification with certain forms of the verb, particularly with the iParticiples and Infinitives, which even without any changre are often employed as nouns, e. g. (to know) knowled.gee; Z'~ (hatingr) an enenmy. Still oftetier,. however, have, certain forms of the, Infinitive anid 1Particilple, seldomn or never found in the regular verb, thougch employed in the kindred lancruaores and in tihe irregular verb, become the usual forms of the verbal noun. e. g. the participial. form i the Infinitives L'trb6- (4,5 2), &c. Somne, as the Arabic shows, are properly intensiv e forims of the Participle. 2. As to si'rn~fication-, it follows fromt the nature of the case. that nounsn whInch heave the -form o~f Infinitives regrularly (denote the actions or state. -with other closely related ideas (such as the place of the action). and are, therefore. m~tyasrc;ta participial nouins, on thec conraryw (denote, for the mnost part,, the subject of the action, 01. of the state, and hence are concrete. It is observable[, moreover, that to ruany of the forms of derivative nouns a definite si(rnlification attaches itself, althoug'h not equally pervadingr in all of them. I?ein. 1. It need not appear strange, moreover (for it is found in all langu~ages.-). that a noun which in form is properly abstract, should h~e emnployed. metaphorically as a concrete, -ndl( vice versel. So in EAnglish we say, his acquaintance, for those with whomn. he is acqutainted; the Godhead, Ibr God hirnself'; in Hleb. acquaintance an(l an acquaintance; olq simnplicity and a simple one; on the contrary that which sinneth for sin, which is a frequent use of the fern. concrete (~ S 5, 6,11). 2. For facilitating the general view we first treat of tile derivatives ~84. NOUNS FROM THE REGULAR VERB. 147 from the regular verb (~ 84) and then of those from the irregular verb, or derivatives of the weaker stems (~ 85). ~ 84. NOUNS DERIVED FROM THE REGULAR VERB.* We distinguish here, I. Participial Nouns, of Kal. 1. bp, fern.,9p, one of the simplest forms of this kind, analogous with the two following (Nos. 2 and 3), but not used as a Participle. It is most frequently employed as an adjective expressing quality, as:nm wise, win new, -it upright. But the same form occurs, also, with an abstract signification (No. 12). 2. bq, fem. 1nb-p, Part. of verbs middle E (~ 50, 2), mostly with intransitive meaning (~ 43), and for adjectives of quality, e. g. j-pt old, old man; 1nj" dry; 1W fat. 3. b;= and bi-=j (with firm 6),fem. f..p, primarily Part. of verbs middle 0 and properly with intransitive signification, e. g. A fearing, i=? small, tp fowler; then frequently as an adjective, even when no Perf. with Cholem is found, as fin; great, piin distant, tJlp holy. As a substantive, abstractly, 1'im= honor,:i:b peace. No. 21, with the doubling of the last radical, must not be confounded with this. 4. bp, -~p, fem.. n',, rf.;.p. the usual active Participle of transitive verbs; e. g. 2^2 enemy, p.i suckling; hence of the instrument by which the action is performed, as hi'n a cutting instrument; the feminine sometimes with the collective signification, as nniK caravan, properly the wanden anderin andering troop. 5. b.l and bH;, passive Participles of Kal. the latter usual in Aramman as a Participle, but in Hebrew employed rather as a Substantive, like the Greek verbals in -zo. E. g..lx imprisoned, Mt. anointed, t'o. prisoner, est's anointed one. With an active signification also, in intransitive verbs; as m'2E small, D.s3 strong. Some words of the form b~.j express the time of the action, as t'i lime of cutting, harvest, S.nn time of ploughing, like the Greek verbals in To, e. g. orutSo, &xo~to, properly the being harvested, or ploughed. The feminines are prone to take the abstract signification (Synt. ~ 107, 3, b), e. g. s.J t deliverance (the being delivered). 6. bup (Arabic bx-i), with vowels unchangeable (~ 25). In Arabic it is the usual intensive form of the Participle, and hence in Hebrew expresses what is habitual, e. g. rn apt to butt, x,2n (also sil) jealous, btuS sinner (diff. from s..n sinning), 3 I thief; so of occupations, trades, e. g. ner cook, din (for W'n)faber. Here again the feminine (nmi or * Under the regular verb we here include the verb with gutturals, ~~ 63-65, as well as the stronger forms of the irregular verb. 148 148 ~~PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. nb.)often takies the abstract signification, as Mm. female sinner and si?!fulness, Sin; n-70- burnijng fever, with a guttural signet. Such intensive forms are also the three following. 7. of which forms are most adjectives in the Chaldee; as ',~11 rig~hteous, '1". strong, '1,"r compassionate. In Hebrew, of intransitives only. 8. as ni~" censurer, -,It drunken one, ni-: strong one, hero; seldom in a passive sense, as '1' born. 9. indicates very gTreat intensity, often excessive, so as to become a flault or za defect, e. g. hunch-backed, T-r: bald-headed, dumb, 'I- blind, r7' lame. '&r deaf.4 perverse. Thle abstr. signification is found in the fern., as n-xperverseness. ILJ. Youns after the manner of Iqfinitives of KWl.* 10. ~ b: wit chngable vowels), are with No. li the simplest lornis of'flab class, of which the first and third are employed in the verb as Infmnitivces the former beingr a rare and the latter the usual torin (~ 455 2). As nomninal forms they are unfrequent, e. g. inman, "IM 0ornnniilenzt pr-laut',hter. Far more frequent iare thienearly related formis, 11. b~. b.~, b.~,the so-called segholate forms. E. g. king (for rj. ~.27. Remn.2, c), (for '!V) book, rj1~ (for sanctuary; these have the characteristic vowel in the first syllable,' and the helping-vowel. &ghol (~ 25, 4) in the~ second. When the second or third stemn-letter is a gUttural. Pattach is used instead of Seg-hol, as l!I seed, nj.3 eternityh work. Examples of ferninines, queen, MYea, help), n n wisdomn. In masculines as well as fleminines the abstract is the proper and prevailingy sigonification,. yet not unfrequently the concrete occurs. especially in the formni e. gr. king r. a youth, '11" brutish., servant. lord, van. InISII snlriforms either the concretesneiscodr and derived from tile ab~stract, as in prop. brutishness.1s, 2 prop. season of youth (coinp. Eng. youth and a youth); or the forrn of the word is shortened from. another with a. concrete sense, as Fi, I= from. participial fborms. menn rln. sering-t But altogether, the meaning of these flormys is very various; e. g. even for the instrument, as ='I 5W~rdi,:;,r gravinc-tool. antid passively a web. In th psie sense the florm is more common, as b"R fbod; and also in the abstract sense. as 'I a youth, 'iv youth. 1 2. I lke N o. 1, fe 7n. both very frequent with the abstr. sense. E. g. `='n hunger, r_~N guillt. ' satiety (with the concretes =Z'Y" All these formis are found, mutatis mutandis, in the Arabic as Infinitives, or so-called nornina actionis. t Such an origin of may be proved from the Arabic; and in some other nouns it is obvious. Comip. 'M as the name of a town with the appellative a wall, aend the Sliortening of;'r (in the constr. state) from 'Il shoulder. ~ 84. NOUNS FROM THE REGULAR VERB.14 149 hungry, =i5.4, Yi);Jfern. 'M.;1 righteousness, ~' vengeance. More rare is the form br- s eetum, =w uva. 13. 60 all with an unchangeable vowel (~25) between the second and third radicals, and a Sh~lva, under the first, as =n bookc =4 wo~f, ~41 way, cir dream, ~1 boundary; sometimes with Aleph prosthetic. as "ii == ~'nv arm, rlip brood. The correspondng eminneswil sugesttheselves; the forms rl qqcoincide with those of feminines in No. 5. 14. ~D' h Aramna-an form of the Infinitive, e. g. =-t judgment. Related forms are: 'lmmsong 'IrmdsrM;~qboty, nzm kingdom, ~~ wages. g,~ T esre Tb do - ae..Under this form, besides th~e action itself, is expressed very often thle place of the action, as MM altar, 'II (from '1Wto drive) place of driving, i. e. to which cattle are driven, wilderness; and the instrument, as n~w knife, ~~T fork, rj.~ key. 15. and other similar forms, with the terminations Iii and in-~j al, 1I, as 1ilrit interpretation,~ tbe offering; but there are also forms like "j'= remembrance, ',I prophetic vision. For "ji there is a truncated form i, written also 'i. which occurs especially in proper names, as it' and li', 5 V~ for li~ (comp. Mflrcorv, Plato). In Patronymic and Gentilic nouns (~ 85, 5) the Nun is retained, e. g. '141 from M540 the city Shilo (still S'hilun). 16. With the feminine ending M., e. g. r16=10 folly, r~on healing. In the Aramawan, this is a usual termination of the Infinitive in the derived conjugations (comp. No. 28). It comes into frequent use only in the later books of thle Old Test. As a synonymous ending,?V'-. is found occasionally in earlier use, as rl'~ remnant. Comp. the denominative nouns ~ 86, 6. III. Participials of the derived Conjugations. 17. From Niph. ~Up~ as rl..t (plur.) wonders. 18. 19. From piel and Iliph., e. g. p snuffers, 1V"'It' pruningknife. 20. From Podl as b~Y(abbr. from ~i~is. iii. 12) and bbiY child. 21. From Pilel ~t: fern. Mku and 22.,for the most part adjectives of color, as trat fern. MV red, green, J~btt quiet.* 23. Sun-. I bql have an iterative sense, as I=V-! fiexuosus, versutus, and are forms of adjectives with a diminutive signification (~ 55, 3), as =V reddish, 'im blackish; hence in a contemptuous sense (like miser, misellus, Germ. Gesinde, Gesindel), as J->O (with the passive form, after 1,;Vs) collected rabble. IV. Infinitives of the derived Conjugations. 24. From Niph. of the form Vl"ll plur. struggles. 25. From Pi0, like j dispersion, more frequently in the fern., as ntbrnin request, with Qamets unchangeable. * No. 21 may be regarded also as a mere modification of No. 3. 150 PART II. PARTS OF SPEEC.I 26. b.ijp, and 27..-~pn,::.p~, likewise Infinitives of Piel (the latter the common form in Arabic), e. g. E',~ requital; ppla folding of the hands;.t.rl requital;. mantle. 28. From Hiph. of the form rl 1mr renzembrance-offering; nsY.5n annunciation (with unchangeable Qamnets), Aramean Infinitives. 29. From Ilithp. nmNrjn register. 30. From PoMl, like n. folly. and perhaps also 31. like 'iqp smoke, p'. prison. 32. From Pilel ~'i. heavy rain, S.: adultery. 33. rninp1 opening, Inf to No. 23. 34. bD.~j, e. g. n...b. a flanme (comp. ~ 55, 6). 35. Quadriliterals, like trb. locust. ~85. NOUNS DERIVED FROM THE IRREGULAR VERB. These are formed in the same manner as those of which we have already treated, with few variations, except such as are occasioned by the peculiarities of irregular verbs. Accordingly we shall refer these forms to the corresponding ones already described, mentioning only such as exhibit some important irregularity. I. Prom Verbs 'S. To the Inf. of Kal belong (1.4), ' gift, t.i-_ overthrow; to the Inf. of Iliph. (28).,-2n~ deliverance.-The noun Vm knowledge, from:r; see ~ 71. II. From Verbs sf. From the Part. Kal (1), -a upright (like B=j), commonly with Pattach (to indicate the sharpening of the syllable), 'i abject, n 71 much, fern.. 'iT, mtr;* (2), nr fat. From the Inf. (10, 11), TM booty, n favor, ph law, fern. n word, nn law; (14), t'M fastness,.n that which surrounds (environs), fern.,'.= roll. The form OV- sometimes, by retraction of the tone, becomes a segholate form, as bir' bitterness (from ' o'), '~ timidity (from 7:'). (27), ntMt praise,,"nra prayer, with the segholate form also, as trn a melting away (from =Mn), 'irn mast (from _:n to make a tremulous sound). From Pilpel (~ 55, 4), ba. wheol, from b_ to roll, bipb. III. From Verbs ". and s. The Participial forms are regular. To the Infinitives belong: (10), i, fern. rv, n3. knowledge,,-s: counsel. (13), lit for liv * On the formation of feminines without the Daglhsh, see ~ 94, Rem. 2. ~ 85. NOUNS FROM THE IRREGULAR VERB. 151 divan. (14), nim fear, FiJiM snare, rnl.qb birth, toan punishment; from verbs prop. 'n,:=n? the hest. (27),::in inhabitant, rn'in generation, "j? the south. IV. From Verbs '. and S. Participles: (1), ' foreign; (2), '1 stranger,,nr a witness, testimony; (3),:iu good,,Mmi what is good. Infinitives: (11), various segholate forms. as rw death, and Hal house; bip voice, n.1 spirit; feminines,,ibS and rliw' evil, IrW shame; (14), ni, fem.,n:nM rest,:tpq place, also iVn' oar (from twj); (27),,thl. intelligence, InM. testimony; (28), nn:n rest. V. From Verbs,ib. Participles: (2),,?h fair,,dd hard, fem. ti.,,Mp. Some lose the -.., as 'r sign, for,r-. (4),,'h; seer, fem.,~bqi burnt-offering. (5), h.t covering,.?p pure, ~.~ poor.-Infinitives: (11), the segholates in different forms; not often with the t — retained, as in n:. a weeping, 1M' friend,,Ih, Iht vision, revelation (Is. xxviii. 7, 15), commonly without it, as W. (for 'rn). Sometimes the original ' or 1 appears. The 9 then quiesces in Chireq (comp. on at, ~ 75, Rem. 3), as in s~. fruit, a'i sickness. The I also quiesces, as in VilS waste. In masculines the third radical rarely remains a consonant, as in n.i sickness, though in feminines it is always so, as in Mb!l rest, nl garland. (13), ro winter, 'ew, fem.,anu a drinking; fern. Mr part, rnin the half, rrnt and hnr,. pit. (14), t'..' possessions, nim7 appearance; fern. nu. command. Apocopated form, af _ height, for,;i.. (15), lP? wealth, ins destruction. (27), ni.nh annihilation, nr^:r building, n.n. brood. (28), 7.4' testicle, for M&14, from:nt. VI. From doubly anomalous Verbs. We present only some cases of especial difficulty to the learner: 1. From a verb 15 and b5, rlit elevation for Ma'i, from Rion, Job xli. 17. 2. From a verb n and,ty, n'Tin instruction, law, inim sign, prob. from alp. 3. From a verb YW and nri, tOW tumult, Num. xxiv. 17, for rsbt. from,5. T T 4. From a verb i2 and i'b, 9. a watering, for '.!, from,nn'; Nx island, for '9., from t,1 to dwell; nia sign for nr, from,'b; 'I cord, from rnD; Ot chamber for an, from InQ to dwell; 'i. people, from n, Arab. to flow together. To the learner the stem is often obscured also by contraction, when it originally contains Nun, Daleth, or He, e. g. na wine-press for rMn nr'~, from 'l; _bt anger for:.s; rx5 fidelity, for n:., from BT$; r. time for rnS, from MtV; 1 brightness, for n'i?, from "rT,. IT T.' 152 152 ~~PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. p686. DENO'MINATIVE NOUNS. 1. Such. are all nouns which are formed immnediately fromt another noun, whiether it is primitive, or derived from. a verb e. g. eastern, immediately fromn Mlj the east, which is itself derived fromt the yern) — 1 2. Most of time formis which. nouns of this class assumne have already been given, the denominatives (which. seemn in general to be a later phenomienon of languiagre than verbals) being form~ed in imiftation of nouns derived from the, verb. The verbal with t prefixed, e. g. wNas emnployed to express the place of' an action (~8-i, 'No. 14); accordingly this "fl was prefixed to a noun in ordler to make it a des-ignation of p~lace (see No. 3). In Greek. and German also,7 tile verbals and denorminatives are exactly analogrou~s. The principal forms are the following~: 1. In imcitation of' the Part. Kal (No. 4 of the verbals), 'nT- Iorlcr. from g-,ate; 'II; herdsmnan, from cattle; tn~ vinedresser, from vineyard. 2. Like verbals of No. 6. rae archer, from r'1" bow,; seamnan. from ~ sal, (sea). Both thes fom5Ns 12) indlicate oes businless, trade, &.c., like Greek nouns in -ii~, isv';, e. gr. 7ro 1jg (n6/ITC. 3.Nouns with r- prefixed, expressing the place of a thming (comp. No. 14 of the verbals); e. gr. '1V place offountains, fr-om '1i fountain; ~~ ~~ place about the feet.-about th~e head, from, T o field of cucmers from ~ccme.Cri.uus ~ctb'v, fromi I E I o; 4. Concretes formied by tihe addition of,I —, as "j"Ij eastern,. from =i s hinder. from 'iX;~ Woun1d, hence coiled animal, serpent, from M11 a wrinding. li and III form also diminintives like the, Syriac '1, as little mnan (in the eye), apple of th~e eye.. from 1'W9X; 1'16 the (lear, g ood people (firom -1116 ==1:-9 up right, good). a term of` endearment for Israel; ~)erlm~ps also, r- little snake. 5. Peculiar to denomininatice nouns is the termination 4-, which converts a substantive into ain adjective, and] is added especially to numerals and names of persons and countries, in order to form Ordinals. Gentilics, and Pat ronymnics. E. gr. '91 strange, from ~ any thing foreign,7; the sixth, f~rom Z~5 six; '9=Xin Mobabite, firom '0:); a" Israelite. from ~. Wheni the stem-substantive is a compoundl. it is commonly resolved again into two words, e. g. 9~=11 Be~jaminitle from ~zz For tue use of time article with such forms, see ~ I 11 1, Rem. Rarely. ~ 87. THE PLU1pAL15 153 instead of - we find a) the ending 1-7 (as in Aramaman), as 44 deceitful, and in proper names, as '911 (ferreus) Barziilai; and b) the parallellri-, as bn= (prop. milky) storax-tree. 6. Abstract nouns formed from concretes by the addition of ri*I and n9V(comp. the Eng. terminations dom, hood, ness, &c.); e. gr. -61-~ kingdom, immediately from ~j;~ widowhood, from -j~4 widower, widow; n~~t' principium, from tq = i princeps. (See the verbals No. 16). 87. OF TUE PLURAL. 1. The plural termination for the masculine gender is VI., e. g. 0-1 horse, plur. V11 horses, seldom written defectively as in Gen. i. 21, tV~. Nouns ending in -.take V0-, in the plural, as Hebrews fromrn (Ex. iii. 18); but usually a contraction takes place, as V1 (~ 93, VIII), C~j crimson garments from "~t Nouns in ~-m lose this termination when they take the plural ending, e. g. 71T seer, plur. ='h This ending tim is also prevalent in Phcenician, e. g. WI Sidonii;in Ararnuean it is lin, in Arabic?in (nominative) and lin (oblique cases), in,,Ethiopic (In. It is, moreover, identical with the ending "I in 3d pers. plur. masc. of verbs. Comp. also the verbal-ending Unusual terminations of the plur. masc. are: a) -*as in Chaldee and Syriac, almost exclusively in the poets and later writers, e. g.,-=~ kings Prov. xxxi. 3; -9' days Dan. xii. 13, defectively 7I islands Ez. xxvi. 18. Comp. Judges v. 10; Job xv. 13; xxiv. 22; xxxi. 10; Lam. i. 4 and other places. b) g (the t: cast off as in the Dual 91' for V91 E z. xiii. 18; comp. the constr. slate, ~ 89, 2), e. g. chords, Ps. xlv. 9 for 04' (unless this be the true reading); '9.- peoples 2 Sam. xxii. 44 (for which the parallel passage Ps. xviii. 44 has cv, but the other form occurs also in Lam. iii. 14 and Ps. cxliv. 2). This ending is by many called in question, in single passages (see also 2 Sam. xxiii. 8, comp. 1 Chron. xi. 11; 1 Sam. xx. 38 Kethibh), or altogether; see Gesenius, Lehrgebiiude der Heb. Sprache, S. 524 ff.-Still more doubtful isc) 19- (like the constr. slate in Syriac). Here are reckoned, e. g. 19ii while cloths Is. xix. 9; '91t princes Judges v. 15, ',* windows Jer. xxii. 14. But this last is perhaps Dual (~ 88, b, Rem. 1); '91 may be my princes (with suff.), and 'I- in Vniri may be a formative syllable. Fath r, iori in Is. xx. 4 is constr. stale; but in '9lr (prob. =915 after the form bqvp) the Mighty One, and in '9il locust-swarm Nah. iii. * On the identity of nil these endings, see Dietrich's Abliandlungen zur hebr. Grammatik, Leipz. 1846, S. 62 ff. 154 154 ~~PART IL. PARTS OF SPEECH. 1(from mn..) the '1 belongs to the stem; and finally, in the Lord (prop mny Lord, from Lord) it is originally a Suffix, see ~ 12 1. Rem. 4. d) ~~'obsolete and rare; e. gr C= -=V" gnats [Ex. viii. 13]; r-t ladder [Gen. xxviii. 12] from b~O, prop. steps, comp. English stairs.* 2. The plural termination for the feminine gender is H. This takes the place of the femiinine term-ination r -, ri. Map~pended directly to the form of the singular; as song( Of pris, lur. 5 N letter, p~lur.,HN;'N a wvell, p1w't. HI-1 Feininines in rl" form their Lplural in r," and those in IM, in H -1; C. g. rlll Egyp~tian woman, plur. H'~ nbn~ kingdom, plur. H'nt These plural terminations have, however, for their basis, the endingrs and bo-.- in the singular. It is only from a neglect of the origrin of the terminations rM and nrg-, that the plural-ending C" is appended to some words which end wit~h them; e. g. n,~r spear,. plur. VI'r and r)'%M; M~ whoredoin, plur. V'-117; tlilnmu'. widowhood, and many other instances. Strictly in the manner of the Syriac is the formation of the plural n~i (jdhe-v6Ih) laws, with Vav as a consonant, from the singular This ending rl- (-(th) stands (lirectly flor -4th, as it is sounded in Arab.. i~thiop., and Chald. (see, on the corruption of the d sound to 6, ~9. 10. 2); and -d1th is, properly, nothing but the prolonging and strengthening of the sing.fein. ending -6th (~ 80, 2). The strengthening MIS intended to denote plurality. But this ending was then, by a still farther application of it, appended also to nouns whose singular does riot terminate in lItth. How the changeable vowels are affected by the addition of the plural endings, is shown in ~~ 92-95'. 3. Words5 which are of two genders (~ 80, 2, b, ~ 107', 3) have often, in thie plural, both the masculine and feminine terminations; e. g. '6= so il, plur. an t Btfom my be emp)loyed as Masculine or feminine; but their gender must be determined by observingr the usagre of the language in respect to each word. This is also true of several other words of both genders andl both (masc. andjfern.) term-inations, e. g. '11an agre, masc., Jplr. V11~ and H'~;od a year, femn., plur. V.1 and H= The gender of the singular is here retained in both the plural forms; e. g. "I rnasc. a lion, H"I rnasc. Zeph. iii. 3 ~111masc. Job xlii. 16. *See the Adverbs in C- ~ 100, 3, and Dietrich, ubi 8upra, 5. 66 if. ~ 88. THE DUAL. 155 Sometimes usage makes a distinction between the two plural forms of the same word. Thus Iet. days, and::~. years, are the usual, rnei, nirq the unfrequent and poetical forms. This distinction appears especially in the use of several words which designate members of the human body. The dual of these words (see ~ 88) is employed as the name of the living members themselves. while the plural in rn (which here corresponds to the neuter) represents something similar, but inanimate. E. g. t:bs hands, mn: handles, manubria; oaDr horns, nim:' cornua altaris; oat s eyes, r9iV: fountains. 4. A considerable number of masculines form their plural in rH, while many feminines have a plural in O-. In both cases, however, the gender of the singular is usually retained in the plural. E. g. MN father, plur. rnH; w. name, masc., plur. iM r; on the contrary, t15 word, fern., plur. t:P.; ta..t concubine, fer., plur. C:'1: D, &c. 5. It is chiefly in the adjectives and participles, that the distinction of gender is maintained in the use of the plural endings; e. g. =:'=. boni, H:ti: bonce;:6.p masc., hribp fem.; as also in substantives of the same stem, representing objects in which there is a natural distinction of sex, as Q.: filii, hi:s. filice; tbt rges, rees, egince. Rem. 1. In some few words, to the plural form in rn is added the other termination of the plural '-. (before the genitive '-, comp. ~ 89, 2), or that of the dual.'-; e. g.,t height, plur. rimZ, construct state nM =; b.t sr nitw r. from at the head of Saul, 1 Sam. xxvi. 12; nrin wall, plur. rnimrin mcenia, dual?nimini double wall. This double designation of the plural appears also in the mode of connecting the suffixes with the plural forms in ni (~ 91, 3). 2. Some nouns are used only in the plural, e. g. t39r. men (the.Ethiopic has the singular, met, man); some of them with the sense of the singular (~ 108, 2), as WsM. face. The plural of the latter can be expressed only by the same form; hence,::: means alsofaces, Ez. i. 6. ~88. OF THE DUAL. 1. There is a modification of the Plural in the Dual form. In Hebrew, however, it is found only in certain substantives (not at all in adjectives, verbs, and pronouns). The Dual termination for both genders is 1-, appended to the singular; as "1. both hands, 0i7:8 two days. The original feminine ending ath is always retained here, with long a in an open syllable; as nt 156 PART IL. PARTS OF SPEECIh. lip, ~1~both lips; fromn femninines with. the ending n.-, e. g. the Dual has the form double fetter-s. The shorteningm of the Voel, ocaineti by tle eopaa tivelv heavier dual end~ivn(r is in some cases rather (rreater than I Zn,?n~~~~~~~~~~ withi the phlural termnination, especially in the segTholate formis (~l8, 11); as "Y foot, plur. dual ='"Y but also ='t" (along wifth M:151) fi-romf hor-n, V~j fromi '11 cheek. I?ein. 1. Unusual forms of the tlual, mostly found only in proper names: a) (as in Chald.) and] contracted 'I-, as Gen. xxxvii. 17 and 2~ Kings vi. 1.3 (namne of a place, prop. hro wells); b) C_ and -.as:, (proper names-). t"r Iwro in the combination 31 1 UI twelI e c) -(:cast off), ",V Ez. xiii. 18. probably also rit (double windowv) Jer. xxii. 14. 2. The words M': wrater-, ~ ev or I Jeualm are dual only in appearance. The first two are plurals firom, th~e lost forms ',rz. 'I_,; the third. is a protractedl form for the oldler '1 ~ comp. the shorter forry t~t Ps. lxxvi. 3, and the, Chaldee t'1~,n. 2. The Dual in Hebrew, besides thie numeral forms for 2,12, 200, &c. (~ 97), is used chiefly of such objet asare, by nature or art, cot mected in Ipairs; C. g. ='!1- both hands,=4Mbt ears, teeith (of' the two rows), ~ pi fsos aro scales; or at least are conceived as forming a. pair, as M"I' tw-o days together, bidutun?, =I l two year-s (in succession),, bienliam, Vr'f,Z tw, io cub its. In the former case the dual is used also for a greater numiber of objects, either indefinite, or limited by a numeral; e. g. six wings Is. vi. 2. Ez. i. 6, all knees Ez. vii. 17, M' cynmbala Ezra iii. 10, M" Ztt for-ked hooks Ez. xl. 43. With some degree of emphasis, the dual takes also the numeral two, Amos iii. 12; Jud-ges xvi. 28. See other remarks on the use of the dual, in ~ 87, Nos. 3. 5 (Rem.). It cannot be, questioned thiat the Hebrew, at an earlier period]. cnployed the Dual more freely andi to a greater extent, and that thc above limited,and fragmentary use of it belongs t~o a later phase of development in the language. The early Arabic formis the Dual in the noun, pronoun, anti verb, to about the same extent as the Sanscrit, or the Greek;but in the modlern. it tlisappears almost wholly in the verb, pronoun, anti adjective. The Syriac retains it only in a few forms, but not as a living element, somewhat as the Roman in duo. arnbo. So also it (lisappears in the younger Indian languages. On the Germanic Dual, see Gri-im's d. Grarmnm. I., S. 114, 2 Ausg. * See Gesenii Thesaurus Ling. H~ebroeT, p. 629. ~ 89 GENITIVE AND CONSTRUCT STATE. 157 / ~89. THE GENITIVE AND THE CONSTRUCT STATE. 1. The use of case-endings* no longer appears in Hebrew, as a living element of the language. The relations of case are either not indicated by any external sign, like that of the nominative and for the most part of the accusative, or are expressed by prepositions (~ 117); that of the genitive being shown by subordination and close annexation to the governing noun. Thus the noun, which as genitive serves to limit another, retains its own form unchanged, and is only uttered in closer connection with the preceding nomen regens. In consequence of this connection, the tone hastens on to the second of the two nounst (the genitive), and the first, or governing noun, is thereby commonly shortened, either in its consonants or its vowels (when mutable), or in both; e. g. 'l word,::D*' 'at word of God (a sort of compound, as we say in reversed order, God's-word, landlord, fruit-tree); 'a hand,:.. i? hand of the king;.?t words,: I words of the people. Thus in Hebrew, the the noun which stands before a genitive suffers the change by which this relation is indicated, and in grammatical language is said to be in the construct state, while a noun which is not thus followed by a genitive is said to be in the absolute state. Such words are often connected by Maqqeph (~ 16.1). The insertion or omission of it, however, does not affect their relation to each other, and depends merely upon the accentuation. On the further use of the constr. state see the Syntax ~~ 114, 116. 2. The vowel-changes which many nouns exhibit in the construct state are shown in ~~ 92, 95. There are also terminations peculiar to this form of the noun: thus, a) in place of the plural and dual terminations A- and 'L~, it has always (by throwing off the m) simply - (comp. Rem.); e. g. DWD. horses, W.I_.Ot the horses of Pharaoh; 0?1_~ eyes, VIMM h"r the eyes of the man; b) the originalfen. ending r-_ is always retained in this connection with the genitive (instead of,r-v which has become the * On some traces of obsolete case-endings, see ~ 90. t In accordance with the universal tendency of the tone, in the Hebrew language, to hasten towards the end of words (~ 29, 1). 158 158 ~~~PART II. PARTS OF SPE ECH. usual. ending in the absolute state); as 'f * queen, bt= queen of AS7eba. When the same wvord has also the termination r~. ___ this form of it is adopted in the construzct state S(80 1, Rem. 1); c) nouns in ',-. fromi verbs #"I (So8, V) forrm their constr-uct state in h — ut nounis in ~ change this term~ination to % Exs. MWI constrMI."I seer; '1,1 constr. '1 life;. and so also constr. N"~ valley. On the endings ~ and ~ —in the construct state, see 9 90. IRemn The liquidl sound of M was lost (at the end of a wor(Iju-st as in Latin the final m beflore a vowel was sluirred. over in the languag1ce of cornmon life and in poetry. Quinct. Inst. Orat. TX. 4.~ 40. So,also disappears the eorrespondingn? of the plural ending in A rabic -and Aramrean. as — well as in the plural ending 'I of the Hebrew verb (~ 44, 1. and ~. 47, Rein. 4). The final vowel i, after the rejection of the(, m. was strengthened by anti a sound preceding it (the (ivia of Sanscrit grammiar), whence the diphithong aii, which is contractedl to n ~7 1nd ~ 19. 6). Instead of this ~-the Syriac still retains -,of which there is in He-c brew also ai clear trace in the union of suffixes with the plural noun (~91. 2); and' probably the example n':u5 I.S. xx. 4 also belongs here (accordingr to others Judgres v. 15. The dual ending n-obviously arose fr-om i ~ 90. REMAINTS OF ANCIENT CASE-ENDINGS.* local; - and ~ as ending5 of the constructt state. 1. As in Arabic three -cases are liSfingtfUiShe(1 by terminations. so the Hebrew noun has three, endlings wh ichi correspond to those of the, Arabic. ini soutid, but have miostlvy lost their original signifi can ic e. Thlev are mere fragmientarv remains of a more full and vital orgr-uniim dintt ii the langruage (exhibits in time stagye at which wve find it ini thn. Old TIestamientt when it no longer knew the reuilhar distitidmon of cases by app~ropriate endings. lIt Arabic( tla caise-eridings are:-it. (or the Tlnom-Ifaive. -i for the grenii i-e. and -a flr the a'ccusatiUve (anmswerinc, to time three lending vowvels) In i-nodl(ri Arab~ic, these endlings have al roost wholly disappearel;anid -whlon now and theni usedl amnionr thme Dedou~ins. it is wvithlout rule and with no distinction of the endingrs ( JWallin. in Zeitschrift der d. mor(yeril. Gesellizch. Bd. V. 1531, S. 9.). Eveni in the Sinaitic iriscrip*The so-called paragogic letters.-TRn. ~ 90. REMAINS OF ANCIENT CASE-ENDINGS. 159 tions, their regular use is found already impaired (Beer, Studia Asiatica, III. 1840, p. xviii; Tuch, in Zeitschr. dcr d. m. G. Bd. III., S. 139 f.); and still, among the Arabs of the Peninsula of Sinai, 'ammuk (thy uncle, nominative) is heard also for 'ammick (gen.) and for 'ammak (accus.). The AEthiopic has preserved only the -a; employing it, however, not only in the whole sphere of the accusative. but also (without distinction of case) for the ending of the constr. state in connection with a following noun. 2. The relation of the accusative, in the toneless ending iappended to substantives, is the one most clearly retained in Hebrew. It is used, a) most frequently, to express direction to, motion towards;* e. g. Ahi towards the sea, westward, fM&l towards the north, northward, r. )W to Assyria, 7:^ to Babylon,.?2k to the earth, Ina homeward,.iCT to Gaza (from,n.) Judg. xvi. 1; with the article,,; l~ to the mountain, '1niT into the house,. 'nJ to, or into, the tent [Gen. xviii. 6, xxiv. 67]; with the plural, tnT. to the Chaldeans,,l2Wt, towards the heavens; even with the construct state followed by a genitive, 'ioT ln into the house of Joseph, pi?'?,TM'.T. to the wilderness of Damascus, tlct t ~rlt (with the tone, an exception to the rule) towards the rising of the sun, eastward; b) sometimes in a weaker sense of the,.-,, with only a general direction to the place where an object is,t as b?. at Babylon Jer. xxix. 15, nibT in the habitation Hab. iii. 11; comp. also arI there Jer. xviii. 2 (oftener thither); c) the significance of the ending n;- is still more obscured, when a preposition is prefixed to the word, as bw.rt.b to the world below Ps. ix. 18, nTb upwards, rnT:l in the south Josh. xv. 21,. ab-rt from Babylon Jer. xxvii. 16,,~:, 'T_ unto Aphek Josh. xiii. 14. The local reference, in this ending, is the prevailing one (hence the name n — local); but there is also, rarely, a reference to time, as perhaps in. mp~ now, at this time (from b2),,nm~..W.t from year to year. Peculiar is the form,ib.n, prop. ad profanum! = absit! We have the accusative of the object (though bordering on the local reference) in ]-^bT *,8 * See, on this signification of the accusative, the Syntax, ~ 118, 1. t So also the accusative without this form, ~ 118, 1. 160 160 ~~PART IL. PARTS OF SPEECH. and *r. 'ilI ~ Is. viii. 23, Ez. xxi. 31; comp. Job xxxiv. 13. Being- r egLularly without the tone, it has commonly.no effect on the vowels of' the word (as shown in the,above examples), except that in seghiolat~e forms the helping vowel becomes ShCeva (~' 93, 6), and also the Cihi req in ~ Teending 'I- is itself'sometimes shortened to M-, as 'M;n to Nob I. Sam. xxi. 2, comip. Ez. xxv. 13. 3. More rare. and almost confined to poetry, are, the other two endings,. which like the accusative -_seemn to correspond to Arabic case-endinigs; viz. for the genitive, and Ii (also I in proper namecs) for the nominative. But hiere, the recog(rnition of the r-elation of case is wholly lost in t~he lano-uaoe;and it treats these forms as ar-ciaisnis, emnploy-e(i in Ipoetiry7 oi. other more elevated style, and found also in mnany- comlupoundl names, the relics of an earlier agre. As in such namnes, so elsewvhere, these endiiigs keel) their l)lace only in the closest connection Of noun with noun, namnely in the conistruct state.' a) The ending ' — is not very unfrequent in the constru2ct state, and commnonly has the tone. Exs. 'XI' "=T forsaking the flock Zech. xi. 17, W_= dw.eller- in t/hc thor-n-bus/h ieut. xxxiii. 16; with the feminine, Il'~` "r:) stoten by night Gcii. xxxi. 39 (in piose),,It plen ajustitiai Is. i. 21, T 1d after- 1/ic manner- of M1elcliizcdck Ps. cx. 4 oftener with a preposition followving (comip. ~16,as T nlmistr-ess anionr 1/ic nationsl Lami. i. 1., bindinrgr to i/hc vine Geri. xlix. 11, comip. Is. xxii. 16, Micah vii. 14, Ps. cxiii. 5-9, and other passages; so also with many particles, Which are strictly nouns in the construct state, as ~ =-I'IT) besides, "'t (==;) froni, 'I." not, and in cornpouind namnes, as j.. ~ i. e. king of righteousness), (nyian of G-od), (favor of God), and others; comp. the Punic name Hannibal, i. e. (favor of Baal). b) The ending r is much mioie rare, in prose only in the Pentateuch, and that in elevated style, as Gen. i. 24, rg ~P t/hc beasts of i/ic cart/i for j"IR ri (the, same word repeated from *In old, est ablished combinations of words are oftea preserved ancient endings, which are otherwise lost or have become rare; e. g. the femn. termination r-, with the noun in connection with a following genitive (~ 89, 12, 6), and with the verb in union with suffixes (~ 59, 1). So also much, that belongs to the ancient form of the languiage, is preserved in proper names and by the poets. ~91. NOUN WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. 161 that passage in Ps. 1. 10, lxxix. 2, civ. 11, 20, Zeph. ii. 14, Is. lvi. 9); still other examples, =? 13. the son of Beor Num. xxiv. 3, 15,:_ 157:_fountain of water Ps. cxiv. 8, and perhaps b5 I'V: the soul of the sluggard Prov. xiii. 4. The effect of these endings on the vowels, is seen in the above examples. The Pattach of the feminine ending r- sometimes becomes vocal Sheva, and sometimes Qamets. Rein. The relation of case being entirely lost in the terminations eand i, they can no longer be regarded as case-endings. Yet the probability is, that as such they were once living elements of the language, no less than the other termination n1- (no. 2); especially, as the OldArabic has precisely the corresponding endings, which, like the Hebrew, it subsequently lost (see above). The same phenomenon is often repeated in other languages. In the Latin, e. g. we find a fragmentary use of the casus localis, with the same ending as in the Sanscrit (in names of towns. ruri, domi, &c.); in the plural endings dn and hd of the modern Persian. lie ancient case-endings, but wholly extinct as such; to say nothing of the Romanic and Germanic tongues.-Even where, in Old-Arabic, the case-endings have penetrated the word-stem, and hence take stronger sounds. as in.i', =.a, Sna (constr. state of:x father), the modern has indeed all the three forms, but without distinction of case. Accordingly, in the Hebrew constr. state "=y, am, a properly genitive ending should be recognized, and a nominative ending in the Chald..:x, the Heb..inm (nb.inm),.ursj (bw.m),.i:| (b.:r); and hence, the more readily, the occurrence of both the forms '5Xi& and 5t.:t, nkn_ and -insri. 691. THE NOUN WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. In the union of the noun with pronominal suffixes, which are here in the genitive (~ 33, 2, b), there are two things to be considered (as in the verb, ~ 56 foll.), namely, the form of the suffix itself, and the effect on the form of the noun. Here we are concerned chiefly with the former, as the latter will be considered in connection with the paradigms of nouns, in ~~ 92-95. A general view of the suffixes is given also in Paradigm A. We treat of the suffixes as they appear, first, in connection with the singular, and then with the plural and dual of the noun. 1. The suffixes, as appended to the singular, are: 11 162 162 ~~PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. ~Singular. Plural. Com. ~ my. 1 CO7fl. ~ ~ our. 2 { ~ ~ pue-} thy. 2{ % T} your. 3 3 ther.. Rem. 1. There is less variety of forms here than in connection with the verb, and their use is as follows: a) The forms without a union-vowel are joined to nouns which end with avowel, asI~ad~ T$ X,l. But nouns ending in ~ —and M- (see below, no. 4) do not come under this rule. b) The forms with a union-vowel (~ 58, 3, 4) are attached chiefly to nouns ending with a consonant, which are by far the most numerous. As to the union-vowel, the a sound is the prevalent one in the 3d sing. ~i(contracted from NM-T).fern. tnand 3d plur. i?2- 5 -and here e is very rare (e. g. his light Job xxv. 3) except with nouns in M-. (the closing vowel-sound beingr combined with that of' the union-vowel or displaced hy it), as IN1'Z his field, M —mher aspect, I'iz her field; on the contrary T-, are the customsary forms, while ri-,.-are of rare occurrence, see Rem. 2. 2. Rare forms are: Sing-. 2d pers. m. M._ e. g.M~ thy hand Ps. cxxxix. 3, /; 9 Ez. v. 12. PS ciii. 4 once M=.- Nah. ii. 14 (in several MLS, S.Mz' -.prob. ). also 7-Is. xxii. 1.-3d pers. M. e. gr. in thc fi cquent ~HM% Gen. ix. 21 xii. S xiii. 3; xxxv. 21; 2 Kings xix. 23, for which wxe find i~ Is. xxxvii 21, MA.I Geni. xlix. 11 (Ke'ri 1nt Plur. 1st pers.~ as Job xxii. 20, and so Ruth iii. 2. Is xlvii. 10. -2d pers. '-':' Ez. xxiii. 48. 49.-3d pers. mn. ~-2 Sain xxiii. 6 for CM — (whence also, by contraction, the usual form C-) Fe. 1 Kingrs vii. 37, M'.` Geii. xli. 21. ~-Ruth i. 19. elsewhere chiefly in pause; 5Ir also is rare (Is. iii. 17), usually 2. When suffixes are appended to the plLural masc. in V-7 and the dual in V -, these endingics must take the formn of the c-onstruct state in Ti ( 9,2. ris termnination. is comnbined with the suffix, and hence the fo~llo~ingformns SUFFIXES OF PLURAL AND DUAL NOUNS. S~ingular Plural. 1 Corn. -my. 1 Corn. our. 2{ ~, thy. 02{ ~ your. M. P o e t. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~his. (M. pot 3 T. 3 poet. hr.Vl.,j their. ~" 91. NOUN WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. 13 163 In most of these forms, the ending of the plural construct _ remains unchanged, as IM100 I-J11 9.0 in some it takes 8~ighol in place of Tsere, as 'o1I 10, in three forms with very short suffixes it has Pattach (~ 89, Rem.), as!"1 from II11)71'1 from j.j"1 (comp. ~ 28, 4), '11 siu'sai contracted from su~saz-i. Rem. 1. The Yodh, which distinguishes these suffixes, is occasionally omitted in most of the persons, e. g. for thy ways Ex. xxxiii. 13,.~'Sil for I!1'-V'i his friends Job xlii. 10, VMIV'n after their kinds Gen. i. 21i. This is most frequent in the suff. 3d pers. m. sing., which is very often written I- but is almost always changed in the Keni to Tr-; e. g. 'u2rI his arrows Ps. lviii. 8, Keni )hr 2. Unusual forms: sing. 2d pers.f ~-Eccles. x. 17, hik- Ps. ciii. 3, 4, 5; 3d pers. 7n. "'i (a strictly Chaldee form) Ps. cxvi. 12; 3d fern. p-EZ. xli. 15.-Plur. fern. IM'l Ez. xiii. 20, IntF9-. Ez. xl. 16, 3. On ~M'9~ see farther in ~ 103! 2, Note. 3. That the Yodh, in these suffixes to plural nouns, belongs to the ending of the construct state, is clear and beyond doubt. But this was so far lost sight of; in the use of the language, as to give rise to this strange anomaly (inaccuracy, indeed) of speech, viz, that suffix-forms with the plural ending were attached. to the feminine plural in n~, thus making a twofold designation of the plural; e. g. inin, ivimo. N. B. This is the rule; but the naked suffix (as in No. 1) is also attached to the endingr n, as 9nlvPs. cxxxii. 12, jrin Deut. xxviii. 59; indeed, with the 3d plur. this is the more common form, e. g. un=' their fathers, oftener than win~i:ri as also tn~iui their names, c-i-i~ their generations. 4. In order to give a clearer view of what has been said, we now present the following paradigm. of the masculine and feminine nouns; selecting for it a word whose stem-vowvel is unchangeable. In place of the feminine ending IL-~ in the singular, appears the ending of the construct state, viz. rl-,- Its Pattach is retained before Pp, "I, but is lengthened to Qamets before the other suffixes, where it comes into an open syllable (4 89, 2, b). * See an analogous case in ~ 87, 4, Rem. 1. Comp. the double feminine ending in 4 80, Rem. 2, f. 164 164 ~~~PART II. PARTS OF SPEEChT. Miasculine Noun. SINGULAR. equus. IC. equnts ineus. 2 2m. T7,pl equits utus. *2f "-I equnus tlutusf cc 3 m.~ equits ejus (sunls). ~3f equus ejus (sutus), f C1 c equns noster. '42 m. =01 equus vester. 2 f ~~ equits vester, f 3 1 m. =C eqnus cormm (sunts). 3f '11 equns earum (sit uts). A ~~~~~PLURAL. equi. 1C. equi mei. CC 3 in. equi qejus (sni). t.3f. equi ejus (siti), f. r 1 c. equi nlostri. 2 m. equi vestri. 3mi.. equi eoru~n (sni). ~3f. equi cariun (sui). Fe minine Noun. O 9 equa. equa mea. T''Zn equa tua. 1.7,1 equa tua, f ~. equa ejus (sua). T equa ejus (sua),1. s eqa nostra. equa vestra. C- equa vestra, f =" equa cor urn (sua). '17V'C cqua earum (sua). equa3. 4 C equae mliee. equCE tua3,. equa, ejus (sta~). equel ej us (suae)),f equce nostr(U3. =%10~1 equce vestrax. equa3 vestrtz, f equce corum (site). equce earu~ui (suce). ~ 9)2. VOWEL-CHANGES IN THE NOUN. 1. The vowel-changes in the noun are caused, a) by a followingr genitive;b) by pronominal suffixes;C) by the p~lural and dual endings, to which is added, aga in, the effect of a genitive following, or suffix. 2. The tone, in all these cases, is moved forward more or less or even thrown upon the following word. We here distinguish three cases, viz. a) TVhen the tone is mioved forward only one p~lace. This effect is produced by most of the suffixes for singTular nouns by the plural and dual terminations;as 1= word, my ~ 92. VOWEL-CHANGES IN THE NOUN. 165 word, plur..? -; C:: wing, dual tn. wings; 3.R enemy, 4.'. my enemy, W ~S^. Such is also the effect of the light suffxes for plural nouns,' as X-; '..,: V; 1-, t.,?%;, m.,% e. g. 1.j, I: 6:~. b) When the tone is moved forward two places; as in the plural construct state, and when the grave suffixes are appended to the plural (:?-., i-.). There is here a greater shortening of the vowels (if mutable), e. g.:DS 's" words of the people; 0::y your words;:,.: their words. In segholates, as the tone is on the penultima, there is still another distinction. The appended suffix has less effect than the (graver) plural ending o-., ni: the former leaves the chief vowel still under the first letter, as 'iSn; the latter takes in its place a vocal Sheva, and Qamets under the second stem-letter, as 1^:i.. Comp. ~ 93, 6. c) When a half-syllable with vocal Sheva precedes the pronominal suffix; as with; 0r, I?; also with:W, 1i.,;.' (for which we have far more frequently T-, - ). Of these the first is a light suffix, and regularly affects the tone in just the same manner as T-,, e. g..O',:a., 'TPT. The others are grave suffixes, and have more effect in shortening the vowels,:.n?1_, &c., as is shown in the Paradigms. A similar effect is seen in the construct state of the singular number, as D '1n, rl.; nr-n 'en (from 'nn). 3. The vowel-changes in feminine nouns (~ 95) are less considerable, the addition of the feminine ending having already occasioned a shortening of the vowels (~ 94). Most of the vowel-changes, which form this internal inflection of the noun, are based on the principles laid down in ~~ 23-29. There are others, however, which are occasioned by the peculiar structure of certain forms of nouns exhibited in ~~ 84, 85, 86. They are nearly all confined to the last two syllables of the word, the third syllable from the end seldom having a mutable vowel (~ 27, init.).-There is this marked difference between the vowel-changes in the verb and the noun: viz. that in the verb, the second of two changeable vowels mostly disappears (bi_, nig-I,.iBq)! in the noun thefirst (',, om, ); comp. ~27, 3.-Changes of consonants are very few, and occur only in Parad. IX. N. B. For the more convenient exhibition of the inflections and other changes in the nominal forms, we now subjoin Paradigms, first of the Masculines (~ 93), and then of the Feminines (~ 95), prefixing to the latter the statement of vowel-changes in the formation of the Feminine ( 94). * On the light and grave suffixes, see Note, pp. 166 and 167. PART:I. PARTS OF SPEECH. Paradigms oJ I. II. II1. IV. (without change.) \/'/~. rabsol. DID ab Y " j T TT T (horse) (etelrnity) (overseer) (word) constr. 0." Dbiy npb_ ~ ligh7t suff. '~.;. *-yT gravre su.* QC^O Ot::7 K"-,?^.^ Plur. absol. ~.O.&b~V.T*p.' con0str. r.e. -,Y,~.5n~ lirght suff.: * - T -p - -T grave suf. sf^f a?~~ t??7 ~. P.. Dual absol.:Pt?^ D.^b 0.^_;.~ (two days) (pair of tongs) (two weeks) (wings Constr. ~.~ VI. 9- < d. e. f. g. h. Sing. absol.? nDs >it rT (a youth) (perpetuity) (work) (death) (olive) constr. '15 n:e ''i nrT; light suff. T. nm vim rt T grave suff. 0?= 0?nI T??.. 05i:?hT Plur. absol. MQlr?. T-:_ -* T r t. "..T Coastr. T/ Ib. 7nS E jtit T grave slff. 0?^3 O?^^? S?^^ O?^i0?hT Dual absol. Q?^_ T''? (sandals) (eyes) Constr. ^5^5^ * Byi grave (i. e. the more strongly accented) suffixes, are meanit nmost suffixes of the 2d an;l 3d persons; viz. for sigq. nouns, =-.:. ' =-.; (but not —. '- ) ~ 93. PARADIGMS OF MASCULINE NOUNS. 167 Masculine Nouns. IV. V. VI. b. a. b..a. bc. T T 7i2;1T *- T.. *. (sage) (elder) (shoulder) (court) (king) (book) (sanctuary,..: -..:2 I:-) -..: -. 6. ht p:~ 71"12T;1 mn -To ":.6 'T: unn ^p Tn =1 nn mnt3o twT - T -: V -—:.:- --:. ~-: T VI. VII. VIII. IX. a:n kibiz ==,it t n:2 _.:r:.n ~ *S'Qsn -V T:) * — * * - i. a. b. a. b. c. tl3 -Ar 0l. tw b,1 vii (fruit) (enemy) (name) (se (mother) (statute) (seer) -::. a-.. b.:-.::ab. c: ~. --: " (gazelle s)light s n nn: -.s *:.- ~...,. and for gut. nouns,?:, -,, - (but not q?7=). The others ar cazlle)d l:h t su: s. called light guJfixes. 168 168 ~~~PART IT. PARIS OF SPEECII..693. PARADIGMS OF MIASCULINE NOUNS. Masculine nouns may be most conveniently arranged, wNith reference to their vowel-chianges, in nine classes, as in thle preceding table. The necessary explanations are SUbjoined. We here only remiark in general, a) that all feminines wvithout a (listinctive termination (~107, 1, 3) are inflected like masculine nouns, e. g. =II sword; with only this distinction, that they comm111only take the plural endling rl e. g. phni'. absol. constr-uct state rinll where with su//ixes the more p~erfect short-ening alwvays remainis, as seen in the Paradigmjls of fembinine nouns, s 94 b) that in the plural, all light sn/lives are attached to I-he absolute, and gr-ave s-itJixces to the construct state. EXPLANATIONS OF THlE PARADIGMS. 1. To Parad. I. belong all nouns whose vowels are imimutable ( 25). Of course there, are no vowel-chianges in this Paradigmn and it is inserted only for comparison with the others. E. gr. according to ~ 25. 1. 6 city, voice, rin garmtent. -~n armi; ~ 2,, for C.VI stafl(ling up, IDfor '1'1r strange;2.3 eo r-1,~ t~lghteoIs, '1-r vierc/iti M (iestructiofl; ~25. 4. fo(r t. h or-semnan. Here belong. therefore. thle cl-asses of verbal nzoans o'iven i n ~ 84. N os. 6, 7. 8, 13, 26,:27. 2. To Parad. II. belongy nouns which have a mutable Qamets in their final syllable, and are either monlosyl labic or heave the preceding vowels immnutable. E. g. "V hand, '=; star,. wilder-ness. With thle suffix Mm there is the normal shortening,. as in;but li b)ecom es C., — (flr =7:), and: -i becomes t-".' see ~27. Rtemr. 2. 3. Of course, nouns whose final Qarnets is unchang(eable, which resembl.i Zrm, the albove examiples,. do not elong here;.g orshr (S4, Nos. 6. 13), =I as Part. of verbs Y &c. Derivatives fromn verbs X.": also comm111only retain their (Qamiets, e. gr. xnn' assemnbly, plur. constr. ".V 3. Parad. III. embraces those nouins which have an iiminutable, vowel in the final syllable, and a miutable Qamnets or Tser-e (pretonic vowel, ~ 26, 3) in tile pen ultimia. Exs. great, '~) lor-d, f strongCr 11.N plurl. =V- faithfulmness, IVlfamnine, ~ 98. PARADIGMS OF MASCULINE NOUNS.19 169 ~9Tremembrance. The last two take in the construct state the forms 'IZV and jiIT. There are also nouns of the, abovc forms. which have a firm Qamets before the tone-syllable. Exs. for 'r4Z21 tyrant, 'rnr for yl-I diliggent (see verbal nouns, ~ 84, No. 7); also rv~r chariot-warrior, plur. =Irjb't5. Ex. xiv. 7. Many are not uniform in this respect; e. g. vYd- week. see the Lexicon. 4. Parad. IV. embraces nouns of twvo syllables with a mutable Qamets in both. Sometimes one, and sometimes both are shortened, according to the change in the place of the tone (~ 92, 2). Nouns of this form are very numerous. The influence of a guttural, especially on the form of the plural construct state, is seen in the second of the two examples given in the Paradigm. Other examples are: =I gold, -=J tail, and with a guttural In like mianner are declined nouns of the less frequent form e. g. =b heart, "In strong drink; with a guttural, blv hair, ='i. grape. Some nouns of this class take a segholate form in. the sing. constr. state; e. g. 1Y~ (rib) constr. rbut also VY~ 2 Sam. xvi. 13; and so (foreign) constr. nz5 Deut. xxi. 161, Ivb(hair) constr. 11Oand InVi before Mdaqqeph once -~(for ~;)from ',= white Gen. xlix. 12, -Il (ornament) constr. I's and- -i Da'n.xi. 20,' j1(smoke) consir. -j~ and VzpiT Ex. xix. 15 (comp. No. V, and '1= together with n= ~ 54, Nos. 10 and ii). Qarnets is immutable in both syllables of t5nr (faber) for t~nr and fit (horseman) for ri~inm. ~ 84, No. 6. 5. Parad. V. is properly a mere variation of the preceding one. The final Tsere is treated like. the final Qamets in Parad. IV.,7 except that in the construct state 1'I)T stands for '1.1 Some nouns, however,7 take the segholate form (No. VI.) in the con-. struct state; e. g. shoulder, constr. st for J ~ r~ wall, constr. st. 01' fo "; thigh, constr. St. for Still more rare is the occurrence of both forms, as I= (heavy) constr. st. Ex. iv. 19 and I-n Is. i. 4; -IV(uncircumcised) constr. st. ~V and ~, Rare exceptions are forms like -~X Ps. xxxv. 14 (followed by Maqqeph) constr. state of ~-b mourning. Other examples of the first kind are: V1 (peg), ",izj neighbor, ~=i (sated) constr. state T=w12 short. Some nouns of this form retain their Tsere in the plur. constr. state; e. g. 'I& (sleeping). plur. constr. "pi; so also "~t mourning, "Mi rejoicing."i, forga-eting, 1,rc desiring. 170 PART IL PARTS OF SPEECIL 6. To Parad. VI. belongs the large class of nouns denoininated KSeghoiate forms (S 4, No. 11). The chief peculiarity in their inflection is,7 that before suiflixes and in the constr-uct state of the plural and dual, they appear in their original monosyllabic forin with the stemi-vowel (a, i, 6) under the first stem'-letter e. g., But in the absolute state of the plural, an a Sound comies in before the tone of the ending( (in an open syllable, hence Qa-mets), whilst in the proper 1)lace of the stemvowel. (uinder the first radical) there is only a vocal tSh/tva; e. g. (k i II rr1)plur 1 ". Com1 1P. ~ 92, 2. Thles.e fornis may be arranged in three general classes, the first bavin~r A the secontd E the third 0, in the first syllable. Tphe Paradigmi exhibits uinder a, b, c, derivatives of the regular verb under dl, e, f, forms which have a guttural in the finalI syllable uinder g, h, (lerivatives fromt feeble stems I'V and qV and under i a derivative from a verb ~. Conip. ~S85, IV. No. 1 1. V. No. 1. REM-ARKS. 1. in the form (for 715i 27, Rein. 2, c) appears the original A of the first syllable not only b~eibre suffixes, as in -ms but also mostly in 1Patt (~ 29, 4), e. g. M": in Pause and] before n- local (~ 90, 1) as "Ix In thle Septuagrint, also, proper names likie b;,.5 r regrularly wvritteri with A in thie first syllable, as ~ Ow,.~k The Word~ ynX with the article, is constantly written rbix-; derivatives firom verbs IiI also take (Q(Ltets for their first vowel, as r'.Ib. Th e wordl %O valley has the original monosyllabic form. Many of thiese segholates re~~~~tain the, Seghol of the first syllable in pause. -p t).;' on the (contrary. -. 5 rz5. The latter form is most frequent,. and with a gruttural. is the prevalent one. There are, however, nouns of this form. which take i instead of a whether fromn shortening the a to that degree, or from passing over entirely to the fir 'ra ) e. g. gr7-; ave(npne~~ plur. constrl. 7v ~ omib, '1;; ~ garmnent, 197. (bighedhi). vary incr firom thie usual form in' the Daghesh required by rule in 'i beino ornitted in this wortl; 'pj righteousness, sacr~fic. T. In sorne words, both forms occur, a- c~hidd, H'os. i. 2 and Is. lvii. 4. Nouns of the fborm when their third stem-letter is a guttural, are sounded as M~l sacrifice, W"' seed, ~ rock; when the second stem-letter is a gruttural, as 'B~ b'i-ook. (e Prd d), edmlk an breadl. it is to be observed. moreover, that in the hard combination (viz, where the second radical has quiescent Slh'va, and the third radical would take Daghesh le-ne, us in M) simplle Sheva may be retained ~ 93. PARADIGMS OF MASCULINE NOUNS.11 171 here also, as in IM;on the contrary, the forms corresponding to "Z~ (~21, 2, a) are always pointed as '9 "Y~M 2. The form -Mb M2 (b, e), when its first letter iss a guttural, takes Seghol before suffixes in the. singular and in the plur. constr.; e. gr. calf '1 =. The monosyllabic form appears in mul With '-.l local, Tsere is, retained, as "IIl rmrlteEs.Fape fti form are: z~ staff 'r fro V h at xape fti for ae ub saf, II 5vow, yp~ delight. 3. The form &I — (c) in connection with suffixes takes also Qibbuts, but rarely; e. gr. blif greatness, ib`I Ps. cl. 2. Likie CZ 30 pb6leklhemn is formed also (without a guttural) -r from:D pestilence Hos. xiii. 14. -From ~:) (letterf) occurs also with suff.i mb fori Tt (not from Tb~) Is. i. 31, and so also ini Is. lii. 14 for inxn 1 S am. xxviii. 14, where the Qamets-chatuph (supported by Methegh) is protracted to a long vowel; comp. ~ 62, Rem. 4. In the plural absolute, but few nouns have the form in the Paradigm with (Chateph-Qarnets uinder the first radlical, e. g. C~i"r months, gazelles, rinnx ways; most nouns take simple She~va, as t91_ from morning. viiv from rl~' spevr, hence CI9i' with Qa~nets-chatuph. hut also '9I' from 7';0 thicket; two have in the plur. abs. Qamets-chatuph, a s c', (q6 p -dha-shim), hence also with light suff. 11=1 (but also lr~and with the article always ~ wt Chiateph- Qamets), and Wtnv (sh6-ds-shlrn) roots. with light suft: 1%n m"ni from '&5W (see ~ 9. Rem. 2). The word b~jR has, by a Syriasm..9-I fo r C with light suff. ai J,9~ 6t,1Slt~ (see ~ 23. 4, Rem. 2); but with a preposition and the article constr. state and with gra~ve suiff. ',,X 1=~11t With M- local.the Cholem is retained. as, towards the tent. 4. After the same analogy are inflected the kindred monosyllabic forms, whose vowel is between their least two stem-letters ( 84, No. 10); as — t shoulder, with suif -'=5; Infin. ~b -9;- 1, = (so usually with the InfI omitting Dag. lenc in the third radical, not as 5. Only derivatives from verbs J. and ' change their form in the sing. constr. state (by contraction of the diphthongs aw and ay into 6 and e', ~ 24, 2, b and Note *) as nl prop. mawth, mauth., contracted r,;I. Before M-. local this contraction does not take place; e. g. Mn M Mr 1; ' (except in the constr. state, as 'sltY Mn ). The middle radical sol 0m etimes appears as a consonant in the plur. abs., as W~l from &u5' hegoat. n~i~, fountains from "IV; and even in some words, where by conltraction it has become a vowel in the ground-form, as '11 oxv, plur. 6. Of segholates from verbs 1r1b there are also properly three classes, distinguished by the A, E, and 0 sounds (~ 85, V. 11). EA. g. lion, -,M cheek., M sickness; in pause, "I~. "M; "~ with suffies, '191,.9b v~ in the plur. and dual, C'9ik tn ~M In the plural, some nouns take bt instead of ~ on account of the preceding A sound (~ 24. 2, c); as '9 gazelle, plur.;W= '9n simple. plur. D. 172 172 ~~PART IL PARTS OF SPEECH. 7. To Parad. VII. (nearly resembling Parad. II.) belong nouns which have mIIUtable Tver-e in their final syllable, and are either monosyllabic, or have their preceding vowels immnutable. It accordiingly embraces all participles in KCal (of thie formnl riot b),and those in PiiW andl Hithpail, tie form ( 4 No. 9), and sev eral others, e. g. l tf~ imen f-,rog, &c. The fbllowing dleviations from. the Paradigrm are to be noted: a) Several nouns take Pattach in the consir. state (as in Parad. V.) e. g. mourning. constr. state; especially with goitturals. u,,s r= ata.consirt. state r~i' b) Betbre sgxsoccur such forms as r- -6-T f'romi N~ Sign. or as f-rom xt throne. or as M. c) In words of one syllable Tsere is retainedl in the pilir. absol. as the Ptaradligrn shows; it is also ret;:ined in se-verad. words which are niot monosylliAbic, as d (escenda nts (f) the third generation,. assemblies. 8. Parad. VIII. emnbraces nouns wvhich double their final stem-letter wvhen they receive any accession at the end; whether the doubling results fromn contraction within the stem itself, or is merely euipho-nic. The vowel before the doubled let~ter is timen short, aid the syllable is sharpened (~ 27, 1). The preceding syllables, when the wvord has miore than one, are treated as the nature of the syllables requires. EL g. camel, plur. "Z1I wheel, phie. wheel, plur. Nouns of almost every formi are found am-ong those which are inflected accordingr to this Paradigiu. Whether a noun belongs here cannot, therefore, be known from its form, though its etymology w%%ill generally decide. EAtymology refers to this Paradigm the following classes of nouns; viz. 1) All contractedl (lerivatives of verbs ~" (~ 85. II.), as.. pn 6c.and primitives which follow the same analogry, as V9 sea. -i m-ountauz, t~xfir-e. 2) Contracted lorms, like 1 anger (Ibr ~ 19. 2) with sniff. iro. = (laughter (for r;.'=) with suff. qn= nv time (flor r) pr. anid ril 3) Denominatives. especially Patronymin c andl Gentilic torrns in as ras * le-vites. ti'rvnylnJews. though the, fbrrrs M11N1i 1t1 foreiizners. are at least equally common. 4) Derivatives of the, stronger stemis (~ 8) under the ibllowing forms: 10. 'ar time; 14. 7,. darkness. delight; 15. ~5gifl, J plur. M~": miountain-Ipe(ks; 21. ='I red; 36. "Mn orchard, with sufl. *M1 _'r ~. plur. =9.=n sacred-scribes. But there are also words of all these five forms which do niot take Daghesh in the plural, and those which are here adduced are to be regardled rather as exceptions to the prevailing usage. They are pointed out in the Lexicon. ~ 94. VOWEL-,CHANGES IN FEMININE NOUNS. 13 173 Before sz'ffxes with only vocal Sheva, for a union-vowel (as r-),the Daghesh may be omitted. The same vowel is generally retained, however, except that in words of the form b1*i it is more commonly Qarnets-chaluph. Pattach before the doubled letter is retained in some words, as =' -much, Plur. Vvn; in others it is shortened into Chireq, as rO morsel, 9. Parad. IX. embraces derivatives from sterns fi 15 85, V.) which -terminate in as-; as l beautiful, 'MN~ seer, 7rI'Y a'spect. Only the changes which affect the final syllable (which is treated very much as in verbs 10") are peculiar to this Paradigm; the preceding syllables being treated as their own nature requires. As the ending -.I- standls for '9- (~ 24, 2, Rem. a. and ~' 75, 1, Rem.), there occur, not unfrequently, singular fborins with sufti-res which have the appearance of the plural; e. gc. 9, — thy covering, Is. xiv. 11 (not thy coverings), In th ateI.xx 2'D' ki5 thy form., Cant. ii. 14. trixm Dan. i. 15, Gen. xli. 21 Ti), r his doing 1 Sam. xix. 4, %7f m cattle, Ex. xvii. 3, and so also perhaps "ra my maker Job xxxv. 10. But with these occur also the forms, in which (as in the Parad.) the - falls away, or becomes merged in the union-vowel; as 9;D Gen. xxx. 29, In ni; Gen. xxxi. 18. In the plural, we find also V-r~o (from 111M'I for '9im Part. Pual), Is. xxv. 6. ~94. VOWEL-CHANGES IN THE FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS. 1. The termination #-~ (~ 80, 2) appended to a masculine nioun affects the, tone of the word, and consequently its vowels, in the samec manner as the light suffixes beginning with a vowel (see ~ 92, 2, a). The following are examples of the formation of fenminines in the several Paradigms: Parad. I. 01,, fern. r19'o. II. N2t fern. lob~ outgoing. III. 5~~ great, fernm~. IV. Mj', fern. ~*~vengeance. V.?$old, fiernm i?. VI. ern. queen;, fern. olII covert;, fern. 'onT del-ight; 5MR fern. '#bb food; 'l,,fem. damsel; 11WI, fem. game; '1 (not in use), ~ wreath. VII. _pem. VI.,fem. 'o-V much; pM, fern. 71r1 law; 1, fern. ',' measure. IX. '# fern end'. 174 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECI. 2. The ending trl shortens the vowel of the preceding syllable in the same manner as r';* e. g.. 2 and constr. state hrlt: croiwit; >'n fellow, fer. nMnm. But it also affects the vowel of the final syllable in several ways, so that the termination of the word follows tie analogy of the segholate forms; namely, a) Qamets and Pattach are both changed to Seg/hol, e. g. =Sin seal, fern. r;i1n. b) Tsere in some words is retained, in others is changed to Seghol, e. g. 1^17, fern. constr. frni2)n five;., fern. constr. 1r~.? wall. c) The firn and very long vowels (a, ~; ) are changed to the corresponding mutable vowels, c. g. ' en, fern. r'un` shanme imnrS' night-wratch (also 1.t. ) fioml the masc. '^.-_; m:i1 mistress (also ^'IMA. ) from '-M'. Hence, for feminine nouns also, there are three segholate forlms, r — (for - 1 or ^-7 ),, and l-, corresponding exactly to tlle forms of masculine nouns in Parad. VI. The same correspolldencce appears also in their inflection in the singular. The terlination - (when the word ends with a guttural) always changes the preceding vowel to Pattachl, e. g. lnfemrn. r1; ' acqutaintance; _, femn. D2 knowledrge;:^_: rest, from Mn (not in use). Rein. 1. An unusual form. r- for r-., has already been noticed in ~ 74. Reim. 3. Of another kind is the form rii_; for r e'i Gen. xvi. 11, Juldges xiii. 5, 7 (like ~i =.^). As this form, in all the three places where it occurs. stand(s connected with the 2d pers. fen. Perfect, it may in this case have been so uttered with a designed approximation to that Perfect form; fir with the 3d pers. we find the regular form nm: Gen. xvii. 19; Is. vii. 14. 2. iWhen rnasculines of Parad. VII. receive the termination,.they necessarily omit the douhling of their final stem-letter; hence n'-sn c(tr. tr... Jfice;. 7-x reddish, plur. -'3.-y, but fern. r -_i,.. So o n ( a r.ni dloor (fi-oin ) r. ck, ra.rom rn. * This is contrary to the general rule (~ 27, 3), since the tone is not thrown forward. Blt tlhe exception is accounted for by the fact, that this -. - is a short cnced form of the acce?'lted l-; see ~ 80, 2. ~ 95. PARADIGMS OF FEMININE NOUNS.15 1.75 195. PARADIGMS OF FEMININE NOUNS. The inflection of these nouns is more simple than that of masculines (~ 92, 5), the addition of the feminine ending having already occasioned as much contraction and shortening of the vowels as is admissible. E. g. from Parad. III. Mo6I; VII. tTp VIII. r, i All these femninine forms belong to the single Parad. A. In the plural, there is no distinction made between the light and the grave suffixes, the former as well as the latter being appended to the construct state. These nouns have only three modes of inflection, Parad. A (which is inserted merely for the sake of comparison) having no vowvel-ch anges. A general view of these inflections is presented in the subjoined table, which is followed by the necessary explanations. oSing. absol. constr. light suff. gra ve suff. Plur. absol. constr. with suit: Dual absol. A. (no vowel-changes.) (mare) a. (year) rzi~t (lips) B. b. W, 1 t T " (sleep) rj-t t. kj rj IR jyj.j. -r: C W.) In: t5 V: -: rin6 rill.= "ritz' Virlbtr-) I - T: (two sides) 19rlbtr; C. (righteousness) rli constr. oSing. absol. constr. light suff. grave suit. Plur. absol. constr. with suff. Dual absol. constr. a. (queen) (two eides) C. b. (reproach) (doub"le m b1ridery)1 I C. "I 1n VI T: T (waste) rn 1-1 I ri: r brVirl. T: T 13:) rl bi In ri V: -: T rinn T r: rinbm: T,,H.mbiri: T D. a. b. (sprout) (skull) 11hb, bt~ (cymbals) (fetters) 176 176 ~~~PART 1I. PARLTS OF SPEECH. ]EXPLANATIONS. 1. To 11arad. iii belongr those femninincs which have a mnutable Qarnets or T'sere before the femninine ending rii-.E.g end, I:v couinsel, 1 -righteousness, '=: abomination. It accordingly embraces the feminine formns of nouns belonging to Parads. II. IV. V. and of several belongring to Parad. IX. When the Qamnets, o1 Tser-e, is p~receded by a half-syllable with vocal AS-1tva (~26, 4), there is formied, on the fallingr away of the formier, a closed syllable with a shiort vowel in place of the vocal te~val as shown in the ]3arad..In like manner I' C1,18, a wrain,. Many nouns of this form,. howe%-er, take iii the construct stat~e and before suffixes the coexisting~ formn in ~ —or r5- (~9, 2, b, ~694, 2). E. g. '0Z~ kingdonm, constr. Ytate with suff. so also MIR or-nament, r I family, Qamets is immutable in all nouns like 1'_,"= nipl (~ 84. Nos. 25, 28), constr. state r-_'7 mx Tsere is also unchangeable in most verhals of the form ir'_ destruction. b~v plunder (~ 84, No. 13); but in others it is mnutable, as in 'n" ';request (~ S. No. 2). The character ofrthe vowel, in each case. is given in the Lexicon. 2. To 1Parad. C belongr femiinines derived from the segholate formis (Parad. VI.), to which their inflection also is analogrous. As formis in the p)lur. abs.. so also lIere a Qam~ets comies before the thiird radical in tile 1)lLIaI; as queens; lambs, fromt bil::) Care must ibe talien not to confound wit~h nouns of this class, those fernirtincs of the same f;.rm whiich are not (derived from segholates, particularly thie (lerivatives frorn vcrlbs M" of' the form inw, whose, masculine formn is n~"_ n'4'z. Tile first syllable of these nouns is 3. 'Po Parad. D b.elongr segrholate nouns formed by the addition of the femninine endingl r-( 91, 2). These correspond, in the inflection of tile singrular, to masculine seghlolates (~93, Parad. VI). TJo the exampl~es in the, 1aradigmi may be added, ri~ enclosure, letter-, ivwages. Of the formn -S whlich is rare in this class of' nouns, nt. Woman, with Si1ff,! Wol be an example. The same inflection, hwvr is exhibited b~y some words ending in, viz, th-ose in which this ter ~ 96. IRREGULAR NOUNS.17 177 mination takes the place of rn —~ e. g. M3 (for %n~ to bear, with suff'v"* in like manner rl=W, '1-15 (from the masc. i)-l'i takes with suffixes the form lrnYiim. Many nouns of this'class borrow their plural from the coexisting form in 'o' —, Ir- (Parad. B); as rlIr~ capital of a column, plur. r~l'~n; rl"~ plougrhshare, plur. r~t r-; i "n ~96. LIST OF THE IRREGULAR NOUNS. 1. There are several anomalous forms of inflection, chiefly occurring in single examples only, or at most in very few, which may be best exhibited in an alphabetical list of the words in which they are found. They are the more important, because, as in all languages, the words wvhich they affect are those in most common use. 2. Most of these irregularities of inflection consist in the derivation of the construct state, or of the plural, not from the absolute state of the singular, but from another wholly different form; precisely similar to what we have seen in the inflection of the irregular verb (1 78). Compare yvv, yvaxog i)&co0, `aTrog. =X (as if for fromt 'T t) father; constr. state l-~t with suff. ".M (my father), plur. rn-b (1 87, 4). MN brother, constr. "M with suff. 'IM (my brother), ITfi t~Jng plur. constr. "MR ="N All these forms follow the analogy of verbs ~ as if MN stood for MMN from ~7M$. But the plur. absol. is VIM with Dag.- frte implicitum, (~ 22, 1), as if from MrI; hence ')M, 1 —1b, &c. For the form TIMN (which is always used instead of 1V'Mb) see ~ 27, Rem. 2, b. INone (for IMN, also with Dag. forte implicitum, see 122, 1, and comp. ~ 27, Rem. 2, b), constr. state 'IN fem. riM for rl1IMVN una, (see ~ 19, 2), in pause rIN In one instance,7 Ez. xxxiii. 30,7 it takes the form ~I (by aphceresis, 19, 3), as in Chald. and Syr. Plur. 10'M some. *As these nouns, though primitives, follow the analogy of verbals (~ 82, 2), it is necessary, in order to understand their inflections, that we should know to which class of irregular verbs they respectively conform. 12 178 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. rnin sister (contr. for h ri, as if fiom a masc. na = t-), plur. I'T., with suft. hir'. (from a sing. sU;fem. frorn n'), also /,'ins~ (as if from a sing. "nq ). jtiS a man. a softened form of t^S, T:N (~ 19, 5, Rem.); in the plur. it has very seldom 1 t h'", the usual form being =W'.' (from t.^.), const. r;. Comp..n. fX nzmaid-servant, plur. (with as as consonant) nhfi.t, n irota. Comp. in Aram. ]^ tfathers, and similar cases. ' woman (for.t:.fem. frolm t^., see ~'c), constr. state rn (fern. from t1s. with e for i); wit suff..tm;. I l.Pr, plur. 10, abbreviated from O't^, constr. ".'. rn. house (perhaps a softened form from r,: (,^?), ~ 19, 5, Rem.), derivative of ~r3 to build (like (8,uJo; fiom ( Cuto), constr. state nhi, pl1tu. 0D h bot-tim (perhaps a contr. of '..:? from another sing. rh for..3; like hn for h.~).? sojn (for ^;., from 3=), constr. state ', seldom '-, once "'. (~90, 3, a) Gen. xlix. 11, and: (~90, 3, b) Num. xxiv. 3, 15. With suff..3, T-; ])lur. *Iu (as if frolm 7, for... ), constr. state ~. rm, daughter (for r:., fern. ]g, comp. ~19, 2), with sz:f IM (for P?: ); pI)t '. n.: (from the sing. M-, comp. W..' sons), constr. state rli:. rn father-in-law, with szuf. q'n", and S^t mother-inlaw; comp. rn brother, and ri n sister. i da(y, dtual Q, but p1. W^~, ). - (as if fiom i " for, 't2). '"n vessel, plur/. M (as if from.i, -?). *'7 plur., water (comp. S88, 1, Rem. 2), constr. state 'I, and also d(oubled "tyt with suff.::~o. i < ilty, /pl21'. *,.'. (from on, which is still found in proper namIes). s m zouth (for M, from the stein "5TD to breathe), constr. state. (for ".'), with suJ'f. S my mouth, 7i5, r S. 7t? head (for t' i), plur. ='IS, (for Q t, ~23, 2). ~97. NUMERALS.-I. CARDINAL NUMBERS. 1. The cardinal numbers fiom 2 to 10 are substantives with abstract meaning, like trias, decas,,itvrTa, though they are also used adverbially (~ 120). Only,'M one (unus), fern. Snn_ ~ 97. NUMERALS.-CARDINAL NUMBERS.19 179 (una, see ~ 96), is construed as an adjective. Of the remaining numbers of this series, each has a masculine and a feminine form; properly without any difference of meaning, but so distinguished in the prevailing usage of the language, that the former is construed with fern., and the latter with masc. nouns. Only in the dual form for two, Vir fe.t3 does the gender of the numeral agree with that of the object numbered. NUMERALS FROM 1 TO 10. With mase. nouns. With femn nounis. Absol. Constr. Absol. Constr. 1. h17R1M isM 2. 3. 4 T 7. 8. 1~t41b 10. 11O.V -Ipnr *Abbreviated from Vir-15 (according to others, for Wl-1b with Aleplh prosthetic, l~ 19, 4), hence the Daghe-sh lene in the Tav. f The simple numerals are certainly words of very high antiquity. They are esscntially the same in all the Semitic languages; and it is here also that the main point of connection is found, for the historical affinity between the Semitic and Indo-Germanic tongues, since the numerals from 1 to '7 in these two families seem, at first view, to have a certain degree of resemblance. Thus, with tZ~t~ (which, however-, is properly ttrj as the Arab. and.,fthiop. show), are compared the Sanser. s/hash, Zend cswas, e, sex, Old-Slav. shesty; with 3=i5, the Sanscr. saptan, Zend hapta, mod. Pers. haft, Gr. gi'rr~a, Lat. septem, Germ. sieben; with 't~I~ (Aram. F~rl), the Sanscr. tri, fem. tisri, Zend thri, femn. tisar4, Gr. i~iLat. tres; with InX the Sanscr. ~ka; with tm the Sanser. pants/san, Gr.,riv-[s, Lat. quinque; with ='h the Lat. quatuor; with tes (Aram. the Sanser. dva, Lat. duo, &tc. But a rigid analysis renders all this apparent accordance doubtful; and there is, on the other side, a far greater probability, that e. g. vl~ U5 (prop. the fist, the five fingers) as also 'ni (prop. band, company) are to be referred to the purely Semitic stems sltto bend, to fold, to double, to repeat, 16MM~ to draw together, to contract (comp. y~ ~&.,and 'rida to bind together (comp. 'I~4 -)j- &C.). 180 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. The other Semitic languages exhibit the same peculiarity in the use of the genders of these numerals. This is explained by the supposition, that they were originally abstract substantives, like decas, trias. As such, they could have both the masculine and feminine form. The latter was the chief form. and hence was used with words of the more prevalent masculine gender; a distinction which usage only could establish.* The exceptions arc very rare; e. g.:ch nbt^, Gen. vii. 13, Job i. 4; comp. Ez. vii. 2. Jer. xxxvi. 23. 2. The numbers from 11 to 19 are expressed by adding to the units the numeral ten (in the form tlv masc., nitSfern.), written as separate words and without a conjunction. In such as are of the feminine gender (masculine in form) from thirteen onward, the units are in the construct state, which in this case indicates merely a close connection, not the relation of the genitive (~ 116). These numerals have no construct state, and are always construed adverbially. In the first two of these numerals are some deviations from analogy; the third shows the manner in which the rest are formed. Masc. Fern. 12.. 13. -i ntt mn ~ t. T T T * -: Rarely, tlle units take also in the masc. the form of the constr. state; as -. i^Tf/fieen. Judges viii. 10; T1:; r;^ eighteen. Judges xx. 25. 3. The tens from 30 to 90 are expressed by the plural forms of the corresponding units, so that the plural here always means tenfold as 3 b t 30,:Y. _ 40, *tt. 50, r ~W 60,..,= 70, * In the vulgar dialects of the Arabic, and in the iEthiopic, the feminine form of the numeral is used almost exclusively. This form is used in Hebrew also, when speaking of the number by itself and in the abstract (Gen. iv. 15). We may refer, moreover, to the use of the feminine form for collectives and ideas of multitude (~ 107, 3). j1 The etymology of this word is obscure. R. Jona explains it by,T';" 'Ira iYT?uzto twelve, as it were close upon twelve, an expression like unzdeviginti, but not so suitable here. Moreover, this explanation applies only to the feminine; and yet the masculine is also.it:1 rt~IV where 1;W ^~', for t'1" ^"', T. would be T T..:- T ": - T T.: - expected, unless we assume an inaccuracy of expression. Others explain it: something conceived beyond ten, from M.3 to think, to conceive. ~ 98. NUMERALS.-II. ORDINAL NUMiBERS. 18 181 80,V soV.V~. 90. Twenty is expressed by 10t7 plur. of 'V- te n.' They are of common gender, and have no construct state. When units and tens are written together, the earlier writers commonly place the units first (e. g. two and twenty, as in Arabic); but in the later writers the order is almost invariably reversed (twenty and two, as in Syriac). Exs. Num. iii. 39; xxvi. 14; 1 Chron. xii. 28; xviii. 5. They are always connected by the conjunction. The remaining numerals are as follows: 100 'Mn fern. constr. rlXn, plur. H=i hundreds. 200 Vii~ dual (for Mb~n).t 300 rvtt t3, 400 nrbtt VV &C. 1000 ~,4 constr. ',plur. V'~b thousands. 2000 Vn-~ dual. 3000 n ~~ ri~ 4000 vi~ nvn &c. 10000 14 1i later writers H.V Nttf (pr. multitude), plur. r T:; Inig V ten thousands. 20000 =+t I dual. 30000 MR1 r ~ 40000 ~Hji rV, &C. Rem. 1. The dual form occurs in some of the units, with the effect of the Englislifold: as ~'~Sfourfold 2 Sam. xii. 6; sevefold Gen. iv. 15, 24; Ps. lxxix. 12. The plural Vllrp means some, some few, and also the samne (iidem); rlIi decades (not decem), Ex. xviii. 21, 25. 2. The suffixes to numerals, as with other nouns, are properly genitiethoug(h we translate them in the nominative, as M jtye three, prop. your triad. 98. NUMERALS.-II. ORDINAL NUMBERS. T~he ordinal numbers from 2 to 10 are expressed by the corresponding cardinals with the termination 'I- (~ 86, No. 5), in addition to which another 4 — is commonly inserted in the final syllable. They are as follows: ' I and ~~ ~~~ ~~~ ti,. a The ordinal first is *The plural forms vii~ vvn Vi3n from the segholates, 'i1Y y=5fn take in the absolute state the shortened form, which, in other words of this class, appears first in the construct state. Analogy would require In'iVI 182 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. expressed by ]pTS6W (for 7'tS, from tS? head, begtinning, with the termination 1' (~ 86, No. 4). The feminine forms lhave the termination n-, more rarely., and are employed also for the expression of numerical parts, as ~"'~ fifth part, r.i-P and r..2S tenth part; in which sense are also used such forms as tt1 fifth part, 3i and alf fourth part. For the manner of expressing other relations of number, for which the Hebrew has no appropriate forms, see Syntax, ~ 120. CHAPTER IV. OF THE PARTICLES. ~99. GENERAL VIEW. 1. THE particles, which in general are signs of the subordinate relations of speech, expressing the close connection of words with one another, and the mutual relation of sentences and clauses, are most of them borrowed or derived forms from the noun, and in part also from the pronoun and verb (~30, 4). Very few of them can be regarded, with certainty, as primitive. 2. Of those which are not primitive, the origin is threefold: 1) they are borrowed from other parts of speech; i. e. certain forms of the verb, noun, or pronoun, are employed as particles, retaining more or less of their original signification, like the Lat. verum, causa, and the Eng. save, lieve,fain; 2) they are derived from other parts of speech, either a) by the addition offormative syllables, like =\i by day from Qt (~ 100, 3), or most commonly b) by abbreviation occasioned by the fiequent use of these words. This abbreviation is effected in various ways; and in many of the forms resulting from it, the original one can no longer be recognized; e. g.: only (prop. certainly, certe) for T' Compare in German! gen from gegen, Gegend; seit from Seite; weil (orig. a particle of time like the Eng. while) from Weile; in English since (old Eng. sithence), till, contr. from to while. ~ 100. ADVERBS. 183 Such words suffer still greater changes in the Greek and Latin languages, and in those derived from the Latin; e. g. t6o, ab, a; ei, ex, e; ad Fr. d; aut, Fr. ou, Ital. o; super, Ital. su.* In some instances the particle has been so much abbreviated, that it has lost its character as an independent word, having dwindled away to a single consonant prefixed to the following word (like the preformatives of the Imperfect, ~ 47, 1, 2); e. g. b from b (~ 102). That this reduction of a whole word to a single letter belongs actually to the history of the language, in its process of formation, is evident from the fact, that in the later Hebrew and the Aramaean (that is, in the progressive history of the Semitic stock), such abbreviations become greater and more frequent. Thus the shortening of 'i~ to -' and even to A, becomes more and more common in some of the latest books of the Old Testament, and afterwards in the Rabbinic writings, nearly supplanting the full form; from e of the Biblical Chaldaism comes the later form '; the modern Arabic has, e. g., hallaq (now) from hdlwaqt, lesh (wherefore?) from li-ayyi-sheiin, and many others. This is shown also by the above analogies from the western tongues. Such, indeed, is the natural progress of all languages. The use of the simplest particles belongs, however, to the earliest epochs of the Hebrew language; at least to the oldest of its monuments that have come down to us. It is not strange that the derivation of these particles, which often differ widely from the original form, should sometimes be obscure. This is the case, however, with but few of them; and, in regard to these. there is at least the general probability of a similar derivation. 3. Less frequently, particles are formed by composition; as.W.t wherefore? for _7',lrt_ how taught? i. e. qua ratione ductus? comp. rtl LC.'cc9a; d'..b besides, from be and?;1 fibS-n jfrom above, from I, b, 1. More frequent is the combination of two or more words without contraction; as Id run, 'n, in, - ^3. ~100. ADVERBS. 1. As primitive adverbs, may be regarded the negative 9b, and perhaps some particles of place and time, as t there, TR then. * Even short phrases are contracted to one word, e. g. foraitan from fors sit an, Fr. peut-etre. In the Chinese, most of the particles are verbs or nouns; e. g. iu, to give, employed as a sign of the dative; i, to make use of, hence for; nei, the interior, hence in. 184 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. So at least we may regard theml. for the immediate stand-point oi grammar, though a reference to still other roots. particularly the pronominal, is possible. 2. Examples of other parts of speech, which, without any change of form, are used adverbially, are: a) Substantives with prepositions; c. g. Xt (wit mnight). very, greatly; '' alone (prop. a part), witlI slff. '. Ia I alone nrr 1. within; tnR. (as one), together. b) Substantives in the accusative (the casus adverbialis of the Selnites, ~118), conlp. r;/ v (,/ZI'. Exs.,"; (migcrht), very, greatly; CrE. (cessation), no more; =5"M (this day), to-day; 1n,. (union), togrether. Many of these substantives very seldomi exhibit tleir original signification as lounls, e. g. mid and plur..4'-C (circuit), around; others have wholly lost it. as '2 (len2'rth), lonr argo; 'io (repetiion), yet agair, farther, lon)grer. c) Adjectives, especially in the femiiine (answering to the neuter), as * recte, ita (prop. rectum), '. ^\tX (primlum), at first, formerly, *'31 and r:3 (mnultunm), mtuch, enough,:, rs^.'r wonderfully (prop. mirabilibus, sc. imodis), r.:' the second tinme 1*'^.' JIewish, i. e. in the Jewish language. d) Verbs in the Infinilive absolute, especially in Hiphil, which are also to be regarded as accusatives ( 130,2); e.g.. t.' (prop. multum faciendo), much. e) Pronouns, as.?T (prop. this (place)= at this place), here. For a list of tihe most usual adverbs, arranged( accor(lirl to their signification. sec 149. 3. Some adverbs liave been formed by the addition of the formative syllable _-7 to substantives; as:;2~ and =;= truly, from i, truth l; sn (gratiarum causa), gratis, in v'ain (from nU); ay~- vainly,frustra; i Q by day, frolm 'i. Comp. also t';Sb for S'W"M in a twinkling, frolm.rS twinkling. The termination - occurs also in thle formation of substantives. e.g. it ladder (from b;)); (and hence those adverbs may be regarded as denominative nouns use(d (laderlbially, -- and '- being = '' and ]-' (.'84, No. 15); comp. i'r.-= - '"S ransom,, ArTqov. But more probably, -- is an obsolete plhr. ending of the noun (. S7, 1. d). and these adverbs are properly nouns in the accus. plur.; hence. _=: like C:'2~ used adverbially Ps. lviii. 2.:c. like the Lat. gratis. i. e. rratiis. 4. Adverbs formed by the abbreviation or truncation of longer words; such, for example, as h[.? only (prop. an affirmative parti ~ 101. PREPOSITIONS. 185 cle, certainly, from ljt, Chald. ID, frl), and especially the interrogative D, e. g. ft.. nonne? C:a num etiam? which originated in the more full form 5b, Deut. xxxii. 6. Punctuation of r interrogative: 1) It has usually Chateph-Pattach, as n'til hast thou set? (see the examples in ~ 152, 2); 2) Before a letter with Sheva, it has commonly Pattach followed by Daghesh forte (like the article), as j"*. Gen. xvii. 17. xviii. 21, xxxvii. 32, and once without this condition, viz'.::t? in Lev. x. 19; 3) Before a guttural it takes Pattach (with Dagheshf. implicitum), sbKt shall I go? ftrt num tu? 4) But before a guttural with Qamets it takes Seghol, as:it bnunm ego? mn-, numfuit? Its place is always at the beginning of the clause. 5. Certain adverbs, which include a verbal idea, take also the pronominal suffixes, and generally in the same form as verbs, particularly with Nun (~ 58, 4). E. g. '1:6 he (is) existing; 4?.1. I (am) not,..?.. he (is) not;.31. he (is) still; I.S where (is) he? The same is true of JI and t'l behold! (prop. here, here is), with suffixes; as.:p, in pause.:t and 3:~, behold me; I.t; 3t,.~D, in pause.en and 12.;: n.. ~ 101. PREPOSITIONS. 1. Most of the words which, in the usage of the language, appear as prepositions, were originallya) Substantives in the accusative case and in the construct state, the noun governed by them being properly in the genitive, which is actually expressed in Arabic by the genitive ending. Compare in Eng. in stead of, in Latin hjus rei causa.* Exs. 'n_ (hinder part* [rear]), behind, after; b.. (side*), at the side of, by; 7p (intermediate space, midst*), between; A1d, '7 (interval of space, distantia), behind, about; r*.T (removal, want), without, besides; 7h (object), on account of;.l before, over against; 7 (part), from, out of; ~. (that which is before), before, over against; 12 (progress, duration*), during, until; b (upper part [space above]), * The original signification of the noun is enclosed in parentheses, and marked with an asterisk if it is still in use. On the like usage in other languages, see TV. von Humboldt fiber die Kawisprache, Bd. III. S. 621. 186 186 ~~PART IIL PARTS OF SPE ECH. 'upon, Over; ' (connection, also rlr:. ra.Y), wit/i; rni(under part *[space beneath]), under, in place of. 6) Substantives in the construct state with p~repositions (spec. the inseparable); as ".= (in face of), before; 'V-, "B (after the mnonth, i. e. the comnmand *), accordingc to; (in the miatter), onl acconnt of,. frte ups) onl account Of. 2. Substaintives used as adverbs very readily take, in this mannuer, tlhe construction of prepositions. E. g. (in the want of), without; '):V (in the continuing of), during;.17 (for the need), for, accordin-g to. ~ 102. PREFIX PREPOSITIONS. 1. Of the prepositions given in the preceding section, j' is frequently -written as a p~refix, yet without wholly losing its Nu~ni which is represented by a Dagrhesh forte in the folowingf letter, as 'V~flfrorn the forest. The (litferelir forms of this preposition are used as follows, a) The full and indljpenderlt form ',~ is employed chiefly before the article, as 'rnS- I;but also, especially, be-fore the feebler letters, as TR"7 J er. xliv 15,~ ~I Chr. v. 18, andl elsewhere in the l-ater books (as in Syriac). Theire isbesides, a poeticeform- "' (comp. ~90, 3, a). b),NMost frequent is the form.M, viz, as a prefix with Daghesh forte in the followingr letter, which can be omitted only when the letter has Sh~eva (~20, 3, b). Beore gutturals this becomes M (~ 22, 1), e. g. =1M'n.m. and also M before ri, as y'im twl Gen. xiv. 23. 2. There are also three other prepositions, the most comimon. in the language, which have been reduced by abbreviation (~ 99, 2) to a sing le prefix consonant, wvith. the slightest vowvel (8he va) namely, il tOlwit/h (from rl:2 I) tw dsto (from n ) n li/ke, as, according to (from wn).* The derivation of immediately fromn bX, and m-ore remotely from a stem meaning appropinquavit, accessit (Hleb. and Aram. bk l adhawsit, sc adjunxit, Arab. ""J acccssit) is beyond question. Oa the derivation of from n~n in Aram. also '9=, prop~. /-,the houtse, hence in (not from ',Za between), see Gesenius, Man. Lex. art. M. N.\ot, time- d endl. The signification of (from 1;.) is pro~perly, so; doubled as-so. ~ 103. PREPOSITIONS WITH SUFFIXES. 187 The pointing of these prefixes is as follows: a) They have properly simple Sheva, which is varied, however, according to ~ 28, 1, 2, e. g. '.b to fruit,.3 as a lion; and before feeble letters according to ~ 23. 2 and ~ 24, 1, a, e. g. b for T'%1.. b) Before the article they usually displace the n and take its pointing. as 'I[ for Art13 in the garden. See ~ 35, Rem. 2. c) Immediately before the tone-syllable, in monosyllabic or dissyllabic words with the tone on the penultima, they also take Qamets (Prcetonic. ~ 26, 3); not always; however, but only in the following cases: a) before Infinitives of the above-mentioned form, as nnb to give, 1"i. to judge, nrlb to bear, except when the Inf. is followed by another word as its subject or object ~ 133, as nti3 Num. viii. 19, nrti. Judges xi. 26; /O) before many pronominal forms, as n,,fb,,t, h'3 like these; particularly:.a, c: E, and.n,. n5, I:3 (see ~ 103, 2); y) when such a word is closely connected with the foregoing one. and is thereby separated from the one following, e. g. lnb 5 n mouth to mouth 2 Kings x. 21,.n~b Cte. p, between water and water Gen. i. 6; especially at the end of a clause, as in the instructive example Deut. xvii. 8; likewise Mnrb to eternity, but VonIM nr.:i to all eternity, Is. xxxiv. 10. d) To the interrogative t" they are very closely joined by Pattach and Dagheshforte; as,n by what? nmr how much? Mhn (Milel) for what? why? Comp. the Vav consecutive of the Imperfect (~ 49, 2). Before gutturals, t'b (Milra) is used for the latter. Rem. The word irna',5 which has not its own original vowels (probably!,.1n) but those of %nM (see the word in the Lexicon), takes prefixes also after the manner of the latter; as injb. nn_, rninVv,, because these were to be read b,?~ag, ~<. ~103. PREPOSITIONS WITH SUFFIXES, AND IN THE PLURAL FORM. 1. The prepositions being originally nouns (~ 101), they follow the analogy of the noun in their connection with pronouns; i. e. they take the nominal form of the suffix (~91, 1, 2), as '62. (prop. my side) by me, il.. (my vicinity) with me, 'n.n (my place) instead of me, like mea causa, on account of me. Rein. 1. The preposition rMt at (apud), with (from Mr:.), is distinguished from r.,, the sign of the definite accusative (~ 117, 2), when they take suffixes, by the difference of pointing. The former has, e. g., n., irm, M.n, cM, while the latter retains its original o before most of the persons, as "r', me, r^n'., -in thee. Wir, him, tn her;.er us, =b.t., i..r you. c:n and:ns11 them. But in the later books, especially in the books of Kings and in Jeremiah and Ezekiel, are found ~nr. t.:s inaccurately formed from r f with. 188 [88 ~~PART IL. PARTS OF SPEECH. 2. The preposition t- with takes Qamets hefore and:,by which the doublingy of the Jken is made more audible, as:,.In the first person. besides '9=ZY is found '91 zY. 3. It is hut seldom that verbal suffixes are attached to prepositions, as '9 2 Sam. xxii. 37, 40. 48 (for whiich '9.M- occuirs in Ps. xviii. 37, 40, 48), ntbn Gen. ii. 21, and '9';! Ps. cxxxix. ii (here, in order to rhyme with 9=1.J9) We may, however, explain this forni of the st!ffJixl here, as expressing a (lirection whither; namely in 2 Samn. above quoted. 19:rl, [coming or brought] under ine. place whiithe~r (together with 19I [being] under 'me., place -where), ri irl into it~s place ("'he put flesh into its place"I). '9'1! around abont vie. 2. When pronomninal suj/fixes are attached to the prefi-x prepositions (102), there is a tendency in somie cases, especially with the shorter suffixes, to len-gthen the p~reposition in order to give it more body and supp~ort. TP1is is at least apparent in Z. and with a f-ull vowel, for Z, (102, 1,. c); to n is appended the syllable and 'jt is lengthened into (prop. a p~arte, on the part of-) a) with suffixes sSing. Plutr. 1 to me. to us. 2 { 7 T>, in pause - lt yu T 7 e-4. V T 3 t oitlf.~.to them. f to her. M takes suffixes in the s.,ame myanner, except that with the 3d.pers. pl)ur. the formns are M~,femn. I itJ has often been asserted, that the formi ~r stands also for the sing. For this various explanations have been sought; somethiingr analogous may certainly he found in the form t used~ for- 9~~( 7,Rm ). But, in fact., it is so used only with reference, to collectir~es;see Geri. ix. 26 (in reference to Scmi = the Sernites), Ps. xxviii. 8 lxxiii. 10 (in reference to the people), Is. xliv. 15 (in reference to ~on b ~X v hich the S eventy hiave, rendered i9eoi). liii. S (in reference to the foregoing hi ls generation, i. e. lie and his contemporaries). The samne is true of iM951t for ti19:; see Job xx. 23 (in reference to the uniodl-v inan, who in the -whole representation, vs. 5-20, is a collective,-nay, it begins v. 5 with the plural anmd xxvii. 2.3 (comp. at the beginning, v. 13, C-29-:) More strange is im1- Job xxii. 2 in reference to '1:' maen (homo). But this also is undoubtedly eollective. f 'Not which signifies thercfoie. ~ 103. PREPOSITIONS WITH SUFFIXES. 189 b) ~ with suffixes: Sing. Plur. 1 b:5 '* as I..Lt. as we. n m. ^1iT ) 3, seldom =t1=) 2 __ as thou. __" _ as ye. ^ m. I'M= as he. Tre, pae, V To )-2 3 1f n as she. " } as they. f. Q as sahe. c) 7p with suffixes: Sing. Plur. 1 It t, poet. ', C. q from me..3.2. from us. m. T 7, in pause ) h. ) 2 {. \ '~ v * ~front th ee. j from you. J m..':., poet.l,.nt from him. sl't, poet.. ' t from [ f.n ' Z from her. them. The syllable im in %i.az (in Arabic nt = Heb. Mn what, prop. according to what I, for as I) is in poetry appended to the simple prefixes ~, a, b, even without suffixes. so that im, ia, ib appear again as independent words. In this case. poetry distinguishes itself from prose by the longer forms; but in the case of i. it has adopted the shorter ones, resembling those oftlhe Syriac. In the table of En with suffixes,.:. from him is contracted from sn-:.n (according to ~ 19, 2, extr.), and coincides in form with.lI-n from us, which comes from.M-:'. The Palestinian grammarians proposed to distinguish the latter by writing it.ra., which Ibn Esra justly censures. The form t,5. is always written without Alappiq, and comes from M-:3n. 3. Many prepositions, especially those which express relations of space and time, are properly plural nouns, like the Germ. wegen [and the Eng. besides]. For the ground of this, see ~ 108, 2, a.t They occur (some of them exclusively, while others have also the singular) in the plural construct state, or in connection with those forms of the suffixes which belong to plural nouns (~91, 2). These are: * The use of ~. for '-, in this case, is merely euphonic. t Some of these words, which come from stems,ib, namely '~, h3, '.S, might indeed be referred to singular forms, as Abs., S, An; but the analogy of the others makes it more probable that these are also to be regarded as plurals. Comnp. the plural forms Asc from I; A'._: IW, &c. from VI. 190 190 ~~PART IL. PARTS OF SPEECIL m11stiore -frequently "'M (prop. space behind, r-ear), behind, wxith suffi. always behind me, '~M behind thee, 1111rb =11M4 &C. -4, loet. also (reg.cions, directions), towards, to, wvith suft. alwxays "'b to mne,. -71., t. (interval of sp~ace), between, with szuff.. 'I'11 71" but also 71kiV Zr:!:':,:: (from n intervals). -C froi,02 out of, seldorn 'Ir (plur. constr. state), Is. xxx. 11. 1; (progress, duration, fromn M'- as far as, unto, plur. (poet.) "'V but with suff. '1V 7'47: 1111.. r" (the last also With Qarnets)..Vupon, over, constr. state of ~. that which is above (fromn to go up), plur. (poet.) 4-Z1, but wvith suff. also in prose T ~,for xvhich is also frequent in poetry. r~~ utnder (prop. that which is beneath), wvith s?{ff in the Plural "r 11n but also in the singular =rin i104. CONJUNCTIONS. 1. Con01junctions serve to connect words and sentences, and to express thieir relation to each other. Most of them were origiaally other parts of speech, viz. a) 1Pro[IoLInS, as 7~ and 'In that, because, for, the formler being at the same timec the commnon relative pronoun, the latter also derived fromi a pro)nlominal stemn (~ 36). b) Adverbs, as (not), that not, W (num?), if. Also adverbs xvith prepositions; C. g. nlb= (in the not yet), before that; or wvith a conjunction added, as 'I "*1 there is added that== mutch less or much more. c) Prepositions wvhich are fitted by the addition of the conjunctions n6X and to show the connection betwveen propositions e. g r. because (from on account of), prop. on this account. that & fi e after that, 'II14 accordling as, =p "' and (in consequence, that), for the reason that, because. rphei preposition mnay still be employed in this mnanner. even when the conjunction is omitted; e. g. (for -1 6 ) because, (for ~ W )on this account that, because. In like in mnne 11l prepositions beibore the Infinitive meay be translated by con'unctions wvith the finite verb (~ 132, 2). ~ 105. INTERJECTIONS. 9 191 2. Even those words which are no longer in use except as conjunctio~ns, seem to have belonged originally to other parts of speech, particularly the noun, and they generally betray their affinity with verbal roots. Exs. ~N (prop. desire, choice, fromn Mzt to desire, comp. Prov. xxxi. 4) or, like vel, ye, kindred with velle;' (a turning away, from that not. Even the only prefix conjunction I and, must perhaps acknowledge relationship with 11 a binding or fastening, a nail. The pointing of Iis in several respects analogous with that of the prefix prepositions M. n, (~ 102, 2); but it has also, as a feeble letter, some peculiarities. a) It has commonly a simple Sheva () b) Before words whose first consonant has simple Sheva (excepting the case c), the Vav is sounded it, as ~i and to all. It is also sounded thus (with the exception of the case d) before its cognate letters, the lab As M, u,, as ~fftin; and even before a Chateph (under letters not guttural). as =-ii Gen. ii. 12. c) Before the Vav takes Chireq, e. g. (for comp. ~ 28, 1, and 124, 1, a); before 2M and ri it takes Chireq and Seghol, as tn'11111Jos. viii. 4, and -v'gril Gen. xx. 7 (comp. ~ 63, Rem. 5). d) Immediately before the tone-syllable, it often takes Qamets, like ~ t, ) and with similar limitations (~ 102,2, c); especially when words are connected iin pairs, as -11 r' Gen. i. 2, r-6b05 ti viii. 22, but chiefly at the end of a short clause, hence Mv,9 aril =6 Gen. vii. 13, lu C11-1R 1 K-ingys xxi. 10. But the case is different, when it stands in chose connection with words fosllowing, as ' Ib9 taibu tlu9 Ps. lvii. 5; and hernee especially, with certain monosyllabic words, whose nature it is to attach themselves to that which follows; so always, "II 2MX, b n. and the like. 5105. INTERJECTIONS. 1. Among dae- interjectionss, there are several which are merely natural sounds expressed in writing, as VbtMRa!"il;Gt wo! TIMho! alia! 2. Mos ofthem, )however, like the other particles, werebr rowed -from other parts of speech, which, in animated discourse, gradually came to be used as interjections; as 1: or 'M' behold! (prop. here); plur. 1=7 (prop. give, Imp. from =-) for age, agite, come on! 1 klz (prop, go), in the same sense;* i~r * n and a: i-e also used, in this form, with the feminine and with the plural; a proof that they have wholly taken the n~ature of interjections. 192 PART IT. PARTh OF SPEECH. far be it! prop. ad profana! (perhaps for 'IV entreaty), I beseech, hcar me; N.* (up)! comne on! in Z thiop. an Inip. go to! come on!), pray now01v! a particle of incitement and entreaty (always subjoined).* *The particle N. serves for the expression of various shades of meaning, which are exhibited in different places in the Syntax. A brief view only is given here. It stands a) nift~er thie Iml. inlcommiand as wellais entreaty (~130, 1,Rem-.); i5) with the Imapf. as well the first as the third person (~ 127, 3, b, and ~ 128, 1); c) once with the Perf. (~ 126, 4, Note); d) with) various particles, as bUM' bhe/old now; particularly with conjunctions, as IM nXe quceso, anid 'MifNo ebrors, sf -with a courteous or modest limitation.-In courtly language, these particles arc heaped together in every way; Gen. xviii. 3, xix. 7, 8, 19, 1. 1'7. PART THIRD. SYNTAX. CHAPTER I. SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. ~ 106. RELATION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE TO THE ADJECTIVE, -OF THE ABSTRACT TO THE CONCRETE. IN the Hebrew language, there is a want of adjectives in proportion to the substantives, and some classes of adjectives (e. g. those of material) are almost wholly wanting.* This deficiency is supplied by substantives, and especially in the following ways: 1. The substantive employed to express some quality in another is placed after it in the genitive. So constantly in designating the material of which a thing is made, e. g. tJD.d vessels of silver= silver vessels; 7P 1i'I ark of wood =wooden ark, like des vases d'or; in like manner t:l rhl_. an eternal possession, Gen. xvii. 8, 'It)? i t men of number, i. e. few men Gen. xxxiv. 30, 'i 7]t a precious stone Prov. xvii. 8. This construction was also employed, even in cases where the language supplies an adjective; e. g. tpP~ o'1 the holy garments, Ex. xxix. 29. Comp. un homme de bien. Rem. 1. Less frequently, the substantive which expresses a quality in another is followed by it in the genitive; as:ie.Q 'nm. the choice of thy valleys, i. e. thy choicest valleys, Is. xxii. 7, comp. xvii. 4, xxxvii. 24; Gen. xxiii. 6; Ex. xv. 4. But with the substantive S. (the) whole. for all of all, this is the usual construction (see ~ 111, 1, Rem.). The place of an adjective, when it would be predicate of the sentence, is sometimes supplied directly by the substantive; e. g. Gen. i. 2, and the earth was desolation and emptiness; Job iii. 4, let that day be * There are a few adjectives of this kind formed after the manner of passive participles, as Tl.' of cedar, t1-1t of brass, comp. cuneatus (wedge-formed). 13 194 PART III. SYNTAX. darkness; Ps. xxxv. 6, lxxxviii. 19, cx. 3, Is. v. 12, Job xxiii. 2, xxvi. 13. More seldom the substantive takes a preposition; as in Ps. xxix. 4, the voice of Jehovah is t_: with power, for powerful. 2. Adjectives which denote a property, quality, or habit: where they would stand by themselves as substantives, are often expressed in Hebrew by a periphrasis, in which an abstract noun designating the attribute is preceded by one of the following nouns denoting its subject; viz. a) By ~s mzan, e. g. C'.. d'^ an eloquent wlan, Ex. iv. 10; rn,~ 1_X a wise man, Prov. xxiv. 5. b) By b?maslester. possessor, e. g. '.; bc. hairy, 2 Kings i. 8; n;'br~-, b'. the dreamer, Gen. xxxvii. 19. c) By ', son and rn daughter, c. g. bn-',= a valiant man, 1 Kings i. 52; j..r:. an inhabitant of the East, Gen. xxix. 1; or-.n.. one year old, Ex. xii. 5; rn.-'j doomed to death. 1 Sam. xx. 31; ='}3 r, a worthless woman, 1 Sam. i. 16. It is a bolder construction, and found only in poetry, when the abstract is used directly for the concrete. as Svb a. worthlessness, for worthless, like scelus for scelestissimus; and at the same time for the plural, as rn, bow for bowmen, Is. xxi. 17, '"i. harvest for harvesters, xvii. 5. On this, as a common characteristic of language, see ~ 83, Rem. 1. Rem. That, on the contrary, forms of adjectives and concretes often take the abstract signification. especially in the Feminine, has been shown in ~ 84; comp. ~ 107, 3, b. We may here remark also, that the poets employ certain epitheta ornantia (which are at the same time perpetua) alone without the substantive; e. g. '1-. the Strong, i. e. God; th, the strong. i. e. the bullock, in Jeremiah the horse;.i lthe Ailjestic, August, =- th e Prince; n1?. pallida i. c. lena. In Arabic this is yet far more common. Comp. merum for vinuml, '7y i.. e. the sea Odyss. 1, 97. ~107. USE OF THE GENDERS. Whether the Hebrew regarded a substantive as feminine is known partly fiom the feminine ending (~ 80, 1, 2), partly from its construction with a feminine predicate, and in most cases: though there are many exceptions (~ 87, 4), from the feminine plural form. We are now to show in what manner the designation of gender was employed. 1. The most natural use of it was with reference to the physical distinction of sex in men and beasts, but with several gradations, according as this natural distinction is more or less strongly indicated- The principal cases are the following; viz. ~ 107. USE OF THE GENDERS. 195 * a) when the male and female are designated by entirely different words, and the latter, of course, requires no feminine ending, t asfather, mother, in Heb.:a, C; Af. ram, b5n ewe, "I'.n ass, T1i: she-ass; b) when the female is designated by the addition of the feminine ending, as n1$ brother, hrirn sister; t:* young man, rTs. young woman; _ juvencus,,B juvenca; 5i: vitulus, i'* vitula; c) when the feminine gender is shown only by the construction (communia), as in o, Al /Fog; 6, a rjcts; e. g.;t camel, masc. Gen. xxiv. 63, but fern. xxxii. 16; 'l masc. male cattle, Ex. xxi. 37, but fern. for female cattle, Job i. 14; d) when, without regard to the natural distinction of the sexes, only one form is employed in the same gender to designate both (epiccena), as in o6 vtxoy, rj Z7rJ8cv; e. g. b 1.t f masc. a bear robbed of her young, Hos. xiii. 8 (but construed as feminine in 2 Kings ii. 24); qi. t masc. ox, Ps. cxliv. 14, where the female of the ox-kind is meant. Often, in cases where the language makes the distinction of genders as in a, b, and c, writers neglect to do it, and employ the more general and indefinite terms. E. g. 'iin and beb as fem. for 'irn and nrib, 2 Sam. xix. 27, and Ps. xlii. 2; also '__ a youth, for,'_, in the Pent. and in Ruth ii. 21, comp. Job i. 19. Compare in German Gemahl for Gemahlin; in Arabic also, the older written language shuns the use of feminine forms (e. g.,iar mistress, ii'ins bride), which become more and more common in later usage. This sparing use of the distinctions of gender appears also in other examples; viz. ]'p7 masc. architect, Prov. viii. 30, where wisdom (fern.) is meant (comp. artifex omnium natura, Plin. 2, 1); ra a dead body (masc.), spoken of the corpse of a woman, Gen. xxiii. 4, 6; WM5'b for a goddess, 1 Kings xi. 5; so in Eng. instructor for instructress, and in Lat. auctor, martyr. Among epiccene nouns are found names of whole species of animals, which the mind conceived as masculine or feminine, according as they appeared strong and powerful, or weak and timid. E. g. masc.... dog, s.. wolf; fer.,n; dove,,nn. stork,,ns nM ostrich, n:rn hare. 2. The designation of the feminine gender, by its appropriate ending, is most uniform in the adjectives and participles. (~ 87, 5.) 3. Besides objects properly feminine, there are others (nearly the same which in Greek and Latin are neuter), for which the feminine form is preferred, viz. a) Things without life, for which the feminine, as the weaker, seemed to be the most suitable designation, as?qn side (of the human body), thigh,:'nh side (ofa country), district; nMr brow, t2. greave (from the resemblance). 196 PART III. SYNTAX b) Hence abstract ideas, which at least decidedly prefer the feminine form, even when the masculine is also in use; as On,,t nqp vengeance, me,,nn13 help (~ 84, 11, 12). Adjectives when used in a neuter sense as substantives (like;o xyao'v), commonly take the fem. form, as,:?: the right, Ps. v. 10; so also in the plur. nb;i great things, Ps. xii. 4. c) The feminine is sometimes applied as a designation of dignity or office, which borders on the abstract sense, as nimYs Princes (like IIighnesses); in like manner nr.b..p concionator (applied to king Solomon,= the preacher isdom) ); comp. nm>b as the name of a man, in Nch. vii. 57, Ezra ii. 55. Even in the fer. plur. form nr fathers, the reference to dignity seems not improbable. These words are construed, agreeably to their signification, with the masculine. This usage is more extensive in Arabic, zEthiopic and Aramean, e. g. in Chalipha (Caliph),hbM. There is a remote likeness in the Lat. magistratus, Ger. Herrschaft, [Eng. lordship] for IIerr [Eng. lord], Obrigkeit for Oberer, Ital. podestd, &c. d) Collectives, as n',s wanderer, traveller, Sn~t caravan, prop. that which wanderelh, for the wanderers;,'b. (from the masc. -.i.i) the comiany of exiles; r=,i Is. xii. 6, Mic. i. 11, 12, prop. that which inhabileth, for the inhabitants; n Miq, Mic. vii. 8, 10, for the enemies. So often in the Arabic. Comp. the poetic '1t Ic equivalent to 'I a. the inhabitants of Tyre, 't_ n-.= 'i a my countrymen. Examples of its application to things without life, sn timber, IMn clouds,,tpm cedar wainscotting. Comp. To i7rrlxov and t imrog for the cavalry, 7i xyfiog (Herodotus I., 80). e) On the contrary, the feminine sometimes appears, as in Arabic, to denote an individual of a class, while the masculine is applied to the class or species, e. g..S. ships. fleet (1 Kings ix. 26, comp. 2 Chron. viii. 18),,t\n? a single ship; ':3 hair (collectively), n'n;: a single hair (see Judges xx. 16, Ps. x. 13); 'te song, ode. also collectively, int'r a single ode; so also 3ntZ a fig, "i: aflower (with the collective ]y. Gen. xl. 10);,-i:I^2 a lily (witlh 5'i- ), and others, though the distinction is in part effaced in the Hebrew. 4. Many words (besides certain names of objects properly feminine, No. 1, a) are distinguished by the feminine construction, without the characteristic ending. They are chiefly embraced in the following classes: a) Names of countries and towns, contemplated as mothers,*-as it were nurses.-of the inhabitants; e. g. nt'. fern. Assyria, les fern. Idumnea. ')l Tyre; so also appellatives, denoting countries, towns, and locality in general. as y7. earth, land, 5b=r the world, 'a. city,;.] and * Thus tS, 2 Sam. xx. 19 and on Phlcnician coins, stands for 2mother-city, nlQtIolig (comp. qr]T, mater); and by the same figure, the inhabitants were called sons of the country, as sons of Zion, Ps. cxlix. 2; sons of Babylon, Ezek. xxiii. 15 (comp. son of the house, son of the womb). ~ 108. THE PLURAL, AND COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 197' Mr1jR way, 'I~rl court, rIMM camp, ~kt under-world, J~) threshing-floor, not well, &C., and sometimes even t~pmj place.* As names of people are commonly masculine, it often happens, that the same word is used as masc. for the name of a people, and asfem. for the name of a country; e. g. M11'WV-1 masc. Jews, Is. iii. 8, fern. Judcea, Lam. i. 3; ~too masc. Idumapans, Num. xx. 20,fem. Idumnea, Jer. xlix. 17. But such names are also construed asfemn. when the people is meant, by a metaphorical use (like the German Polen ist inm Aufstande), Job i. 15'; 1 Sam. xvii. 21; Is. vii. 2; xxi. 2.1 b) Mlembers and parts of the body in man or beast, '7 and hand, b~' foot, by eye, blx ear, Vil arm, 'Ji1~ tongue, 1'j1J) horn, wing, Jt5. tooth, 'fluD beard, `p womnb; probably with reference to their subserviency as mere instruments,+ and hence also words for inanimate instruments and utensils. as ='r sword, 'ni~ pin, Mm and =5 staff, libip chest, Iiv'n bed, cp, WI pitcher, also jtb stone, and many others. Most of these words and ideas have the same gender in the other Semitic languages. c) The words for light,fire, and other powers of nature, as t~5= sun, ril Ifire (.ZEth. isat), (Job xxxvi. 32), so also Mm and '1~- oven, brightness, 'nnZ window, Gen. vi. 16, wind, also spirit, and ft breath, soul, &C.~ ~ 108. OF THE PLURAL, AND OF COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 1. Besides the proper plural endings (~ 87, 1, 2), the language employs some other means for the expression of plurality; viz. a) separate words, whose appropriate signification is collective, designating an indefinite number of a class of objects, and having their corresponding nomina. unitatis, or nouns which designate an individual of the class, as1 6an ox (an individual of the oxv-kind), oxen, e. g. 'lo IMTIt five oxen, Ex. xxi. 37, *2 small cattle, viz, sheep or goats, Tfi an individual of the *As this last word is regularly masc., so we find more or less fluctuation in the gender of the others. t Here belongs the poetical personification of a people as a female, Is. xlvii., 1 1, liv. 1 seq., Lam. i., Ez. xvi. 4: Of these words, too, some are not uniform in respect to their gender, and occur also as masc.; as ~~l Is. xvii. 5, bpit~ Ex. xxix. 27, 1'.V Zech. iv. 10, '~i6~ Ps. xxii. 16. ~ The particulars are supplied by the Lexicon. There are some words, moreover, which have the feminine ending, as lnrO~r brass, rltp bow (from the stemword t~iip), rM timne (for nl.V), but yet are sometimes construed as masculine, from a misapprehension of their origin. 198 PART III. SYNTAX. same, a sheep or a goat; b) the feminine ending (~ 107, 3, d); c) nouns which have the proper signification of the singular, but which are also used as collectives, as t mnan, the human race Gen. i. 26, 'tI collect. for men, B'ET words,.t the enemy, for enemies. These words take the article, when all the individuals of the class are included (~ 109, 1). Comp. also ~ 107, 3, e. 2. On the other hand, the terminations which properly express plurality, are employed in the expression of other kindred ideas; so that the Hebrew often uses plural forms where other languages employ the singular. Thus, under the plural form are expresseda) Extension* of space and time: hence the frequent use of it to express portions of space, regions or places, as,rcJ heaven (~ 88, Rein. 2), c2.in' height (of heaven) Job xvi. 19, rn5,' the place at the feet. miLX'z the place at the head; certain members of the body, which are spaces on its surfacet as tr~.3 face, m.nNS neck; spaces of time. as.rn life, ^t:'S.: youth, =.l old age; and finally states, qualities, which. are permanent or of long continuance, as a.:~. perverseness, t:mn compassion,...'1d childlessness. b) Might and power, these being originally conceived as something distributed and manifold. So, particularly,,eS.~ God,-whether originating in a polytheistic conception and then passing over to the ' God of gods," or in monotheism, and intended to express the divine power in its developments; so a few times QIV-p the Holy (God) Hos. xii. 1; Prov. ix. 10; xxx. 3; (comp. Jos. xxiv. 19, and Chald. ]'?!.} the Highest. Dan. vii. 18); and C=m.m penates, always in the plural even when only one image is meant, 1 Sam. xix. 13, 16. Farther: tsis = x lord, c. g. tr' t:?.yX a cruel lord Is. xix. 4, yF t the lor of th e land Gen. xlii. 30; so also Ac_ lord, master, with suff. often h5 i his master, '..Sr. her master.+ Rem. 1. The use of the plural, as given under letter b, is confined within very narrow limits, not extending beyond the words above quoted; and these. moreover. have the same use in the singular. On the con* A transferring (in mathematical language) of an expression for arithmetical quantity to geometrical (comp. Rem. 1). The language has other examples of the designation of great and many by the same word (as = m,.StY). f* Comp. the same use of the plur. in Tx aourstOv, T( vdrT'a, praccordia, cervices, fauces.: Somewhat similar is the use of we by kings in speaking of themselves (Ezra iv. 18, vii. 24, comp. 1 Mac. x. 19, xi. 31), a form which is then transferred to God (Gen. i. 26, xi. 7; Is. vi. 8). Such a plural the Jewish grammarians call niMnrMt.nt (pluralis virium or virtututm); the moderns call it pluralis excellenftie or pluralis majestaticus. The use of the plural in modern languages, as a form of respectful address, is more remote from the Hlebrew usage. ~ 108. THE PLURAL, AND COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 199 struction of these plurals with adjectives, see ~ 112, 1, Rem. 3; with verbs, ~ 146, 2. On Edn, used of God, see ~ 121, Rem. 4. 2. The use of the plural given under a is also, in common prose, limited to a few words; but in the poets it is somewhat more extensive, e. g.:nr. tenebrce (of dark places), to:-f delicice, V:l... faithfulness, and many others. 3. When a substantive is followed by a genitive, and this compound idea is to be expressed in the plural, it is done a) most naturally by the plural form in the governing noun, as b.n M'. strong heroes (prop. heroes of might); so also in compounds, as ^"1. Benjaminite, plur. p~ l-l 1 Sam. xxii. 7; b) in both, as:*5. '-l? 1 Chron. vii. 5; '3b: ~I1 prison houses, Is xlii. 22, and hence "ti.g., Ps. xxix. 1, sons of God; c) even in the noun governed alone, as M$ rlM father's house, family, ha=g nay ancestral houses, families Num. i. 2 foll., A. DT.} precious fruits Cant. iv. 16, vii. 14. On this observation, which has hitherto been overlooked by grammarians, compare also Judges vii. 25 (the head of Zeeb and Oreb, for the heads), 2 Kings xvii. 29; Dan. xi. 15. Here the two words by which the compound idea is expressed, are treated directly as a nomen compositum.* The union with suffixes is also conformed to letter c, as '.S os eorum for ora eorum Ps. xvii. 10, =?It Ps. cxliv. 8, where we also say their mouth, their hand. 4. To the modes of expressing plurality belongs also the repetition of a noun, with or without the copula. By this is indicated the whole, all, every, as l, t1"1 day by day, every day, 7O. t"M every man, and t1". t"m Ps. lxxxvii. 5, M:5l Btn Esth. iii. 4, 'q i1. T every generation Deut. xxxii. 7; hence distributively, as i.'itb q2 qWIV each flock by itself Gen. xxxii. 17; also a great multitude, even with the plural form, Gen. xiv. 10, itm h~nN.r'-s~I asphalt-pits in abundance, nothing but asphalt-pits, 2 Kings iii. 16, Joel iv. 14; finally (with the copula) diversity, more than one kind, as i: signifies all and every kind; e. g. ]= 1't two kinds of weights Deut. xxv. 13, 3:'1 t: a double heart Ps. xii. 3, 1 Chron. xii. 33. Impassioned repetition, in exclamations, e. g. Jer. xxii. 29, Is. vi. 3 * All three are found in Syriac and.Ethiopic. See Hoffmann, Gram. Syriaca, p. 254; Ludolf, Gram. AEthiopica, p. 139. 200 PART HI. SYNTAX. (with little emphasis in many writers, however, to whom it has become habitual, e. g. Is. xl. ff.) is a rhetorical usage, and does not belong here. Rem. 1. Substances cohering in masses are mostly conceived as a unity, and hence very seldom occur except in the singular, as 3IT gold, 1t;. silver, y wood, 1c. wine; though M 'u water is plural, but in Arabic this also is singular. But when portions of a substance are meant, the plural form is used, as on'y. pieces of silver Gen. xlii. 25, '12. ligna (for building or for fuel). So of grain, as Intn wheat (growing in the field), Va= wheat in the kernel. 2. Even in cases where the plural form is regarded as merely poetic, we are to connect with it the idea of real plurality, e. g. Job vi. 3, We. the seas for the sea, comp. Gen. xli. 49; Job xvii. 1, the graves are my portion, equivalent to burying-place, many graves being usually found together; xxi. 32. ~109. USE OF THE ARTICLE. The article (-', M ~ 35) was originally a demonstrative pronoun (as in other languages, e. g. the Romanic, comp. o, rj, To in Homer), yet with so little force that it was scarcely used except as a prefix to the noun. Its stronger demonstrative force (this) it has still in some connections. as Si.M this day, hodie; Mt"SsM this night, to-night;:brt this time. To this original, demonstrative signification points, especially 1) its occasional use for the relative before the verb, e. g..XSris, that are found 1 Chron. xxix. 17. xxvi. 28, Jos. x. 24, Ezra viii. 25; comp. Gen. xviii. 2.1, xlvi. 27, Job ii. 11; so also q -g = ni~r It- 1 Sam. ix. 24; 2) when it serves, mostly with a participle, to form a connection with a previous subject-noun, repeating it once more; e. g. Ps. xix. 10, the laws of Jehovah are truth... v. 11,:nmtmn they, that are precious,-where the article has nearly all the force of Mst" avroT. So also in Ps. civ. 3 (three times), Is. xl. 22, 23, xlvi. 6, Gen. xlix. 21, Job xli. 25; and still stronger, Ps. xviii. 33, Gus %.:.r.Mn 5bt the God that girds me with strength; ver. 48, Jer. xix. 13, Neh. x. 38. The article is employed with a noun, to limit its application, in nearly the same cases as in Greek, German, and English; viz. when the subject of discourse is a definite object, previously mentioned (Gen. i. 3, God said, Let there be light, 'lSi, verse 4, and God saw the light, 'i~ lr-hr; 1 Kings iii. 24, brinfr me a sword, and they brought the sword), or already known Eccl. ix. 15; ( ~71n't:.t- the king Solomon), or the only one of its kind (tt',i the sun, Yto the earth). ~ 109. USE OF THE ARTICLE. 201 In such cases the article can be omitted only in poetry, where it is used, in general, less fiequently than in prose; e. g. W:t. for I'tl Ps. xxi. 2, s for Y'nr Ps. ii. 2. Special cases in which the article is commonly employed, are: 1. When an appellative is used collectively, denoting all the individuals of the class; as the righteous, the unrighteous, Gen. xviii. 25 the woman for the female sex, Eccl. vii. 26; the Canaanite, Gen. xiii. 7, xv. 19, 20; as in Engl. the Russian, the Turk.* 2. When an appellative is applied by way of eminence to a particular person, and thus becomes a kind of proper name, as 6 rouTrjtlg (Homer). E. g. Iti adversary, 7'O, the adversary, Satan; bJ; lord, USE (prop. name of the idol) Baal; VINtI the first man, Adam; bR1,:" 'bIt o t9g~g, the only, true God =?ri" (though this word, from its frequent occurrence in this sense, is often so used without the article, approaching the nature of a proper name, ~ 110, 1); '1I3t the river, i. e. the Euphrates; l'n-: the region around, viz. around the Jordan. 3. Hence it is also used with actual proper names of rivers, mountains, and of many towns, with reference to their original appellative signification (comp. the Hague, le Havre, la Plata); as lft the Nile (prop. the river), 7l:' Lebanon (prop. the white mountain), A_ the town Ai (prop. the stone-heap). But its use in connection with names of towns is unfrequent, and in poetry is generally omitted. (Comp. ~ 110, 1.) Rem. 1. The Hebrew article certainly never stands for the indefinite article; but the Hebrew conceives and expresses many ideas definitely, which we are accustomed to conceive and express indefinitely. This is most commonly seen, a) In comparisons, where the imagination pictures to itself a definite image of the object; e. g. white as the wool, as the snow, red as the scarlet Is. i. 18; as the sheep Ps. xlix. 15; he hurls thee like the ball Is. xxii. 18; the heavens are rolled up like the scroll xxxiv. 4; comp. x. 14, xxiv. 20, xxvii. 10, liii. 6, Ps. xxxiii. 7. See instructive examples in Judges xiv. 6, xvi. 9, Is. xxix. 8, 11. But where the noun used for comparison is already made definite by an adjective, the article is omitted as when a genitive follows, e. g. bl3 Is. x. 14, but rn*,a i Z xvi. 2; comp. Ps. i. 4 with Is. xxix. 5. Exceptions are rare, as '3i.. Job xvi. 14, S:. xxxi. 18. ~ r - * And so among the Attics, 6 '.lfvatilo, o Zvpaxodfag. 202 PART III. SYNTAX. b) In designating classes of objects which are universally known, e. g. t he gold, t h e silver, th e cattle, t h e water. Hence Gen. xiii. 2, Abraham was very rich in the (smaller) cattle, the silver, and the gold, where most languages would omit the article. He had much, is the Hebrew's conception, of these well-known treasures. Comp. Gen. xli. 42, Ex. xxxi. 4, xxxv. 32, Is. i. 22. c) Often also in the expression of abstract ideas (like zrTO inzrrl, la modestie), hence of physical and moral evils, as the blindness Gen. xix. 11, the darkness Is. Ix. 2, the falsehood Is. xxix. 21. On these principles, it is easy to explain the use of the article in single, special cases; as in 1 Sam. xvii. 34,.4n the lion, as the wellknown enemy of the flocks (comp. zro A.vxov, John x. 12); 1 Kings xx. 36, Gen. viii. 7 8, xiv. 13. The frequent expression Q.tn ^:il~ should not be translated, and it happened on a day, but on the day, (at) the time, as determined by what precedes. 2. The vocative also takes the article, and for the most part in those cases where it is usually required; e.g. bi'ar i.~ SiCtT_, O Joshua high priest, Zech. iii. 8; 1 Sam. xxiv. 9. ~110. USE OF THE ARTICLE (CONTINUED). The article is regularly omitted, 1. Before the proper name of a person or a country (.'7,?'3U.), and also of a people, when it coincides with the name of the founder of the race or.the name of their country (b.t., OR). On the contrary Gentilic nouns admit it both in the sing. and plur., as V:~..n the Hebrews, 1 Sam. xiii. 3, tS h the Canaanite (collective ~ 109, 1). 2. Before substantives made definite by a following genitive or suffix, which renders the use of the article unnecessary; e. g. t:'bi An God's word, t my father. When the article is used in these two cases, some special reason can generally be assigned for it. E. g., a) In some cases, the full demonstrative power of the article is required; as Jer. xxxii. 12, I gave this bill of sale (,nt:. 'SY-nrt ) with reference to ver. 11; Jos. viii. 33, een. a half thereof, in the next clause ijrt the (other) half thereof; Is. ix. 12. b) In other cases, the genitive is a proper name, and, according to No. 1, does not admit the article [comp. ~ 111, 1]; as M-Tn nr.an the altar of Bethel 2 Kings xxiii. 17, br-n:: qT the God of Bethel Gen. xxxi. 13, 't.s -bT) n the king of Assyria Is. xxxvi. 16; comp. Gen. xxiv. 67; Jer. xlviii. 32; Ez. xlvii. 15, comp. xlviii. 1. ~111. USE OF THE ARTICLE. 203 c) In others, the connection between the noun and the following genitive is somewhat loose, so that the first forms a complete idea by itself, the second being only supplemental, relating to the material or design; as b.t )ro the weight, the leaden one Zech. iv. 10, nrI.n n Inr1 the altar of brass 2 Kings xvi. 14, r.ni ^int %..: Jos. iii. 14, Ex. xxviii. 39, Jer. xxv. 26. 3. Before the predicate, which from its nature is indetermiilate, as Gen. xxix. 7, 5b ri't 'i yet is the day great, it is yet high day; xxxiii. 13, xl. 18, xli. 26; Is. v. 20,:it_ )t.kt n Y_ who call the good evil; Ixvi. 3. Yet there are cases where the nature of the predicate requires the article: Gen. ii. 11 nmn:sK.N the same (~ 122, 1, 2d 1T) is that which surrounds; xlv. 12 '-Via "s m that my mouth (it is) that speaketh;* Gen. xlii. 6. Ex. ix. 27, Num. iii. 24. For another case, where the article stands before the predicate, see ~ 109, 2d T. ~ 111. USE OF THE ARTICLE (CONTINUED). 1. When a compound idea, represented by one noun followed by another in the genitive, is to be expressed definitely, it is done by prefixing the article to the noun in the genitive; as Add 1'n5bU a man of war Jos. xvii. 1,, b...'3_d the men of war, Num. xxxi. 49; i = '1- a word of falsehood Prov. xxix. 12, sn.t '1n_ the word of the prophet Jer. xxviii. 9. The article has the same position, when only the genitive is definite, as nrlZ. rb.nr a part of the field 2 Sam. xxiii. 11 (see on the contrary Jos. xxiv. 32, Gen. xxxiii. 19), T'rQ;t tab a husbandnan Gen. ix. 20 (on the contrary n'i j29N Gen. xxv. 27). But, in this case, to avoid ambiguity, another construction was usually chosen; see ~ 115. N. B. This explains the use of the article after b' prop. totality, the whole. The article is inserted after b, when it expresses definitely all, whole (like tous les hommes, toute la ville), and is omitted when it is used indefinitely for of all kinds, any thing, or distributively for every (tout homme, a tout prix); e. g. Vix-,~b. all men, y~r-b. the whole earth. prop. the whole of men, the whole of earth; but js"-3 all kinds of stones, 1 Chron. xxix. 2, '^.-. any thing Judg. xix. 19, tiv-b: r every day Ps. vii. 12. But also n ' b every living thing - all living. * Not, however, in its ordinary use as the mere definite article. In such forms, it is rather to be referred to its original import, as a demonstrative pronoun (~ 109, 2d ~), that which surrounds.-Ti. 204 PART III. SYNTAX. Even compound proper names may be resolved again into two words, and the second then takes the article; e. g. 'l9. '- Benjaminitc (~ 86, 5)..'1...']i Judges iii. 15, nr;;-,n a, the Bethlemite 1 Sam. xvii. 58. For exceptions, where the article stands before the governing noun and not before the genitive, see. ~ 110, 2, b. So in the later style, Dan. xi. 31; comp. xii. 11. 2. When the substantive has the article, or (what is equivalent) is made definite by a following genitive or suflix, the adjective (as well as the prornouln MMT; n., ~ 120, 1), belonging to the substantive, takes also the article. Gen. x. 12, ' S -- -# the great city; xxviii. 19, S";,'3 7'p;n that place; Deut. iii. 24, ITp'..:^ thy strong hand; I';,n i1'1,itn the great work of Jehovah. Not very unfrequent is the use of the articlea) With the adjective alone. so that the limitation is superadded; e. g. torn e., Gen. i. 31, the sixth day, prop. a day, the sixth (on the contrary.'s "i9 a second day, ver. 8); xli. 26, 1 Sam. xix. 22, Ps. Ixii. 4. civ. 18, Neh. iii. 6, ix. 35, Zcch. xiv. 10. So also,rn |?53 Gen. i. 21. ix. 10. When the adjective is properly a participle, this is the usual construction; as Jer. xlvi. 16,tT}q':nn the sword that doeth violence. b) It seldom stands only with the substantive, as in Ez. xxxix. 27, Gen. xliii. 14. 2 Sam. vi. 3 (perhaps to be emended); but somewhat frequently in connection with the pronouns Sta and, ]. which in themselves are sufficiently definite, as mit, ni5-. Gen. xxxii. 23. '-T i.nr Ps. xii. 8; especially when the noun is made definite only by a suffix. as,nmx.l:. 1 Kings x. 8; comp. Ex. x. 1, Jos. ii. 20, Judg. xvi. 5. 6, 15. Purposely indefinite is I;:TAT Gen. xxxvii. 2. evil report respecting them (nn trn i would be their evil report); xlii. 19, rX.:..nx = one of your brethren. ~112. CONNECTION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE WITI THE ADJECTIVE. 1. The adjective, as an appendage of the substantive and subservient to it, stands after it, and agrees with it in gender and number; as b~'i tS4 ', *~ it:. On the position of the article, see ~ 111, 2. Rem. 1. It is very seldom that the adjective, as an epithet of the substantive, stands before it, as when some emphasis rests on it; Is. xxviii. 21, liii. 11, Ps. Ixxxix. 51, cxlv. 7; compare also Ps. xviii. 4. Merely poetic is the form of expression tz;!: x4, Job xli. 7. strong among the shields for strong shields (comp. ver. 21; Is. xxxv. 9); or with ~ 113. APPOSITION. 205 a collective noun instead of the plural, t~I 1.:.s the poor among men -=the poor, Is. xxix. 19; Hos. xiii. 2. Comp. the Latin construction canum degeneres. 2. When substantives of the feminine gender or those which incline to it (~ 107, 4) take two adjectives, the feminine form sometimes appears only in the one which stands nearest the substantive; as Itt:l::MbXn btt 1 Sam. xv. 9; panI t-bi t.sn I Kings xix. 11; Ps. lxiii. 2. Comp. 147, Rem. 1. N. B. In respect to number, nouns in the dual take adjectives in the plural (comp. ~ 88, 1); as nr'in odor lofty eyes Prov. vi. 17; Ps. xviii. 28, Job iv. 3, 4, Is. xxxv. 3. Moreover the constructio ad sensum is frequent. Collectives are construed with the plural, as in 1 Sam. xiii. 15, Jer. xxviii. 4; the so-called pluralis majestatis (~ 108, 2, b), on the contrary, with the singular, as pY S O.4':S Ps. vii. 10, Is. xix. 4; (but with the plur. 1 Sam. xvii. 26.) 2. An adjective, when its application is limited by a substantive, is followed by it in the genitive case,* as -In-n~?" beautiful inform Gen. xxxix. 6, 1:r?.Pd pure in hands Ps. xxiv. 4, 2.^ ti.: sorrowful in spirit Is. xix. 10. Participles and verbal adjectives are often construed thus, though they also govern the cases of their verbs; see ~135. 3. On the adjective as predicate of the sentence, see ~ 144 foll. ~113. OF APPOSITION. 1. By this is meant the placing together of two substantives, when one of them (commonly the secondt) serves as a limitation or restriction of the other. E. g. n^_ r. a woman (who is) a widow 1 Kings vii. 14; nb.inh,~.3 a damsel (who is) a virgin Deut. xxii. 28; rn tb~it words (which are) truth Prov. xxii. 21. The first of the two substantives sometimes takes the form of the construct state (~ 116, 5). Two adjectives may also be placed in apposition, when the first modifies the sense of the second; as nm:b. nii nrit' pale white spots Lev. xiii. 39; in verse 19, r8'n'. ri M. r:n's a white-red (clear red) spot. * In Greek and Latin the genitive is employed in the same manner, as tristes animi; see Ruhnken. ad Vell. Paterculum, 2, 93. t The first only in certain formulas, as f-o i.., fit5ri'^ '. 7, like our the king David, the king Solomon; where the arrangement.. T'.1n, 2 Sam. xiii. 39, like Cicero Consul, is of rare occurrence. 206 206 ~~~PARTRIL SYNTAX. ~ 114. OF THE GENITIVE. 1. It has already been shown (~. 89) that the relation of the genitive. is regularly expressed, by attaching the genitive noun to the preceding nomen reg-ens in the construct state. A genitive can be thus annexed to only one governing non. Tjhe language also avoids attaching to one such noun several genitives connected by the con~junction and, sometimes by repeating the nzomen, regens; as Gen. xxiv. 3, 7'R- =16m- -1 -the God of heaven and the God of earth. Several genitives may indeed follow one another, each dependent on the preceding one. This repetition of the construct state is often avoided, however, by adopting a periphrasis of the genitive (6~ 115); but not always, c. g. "1i= "M'='t the days of the years of the life of mzy fathers, Gen. xlvii. 9; Z. - iZ the remnant of the number of the bowvs of the meighty ones of the children of Kedar, Is. xxi. 17. In these two examples (comp. also Is. x. 12, Job xii. 24 and others) all the substantives. except the last genitive, are in the construct state. But therc are also examples, where a genitive subordinate to the leadingr idea,. and serving only as a periphrasis for the adjective, stands in the absolute state, while only the genitive that follows is dependent on the leading idea. E. gr. Is. xxviii. 1, ',' -IaiV%-6,I~ the fat valley (prop. the valley offatness) of the smitten, of wine, 1 Chron. ix. 13; Ps. lxviii. 22. Similar is the unusual case, of a substantive followed immediately by an adjective, and then by a genitive; as -V "1=4. unhewn stones of the quarry. I King~s vi. 7. The usual arrangrement is, MI 1~ 'Ta great crown (f) gohl, Esther viii. 15. 2. The noun in the genitive may stand not only for the subject, but somnetimnes also for the object. E. g. Ez. xii. 19, 0'-, the wrongr which the inhabitants have done; on the contrary, Obad. ver. 10, -."'R =7 the wrongr against thy brother; Prov. XX. ~2:I" 11V6 the fear of the icingr;t =" rlr:! the cry *It wot1id b)C a violation of IHebiewv idiomn to. say, fi ~ lia et filice Davidis; it wouild be necessary to say, 1' -:i 'I!' f9"'luXi JDavidis jusque filice. t In Latin there is the same use of the genitive after biijuria (Ons. B. Gall. 1, 30), rnetses (as metus hostium, metuts Pompeii), spes, and other words. Comp. Aul. Gell. 9, 12. In Greek compare 7r'oria~ -toD Osob, lyo' io rvo 1 Cor. i. 18. ~ 1 15. EXPRESSION OF THE GENITIVE.20 207 concerning Sodom, Gen. xviii. 20; 'I =1 the rumor concerning Tyre, Is. xxiii. 5; jv=i ~~ pravda hostibus tuis erepta Deut. xx. 14. Comp. further ~ 121, 5. Other applications of the genitive are: 7~ mWV way to the tree, Gen. iii. 24, 1 judges like those of iSodom, Is. i. 10, t"orb "M sacrifices acceptable to God, Ps. ii. 19, an oath sworn by Jehovah I K. ii. 43. 3. Not unfrequently the genitive relation supplies the place of apposition, as 11I ''I~fiuvius Euphratis. See further, ~ 116, 5. Rem. 1. In very rare cases, a word intervenes between the nomen regens and the, nomen rectum, as in Hos. xiv. 3, 2 Sam. 1. 9, Job xxvii. 3 (after ~,in all these passages; com~p. also Is. xxxviii. 16). 2. With proper- names, which are generally in themselves sufficiently definite, the genitive is seldom used for limitation or restriction. Instances of it occur, lowever in geographical names; as W"1~n 11I Ur of the Chaldees Gen. xi. 28, V~im imAram of the two rivers == Mesopotamia; in like manner ni= Mill"I Jehovah of hosts for Jehovah the Lord of hosts. ~115. EXPRESSION OF THE GENITIVE BY CIRCUMLOCUTION. Besides the expression of the genitive relation by subordination to the governing noun in the construct state (~ 89, and ~ 114), there are modes of expressing it by periphrasis, and chiefly by the preposition ~,which means pertaining or belonging to, and thus expresses a relation not unlike that of the genitive. Thus we find1.~~used principally for the genitive of possession, as "9-b Gen. xxix. 9, xlvii. 4, the flock of her father (prop. the flock which was to her father); and also where there would be several successive genitives (to avoid the repetition of the constr. state, but see ~114, 1), as ~10~t6 'It5m 'Y1ri the chief of the herdsmen of Saul 1 Sam. xxi. 8, HI6 IM1 11.31. - t. the song of songs of Solomon Cant. i. 1; Gen. xl. 5 2 Sam. ii. 8, 1 Chron. xi. 10. (Hence the, Rabbinic designation of the genitive bt5; in Syriac and Chaldee, the relative 4,, '. serves also by itself as a sign of the genitive.) 2. '~(without also for the genitive of appertaining and of possession:* as ~w5 "9`1 the watchmen of Saul, 1 Sam. xiv. 16. This is * Essentially, the Gascon is no less correct in saying lafille a Mr. N., than the written language in the form la fille de -; the former expresses the idea belonging to, the latter that of origin, descent. The Arabians distinguish a twofold geni 208 PART III. SYNTAXM used especially, a) when the governing noun is to be expressed indefinitely, e. gr. i o of Jesse, I S am. xvi. 18 (whil-st signifies also the son of Jesse); a Ipriest of the mnost high God, Gen. xiv. 18, xli. 12; Y'zSM5b t two ser-vants of Shibnei. 1 K. ii. 39; a fr a iend of David (as Hiram) 1 Kings v. 15; 'IIl'1~ also InMIM I" a Psalm of Dav-id (prop. belonging to him as author), and ellipticallyll" of David, Ps. xil.1,xiv. 1: b) when there are several genitives depending on one substantive, e.g. n!~n~n -.') a portion of the field of Boaz, Ruth ii. 3; 2 Kings v. 9,.9 mmnl n1 the chronicles of the king-s of Israel, 1 Kings xv. 31; T n Josh. xix. 51, where the more closely connected nouns, expressing one, compound idea, are joined in pairs by the construct state, whilst between them is the looser connection indicated by ~;(comp. however, ~ 114, 1); c) after specifications of number, e. g. 11=V t5ih =i on the seven and twentieth (lay of the month; Gen. viii. 11. ~116. FARTHER USE OF THE CONSTRUCT STATE. The construct state, as it serves only to indicate the close connection of two nouns, is -used in the current of discourse for other near relations besides that of the genitive; viz. 1) Before prepositions, especially in poetry, and most frequently when the governing word is a participle; e. g. before 1, as nrt the jo nthe harvest, Is. ix. 2, v. 11;before ~ as Is. lv. 10, xxx. IS, Ps. lviii. 5, Job xviii. 2; before I',as 441~ weaned fr-om the milk, Is. xxviii. 9; before ~V Judg. v. 1 0. 2) Before the relative pronoun, e. g. 'I~ t~~ the place?where ~, Gen. xl. 3. 3) Before relative clauses without '4R, e. g. '71 the city wher-e David dwelt, Is. XXix. 1, 9 t:P- the place of himt who knows not God, Job xviii. 21, 1 Sam. xxv. 15, Ps. xc. 15. Comp. ~ 123, 3, Remn. 1. 4) Rarely, even before Vav copulative, as rl~11r= Is. xxxiii. 6, xxxv. 2, li. 2 1. 5) In eases of apposition (i. e. whiere there is not, as in ~ 114, tiv; vz. ti whch aybe explained by and,another by "Irn. From the latter conception lproeee(l(s the de of the Romanic languages. In Grelek maaybe compared the so-called o~ula i~)ojWVsov, e. g. vj Wv~r for 'e 1~Ji'roV (see Bernhardy's Syntax, p. 88). ~ 117. DESIGNATION OF THE OTHER CASES. 209 3, an actual genitive relation); e. g. 1 Sam. xxviii. 7, nlb_ 3lts 'I1 a woman, mistress (possessor) of a divining spirit (comp. zcCSn6iaxrq ovacC rvV/zucc n-rtVcovog Acts xvi. 16); and so also, i't Mt hg I t. the virgin-daughter of Zion, Is. xxxvii. 22, Jer. xiv. 17. 6) Also in other close connections of words; e. g. ';lS one sometimes used for "in 2 Sam. xvii. 22, Zech. xi. 7; see moreover Is. xxviii. 4, 16. Compare also the construct state in the numerals, as thirteen, fourteen (~ 97, 2), and in the adverb (~ 100, 2, c). Rem. As in the above cases, the absolute state might be used about equally well instead of the construct, so on the contrary there are connections, where we should expect the constr. state rather than the absolute. E. g. a) in geographical names like,:n3 A'. bn=X Abel Beth-Maachah (i. e. Abel at Beth-Maachah, in distinction from other places called Abel). Comp. on the contrary ~ 114, Rem. 2.* b) in some other examples, where the connection is not sufficiently close for the genitive relation, so that it must rather be understood as an apposition, or an adverbial use (in the accusative ~ 118) of the second noun. Here belongs, among others, Ez. xlvii. 4, t:.=s t:A_ not so well water of the knees as water up to the knees; Is. xxx. 20, yn_ trm water of affliction, or rather water in affliction. c) in the combination n1iX::1'.N, elliptical for nist= '9s::' Ss'bt God (the God) of hosts. ~117. DESIGNATION OF THE OTHER CASES. 1. The Hebrew language having lost the living use of caseendings (~ 90), it becomes a question how this defect was supplied, in designating the relation of the noun to the sentence. The Nominative can be known only from the syntactic construction. On the modes of indicating the Genitive. see ~~ 114-116. The Dative is periphrased by the preposition b, the Ablative by 1p. (from, out of), the Locative and Instrumental by ~ (in, at, by). But the noun thus dependent on a preposition, is in the Semitic form of conception a genitive; for these particles were originally nouns, and still retain in Arabic the genitive ending. Comp. ~101, 1. * Latin, Augusta Vindelicorum. But in English, e. g. York street, Coventgarden; a mere juxtaposition, for near Covent-garden. 14 210 PART III. SYNTAX. On the use of the sign of the dative (b), so far as it encroaches on the sphere of our genitive, see ~ 115, 1, 2. 2. The Accusative, when it expresses a local direction or motion towards, frequently retains its ending M- (.90, 1). Elsewhere, it is usually known, like the nominative, only from the structure of the sentence. But it may often be recognized by the prefixed -'n or rS (and before pronominal suffixes rit); which is not used with a noun, however, except when it is made definite by the article, by a genitive (whether noun or pronominal suffix), or in some other way (Gen. vi. 2, 2 Sam. xiii. 17, xviii. 18), or is a proper name. Such is its prevalent use, especially in prose; but less use is made of it in poetry. E. g. Gen. i. 1, hr 'a' r,.1?nltt' (on the contrary.ni l Yf! Gen. ii. 4, vi. 10, Ex. i. 11).* The examples are rare in whilh nr stands before a noun that is not rendered definite; but somewhat more frequent in elevated style, where the article also may be omitted with a noun which is definite in signification (~ 109). E. g. Prov. xiii. 21,:: r-rx? Is. 1. 4, Job xiii. 25, Ez. xliii. 10; in prose very rarely, as 1 Sam. xxiv. 6, Ex. ii. 1 (where, however, the noun is also limited by the connection). ~ 118. USE OF TI1E ACCUSATIVE. The accusative is employed, 1) as the object of transitive verbs (~ 138); and also 2) in many forms of adverbial limitation, where it is no longer governed immediately by the verb. We shall here treat only of the latter. * nix (whence, in close connection with a following noun, the toneless r.: and then again with independent tone rb) proceeds from a pronominal stem, and is properly a substantive meaning essence, substance (comp. i.iA sign). But when connected, in the constr. state, with a following noun or suffix, it forms a periphrasis of the pronoun ipse, avro; (comp. the similar case in ~ 124, Rem. 3). In common usage, however, it has so little force that it merely indicates a definite object, having become as feeble as the casus obliquz avrov, r, avTro, ar, ipsi, ipsunm, desselben, demselben, denselben; and the IIeb..t.t, bX, prop. abxTv TOv oVUavOV (comp. avurty xQvaurl' a IL I. 144), it, the heaven, is no stronger than,To ovt'Qoav.-That n.r should also express the nominative, is not in itself inconceivable; and of this there seem to be a few examples, as Hag. ii. 17, 2 K. xviii. 30 (but in the parallel passage Is. xxxvi. 15, it is wanting), perhaps also Jos. xxii 17, Dan. ix. 13. But in other passages, which some would reckon here (e. g. ~ 118. THE ACCUSATIVE 211 The second of the above usages is undoubtedly derived from the first, and to this still belong several constructions in which the accusative is commonly supposed to be used adverbially (~ 138, 1, Rem. 3). But we are not therefore authorized to reject altogether the adverbial use of the accusative. Accordingly the accusative is employed: 1. In designations of place: a) in answer to the question whither? after verbs of motion,* as..St Mt let us go out into the field, 1 Sam. xx. 11, ItW1'r1 Dbb to go to Tarshish, 2 Chron. xx. 36, Ps. cxxxiv. 2; b) in answer to the question where? after verbs of rest, as.d hrS in the house of thy father, Gen. xxxviii. 11,:irit rtl in the door of the tent, xviii. 1. It is then employed also c) with reference to space and measure, in answer to the question how far? Gen. vii. 20, the water rose fifteen cubits. In the cases a and b, especially the former, the noun often takes the accusative endind '!-, on which see ~ 90, 2. The first relation may also be expressed by b. (as it commonly is with reference to persons), and the second by,; but we are by no means to suppose that where these particles are omitted the construction is incomplete. 2. In designations of time: a) in answer to the question when? as:T- the day, i. e. on the day, then, or on this day, to-day; ITS at evening, ti'b? noctu; ~?~', at noon Ps. xci. 6; mn". And ' ~T: ti': 1 the thirteenth year (in the thirteenth year) they revolted, Gen. xiv. 4; OI.it. 'S.p rhMn at the beginning of barley harvest, 2 Sam. xxi. 9 (Kethibh); b) in answer to the question how long? pI. rtlt six days (long) Ex. xx. 9. 3. Where we say in respect to, according to, &c. and in other adverbial limitations: Gen. xli. 40, b-:,' pi only-in respect to the throne will I be greater; 2 Sam. xxi. 20, four and twenty ar. in number (comp. r(qlg c;QL('JOv three in number); 1 Kings xxii. 13, 't7.,l with one mouth i. e. with one voice; Zeph. iii. 9, they served God MN: WS3 with one shoulder i. e. with one heart. With a following genitive, ArWt t'". for fear of thorns, Is. vii. 25; Job i. 5, he brought burnt2 Sam. xi. 25, Neh. ix. 32, and even 1 Sam. xvii. 34), there is rather to be understood a loosely governed accusative,-as is certainly the case in its connection with the Passive (~ 143, 1, a).-In Ez. xlvii. 17, 18, 19, ri. stands for nlT, unless indeed the passage is to be so emended; comp. vs. 20. * In Greek, this use of the accus. is exclusively poetical; Il. 1, 317, xvolav 8' ovoavov ice. 212 PART III. SYNTAX. offerings::3 ar.k according to the number of them all. Here belong also such cases as |&, 3t the double in money Gen. xliii. 15, CniD r> an ephah of barley Ruth ii. 17,. t:t.t two years' time Gcn. xli. 1. Comp. also ~ 116, Rem. b. Sec analogous cases of the accus. in connection with a verb, in ~~ 138 and 139. By this same process, carried still farther, many substantives have come to be distinctly recognized as adverbs (~ 100, 2, b). Rem. Such a reference to place, time, &c., the noun may have, when it is connected with 3 (as, according to, after the manner of), though then the preposition 3 alone is in the accusative, while the noun is to be conceived as the genitive after it. So, a) of place; Ven: as in their pasture, Is. v. 17. xxviii. 21; ]-! after the manner of the stone i. e. as into stone (the water contracts in freezing) Job xxxviii. 30, xxx. 14; t r5:=b. as inz gorgeous dress Job xxxviii. 14; tlbn~ as in a dream, Is. xxix. 7, comp. xxiii. 15; b) of time, especially in the combinations t3^ after the 7manner of the day = as on the day, Is. ix. 3; Hos. ii. 5; nw~ as in the days of-. Hos. ii. 17, ix. 9; xii. 10; Amos ix. 11; Is. ii. 9. c) In other relations: e. g. Job xxviii. 5, lt no3 after the manner of fire =- as byfire; Is. i. 25, Ifuse away thy dross I'.a as with lye. Rarely, another preposition is used after such a s, e. g. nXN'1. Is. i. 26; 1 Sam. xiv. 14. The substantive with 3 may, of course, be the accusative of the object, or the nominative. 119. MODES OF EXPRESSING THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE.* 1. When the comparative is to be expressed, the particle 7X ('.) is prefixed to the word with which comparison is made; e. g. 1 Sam. ix. 2, O2.?I. t; taller than any of the people; Judg. xiv. 18, 1t=_ pinh sweeter than honey; so also after a verb, especially such as express a quality or attribute, as,'tg3? aTt 'T and he was taller than any of the people, 1 Sam. x. 23;.T- t?1i-ri. ~N he loved Joseph more than all his (other) sons. * In Arabic, there is a strengthened form for the comparative and superlative, which in IeIb. would be iay. To this, perhaps, belonged originally 1=.. cruel, T-.?. deceitful (of a failing brook), and its opposite I~n. (contr. from aitart) unfailing, perennis. These forms have, indeed, lost their force and stand like solitary fragments; somewhat as the Latin comparative dies out in the Italian, and still more in the French, and its place is supplied by periphrasis (with pii, plus). ~ 120. SYNTAX OF THE NUMERALS. 213 In other cases also the particle "n often expresses pre-eminence (e. g. In Fin? excellence above, Eccles. ii. 13, comp. Deut. xiv. 2), which the Hebrew conceives as a separation from, a de-signation. Compare the Latin ablative with the comparative; also the etymology of the Latin words eximius, egregius, and in Homer Ex 7ravrov s&iatlra, Il. 4,96, and merely Ex 7raaorSv, 18, 431). Hence the signification more than connects itself with the fundamental signification out of. (Compare the use of i3_ in comparisons, Job xxiii. 2; Ps. cxxxvii. 6.) The predicate is sometimes not expressed, and must, be supplied from the connection. E. g. Is. x. 10, _b~.t~1 tb.D their idols are more numerous (mightier) than those in Jerusalem; Job xi. 17,:r.httt clearer than the noonday. The correlative comparatives, greater, less, are expressed merely by great, little, Gen. i. 16. 2. The several modes of expressing the superlative are in principle the same: thus in all of them the positive form, by means of the article, or a suffix, or a following genitive, is made to designate an individual as pre-eminently the possessor of the quality expressed (comp. le plus grand). E. g. 1 Sam. xvii. 14, and David was 7Jpn the small (one) i. e. the smallest, and the three great (ones), i. e. greater, &c.; Gen. xlii. 13; Jon. iii. 5, 03l_ VI:fen from the greatest among them (lit. their great ones) even unto the least among them; 2 Chron. xxi. 17, ]tqp 1:% the youngest of his sons. A kind of superlative, in substantives expressing quality, is made by the construction:n.'. tlap the holiest of all, prop. the holy (holiest) among holy things. ~120. SYNTAX OF THE NUMERALS. 1. The numerals from 2 to 10 (which are properly substantives, but may also be used adverbially, ~ 97, 1), are connected with substantives in three different ways. They stand either a) in the construct state before the substantive (the object numbered being therefore in the genitive), tI. rbltWt three days, prop. triad of days; or b) in the absolute state before it (the object numbered conceived as the accusative or in apposition),:e.d,f'1t three sons; or c) in the absolute state after it, and in apposition with it (in the later books, where the adverbs also are so placed), tl5f nryi three daughters, 1 Chron. xxv. 5. 214 PART III. SYNTAX. In like manner, the constructions S:Z t,'o Gen. xvii. 17, and,:= lrnx xxv. 7. 17, a hundred years, are equally common. 2. The numerals from 2 to 10 are joined, with very few exceptions (e. g. 2 Kings xxii. 1), with the plural form of the substantive. The tens (fiom 20 to 90), when they precede the substantive, are regularly joined with the singular (in the accusative), and when they follow it in apposition, with the plural. The first is the more frequent construction. E. g. Judg. xi. 33, 'IY:M.t.. twenty cities; on the contrary '3.P tnlt3 twenty cubits, 2 Chron. iii. 3 seq. The plural may be used in the first case (Ex. xxxvi. 24, 25), but the singular never occurs in the second. The numerals from 11 to 19 are joined to the singular form (in the accusative) only with certain substantivcs,^vhich there is frequent occasion to number, as Gl day,,t year,,1 man, &c. (comp. "four foot deep,"; a thousand pound,"); e. g. ti C'S ~'.2r, prop.fourteen day Ex. xii. 6. With this exception, they are joined to the plural; and in the later books may then stand after the substantive (1 Chron. iv. 27, xxv. 5). 3. Numerals compounded of tens and units (as 21, 62) take the object numbered either after them in the singular (accusative), as t2 D:9t t:. rt_ sixty-two years Gen. v. 20; or before them in the plural, as in the later books (Dan. ix. 26); or the object is repeated, with the smaller number in the plural, with the larger in the singular, as Gen. xii. 4, = AV:D l3 ^?tt seventy-five years Gen. xxiii. 1, Ot.;t s Ad: i.W..;tlYl mt, m. one hundred and twenty-seven years. 4. Beyond 10 the ordinals have no peculiar foxns, but are expressed by those of the cardinals, either before the object numbered, or after it in the genitive; as otn!1 M.t'3 on the seventeenth day Gen. vii. 11, Y=;2 1.~ it.. in the twenty-seventh year 1 Kings xvi. 10. In the latter case, the word act is sometimes repeated, as in Gen. vii. 11, 2 Kings xiii. 10.-In numbering days of the month and years, the forms of the cardinals are used, even for the numbers from 1 to 10, e. g. tsn..' hltr' in the second year, ii's tnh in the third year 1 Kings xv. 25, 2 Kings xviii. 1; 'hb Tr1^s on the ninth of the month, bung twh` on the first of the month, Lev. xxiii. 32, Gen. viii. 13. Cenm. 1. The numerals take the article when they stand without a substantive, and refer to subjects mentioned before, as ti:bt the two Eccles. iv. 9, 12. The case tn.~M %r,{ the seven days Judg. xiv. 17, is to be explained on the principle stated 111, 1. ~ 121. USE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 215 2. Certain substantives employed in designations of weight, measure, or of time, are commonly omitted after numerals; e. g. Gen. xx. 16, IbV Jt3 C a thousand (shekels) of silver; so also before ~nS gold 1 K. x. 16; Ruth iii. 15, tVsi. vrjt six (ephahs) of barley; 1 Sam. xvii. 17,:.b?ive ten (loaves) of bread. Thus t:an is omitted Gen. viii. 5, and vJzh, viii. 13. -The number of cubits is often stated thus: nmat' lns a hundred cubits, prop. a hundred by the cubit, Ex. xxvii. 18. 5. Numbers are expressed distributively by repetition of the cardinals, as:1t '?2%. two by two, Gen. vii. 9, 15. One time, once, is expressed by MR tEst (prop. a tread),?.:S_ two times, twice,:W. it t*6 thrice. These may also be expressed by the fern. forms of the cardinals, as hi once,:.rt twice, ihtI thrice; also try once, Num. x. 4. The ordinals are used in the same manner, as rT.O a second time Gen. xxii. 15, Jer. xiii. 3, Ez. xxi. 19. CHAPTER II. SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN.. 121. USE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 1. THE personal pronoun as subject of the sentence, like any other word in the same relation, requires for its union with the predicate no separate expression of the copula, when this is merely the substantive-verb to be (~ 144). E. g. bnit DOSS I(am) the seer 1 Sam. ix. 19,?S1R::I: upright (are) we Gen. xlii. 11, n,-:Otn3 blameless (wast) thou Ez. xxviii. 15, W. -' ~ that naked (were) they Gen. iii. 7,.wn Irn Mnrl one dream (is) it Gen. xli. 26. 2. The pronoun of the third person often serves to form a connection between the subject and predicate, and then supplies in some measure the place of the copula, or of the verb to be. E. g. Gen. xli. 26, the seven good kine IfS t3. Vt. seven years (are) they; Eccles. v. 18, KNS 'tl' rn -,it this is a gift of God.-Sometimes such a pronoun of the third person refers to a subject of the first or second person; e. g. D b:5:., niw thou art my king Ps. xliv. 5, where,Ie points at the same time 216 216 ~~~PART III. SYNTAX. to the predicate and gives it promninence (prop. thou (art) he, my kingr); Is. xxxvii. 16, Neh. ix. 6, 7, Deut. xxxii. 39. (Comp. in Chaldec, Ezra v. 11; so in the Coptic.) 3. To the ground-rule (~ 33, 1), that the separate pronouns express the nominative and the suffixes tile oblique cases, there is buit one exception., viz, when there is an emphatic, repetition of the personal pronoun in an oblique case (mte, mne; of thee; of thee); it then takes, the second timie, the separate form-n of the pronoun, in the same case as the p~receding suffix, with which it is in apposition. E. g. the accusative of the verbal suffix, Geni. xxvii. 34, "'I = AZ bless me, me (a150 comip. Prov. xxii. 19 still oftener in tile genitiv-e, wvith a nominal suffix, =-' 1 Kingms xxi. 19, thy blood, yea thine (prop. sanguis tui, uttiqute tui); Prov. xxiii. 15'. Ps. ix. 7'. So also when the pronouin, thus placed in apposition, is under the influence of a preposition (i. e. is in tile genitive, accordino to ~ 1.01, 1, comip. ~ 154M, 4), as Hagr. i. 4, Mi INtZfoi- you, for you; 1 Sam. xxv. 241, 'I= onl me. on me: 1Sam. xix. 23, W1 I* also on 1idmt; 2 Chron. xxxv. 21, 9'1 -MrI 71':7 not against thee. On the samne principle is to be explained Gen. iv. 26, N''0 "L,~ rt; to eth, to hint (l1o0; x. 21..1. The Suffix to the verb is, properly, alway.s the accusative (33, 2, a, ~ 59), and is the mnost commrron formi of expressing the accusative of. the pronoun (see Rem.). In certain cases. however, it is usedl also (with an almnost inaccurate brevity of expression) for the dative; as Zech. vii. 5, "2-1 did ye fast for mne? i. e. in my behalf, for '1 =-_=; Job xxxi. 18, T he (the fatherlle-ss) grew up to mne as to a father, Ez. xxix. 3, comp. ver. 9. Rem. The accusative of tile pronoun is necessarily expressed by nN (~ 117), the sign of tile accusative, a) when the pronoun, for the sake of emph1asis, precedes the verb, as "I-"hl"Fe Num. xxii. 33; b) when the verb has two pronouns in tile accusative (as only one of them can be a suffix), as I~niti 2 Sam. xv. 25. The use of this sign with the, pronoun is riot confined, however, to these cases; see Gen. iv. 14, xv. 13. 5. The sif//i xes to nouns, wvhich are prolperly genitivs( 3 2, b), and supply the place of possessive pronouns,* express, like *The lpos-sessivo pronoui may also be exJpressed by a IperipiPrasis, as is usual in the Araintean; e. g. Ruth ii. 21, '1j1% the servants which (are) to mne, for my servants; especially when the substantive is followed immediately by ~ 121. USE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 217 nouns in the genitive (~ 114, 2), not only the subject, but also the object. The latter, e. g.: =.M the wrong done to me, Jer. li. 35; ~rMn thefear of him, Ex. xx. 20. 6. When one noun is followed by another in the genitive, so that they together express but one complex idea, a suffix which refers to this whole idea is appended to the second of the two nouns (compare the analogous position of the article, ~ 111, 1). This occurs most frequently in the case (mentioned ~ 106, 1), where the second noun is used to express a quality of the first, as a periphrasis of the adjective; e. g. Ps. ii. 6, "14 ' Mn my holy mount; Is. ii. 20; xxxi. 7, bO:... his silver idols;.Ss 1:8 his strong steps, Job xviii. 7. Very rare is the construction nW. Gri. thy lewd conduct, Ez. xvi. 27; comp. xviii. 7. So also Lev. vi. 3, Ps. xxx. 8. Rem. 1. A masculine pronoun is sometimes used with reference to a feminine substantive (probably an inaccuracy of the colloquial language, which passed into that of books); e. g. Gen. xli. 23, Ex. i. 21. The reverse also occurs, but less frequently; Deut. v. 24, 2 Sam. iv. 6. 2. The accusative of the pronoun, as object of the verb, is often omitted where it is easily supplied from the connection, especially the neuter accusative (it) after verbs of saying; e. g. 'ri>il (like dixit) he said it Ex. xix. 25; 'aW_ and he told it Gen. ix. 22. As accus. of the living object it is also omitted; Gen. xxxviii. 17, until thou sendest (him); xxiv. 12, let (her) meet me. [?] 3. It is merely emphatic pleonasm, on the contrary, and minute formality of expression, when the noun, for which the pronoun stands, follows immediately in apposition with it. E. g. Ex. ii. 6, she saw him, the child; Prov. v. 22; Ez. x. 3, Iyet is2 when he, the man, entered in; 1 Sam. xxi. 14. So also Gen. ii. 19,,n t...... ib to them, the living beings; and with the preposition repeated, Josh. i. 2. 4. In some examples also, the force of the nominal suffix, or possessive pronoun, has become so weak as almost to have disappeared. E. g. ";lt prop. my Lord (see ~ 108, 2, b), namely in addressing God (Gen. xv. 2, xviii. 3, Ps. xxxv. 23); then also (without regard to the pronoun), the Lord, spoken of God: * VIM (prop. in his, or its, connections = he, it, together), as noe o::-b~ Ex. xix. 8; and even (disregarding the person of the suffix) after the first person, as Iin.:nti 1 K. iii. 18, another in the genitive, as in 1 Sam. xvii. 40. (Comp. the analogous mode of expressing the genitive, ~ 115.)-In this case there is sometimes a pleonastic use of the suffix, as,iT5b nZ3Q in prop. his litter of Solomon, Cant. iii. 7; comp. i. 6. * See Gesenius, Thes. Ling. Hebr., p. 329. Compare the Phoenician names of gods, Adonis (^:i) and Baaltis (t..); and our Notre Dame, Unsere liebe Frau. 218 PART III. SYNTAX. comp. Is. xli. 1; and after the second, Is. xlv. 20. In a similar manner. Mic. i. 2, hear, ye peoples t;5. ~ 122. OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 1. The personal pronoun of the third person Ws,,fem. sW, plur.,ri;,-. fern. m;, SM (is, ea, id; ii, eem, ea), is used also for the demonstrative pronoun. It then takes, regularly, the article (exceptions see in ~ 111, 2, b), but scarcely ever except when the substantive also is made definite. E. g. Wnr;, t&nSt is vir, l'm s.'mo eo die. The distinction between tI, and the demonstrative tIt, is as follows: In (= oIvTo-, hic), always points out a present or near object; ItN. (= cavogs, is), like the article ~ 109, indicates an object already mentioned or already known. This distinction is made very clear by Judges vii. 4; of whom I say to thee, this (t.') shall go with thee, let the same (t.It) go with thee; and every one of whom I say to thee, this (St) shall not go with thee, let the same (Sr) not go. In like manner, Ps. xx. 8,,n oVrot, and nI c avroli in ver. 9. Hence. tt titm means this day. i. e. the present day on which one is speaking or writing (Gen. xxvi. 33); on the contrary, S.InI i'Un is the day or the time of which the historian has just been narrating (Gen. xv. 18, xxvi. 32), or the prophet has just been prophesying (Is. v. 30, vii. 18, 20), and of which he goes on to narrate or to prophesy. 2. The demonstrative, in its leading form lT (as well as,IT IT), has also, especially in poetry, the force of the relative nIt; comp. in Engl. that for which. E. g. Ps. civ. 8, to the place.T t:Q n C which thou hast destined for them. It is even employed (like t^, ~ 123, 1) to give a relative sense to another word; e. g. Ps. lxxiv. 2, Mount Zion L.3 nt T on which thou dwellest. n. is used adverbially, a) for there,,tt,}T see there! and then merely as an intensive particle, especially in questions, as tI n53 wherefore then? b) in reference to time, for now, as _'n. ri, now (already) twice, Gen. xxvii. 36. 3. The interrogative 'I may be used in reference to a plural, as:rs 'I Gen. xxxiii. 5 (for which, however, the more accurate expression is 1 A, Ex. x. 8); and also in reference to things, but only where the idea of persons is implied, e. g. =tt ha who is Shechem (the Shechemites)? Judg. ix. 28; comp. Gen. xxxiii. 8. Moreover, An may also stand in the genitive, as " 'a whose ~ 123. RELATIVE PRONOUN. 219 daughter? Gen. xxiv. 23; and both 'I and,T are also used indefinitely, for any one whoever, and any thing whatever (Job xiii. 13). For the latter, the language has also the word I.WM. For the use of no in a form of negative command, see ~ 153, 2, first Note. ~123. RELATIVE PRONOUN AND RELATIVE CLAUSES. 1. The pronoun ltb often serves merely as a sign of relation, i. e. to give a relative signification to substantives, adverbs, or pronouns. E. g.:t there,:t —1. where; 'Ts thither, n-t-'W.t whither; =:2. thence,:tt-d-' whence. In the same manner the Hebrew forms the oblique cases of the relative pronoun, who, which, viz. Dative, ~i to him, i Wt.. to whom; Wn5, r1i to them, lO:b lt,. 't.. to whom. Accusative, ri, tr him, her; iriht nt, mhi '116 whom (quem, quam). With prepositions, n therein,. ltb wherein, 3.S' therefrom, II:= aI* wherefrom. Genitive, Iatii "SK whose language, Deut. xxviii. 49. The accusative whom may, however, be expressed by '1t alone, as in Gen. ii. 2. Rem. 1. The Hebrew is able, in this way, to give a relative sense to the pronoun of the first and second persons in the oblique cases, for which in English the third must be used. E. g. Gen. xlv. 4, Innt tr; Num. xxii. 30, _ 't^.I; Is. xli. 8, Jacob qj'na 'tt lit. whom I have chosen thee; Hos. xiv. 4. Only in the nom. of the 1st and 2d person is this possible in German also, e. g. der ich, der du, die wir, where der stands for welcher, and (like the Heb. 'tS) is merely a sign of relation. 2. The word 'Itn is commonly separated from the one which it thus affects, by one or more words, as t:t aon,e x where was, Gen. xiii. 3. But seldom are they written together, as in 2 Chron. vi. 11. 2. The relative '1S often includes the personal or demonstrative pronoun, in such combinations as he (or she) who, that which, those who, see ~ 124, 2, as in Latin qui stands for is qui. E. g. Num. xxii. 6, 'kib t..tl and (he) whom thou cursest; Is. lii. 15, -.t0 95 1~ t (that)'which they have not heard. The pronoun is almost always to be supplied where a preposition stands before i.'; the preposition is then construed with the 220 PART III. SYNTAX. supplied pronoun, and the relative takes the case which is required by its connection with the following part of the sentence. E. g. W~_ to him who, and to them who; I.t. from him who, from those who or which; '1^? prop. accordizng to that which, hence, as; 'tbtri him who, those who, and also that w7hich.* Sometimes the idea of place or time is also to be supplied; as '.^x in (that place) where? '.. from, (that time) when. 3. The pronoun l... may be omitted in all the cases which have been specified: there is then no expression of the relative, as in the English construction, the friend I met; the book I told you of; where the relation is indicated only by the subordination of the relative clause. This omission of wT"!g (most frequent in poetry) takes placea) Where it would stand as a pronoun in the nominative or accusative; e. g. Gen. xv. 13,:w 9i 7p1 in a land (which belongs) not to them; 'B_~? hn^U bs^ and he falls into the pit (which) he makes; Gen. xxxix. 4, ~t'~1'- all (which) was, i. e. belonged, to him, comp. ver. 5, where t is isnserted Eccles. x. 5 (comp. vi. 1, where with the same words tQ is employed).t b) When it would be merely a sign of relation, e. g. Ps. xxxii. 2, happy the man, ]i nb,3,? t'n S b to whom Jehovah imputeth not sin; Job iii. 3, Ex. xviii. 20. Frequently in specifications of time, where it would have the signification when; 2 Chron. xxix. 27, rr 5n, t. at the time (when) the offering began; Ps. iv. 8, I1:ti-.l D:":f in the time (when) their corn and must are abundant; Jer. xxxvi. 2. c) When there is also an omission of the personal or demonstrative pronoun (No. 2); e. g. Is. xli. 24,, minv,2;rn an abominaaton, (he who) makes choice of you; Job xxiv. 19, * The examples are very rare, in which the preposition before ~'x refers, as with us, to the relative itself; as 'tx =Y Gen. xxxi. 32, for ia. t'S' with whom (xliv. 9, 10); perhaps -'^Xn Is. xlvii. 12, for t: '6'v in which. Comp. also ~'np-'^> rz, Zech. xii. i0, for inink.p. ',Mt. t The Arabic omits the relative when the substantive to which it refers is indeterminate, as above; but inserts it when the substantive is determinate. In the latter case, the Hebrew commonly inserts it in prose (see Jer. xxiii. 39, Ex. xiv. 13 et al.); though it is sometimes omitted, Ex. xviii. 20, 2 Sam. xviii. 14, especially in poetry, Ps. xviii. 3, xlix. 13, 21, Deut. xxxii. 17, Job iii. 3. ~ 124. MODE OIF EXPRE6SSING PRONOUNS.21 221 Sheol [sweeps away] IN (those who) sin; comp. ver. 9. The pronoun thus omitted may include the idea of place or time, as 1 Chron. xv. 12, vizhtrb to (the place which) I have prepared for it; comp. Ex. xxiii. 20. Rem. 1. When the pronoun to be supplied would be in the genitive, the preceding noun takes the constr. state. E. g. Ex. iv. 13, Mi~tnr -I-'= by the hand (of him whom) thou wilt send; Hoc.. i. 2, i11,141=1 nrmnn beginning (of that which) Jehovah spake; Ps. lxxxi. 6, b6 rZiV the speech (of one whom) I knew not; lxv. 5, Lam. i. 14, Jer. xlviii. 36: Comp. ~ 116, 3. 2. Relative clauses are also attached by the co~pula(), e. g. Job xxix. 12, the orphan,.~ i~ 11bl9~ and he that hath, no helper. ~124. MODE OF- EXPRESSING THOSE PRONOUNS FOR WHIOH THE HEBREW HAS NO PROPER FORMS. 1. The reflexive pronoun in the oblique cases, se, sibi, &c., is expresseda) By the conjugations Niphal and Hithpael. 6) By the pronominal suffix of the third person; e. g. Judg. iii. 16, =Ir hr.T,7 * ir.V4 and Ehud made him (sibi) a sword; Gen. xxii. 3, Abraham too/k two of his servants ~inZ? with him, for with himself; 1. Sam. i. 24, she carried him up i~a with her, for with herself; Gen. viii. 9, -Jer. vii. 19, Ez. xxxiv. 2, 8, 10. c) By periphrasis with a substantive, especially t=, e. g. VwN9 'It I should not know myself, Job ix. 21; Jer. xxxvii. 9; within herself (='Ip the inner part), Gen. xviii. 12 Conip. Remn. 3. Thle idea self is similarly periphrased, in Arabic by eye, soul, spirit, in Sanscrit by soul, spirit (4tman), in Rabbinic =-, Vn~ (bone), -u (body), in Amharic by tZ5kn~ (head), in Egyptian by mouth, hand* et al. Comp. in Engl. my body (I myself), in Middle High Germ. min lip, din lIp. 2. The relative '16b commonly includes the personal and demonstrative pronoun (in the combinations he who, that who, those who, ~ 123, 2) in all cases of the singular and plural. Very seldom it is expressed by the interrogative pronoun, as -o that which, Eccl. i. 9, iii. 15. M.M G. S&hwarze, kopt. Gramm. Berlin, 1850, 5. 346, 351. a 222 PART III. SYNTAX. Rem. 1. Each, every one, when a person is meant, is expressed by E9j a man, sometimes repeated trj" tedj Ex. xxxvi. 4,.so dst Ps. lxxxvii. 5; with reference either to persons or things, by b', commonly without the article (~ 111, 1); by repetition, '1': Re', every morning; and by the plural, os.b every morning Ps. lxxiii. 14. 2. Any one, some one, is expressed by armj Ex. xvi. 29, Cant. viii. 7; and by GWs Lev. i. 2; any thing, something (especially with a negation), by tn, m';5- without the article. Comp. also ~ 122, 3. 3. Self (besides the above forms in No. 1, c), is expressed, in reference to persons and things, by W.n, nt; as st.-I arm the Lord. he for the Lord himself Is. vii. 14; trn, S..I;I, the Jews themselves, Esther ix. 1.-The same is expressed by t.in, n with the article; as.3MiM, ''WX the same man, sa t n, Z in the same time (but also, that nman. in that time, ~ 122, 1). In reference to things, the noun t:= (bone, body. in this case figuratively for essence, substance) is also used as a periphrasis for this pronoun; e. g. nt ciT CS tm on. the selfsame day, Gen. vii. 13; comp. Job xxi. 23, i', t:S? in his prosperity itself = in his very prosperity. 4. The one-the other (alter-alter) is expressed by nt or nMr repeated, or by 'xi with nx brother or r friend. and where the feminine is required, by,'s woman, with rins sister or nsT friend; both the masc. and fern. forms are used also with reference to inanimate objects of the same gender. The same form is used to express one another, as Gen. xiii. 11, and they separated, in. rT. a1x the one from the other, i. e. from one another; Gen. xi. 3, they said ItM.V'5I tZ9 to one another; Ex. xxvi. 3.jive curtains shall be joined. x;n-',- ht' to one another. 5. Some is often expressed by the plural form alone, as Vte some days Dan.'viii. 27, o:.' some years Dan. xi. 6; 8; and sometimes by nts o sunt qui, Neh. v. 2-4. CHAPTER III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. ~125. USE OF THE TENSES IN GENERAL. FROM the poverty of the Hebrew language in the means of expressing the relations of time, absolute and relative (~~ 40 and 48), we should naturally expect some variety in the uses of the same form. We are not to infer from this, however, that there was no well-defined and established use of the two existing tense-forms; ~ 126. USE OF THE PERFECT. 223 on the contrary, each has its own definite sphere, as already stated in general, in the Note on page 88. The Perfect serves for the expression of the finished and passed, what is come to pass or is gone into effect; whether it actually belongs already to past time, or lies properly in the present or even in the future, and is only represented as finished (i. e. expressed with the same certainty as if already done) or as relatively prior to another and later event. The Imperfect (Infectum, Futurum) expresses, on the contrary, the unfinished, and hence the continuing and progressive (even in past time), that which is coming into being, and the future. The Imperfect. moreover, in a modified form (~ 48), is also used to express the relations of the Optative, the Jussive, and the Subjunctive. To which is to be added another peculiarity of the Hebrew diction, already noticed in ~ 49, viz. the attachment of Imperfects to a Perfect, and vice versa of Perfects to an Imperfect, by means of the Vav consecutive. The details are given in the following sections. It is a false view, which regards the so-called Perfect and Imperfect not as tenses, but as designed originally to express distinctions of mood rather than relations of time.* As examples of the Perfect and Imperfect used expressly to denote opposite relations of time, we refer to Is. xlvi. 4,._st nvi r). ' a. I have done it, and I will (still) bear (you); and ver. 11, i.t r. 'R nes nist'3~s ti1n. Ey I have spoken it and will bring it to pass, I have purposed and will accomplish it; Deut. xxxii. 21, Nah. i. 12, 1 K. ii. 38. ~126. USE OF THE PERFECT. The form of the Perfect stands 1. In itself and properly, for absolutely and fully past time (Praeteritum perfectum), e. g. Gen. iii. 10, 11, I'b ':l i who hath showed to thee? ver. 13, why hast thou done this? Comp. vs. 14, 17, 22. Hence it is used in narrating past events; Gen. i. 1, in the beginning God created (Perf.) the heaven and the earth; iv. 1, xxix. 17. Job i. 1, there was (Perf.) a man in the land of Uz; ii. 10. * On the contrary, very nearly corresponds the distinction of Actio perfecta and Actio infecta, introduced after Varro into Latin grammar. 224 PART III. SYNTAX. In continued narration, it is usually followed by the Imperfect, connected with it by Ftav consecutive, ~ 129, 1. 2. For the Plluperfect. Gen. ii. 2, 1= 't.R inR5Pt his work which he had made; ver. 5, Jehovah had not yet caused it to rain; vii. 9, xix. 27, xx. 18, xxvii. 30, xxxi. 20, Jon. i. 5. 3. For the abstract Present of our languages, where this denotes, a) a condition or property already long continued and still existing, as k'no I know, Jobix. 2, x. 13; l. Tb I know not, Gen. iv. 9; r.^t? Ihate,* Ps. xxxi. 7;?'_ I amnt rightcous, Job xxxiv. 5;.b.r thou art great, Ps. civ. 1;:i? I am little, Gen. xxxii. 11; or b) an already existing, but still recurring (habitual) action or state (frequent in expressing general truths); as, m1._ I say, I think, Job vii. 13, Ps. xxxi. 15.-Ps. i. 1; happy the man, who walkls not (:~ T) in the counsel of the wicked, nor stands ('~_) in the way of sinners, nor sits (6' ) in the seat of scoffers; x. 3, cxix. 30, 40. Here, in the sphere of our Present, the Perfect and Imperfect meet. The one or the other is used, according as the speaker regards the action or state expressed by the verb as one that before existed, but still subsisting, or perhaps just then completed; or, as then about coming to pass, continuing, perhaps happening at the moment (comp. ~ 127, 2). We accordingly find, in about the same sense, r.b51 bI Ps. xl. 13, and b5_ ~5 Gen. xix. 19, xxxi. 35. Often, in such cases, Perfects and Imperfects are intermingled; e. g. Is. v. 12, Prov. i. 22, Job iii. 17, 18. 4. The Perfect refers even to future time; namely, in asseverations and assurances, where the will of the speaker views the act as done, as the same as carried into effect. Our Present also, in such cases, is readily used for the Future. So in contracts, or promises of the nature of a contract e. g. Gen. xxiii. 11, Igive ('r_",) thee thefield; ver. 13, Igive ('rln_) moneyfor the field; especially when it is God who makes the promise (Gen. i. 29, xv. 1S, xvii. 20): and also where one expresses himself with confidence, especially when declaring what God is about to do; e. g. Ps. xxxi. 6, Vi:k?~I thou, 0 God, deliverest me. Hence it is frequent in animated description of the future, and in prophecies; e. g. Is. ix. 1, the people, that walk in darkness, see (IRn) a great light; v. 13, therefore, my people goes into cap* As in Latin, novi, memini, odi, in Gr. oieSa,,ll7uvrluat. ~ 126. USE OF THE PERFECT. 225 tivity (ri5s); vs. 14, 17, 25, 26; xi. 1, 2, 4, 6, 10. In these cases, also, it alternates with the Imperfect; e. g. Is. v.-Comp. No. 6. In Arabic also, the Perfect, strengthened indeed by the particle n. is employed in the emphatic expression of a promise, and the like. Thus it is said: 1 have already given it thee; i. e. it is as good as done. Similar to this is the use of the Lat. perii, and the Gr. olIlola, &de9ooas II. 15, 128.* 5. Of the relative tenses, those are expressed by the Perfect in which the past is the principal idea, viz. a) the Imperfect subjunctive (which is also expressed by the Imperfect, ~ 127, 5); e. g. Is. i. 9,.l:,f tb. IV t.V?? we should have been [essemus] as Sodom, we should have been like Gomorrha; Job iii. 13; b) the Pluperfect subjunctive; e. g. Is. i. 9, qrhil.b5l if he had not left; Num. xiv. 2,.ur. lb if we had but died! (.b with the Imperfect would be, if we might but die! ~ 136, 2); Judges xiii. 23; Job x. 19,,Tf H. b "I -': I should be as if Ihad never been; c) the Future perfect (futurum exactuim); e. g. Is. iv. 4, Gai Mt when he shall have washed away, prop. when he hath washed away; vi. 11.-Gen. xliii. 14,.bSTl }tIt P.b15t if I am bereaved (for shall be, ubi orbusfutero), then am I bereaved (expression of hopeless resignation). 6. In the cases hitherto considered, the Perfect stands by itself, independently, and without any immediate connection with verbs that precede it. But its uses are no less various, when it is connected by 1 (Vav consecutive of the Perfect) with a preceding verb; it then connects itself also (in signification) with the tense and mood of that verb. The tone, in this case, is thrown forward; see ~49, 3. It is thus useda) Most frequently with reference to future time, when preceded by the Imperfect. E. g. Gen. xxiv. 40, Jehovah will send his angel IW"! n.b2' and prosper thy way (prop. and then he * The assurance, that something shall take place, can also serve for the expression of a wish that it may take place. So in Gen. xl. 14, li1 8. -v3,;-nsi-'s ^'1, ':hSt.t? and deal kindly with me (prop. and thou dealest kindly with me, I hope) and make mention of me, &c. The addition of M! puts this sense of the Perfect here beyond doubt. The Arabic also employs the Perfect, in the expression of a wish and of earnest entreaty. In Hebrew, see also Job xxi. 16, the counsel of the wicked.n liT be far from me! xxii. 18. Comp. the use of the Perfect consecutive, after the Imperative No. 6, c. 15 226 PART III. SYNTAX. prospers); Judg. vi. 16, 1 Sam. xvii. 32. Here the Future, as the discourse proceeds, passes over into the narrative form of the Prceterite; and this use of the Perfect is connected, in signification, with that explained in No. 4. b) For the Present subjunctive, when that is the meaning of the preceding Imperfect (~ 127, 3). E. g. Gen. iii. 22, nbit.:Ne M^_ nti lest he put forth his hand and take and eat; prop. and so takes and eats. xxii. 12, xix. 19, Num. xv. 40, Is. vi. 10. c) For the Imperative, when this form precedes. Gen. vi. 21, _iStt T p nip take for thysel, and gather; prop. and then thou gatherest. xxvii. 43, 44, 1 K. ii. 36. As under letter a, the expression of command here passes over into plain narration of what is to be done. The Perfect is sometimes separated from the Vav; Ps. xxii. 22. d) For past or present time, when this is expressed by a preceding Perfect or Imperfect. Rein. 1. The Perf. with Vav consec. has also reference to future time. when preceded by any indication of' futurity; as Exod. xvi. 6, 7. S'_l..V:? at even, then ye shall know; xvii. 4, yet a little while..&.)~ and they will stone me; 1 Sam. xx. 18, 1 K. ii. 42, Ex. xxxix. 27; aiter a participle referring to future time. 1 K. ii. 2. But also, without any previous indication of futurity. after antecedent clauses implying: a) a cause, or b) a condition, the Perf. with Vav consec. is employed in the sense of the Future (and Impjeratire). For letter a, comp. Num. xiv. 24, because another spirit is with hitm 1T1S:mn. therefore 'will I bring him; and without the causal particle, Ger. xx, 11, there is nofear of God in the land, in-rni and therefore they will kill ame (for, because there is none. therfore); xlv. 12, 13, Ex. vi. 6. Comp. Ps. xxv. 11,for thy name's sake, mn. 1 therefore forgive (or, zilt thou forgive). For letter b, comp. Gen. xxxiii. 10, if I have found grace, r}n.. then take; and without the conditional particle (~ 155, 4, a). xliv. 22, leaves he (iflie leaves) his father, rnl then he dies. xxviii. 29, xlii. 38, Is. vi. 7. lo. touches this (if this touches) thy lips, '101 then departs &c. 1 K. iii. 14.-Also with various other references to the present, there is connected the expression, by means of I with the Perfect, either 1) of futurity (Judges xiii. 3. thou art unfruitful b_? r'n but thou shalt conceive and bear; 1 Sam. ix. 8. here is a quarter shekel, riP51~ that will Igire); or 2) of a wish (Ruth iii. 9, Iam Ruth:E therefore spread out &c.); or 3) of an interrogation (Ex. v. 5: the people are numerous in the land, cnri r=t'DUw and would ye let them rest? Gen. xxix. 15. 1 Sam. xxv. 10, 11). 2. A very frequent formula of the prophetic style (like eni and it came to pass, in narration) is n~1 and it will come to pass, either with ~ 127. USE OF THE IMPERFECT. 227 a preceding Future, or without it (see Rem. 1), especially when a specification of time is added; as Is. vii. 18, phti.n~r tn:in l.. ~127. USE OF THE IMPERFECT. The significations of the Imperfect are even more various, perhaps, than those of the Perfect. But here, the language can give a more definite expression to certain modal relations, by lengthened and shortened forms of the Imperfect (see ~48), namely the Jussive and the Cohortative (~ 128). Here also, the Vav consecutive has a very comprehensive and important application (~ 129). The shortening, however, as already stated (~48, 4), is not apparent in all forms, at least in the mode of writing them; and, aside from this, usage is not constant, the common Imperfect being also employed in almost all the relations for which the shortened one was formed. The Hebrew Imperfect is, in general, directly the opposite of the Perfect, and accordingly expresses the unfinished, what is coming to pass, and is future; but also what is continuing and in progress at any period of time, even in the past. See p. 88, Note. Accordingly the Imperfect stands1. For the proper future; Gen. ix. 11, b.-at 'i: tn,~ ~b there shall not again be a flood; 1 K. i. 13, 24, 30, "M. ': b he will (or shall) reign after me; also, in narration for the future with reference to some point of time in the past, as 2 Kings iii. 27, thefirst-born who was to reign (regnaturus erat). 2. As often also for present time; 1 Kings iii. 7, ',s.. MS I know not; Is. i. 13, b.IN S) I cannot bear. Gen. xxxvii. 15. It is employed especially in the expression of permanent states and conditions, which are now and always will be (where the Perfect also is used, but more rarely, ~ 124, 3, a, b), and hence in the expression of general truths. E. g. Gen. xliii. 32, the Egyptians may not eat with the Hebrews; Job iv. 17, is man just before God? ii. 4; Prov. xv. 20, 3s ratm? t?: I a wise son rejoices his father. This is very frequent in Job and in Proverbs. In the same formula is used sometimes the Perfect, and sometimes the Imperfect, but not necessarily without any difference of meaning, e. g. Job i. 7, 9=n la~. whence comest thou? Gen. xvi. 8. rim '~.-i whence didst thou come? 228 PART III. SYNTAX. 3. For a number of relations which in Latin are expressed by the Subjunctive, especially by the Present Subjunctive; namely the future, or what is to be, according to a subjective view or in some other conditional relation. Thus it standsa) For the Subjunctive after particles signifying that, that not (ut, nC), as T'1, especially 'z i2_, and wb. (without 'W), also 't~ ]2 that, in order that.* E. g. Gen. xi. 7, b '~1 ~ atl that they may not understand; Num. xvii. 5, ]2~ 'm~ b 'il that he may not come near; Deut. iv. 1, t1'? '1Un: in order that ye may live; Ez. xii. 12,,;in lb tk q ]2_ in order that he may not see; and also after 7. that not, lest, e. g. N'i 1^ ' Gen. iii. 22. b) For the Optative; Job iii. 3, ti,3k` pereat dies; vs. 5, 6, 8; vi. 9. In this signification, the lengthened or shortened form is properly employed (~ 12S, 1, 2), often with the particle lS;t e. g. ^:-'T~. Ps. vii. 10, O that might cease! ^"_;.__ Gen. xliv. 18, thy servant would speak, i. e. let thy servant speak. Ver. 33, N"m': let him, Ipray, remain. Sometimes, however, the common Imperfect occurs in place of the shortened one, even when the latter is distinctly formed; e. g.,Sn let there appear, Gen. i. 9; comp. xli. 34; MIN S Job iii. 9. c) For the Imperative, for which, in negative commands (prohibitions): it always stands; when prohibitory, with ri, as: ^5r... thou shalt not steal, Ex. xx. 15; when in the sense of dissuasion, of a wish or opinion that something should not be done. with a, as: ^.n %' do not fear Gen. xlvi. 3, Job iii. 4, 6, 7. Here too, especially in connection with 5b, the proper form is the Jussive, viz. the shortened Imperfect. It is also used for the Imperative when the third person is required, and for the Imperative in the passive conjugations, where this form does not exist (see ~ 46). E. g. L'I let there be light, Gen. i. 3; rt.' let him be put to death, Ex. xxxv. 2. Comp. ~12S, 2. d) For the so-called Potential, where we use may, can, might, cold, &c.. g. Gen. ii. 16, '"'n bi thou mayest eat; Whenl these particles have a different signification, the Imperfect is not used; e. g. ]i because, with the Perf. Judg. ii. 20, '... because, Gen. xxxiv. 27. t The particle m; (~ 105) gives to the verb the form of a request and of a wish. On the use of it with the first person, see 6 128, 1. ~ 127. USE OF THE IMPERFECT. 229 Prov. xx. 9, m'e '. who can say? Gen. xliii. 7, S.:. ~T could we know? Gen. xx. 9, -a? hi tt. which may not (or should not) be done. 4. The idea of the Imperfect falls even within the sphere of the past; and, chiefly, in the following cases: a) After the particles tR then,* V:= not yet, O:t. (when not yet) before.t E. g. Josh. x. 12, s 'n, l TR then spake Joshua; Gen. ii. 5, "t? t? there was not yet; Gen. xxxvii. 18;..t:1n V before thou camest forth, Jer. i. 5. Compare the use of the Perf. and Impf. in the same sentence, 1 Sam. iii. 7. b) Often also of continuous, constantly repeated acts, of customary and habitual action, like the Imperfect of the Latin and French languages. Repeated or customary action involves the idea of continued renewal, the incomplete, the unfinished, which lies in the conception of the Imperfect. 1 K. iii. 4, a thousand burnt-offerings did Solomon offer (ns). Job i. 5, thus did (nw?) Job continually; xxii. 6, 7, 8, xxix. 12, 13, Judg. xiv. 10, 1 Sam. i. 7, 1 Kings v. 25, Is. x. 6, Ps. xxxii. 4, xlii. 5. But alsoc) Of singly occurring, transient events, where the Perfect might be expected.+ So at least in the poets, as we use the Present tense in lively description of the past. Job iii. 3, perish the day f.ibZ, wherein I was born; ver. 11, rt.a n YriO. b, b wherefore died I not from the womb? iv. 12, 15, 16, x. 10, 11. 5. For the Imperfect Subjunctive, especially in conditional sentences (the modus conditionalis) both in the protasis and apodosis. Ps. xxiii. 4, fe l... ~ I' = Dt even if I should * But when 1T signifies then with reference to futurity, the Imperfect has a future sense (Ex. xii. 48). 1 The term not-yet, implying something yet to be, not yet existing, could not be followed, in the Hebrew's conception, by the expression of the finished and past. He must therefore use the Imperfect tense, with reference to the point of time indicated by iT D. —So of 7N; the act following it is conceived as something proceeding onward from that point of time, not as a thing then completed and past.-TR.: This would seem irreconcilable with the idea of the Imperfect; but it certainly lies in the examples adduced. In Job iii. 3, the wish is predicated of the day, when he was yet to be born; (in the verses following, treated as a past reality.) Ver. 11 belongs, properly, to letter a; from the womb (= from birth) being the point of time, at which the act is conceived as belonging to the future. In iv. 12, 15, 16, the instantaneous is excluded by the nature of the case. Still more clear is x. 10, 11.-TR. 230 PART III. SYNTAX. go... I should not fear; Job v. 8, I would apply unto God (were I in thy place): ix. 21, I nust be ignorant of myself (should I speak otherwise); x. 18, I had died, and no eye had seen me; iii. 16, vi. 14. In this case, also, the shortened form of the Imperfect is appropriate (~ 128, 2, c). ~ 128. USE OF THE LENGTIIENED AND SHORTENED IMPERFECT (COHORTATIVE AND JUSSIVE). 1. The Imperfect with the ending t-; (Cohortative), found almost exclusively in the first person, is expressive of purpose or endeavor (~ 48, 3); and hence is employed, a) to express excitement of one's self, or a determination, with some degree of emphasis. Ps. xxxi. 8, rttR. n.i let ne be glad and rejoice ii. 3; r.. p^ come! let us break asunder. Also, with less emphasis, in soliloquy; Ex. iii. 3, r.l~ S;.r D I will go now and see; Gen. xxxii. 21; b) to express a wish, a request (for leave to do something); Deut. ii. 27,;1i5 let me pass through; Num. xx. 17, m~-siy_ let us pass through, I pray thee; c) to express an object or design, when it is commonly joined by 8 to a preceding Imperative; Gen. xxvii. 4, bring it hither,,m}ik and I will eat ==that I may cat; xxix. 21, xlii. 34, Job x. 20. More seldom, d) it stands in conditional sentences with if, though, expressed or implied, Job xvi. 6, xi. 17, Ps. cxxxix. 8. It also stands, e) frequently after Vav consecutive (~ 41, 2). In Jcremiah, it is used to give force and emphasis of almost every kind; iii. 25, iv. 19, 21, vi. 10. 2. The shortened Imperfect (the Jussive) is used principally, a) in the expression of command, wish, as X2'n proferat Gen. i. 24 (on the contrary, Indicative, i8"v1 proferet Is. lxi. 11); t3p sistat Jer. xxviii. 6; W'!. ~ utinam sit xxx. 34; and joined to an Imperative by I (comp. No. 1, c), Ex. viii. 4, entreat Jehovah '" and let him take away= that he may take away; x. 17, Judg. vi. 30, 1 Kings xxi. 10, Esth. vii. 2 (1t.3l);* b) in prohibition and negative entreaty, as "trf 9b thou shalt not bring back, Gen. xxiv. 8; rntU-_' do not destroy, Deut. ix. 26; in the tone of request, ^2^]r gw-b_ do not turn me away [1 K. * On these two cases (a and b), see ~ 127, b and c. ~ 129. IMPERFECT WITH VAV CONSECUTIVEM3 231 ii. 20]; of warning, ~ R ne confidat Job xv. 31, xx. 17; c) often in conditional clauses (the u sage of the Arabic) both in the protasis and apodosis. E. g. Ps. xlv. 12 (1$) civ. 20 (ntniand 'fl) Hos. vi. 1 (p"), Is. 1. 2 (rnbni), Gen. iv. 12 (~n) Lev. xv. 24 ("on.. tl), Job x. 16, xiii. 5, xvii. 2, xxii. 28, 1 Samn. vii. 3 (~24); d) after Vav consecutive (~ 49, 2). As the distinction of the Jussive from the common form of the Imperfect, by its orthography, is very far from universal (~ 48, 4, and ~ 127, 3, b) c), it is sometimes uncertain how this tense should be understood; especially as, in the poets, the shortened form occurs, now and then, where the common one might be used without essential difference in the sense; e. g. Ps. xxx. 9. The.Jussive then expresses rather a subjective view, it may be, it might, should, could be, as the sense and connection in each passage require. ~ 129. USE OF THLE IMPERFECT WITH VAY CONSECUTIVE. 1. The Imperfect with Vav, consecutive ( an qd then killed he, ~ 49, 2), stands only in close connection with what precedes. Most usually, a narration begins with the Perfect, and is then continued by Imperfects with Vav consecutive. This is the usual way of relating past events. E. g. Gen. iv. 1, and Adam knew (Y)Eve his wife, and she conceived and bare (~I= I 1#I.1 Cain; VI. 9, 10, &C., X. 9, 10, 15, 19, xi. 12, 13-5 27 28, Xiv. 5, &c., xv. 1, 2, xvi. 1, 2, xxi. 1, &c., xxiv. 1, 2, xxv. 19, 20, &C., xxxvi. 2-4, xxxvii. 2.* But where there is a connection with earlier events, the ITmpf. with Vav consecutive may commence the narration, or a division of it. Very often, it begins with "*3'l (Xcct C;r&v'To) and it happened Gen. xi. 1,' xiv. 1, xvii. 1, xxii. 1, xxvi. 1, xxvii. 1;t rItrI ' l and Jehovah said, xii. 1. *Sometimes, the preceding Perfect is only implied in the sense; e. g. Gen. xi. 10,,Sem (was) a hundred years old '*ll and then he begat; x. 1. So also in the following sentence: on the third day Y41V-1 Kk'~ then he lifted up hi's eyes; fully expressed: it ha~ppened on the third day, and then -; Gen. xxii. 4, Is. xxxvii. 18, vi. 1. f This connection is the usual one, when a designation of time is to be introduced; e. g. Gen. xxii. 1, 1-' T 64M1 '1*1XII vi, 'W1, ~'I and it happened after these things, that God tried; xxvi. 8, rj11In 9Z'1 1jb xxxix. 13, 15, 18, 19, Judg. xvi. 16, 25. See the numerous passages in Gesenius, Thes. Ling. Hebr. p. 372. In like manner we find IM1M used of the future; see ~ 126, Rem. 2. 232 232 ~~~PART Ill. SYNTAX. It slandls also, especially, a) afIler the prot-asis; c. g. after because, as in 1 Sara. xv. 23, because thou hast rejected the wor(l of.Jehovah., '-)X1 therefore lhe rejects thee; Gen. xxxiii. 10; after since ()Job iv. 5; b) after an absolute substantive, e. g. 1 Kings xii. 17, as for the children of Israel, 1?ehoboam reig-ned over them; ix. 21, Dan. viii. 22.* In such sentences as the following,.~ may he rendered that: Ps. cxliv. 3, what is mnan r,11:1i that thou regardest him! (comp. Ps. viii. 5 where 'i is used); Is. Ii..12, who art thou "W~r1 that thou shouldest fear? But here, the thought is properly: of howv little accouat is man; and yet, thou dost regard him. 2. As to the relations of time denoted by it, the liipe~fect of consecution refers, according to the tense which precedes it, cithera) To present timie; namely:. in continued description of it, with a preceding Pei~fect (as a Present; Gen. xxxii. 6, Is. ii. 7, 8, Job vii. 9, xiv. 2); or linpei~fect (as a Present; Job xiv. 10, 1 Sam. ii. 29); or Participle; Nah. i. 4, 2 Sam. xix. 2, Amn-os ix. 6. b) Or, less frequently, to futurity; with a preceding Peifect (as a IThiture; Is. v. 15-, 16, xxii. 7, 8, Joel ii. 23, Micah ii. 13, Ps. cxx. 1); or Jussive (Joel ii. 18, 19); or Imp)erative, Ps. 1. 6; also, when joined to a clause without a verb, Gen. xlix. 15o; or to an absolute substantive, Is. ix. 11.; or leading back to the future, Is. ii. 9, ix. 13. In the apodosis, after.46 stan(ds 'It Is. xlviii. 18. 19. for then had been; and ~'ZIt- in a coaditional clause, Ps. cxxxix. 11, for and (if) 1 should say; comp. the common Imperfect ~ 127, 5. ~ 130. OF TIIE IMPERATIVE. 1. The Imperative expresses not only command in the proper sense, but also exhortation (Flos. x. 12), entreaty (2 King s v. 22, and with Nl~, Is. v. 3), wish~ (Ps. viii. 2, and with * Gen. xxiii. 13), permission (2 Sam. xviii. 23, Is. xlv. 11). It is employed especially in strong assurances (comp. thou shalt have it, wvhich expresses both a command and a lpromise); and hence in pro*On the sentences which begin with the In~finitive or Participle and then pro. ceed with this Future of consecution, see ~ 132, Rem. 2, and ~ 134, Rem. 2. ~ 130. THE IMPERATIVE. 233 phetic declarations, as Is. vi. 10, thou shalt make the heart of this people hard for thou wilt make. These may be either a) promises, Ps. cxxviii. 5, thou shalt see (,b) the prosperity of Jerusalem; Is. xxxvii. 30, lxv. 18, Ps. xxii. 27, Gen. xx. 7; or b) threatenings* Is. xxiii. 1, wail, ye ships of Tarshish, for ye shall (will) wail; vs. 2, 4, x. 30, xiii. 6. In all these cases the use of the Imperative approaches very near to that of the Imperfect, which may therefore precede (Gen. xx. 7, xlv. 18) or follow it (Is. xxxiii. 20) in the same signification. A more lively expression is given to the Imperative, in almost all its senses, by the addition of the particle bs age! (~ 105); particularly, in command, as well its milder form (do now, this or that) Gen. xxiv. 2, as that of rebuke and menace, Num. xvi. 26, xx. 10; and in entreaty, &~ mos Gen. xii. 13. Tauntingly permissive is M:.nt., Is. xlvii. 12. persist now! 2. We may, from the above, explain the peculiar use of two Imperatives usually connected by and: a) where they are employed in a good sense, the first containing an admonition or exhortation, and the second a promise made on the condition of obedience implied in it (like divide et impera! Engl. do well and have well). E. g. Gen. xlii. 18.fi. 'lt r st this do, and (ye shall) live; Prov. xx. 13, keep thine eyes open (be wakeful, active), and thou shalt have plenty of bread; Ps. xxxvii. 27 (comp. ver. 3), Prov. vii. 2, ix. 6, Job xxii. 21, Is. xxxvi. 16, xlv. 22, Hos. x. 12, Amos v. 4, 6; b) where a threat is expressed, and the first Imperative tauntingly permits an act, while the second declares the consequences; Is. viii. 9, -iln V.= -.V rage ye people, and ye shall soon be dismayed; xxix. 9. In the second member, the Imperfect also may be used; Is. vi. 9, viii. 10, 1 Sam. xvii. 44. Rem. 1. How far the Perf and Impf: may also be employed to express command, has been shown in ~ 126, 6, c, and ~ 127, 3, c, ~ 128, 2. 2. It has been incorrectly asserted by some grammarians, that the form of the Imperative is used, in certain passages, for the third person (let him kill). E. g. Gen. xvii. 10, n:n-b. =: i'rit let every male among you be circumcised. (In verse 12 'g is used. But insan is the Infinitive, which gives the same sense, ~ 131,4, b). Ps. xxii. 9 (i; Infin.); Gen. xxxi. 50, Judges ix. 28, Is. xlv. 21 (in the last three passages are actual Imperatives of the 2d person). * Analogous is the form of contemptuous menace in the comic writers, vapula, Terent. Phorm. V. 6, 10, vapulare tejubeo Plaut. Curculio, IV. 4, 12. 234 PART III. SYNTAX. 131. USE OF TIIE INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. The Infinitive absolute is employed, as has been remarked in ~ 45, 1, when there is occasion to express the abstract idea of the verb by itself, neither in connection with what follows, nor in dependence on a preceding noun or particle.* The most important cases in which it is used, are: 1. When it is governed by a transitive verb, and consequently stands as an accusative. Is. xlii. 24, ':in '=b 9 they would not go; vii. 15, mi'-_ Cr'i.,n D ' iW. un9til he learn to refuse the evil and to choose the good; Jer. ix. 4.; Here, however, the Inf. constr. is oftener used, either with or without a preposition, according to the construction of the preceding verb, 142, 1, 2. In the same construction is Is. xxii. 13, behold! joy and gladness f'1n ]x Ulmnj'l un 1 '_in M the slaying (prop. to slay) oxen, the slaughtering sheep, the eating flesh, the drinkin-g wine (where the Ikfin. is a mere accusative governed by behold!); v. 5, I will tell you what I will do to my vineyard. 'n.: Yin(....in q.;n nbpt the taking away (to take away) its hedge and the tearing down its wall,-q. d. that will I do. 2. When it is in the accusative and used adverbiallyt (the Latin gerund in do); e.. 'M bene faciendo, for bene,,mm multum faciendo, for mn ltum. Hence, 3. When it is used emphatically, in connection with a finite verb. a) It then stands most commonly before the finite verb, to which it adds, in general, an expression of intensity. 1 Sam. xx. 6, 'e'A 5i.: bt.: he urgently besought of me; Gen. xliii. 3, he strictly charged us ( '. ';7.). A very clear example is in Amos ix. 8, I will destroy it from the surface of the earth, * Where the Inf. constr. is always used. But when several successive infinitives are to have a preposition, it is often written only before the first, and the second (before which it is to be mentally supplied) stands in the absolute form; as a'nm b.-i to eat and (to) drink, Ex. xxxii. 6; comp. 1 Sam. xxii. 13, xxv. 26. Jer. vii. 18, xliv. 17. This case is analogous with that explained ~ 121, 3. Comp. also No. 4, a, of this section. t On the Accusative as a casus adverbialis, see ~ 118. In Arabic, in this case, it takes expressly the accusative ending. In most cases (see Nos. 1, 2, 3, of this section), the Inf. absol. answers clearly to the Accusative of the Infinitive, and to this No. 4 also is to be referred. ~ 131. USE OF THE INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. 235 except that I will not utterly destroy (F`.tS rT*# 9d). Judg. i. 28. Its effect is often merely to give a certain prominence to the thought contained in the finite verb,-which in other languages is done chiefly by the expression of the voice or by particles,-as in assurances, questions (such especially as express excitement in view of something strange and improbable), contrasts; Gen. xliii. 7, could we (then) know? xxxvii. 8,.:*Y J'~y. qb^3 wilt thou (haply) rule over us? [is that likely to happen!] xxxi. 30, if thou wouldst needs be gone* (nbt J:ibi), because thou so earnestly longest (ib.: m. a:); Judg. xv. 13, we will bind thee, but we will not kill thee; I Sam. ix. 6, 2 Sam. xxiv. 24, Hab. ii. 3. b) When the Infinitive stands after the finite verb, this connection generally indicates continued or lasting action. Is. vi. 9, S'ltl.SW.T hear on continually; Jer. xxiii. 17; Gen. xix. 9, D:W U~ti- and he must be always playing the judge! Two Infinitives may be thus used; 1 Sam. vi. 12, ibn..bn tIt they went going on and lowing, for they went on lowing as they went; 1 Kings xx. 37. Instead of a second Infinitive is sometimes used a finite verb (Jos. vi. 13), or a participle (2 Sam. xvi. 5). Rem. 1. This usage in regard to the position of the Infin. is certainly the common one, though not without exceptions. It sometimes follows the finite verb to which it gives emphasis and intensity, where the idea of repetition or continuance is excluded by the connection. Is. xxii. 17, Jer. xxii. 10, Gen. xxxi. 15, xlvi. 4, Dan. x. 11, 13. In Syriac, the Infin. when it expresses intensity stands regularly before, and in Arabic always after, the finite verb.-The place of the negative is commonly between the two (Ex. v. 23), seldom before them both (Gen. iii. 4). 2. With a finite verb of one of the derived conjugations may be connected not only the Infin. absol. of the same conjugation (Gen. xvii. 13, xl. 15), but also that of Kal (e. g. tl1;b I;: Gen. xxxvii. 33; Job vi. 2), or of another of the same signification (Lev. xix. 20, 2 Kings iii. 23). 3. In expressing the idea of continuance (letter b), the verb -7b5 is frequently employed, with the signification to go on, to continue on, and thus denotes also constant increase. E. g. Gen. xxvi. 13, 7b' 7i, 7i-j.5 and he became continually greater and greater. 2 Sam. v. 10; Gen. viii. 3, b i....... ir >12. and the waters flowed off continually. (The participial construction is also frequent here: e. g. 1 Sam. ii. 26, 3SS,::o bI:? -*bth I.n' the child Samuel went on increasing in stature and * That is, I understand why thou art gone, namely because of thy earnest longing. Vulgate: esto, ad tuos ire cupicbas. 236 PART III. SYNTAX. in goodness; 2 Sam. iii. 1). A similar mode of expression is found in the French: le nmal va toujours croissant, la maladie ra totjours en augmentant et en empirant, grows worse continually. 4. When it stands in place of the finite verb. We have here the two following cases; viz. a) When it is preceded by a finite verb. This is frequent, especially among the later writers, in the expression of several successive acts or states, where only the first of the verbs employed takes the required form in respect to tense and person, the others being in the Infinitive with the same distinctions implied. (Comp. ~ 121, 3.) E. g. with the Perf. Dan. ix. 5, lic!.:'"_ we have rebelled and (we have) turned away; Gen. xli. 43, he caused him to ride in the second chariot, r On ir,`l and placed him; 1 Sam. ii. 28, Jer. xiv. 5. With the Impf. Jer. xxxii. 44, they will buy fields for money (Impf.), and write and seal bills of sale, and take witnesses (three Infinitives); Num. xv. 35. b) It may stand at the beginning of the sentence, without a preceding finite verb; for the Infinitive (the pure abstract idea of the verb), serves as a short and emphatic expression for any tense and person which the connection requires. E. g. it stands cc) for the PeFf. in lively narration and description, like the Latin infinitivus historicus; Is. xxi. 5, i':L.h t bi:n rhtS n.:b,^7n W to prepare the table, to set the watch, to eat, to drink (sc. this they do), for they prepare, &c. lix. 4, Hos. iv. 2, EIz. i. 14, Job xv. 35; also fi) for the Inmpf. in the sense of the Future; 2 Kings iv. 43, i5::'rS. to eat and to leave thereof (sc. this ye shall do); y) most frequently for the emphatic Imp. (as in Greek); Deut. v. 12, 'zi~t to observe (sc. thou art to, ye are to); so Ex. xx. 8, '1T to remember (oughtest thou); hence, with the full for mn, wil n. w*nt, Deut. vi. 17; ^1T D5T, vii. 18. For the Cohortative Is. xxii. 13, irtl bi to eat and to drink! (sc. let us eat and drink.) 1 Kings xxii. 30 to disguise myself and go (I will disguise, &c.). Rem. 1. Very scllom is the Infin. for the finite verb found in connection with the subject, as in Job xl. 2; Ez. i. 14. 2. The cxamples are also few of the Ifin. constr. employed in these cases. Such are Is. lx. 14, where it is used adverbially like the gerund in do; Neh. i. 7 (5^), Ps. 1. 21 (nin),. Ruth ii. 16 (5b), Num. xxiii. 25 (:p), where it is connected with a finite verb. ~132: INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT. 237 ~132. INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT. 1. The Infinitive construct, as a verbal substantive, is subject to the same relations of case with the noun, and the modes of indicating them (~ 117) are also the same. Thus it is found, a) in the nominative as the subject of the sentence, Gen. ii. 18, ait.:nt nli,. =1 9b it is not good, (lit. the being of man in his separation) that man should be alone; b) in the genitive, Gen. xxix. 7, it3tl S terpus colligendi; here belongs also the case of an Infinitive depending on a preposition, as originally a noun, see No. 2; c) in the accusative, 1 Kings iii. 7,;Sj9 ti 011 rIN2 I know not (how) to go out and to come in, prop. I know not the going out and coming in. In this case the Inf. absol. may also be used, ~ 131, 1. 2. For the construction of the Inf. with a preposition, as in the Greek Ev r5 eivcct, the German and English languages generally employ a finite verb with a conjunction which expresses the import of the preposition. E. g. Num. xxxv. 19, q:-"S5. when he meets with him, prop. in his meeting with him. Jer. ii. 35, J:~; b~ because thou sayest, prop. on account of thy saying. Gen. xxvii. 1, his eyes were dim Hn'I so that he could not see.(comp. the use of 7' before a noun to express distance from, and the absence or want of a thing). The lexicon must be consulted, for particular information on the use of the different prepositions. 3. As to the relations of time expressed, the Infinitive may refer also to the past (comp. on the Participle, ~ 134, 2), e. g. Gen. ii. 4, UN11# when they were created (prop. in their being created). Rem. 1. m;irsb M, i (or rniS; with the omission of Mth) signifies, 1) he is about to do, intends or purposes to do, and he is intent upon, is eager to do (comp. Eng. I was to do something). Gen. xv. 12, ~,n:i'z b dJun and the sun was about going down. Hence it serves for a periphrasis of the Impf. 2 Chr. xxvi. 5, V:Is's. -r5 S'ei and he served God; without Sn, Is. xxxviii. 20,.:5ini,' MinTn Jehovah saveth me; xxi. 1, Eccles. iii. 15, Prov. xix. 8, comp. xvi. 20. 2) It is to do for it must be done (comp. Eng. I am to give for I must give). Jos. ii. 5,,'1 nitob.'& and the gate was to shut for was to be shut. More commonly,nI is omitted; 2 Kings iv. 13, rni; J rm what is to be [can be] done; 238 238 ~~~~PART III. SYNTAX. 2 Chr. xix. 2. Also 3) l~e was able to do (comp. the Lat. non est solvendo). Juidges i. 19, =-7i-I 9~ he could not drive out.* 2. The Hebrew writers frequently pass from the Infinitive construction (described in No. 2) to the use of the finite verb, before which the mind must then supply a conjunction answering to the preposition before the Infinitive. Thus the Perf. is connected with the Infiz. Amios. i. ii, i-mi -.ij,'~n bv because he pursued-and st~/led his comipassion; Gen. xxvii. 45; the Imipf. with Vat,. consec. Gen. xxxix. 18. 'g''-1 wihen I raised mny voice and cried; Is. xxx. 12, xxxviii. 9. Most usually the Inzpf. with the simple Iprefixed, as in Is. v. 24, x. 2, xiii. 9. xiv. 25, xxx. 26. Comnp. the similar succession of the participle and finite verb, ~ 134, Rem. 2. ~ 133. CONNECTION OF THE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT WITH SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 1. The Infinitive may be construed directly with the proper case of the verb, and hence, in transitive verbs, with ti e accusative of the object. E. g. Nurn. ix. 15, ='," to set u1p the Tabernacle; 1 Sam. xix. 1, '71- n"P' to kill David; Gen. xviii. 25, to kill the rigfhteous; I Kings xii. 15, xv. 4, 2 Kingrs xxi. 8, Ez. xliv. 30; Lev. xxvi. 15 1Z 2r, ito do all my commands; Gen. xix. 29, when lhe overthrew the cities; 1Prov. xxi. lo 5 to do Justice;t with the accusative of thre pronoun, Trt twM 1 in order- to establish thee, Det xi.1; obrn e ak Jer. xxxviii. 26; to slay me, Ex. ii. 24; to seek me, 1 Sam. xxvii. 1, v. 10, Xxviii.9, 1 Chron. Xii. 17; tri n quum (mater-) eos par-eret. So if the verb governs twNIo accusatives, as: since God hath caused thee to knowv all this, Gen. xli. 39. The Verbal Noun, analogrous to the Infinitive, retains the *The cotinection shows this to be the true sense, expressed in the parallel passage (Jo~lh. xvii. 12) by b.Comp. moreover, the H-ebrew 11b non licet mnihi, and the Syr. 11~nb non possunas (Agrell. Suppl. Synt. Syr. pp. 9, 10). t In examples like this, we might regard '~as genitive of the ol~ject (~ 114, 2), a construction common in Arabic; but as r., is used in other cxamipl-es, and as there never occurs in such a connection a form like rl (which would decidedly indicate the coastr. state and consequently the genitive relation), we must suppose that, as a general rule at least, the Hlebrews regarded the object of the Intfin. as an accusatir'-.;N Kos. 2 and 3. ~133. INF. CONSTR. WITH SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 239 same construction; e. g. S -l^ht 'tr knowledge of Jehovah (prop. the knowing Jehovah); Is. xi. 9; ri. 1141. to fear me, Deut. v. 26; Is. xxx. 28, lvi. 6.* 2. The subject of the action is usually placed immediately after the Infinitive, sometimes in the genitive (where the Inf. is regarded rather as a substantive), sometimes, and for the most part, in the nominative. E. g. 2 Chron. vii. 3, Aim# hrn the coming down of the fire; Ps. cxxxiii. 1, 'Il 0 I:1.M r3l. the dwelling of brethren together; Ex. xvii. 1, there was no water r t1nir.b for the people to drink (prop. for the drinking of the people). That the subject is in the genitive, is very clear after Infinitives with a feminine ending; as in Gen. xix. 16, rbn.. *55 *01r'1 on account of Jehovah's compassionfor him; Is. xlvii. 9, k[it:.t. ht. S though thy enchantments are very many; and also when it is a suffix, as in ".jr when I call, Ps. iv. 2, 4 (but also incorrectly,?t when I return, Ez. xlvii. 7, for 0.lt. ). On the contrary, the relation of genitive is excluded, and the subject is rather to be regarded as the nominative, in Ps. xlvi. 3, Y. 'at. (not '.".) when the earth shakes; Deut. xxv. 19, BT1b M- tunt when Jehovah gives thee rest; 2 Sam. xix. 20, i-'~:i:.^ bui that the king should lay it to heart; also where the Inf. and its subject are separated, as in Judg. ix. 2, 'lt7 0Jg ~ b=' tIN. tl. it:=1 ian_ whether that seventy men rule over you, or that one man rules over you? Job xxiv. 22, 1o t b:Ct ',rl.n. that the workers of iniquity may hide themselves there; Ps. lxxvi. 10. See farther in No. 3. 3. When the object of the Infinitive, as well as its subject, is to be expressed, the subject is regularly placed next after the Inf. and then the object. The latter is here manifestly the accusative; but the subject stands, as in No. 2, sometimes in the genitive, but most commonly in the nominative. The genitive (prevalent in the Arabic) shows itself, e. g. in Deut. i. 27, nrs. ~Tnk: \lmn because Jehovah hates us; Is. xiii. 19, b'3l.'b nln7t CO~-M tas God overthrew oSodom; Deut. vii. 8, 1 Kings x. 9; Is. xxix. 13, nfi trI. their (eorum) reverence for me; Gen. xxxix. 18, i.p l?.). when I lifted up my voice. But the nominative occurs, e. g. in Is. x. 15, il~w?.-rn 1 V3..:.p.3 as if the rod could shake him that lifts it up (where the form would * For examples of an aceus. of the object with the Inf. passive, see ~ 143, 1, a. 240 240 ~~~~PART III. SYNTAX. be if %= were the genitive); and so, commonly, the subject is to be regarded as the nominative, e. g. 1 Kings xiii. 4, vi l v J. MU ~:6 when the iking heard the word of the man of God. Gen. xiii. 10, Josh. xiv. 7, 2 Sam. iii. 11, Jer. xxi. 1, Ez. xxxvii. 13.-If the finite verb governs a double accusative, the samie construction is employed also with the Infinitive, as in Gen. xli. 39, 17~i =1fX "I since God hath caused thee to know all this. It is an unusual order of the words. when the object is placed first after the Infinitive, and then the nominative of the sulbject is added by way of comnplement; e. gr. Is. xx. 1,.' when Sargon sent him; Ezra ix. 8, 1 —!S *.~%% 'nsc that our God m7ay enlighten our eyes; 2 Chron. xii. 1, tYv'r ic~ hen, Rehoboam had established the kingdom. Josh. Xiv. 11, Is. v. 24, xxix. 23. Ps. Mv. 1. ~134. USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 1. The only existing form of the Participle is used to express all the relations of time, as rl dying (Zech. xi. 9); hie who has died, dead (so very often); he who is to die (Gen. xx. 3); he who falls, has fallen, will fall; 711''?Ifacttirus (Gen. xli. 205, Is. v.5); though it most frequently has the sigrnification of the Pre sent. Tjhe passive participles may therefore stand for the Latin Participle in -nduts, e. gr. N1m netuendus, terrible, Ps. lxxvi. 8 laudandus, worthy to be praised, Ps. xviii. 4. 2. The P~articiple, standing in place of the finite verb as predicate of the sentence, denotes a) Mlost frequently the Present. ' Eccles. i. 4, IA one 71 II.7 generation goes, another comies; ver. 7, ' ~~ all the rivers flow...; Gen. iv. 10. If the, subj ect is a p~ersonal pronoun, it is either written, in its full form, in immediate connection with the participle, as '9b. Ifear Gen. xxxii. 12, "I~MXwe are affraid 1 Sam. xxiii. 3; or it is appended as a suffix to teword &9 (is), as Judges vi. 36, rq,,~ if thou savest. In the same Manner it is appended, in negative sentences, to -14 e. g. r~~,~. 4 if thou send him not, Gen. xliii. 5. Hence b) the Future (conceived as present, comnp. 6~ 126, 4). Is. v. 5, I will tell you -4'It! '9" hiiR what I do, for what I will do. Gen. xix. 13. xli. 23. 1 K. Li.14. * In Syr-iac anid Chaldee it is more frequently used thus than in its proper signification as a participle. ~ 135. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. 241 Also c) the Past, especially when it stands connected with the statement of past and contemporaneous circumstances. Job i. 16, it is:i Inl lm'i' the one (was) still speaking when another came; ver. 17. Gen. xlii. 35, Ex. ii. 6, Judges xiii. 9, 1 Sam. xvii. 23, 1 K. i. 5, 22. But it is also used with reference to past time, and even for the perfect Preterite, without any such connection; e. g. Deut. iv. 3, rlinr', ti:.S your eyes which have seen.* With the verb tt" it serves as a periphrasis of the lmperfect.t Job i. 14, rnqtn stn.m nM (as in English) the oxen were ploughing; Gen. xv. 17, Judges i. 7, xvi. 21. Rem. 1. In all the three cases, a, b, c, IM1 is employed before the participle for awakening special attention. E. g. (a) where the Part. stands for the Present, nimt qIs behold! thou (art) with child Gen. xvi. 11, xxvii. 42, Ex.'xxxiv. 11; b) for the Future, Gen. vi. 17, Is. iii. 1. vii. 14, xvii. 1; c) for the Past, Gen. xxxvii. 7, xli. 17. 2. Often, the construction is changed, from the participial form to that of the finite verb; the pronouns who, or which, &c. ('nWv) implied in the participle, must then be mentally supplied before the verb. E. g. the Part. and Perf. in Is. xiv. 17, who made (bt) the earth a wilderness, and (who) destroyed ('_M) the cities thereof; xliii. 7; Part. and Impf. (Present), with or without I before the second clause, e. g. Is. v. 8, q~?. b m, '= nir nr n=.'= ''a. il woe to those who connect house with house, and (who) join field to field; vs. 11, 23, xxxi. 1, 1 Sam. ii. 8, Prov. xix. 26; also with Vav consec., e. g. Gen. xxvii. 33, so 'ar t I.1O who hunted game and brought it; xxxv. 3; Ps. xviii. 33. (Compare the strictly analogous change from the Infinitive-construction, ~ 132. Rem. 2.) 135. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. When participles are followed by the object of the action which they express, they are construed in two ways: 1) as verbal adjectives having the same regimen as the verbs to which they belong; e. g. 1 Sam. xviii. 29, l.'-r1 MS' David's enemy (prop. one that hated David); 1 Kings ix. 23, OT l::hn they who rule over the people; Ez. ix. 2, t2- tl 'b clothed with linen garments: 2) as nouns followed by a genitive (~ 112, 2); e. g. Gen. xxii. 12, l::i.'. f?1 one that fears (a fearer of) God; Ps. lxxxiv. 5, r"l. i1 they that dwell in (inmates of) thy house; Ez. ix. 11,:',t' %t1.b the one clothed with linen gar* For the use of the article here before the predicate, see ~ 110, 3, Rem. t In Syriac, the Present and Imperfect are expressed, directly, by interfciens ego (comp. letter a), and interficiens fui -= interficiebam. 16 242 PART III. SYNTAX. ments; V,?. ^ those whose garments are rent, 2 Sam. xiii. 31; lV ^.1W he whose guilt is forgiven, Ps. xxii. 1. This latter construction with the genitive is properly confined to active verbs (~ 138). The participle of the verb ^,., to enter in, is also construed thus, as this verb is followed by the accusative (comp. ingredi portam); e.g. Gen. xxiii. 10, T_' 4a those who enter in at the gate. But there are also examples of the participle followed by a genitive, in cases where the verb to which it belongs is construed only with a preposition. E. g. 17R, q qD those who rise up against him,-against ne, for:1I), _~ 0nj Ps. xviii. 40, 49, Deut. xxxiii. 11;:'I ^"=t they who turn awayfrom transgression, Is. lix. 20. 2. The two constructions, explained in No. 1, are found also in connection with suJixes. The first is followed in ^'.t he who made me, the second in ib my maker. ~ 136. EXPRESSION OF TIIE OPTATIVE. We have already seen (~ 127, 3, b) that the Imperfect, especially the cohortative form with the ending \T-, and with tle particle t, is employed to express the Optative. It remains to mention two other forms under which it is expressed by periphrasis, namely: 1. By questions expressive of desire. E. g. 2 Sam. xv. 4, r rti ^%.t who will make me judge? i. e. would that I were made judge! Judg. ix. 29, 'In rTi_ n rTi-^~.. 'i would that this people were placed under my hand! Ps. Iv. 7, Job xxix. 2. In the phrase 'it.. the proper force of the verb is often wholly lost, and nothing more is expressed than would that! (utinam!) God grant! It is followed a) by an accusative, as Deut. xxviii. 67, g1~.13-U. would it were evening! prop. who will give (will make it) evening? b) by an Infinitive, as Ex. xvi. 3, ^,-nr. 1.r.'. would we had died! c) by a finite verb (either with or without:), Deut. v. 26,:.r;T T b -D IT11 7..- 0 that they had this heart! Job xxiii. 3. 2. By the particles t0 si, 0 si!.b 0 si! especially by the latter, Ps. cxxxix. 19. The particle is followed by the Impf. Gen. xvii. 18, by the Part. Ps. lxxxi. 14, seldom by the Imp. Gen. xxiii. 13. When it is followed by the Peif. the desire expressed has reference to past time; as Num. xx. 3, ^:. i would we had died! ~ 137. PERSONS OF THE VERB. 243 ~137. PERSONS OF THE VERB. 1. In the use of the persons of the verb there is sometimes a neglect of the distinctions of gender: especially are the masculine forms (as most readily occurring to the mind) employed with reference to objects which are feminine. E. g. WDPV_ Ez. xxiii. 49; =::t.1 Ruth i. 8; rlh.3ll thou (fem.) hast made a league Is. lvii. 8; comp. Cant. ii. 7. Compare the analogous use of the pronoun, ~ 121, Rem. 1. 2. The third person (most commonly its masc. form) is very often employed impersonally. E. g. 'l_ and it happened; ~ ~_ and b5 '2p1 (lit. it was strait to him) he was in trouble; it n and Mb W5 he became warm. It is also employed thus in the fem., e. g. 1 Sam. xxx. 6,.l. ql I and David was in trouble; Ps. 1. 3, Jer. x. 7. The Arabic and 2Ethiopic commonly employ here the masc., and the Syriac the fer. form. 3. The indeterminate third person (Germ. man, Fr. on, Engl. they, one, or simply the passive voice) is expressed, a) by the 3d pers. singular, e. g. ulp they called Gen. xi. 9, xvi. 14, 1 Sam. xix. 22, xxiv. 11; b) by the 3d pers. plural, as Gen. xli. 14, l.2.?_1 and they brought him in haste, for he was brought; c) by the 2d person, e. g. Is. vii. 25, btt tinr-9b there shall no one go thither; so in the common phrase OS1 iS or T'. until one comes; d) by the passive voice, as Gen. iv. 26, p.i b.nrI' TS then they began to call upon- -* Rem. 1. In the first case (letter a) the force of tdit (impersonal, as we use one, men, they) is implied. The full construction occurs in one instance, 1 Sam. ix. 9, In'b 'ntbt,b 'n bi'in t: Db formerly they said thus in Israel. Sometimes the Part. of the verb is added, as its nominative; e. g. Is. xvi. 10, 1^ien p."ab the treader shall not tread, for they shall not tread = there shall be no treading; xxviii. 4, Ez. xxxiii. 4, Deut. xxii. 8. The last is not unfrequent in Arabic. 2. When the pronoun is to be expressed with emphasis, it is written separately before the corresponding verbal form. E. g. r:,n"iM thou * Sometimes on the contrary the impersonal dicunt must be understood as strictly the passive dicitur. Job vii. 3, nights of pain have they appointed me, for are appointed me (sc. by God); iv. 19, xvii. 12, xxxii. 15, xxxiv. 20. So in Chaldee very frequently (Dan. ii. 30, iii. 4, v. 3) and in Syriac. 244 PART III. SYNTAX. hast gicen Judges xv. 18, 1 Kings xxi. 7, Ps. cxxxix. 2; also after the verbal form, Judges xv. 12, which, in the later writers, is done without any special emphasis. as ^ is nRm.i Eccles. i. 16, at the beginning; ii. 11, 12, 13. 15: 20. viii. 15. 3. In the poets and prophets, especially, there is often, in the same construction, a sudden transition from one person to another. Is. i. 29,..n.n 'l.x t~b.?.':J ~ for they shall be ashamed of the groves in which ye delight. where both the third and second persons are employed with reference to the same subject; lxi. 7, Deut. xxxii. 15, 17, Mic. ii. 3. -In Job xiii. 28. the third person is probably employed &elxWTzt; for the first; compare also vi. 21 (according to the reading ib). 138. CONSTRUCTION OF THE VERB WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. All transitive verbs govern the accusative (~ 118). On this general rule we remark: 1. Many verbs are construed both without an object (absolutely), and with one (the latter use commonly indicated in German by a prefix-syllable [in Engl. noan, bemoan]). E. g. rb to weep, and to weep for, bewail; God to dwell: and to dwell in, inhabit; Gi to go forth, and also like egredi in the form egredi urbem, Gen. xliv. 4. Here notice further: Rem. 1. Several verbs of this kind take after them the substantive from the same root and with a corresponding signification, as Vnn rnt Ps. xiv. 5,,SW ]y' 1 K. i. 12. like fovlsv'tv fovAL Il. 10, 147; most frequently (as in Greek) as a specification, or a limitation of the general idea of the verb; e. r. Gen. xxvii. 34, nn,., Lb:i,n~.~ pr':`r he cried a loud and bitter cry; ver. 33; Zech. i. 14; 1 Chr. xxix. 9. Comp. voaoiv vouaov, X(,XY &c. 2. Verbs which signify to flow, to stream, take in the poets an accusative of that which is represented as poured forth in a stream. Lam. iii. 48. my ~ tb.. my eye flows down streams of water. Joel iv. 18, the hills flow milk. So f5 _ to run, to flow, Jer. ix. 17, 3 to distil, Joel iv. 18, and q;2 to gush forth, to flow abundantly (hence to bear along as does a torrent), Is. x. 22: similar, but more bold, is Prov. xxiv. 31. n:^Up;: - n iS t and behold it (the field) has all gone up to thorns.-in spinas abit. Is. v. 6. Compare in Greek, 7ItooEELV V`SQ, Hymn. in Apoll. 2: 202; Sxuova aur5fiv; [in Eng. "which all the while ran blood.;"] 3. It is also to be regarded as a mere poetic usage, when verbs which signify to do, to speak, to cry, and the like, take an accusative of the instrument or member with which the act is performed. Most clear is this, for our view of the subject, in 5bn ]pV p~s to cry a loud voice ~138. VERB WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 245 (comp. Rem. 1), for to cry with a loud voice, Ezek. xi. 13; to speak (with) afalse tongue (Ps. cix. 2), hence Ps. iii. 5,:e bl. ip with my (whole) voice Icry; srt "'. lxvi. 17, with my (with full) mouth I cry; so, to speak with the mouth, Ps. xvii. 10, with the lips, xii. 3; to labor with the hand, Prov. x. 4; to help with the right hand, with the hand. with the sword, Ps. xvii. 13, 14, xliv. 3, Ix. 7, 1 Sam. xxv. 26, 33; in which cases the accusativus instrumenti is employed. In the same cases m instrumenti is also used, e. g. to praise with the mouth Ps. lxxxix. 2, cix. 30; to entreat with the mouth Job xix. 16. The same use of the accusative is found in Greek; e. g. 7rqofaltvsv 7ro'da, aEalsiv Iqpog (see Porson and Schafer ad Eurip. Orest. 1427, 1477, Bernhardy Synt. Gr. Sprach. S. 110); and that the accusative is actually dependent on the verb in these cases, is clear from a comparison with those given under Rems. 1 and 2. In like manner* in German the instrument is sometimes construed as the object of the verb, as in the following examples, which are strictly analogous to those given above: Schlittschuhe laufen; eine herrliche Stimme singen; eine tuchtige Klinge schlagen [so in English, to play the harp, to sound the trumpet]. 2. Many verbs govern the accusative in consequence of a peculiar turn given to their signification, when the corresponding verbs in Greek, Latin, and German are construed with other cases. E. g.,M*y to reply to (like cdueiJ ocl, ' tcvac, prop. to acquaint, to inform one); '". causam alicujus agere (prop. to defend him before the judge; E'1; to bring joyful news to one, to cheer him with glad tidings; f?. to commit adultery with one (prop. to embrace adulterously); =. to become surety for one (to bail him). Rem. 1. In the same manner are construed even the passive and reflexive conjugations Niph. Hoph. and Hithpa., the verb sometimes assuming under these forms a signification which requires the accusative. Exs. -n? to prophesy, Jer. xxv. 13; =0_ to surround (prop. to place themselves around), Judges xix. 22; rg.?._ I am made to possess, i. e. have taken in (unwilling) possession, Job vii. 3; brnr to plot against, Gen. xxxvii. 18; 'i-nr1 to consider Job xxxvii. 14. 2. In very common formulas, the accusative after such verbs may be omitted without injury to the sense (elliptic form), as rn-, for rn.. nr3 * On the contrary, the Hebrew employed the i instrumenti where we use the accusative. Equally common, as in German also, are the constructions to shake the head (Ps. xxii. 8), and to shake with the head (Job xvi. 4); to gnash the teeth (Ps. xxxv. 16), and to gnash with the teeth (Job xvi. 9), where head and teeth could be treated either as the object of the verb or as the instrument. But the form of expression differs from ours in the phrases:,tn "l^qB to open the mouth (Job xvi. 10, prop. to make an opening with the mouth), tI.n 'iV1 to spread out the hands (Lam. i. 17, prop. to make a spreading with the hands), comp. bp~3 it' and bip nd. 246 PART III. SYNTAX. to make a covenant, 1 Sam. xx. 10; nrw to stretch forth, sc. " the hand, Ps. xviii. 17. 3. Classes of verbs which govern the accusative are: a) those which signify to clothe and unclothe, as Ib to put on a garment,:5? to put off a garment, *f to put o0 as an ornament e. g. ]jk. Q.?. t5. the pastures are clothed with flocks; Ps. lxv. 14, cix. 29, civ. 2; b) those which signify fulness or want, as Nt to be full, 'pt to swarm with (Gen. i. 20, 21), Y.V to be satiated, 7^ to oveiflow (Prov. iii. 10),?nU to want, rt to lose (children); e. g. QS o b6C nI3.1 and the land was filled with them, Ex. i. 7;,T'n " p., Q2. ]l.? bH_ lit. perhaps the fifty righteous will want five, i. e. perhaps there will be lacking five of the fifty, Gen. xviii. 28;:?:.' t3 5t (why) should I lose you both together, Gen. xxvii. 45; c) most verbs of dwelling, not merely in a place (to inhabit, Judg. v. 17, Is. xxxiii. 16, Gen. iv. 20), but also among a people, with one, as 3l, '.; e. g. ='Ii' ^m. tV Idwell anmong those that breathe out flames, Ps. lvii. 5, v. 5, cxx. 5; d) those which express going or coming to a place (petere locum); hence Ni-, with the accus. to befall one. Here belongs the accus. loci, ~ 118, 1. ~139. VERBS WHICI GOVERN TWO ACCUSATIVES. Such are: 1. The causative conjugations (Piel and Hiphil) of all verbs which in Kal govern one accusative. E. g.;lnt T. 'I ":rt I have filled him with the spirit of wisdom, Ex. xxviii. 3; tba_ t i. r ink and he clothed him in (caused him to put on) garments of fine cotton, Gen. xli. 42. And further, 'l1 to gird one with Ps. xviii. 33,:3 to bless one with Deut. xv. 14, qL. to crown one with, and DtDM to cause one to lack something Ps. viii. 6. 2. A numerous class of verbs whose signification in Kal is causative; such e. g. as, to cover or clothe one with any thing (Ps. v. 13, Ez. xiii. 10; hence also to sow, to plant Is. v. 2, xvii. 10, xxx. 23, Judg. ix. 45; to anoint Ps. xlv. 8); to fill (with), to bestow (upon), to deprive (of), Ez. viii. 17, Gen. xxvii. 37; to do one a favor or an injury, 1 Sam. xxiv. 18; to make ~140. VERBS WITH PREPOSITIONS. 247 one something (Gen. xvii. 5); e. g. t iip 1_Q. t ftirk iSn. and make it a holy anointing oil,* Ex. xxx. 25. In such combinations as the one last mentioned, we often adopt another construction, viz. and make of-it a holy anointing oil, i. e. we treat the first noun as an accusative of material, 1 Kings xviii. 32, MSt= I::i1 n-r, t~e and he built of the stones an altar, prop. built (formed) the stones into an altar; Lev. xxiv. 5. More striking examples of this construction are those in which the accusative of material is placed last; as Ex. xxxviii. 3, tlrn S-l b'-53;~ all its vessels he made of brass; Gen. ii. 7, Ex. xxv. 39, xxxvi. 14. There is another use of two accusatives after the same active verb, viz. when the second serves to limit the first, by expressing more definitely the object of the action. This nearly resembles the adverbial use of the accusative (~ 118). E. g. AbrI '5 tsi to smite one on the cheek, for to smite upon his cheek, Ps. iii. 8 (comp. Deut. xxxiii. 11, 2 Sam. iii. 27); tt5j 'a,riv to smite one as to his life, i. e. to smite him dead, Gen. xxxvii. 21; so also with ~t.1, Gen. iii. 15. ~ 140. CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS WITH PREPOSITIONS. The Hebrew language has no verbs compounded with prepositions. Those modifications of the verbal idea, which other languages indicate by composition with prepositions, are expressed in the Hebrew either a) by appropriate verbal stems, as t' in-trare, at ex-ire,.t to re-turn, VjI? to pre-cede,,SR oc-currit; or b) by prepositions written after the verb [as in English], e. g. bp to call, with b to call to, with a to call upon, with a'rk to call after; b5m to fall, with bZ to fall upon, and also [with or without by] to fall off-to (i. e. to desert from one to another), with.hb to fall down before; W:i with VMN to go after, to follow. It belongs to the Lexicon to show the use of the several prepositions with each particular verb. Of classes of words, construed with this or that particle, we shall most properly treat in ~ 151, on the meaning and construction of the different prepositions. * On the passives of these verbs, see ~ 143, 1. 248 248 ~~~~PART III. SYNTAX. ~ 141. CONSTRUCTIO PRIEGNANS. The so-called constructio pragans occurs in Hebrew, chiefly when a verb not implying motion is construed with a particle of motion; and consequently, in order to complete the sense, a verb must be mentally supplied, corresponding to the idea of motion implied in this connection. E. g. ~Ro-t to turn (or look) wit/h astonishment to one, Geni. xliii. 33; il wIN4t for -1- -1in fld to follow Jehovah fulNurn. xiv. 24; Ps. xxi i. 22, "n" =It hear (and save) me from the horns of the wild bulls; Is. xiv. 17, 171" MM9 -— 0 his prisoners he did not release (and let go) to their homes; Ps. lxxxix. 40, Gen. xlii. 28, Is. xli. 1. ~ 142. UNION OF TWO VERBS FOR THlE EXPRESSION OF ONE IDEA. When one verb has another for its complement, the second (in sense the leading verb), is construed as follows 1. It stands in the Infinitive, either absolute (~131, 1) or (more commnonly) construct, after the othier verb. E. g. Deut. ii. ~25, 31, ra "M I begin to give; Gen. xxxvii. 5, N.t 1 and they?went on to hate; Ex. xviii. 23, '15_4 r~ thou canst endure; Is. i. 14, Nt: 'I"N I am weary wit/i bearing. Still more frequently2. It stands in the Infinitive preceded by ~,as Deut. iii. 24, H'1M thou hast begun to show; Gen. xi. 8, Hn and they ceased to build; xxvii. 20, bt~ Ml, thou hast hastened tojind, i. e. hast quickly found, &C. These are the usual constructions in prose after verbs signifying to begin (brllm ~"i) to continue to hasten, ('ir to cease Hl Into be finished (rn); so also, to make good =: to do well (t) to mnake much or mHany (M''') and the like modes of action expressed, forthemos patby Hliphil; to be willing (M~t, y(rr). to be unwilling to ref-use (~nto seek. to strile for (hz),= tob al (4 V, the latter signifying to know (how) to do). to learn, to perrnit.* It is to be *To permnit one to do a thing is expressed by rli~Jr 'tD ~ and rn-2~ 'n. -1r~ prop. to give or grant one to do a thing. Gen. xx. 6, ~. I have not permitted thee to touch. ~ 142. TWO VERBS TO EXPRESS ONE IDEA. 249 remarked, however, that in poetry the b is often omitted where it is used in prose, as nd to be willing, with Ex, Ex. x. 27, with the mere nf. Job xxxix. 9; Is. xxx. 9, xlii. 24.* 3. It has, like the first, the form of the finite verb; they are then construeda) With 1 before the second verb, agreeing with the first in tense, gender, and number, both forming one idea, as in Nos. 1 and 2. [Comp. in Engl. "make haste and come down"-= make haste to come down.] Judg. xix. 6, 1p.M y-b'int be pleased now and tarry all night; Jos. vii. 7. Gen. xxvi. 18, '~?l:t: and he returned (repeated) and dug, for he dug again; xxxvii. 7, 2 Kings i. 11, 13; Gen. xxv. 1, he added and took a wife, for he again took a wife. Esth. viii. 6, Z). N b:M n" how should I be able and witness, for how should I be able to witness. Cant. ii. 3, Eccles. iv. 1, 7. The construction may also begin with the Impf. and be continued by the Perf. with 1 (according to ~ 126, 6); as in Esther (above quoted); Deut. xxxi. 12, that they may ledrn (Impf.) andfear (Perf.), for tofear; Hos. ii. 11, Dan. ix. 25; and vice versa, it may begin with the Perf. and be continued in the Impf. with j, as in Job xxiii. 3. b) Without 1 and (ca6vv(Srog), the second verb connecting more nearly with the preceding one, and the first (as in letter a) agreeing with it in tense. Deut. ii. 24, tM bnn begin, take possession, for begin to take; Hos. i. 6, W_? qd. - I will not go on and pity, i. e. I will no longer pity; 1 Sam. ii. 3, bt ~l. t'Ir.I multiply not and speak = speak not much; Lam. iv. 14,.?s.! 9. a so that they could not touch; Job xix. 3, Hos. v. 10. This construction is more poetical than the one under letter a. Comp. e. g. Jyin followed by 1 in Gen. xxv. 1, xxxviii. 5; but without it in Hos. i. 6, Is. lii. 1.-It occurs, however, in common prose, as in Josh. iii. 16, Nell. iii. 20, 1 Chron. xiii. 2, Jos. iii. 16, Deut. i. 5. c) Also dC6vvtrcog, but with the second verb in the Imperfect, as being more strictly dependent on the first, which we may express by the conjunction that. Job xxxii. 22, 3?.- ". M" 95 I know not how toflatter (prop. I know not what to do, that I * So after words which include an analogous verbal-idea. E. g. h1:q A:dd it is not permitted to enter in;:p0 1Ad (poet.) there is nothing to be compared to thee, Ps. xL 6; TnTI ready, prepared, commonly with i, without it in Job iii. 8. 250 PART III. SYNTAX. may flatter= I cannot flatter). 1 Sam. xx. 19,,in m)tI and cause on the third day, (that) thou come down, for on the third day come down. Is. xlii. 21. In Arabic and Syriac this construction is very common;* in Hebrew rare. but was necessary at least in those cases, where the second verb was to be distinguished from the first in person or number. Is. xlvii. 1, 3b-.sip~.n19.pin fb thou shalt not add (that) they shall call thee, for thou shalt not continue to be called; Num. xxii. 6,.-:inN ".1-n: bt.x.lux perhaps I may be able, (that) we shall smite him, and I shall drive him out. All three constructions (letters a, b, c) and still another nearly like that under letter c, are found together in some verbs in the Syriac. IIe could go may be expressed by potuit et ivit (letter a), potuit ivit (letter b), potuit et iret (not in Hebrew), potuit iret (letter c). See Agrell. Suppl. Synt. Syr. p. 33. 4. It takes the form of the Participle; Is. xxxiii. 1, Ft1q; ' ftt when thou shalt cease as a destroyer, i. e. to be a destroyer = to destroy;+ 1 Sam. xvi. 16. In the same manner is construed also the verbal adjective, 1 Sam. iii. 2, his eyes Tra:.nrT began (to grow) dim. Of' this construction is Gen. ix. 20, I.yM..tm x, nrb C.. and Noah began (to be) a hzusbandman. Rem. 1. In very many of the above examples the first verb only serves, in effect, to qualify in some manner the second, and hence we translate it by an adverb. Compare also Gen. xxxi. 27, nmns n Mt_ Anb wherefore hast thou secretly fled; xxxvii. 7, your sheaves stood around and bowed, for bowed around; 2 Kings ii. 10, b b'. npm thou hast dealt hardly in asking, i. e. hast made a hard demand. The verb which qualifies the other may also occupy the second place, but never without special cause; e. g. Is. liii. 11,:.i)? S.." he shall see and be satisfied (with the sight), and lxvi. 11, that ye may suck and be satisfied (thereby); xxvi. 11.-Jer. iv. 5,.th. S.l~ means, call ye (and that) with the full voice = call aloud. 2. Of a different construction are those verbs, which take after them (in place of an accusative) a sentence or clause depending on 3. or '"'^ that (~ 155, 1); such e. g. as to see (Gen. i. 4, 10), to know (Gen. xxii. 12), to believe: to remember, to forget. to say, to think, to happen. On the omission of the conjunction before such clauses, see ~ 155, 4. c. * The Arabian says volebat dilaccrarct (he was inclined, that he should rend), for he would rend; and so the Syrian 5-.'J 1 volebat tolleret (Luke xviii. 13), he would lift up, but oftener with the conjunction that, 12J? j.' he would come. The Latin also may omit the conjunction in this case: Quid vis faciam? Ter. Volo hoc oratori contingat, Cic. Brut. 84. So in German, Ich wolltc, es ware; Ich daehte, es ginge, I would it were, &c. r For in?3 (~ 20, Rem.) Inf. Hiph. of 3_n. t This construction also is common in Syriac (see IIoffmann's Gram. Syr. p. 343, b), where it is by no means to be taken (as by J. D. Michaelis) for a Grsecism. ~ 143. CONSTRUCTION OF PASSIVE VERBS. 251 ~143. CONSTRUCTION OF PASSIVE VERBS. 1. When a causative conjugation (Piel, Hiphil) has two accusatives (~ 139), its passive retains only one of them (viz. the second, or more remote object), taking the other (the immediate object) as a nominative, or including its subject in itself. Ps. lxxx. 11, sti't?. n art the mountains are covered with its (the vine's) shade; 1 Kings xxii. 10,.~n 1.nbt clothed with garments (prop. made to put on garments); Ex. xxv. 40, np~_'t5.. nSp' which was shown thee (prop. which thou wast made to see). Several striking phenomena in the construction of the Passive are readily explained, if we regard it as an impersonal Active (dicitur= they say), just as, on the contrary, the impersonal Active often supplies the place of the Passive (see ~ 137, Note). We may thus explain those cases, in whicha) It takes the object of the action in the accusative. Gen. xxvii. 42, "bs? ' - n. 'lnpb5 l and they made known to Rebecca the words of Esau; iv. 18, t.r-ni -inU_ _ 'I~;L one bore (for his wife bore) to Enoch Irad; xxi. 5, prn-ni 5ib i1..? at the time of bearing (iv mi Tzxsiv) to him Isaac; xl. 20, hnM-rtn nrt. l t:i the day on which Pharaoh was born; xvii. 5, n. 1N- u.-r i Y: t b no longer shall they call thy name Abram. Ex. x. 8, tts s. nb Znr au.. and they brought Moses back to Pharaoh. Lev. xvi. 27, Jos. vii. 15, 1 K. ii. 21. b) It does not agree (as often happens) in gender and number with the noun, even when preceded by it (comp. ~ 147); for it is not, in the Hebrew conception, the subject of the passive verb, but is governed by it in the accusative as its object. Is. xxi. 2, t l'~,nW rITrn visionem diram nunciarunt mihi (the noun in the accus.); Dan. ix. 24, septuaginta septimanas destinarunt (r.I); 1 K. ii. 21, Is. xiv. 3, Gen. xxxv. 26, Hos. x. 6.* 2. The efficient cause, after a passive verb, most frequently takes i, and is therefore in the dative (as in Greek); as:-jT bR. blessed of God (rco5 a'o), Gen. xiv. 19, Prov. xiv. 20. More rare, but entirely certain, is the same use of 7t (prop. out from, by which origin, source, in general, is often denoted); Ps. xxxvii. 23, Gen. ix. 11, Job xxiv. 1, xxviii. 4; a. a parte, Gen. vi. 13; 3 by, Num. xxxvi. 2, Is. xlv. 17; and sometimes of the accusat. instrumenti (comp. ~ 138, 1, Rem. 3) without a preposition, Is. * Comp. Olshausen, Emendationen zum A. T., S. 24, 26. 252 PART III. SYNTAX. i. 20, TO ' M.. by the sword shall ye be devoured, comp. Ps. xvii. 13. Rem. Many neuter verbs are sometimes used as Passives, in consequence of a peculiar application of their original meaning. E. g. a' to go down.-spoken of a forest, to be felled;,r3 for to be brought up, to be laid upon (the altar) Lev. ii. 12, to be entered (in an account) 1 Chron. xxvii. 2.1; air to be brought out of, Deut. xiv. 22. CHAPTER IV. CONNECTION OF TIE SUBJECT WITH THE PREDICATE. 144. MANNER OF EXPRESSING THE COPULA. THE union of the substantive or pronoun, which forms the subject of the sentence, with another substantive or adjective as its predicate. is most commonly expressed by simply writing them together without any copula. 1 Kings xviii. 21,. bti Ctii'bn Jehovah (is) the true God; Gen. ii. 4, t'i"i rn this (is) the history; ii. 12, n:U' ^'n, ~Tn aT the gold of that land (is) good; Is. xxxi. 2, =1 HMr\ 12 he too (is) wise.-The frequent use, in this connection, of a pronoun of the third person referring to the predicate, for marking more distinctly its union witl the subject, has already been noticed, ~ 121, 2. More seldom the copula is expressed by the substantive-verb,nIe. Gen. i. 2, and the earth was (7rl)) waste and empty; iii. 1, the serpent was ( ci) cunning; ver. 20. Also by &t and I"n (which include the idea of the substantive-verb) when the subject is the pronoun and the predicate is a participle (see ~ 134, 2, a). On the gender and number of the copula see ~ 147. Rem. Instead of the adjective the Hebrew often employs the abstract substantive as a predicate (~ 106, 1, Rem. 2); especially when there is no adjective of the signification required (~ 106, 1), c. g. '' Mrin'oh his walls (are) wood = of wood, wooden. The sense is here the same, as if the substantive, which stands as subject of the sentence, were repeated in the constr. state before the predicate (yr nrin- q1i-j) This full construction occurs Job vi. 12, amn v'=t.< t' c. is my strength the strength of stones? Similar examples are: Cant. i. 15.:hi1 7-SH.Y thy ~ 145. PARTS OF SPEECH IN A SENTENCE. 253 eyes (are) doves'-eyes; Ps. xlv. 7, l^,i5'b.o3. thy throne (is) a throne of God = a divine throne; * second member (with the full construction).:b..:.r. 'trm. waU. a righteous sceptre is the sceptre of thy dominion. This occurs, especially, with: of comparison; as Ps. xviii. 34, nib5.s hnt_ my feet after the manner of hinds = like feet of hinds; Is. Ixiii. 2, '"1i.. rn qi;n thy garments (are) like the garments of one who treads the wine-press; xxix. 4; Jer. 1. 9, ''. rn his arrows like the arrows of a mighty man. ~145. ARRANGEMENT OF THE PARTS OF SPEECII IN A SENTENCE; CASE ABSOLUTE. 1. The most natural order of words, in the simple sentence in calm discourse, is this: subject, copula, predicate; or, when the predicate consists of the verb with its object, subject, verb, object. Adverbial qualifications (of time, place, for example) may stand either before or after the verb; a negative always immediately before it.t But the Hebrew can, at pleasure, render either of these members prominent, by giving it the first place in the sentence; e. g. a) The verb: Prov. xxviii. 1, there flee, when there is no pursuer, the wicked. Gen. xlii. 30. This is its common position, when there is implied in it an indeterminate subject (the impersonal construction, ~ 137, 3), as Gen. i. 14, hni'lk 'e. let there be lights,:.'I, they howl (to wit) the jackals, Is. xiii. 22 (comp. il vient des hommes); and also wherever the sentence or clause is connected with a preceding one by ' (of course where the Impf. cons. is employed), 't. or 'i; as Gen. iii. 1, all beasts A,tY ' 6 which Jehovah had made; ii. 5, "n't. Ib: for Jehovah had not caused it to rain. b) The adjective: this, when it is the predicate, is commonly placed first as the most important member of the sentence. Jer. x. 6, act b -MT r b_ Hi great art thou, and great is thy name. c) The object of the verb: the verb then immediately follows, as Prov. xiii. 5, lying words hates the righteous man; [Judges * Philology requires, however, no other than the simple and natural construction, "Thy throne, O God I"-TR. t Rarely is the object interposed between the negative and the verb (Job xxii. 7, xxxiv. 23, Eccles. x. 10), or the subject (2 Kings v. 26), or an adverbial qualification (Ps. vi. 2). 254 PART III. SYNTAX. v. 25, ' In 1.n X Qt, t_ wTater he asked; milk she gave.] Very rare is the arrangement in 2 Kings v. 13, some great thing had the prophet commanded thee. Ex. xviii. 23. d) The adverbial qualification, which is then immediately followed by the verb. Gen. i. 1; Jos. x. 12, S'~;n? A'b _ tR; Judg. v. 22. Another arrangement, viz. subject, object, verb, which is common in Arama-an (Dan. ii. 6, 7, 8, 10), is seldom found in Hebrew, and only in poetry. Ps. vi. 10, r. ^-.. mE; xi. 5; Is. xiii. 18; xlix. 6. See Gesenius, Comm. zu Jes. xlii. 24. 2. But the greatest prominence is given to any substantive in the sentence (whether it is the genitive, or accusative of the object, or enployed by way of limitation, or qualification of any kind) by permitting it to stand, absolutely, at the beginning of the sentence, and then representing it, in its proper place, by a pronoun; (compare c'est moi, qu'on a accuse.) E. g. the genitive, Ps. xviii. 31, 1'i' j ~r bts God-perfect is his way, for the way of God is perfect; xi. 4, civ. 17; the accusative, Ps. lxxiv. 17, winter and summer - thou hast made them, for thou hast made winter and summner; Gen. xlvii. 21, ~?: S.,T-r1 ~nt the people - he transferred them; xxi. 13; comp. Jer. vi. 19.* The suffix may also be omitted, Ps. ix. 7, and the connection indicated by 1 (as sign of the apodosis). Ps. xviii. 41 (comp. 2 Sam. xxii. 41). Job xxxvi. 26, '17 fb.l 1i '5:, sc. t the number of his years - there is no searching (to them); iv. 6, xxiii. 12, xxv. 5, Gen. iii. 5, 1 Sam. xxv. 27, 2 Sam. xv. 34. The participle, when placed thus at the beginning of the sentence. resembles the Latin ablatice absolute. Prov. xxiii. 24, ri;J? n tiin he who begets a wise son (i. e. when one begets, &c.) then he may rejoice. 1 Sam. ii. 13, (;'n mn rtl n=. non 5?-Em3 when any one brought an offering, then came the priest's servant; ix. 11, Gen. iv. 15.. 146. RELATION OF TIE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE IN RESPECT TO GENDER AND NUMBER. The predicate (verb, adjective, substantive with copula) conforms, regularly, to the subject in gender and number. From this rule. common to all languages, there are many deviations, * Such an absolute case may also be introduced by b (in respect to), e. g. Gen. xvii. 20, Ps. xvi. 3, Is. xxxii. 1. ~ 146. RELATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 255 partly occasioned by regard to the sense rather than the grammatical form of words (constructio ad sensum), partly by the position of the predicate before the other members of the sentence. In respect to the first cause, we remark:1. Collective nouns, e. g. W, A-t people, rln family, and nouns used as such, as aJN. men (see ~ 108, 1), are usually construed (ad sensum) with the plural. Judg. ix. 55, "-1t reMk. b.it? and the men of Israel saw; xv. 10. 1 Kings xx. 20, '0.M05; Prov. xi. 26. So when the collective is itself fern. but represents individuals which are of the masc. gender; e. g. 2 Sam. xv. 23,.iN- l"tI-5 the whole land (i. e. its inhabitants) wept;* 1 Kings x. 24, Gen. xlviii. 6, 1 Sam. ii. 33, xvii. 46; and vice versa, Job i. 14, 5tlN h.,;n njwni the cattle (kine) were ploughing. For examples of the predicate with the singular form in such cases, see Gen. xxxv. 11, Is. ii. 4 (comp. Mic. iv. 3). Often the construction begins with the singular (especially when the verb is placed first, ~ 147, a), and then, when the collective is introduced, proceeds with the plural. Ex. xxxiii. 4,.t*ip...: n 5Yttl_ and the people heard... and mourned; i. 20. 2. On the other hand, plural nouns with a singular signification (~ 108, 2) are construed with the singular, especially the so-called pluralis excellentice. Gen. i. 1, 3.t Ex. xxi. 29, 1*=rm.1 his owner shall be put to death. So feminine forms with a masculine signification are construed with the masculine; Eccles. xii. 9,:?n ri p Tni the preacher was wise. 3. Plurals which designate beasts or things (but not persons), whether they are masculine or feminine, prefer the construction with the feminine singulars (comp. the feminine form with the * Sallust. Jugurth. 14, pars in crucem acti, pars bestiis objecti. t V.'1b. is construed with the plur. only here and there in the older biblical books, and in certain forms of expression which perhaps had their origin in polytheism. Gen. xx. 13, xxxv. 7, Ex. xxii. 8, Ps. lviii. 12. The later writers studiously avoid this construction as polytheistic; comp. Ex. xxxii. 4, 8, with Neh. ix. 18; 2 Sam. vii. 23, with 1 Chron. xvii. 21. See the lexicon. $ Perfectly analogous is the Greek construction z 7rT tQlarca?ailvt, where the Attics admit the plural only when persons are designated: T avs& cirosa 'olafov. In Arabic, such a plural is called pluralis inhumanus (i. e. not used of men) and is construed chiefly with the feminine singular, like all its so-called pluralia fracta (collective forms). 256 PART III. SYNTAX. collective signification in ~ 107, 3, d). Joel i. 20, T;. hfi.D,_ ~a' the beasts of the field pine for. Job xiv. 19,;li~ Tlmnt its floods wash away. Jer. xlix. 24, MT.N [b.n. pains have seized upon her. Ps. xxxvii. 31, Job xii. 7. The same principle applies to pronouns in connection with their antecedents; Job xxxix. 15, Is. xxxv. 7, 2 Kings iii. 3. 4. Moreover, those plurals also which designate persons are construed with the singular, when, instead of the whole sum of individuals spoken of, the attention is directed to each one of them (comp. b for omnnes and omnis). Num. xxiv. 9, T~V *W.~ T"'l,.l:"I~ who bless thee, let him be blessed; who curse thee, let him be cursed. Gen. xxvii. 29, Ex. xxxi. 14. Prov. iii. 18, ''rq?lrhl happy (is every one of) those who retain her; xxvii. 16, nrj,- fi; xxviii. 1. 5. Dual substantives have their predicates in the plural, as verbs, adjectives, and pronouns have no dual forin (~ 88, 1). Gen. xxix. 17, 'i3. f. a and the eyes of Lcah were weak; Ps. xviii. 28, Is. xxx. 20, 2 Sam. xxiv. 3. 1 Sam. i. 13, r'{YIt wt her lips moved; 2 Chron. vii. 15, ri:'p n:T ri rint.; 'bn; vi. 40; Micah vii. 10,;?lM.Wn. ""rn my eyes shall see. Jer. xiv. 7, Is. i. 16, Job x. 8, xx. 10, xxvii. 4, Ps. xxxviii. 11. Seldom is the rule in No. 3 of this section extended also to the dual; e. g. Mic. iv. 11. ~ 147. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE IN RESPECT TO GENDER AND NUMBER (CONTINUED). A frequent cause of deviation from the general rule, is the position of the predicate at the beginning of the sentence. The subject, to which it would regularly conform, not being yet expressed, it often takes its simplest and readiest form, viz. the masculine singular, even when the subject, which comes after, isfemiinine or plural. The predicate in this case is not subject to inflection. E. g. a) The verb: Is. xlvii. 11, 7TO.I_ NH there comes upon thee evil; Mic. ii. 6, rlb{.?b bi reproaches shall not depart. Ps. lvii. 2. )eut. xxxii. 35; Esther ix. 23, 0nr;> 1pl and the Jews adopted; 2 Kings iii. 26, t 'TMD lT hard was the battle; 1 Sam. xxv. 27. Often, the verb mlay here be regard ~ 147. RELATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 257 ed as impersonal, as in il vient des hommes, il a paru deux volumes (~ 145, 1, a). More seldom before the plur.fen. we find (at least) the masc. plural; Judg. xxi. 21,.W~g'~ ti' ntri when the daughters of Shiloh come forth. b) The adjective: Ps. cxix. 137, 'it "w righteous are thy judgments; ver. 155,, K.I... piri far away (is) salvation. (TTe German also neglects, in this case, the inflection of the adjective: gerecht (sind) deine Gerichte.) c) The participle as substantive: Gen. xlvii. 3, -T? 7=: = h shepherds (are) thy servants. Also d) The copula belonging to the predicate-substantive, when it precedes the subject.5 Is. xviii. 5, A.l n: b1 D A ' the blossom becomes a ripening grape; Gen. xxvii. 39, xxxi. 8. If the construction is continued after the introduction of the subject, the verb must conform to it in its gender and number. Ez. xiv. 1,.b I 1?1..:, " i W. 'l ' i; Gen. i. 14, Num. ix. 6. Rem. 1. In general, the language is sometimes sparing in the use especially of the feminine forms (comp. ~ 112, 1, Rem. 2), and, when a feminine substantive has more than one predicate, contents itself with giving to the nearest one the appropriate feminine form. This is well illustrated by the following examples: Is. xxxiii. 9, Y'. tan '>e the land mourneth and languisheth; xiv. 9, blm q'. 'n.... ntn rnnn 5Xx Sheol beneath is moved.... it stirreth up the shades to (meet) thee. Examples of the masc. form in remote predicates, Gen. xxxii. 9, xlix. 15, Lev. ii. 1, v. 1, xx. 6; in such as stand in dependent sentences, Job vi. 10, 5nhr ib ('tI),rrln; xx. 26; after:., vi. 20. On the same principle pronouns, which refer to plural nouns, take the form of the singular when they stand remote from their antecedents. Job xxxviii. 32; Deut. xxi. 10. 2. The cases where the predicate follows the subject without conforming to it in gender and number, are mostly those in which a passive verb must be conceived as impersonal, and as construed with the accusative (~ 143, 1, Rem.) or where the predicate is a participle used as a substantive; e. g. Gen. iv. 7, Iy MinsY nrln at the door (is) sin, a lurker (as it were, a lurking lion).-Eccles. ii. 7, b rS - n.:. vernce mihi sunt (where '1i: is to be understood as.Ihave). Gen. xv. 17, nr" mbs' and darkness, there became (with a special emphasis on the noun,-the verb standing impersonally). * Independently of this arrangement, the pronoun R. ', representing the copu la, is retained between the plur. and the fen. unchanged. Josh. xiii. 14, '9 ENS inr tt N.... the offerings of Jehovah... that is his inheritance. Comp. Jer. x. 3. 17 258 PART IIL SYNTAX. ~148. CONSTRUCTION OF TIlE COMPOUND SUBJECT. 1. When the subject is composed of a nominative and genitive, the verb sometimes conforms in gender and number to the genitive instead of the governing noun, viz. when the Nwvprd in the genitive expresses the principal idea. E. g. Job xxxii. 7, In;=n. 'w:'I. = =- the multitude of years (i. e. ma-ny years) should teach wisdom; Gen. iv. 10; 2 Sam. x. 9, ".^. '.:,? ntIT~ 3_ the front of the battle was against him. Is. vi. 4, Job xxix. 10, xxxviii. 21. With the substantive L. the whole, and the numerals, this construction is almost universal; e. g. Gcn. v. 5, cv r-tT.?T1^_ and all the days of Adam were -; Ex. xv. 20. Gen. viii. 10. 2. When several subjects are connected by the conjunction and, their common predicate usually takes the plural form, especially when it follows them; Gen. viii. 22,...H Q,l. p 11"I rIT ~lrh1 seed-time and harvest, and cold and heat... shall not cease; if the subjects are of different gender, it takes the masc. form; Gen. xviii. 11, =i?'-T -~l1l =`1?= Abraham and Sarah (were) old. Deut. xxviii. 32, 1 K. iii. 17. When it precedes, it often conforms in gender and number to the first (as being the nearest) subject. Gen. vii. 7, 1= rU: - thMe there cwent in Noah and his so0ns; Ex. xv. 1; Num. xii. 1, ]1'pT1l t? '.Z th there spcake Aliriam and Aaron; Gen. xxxiii. 7, xliv. 14. More rare is the singular form, after more than one subject; Prov. xxvii. 9, b-;n:;. rSm.. ]t. ointment and peefume rejoice the heart (where the masc. also is preferred). If the construction is continued, it is always under the plural form; e. g. Gen. xxi. 32, xxiv. 61, xxxi. 14, xxxiii. 7. CIHAPTER V. USE OF THE PARTICLES. ~ 1.49. OF the particles, as connected with the system of forms and inflections (~~ 99-105), we have already treated in their relation to the other parts of speech. We are now to consider the signi ~ 150. THE ADVERBS.25 259 fication. and use of these words, which are so necessary to the exact perception of the sense, and hold so important a place in the philosophical treatment of the language. We shall present, in a general view, their most important peculiarities, leaving the more complete representation, as well as the necessary proofs, to the lexicon. ~15O. OF THE ADVERBS. The most important adverbs, classed according to their signification, are 1. Adverbs of place: =5 there; HD I, Mb M and MT=, Aic, here d~l and lbt" hither, the latter also here (from the Chald. this), mpl thither, farther on (prop. to a distance), hence MN IM- (from? thee hither) on this side of thee, and b, jn (from thee farther on) beyond thee, 1 Sam. xx. 21, 22, 37, Is. xviii. 2; ~ more commonly v above, 2ir below, blw' upwards, MTt$ downwards, '~l-rl outside, y'r-IM on the outside, mq'n and mmqn with in, t, iInizib', before, on the east, "Ni behind, n921 backwards,. over aga inst, rj'9V to the right, bj9'M on the right, mnlm on the west (prop. on the side towards the sea), ='9 and =69= around, rivnnnip upright. To many of these adverbs is prefixed, or the accusative ending ~Ibappended, indicating respectively the relationsfrom and towards. E. g. MnJi there. =zM thence, ~MM- thither; y-11i outside, 1111 outwards. There are several which occur only with IM 'appended, as 'Ilm ~IMN'i.. But these additions, however, express also the relation of rest in a place, as Mt i sometimes there (not merely thither), I" $.1 on the right (not fromz the right). The M- is in both cases the accusative ending (~ 90, 2). and ',7 properly denotes hanging offfrom an ob~ject, and hence being upon the side of it, like a dextra et sinistra, a latere, a tergo, and in French dessous, dessus, dedans, dehors A' 2. Adverbs of time: these are in part the same with those which have been mentioned as adverbs of place, and which, by an easy transition, are made to express relations of time; as =5 then, like ixsii; r now; IMNt7 forward, sn.b 'T and conir. blDIl hitherto. Ecusively such are rirl at the time, hence, now, at this time (also besides the pure designation of time, like vi~v, Vviv), and presently, soon; iN-1 (this day) to-day; mini, ln'nt at this day, now; ~in ~ilnbt before, yesterday; u~zk yester-evening, last night; lmi'tir1 (fo j7~ three, and Mi") three days since; nri to-morrow (cras); riilu on the * Cant. iv. 1, bi::'7 ZJbm they lie along the declivity of Mount Gilead, e monte quasi pendentes. Comp. Soph. Antig. 411, xa&jy- uxqcov Ex 7aycaw; Odyss. xxi. 420, IX 6i9,(oto, xac9iisvog. 260 PART III. SYNTAX. morrow; ctm by day; lb*,5f by night; ~p and =S.1 in the morning, early; c^.5- the whole day, then, all the time, always; ~.W perpetually, always, tbi:, Sib. for ever, nMV, nrb continually; Ts then, with reference to both past and future time, ts long sinceformerly, C:^-P do.. '"i (length) long since; biv (repetition) again, repeatedly, commonly yet. with a negative no more; ix.3 (as one) at once, together; n~.r do..,:^'x at first, '=. ^r (after it was so) afterwards.,~il speedily, 'SPQ instantly. 3. Adverbs for other modal ideas, as a) of quality: i.,,n3 and I3 so; 'r. very, nr, exceedingly, very, 'Ini9 more, too much, "^,, MtY. wholly,.s.:^'3 (about or near nothing, about i. e. within a little = wanting little) almost, ql3.x so, so lhen (Job ix. 24), hence often used intensively in questions (see ~ 153, 2, Rem.),:^ and 1:::." well, b: (in connection with other adverbs) wholly, just, as Z^'":- wholly (just) so long, Job xxvii. 3. b) Of quantity: ~..t, much, ihb abundantly, 'i (riches) plenifully, 9 followed by the genitive (prop. szfficiency), enough, as T'^'. what is enot10gh for thee, r.'_ much, enough; '1, ^Ti (in separation) alone, ile former also with suffixes, as ''i1 I alone; 'n together. c) Of affirmation: ]}, C r. truly. jQ$ certainly, indeed, and by apocope 7^; bx. truly. also (corrective) nay rather, immo Gen. xvii. 19; 1 Kings i. 43; sb. perhaps.* The expression of affirmation may easily pass over into that of contrariety (comp. verumn. vero) and of limitation; and hence some of the above-mentioned affirmative particles are partly adversative and restrictive, as 7- only,,., y (especially in later usage) but. Most strongly adversative is c:Ti on the contrary (the LXX. oub;yv UWa.), thus used almost exclusively in the Pentateuch and Job. Restrictive also is pi (used before adjectives like mq) merely = only. d) Of cause: 3i~', i!, ~b, on that account, therefore. e) Of accession':.- also, and (more poetical. and expressive of gradation) ti adeo, yea more, even-both which, however. often take the character of conjunctions. 4. Adverbs of negation: on these see ~ 152. 5. Interrogative adverbs include all the former classes: thus the question may relate to place, as s. t-'. where? the first with suff. ins where (is) he? so 7 "., t Wns ns, IMM " where? —n. 1r, ' x. whence? Mt"N (from:,V:,) whither?-to time, as ny', when?.r', b, until when? how long? ni: 'V, the same;-to quality, as V,=s, q,, ~?==' how?-to quantity, as,M- hlow much? how often?-to cause, as MnVt and '_. (~ 99, 3) wherefore? —Respecting the pure interrogative particles:,. tx, see ~ 153. * Compounded, probably, of Ca and 9 = -, comp. Aram. [Rq 9i whether not, perhaps, yiurozr. It is used once in the sense of.lb if not, Num. xxii. 33; then whether not, (who knows) whether not, hence perhaps, expressing doubt, solicitude, and also hope. ~ 152. WORDS WHICH EXPRESS NEGATION. 261 Most of these interrogative particles are formed by prefixing b_, b, which in itself signifies where (comp. Germ. wovon? wohin?), but by usage becomes also a mere sign of interrogation before particles of place, time, &c. In this manner, and by the application of the ending n-;, of the prefix 'dq, and of the relative 'li, are formed whole classes of correlative adverbs, as It here, MtI hence, nt A. where? M.t As whence? Mt ribt whence (relative); ODJ there, rtb: thither, =V. thence, j lt where, to ~5$ whither, Wn.m '= whence. ~151. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 1. Adverbs not only express, in general, the qualifying circumstances of a sentence, but also qualify single words, as adjectives, e. g. 7kt:lq very good, and even substantives (like rj ZXfS rljuifTc). They are placed either a) in apposition (after the word qualified, as _S9 tW':t afew men Neh. ii. 12, mWg t:. > ni' very much wisdom 1 Kings v. 9; or b) in the genitive, n: rtibp a causeless curse Prov. xxvi. 2, 10t '1 a witness without cause xxiv. 28, where the adverb is treated substantively, as in sponte sua. The adverbs also appear in the nature of the substantive, when, as in the later writers, they take a preposition; e. g. ]=; in the [whilst it is] so = j3, Esth. iv. 16;:.n-Sb, prop. for in vain Ez. vi. 10. 2. The repetition of an adverb sometimes denotes intensity, and sometimes continual accession; e. g. 'llrt k' exceedingly Num. xiv. 7; Gen. vii. 19,,'l. 'Il lower and lower Deut. xxviii. 43, t=Q =Q by little and little (peu 2 peu) Ex. xxiii. 30. On the use of verbs with the effect of adverbs, see ~ 142, Rem. 1. ~ 152. OF WORDS WHICH EXPRESS NEGATION. 1. The most important adverbs of negation are: f7-=ovx not, is= — /y not (subjective), r'p (opposite of Em) there is not, V: not yet, Acd no more. Almost exclusively poetic are be, b1, not; negative conjunctions, b_, ]i, bi.b,; that not. We subjoin a more particular view of the use of these words: ib, like or, ov, is used principally for the objective, unconditional negation, and hence is commonly connected with the Perfect or Imper 262 PART III. SYNTAX. feet (as Indicative), and with the Imperfect (as a Future) to express prohibition (~ 127, 3, c).-In connection with '-, when the latter is not followed by the article and therefore means any one, any thing, it expresses the Lat. nullus, none (comp. Fr. ne-personne). Ex. xii. 16. n^-&r b ny.as' b-?3 no labor shall be done; x. 15, xx. 4, 2 Chron. xxxii. 15. Prov. xii. 21, xxx. 30. (The negative stands here in immediate connection with the verb: there happens-not any thing == there happens nothing). So also Al with '; Eccles. i. 9, ~t;-bn fx there-is-not any thing nzew. for there is nothing new. But the case is different when ': is made definite, where it means all, the whole. Num. xxiii. 13, ns~.n 1b 1:: all of him (his whole) thou shalt not see (but only a part). On the use of 5 in interrogative sentences, see ~ 153, 1. On the position of:b in the order of words, see ~ 145, 1, and Note. i, like riu and ne, for the subjective and dependent negation, is used with the Imperfect (as Jussive); hence Nt- bq, ne veniat, let him not come, may also mean he would not come; see above, ~ 127, 3, c, and ~ 128, 2. Sometimes it stands absolutely, without the verb (like 'y for pia TOVro yrVijTa), nay I pray, not so, i. e. let it not be; e. g. Ruth i. 13, hb. bt not so, my daughters. On the interrogative use of it. see ~ 153, 1. ]p (prop. constr. state of ]1. nothingness) is the negative of '5 (he, she, it) is, and includes the verb to be in all its tenses; e. g. Gen. xxxvii. 29, Iz,= 7'1-]~ Joseph was not in the pit; Num. xiv. 42,,nt psx vn.p Jehovah is not among you. The same formulas are expressed positively with.' and negatively with l] as Gen. xxxi. 29, v bxb~;'a it is in my power (in the power of my hand); Neh. v. 5, - b i'p it is not in our power. It follows, moreover, a) that the personal pronouns, when they are the subject of the sentence, are appended to 1'p as suffixes; as "::N I am not, I was not, I shall?not be, X, t;, &c. W) When the predicate is a verb, it almost universally takes the form of a participle, the verb to be being implied in:q; Ex.v. 16, 'In. yqx..Sn straw is not given; ver. 10, nI 9 ^,. I will not give; viii. 17, Deut. i. 32. r) As ta signifies being, existence, so l'9. expresses the opposite, viz. not being, non-existence;.:-S he was not (no longer) existing = was no more, Gen. v. 24. From "X. is abbreviated the privative syllable os9, employed in a few compounds as a prefix, as in Job xxii. 30,?:ps- not guiltless. In 2Ethiopic it is the most common form of negation, and is there prefixed also to verbs. On the origin of the interrogative from -9,x see ~ 153, 1. bri.n5 (prop. constr. state with the ending —:, ~ 90, 3, a, from ri want, non-existence, stem-word,S'-) is most frequently employed before the Infin. when it is to be expressed negatively with a preposition; as b:s to eat, b~ 9 m..'.. not to eat, Gen. iii. 11. Rarely with a finite verb, for that not, Jer. xxiii. 14. b (turning away, removing) means that not, lest, especially after the mention of an act by which an apprelhended evil is to be prevented or ~ 153. INTERROGATIVE WORDS AND SENTENCES. 263 shunned (Gen. xi. 4, xix. 15); or after verbs signifying to fear, to beware (like e16si put, vereor ne) xxxi. 24, 31; and at the beginning of the sentence, especially in the expression of apprehension or fear, as Gen. iii. 22, i' nb5T- nt? tM and now, lest he stretch forth his hand. 2. Two negatives in the same sentence, instead of destroying each other as in Latin, make the negation stronger, like ovx ovS s', oiVx oac/u5-. 1 Kings x. 21,,ST.g 2 3: b Ji f{P silver was regarded as nothing; (in the parallel passage, 2 Chr. ix. 20, b is omitted.) Ex. xiv. 11.-Zeph. ii. 2,:OMai-b tm: before there shall not come, [so in Lat. priusquanm... non.] Is. v. 9,:tt5 'Ifq prop. without no inhabitant. 3. When one negative sentence follows another, especially in the poetic parallelism, the negation is often expressed only in the first, while it is implied also in the second. 1 Sam. ii. 3, multiply not words of pride,-let (not) that which is arrogant come forth from your mouth. Ps. ix. 19, xliv. 19, Job iii. 10, xxviii. 17, xxx. 20. Compare the same usage in respect to prepositions, ~ 154, 4. ~153. OF INTERROGATIVE WORDS AND SENTENCES. 1. Interrogation may be expressed merely by the tone of voice in which it is uttered; e. g. 2 Sam. xviii. 29, n__5 tqbt is it well with the young man? Gen. xxvii. 24, )Yv. r nRa art thou my son Esau? 1 K. i. 24. This is somewhat more frequent when the sentence is connected with the previous one by 1; Jon. iv. 11, Drt 9b. ~_l and should I not spare? Job ii. 10, x. 8, 9, 13, Judges xi. 23, xiv. 16; and when it is introduced by the particle:t (Zech. viii. 6) or _ (Job xiv. 3). But negative sentences still more readily take, in utterance, the interrotive form; e, g. with 9b, when an affirmative answer is expected (nonne?), Job xiv. 16, h. _tl-b_ 'ti.r 9b dost thou not watch for my sin? Jon. iv. 11, Ex. viii. 22, Lam. iii. 36, 38; once with b_, in expectation of a negative answer, 1 Sam. xxvii. 10, Dti- D7t7S_'bb_ ye have not then made an excursion in these days?* * In the same manner are used ov, (nonne?) and 1u'; the former (Horn. Il. x: 165, iv. 242) in expectation of an affirmative, the latter (Odyss. vi. 200) of a negative answer. $ 264 264 ~~~PART III. SYNTAX. Even the few interrogative particles originally expressed either affirmation or negation, and gradually acquired by usage their interrogative power.* The interrogative M is origin ally demonstrative, anil related to the article; see 6 100, 4. On the contrary',s i where? probably sprung from a negation; thle full form being (hence '11x whence?), prop. nlot there, is not there,uttered interrogatively, is nlot there? == where is? '"x is he nlot there? for w-here is he? Job xiv. 10, mian (lies and where is he? and he is no more. In Arabic "X has- become, an interrogative pronoun =~who? (comip. the, Germ-an wco (wchere), andl Eng. w-ho);but this is not its origrinal use. On the albbreviation of`,. into "N see 9 152. 2. Most commonly the simple question begins with lie interr-ogative 'r,-tlhe disjunctive question wvith - followed in the second clause by =X (:~-",~ =utrmni-an.); 1 Kings xxii. 1 5, ~'- s/hall wre rro.. or shall wreforbear? rpbe indirect form of inq.uiry diff'ers only in havingr =:R itore frequently in the simple question, and in the first memiber of the dlisjunctive question. More particularly: The 'm is strictly a sigrn of' the simple and pure question, when the inquiirer is uncertain wlrat ainswer may or should be given. job ii.:8. hast thou considered C y " n) mny servant Job? Often the inquirer expects [or implies] a ecrative ansiver (numn?). which may be expressed in the tone itself; e. r.Geni iv. 9. "n.r6 amn I the iceeper of my brother? Job xiv. 14. when mnan dies. will lhe lire aexain? Such aqeton may have precisely the force of a negative asrin;2Sm vii. 5, r"' onmX- shall thou build a house for mne? (in the p-arallel assge,1 Cron. xvii. 4. '!~ M- b thouz shalt nlot build a house for mie )anid. vice versa, the negrative forni of the question has the effect of an affirmation;'i nonne? is it not so? the sanie as 1-~' behold! 2 Kings xv. 21, xx. 20, comp. 2 Chron. xxvii. 7, xxxii. 32.t On the other hand, the question may be so uttered as to show that the speaker expects affirmation arid assent; where we are obliged to insert not, whilst the Greek says in the same sense 7s1 7uc and 7i yuV oi, and the Latin says nze also for nonune?t" Job xx. 4, r-V11 rIXl dost thou (not) knowv this? This simple question is very seldom introduced by tx arid *So in G reelk anid Latiii, origiiially affirmative and then interrogative are numa (=- nune), an (probably, perhaps); originally negative, and then interrogative, are oix unY ne, i n German nicht wahr? (not true?) nieht? (not?) t In a similar manner 1-i what? [why?] indignantly uttered, expresses prohibition under the formi (if rep~roaehiful expostulation. Cant. viii. 4, u why should ye rouse? Job xvi. 6, xxxi. 1. In Arabic, its negative force is very frequent. t See Heindorf ad Plat. Phncdr. 266. D. Ileusinger ad Cic. de Off. iii. 17. ~ 154. THE PREPOSITIONS. 265 then only when there is implied in it a disjunctive relation to something that precedes, or haply, the Lat. an; Is. xxix. 16, 1 K. i. 27, Job vi. 12. The disjunctive question (utrum-an?) is usually expressed under the form 3t — n, also O5l —n, Job xxi. 4; with emphasis on the first question Db1-t-lt, xxxiv. 17, xl. 8, 9; but also with ia or before the second clause (as in German and English); Job xvi. 3, Eccles. ii. 19. This construction of the two particles at —, does not require opposition of meaning in the clauses to which they belong, but often presents, in the poetic parallelism and elsewhere (Gen. xxxvii. 8, Hab. iii. 8) merely the repetition of the same question in different words; the variation in the second question lying more in the form of expression than in the thought itself. E. g. Job iv. 17, is man just before God, or (cK) is a man pure before his Maker? vi. 5, 6, viii. 3, x. 4, 5, xi. 2, 7, xxii. 3. Hence, in the same relation, the second member may be introduced by 1 (Job.. x. 3, xiii. 7, xv. 7, 8), or without any particle (xxii. 4).-Rarely, In occurs again in the second member (Judges xiv. 15) where actual contrariety is expressed; more commonly in a continued, twofold interrogation (1 Sam. xxiii. 11). Also rare is ts in the first member. The form of the indirect question is, in general, the same. After verbs of inquiring, doubting, examining, the simple question takes I - - (whether), Gen. viii. 8, Ex. xvi. 4; and Cn, Cant. vii. 13, 2 Kings i. 2; the disjunctive question (whether-or) is expressed by at —n, Gen. xxvii. 21, and also by tn —, Num. xiii. 18.-The formula Ct:X slot e (who knoweth whether-not, is also used affirmatively like the Latin nescio an, Esther iv. 14. For interrogative adverbs of place, time, &c. see ~ 150, 5. The words -tn (~ 122, 2) and insm wholly, then, serve to give animation or intensity to a question (like 7roTr, tandem, Eng. then, now); as inS;'-11t' what aileth thee now? quid tibi tandem est? Is. xxii. 1; t5i nI y. where now? Job xvii. 15. 3. The affirmative answer is given, as in Latin, by repeating the predicate of the interrogative sentence; Gen. xxvii. 24, xxix. 6, Judges xiii. 11; the negative answer is 94 no, Gen. xix. 2. ~154. OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 1. The simple* prepositions, like the adverbs, originally denote for the most part physical relations, viz. those of space, and are then used tropically of immaterial relations, as those of time, * Among these we reckon such forms as m, A i, which in themselves considered are indeed compound words, but as prepositions they express only one idea, and are thus distinguished from the compounds under No. 2, e. g. 1e-id: from before. 266 PART III. SYNTAX. cause; &c. Those of place originally denote either rest in a place, or motion from or to a place; but in each class there are some (more in the first than in the second), which take also the signification of the other. a) The most important prepositions of place are:a) Of rest in a place, n in, by, at, L5_ upon and over. njn under, 'nM, mmns behind, after,.~. before, 5 ', nr_,.M before, opposite to, %s4, rn with (apud), by. near, I'3, I_. (on the outside of, near by) but especially behind. about (tuu/pl),;', between, '.=i on the other side of beyond. f) Of motion,. " from, 5x and b to, towards, 's unto, —and also (from the former class) 3 to (usque ad), 5 upon, towards. b) Very many of the above-mentioned prepositions express also relations of time, as i in, within, 5. i,, &c. c) Of those which denote other relations we may mention, 3 as (e1, '.r. according to), t. together with. with, IT., % b.. besides, bn L without, besides, i]_, iYb5 on account of, " (prop. as a reward) for, because. 2. The composition of these particles exhibits a great degree of dexterity, and accuracy of discrimination, in expressing those relations which are denoted by prepositions. Thus those of motion are set before others denoting rest, so as to express not only a change of relation, but also the local one which was existing previously to the change, or which follows as the result of it (colmp. in Fr. de chez, d'aupres.)) E. g. a) With "]: nIUa away from behind, ]t. out from between, 5~_ away from 0upon or above, Mt, nr~ de chez quelqu'un, nnn. away fr'om zunder. b) With ' m. (more seldom): ~n '5 in behind or after; Y ia. without, i. e. on the outside of, '5 Rn' 5 forth without, Nun. v. 3. Adverbs, moreover, which are compounded of prepositions, take after themn (more seldom 7p), and thus again become prepositions. E. g. i (adv.) above, 5 53 (prep.) above, over, nt-_ (adv.) below, M nnra (prep.) below, under,.b.l. (prep.) without, -ni^ (adv.) separately, aside, 1. 7b= (prep.) aside from, besides. * When the IIebrew says, he took the offering t'_:t. b.T. from upon the altar (away from the top of the altar), he presents the idea fully; while it is but half expressed in the Fr. il prend le chapeau sur la table, the Germ. er nimmt den HIut vom Tische weg, and the Eng. he takes his hat from the table; the Fr. omitting one relation, the Germ. and Eng. another. ~154. THE PREPOSITIONS. 267 This accessory preposition may also precede the adverbial form; e. g. 'l.. =. &. besides, ~sb. without, Syr. Lo;* more rarely it is wholly wanting, as nrlo for b nrlma, Job xxvi. 5. 3. We will now present a few prepositions,-such as occur most frequently and have the greatest variety of meaning,-with their principal significations, in order to explain their construction with verbs (~ 140), and the most important idioms connected with them. a) 3, which has the greatest number and variety of significations, denotes, 1) prop. rest in a place (6), hence in with reference to time, and to state or condition, as Yr, ri,:nit:n, tib,-with reference to a company, or number of individuals, among, e. g.:3 -,-with reference to bounds or limits, within, as "'1.r within the gates,-of high objects, upon, as atbM upon horses, Is. lxvi. 20; rarely, it has these significations after verbs of motion = Es (like ponere in loco). The Hebrew says a) to drink in a cup (for, to drink what is in it), Gen. xliv. 5 (so in Arabic and Chald., Dan. v. 2, Ev noTlw7i, Ev xQvcm n) vsEi Xen. Anab. vi. 1, 4, 3, Ezra iii. 6, in ossibus bibere in Florus, French boire dans une tasse); jf) in the manner, in the model or rule, for after the manner or model (comp. 6v Tj vo'a), hunc in modum), as 'm 'i. according to the command, '~ room according to the counsel of any one, s:nrs. - obsm in (after) our image, after our likeness Gen. i. 26; ver. 27 and v. 1, 3, Adam begat a son I'b.s inln.; somewhat differently, Gen. xxi. 12, in Isaac (pnase) = after Isaac shall thy seed call themselves. Deserving of special notice are the passages, where y) the grammarians assume a so-called - essential, to be translated by as, tanquam (Fr. en). Ex. vi. 3, I appeared to Abraham, &c. a'xr as the mighty God. Is. xl. 10, the Lord will come pan as a strong one. The most striking use of it is before the predicate-adjective after the verb to be (= conduct or behave as), Eccles. vii. 14, in the day of joy 31:= net be thou joyful; Ex. xxxii. 22, thou knowest the people s.n sa' 3 that they are evil; Job xxiii. 13, 'rtM 4..i he is one alone. (In Arabic this idiom is frequent; see Thes. Ling. Heb. p. 174.) 2. Nearness, vicinity (Lat. ad, apud), at, by, on; I I- = ev roTapW, by the river, Ezck. x. 15; ].V in the eyes of= before the eyes of one (6v ooxa4polcs, II. 1, 587). In this sense it frequently indicates motion (Lat. ad), to, unto; differing, however, both from bX to, towards (where the object is not necessarily reached), and from 'T_ unto, usque ad (with the attainment of the object), namely where the act of touching upon, striking against, reaching unto and the like, is meant. Gen. xi. 4, a * In the Syr.,o ~ is a preposition, over,.." N an adv., above; (see Hoffmann, Gram. Syr. p. 280 ima). The Hebrew in like manner says.t.. from (a starting-point) onward, precisely the Lat. usque a, usque ex, comp. also inde. 268 PART III. SYNTAX. tower V.o7a I'7t: whose top may reach to heaven. Hence it expresses the relation of verbs of motion (and others analogous to them) to their objects, where in Lat. and Germ. verbs compounded with ad, in and an are used. E. g. 3 tVn to lay hold on.. s: to touch,. 5:, to ask at, to consult,. s to call upon. M,W to look upon, 3;':' to hearken to. Verbs having the signification of the last two, often include the idea of the pleasure or pain with which one sees or hears any thing. Gen. xxi. 16, I could nlot look upon the death of the child! Hence. in a tropical sense. in respect to, on account of. our over. as Z nrl; to rejoice over. i. e. to have joy in a thing. With the idea of vicinity, nearness, that of accompaniment. and of' help. instrumentality (with), readily connects itself. Gen. xxxii. 11, with my sta ff ('pr.) I passed over this Jordan. Ps. xviii. 30. with thee (vi) have I rushed upon troops. Verbs of coming and going, with a (to come. or go. with) express the idea of' bringing; e. g. Judg. xv. 1, Samson visited his wife with a kid. brought her a kid. Deut. xxiii. 5. b) b'. signifies upon (Erl) and over ( vvef)); very frequently of motion (down, up) upon or over a thing. In the sense of(resting) upon, (coming) upon, it is used after verbs signifying to be heavy, i. e. burdensome, afflictive (prop. to lie heavily upon), Is. i. 14. Job vii. 20,-to set or appoint over (commission). as b_ t p'i,-to pity, to spare, as bV tbIn (prop. to look tenderly upon). With the primary idea is connected that of accession (conceived as a laying upon) and of conformity, after, according to (with reference to the rule or pattern, upon which a thing is laid to be measured or modelled), and of cause (comp. the Lat. ob, the Germ. darob, and the Eng. on account of), although. In the signification over. it is often used with verbs of covering, protecting, by tt&, by:, (prop. to make a covering, a shield, over); and also with those ofkindred meaning. as bV tnb: to contend fbr one (prop. in order to protect him), Judg. ix. 17. It is used for at, by, chiefly in cases where there is an actual elevation of one of the related objects above the other, conceived as an impending over; e. g. t^ b by the sea [Eng. on the sea]; but also where this is not the case. as 9 by, like our on the side. Hence it expresses the relation of motion to the object at which it terminates,to, towards, so that in the later Hebrew style and in poetry it is often used for bx and b; e. g. Job vi. 27. xix. 5, xxii. 2, xxxiii. 23. c). (~ 102) expresses motion, removal. away from any thing. Its fundamental signification is separationfrom a whole, derivation, descent. As constr. state of the noun... part, it properly means part of. hence offfro7m used at first with reference to the part which is taken from the whole;-as to give, to take part of= from. Most clear is this fundamental signification when it expresses some (more rarely one) of; e. g..'; ^Si.T. (Ex. xvii. 5) some of the elders of Israel, ti (Ex. xxix. 12) some of the blood (Fr. du sang). It has the same signification when it is connected (apparently pleonastic) with the words one, none, in the often misapprehended idiom of the Hebrew and Arabic non ab uno, i. e. not any one, not the least, prop. not even a part, a piece, the least bit. of one. Lev. iv. 2, Deut. xv. 7. Ez. xviii. 10. ~ 154. THE PREPOSITIONS. 269 In its most common use, with reference to motion away from, it forms the opposite of bI, Is, and is employed not merely after verbs which express actual motion, as to depart (from), to flee (from), but also those of kindred signification, as to be afraid, to hide, to beware: comp. in Gr. and Lat. xalv7rarw aro, custodire ab. Transferred to time, it may mean eitherfrom (a time) on, in which case the reckoning is to be made from the beginning, not from the end of the period specified (like i7r vvxzog, de node, from the coming on of night), as.q4., Job xxxviii. 12, from the beginning of thy days onward; or next from, i. e. immediately after (E &clarov, ab itinere), as y'rrn, Ps. lxxiii. 20,from (the moment of) awaking. Gen. xxxviii. 24, w.'in M ^ J i. after the lapse of three months. Hos. vi. 2. For the use of it to denote rest on the side of an object, where the idea is that of near distance, or being just off from (the prope abesse ab, pendere ex aliqua re), see ~ 150, 1. For its use in the expression of comparison, see ~ 119, 1. d) bX, A.. (prop. regions, directions, hence towards), denotes motion, and also merely direction towards) with reference both to material objects and the operations of the mind), whether one reaches the place towards which the motion is directed, and even passes into it, or not. In the former case it is equivalent to 'I, e. g..IT'bs. even unto his mouth Job xl. 23; in the latter to 7rt"'1-, e. g. RIt-' = ita to go into the ark. It is certainly an unfrequent and improper use of this particle (though sustained by unquestionable examples), when it is employed to denote rest in a place at which one has arrived. Jer. xli. 12, they found him 0^3no::4-? by the great waters in Gibeon; t:p-bX. at the place, Deut. xvi. 6, 1 Kings viii. 30; m'!n bx by the mountain, 1 Sam. xvii. 3. Compare the Gr. Esl, is, for Ev, e. g. iE Sopovg pvsiLV, Soph. Ajax. 80. In the Germ. zu Hause, zu Leipzig, this interchange has become the established usage of the language; [so in vulgar, but incorrect, Eng. to home for at home.] e) i (an abbreviation of bq, but more commonly used in the tropical significations), to, towards; hence employed as a sign of the dative, and also of the genitive of possession (~ 115), and then in the signification with respect to, on account of, in behalf of. Such a dativus commodi is used pleonastically (chiefly in the language of common intercourse and in the later style) after many verbs, especially in the Imperative; e. g.. Sb. go, get thee away, b7-'rTnT flee (for thy safety); but also as i.-n.t be thou like Cant. ii. 17. It is a solecism of the later style (frequent in the Syriac), when active verbs are construed with b instead of the accusative, as b b:s, Lam. iv. 5. Very often also, especially in poetry, it denotes rest in a place,hence at, or in, with reference to place and time; as.T:.2 on thy right, =?bc at evening; [and condition, see lex. B, 3.] On the use of it after passive and other verbs to denote the efficient cause or author, see ~ 143, 2. 270 PART III. SYNTAX. f) 3 (as an adverb, about, nearly), as a prep. as, like to, for denoting similarity; doubled, 3-3 as-so, and also so-as Gen. xliv. 18, in later writers 3 —; according to, after, from the idea of conformity to a model or rule; as a designation of time, about (circa). Of the pleonastic 3, or Kaph veritatis as the grammarians called it, there is no certain example; it has, every where, the sense of comparison. It is true, indeed, that "3n is -- ' little, but it is prop. as a scrap; Neh. vii. 2.for he was S '. asx. as a fitifudl man must be. 4. A preposition (like the negatives, ~ 152, 3) may be omitted when the relation which it expresses is repeated, as e. g. in the second member of the poetic parallelism. E. g. 1, Is. xlviii. 14, he will execute his will on Babylonl (b an), and his power on the Chaldeans (0a3 for Pt~t- ). Ilab. iii. 15, Job xii. 12. So also:, Job xxxiv. 10, Is. xxviii. 6;,t; Gen. xlix. 25, Is. xxx. 1; th,' lxi. 7. ~155. OF TIIE CONJUNCTIONS. 1. The Hebrew language, considered with reference to the number of its conjunctions, frequently consisting of several words combined, and its ability to form still others from most of the prepositions by the addition of fjIN and ': ( 104, 1, c), exhibits no small degree of cultivation and copiousness compared with its usual simplicity. But writers often neglect these means for accurately expressing the relations of sentences and members of a sentence, contenting themselves with less perfect modes of connection;* and hence the numerous significations -which certain favorite conjunctions have in the Hebrew (particularly I,,:i.), or at least by which they must be translated in our western languages, where we are not permitted (see No. 3) to retain the loose and indefinite connections sometimes made by these particles. Of the most extensive application is 1.. (~ 104, 2):t a) Properly and usually copulative (and), connecting single words as well as whole sentences. When three or more words stand in connection, it is used either before every one after the first (2 Kings xxiii. 5) or before the last only (Gen. xiii. 2); rarely after the first only (Ps. * Comp. ~ 107, 1, Rem. ~ 147, Rem. 1. t See Gesenius, Thes. I. p. 393 seqq. for a more complete view of the use of Vav copulative. ~155. THE CONJUNCTIONS. 271 xlv. 9). In certain phrases it is commonly omitted, as yesterday (and) the day before = heretofore, Ex. v. 8. The tone of animated description or narration may also occasion the omission of it (constructio asyndeta); as Judg. v. 27, at her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay. Job xx. 19, Cant. ii. 11, v. 6, Is. xxvi. 17. As a connective of words it is often explicative (like isque, et quidem). 1 Sam. xxviii. 3, i'n'nl,iV in Ramah and (= namely) in his own city, 2 Sam. xiii. 20, Amos iii. 11, iv. 10; even when the second idea is subordinate to the first, and would properly be expressed as the genitive after it (the 'v &Slo voltv of the grammarians); as Gen. iii. 16, 1 will multiply q.l, ]2.hy. thy pain and thy conception, i. e. the pains of thy pregnancy,-the pains connected with thy pregnancy. When it connects sentences or parts of a sentence, it is either continuative (so, then), hence placed before the apodosis, and after absolute designations of time (Gen. iii. 5, Ex. xvi. 6, Prov. xxiv. 27).^ni 1.. 4ns~ afterward, then build thy house; or it expresses heightening, enhancement, as Job v. 19 in six troubles he will deliver thee, yea in seven there shall no evil befall thee; or even comparison (and so), Job v. 7 man is born to trouble, and so the sons of lightning soar on high, for,-just as these (=-birds of prey) fly up; xii. 11, xxxiv. 3, Prov. xi. 16, xvii. 3, xxv. 3, 25. b) Adversative (and yet, when yet); Judg. xvi. 15, how canst thou say I love thee anm ]p qt. and (yet) thy heart is not with me (i. e. when yet), Gen. xv. 2, xviii. 13, Ps. xxviii. 3. c) Causal (for, because); Ps. v. 12, let them ever shout for joy, because (when, since) thou dost defend them. Is. xliii. 12, ye are my witnesses bq-'~., and I (am) God, that I am God. Gen. xx. 3. d) Inferential (then, so then, therefore); Ez. xviii. 32, I delight not in the death of him that dieth-t-.5d.? therefore turn ye. In this sense it may stand even at the beginning of a sentence, when it implies an inference of some kind from circumstances already mentioned; 2 Kings iv. 41, and he said n '.ii-ps then take meal; Ps. iv. 4, t.e. know then; ii. 6, 10, 2 Sam. xxiv. 3. e) Final (in order that, that); in this sense chiefly with the cohortative or jussive (~ 127). Of scarcely less extensive application are the two relative conjunctions '^4 and 3 =, quod, quodquum, that, because,- running almost parallel with each other in their significations, except that 'rts is at the same time and radically a relative pronoun and takes prefixes, while 'i occurs as a conjunction har more frequently, and in a greater variety of senses. Both are prefixed, like quod, to a whole clause, standing in place of an accusative, and governed by the preceding active verb as its object. Before '?s, indeed, is placed the accusative particle rme; Josh. ii. 10, mni tj=nin-t" n..Swnt we have heard it, that Jehovah hath dried up,-more commonly.'?.::r'n, and still oftener n.ws:ru. Hence the following uses of.; a) it is employed before words directly quoted, like the Gr. OrT (very seldom 'Imt, 1 Sam. xv. 20); b) it is temporal= ore, prop. (at the time) that, (at the time) when, hence as, when, sore 272 272 ~~~~PART III. SYTNTAX. times strongly distinguished from the conditional r- if (see, on this point, the very instructive chap. Ex. xxi.), sometimnes nearly approachingr to it, as in Job xxxviii. 5, comp. vs. 4 and 18 ('t here also seldom, Lev. iv. 22, Dcut. xi. 6); c) causal, eo quod, because, fully'9n, p)ropterea quod, alsofor = —ap'g; repeated (~-~Is. i. 29, 30 liz - because-and because, Job xxxviii. 20), when more than one cause fobr the same thinoa is assicrnedi. Only ":. is u.e, d adversatively after aneain but (on the con trary),.-prop. but it is because; e. g. thou shalt not take a wife for mny sari frorn the daughters of the Canaanites-but thou shalt go to my native land, ==for thou shalt go; and also where negation is only implied, e. gr. after a question which involves denial (~ 153, 1, 2), when it may be rendered nay but,-for surely ( 7'Lor), Mic. vi. 3, what (injury) have 1 done to thee?....for surely I brought thee up, &e., Job xxxi. 18. See on:x.% "M below in No. 2. i. 2. We evil] now arrange the remaining conjLunctions in the order of their signifi cations; but, as miany of Itieem have, several meanings, the difflerent uses of eachi will be given in connection With it, wvhere it is first mentioned. W~e must here confine ourselves to a brief general notice, leaving the more complete view, with the references and proofs, to the lexicon.'* a) Copulatire: besides 1..1. the properly adverbial forms also, and 'MI denotingy accession, yea more. also. even, once combined and eren also, Lev. xxvi. 44. The first is often used with plural forms emphatically, to include all, e. g. r-iTi both the two, all together. It also merely give ephasis to thec following word, as Gen. xxix. 30, and he loved ~r ",X -? =; 1achel (not, also Rachel) more than Leah; 1 Sam. xxiv. 12.-'9 'M1 is prop. add that, hence not to -mention, nedum,-accordingr to the conrmection, much more, Much less. b) Disjunctive: especially it or (etym. fr-ee will, choice, hence prop. vel, but also ant exclusive, 2 Kings ii. 16). Sometimes it stands elliptically for '1 or (he it, it must be) that, Is. xxvii. 5';-hence the transition to the conditional sense, if, but if, Ex. xxi. 36 (the LXX. C''vU Vul~g. sin autein), if hap~ly, 1 Sam. xx. 10, which has been contested without reason (comp. on 1, ~ 150, 3, Note). Repeated, ~x sire-sire, it is the, same as b_%_CX c) Tempjoral: '%D. O"T01, quumn (see above), for which more rarely is used the conditional particle =4 (Is. iv. 4, xxiv. 13); '1 ~~ ln!~, i "i until that. also t:X `7V =4 's 'IV until that when, also during, so long as, the same ',L ~ ""M after that, TXM (for 'It~ ) since that, and -u: before, 7 M' flor '16s In"' before (Ps. cxxix. 6). *Sec especially' the Hebrew and English Lexicon, translated from the Latin of Gesenius, by Dr. iRobinson, fifth edition, 1854.-TR. ~ 155. THE CONJUNCTIONS. 273 d) Causal: (besides n and r^_, No. 1, e, c) 'vW l3 I because, or merely 13 b., with the omission ofl M (~ 104, 1, c), Ps. xlii. 7, xlv. 3. 3~i-b~- (Gen. xviii. 5, xix. 8, 2 Sam. xviii. 20), and Z-b~ '1dt (Job xxxiv. 27), = M' -i3 I, jm 3- 'I;* t ' -, lV 's_ ni iSw b, prop. for the circumstances that ==for this cause that, and emphatically t'.W nrinqs. S for this very cause that, 'iw ts.:s, (prop. on the account, that), 'mw it, '3 nmn (therefore that), eo quod, because, i3 =a the same (prop. as a reward that). e) Final: '1 rtb. to the end that, m'I '13.= in order that (also causal),. that = in order that (No. 1, e), perhaps i, 1 Kings vi. 19. With a negative force: b5, b that not, lest (~ 152). f) Conditional: principally 1t and. (rarely ifm), if. The first (which is also a particle of interrogation, ~ 153, 2) is purely conditional, leaving it uncertain whether what is expressed by the verb is actually so, is actually done, or not (rather the former),-as, if I do-have doneshall do; on the contrary,. t expressly implies that it is not so, is not done (if I should do-had done), at least that it is very uncertain and even improbable. Hence ts may properly stand where - might also be used (Ps. 1. 12, cxxxix. 8, Hos. ix. 12), but 6. cannot be used for a. Especially in solemn asseveration, expressed under the form of conditional imprecation, ot is always employed; as Ps. vii. 4-6,.''lnOV^: 'II1 t8 - n- if I have done this-then let the enemy persecute me, &c. The speaker assumes it as possibly and even actually the case, that he has done this or that, in order that he may offer himself for the severest punishment, should it prove to be so. Ps. xliv. 21, lxxiii. 15, cxxxvii. 5. These particles (mN and.i) retain their distinctive character when combined with negatives, as Ab m, ttb, ^,b. Of t:3 it is to be remarked, moreover, that after forms of swearing, e. g.:ij!n "n as Jehovah liveth, it has the effect of a negative particle (hence K5 W is affirmative); 1 Sam. xiv. 45, 2 Sam. xi. 11, xx. 20. There is here an ellipsis, which is sometimes actually supplied, as in 2 Sam. iii. 35; ws 1.~ v tb:H'bS iVV5 t-i rb so do God to me, and more also, if-. Hence, in general, after verbs of swearing, adjuring, t:s has the force of not (Cant. ii. 7, iii. 5), and elsewhere in the poetic style, Judges v. 8. Is. xxii. 14. Respecting is, n,, which sometimes assume the character of conditional particles, see No. 2, b, and No. 1, e, b. g) Concessive: =t, with the Perf., even if(= though) I am, Job ix. 15, with the Impf (though one were), Is. i. 18, x. 22; if (fbr 't by_), although, Job xvi. 17; - t3 even when, although. h) Comparative: t~n_ as, quemadmodum, with l: in the second member, as-so, Is. xxxi. 4, lii. 14, 15. —'1W, may be omitted in the * See on these much disputed groups of particles, Gesenius, Thes. I. p. 682. t ib, fully written fti, is originally not different from fbt, not; hence, uttered as a question, it became first an optative particle (~ 136, 2), as,1rn.1 nonne vivat? for O that he were alive, and then a conditional particle, if he were alive (implying the contrary). 18 274 PART III. SYNTAX. protasis, Is. Iv. 9, Ps. xlviii. 6, and i3 in the apodosis, Obad. 15. Exact conformity is expressed by ~. rnm. -"3 in all points as, Eccles. v. 15. i) Adversative: (see on the adverbs. ~ 150, 3). Decidedly belong here, 'n tx2 only that = but, nevertheless, and the difficult combination ax ~-, prop. that if for if most frequently but if in the sense of 'explained under No. 1. e, d, but united with tX to form a connection with the verb. Ps. i. 1, happy the man who walks not (if he walks not) in the counsel of the ungodly.... 2, but if(X ~n) his delight is in.... Then simply but, Ps. i. 4, Gen. xxxii. 29; but if but when = unless, Gen. xxxii. 27, and merely but = except (after a negative), xxxix. 9, xxviii. 17. k) On the interrogative particles, see ~ 153, and 1) The optatire particles, above under letter f 3. A certain brevity and incompleteness* of expression (see No. 1) appears in this among other things, viz. that instead of the compound conjunction, by which the relation is fully ex-pressed, may be used one or the other of those composing it. Thus instead of the full form W.' ]2? on the account, that= because, we have the shorter l"? or 'tX; instead of '1._ as (conj.), 3 Is. lxi. 11, and '.. Ex. xiv. 13, 1 Kings viii. 24. 4. This brevity of expression is sometimes carried so far, that the conjunction, which is required to show the relation of one sentence or part of a sentence to another, is omitted altogether. This occurs, a) In conditional clauses: Gen. xxxiii. 13, should one drive them hard, they would die,-for, if one should drive, &c. Job vii. 20, (if) I have sinned, what have I done unto thee? Gen. xlii. 38. b) Where comparison is expressed: Ps. xiv. 4, h.5 mw. ' k3 who devour my people (as) they would eat bread, prop. (as) those who eat bread. Job xxiv. 19, drought and heat bear off the snow-water, tW2 bi&t (so) Sheol (those who) sin. Jer. xvii. 11. c) In members which are usually dependent on the relative conjunctions. Gen. xii. 13, say lm t.hbi thou art my sister, commonly r. r inh 'n. Ps. ix. 21, [that] they may learn, * More rare is pleonasm, or an unnecessary fulness of expression; e. g. cx m3 for if, Ex. xxii. 22, comp. old Germ. wenn dass (prop. if it is that) and old Eng. if that. On the contrary, a degree of pleonasm in the particles is quite characteristic of the Chaldee; e. g. -b5p-5n (German alldieweil) wholly-for-that because,.: ' nbi 'b. just for this = therefore. Emphatic, not pleonastic, is the repetition of the conjunction in ]js.. ]_ because, even because, Lev. xxvi. 43. ~ 156. THE INTERJECTIONS. 275 they are men. Is.,xlviii. 8, for I knew, thou art utterly faithless. Ps. xvii. 3, I have purposed, my mouth shall not sin. In all these cases, the seCond member stands properly in the accusative; comp. ~ 142, 4, Rem. 2. ~156. OF THE INTERJECTIONS. The interjections which correspond to our ah! oh! alas! woe! expressing denunciation as well as lamentation (w;I, 'IT, h'), are connected with the object of the threatening or lamentation either by the prepositions _, 5b, b, or without any intervening particle; as.l^ 5 woe to us!.,I'M woe to the people! Is. i. 4; nI ai'nM alas, my brother! 1 Kings xiii. 30.-On the construction of o-3;. with suffixes, see ~ 100, 5. A. THE PER NOMINATIVE OF THE PRONOUN, OR SEPARATE PRONOUN. ACCUSATIVE OF THE VERBAL SUF A. Singular. 1. cor. b3t3, in pause '3.; ', in pause I. T* r _::~~~~~~~~~~ SIMPLE FORM. rm. 2.f i-i;LS (Il), in pause Srl.r ( 'R, prop. bri) ~; _; ".. ti, -, in p; T;.. ( T I; T r. q; -~ -T; ~. me. ~ause T-.1, thee. I).- J Lm. t." If/ K3; he. (,W:. she. him. her. Plural. 1. corm. aIJ (..3), (m. B:1N 3m h. /IS Lf2 g t we. ye. they. 1; It-; lt (nos) us.:5, Q:- ) m,?, _.; 3 r ~ ^ >, ',; -( 0-, you. t,^: * (eos) them. (eas) J * The forms with an asterisk are exclusively po 276 SONAL PRONOUN.* PRONOUN, OR FIX. GENITIVE OF THE PRONOUN, OR NOMINAL SUFFIX (PRON. POSSESSIVE). B. WITH 2 DEMONSTRATIVE. I f ( )'. ) not used. TnV, '., (-:) o - T s A. I WITH NOUNS SINGULAR. B. WITH NOUNS PLURAL AND DUAL. my. I my. t', It-, in pause ':L? -.. ( T) Ithy..1 1. J thy. I, '1; -, Gi (1i) his [ejus 4 suus. T T-;;::. her. T T 7 T V -, I, t..* his. k^i- 7rher, 1 r not used. not used. mt; t:; () 3, 0- I11 1.-. S 0 *'; T 1 T7 P. ' 7! ' I- J our. jt^ * your. their. our. your. 1b- ) QT= —, ~~-* 1 *... i O their. 19 - ~ 1 - etical, and those in parenthesis are of rare occurrence. 277 B. REGULAR KAL. NIPHAL. PERF. 3. m. 3. f. 2. m. 2. f. 1. c. Plur. 3. c. 2. m. 2. f. 1. c. _btip* -T, T: IT.4rpI T: - r ':: -:. p t.), S'O- 11, il= n- T: IT -CT:-T r- -an: -T 1-17M n: I bm-ft tp~,~* -i PIEL. top m~'_r~ INF. *.. *t* I _* INF. absol. bp** bp:, * b, *' bi * PT IMP. m. 5:.,'. Ol"t; IMPF. 3.. *'*- 3. f. _pR. ^ n ~t?^m b 2~*. f. * ~: - * -~. 2.:. i -' -' Plur. 3.m. p t1'1t23.f. r 'p-' * * in; -* 2.. m. nbss "; * '~,:b..ri 1. C. 2bT? TJ5 ^ 22 IMPF. shortened (Jussive.) I I PART. L..p * - * T: * *-; 278 VERB. ~~ 42-54. PUAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. HITHPAEL. * bED * b^p~t * bu~p i-p * ^?EW* sto* tb3bp,,* tbtp, *;itEpni* _ *n T<: *. T *: *J^1^ To: ^T: * | Fblop* rbtiprnSSp rt* * * * *... * *. -~:'P TT: *c —: wanting wantin^ i t:5Xp ab; bt;pi7W5 p t: * * T -p.* b n.* ir*T ] * * Tti?. m ci~ 5bti?> i)Er~b* hbXpr* ieapi* tepr* h5bor* -*>,. * *::T *;@ T * b~a* R?'* ^E^' 279 C. REGULAR VERB SUFFIXES for 1 Sing. 2 Sing. m. 2 Sing. f. 3 Sing. m. I-. PERF. Kal. 3. m. 3. f. 2. m. 2. f.; 1. c. Plur. 3. c. 2. m. 1. c. *-Tl 1 I; T ~T>:T Tp } Irtap T T Tp LAp''"y^? * -T:: T: T: Tp } -* T p T~: 1 T';': - -:;: --: - 4ib? INF. Kial..J9; }T ' 1:2 T - IMPF. Kal. bP - IMPF. Ka 3. m. t:.i?p t:,:p 3. m. with Nun dernonstrative.. - T:.-.::~ Plur. 3. m. tH It1; 5b15 bp:b i: h, PRET. Piel. h45ap I.b.p b nI-ip. _; *; *. T ) fthj 280 .0 WITH SUFFIXES. ~~ 57-61. 3 Sing. f 1 Plur. 2 Plur. m. 2 Plur.f. 3 Plur. m. 3 Plur.f. - -_ rz~5~1 srrn5m p =rtp T T; T T.*: —. ' * -,T T 1T T T- T:: — -T::- T::- T: -T T: -T Tr: ftt]> i tr; ' ' >)-tBPbtp lbpt T: -: T: -:r~- T: -: ntT)>-i5"p ~:3r'5 1'5aTP:t1?? 1 ^8?tP T: —:: -:: -:: -r:;-t '. 1,..5 't. t tp T::* *: — rpib tt b..!p1:tbtoi;)^ *jyi btpp1 aibttupu T ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 'Ibftp tP lpB ttop281 T:. * T: P * **:*'*PI 281 1*:P. ta. -p -Tt:P D. VERB PE GUTTURAL. ~ 63. KAL. I PHAL. IIIPHEIL. HOPHAL. PERF. 3. m. T, -IY,, * '7D^~ * TY* I -" | — T r — ":"',c ": I V: _ T: IT 3. f ^TO?3 g '::*:,7b ^Yt! ^t/, r;7* T: IT T ': '1-: T 7': ' T: T rr 2. m. nTO3s 1n732; n7^ s 1 T: -T T: -::1 T: -V: T: -T: IT ~~2. ~:: -:::: -'.V: 1::-T. IT 2-/- Zr T. vIT 1. 0c. r173 T^3 T?! M n M "I'YI ~ ' -T1 *: — "::1. ~: '"-: 1-: ~: -T1. IT P/ur. 3. c.. ' iTI.1,_5 J,:"." — 2. m. QmnX76X3* oi?7i.n;. t3Si n k> Y; 2./. "iriTO:?* yn":^ 'n' ": -- *:' — ":.':: —.: I'. * --:. — IT 2. c. wa.^.i"y: - -v:.' _ ": ';: I.'! ".:-~ YT IF. c.,~..i' oo? ~.~:;,: -T ': — V":l": -V: "-: ": -T:-1-; IT INF. ';1 T* I o.' *.....* 1T -- *....: IIMP. m. 'ra* pT,* ']"s,, * j,~;~ * f. X;;w7 jopT^'*; ~,, S: i- - -t':y^ - - 1- ~ -~ Vrl- *- T — *-:-T. IT 3. f. - hr pr,_. r, T: - -- ' 1-: T. T -:* -:-T IT IMPF. 31'~3.. TO^* PT^ T^*T1* '/t:7> 73 1'3 — 'l'/.~ ^O"T^ " "1 - JrIT C. C. 17"i' P.,,i~,t7 ": "1': - V:': 1 ' T* "T " -: 1- — T. IT Plur. 3. m. IY * 1 iT. 'T: ---,: *:1.: iT —. * -:1- ": TIT 3. f. J,I7bnrl.MpTnm n^7F1;T^5m?":71 T -: - T -.': 1- T: T: *- I T: -T. IT 2. m. ',:i pTi? '1 U, ';:3 V - 1- ': 1- IT ' IT 2. I.,b7.: p'' -3- - V ':. "T.*-:1- -T:. IMPF. shortened (Jussive.),-; Y * T V':-T * -: I- T r IT pass.;.%: 282 E. VERB AYIN GUTTURAL. ~ 64. KAL. NIPHAL. PIEL. PUAL. HITHPAEL. XrD TO?5s* Th* 589n *; -:T T - T: mr: O p* Feryo.*.o?.! n I' T: - T T: -: T T" -T -"; T: - T: *: T:: -::: -:T..,. -: ~.T.. - IT -'*IT: IT: T:-:T T: * * T * -:.*~ -: *,v*. IT wanting I::. T - T: --, T: --: *:-'-;*-: - TT- 1T -*T:T *: - T:: - tIMPF wit T:-n-~t~Sr~2j * * '' T * *: - n- ' * *-T * *hm T:inT miuxn trmitu I han np | -_:*: I-T TI ' I T - T * -: * T:* -T::T T -T I T -3T T IMPF. wit ithn Sllf. 'LStrtto tbi Z: T~ IT: IT * IT T: *T: S T;r _mp. with S......tr _.ll 283 F. VERB LAMEDEI KAL. NIPLIAL. PIEL. PERF. 3. m. r-b bt^ * ~ -: 3./nT * n' T:..rT 2. m. t:? 2.f. T *t:-?*: 2.7 m. fb^Qblo'., nt7^ I. c.slinb ~:.?; IINF.: T * — * * INF. absol. ti, * r57 *,,* 2ip.. f. T* * - Plur. m. tnr' rD5 - IMPF. 3.m. r b5* * 3. f. tubn r,,t3 2.. M. 5:, b; 2.f. ' ^. IT ~ Plur. cm. rh, 1'h 'l' IS. tb l.-. *: T ~ - IT: -- 2.m. 'Fi1 * ^;* "'' 2. cf.T n:-:T *: —T ' T IMPF. shortened (Jussive) IMPF. wmth Sumf. 'b PART. act.; * bI1 U r1' I* | pass.. *T * 284 GUTTURAL. ~ 65. PUAL. HIIPHIL. HOPHAL. HITHPAEL.,T~ *.' -. * T1: '. -~' T' T T 'r -) - *:r i:s. i s'n* *: *o:->:. ~. ~:.-:. anting^ want aitinngn n s_ _. T t Q-v Fini ~~ T?'~: ~jF ]tt* i * t*S tt *.~_,_ ~ _. ~,~* wanting i^w.antingop nbn V* rfettn I, T:-; -: *: I * * -* T * - *: -,. * ~ _. ~ tsnte s-.ffinsSttpi r ttn.>tS T:- 5, T:-; T:-: T --; ~ _..., _a: -T - - - 285 G. VERB AYIN DouKAL. NIPITAL. PERF. 3. m. 3. f. J. 2. m. 2.f. 1. c. Plur. 3. c. 2. m. 2.f. 1. c. & * T - ~ * i * *a* T "; T -r mck~ * r -: -T Olni ztM nilt t: ** * '- * '~ * _* T * _'-. INF. INF. absol. IMP. m. f. Plur. m. f. IMPF. 3. m, 3. f. 2. m. 2.f. 1. c. Plur. 3. m. 3. f. 2. m. 2. f. 1. c. T T ny* *T T Tl'j a' * =10r.1.bn rbn =%on Tq;' n.._ - T ':- ~ _-o r:-i _.^ IMPF. with Vav cons. 30D"' * T TIMPF. with Slif. 3':^ * I PART. act. pass...jo ==ts = * 286 BLED (I). ~ 67. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. POEL. POAL. atb * tl* a:o* si * rrisi~n sDaD ~ e.f "'I * *-iT *Fis0iD.p i '-'.F.. -6:: %-.::'. l..... is *- _ Tn *: o' '- T. lr 't' wan;tiang ~ wantlingi TV ~-: T: " * T) r.- -!i *-^anting _Oi Eoanating ~ "T ~:: T -.*: *:T t"ao* =I* ^ ' "a (ci: "T' *' V" — '- ".: ---:@ - ~ 'T -' *- _ - ~~ jTts3 0 " M ~..,, _..:-:' *..:: T ~ ' ".T *".*: T * 287 H. VERB PE NUN (1i). ~ 66. KAL. NIPIIAL. IIIPIIIL. HOPEIHAL. PERF. 3.m. m.U l 11;-!'.* w i 2. m. a!i r;zn,n ITT; ' T: * 2. m.tQn ow: ~2. ~-;?_.. '- i. c..:l'J.1:' i., Mrur. 3. _. _- -j. INF. tut: * "J?* j;zS'; g 8 7;*: ";* IMP. m. n*n; *",, M;r ~Plur. ~m. ^ --:!::- ^; IMPF. 321. "^ * ^,;",* *1. c. UT r. 6) Plur. m.;w^ "\' -T: T ~ ~ - - 2I3. 3 asol.. ' '" 2. m.,? * ri'a_;;' *T: ^ T: - T: " Plur. 3.; U j --- —-- =*- T *; *- "T * T i | 3pass~: ~a -.n 2. m. -1 M= njj r l~. --.:! T 'D i." ~288T' '" T ass.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 288 I. VERB PE ALEPH (S3). ~ 68. KAL. NIPHAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. PERF. 3. m. 5I i* b i 7* mi* i- T -V.':l- * - ': r.. ' — T: Trr Like the Verb Pe Guttural, in Paradigm D. INF. SSS. 5bsN bR..N.., o, INF. absol. igh xbT T *IMP. m. bN * 5bIn 5bN;!: V T * * -: 1 -'?ts?~.;ETC. ETC. wanting Plur. m. 5bn FUT. 3.m. 5b319* 5bM, 8 5baK* *g 5.bS, *. T" * -:1 - rr 3. f. 5Tn1 2. m. 5rFI 2.. f 5P ETC ETC. ETC. 1. c. *I Plur. 3. m..t1. ' 3. f. 1i*5'9pi 2. m. 5I 2. f. t155Ds~ o 1. c. b IMPF. Vav cons. 5og ^,* _ _S * PART. act. bst x b a 57 ' T *. - * —: I- T M IT pass. 5.t 19 289 K. VERB PE YODH jI~~~ ~KAL. NIPHAL. jPERF. 3. m. =z 5 * 3. f. -T Ii - 2. m. 2. f. In:IJi 1.. regular..J Plur. 3. c..jt 2. m.. 2. f. 2.f.. n 1. c. INF. r2 L*, *; * INF. absol. 2 T T~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_ -- YL IMP. m. f Plur. m. f. IMPF. 3.m. 'U *.... 3. f. 'n 2. m. n 2. f. n 1. c. i Plur. 3. m.3~ 3. f. r 2. m. ~m- l 2. f. 1. c. ' IMPF. shortened (Jussive) IMPF. with Vav cons. =1 9 * *rr* _::t.T ~ -- _-.l.T - ' _ -~~l 'T;IT ~:IT ~:"T;IT ~-T ~ ~.rT ~ T:"T -.+ 1::t PART. act.:'n lJfi *T pass. n:tr 290 'D (orig. S). ~ 69. L. VERB prop. PE YODH ('). ~70. HIPHIL. EHOPHAL. KAL. HIPHIL. TVT n*;elo* T * * |u *tU -T * * T * -. 7T ~:- 2, -- T -' ** W'I2ill 1-.7 1 regular. * n~: — * *. ttern want ing ^. *::_* -- * _*- * — $ * I -. ~~,~, s in *.~ 'mt~~, t:~ *:~:~:~ * trul:8*r t~; ~n = - -:- ' V. *' owan ti ng:'; ". T:; T.: - *:T. *@ T.. -' I '..: " T* — r;.-. *Lu $ *.. %.~j~n ~ U'~~l ~ 'u. '. InT? ^^vi nw a~nIt?' ^*~ )w^~ ~I^;n^wOnn^^j* ^a~~ nna ~~ Tr T ~ ~ 291 M. VERB AYIN VAV KAL. NIPIIAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. PERF. 3.m. 3.f. 2. m. 2.f. 1. c. Plur. 3. c. 2.m. 2. f. 1. c. Dp* T *T Q1mn-a.13 i T * a 7,;lP?::~ * *'. * *,*p * * -pf lt',o^p:: -3.:-P a:p~ t:I. - *Ina i2) ^aI.; IINF.* o*. i2*t INF. absol. ip*:i: * *pi, T p.* IanP. m. top* ~* p * f. -tIp*,p* m'iprn* | Plur. ^m. 4l f* t 7^i* gT:; wanting f. M.,,r2. *n. IMPF. 3. m. b. P * * p* E* 3.. piptP af. 2.. li.pR En 2. f. F/p,.~* ll _.m* Plur. 3. m..T p ITp i 3. f. ro Pn* 2... dpn./ip ^aj'pl.?""" -.4. 7 mp.3pT.;P T T. 1. C. t e IMPF. shortened *tlT *p t IMPF. ith I cons. t p:, tpi *p * ~... IMPF. with Suvf. W 7 * PART. act. qpBn* * * p * pass. Wp * 292 (9). ~ 72. N. VERB AYIN YODH (). ~ 73. PILEL. PULAL. KAL. NIPHAL.:_ *:_ ', -'aj* r:7i~p ci*ap 1* r1-** ~ 17:7:;pIs'alip '337 nP T*- T* T; mo u p 17-1t p nI niraq t-I-'fip Ia^m ti h, -rMn= Tl lair-Ittt) in. tmip aris as i'pl wanting as *n =_._*pn.. - * *as.. t9ziprpi o'=na ebm=ip 1 -.;: ntaiip 7i T T p: b 9p. T Ip P72Msp:uSPR. 1' * T~: taaipa aip- *1.* T i* |W7EM ta21 O. VERB LAMEDH KAL. NIPHAL. PIEL. PERF. 3. m. MS* C * T T T: * *-T2 3. f. 2/i; i /=j!t2 T; IT T;:: T: ' 2. m. hRY M* * ' *It T' TT T T 2. f. n^S nS: t 1. c. tRsx Inn=R' hR-it * T T ~ * ~ ~ - ~ Plur. 3. c..R^1I,:.^ It.: IT:.; 2. m. 12JSa, CRS, I~. T *: - ': * *.. 2. f. ui. IIa 2t I. c. RRMi Rt TT *-: * * INF. N^tSaZ^: " ''T * '' _ INF. absol. Tia:n " IMP. m. _* t I ' 2 T: " T~ -- f IT Plur. m. NSit "bIR. ^I ",<: *:, iT *: - f.;nK27z N* 7 NDS' T:*: T *T *: - IMPF. 3. m. * = *.: T: ~ ~ * J-r 3. f. isp~r M=it1a T: *. T ~ *-: 2. m. 2 72 ar Nltp 2. f. ^14 2" tipih 1 WS7 Fi 1. c. M7SN N M.7. MIN TT: V T *.: Plur. 3. m. " S2=R '9iSR. R'i^~ A': * % IT;' -: T ' *, *~ T *: T ~ T *: -: *T *: * "T * T * T V -: 1. Nc.W=au N=?sc IMPF. shortened (Jussive) IMPF. with Surf. Rt 'f. PART. act.ss aa saa ~.; -- pass.t 294 ALEPH (iS). ~ 74. PUAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. HITHPAEL. s.a* ~~ ~a * ~.~ T'- *.,ia: ~ 7: -.. ": t..:t.a:T-7t,7, T.:': 7.'.-: 7: 2,,,;: '..: -- *~sa * * *6; *5i2 ^^a -. v.. 7..: -.. *... % - *.:* -' * 2; '-. *"* * *-itw ti, is7 r It" '- *. "-: -TV " T T: % 7). IW~~~ ~.:m7... wanting *jp wantin Sm29 *'isitn- aAl't'.. I. -:.robs^^i* J.. b * 'slt2* T saai *:: - T *:a- T *. -: *: T ** -: *: 295 ~E~PIS3P N~E' 295 P. VERB LAMEDH KAL. NIPHAL. PIEL. PERF. 3. m. ^* 5 * na TT T'T 3.:af.,-Jn5r) *,,,s,' *, 2. m.;' - * hTr1?* * piur. 3. c.a., 2. m.d T ~ 2. f. r,5: n,: T * 1i. c.f-~T "bi~ INF. n* * nib * - iS. * INF. absol.;' 5: C..~~~r.= IMP. m. f. Plur. m. f. 5. *... * * T ': ~b., * '' T * b * T T *r T *:. IMPF. 3..m.;TI* -^5 3.. 5 tf5. r r1 *; *~* r* —T 2.m. n5> pi nm 2. f..,*R -* 1. c.;isi;R eT W *:: ** T: *:.- -: Plur. 3. m..;.^ -^ 3.. ft. *1 s *iam;,1,T *:: * o T. T.* T.*T *:2. m.tia srba 18n 2. f.n..: ~,, T.. 1. r. t5a;7ai tija IapF. short'd 5 * aT * G * IMPF. with Suffi^ *^ * PART. act. n5* knbnS* A* pass. T5 296 HE (15). ~ 75. PUAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. HITHPAEL. T. _ 61 >* n* n-* 1*,* T T "*-:* T; T T * —: t:z ts* t"' ~: T -": * -. *-: * T *-': * *t~ *r. wanting i wanting b n...~....... *:;.T ":* -: * I:. *::-**' a.' *:1l:T * - ' In' 7t5nb*..*-:* *9_. *-.- *.sT *.'5 *.n..r. - IeT- i*: r * r t*.-..;.. - *:: T*-: 297 0 k EXERCISES IN HEBREWV GRAMMAR. EXERCISES IN HEBREWV GRAMMAR, AND A HEBREW CHRESTOMATHYS PREPARED WITH REFERENCE TO TIHE TRANSLATION OF DR. RODIGER'S SEVEN TEENTII EDITION OF GESENIUS' HEBREW GRAMMAR. BY THOMAS J. CONANT, PROFESSOR OF HEBREW IN ROCHESTER THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 3946 & 348 BROADWAY. 1855. THE plan proposed for the use of these Exercises, is as follows, In going over the Elements for the first time, only those parts of the Grammar need be studied, which are indicated at the head of the following sections, other portions being consulted when reference is made to them. The exercises in each section should be thoroughly mastered, in connection with the sections of the Grammar there referred to, before any farther advance is made in the Grammar. When the first five sections of the exercises have been gone over, the whole of Part First in the Grammar may then be studied with profit. By this method, teachers will find their own task lightened, and the progress of their pupils greatly facilitated. The Grammar is referred to for the statement of principles, which, as far as practicable, is avoided in the Exercises and Chrestomathy. A summary is occasionally given for the learner's convenience, the particulars being supplied in the Grammar. The student should beware of hurrying over the elements, from an impatience to commence translating while he is yet spelling his way over Hebrew forms. He will otherwise find himself embarrassed with petty difficulties, when his whole attention should be directed to other objects.-The practice of reading IHebrew aloud is too much neglected; and hence few acquire the habit of reading with case and fluency, so necessary to the full understanding and appreciation of a writer's sentiments in any language. ** The sign ~ is used in references to the sections of the Grammar; those of the following pages are indicated by the abbreviation Sect. EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. SECTION I. EXERCISES ON THE MANNER OF WRITING AND PRONOUNCING THE CONSONANTS AND VOWELS. On ~~ 5-8, and ~ 12. The following examples will accustom the student to the forms of the consonants, and their sounds as given in the alphabet and in ~ 6, 2, and to the manner of writing and pronouncing the consonants and vowels in connection.-The promiscuous examples are to be studied for recitation. *** Every syllable begins with a consonant; see ~26, 1, where the only exception is given. The tone (accent) is commonly on the final syllable (~ 15, 2): when it is on the penultimate, this is indicated by the sign [ ], as in the Grammar (~ 15, Rem. 3). An open syllable is one which ends with a vowel; a closed syllable is one which ends with a consonant; ~26, 2, a, c, and d. For the signs used to represent the sounds of the Hebrew vowels, see the first Note to ~ 8.-For the effect of the point in certain letters (a &c.) see Note to p. 20. a) Open syllables (see the table of vowels, p. 24): First class, of the A sound; letter a), unchangeable a (- = -)~, ~9, 1, 1), R (for ~R) qa, 5 (for N!) na,? (for WI) re, i (for WI-) t,; changeable a (its proper use), t md, 0 sd, 1 td, A ga, 5 nd, l Ia, T zda, yd, I bd, i sa, W shd, b Rd, 8 da, '. ra, n ha, n hha, r ta, I va,: ka, P qaz, m pa, tsa; letter b), short a, _ rd, D t,? hha, f ha; letter c), unchangeable a (modification of a see Rem. 2 below), when in union with i, as o di, 'b la, I ba '2 ts.a (a like e in there); short & (modification of short a), l. ma. 0 s^i, t sa, tsai,; na. 6 6 ~~~EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMIAR. Second class:I sound letter a), unchanzgeable i -, = defectively written, ~ 8, 4), (for U)i, U fr~)h, 71 (for "i) h-i, I (for 7) r; letter 14, short i (its proper sound),; my) P y T t l~;U ~ t vt,.: E sound;letter c), unchangreable e"-. defectively written), 1 (fr b e", f (orr ) er, ~ fr e)g~ (for "M) p',! (for 'I) z2; cha ngeable i (its proper use), tsi, t ~ ~ ~ h,~s ~ ski. ye; letter d), short 6 she~ rQ6 bQ s, sQ GY e Third class U sound; letter a), I I a', IT zi2, It Mu', In u h; letter b), short it' (its proper sound), nit, zii, I pA, 1P shita, ka,* but also unchangreable 22 (- defectively written),.' - (for ".2) tsz2, (for "t) rni't, 1 (fr ) b2 t~' (for~ h2 on letter c), unchangeable 6 0 i 3 defectively written), (for ~P) q0. (for 4=) b6, (for ~2) ts6; chang-ceable C0 (it~s proper use), ko, b sO, do C) to, ro, t zO; letter d), short 6, 1 b6,$V z6, r. t6 letter e), obtuse 6 (from u or o), 2,~ ~ b) Closed syllables: to? ICm In bar Mt shcnm i7-o h ddh, -iZ2 shdr; =0 sdm (:, ~ 5, 3), rl lith, M q, shdnt, qdl, 'I yadh, t~ loi, C ton nearly wvaw),t Z ikol ( o 6 3d classd. IRem. 1. In itself, each vowel is changeable, and it is only by accidental union with a vowel-letter (letter c below), that it becomes unchangeable. 2. The same sign (,) represents two distinct vowel-sounds, one of the first and the other of the second class, differingr in their nature (origin) and in sound. The former is a modification of the a sound, familiar to he ermn ermade by elevating the root of the tongue while utteringr the sound of a (as heard in father-); hence represented, as in the original, by the Germ. ti (nearly e in there, Fr. c? in me~re). The latter is the shortened sound of Tsere, viz, the clear sound of short e in met. The learner will soon distinguish them by the knowledge of their origin. -In the few instances Of its use in the third class (letter d), it is merely an obscuring of the o and u sounds, just as our o is obscured in atom, pronounced nearly as atum or atem. The -'accented 2" (under letter d of the second class) belongs rather to the first class, letter c; see ~ 24, 2, c, a, and ~ 93, Expl. 9, Rem. *When Iis to be written defectively, it is represented by -,which is then long; otherwise it is short. Shiureq can be written only in connection with (n) t On account of the difficulty in sounding the English w at the end of a syllaible, the Hebrew!is commonly sounded as v. PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS AN]) VOWELS. 7 7 c) Vowels in connection with their homogeneous vowel-letters (p. 26, Note*) I"=Un, -gii. Here the sound of I and " is not heard separately from that of the, preceding vowel,-i. e. they are pronounced as vowels see ~ 7, 2; comp. 6~ 24, 1, a. The feeble consonant power of bt and Io is also often lost after a vowel (~ 6, 2, 1), like that of the English h in ah, oh. E. g. N= tscz, 9- tso, nb l, rib lo, 'me so X (~ 23, 3, Rem. 3) after I and " when pronounced as vowels; Hlholem is written over the left side of thc consonant to which it belongs (and after which it is pronounced), unesor~i tefllwn letter, over which it is then written; as ti'p q6m, r115 lo'-viflh, 9h lo. When it belongs to b it is commonly written over the right side of the following letter; e. g. tib lot; but often as 'jD.-Shureq is never written except in the bosom of its homogeneous vowel-letter (.1). Promiscuous exramples: Give the name of the consonant, the name, class, sound (whether a, e, i, o, or u), and quantity of the vowel, and pronounce them together: r, 'I)~ V. 7, 1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -i tsadhdh j a-dl h A-bhad, 1,T2 zO-db, I hash&-ni, nits; =-l;sh,; sha-mit, M, sh&-Wi, rN ya-sith * Until the student has learned to distinguish eases of quiescence, he will be guided by the pronunciation appended to the Hebrew form, giving the proper representative of the feeble letter wherever it retains its power as a consonant. f The full consonant sound of y. 8 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. r. be-tha,.V5b lz-i2c.; -= u.-bhen (~26, 1), '172m le-mor, Vint sha-nzm,?, Ve-ne, Vr-Z b6t-tim (T =o). For explanation of the following examples, see ~ 8, 2, T 2 and 3 (in small type): t' posh, ' son, ' shon, tit siho'-resh, lp qo-vdv, m' So —sher, tin td-vom, lti vd-shodh. e) Double letters: A consonant is sometimes doubled in pronunciation, when preceded by a full vowel, and followed by a full or a half vowel.* This is indicated (. 12, 1, a) by the doubling point in the letter, showing that it is to be pronounced twice. E. g.:p. qlt-tel, =71 hash-shen, 5bin' hq-qol,.: nm-minz, t hdb-ben. The same sign is used for the hartdening point (~ 12, 1, b) in certain letters (m, Z,,,, n, t, 6, 3), when they are not preceded by a vowelsound,-which distinguishes it from the doubling point. Promiscuous examples: 'n,; 1t bag-gan, l. bit-to, '1, dab-ber, 0.':,.. (tstv-va, 12, 1, Note *), r, 0, ' (shdadddy, the consonant y), 02^ hay-yam, bi, n ^,,.., _, 7r, n~,,~.'.~, ~_, i'5, s,. _, 3, 6,?,,, > ^, (t {zytt~bi 7z h),w, n14 J^^, tp, OiV2 I -D..~p,.t1t (. 8, 4, af),,,W, i, '. SECTION II. EXERCISES IN SYLLABICATION. On ~ 10 and 26. The uses of Shheva as a half-vowel ( 10, 1), or as merely marking the division of syllables (~ 10, 3), depend on the theory of the syllable exhibited in ~ 26; it is found most convenient, therefore, to present the subjects of these two sections in connection. Sleva, vocal and silent. Simple Sheva (:) is the sign either of a half-vowel, as e. g. under the first letter of 't2I qe-tol, where it forms a prefix halfsyllable (~ 26, 4); or of a mere division of syllables, as under * A consonant can be doubled in no other position. EXERCISES IN SYLLABICATION. 9 the second letter of b.?p. qzt-li, where it stands at the end of a syllable, and is not sounded (silent Sheva). Sheva is, therefore, vocal only under the first of two consonants before a full vowel. There is but one case, in which the learner finds any difficulty in determining whether Sheva is vocal or silent; viz. when it stands between two full vowels, as Mib, M'p. In this case the letter, under which it stands, might be the final consonant of a closed syllable, as,|th qom'-na (silent Sheva); or it might form with the Sheva a prefix half-syllable, as,It?) qa-te-la (vocal Sheva). This is determined by the nature of the syllable, as taught in ~ 26. A vowel-sound is naturally prolonged, unless interrupted by a consonant. Hence an open syllable has properly a long vowel (~26, 3). A syllable closed by a consonant, though its vowel is most naturally short, may have a long vowel when the tone (accent) causes the voice to dwell upon it (~ 26, 5 ard 7, Rem.). Accordingly, as a general rule,Simple Sheva is silent under a final letter, and under a letter which is preceded by a short vowel or an accented long vowel; in all other cases it is vocal. E. g.* Silent Sh'va:: k ddkh, A:. ye-lekh, ribp. qa-talt, Y" yirb, reby mal-kca, lmt qdhh-tekh, 'niiM miiq-tar, l ySr-vdth. n; qNom-nal,.rr pn: t q-tol-na, ATp yesht, '??. nerd, ml~ samin-ta, brnnzh ba-Zathath-ni, "iWev rd-sath-n!, ^rnS; akhalath-ni, ihs madY-la, Ia, ya-dha:-ta. Vocal Sheva: ' bT-khci, 71 ve-lo, sr nO-the-n&, tb? nele-kha, 12.. u-bh"-ne', \'~.^ - tadh-rI-shM, ^.',.: n zZbh-qI-'u, rqh'.. maV-s"-roth, rpr3 (=. ~5p, see ~12, 1, 1) qZt-t-lu, I (~ 12, 1, note)= q71 tsZv-ve-kha.t The composite Shevas. The composite Shevas are always vocal (~ 10,2, ~ 26,7, Rem.), and of course always form a prefix half-syllable. E. g. 6t. ~-sher, mW'. kd-,W-sher, t:.. E-n.sh, yL ve-M-mdts,?s yd-:"-nut,. Y~-bhi, V:..t tstp-p~-rim, 50 sib-b~-ld. * Teachers will observe, that the rule here given is intended merely to guide the learner, at first, in the division of syllables. Comp. Rem. to ~ 26, 7. The exceptions are few, and need not be noticed till the application of this general principle has become familiar. t It will be perceived, that in this and the preceding example, the written Sheva follows an implied silent Sheva, and is therefore vocal. 10 10 ~~EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMTAR. Exercises on the use of' thc composite Shevas are furnished by the paradigms or nouns. of' verbs with gutturals, &c. Prom2iscuous examiples, for recitation T 1~1, Im Remn. The exceptions mentioned in ~26, 3, a-e, exhibit no essential deviation from the general principle. Thus in the forms given under a,:, for example, are nearly equivalent to yirbhU, in~eklh, the first vowel of whidh, in rapid pronunciation, strikes the ear nearly as if uttered in a closed syllable. In all the remaining cases. the voice (under the influence of the tone, or of'the half-accent Methegh, ~ 16,2) dwells upon the vowel, so that -thouguh not strictly long,-it may properly stand in an open syllable. SECTION III. DOUBLING OF CO'NSOTNANTS: ASPIRATION OF THE MUTES. On ~~~20 and 21. Distinction of the doublingo point and the har-deningx point (iDag'hesh forte and Dqcrhesh lene). It wvill be perceived, by comparing the two sections, thatDagrhesh fiorte is always preceded immediately by a full vowel, which, is never the case wit/h Daghesh lenie. E. g. Daghesh for-te: -=' y`-dhab-beir, M1iZt qush-shant, bi h Daghesh lene: ydsh-1cnim rlI" yiz-biihh, I= g6-shi,~I ExampIles, for recitation: j.nb vn. tn~ t," Use of iDaghesh lene (~. 21). '1'he learner will observe, that the hard sound of the letters ~1, Z, 1 z, r~l, is the original one (i. e. they are properly l~bte~, ~6,3), and that it is the intermingling of a preceding vowel-sound which produces the softer or aspirated pronunciation (~ 21, first ~1F). By comparing Nos. 1 and 2 of ~ 21, hie will QUIESCENCE OF THE VOWEL-LETTERS AND BREATHINGS. 11 perceive that the statements which they contain may be briefly expressed thus: These letters take Daghesh lene, except when preceded by a full vowel or a half-vowel (vocal Shleva). A vowel in which one of the feeble letters quiesces (the vowel-sound alone being heard in this case), of course aspirates the following mute in the same manner as a pure vowel. Often, as in the following examples, the aspirated letter begins a word, and the vowel-sound which produces the aspiration closes the preceding one, —the two words being uttered in so close connection that the effect is the same as if they were but one. E. g. 3 '11=. words of the sons of. Sometimes, however, the two words are so separated in pronunciation, that the closing vowel-sound of the first does not affect the pronunciation of the following mute. E. g. 'St: ".l and it happened, when; Eh i %.l and as-for me, when I came. Promiscuous examples:.~:'., hjt2 ' i, 'M:, %:.13, OWTT, |pw,...n -2211 ' -... _,.? _ 2.?_..1,..?,. nf X SECTION IV. QUIESCENCE OF THE VOWEL-LETTERS (*, C) AND OF THE BREATHINGS (, 'f). On ~~ 23 and 24. The letters I and " often lose their consonant power,* and are sounded strictly as vowels (~24, 1st T[). Of a different nature is the so-called quiescence of. and b. The former represents no vowel-sound; the latter only that of long a, for which, however, it is very rarely written (~ 23, 3, Rem..1). These two letters are sometimes lost to the ear, when preceded by a vowel, merely in consequence of their feebleness, and not of any natural affinity with a vowel-sound. Compare h in hah! eh! where * The sound of 1 is more nearly represented by w (better still by the Germ. w) than by v; but the latter is employed for representing the consonant power of 1, on account of the difficulty of making our w heard as a consonant after a vowel. In English, w and y have wholly lost their consonant power at the end of a syllable, where they are always sounded as vowels, or, in the language of Heb. grammar, quiesce. The Hebrew follows the same law, except in its universality. 12 12 ~~EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. final ih is sounded, and in ah, oh. where it is lost to the ear. Hence (with the single exception of N occasionally used for long a), they are not treated as homogeneous with the vowel in which they quiesce, (p. 26, note *), or as redrn t iniutable. (~.25. 1 and 2).-But the two cases inay Properly be treated togrether. as in both the effect on the pronunciation is the samne (i. e. the sound of the consonant is not heard separately fromt that of the vowel), and instances of quiescence are distinguished in thle samle mnanneri. For convenient reference, we here pr1esent these letters in connection with the vowels in which they respectively q~uiesce. N in all the vowels (6. 23, 1); 92 bo, bil tsa, N2 tsd," yc7N i N~ la (~ 23, 2, extr.), M. pit, NI' po6, N~ s/ti, bt1c-)k(~ 23, 3, Rein. 3). rCholemn, 1i b l Q.J ainets, ' gil Iin-Sehl Ti 6~23, 4, and 2d~T. ~Tsere. ~in Chom 6 ~8, 3. in4Tsere. 6ga ~83. Seghol, J The following rule will enable the learner to determine, by the punctuation., wvhere these letters are quiescent, and where they retain their powver as consonants The feeble letters are to be regarded as quiescent, in, the m~idst of a word, when they have no full vowel or 8h'va; and also, at the end of a word, when preceded by vowels with which they are homogeneous. This rule is founded on the principle (comp. ~ 10, 1, 3) that every consonant must have either a full vowel or a She'va. When the feeble letter stands at the end of a word, where Sh'va is usually not written. the character of the preceding vowel must determine whether it is to be soundled or not. He Mappiq (,~14, 1) of course retains its power as a consonant, whatever vowel may precede. Examples of quiescence: yzi-tabh, rn'I b5-rith, =Tl CHANGES OF VOWELS. 13 nrt tsith,.Wc dzbh-re, tI6 rash, Sm pu-ra,.re be-rz, 1b lo, Mt sa, N tse, jiitl ri-shon,. Il, ~lu. br1i, Y.fr ld-dho-ni (d, ~ 24, 2, extr.), v 16l,?. li, Ib g o-id. Compare, with the above, the punctuation of these letters in the following examples, where they retain their power as consonants: A, hem, W; y t-tabh, bXs yy-'e-soph, ri) v6-hoth, q3h? yGh-doph, na yd-ha-rogh, ^bt -khol, vav, I day, m yah (~ 14, 1). Let the learner point out, in the following examples, the instances in which these letters are quiescent, and those in which they retain their power as consonants, and give the pronunciation of the words:.M2s, i'bSl, bS-.t, ll-,,', iirC, M-.,.~, f,, Wm,, 1W, ~pn, t,.,.... ^ ^5 w, w (-J-o),", ^; ~, -- T T: -1 -::: '.4, 'Mbitl -i M, m-, birl, ', 11=N, H'ilJi, N, Tn? -. i T Tn s-, i.r8 (T, T ~). pt 6 SECTION V. CHANGES OF VOWELS IN THE INFLECTION OF NOUNS AND VERBS. On ~ 27. [Including references to ~~ 9, 25, and 26.] The following brief outline (collecting into one view the leading points scattered through several sections of the grammar), will aid the learner in understanding and applying the principles of inflection in Hebrew. The more minute details and specifications are supplied in the grammar. The system of vowel-inflections in Hebrew, first fully developed by Dr. Rodiger, is very simple and perfect. The deviations from general laws, occasioned by accidental influences on a living tongue, or by the imperfection of traditional pronunciation, are fewer than in most other languages. A few points, it will be seen, are supplied in the following outline of it, but entirely in harmony with his views. The changes of vowels, in inflection, are all founded on the natural laws of utterance and intonation. E. g., when the form 5bU qa-tid takes the accented syllable n at the end, the tone of the word is thrown forward one syllable; and as the voice consequently delays less on the first part of the word, the vowel of 14 14 ~~EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. its initial syllable, (if changreable,) is shortened to a haif-vowel' (vocal 8It'va);thus 0 atl eoe 1e-a-t1.O the contrary, when the unaccented syllable 'I. is added, the tone not being thrown forward, the vowvel at thte beg-inningr retains its full sound;as 'In -al-U Again wh~en thle sound (With the accent) is added to the end of '-W6w'D it unites the final ~ inl a syllable wvith itself (as a syllable cannot begin with a vowel in Hebrew, ~ 26, 1), and the second syllable of the word thums becomes anl open, one, requiring naturally a longc vowel the tonle is also thrown forward, lesseningy the Sound of the initial syllable;thus qa-tdl becomes It is the application of such simple and natural laws of vocalization, that constitutes the chjief part of Hecbrew inflection. But the vowels inl febrew. (10 not all vield to theCse naL'tural laws of utterance, son me bein unhangreable onl account of their peculiar origin, and retainlingr therefore, the samie formn inl all situations. A classification of the vowels is made in ~9, according to their origin and the nature and character of their sounds, show-;ing' w\hat vowels are subject to changre, and how- they). are aflbcted. I. 1luse classes are here presented together, as follows i ) Untchangreable vowels, wh~ich remain the samle in all situations (comlp. ~6 205). 41) Vo-wels prosodially long, or tone-lonrg, i. e. longr by the influ~ence of the tone and rhythm; viz, such as stand in the tonesyllable or nexvt to it, and( become eithier shiort vowels or halfvowels on the remioval of the tone. 3) Short vowels. A table of the lone- vowels subject to changre, and of the corresponding s/hort ones is griven on p). 38 of thje grarrirnar. Laws of the Vowel-changres. The changers Of VOweIS, in. inflection, are caused1) B~y a changre in the form of the syllable (viz, of an open to a closed syllable, or of a closed to anl open one). * Compare in Enig. jpuse-inimo-us anid pusillanhinit~q, phlo/anthiropy/ and p/silantlor5pic; where the (1 of thle accentedi syllabl e becomes (in uttertance) a ika/f-vowel, when the tone is thrown forward. In Hebrew, such a chiange from a full to a half-vowel is indicated by a change in the written sign for thre sound. CHANGES OF VOWELS. 15 2) By a change in the position of the tone of the word, when it is removed one or more syllables. 3) By a change in the division of syllables. The laws of the syllable, in Hebrew, are stated in ~ 26, Nos. 3 and 5, and may be thus grouped in one view: 1) An open syllable requires a long vowel. 2) An open syllable has usually Qamets (less frequently Tsere) when immediately followed by the tone-syllable; hence the name Pretonic vowel, ~ 26, 3. 3) A closed syllable has naturally a short vowel, and can take a long vowel only when it has the tone. On these principles, and on the necessary effect of a change in the division of syllables, are founded the following rules for the vowel-changes, as given in ~ 27, and here collected together. Rules. i) A short vowel is lengthened, when the syllable is changed from a closed to an open one (see No. 1, above); as:t habh, IT' ha'-bhu. uI) A Pretonic vowel ( Qamets or Tsere, ~ 26, 3) becomes a halfvowel when the tone is moved forward affull syllable (No. 2); as btp qa-tal,:..7i: qe-tdl-tem'; Ad yd-qdr', mr yk-ka-ra'. On the contrary, when the tone is moved forward only a half-syllable. the pretonic vowel retains its place; as '>S, n'bq? qa-te-la'. iII) A long vowel is shortened, when the syllable is changed from an open to a closed one without the tone (No. 3); as '1 -sed-pher (book), 7O. stph-ro6 (his book). iv) A long vowel, in a closed syllable, is changed to its corresponding short vowel when the tone is removed (No. 3); as blp. qzt-tel', ~'?r. q9t-tel'-khd (tel8, ~21, 2, b). v) When the tone is moved forward two syllables, the ultimate and penultimate vowels are shortened as much as is possible; viz. the former to a half-vowel, the latter to short Z (Chireq); as 'mN da-bhdr' (word), O:?="I dibh-re-khen' (words of you) your words. This is the utmost shortening of the word, since a vowel is necessary under the first of these consonants, and Chireq is the shortest of the vowel-sounds (comp. ~27, 1, remark). 16 16 ~~EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. vi) The vowel of a final closed syllable, when an addition is made which unites the final consonant in a syllable with itself. is shortened to a half-vowel in inflection of tbe verb by gender-, n-umber, and person, as wvell as by cases wlhen the vowel is prosodially longr; but in inflection of the noun (anid of the verb by cases, with the above exception) it is retained. E. g. (inflection by persons, &c.), h le killed, 'ot-U qtelsite killed, *`qjt)l2 they killed: (by cases), ~ qe~t~l6'.he killed him; he will kill, tone-long 6),1 p~yiq-t6-li-hi~ lie wvill kill himn; 1' hand. `0 his hand. Rent. 1. The most perfect amalgamation is effected by the shortening of the, vowel to a half-vowel; and hence its use in the inflection of verbs by person, gender. and number. In the other case, viz, the union of' suffix pronouns (the genitive and accusative) with nouns and verbs. a less perfect amalgamation is required.* 2. In KCal Intp. of some classes of verbs (see Parads. B, D. F, I, K. L, 0), this inflection bringas /three cons!onants before a vowel. in t'he'ut'ter-. ance of these, a slight vowel-sound (namely ii, the shortest of the vowels) is heard after the first. This the punctators have indicated by C/hireq. as they have done in the analogous ease, 28, 1. In Parad. E. the guliural causes the el Sound to be heard hefore it. Full illustrations of these principles are furnished in the lParadinins of nouns and verbs, and of the verb with suffixes. Lg. Rule i.) ~ 95, Parad. A, lizght suff. (cormp. ~ 27, 2, a); so I breast, sha-Adhy' (my breasts); =N bts-bOd (fingqer) =b N~ts-b-6 (his finger-); VM1b btr-bdV (four), lr JRule i. & ii.) Parad. C, Peif. 3 in., with the suf. in all the petsons, except 2 plur. in. 4-f. IRnle ii.) 1Parad. C, Peif. 3 in., with 2 p)lur. 9in. c5 f. suiff.; Parad. 111.; Parad. IV, sing_,. light suff-, plur. absol.; so:= heart, ')M my heart. Rule iii.) Parad. VI, b, c, and e, sintg. light and grave suff.. Rule iv.) Parad. C, Impjf. 3 mn., with 2 singe. wt. suff and with 2 plur-. m. c5' f. su/f; Perf. Piid, with 2 singe. mn. stij. and *The table, on p. 82, shows the inflection of verbs by formative additions. These are the same. in all the conjuglations and in all classes of v'erbs. CHANGES.OF VOWELS. 1 17 with 2 p lur. m. 4'.suff.; Parad. II, IV, and V, sing. grave suff., VII, sing. grave suff,.,* VIII, a, b, and c. Rule v.) Parad. II, IV, and V, plur. constr. and grave suif. (Ini Parad. II, the penultimate vowel is unchangeable.) Rule vi.) Infl-ection by persons, ckc.: Parad. B (in all conj. except Hiphil), Perf. sing. 3 f., pin?'. 3 c.; Imp.t sing. f and piur. mt. 4-f; irnpf. sing. 2f., plur. 3 m. and 2 mi.-Inftection by cases (viz, of nouns and verbs with the genitive and accusative, ~. 33, 2, a and b); Parad. II, IV, and V, sing. light suff., plur. absol. and light suff.; Parad. C, Perf. 3 m. with all s~fiftxes except 2 plur. m. 4'.(~lengthened to when a closed syllable becomes an. open one; see above (p.' 15), laws of the syllable, No. 1); 3 f. and plur. 3 in., with all suf/ixes; (with a merely tone-long vowel), Impf. sing.,O 4' p lur. 3 in., and Perf. Piiel, with all sufflixes except 2 sing. rn. and 2 plur. m. 4f These rules, applied to the Paradigms on pp. 166, 167, will make the inflection of nouns very simple and clear.-Parad. VI. has properly only three forms, distinguished by the A, E, and 0 sounds after thle initial letter (answering to the three forms of the verb, fr-om which they are derived, ~ 43, 1,. and ~ 84, 10 and ii);. g. (for ~ 27, Rem. 2, c),+ wID (for wlt)4+ &1 (for 1~4 The other examples (d-i) only show the effect of a guttural, and of a middle or final vowel-letter (~ 24, b and c) on these three fornis. The inflection is very simplew viz. 1) To the monosyllabic form with the vowel after the first radical (J.'I ~, are appended allI suffixes in the sing. numiber, and the construct ending and g r a v e, szuffixes in the plur. number. 2) To the other form with the vowvel (a) after the second radical (tn l, are appended the absol. plur. ending', and all 1 ig h t suffixes in the plur. number.-These two statemients should be impressed on the memory by comparison with the Paradigm. *This Paradigni vacillates between the Verbal and Nominal inflection; following the latter in sing. grave suff., and elsewhere the former. jt See above, Rule vi, Recm. 2. t See ~ 28, 4. ~ The characteristic vowel of thle form being exchanged for the customary pretonic a, in an open syllable next before the tone (~ 26, 3). Compare, however, Ridiger's statement of thle priuiciple, p. 170, No. 6. 2 18 EXERCISES IN IHEBREW GRAMMAR. SECTION VI. EXERCISES IN ANAL'YSIS.* (After the study of Part Second of the Grammar.) 1.,~t0, to my naUme: 1. naIlme, Parad. VII --,my (~91, 1, table), '' my name; b to (1.02, 2):; '", ' bi (~28, 1). -Analyze, in like manner, tlie following combinations, (the nouns are of Parad. VII): V m.; Ir (i 1(4,, ff. ~ 9 1, table);.nrt5b. i (., conj. 1, 104. 2. a and b, ~26,1:; -, ~ 87, 1); ~',. (G without Daoh. o 20. 3. b ~: n ith, ~ 102, 2). 2. 8-1, ir m.y hacnd:, O 102 2; 2 hanld, Parad. II.Write in Hebre-w in owu hI(and, in thy./ (m.) hand, in thy (f.) hand; in your (m. & f.) hand ( 93, e.xpl. 2, remark). 3. T. ^ an ^ d ina thy (li.) hand.:,. as in No. 1; q-, Q 91, table. 4. T-~, f from thy (m.) hand:. from, ~ 102, 1, and remark,. 19, 2, a., o 2(); 1, b.-Write in -Ieb. from his, her, thy (f.) hand, your (pl. f.) hanld. 5. D"' hands: Dual number, 88, 1, Parad. II;;.,';, hands of Esau; It ^', as Esau's hands;, o 102, 2. ---^t, 1'1. (kiy-dhd), ~28, 1,.: 24, 1 a;.nm, and in (with) your (pl. in.) hands;:U?, (Dual with suff.) 3,, ~ 104, 2, b. 6., T glory g: l ^: (o 35) the glory; ';: -— ';. (with piep. ~, 102, 2, and art. 35, Rent. 2, ~19, 3, b, 102, 2, b), according to the glory. —A nalyze: '.^ (, - 2d - 0, p. 60; Rem. 1; i;;i i, 1-1p et;: ai?;, 0vitilotll.tvag2R. Ielze; <.'S1; 2, a;, ~J'*.n; ~i"t, "t without D)agh. lene, ~21, 2, a; a. 7. 7.f'.;Jrom thy pitcherl: i, ^ (Parad. VIII), -., 91, 1, table. —Analyze:;: ~. r (^, 95; -1;- unclhangcable by position,;25, 3). 2n (, 27, 1, end); n; 'rnn:M (n; ~,35, 2, A; colmp. 22, 1); Tlm. (., ~ 102; 1, b; stif ~9 1, 2, table); Ti t; aI.l, S7/ff. 91, 1; table;; Stnreqy defective 9, 9, b, shortened from ' ~ 27, Rem. 1 h shatpened, ibid.): T"U. s?/ rf.,.91. 2, table, ~ S. 5. end; ~,l, - lengthened in an open syll. (~ 27, 2, a), Dagh. forte beiln omitted in ' ~ 22; 5, a:..^.? (, ~ 35,.cl lem. 2, and No. 2, 1, a ~;.; '; I.? (; T:* tlorough mastery (of the exercises in this Section, will save the student much perplexity and trouble in his subsequent reading. The lexicon should be consulted on each word, and on the elements given in the analysis.-In recitation, the Hebrew form should be written on the blackboard, to be analyzed by the student from memory. EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 1 19 ~89,2, a); ~~~-; 'i~*; I, ~ (~, in pause ~629, 4;Silluq ~1 5, A,1,1*- for -~29, 4, b, ~ 91, 1, table); (ri ~87, 2; with a masc. noun, ibid. No. 4).; (,defectively written ~8,4;,double expression of the plur. ~ 91, 3); -M' ~ 90, 2, a). roo Paradom thy land: J', ~ 102, 1, b; T~L, monosyll. 9. in, its season: '-, r (Parad. VIII), ~ 10. ~rt-z in his right hand: Z, "'t (Parad. III), ";. as in No. 5. 11;j,from thy midst: '1', (it, inward part, Parad. VI, a, suffix form Z.,p. 170, Reins. 2d ~), J-,.-Write in ileb. in our midst, and in thy (f.) midst, from their midst; my inward parts (light su~f. p. 1166, Note), and in his inward part, and in their inward part, in my inward part (within mne), in your inward parts. 12. W, people: O~i the people, 'M art. ~ 305, 2, B, a: M-'s elders of the people; JP plur. constr. Par ad. V; =Vij and of (the) elders of the people, I No. 3. 13. ~,on my qffliction: ", 7 (orig. mnonosyll. root '=, Parad. VI, i, p. 171, Rem. 6; like "b, with suff. ""b suff 14. =='1 and the stones: 11-7 plur. ending; J;Z stone, Parad. VI, a; M art., ~ 35,1; S;2;2 T nt Part. act. (-.defectively written ~ 8, 4, ~ 50, Rem.); Parad. Vii. M15n. rt1il, and I have taken thee: JT-i-r- ri~,' Kal Pezf. 1 sing..1 I have taken; with suff. IT4h (~~ 59, and ~ 58 table, and 3, a; tone, ~ 59, 2,~ 27, 3, a); -1. Give the forms w~ith suff. for I have taken them, thee (f.), him, her, you (in. & f.). 16. i ~ thou hast taken us: Perf. 2 Tn. sing. 17. he took me: Me and ~,~58, 3, b; for vowelchanges see Sect. V, Rules i and i i, ~ 27, 3, a, and 2, a. Give the formu with the suffixes her, him, us, them, You (in. & f.). 18. *t:- according to his rul-ing: iZ he rufled; Infin. constr. 5i~ (a kind of verbal noun, ~ 45, 1, ~ 132, 1 and 2), to rule, the ruling; wit~h suff. * (-M o), ~ 61, 1, p,. 171, Remt. 4, his ruling;,~-102, 2. 19. ~n ( —Z, Inf. constr. ~,when he reigned (began to reign), lit, in (or at) his reigrning. 20. '-',b he ate, iif. constr. '=n; ltnb (~ 61, 1), when we ate (or, eat), lit, in, (at the time of) our eati-ng; M (~ =t) 20 20 ~~EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. wvhen ye eat (in or at youtr eatin ); ZL (~ 61, Rem. 2), ~ 27, I1; with prefix, (~28, 2), in your eating ~ when ye eat. 21.. "Il and whent I speaf: lit. and in m7y speaking; 1Z (like I)nf- consir. Piel of 'I" changre of Zto M. Sct. V. Rule vi. Give the formns withi Othcr suffixes. 22. tha Inmay d-well (there), lit. for (in, order to) my dwvellin~gr t__ (luf. constr. of:11);,-( 1 02, 2, ~132, 2). 23. 'Vlb( -6, p.31I, 1, a), ltt(~ 8, 2, 2d II) Parad. VI, c. -Analyze, "Bll (6;~ 22, 4; bt ( =6), A1lethegh, ~16, 2a. T-,~22, 4, end. 24. 1=111 who, in our hum~iliation - for '1~ 36,;19, 3,a, and2, b;; " Parad. VI, b; s iff. 205.;,~104, 2, c; see No. 26. anid of their fat:, No. 3;, No. 4; plur. Constr. of W 1arad. VI. b, ~93, Expl. 6, Rein. 2), combined wvith the suff. ~.91, 2, and defectively written, ibid. Rein. 1; I hardened (irregrularly), compare Parad. VI, a, plur. grave Si/f. at-id ~ 21, 2, a; (but softenied (n), in some editions of the Heb. Bible.) 27. 'CT,,$ when they are (were or shall be) created, lit, in their being created: I; WI1 Niph. Inf. constr. of WI Parad. 0; with sujf. (nominal, ~ 61, 1), 124"M 'I Sect. V, Rule vi. 28. ar~~- whent they are (were or shall be), lit, in. their bein:; r Kal Inf. constr. from '-~y a verb Pe guattural anid La-medh lie6 (~ 41, Remt.); Parad. D must, therefore, be consulted for the initial hayf-syllable, and Parad. P for the final syllable, and so ini all cases. wheni a verb belongrs to m-ore than one class;with thre preCfix, 63, RJem. 5'; nominal siqf. ~ 61, 2. 29. 1-y1,10 and then he slew him:t Kal imnpf. fromi n 7Parad. 1);. VUav consecutive of the hnipf. ~ 49, 1 and 2, and Remn.; with the esujf:- the final tone-long 0- is shortened to a hialf-vowel (Sect. V., Rule vi, p). 16), hence and then ~ 28, 3 (not ~) 21, 2, a. 3 0. 7, "'4 and unto thee: coqj.; prep.., originally a nouni (of Sp~ace) I 101, 1,, in the plur. irnplying extension, ~. 103, 3 anid ~W08 2, a; hence with a sulff. to a piur. noun; see p. 190, 4th line, and comp. the inflection of Parad. II. It is originally a noun, in thec accusative of place whither, ~ 118S, 1, a; lit. and to the region of th ee = — and towvards thee, and untdo thee,. HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. .11 SELECTIONS FOR CHRESTOMATHY. SELECT PORTIONS TO BE READ IN THE HEBREW BIBLE. I. General account of the creation, GE&N. i.-ii. 3. II More particular account of the creation of the first human pair, and of the circumstances in which they were placed, G1iN. I. 4-25. III. Temptation and fall of man, GEN. iii. IV. Death of Abel; immediate descendants of Cain, GEN. iv. V. Account of the flood, GEN. vi.-viii. VI. Jotham's parable, JuDG. ix. 1-21. VII. Raising of Samuel, 1 SAMS XXViii 8-25. VIIL Nathan's parable, 2 S"I. xii. 1-14. NOTES. Page 25 31 85 89 43 48 49 51 SELECTIONS IN POETRY. Preliminary remarks on the form of Hebrew poetry, IX. Charge to the night-watch in the temple, and their response, Ps. cxxx X. Profession of humility, Ps. cxxx XL. Preciousness of fraternal union, Ps. exx XII. A general psalm of thanksgiving, Ps. cxxx XIII. The captivity, a commemorative psalm, Ps. cxx~x XIV. Rewards of piety, Ps. cxxiV XV. Assertion of Jehovah's supremacy; security of those who tr ust in him, Ps. cxv. XVIL God's exaltation above afl, and his care for the lowly, Ps. cxiii XVIL Worth of wisdom, Paov. ii 53 iv. 1.. in.:T11. riu. 58 59 59 60 61 62 62 L 13-24. 63 64 NOTES TO TIlE SELECTIONS FOR CHRESTOMATHY. THE student is supposed to be already familiar with the elementary principles taught in Part I. of the grammar, and fully illustrated in the preceding Exercises. The following Notes are strictly limited to the wants of the learner, and are intended to supply the place of oral instruction, in acquiring the elementary knowledge of the language. The instruction is given, as far as possible, by references to the grammar and lexicon.-References to paradigms of verbs include the ~~ quoted at the top of the page; referen ces to paradigms of nouns include the explanations subjoined. An attempt is made to interest the learner in the neglected use of the accents. Of course, the more difficult laws of their combination are reserved for maturer study.-It is recommended to the learner, to mark in the grammar every passage to which his attention is directed in the following Notes. Hahn's and. Theile's editions of the Hebrew Bible are referred to, as being in common use in our schools. The references to the lexicon, are to the fifth, improved edition of Dr. Robinson's translation of Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon. 1854. 1. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION. Genesis, ch. i.-ii. 3. V. 1. nlr~t; A, 6 102, 2; rn, ~86, Rem. 6; position in the sentence, ~ 145, 1, d. The little circle on a ( 17) refers to the marginal note, which means Beth magnum. See the clavis nolarum masorethicarum at the end of the Hebrew Bible, where these marginal notes are alphabetically arranged and explained. In this instance, look for:: in Hahn's ed. (in Theile's, for "r:I. and the word there referred to). 26 26 ~~~HEBREW CHREST0OMATIHY. R11Parad. 0 sing. with pliir. subject, ~ 146, 2; position before the sbect, 6 145, 1, d. fio Pad.; Pattacli furtive, i22, 2, b; 0 defectively wrlitten in the plural, i 8. 4;use of the plur., 108, 2, b ~ r-, ~ign- of the definite accuts.; origr. forin and meaning, 6 1-17 2 and Note. -_____ -01 88 1 Remn. 1: article, 35, 1 St ~ 109, 3( di art. ~ 35, i; "~ (nionosyll. root, Paurad. VI. a, wvith E'xpi. 6, and (for -~ under.4.) Renm. 1, fifth line. 8illuq (not Mletihegh), ~6 15, Rem. 4, N ot e S. ol)h -p)asulct, ~ 15a, A, 1, 1. This verse, is divided by the accents (6 15, spec. N-o. 3). as follows: a double hyphen indicating tile connection of' wordls by a coi~junctive, and a dash the great division in the middle of a verse by Athnach (breathing-): In-the-beginning, created =God -the-heavens, and=the-earth. More literally: In-principio, creavrit —Deits - ipsum=cslUM, ipsam.~que_terrain. In this manner, every adt'erbial imnitation of time, place, or other circumstance, the action and its subject, and the object of the action, are presented separately, each by itself as a distinct idea. But the Hebrew accent has also a rhetorical use; a pause in utterance being often indicated after the sub~ject (especially if it is the name of the Divine Being), as in this verse, and in each of the three clauses in the next verse. Here, it is a greater pause than usual, as it falls in with the grand division of the verse. V. 2. Parad. P; Methegh, ~ 16, 2, a. and are prop. of Parad. VI, c (the 0 sound), and i (viz, with a final vowvel-letter); comnp. ~ 24, 1, b., p. 151, V, 105, and p. 171, Remn. 6. Use of the substantive as predicate in place of an adjective,.4 106, Rem. 1, 2(1 ~f; omission of the coputla, ~144;the first accent marks the tone-syllable;,~104, 2. d. (18, 27 2d IT), P~arad. NJI, C. ~ ~ 10 1, 1, a,, 6 1 54.,3, b; Maqqeph, ~ 16,1. --- '1 (lex. M= ), Parad. IX; plur..~ 87, 5, Rent. 2, and t. 108, 2, a. C~i Parad. I; r7 softened by the closing vowelsound of the preceding word, p. 1 1 of the Exercises. ~~r" (122, 2,,14 Parad. I. r — l from- P 1arads. I) and E, Piel Part. (-in a sharpened syll. ~22., 1, ~ 64, 3); wvith fern. ending, ~ 80, 2, b, and ~ 94, 2, b; syntax, ~ 134, 2, c.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2b;syta, 14 SS88 1, Rem. 1; Qamet-s in pautse, ~ 29, 4, a. V. 3.,til Parad. 0;. ~49, 1 and 2, ~129, 1; 'i for It (viz, obscure for the clear., when the syllable loses the accent.), comp. ~ 27, 1, with Rem. 2, and ~ 68, 1., extr.; sing. with plur. subject, as in ver. 1 (1 and 2); position, 6~ 1405, 1, a; L ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION. 2.27 conj. accent Merka (~ 1-5, table, 21) connecting -the verb with its subject. -,from #lo (Parad. P), Kal Impf. apocopated (48, 1, 2, and 4; 75, Remarks, 3, e); used as a Jussive, 1 128, 2, comp. 1 127, 3, c. -- "'nll; the same, with Vav consecutive, 1118, 1, d; omission of doubling point in 4, 1 10, 3, c, Rem.; Methegh,. 1 16, 1, a. V. 4. bi l; from 'MV (Parads. D, E, and F), Kal Impf. apoc. 1 75, Remarks, 3,1 c; conj. accent Darga (No. 26), 1pnnecting verb and subject. -- Mt as in verb 1 (4); orig. vowel shortened before Maqqeph (1 16, 1, and ~ 27, 1); comp. table of vowel-signs, p. 24, 3d class, e. - art.~ 35, 1. __=t 2Parad. I. Adjectives are inflected like substantives. iSaw, that good (was it); the copula is not usually expressed in Hebrew (1 144); nor is the subject, when it would be a pronoun referring to something just mentioned. -- ~1=1 from ~=, Hiph. Impf. apoc. (h.-. shortened to -~ 48, 4), with Vav consec. 1 53, Rem. 4. - (,1104, 2, b); prop. the constr. state of (Parad. VI, h), in the accus. 1 118, 3, with a division, or separation. Lit. and made a division, with a separation of the light (to one side, in time), and with a separation of the darkness (to the other); = divided between the light and the darkness. -- I.7'o art., form 1 35, 2, A, a, syntax 1'109, 3d ~. The place of Athnach (breathing) is properly about the middle of'the veswhich it divides into two nearly equal parts (~ 15, A, I,2) enr ally corresponding to a division in the sense. See, e. g. verses 2, 3, 4. 5, 6, 8, 14, 17, 20. When, however, the first member of the verse consists of several minor divisions, and the second member is short in cornparison, Athnach then stands nearer the end, as in verses 7, 9, 11, 12, 15; and vice versa, C 23it is nenr er the begminning, when. the second member is made lnnger by embracing several (livisions. V. 5". has two accents, viz, the conj. No. 24, and the disj. No. 20. The latter shows its relation to the sentence; the former is added to mark the tone-syllable, which the other, frorm its position, would not do. -- i ~) 35, 1, and Remt. 2, 102, 2, b. ~-~ 196; sing.-, of Parad. I; plur., of Parad. II. - 1;,,1-, and Jp~. -- — ib' (b"1, Parad. VI, h); '-01 obsolete accusative ending 1 90, 2; in pause, 1 29, 4, a. as in ver. 3. — ~ and bi, Parad. VI, a and c. - 19 cardinal for ordinal, lex. 2. Meaning~: And there was evening, (i. e. evening came on, the close of a period of light). 28 28 ~~~HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. and there was morning (the close of a period of darkness), a first day (comp. ~ 111, 2, a). The letter z, marks a section in the Jewish division of the text. See flhe, Clavis Not. M1asoret., letter '~3. in Hahn, and Mln in Theile. V.- 6. a as i n v er. 3. — Vlpl (~ 22, 2,14) of the form No. 5, ~ 84; Parad. III. M-. and constr. state of nn Parad. VI, g. M r, ~88,~ 1, Rem. 2;,~29, 4, a. ---~~ for the il ~ 28, 1, then "'Il ~ 24,1, a; Jussive, 128, 2, and let it be. "b-nn from Hiph. Part., Parad. B;let it be ividin=-let it divide. —=I; for ~,~102,,c ' V..r=, with a separation of waters touwards waters, i. e. so that each body of water should be opposite to the other, facing towards it.-See another explanation in the lex., 1, mnid. V. 7. (1) from -otV Pe guttural, and Lamed/h He (see Parad. D for initial, and Parad. P for final syll.), Kal Impf. apoc. with Vav consec., j a5, Remarks,1 3, d. -- rs, as in ver. 4. - ~P;art., form ~305, 1, syntax ~ 109, 3d ~; the accent (No. 4) is postpositive (~15, Rem. 2), and the tone-syllable must be learned where it is marked by another accent (as in the preceding verse),. or from the structure of the word (~ 22, 2, b, and Note). Part of, constr. state of the noun ~,~154, 3, c; r~, space beneath, ~ 101, 1, a; ~ in foll'. word, ~102, 2, c), belongring to, ~6 115, 2; which are of (lit. part of) the under-space belonging to =-which are beneath. ~ ~ 102, 1,b, ~~101, 1, a; part of the upper space belonging to== above.And it became so (a fixed, established thing). V. 8. Vl-'?'M, ~6 35, 1, and Rem. 2, ~ 102, 2, c. ~698; a second day, ~ 111, 2, a. V. 9. 7; P, Parad. P (comnp. ~ 72, Remarks, 10), Niph. Iinpf.; for the Imp. 3 pers. ~ 127, 3, c; reflexive, 5 51, 2, a. ~,~103, 3, ~6 11534, 3, d. -- C-,of the formn No. 14, ~ 84 (comnp. ~ 85, IV, 14), Parad. III. — W(P gutual Ayin gufttual an ae/ hPrds. I), E, P) Alph. AImpf for the inp. 3 pers.; passive, ~. 51, 2, d; the full instead of the shortened Cormn 127, 3, b, extr. -— '""; art., and fern, of the adj tzn( 84, 6), like /: 1:ie v. 10. nn" — -; of the formn No. 14, ~ 84 (conmp. ~ 85. V; 14), place oJ collecting, see time verb, ver. 8 (3); constr'. state, Parad. IX. ='IM.1 Parad. VIII, Expl. 8, 1. 1. ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION. 2 29 v. 11. Parad. 0, Hiph. Impf. apoc. 1 128, 2. -- ni~v Parad. VI, b Expi. 6, Remarks, 2. Hiph. Part.; syntax 1 138, 1, Rem. 1.- ~,Parad. VI, a, 122, 2, a.Parad. VI, i, syntax 1 106, 1. V 120,2, a; -st. (D and P), Kal Part. —_ ~!. ---i, 1103, 2 a; in which, ~ 123, 1. -- Above'the earth (aloft over), in reference to its towering trunk. V. 12. (1), from 'il" 176, 2, d (Pe Yodh. first class, 1 69, and Lamedh Aleph; see Parad. K for the initial, and Parad. 0 for the final syll.); Hiph. impf. apoc. with Vav cons. 1 128,2, d. 1, -, 1W'2..., table, 9 91, 1. — ~ ver. 4, (1). - - V. 13. (ult.), 198. V. 14. (3), ver. 3, (3); position, 1 145, 1, a; number, ~ 147', a. -- (4), 'IN (from 'lVit to shine, ~ 84, 14, comp. 1 85, IV, 14, place of shining, or of giving light); defect. written, 18, 4;,masc. noun with fem. plur. ending, 187, 4. ',lex. C. n see ver. 5. ~ ~ (." 0 f), Kal Perf. 3 pl., with Vav cons. of the Pe?:f. 1 49, 1, and ~126, 6, c. Z;,lex. A, 2; HN, with fern. plur. ending, defect. written (1 8 4), in both syllables. — Vit7f (1 84, 14, comp. 1 85,III, 14), Parad. VII;,1155, a, 2d ~r (hendiadys). In the next word (M" ver. 5), is explicative (ibidem), and indeed = namely. And let them be for signs of set periods, even for days and years. ra, plur. of Mt see 1 95, Parad. B, a, and compare lex. V. 15. (1), as in preced. verse. — For lights; ~,lex. A, 2. T:, and Hiph. Inf. constr. of Parad. M. V. 16. (1), as in ver. 7', (1). 197, 1, and table; constr. state, prop. twain of, comp. 1 91, 3, Rem. 2. ~ Th e two lights; art., see ~1 111, l. -- -— m (Parad. III), lit. the great ones, an expression of the superlative, 1 119, 2; position, 1 112, 1. The greater light,-and the lesser light; 1 119, 1, 4th ~. — For the'ruling of the day; ribbMM, constr. state of r~ (95, Parad. B, and Expl. 1, 3d ~1), fern. of the form No. 14, 183 (comp. 1 94, 2, a). ~~(ult.) 1Parad. II, accus. after trp V. 17'. (1), jt~, Pe Nun. verb, Parad. H, Kal Impf. (1 66, 2). with Vav cons. - -R, ~ 103, 1, Remt. 1; comp. ~6 121, 4, Rem. extr. 30 30 ~~~HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. riit. -~ V. 19. (nit.) ~98. V. 20. Y~t~ 138, 1, -Rem. 1; comp. lex. r~t 1. - t lex. 4, and f ' lex. 3, livingo am~mal (collect. animnals), in j:pposition with *7. —., Parad. M, Pilel Impf. (~ 55, Renmarks, 2). ~,ver. 2; ~., lex. 3, b. ~~V. 21. "'n of the form No. 7, 6 83. (lex. ~,3), art. ~111, 2, a. 0 (5. Parad. V111), followed by the art. ~ 111, 3d IF. ~~Disj. accent Pesiq, table, No. 20. art. ~ 109, 2d ~, 2; Kal Part. with fem. ending, ~6 94, 2, b. accus., with which the waters creep, or swarm; comnp. references on ver. 20. -,Parad. IV;syntax 6~ 106, 1, fowl Qf Wing =r winged fowl. V. 22. (1), Parad. E, Pi~l Iimp!. with Vav consecutive; with rettracted to-ne ~ 29, 3 a, and shortened final vowx-el ~' 27, 1; comp. ~64, Rem. 2, b. ~~(2), see ver. 17. --— ~ ( b, Parad. I), ~23, 2; a sort of Gerund (dicendo, ~' 45, 3), in saying. = saying. (and foll. word), Parad. P. Observe the paranomasia, in the three verbs connected by 1. =1-1;, M, Parad. VIII. (r m Parad. I'), ~ 75, Remzarics, 3, a; conmp. ~ 26, 3, a; Jussive. 'V. 24. (3), comp. ver. 12, (1); here, it is the, Jussive. V11 ("m.l ~ 95, Parad. A);orig. fein. form rl" (~ 80, 2) with the obsolete constr-. ending, 90, 3, b and Rem. V. 26. (3), ~108,S 2, b. - (5), I,~ ard I a, -, (6), rit 1 Parad. I; ~84. 16. -- Parad. P. ris I rov, ~95, Parad. B, a; sq/t, 6 2 1, 2, a. ~~V. 2 7. iNsee ver. 17, (2). ulzf Parad. IV. V. 28. (1), ver. 22.- M ---b ~102, 2, c, 1J, and ~ 103, 2, a. (table.) - l"Z; t-,Kal Intp. 2 plur. IV..p with su~ff. n (table ~ 58, it, fem. for tieut., comip. ~ 80, 1). for 1defectively written, ~ 9, 9, 6, and ~6 8, 4, Rtem. a. V. 29. ~ ~66, Rem. 3. ~~,n comnp. ver. 28, (5).VIT;~ KWl Part. Parad. F. -- 121b comp. on ver. IL. ~~VI (see ver. 1 1), ~ 29, 4, a. --- (ult.) ~,lex. A, 2, mid.; -r (-r 6), fern. of ~=~ (~ 94, 1, Exs. Parad. VI), ~ 95,. Parad. C. c, Exp I. 2. II. ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION. 31 V. 30. 'nu ti: breath of life; lex. t:, 1, and SJn, 3.;-rl, governed by B.ne, ver. 29, (4).- pil, syntax ~ 106, 1, Rem. 1; every green herb (lit. all greenness of herbs), viz. of all kinds, ~111, 3d -. V. 31. [tt, 100, 2, b. - (ult.), 111, 2, a. t CH. II. V. 1. (1);',;1 (Parad. P), intrans. to be complete; Pi61, causative, to make complete (~ 52, 2, b); Pual, passive of Piel (~ 39, 4, table, ~ 52, 1), to be made complete, to be finished; here, Pual Impf. with Vav consec.,... thus were finished. -- (ult.), Parad. IV (final vowel affected in some of its forms by the quiescence of S). V. 2. (1), Piel Impf. (n5lr) apoc., ~ 75, 5, and Remarks, 10. (5), from lrnt; for inflection, comp. ~ 95, Expl. 1, 3d T. The proper form of the noun is o1=6. (fern. of' the form No. 14, ~ 83), Parad. B, c, in ~ 95. But the sound of t is lost to the ear, and its vowel is consequently heard in connection with b, which it unites in a syllable with itself, ~23, 2. The short, closed syllable before it, losing the sup-. port of its final consonant, becomes a half-syllable; comp. Sect. V, Rule vi. -On the seventh day. The meaning is: that the beginning of the seventh day closed the work of the preceding days, which continued through the sixth, and closed on (i. e. with the beginning of) the seventh. It might appear superfluous to remark this. so obviously consonant with the simplicity of the style; had not inattention to the writer's manner led to a change of the text (seventh to sixth, in the Sept. &c.), lest the sanctity of the Sabbath should seem to have been violated by its Author. (Ult.), i, HrY, a kind of gerundial form, ~ 45, 3. —... x rit5 b created in making, i. e. made by creation; the first verb qualifying the second, ~ 142, 4, Rem. 1. II. MORE PARTICULAR ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION OF THE FIRST HUMAN PAIR, AND OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH THEY WERE PLACED. Genesis, ch. ii. 4-25. The first three verses of this chapter belong to the general account of creation given in ch. i, and should have been included in it. V. 4. (1), ~ 34, table; plur. to correspond with the noun. -- (2), of the form No. 27, ~ 84, comp. ~ 85, III, 27; lex. 2. -- (5), 32 32 HEB~MREW CHRESTOMATHY. Niph. Inf. constr. with suff. - ~4,1 hotnn of the final, prosodially long vowel,,Sect. V, Rule vi; in their being created =when they were created (6~ 132, Nos. 2 and 3). The circle on (~ (17) refers to the note in the margin (He parvurn). ~~Lit. in the day of Jehovah God's makingc earth and heaven. Thekf has here its sul~ject in the genitive; this follows first, and then its object in the accusative; see;~ 133, Nos. 2 and 3. V. 5. ~~ is followed by a verb withi a nergation (contained in lto); any plant of the field was- not yet in the earth ==there was yet no plant of the field in the earth. See ~ 1-52, 1, 2d If. Plant of the field = field-plant, viz, wvild plants; lex. 171lr 1, extr. -- '#'7 Parad. IX. -- M1 (not yet, lex. 2), with the Impf. ~ 127, 4, a, and Not~e t. (Hiph. Perf.); position, ~ 145, 1, d. -- II, lex. 2, and Note at the end. —~ for tilling, ~6 45, 3. (ult.), ~ 9, Parad. B, C. V. 6. The, Impf. slw (MI., Parads. D and P), expresses the continued ascent of vapors., fromt timne to timye (~127, 4, b) on the contrary, the watering of the ground (as a singrle act, completed at once), is expressed by the Perfect tense,. and it wVatered, &c. The Vav is here a siimple conjunction. V. 7. (1), from nl of the second class of verbs Fe _Yodh, LParad. L, see ~ 69, 2d ~If lex. (both under one root) No. 2. The proper tone of the word (on the penultim-ate,~ 29, 3, a), is not marked here by the written accent (the conj. little Telishia, No. 28); see ~ 15, Remarks, 2. Final syll. as in ver. 3, (1). 01IR art. ~ 109, 2. of dust, accus. of material, ~139, 2,2d ~. -— MI fr-om' MD, Parad. 11.;~ (contr. of J=, ~19, 2, a, and 2d ~, ~ 93, Expl. 8, 2), Dual with suff-. ~ 91, 2;into his nostrils, lex. ~ (I> here in the orig. fern. formn (61 80, 2, 2d IF) for the constr. state (S 9, 2, b); Parad. A, p. 1705, the first syllable being -unchangreable by I)osition, ~. 25,~ 3, and Note. -- O"rParad. V11 iiX).S plur. ~ 108, 2, a; breath of life =life-breath. --- (nlt.), see lex. t, 4, and ~,3. V. 8. (1), Parads. H and F. ~,Parad. VIII, Expi. 81. ~ ~ cli ~ 154, 3, c; lit, part of the east, on the east, viz, of the writer and the readers whom hie had in view. IL. ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION. 3 33 and t~y, Kal impf. ~ 73, 2, mid. ~~Observe the.division of the verse, and the correct accentuation of each word, by the accents. V. 9. (1), Hiph. Impf. apoc. (1 65, 1, last ~), with Vav cons. ~128, 2, d. ~~Itl Niph. Part., 1 134, 1, at the end. MMi, ~ 84, 14, Parad. IX. ~ —bt ibid. Parad.HI. ~V7M-; lex. "M (Parad. VIII), B, subst. plur., ~ 108, 2, a; art. ~ 111, 1. - ~~ ver. 6, (5). (iV1, Parads. K and F), Kal Inf. with fern. ending, ~ 69, 1, 4th ~, and 3, Rem. 1; used as a verbal noun (1 83, 1 and 2), ~ 85, III, 10), and as such governing the case of its verb (here the accus.), ~ 133, 1, 2d ~. ~~(uit.), V. 10. (1), Parad. IV. ~~(2), =" Kal Part., syntax ~ 133, 2,c. ~~(4), lrp~ Parad. P, Hiph. Inf. with ';comp. ~ 52, 3, Rem. 7. Vot I a,~ 15,1 and 2d ~. ~In Niph. Impf.'- This is analogous to the case given in ~ 127,14, a; thenceforth having the same influence on the use of the tense, whether referring to space or time. ~ 125, 6 a. Expi. 6, Rem. 3, 2d ~T and then WtN ~ 23, 2, of Parad. I. For the form and gender of the numeral, see ~ 97, 1. V. 1 1. (1), Parad. VII. ~ (2), ver. 5, (nilt.) ~~(3), 1 84, iS. - (5), =0, Parad. G, Kal Part. with art.; syntax ~ 1 110, 3, Rem. That traverses, lex. 2. ~All the land of Havilah; art. with the gen. ~6 111, 1; ~ followed by the art. ~ 111, 3d ~. -___ ~... * ~ 123, 1.~ (ult.), art. 1 109, Rem. b. V. 12. (1), ~, 10, 2, Rem. b. ~ 32, Remarks, No. 6, 2d ~T, and No. 8; art. ~ 11 1, 2. ~~=10 proper place of adj. as predicate, ~ 145, 1, b. ~~(uit.), art. ~ 111, 1, ~ 109, 3, Rem. b. ~~V. 13. (4), comp. ver. 11, (3). -~ (ult.), see art. If': (by IDr. Robinson) in the lex. ~~V. 14.. rl~f ~ 95. Par ad. A, first syll. unchangeable by position, ~ 25, 3; accus. of place, ~ 118, 1, b. ~~(last clause), order of words, ~ 145, 2. V. 15. (1) 166, Rem. '2...I~i'lv-1; rel, Parad. M, Hiph..Impf. 72, Remarks, 9; long i retained with suiff., ~ 60, Rem. 5; furtive Pattach falls away, ~ 22, 2, b, 3d ~f; defect. written; with Vav; consec. and suiff. ~~(penult. 4"- nit.), Kal fuf. h (Parad. D), and ntt with suff. ~ 61, 1, and prefix '; softened, ~ 21, 2, Exc. a. 3 34 34 ~~~HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. V. 16. (1), 111 (Parad. P, and ~ 72, eak,1),Pf1hp apoc. (~ 75, Remnarks, 1-0), with Vav consec., " without Dagrh. ~20, 3, b. ~~(6), ver. 22, (4). ~~(nit. ck penult.), Parad. I use of it'f absol.. 131, 3, a; of Impqf. ~ 127', 3, d; thou mayest with eatingr eat thou mayest freely eat. V. 17'. (1), 1,~,~ For fol, words, comp. ver. 9. ~nn (with final 4), used jussively, ~ 128, 2, b; but comip. ~ 68, 1,extr. 1-Z t. 103, 2, and table, c, 3d per-s. m. —TJn(kh~l; ~ 27',1; S~ect. V. Rule iv), Kal lilf. with sz{/f., ~ 61, 1, Remt. 2; in the day of thy eating ther-eof. ~ (uit. ~" penult.), Kal Impf. and htf. absol. of rl"t Parad. M; ye shall with dyimg~c die == shall surely die (as in ver. 16). v. 18. n~iwi ~ 132, 1;its subject, 6 133, 2. ~~ noun of Parad. VIII, with suff., and 6, ~154, 3, e, 2d ~; in his sep)aration ==aoe 10iu, 2, a.,20, 2, a. — IT.V Parad. VI, b. -— (ult.), -1,; (lex. B, 1), ~ V. -19. (1), see ver. 7', (1); here, defect. written. — NI Nt (Parads. M & 0, ~. 76, 2,J), Hiph. impf. apoc.; hie caused to come = h-e brougalt. -- rlb' (MI) for seeing = in order to see, 45, 3 pronounced as one word, mndyytk-ra-l6', with the full accent on the final syllable. The euphonic Daghesh, and the Ilaqqeph, are designed to preserve such delicacies of vernacular enunciation. (-) ~ 37, 1, a; comp. ~6 27, 1. -- FPor all which (whatever) the man should call to it. the irving being, that (should be) its name; expressingf the pur1 -pose of God, in brinigingr themn to him. Should call, 1271, 3, d; call to, 1.40, b, to name, comnp. i. 5; in apposition with (in V. 20. (3), Parad. VII; pl. ending, ~87,4. -- ~ ~137,' 3. V. 21. (1), bn, Hiph. Impf. -- (4), fem. of form No. 27', ~84;- Parad. A, p. 175- -- He'; It, Parad. K; Impf. A, and initial Yodh retained, 6 69, 1, bottomn of p. 123; Qamets in pause,. 29, 4, a. -- ip 1, ver. 15, (1). i-inr2t; y.= Parad. IV. Expl. 4. 2d "I, and Remt.; double indication of the plur-., ~. 91, 3. — (ult.), rln ver. 7, (9); with ver-bal su~ff. (accus.), ~ 103, 1., Rem. 3. V. 2~2. (1), #-c ~75, Remarks, 3, a. -- ~,lex. A 2 6; ~ 96, t -- l (ver. 1-9), Hiph. Impf., full form with III. TEMPTATION AND FALL OF MAN. 3 357.9uff. (~ 60, Rem. 5); verbal suff. ~58, table, with union-vowel e, No. 3, b, taking the tone, ~59, 2; hence the shortening of pretonic Q-amets; defect. written. V. 23. (3), 1 34. (4), UV. Parad. VI, d, lex. 3, a; 'art. 1109, 2d I. -,~ Par ad. VI, a.- lr Parad. IV. Wip (Niph. Impf.); masc. with fern. subject, 1 147, a; to this one, shall be called woman = t~his shall be named woman. &It, ~96, tl.~ (penult.), r~2'*, Pual; P. wtChateph Qamets, ~ 10, 2, Rem. 3d ~; (in Theile's ed., erroneously, * with Dagh.). ~~(ult.), with euphonic Dagh., ~ 20, 2, a. V. 24. (1 & 2), lex. J, near the end. ~~(3), 1~V (Parad. D), ~ 27,1. ~ 96, =bt ("IN with suff., ~ 91, 1 table, Rem. a.) ~IVZ. Parad. VIII. -- P1 (a verb middle A 4.E, ~43, 1, with Impf. A, ~ 47, Rem. 2); 126, 6, a. -.tbi ~ 96, mtt ~ 95, Expl. 3, Rem. -~ (penult.), ver. 23, (7); ~ lex. A, 22. V. 25. (2), ~ 97, Rem. 2, at the end. -- (3), lex. Parad. VIII; shortened to.1, ~ 27, Remarks, I; the asterisk (~ 17) refers to the marginal note, " Daghesh after sShureq;" for -1 in a sharpened syllable (~ 26, 6), see ~ 27, Remarks, 1. -- (ult.), t~=- Parad. M (mid. 0), ~ 72, Remarks, 1; unusual, reflexive con~j. Hithpolel (passive, Hithpolal), ~ 55, 2, and ~ 72, 7; tone shifted to the penultimate half-syllable, for a better. cadence, ~ '29, 4, b; the original - restored and lengthened in pause (ibidem). Impf. used of past time, in the expression of what is continued from time to time, or is habitual, ~ 127, 4, b; place of 95, ~ 145, 1. TEMPTATION AND FALL OF MAN. %Genesis, ch. iii. V. 1. (1), tM Parad. IV. Copula expressed, ~ 144, 2d ~. - (3), Parad. III1. Comp. Mat. x. 16. ~~(4), J', ~ 119, 1. -- v i; position, ~ 145, 1, a. -- ~t; lex. int (I), and (near the end) J~t~, 1; uttered interrogatively (~ 153, 1), is it added that = — is it even so, that; implying, is there so grievous a prohibition laid upon you. -- 9~ with iinpf. expressing absolute prohibition; ~127, 3, c, comp. ~ 1.52, 1, and 2d ~1. -,~ 111,I 36 36 ~~~HEBREW CHIRESTOMATHY. 3d ~; ye shall not eat of any tree == ye shall eat of no tree (~. 1-52, 1, 2d ~F). The answer (in ver. 2), corresponds to the question in this form. V. 2. (5), see i. 11, (1-0). (Uit.), ii. 1.6 (nit.). ~~V. 3. (4), i. 6, (5). -- 1:= ii. 17. — (~~;with p~rep. ~ 140. — p, lex. "~P (II),1; I 152, 1, at the end. — (nit.), ii. 17 (nit.); with origrinal plur. ending (6~ 44, 1, at the end, and Rem. 4, at the end, and spec. ~ 47, Remn. 4), which takes the tone (6~ 72, 6), and shortens pretonic Qamets (Remnarks, 4, 2d ~T). -— (last clause), place of Ab, ~ 1-31, 3, Rem. 1., at the end. It is here prefi~-ed to the phrase in ii. 17, as negativing that assertion. V. 5. (1), for, lox. B, 2, a, mid.;~155, e, 3d ~, c. ~~(2), ~,Par ad. D, Kal Part.; syntax ~134., 2, a, ~ 146, 2, ~ 145, 1, a. -— "' that, lex. B, 1I 1505, e, 3d ~, 6. ~~In the day of your eating (1. 61, 1, Rem. 2; conmp. on ii. 17) = in the day that ye eat. IM r; rl Niph. Perf., with Vav consec. ~ 126, 6, a, and Rem. 1; I then, before the ap~odosis, ~6155,. 1, a, 3d IF. Lit. then are opened, for, will be opened. Order of wvords, ~ i"145,1, a. =1VI (1"., Parad. VI, h; Dual with suff. ~ 91, 2). =11171 (comp. i. 6, (7)), ~ 63, Remarks, 6 (~ 28, 1). (foil, word), bt for Nn, ~23, 2. ~~%'~ ~ 135, 2. V.6. (1), -M-1 ~ 75, Remarks, 3, b. -- ~n'U of the form No. 14, ~ 84; Parad. II. S 1 5, V, 27); Parad. A, of P. 175. NM ~6 121, 2; following word, for ~,~102, 2, b. (Parad. D), Niph. Part.; hard combination, 6 63, 2, 2(1 ~; syntax ~ 134, 1, desirable, or pleasant. ~- "IP (Hiph. Lif. with b;lex. Hiph. 1 (or 5, as some translate). And (= — for) Pleasant was the tree to look upon, 15 the remark of the narrator; and desirable the tree to make (one) wise, wvould be a continuation of the, reflections ascribed to the woman. -- p 1 66, Remn. 2; (following wvord), Parad. VI, i. — ~;~ Parad. 11, ~66, 2, a. -— 0-r... with hersel~f (1 124, 1, b), to share with her. (nit.), shortened Imipf. with Vav consec., ~ 128, 2, d; comip. ~29,4, c, 3d ~f. V. 7. (1), Parad. F, Niph. Impf., plur. 3fem. ~~(6), t:~,V Parad VII; toe-log 6 hortened to fl, 27, table, and No. 1 at the end...Trr" Hithp. ~654, 3, b.;,Parad. IX, the leaf,. collectively for leaves.. - Nn,femt. of the III. TEMPTATION AND FALL OF MAN. 3 37 form ~'p No. 13, ~ 84; Parad. A, p. 175. ~~(penult.), ~124, 1,b. (ult.), '11'IbMt; fern. of the form Vit3a? No. 13, ~84; Parad. A, p. 175. V. 8. I. -o~; Hithp. ~ 54, c...r i-, ~ 154, ~3, e, 2d ~; nn lex. 1, c. At the breeze of the day = —at evening. RIM1jN, Hithp. ~ 54, 3, a; agreeing with the nearest subject, ~148, 2, mnid. -~ '1' lex. 11.M (i. 2), F.-~ (penult.), collect. trees.' V. 9. (ult.), where art thou? lex. "N, 1; ~ 150, 5, and ~ 1054, 1, 4th ~ (treated as a noun of Parad. VIII); with verbal suiff. lon-~ (p. 107, Rem. 1), ~ 100, 5. V. 10. (3), emphatic position, ~ 145, 1, c. Wlit 12~ ~ 49, 2,a; MT Parads. K &02 ~76, 2, d; Kal Impf. ~ 69, 1, bottom of the page. ~~Naked (am) I; omission of copula, ~ 144, ~ 121, 1. ~(tilt.), Parads. D & 0, Niph. Impf. (reflexive, ~ 51, 2, a), with Vav consec. V. 11. (2), ~ 37, 1. ~~(3), '= Parad. H, Hiph.; ~,~ 154, 2. -Ibt, as to which. ~~'n ~~ 152, 1, l ast ~V but one. ~~~Z tone-iong 6) shortened (~27, 1) in a closed syll. when the tone is removed by Maqqeph, ~16, 1. (ult.), D, lengthened in pause, ~29, 4, a. V. 12. bor) ~ 66, Rem. 3, and ~ 44, Rem. 4, 4th line. ~,~ 103, Rem. 2. btlo (ii. 12); emphatic, ~137, 3, Rem. 2. ~,euphonic Dagh. (ult.), Parad. I, Kal Impf., 1st pers. (radical bt dropped, ~ 68, 2), with Van consec. V. 13. What is this thou hast done! expression of surprise and displeasure. Why hast thou done this (~ 126, 1, lex. Mf.7 3), is less pertinent, and less suited to the order of the words. — (penult.), bt' (Parads. II & 0, ~ 76, 2, a), Hiph. Perf. with suif. ~ 58, 3,6b; tone, 6~59, 2. V. 14. ng, euph. Dagh. — ~,Kal Part. pass., Parad. G. ~~~t ~ 119, 1. -- H~ 1; Ji (form No. 3, ~ 84), Parad. III. ~;from ~ ~69, Rem. 8), Kal Impf. -- nv Parad. IV; comp. Mic. vii. 17, Is. lxv. 25. ~~(penult.), ~ 96, 104.~ (tilt.), see ii. 9, (13). V. 15. (1), fern. of form No. 13, ~ 84 (Msit contr. T Parad. A. ~~(2), n~ (A yin Yodh verb, Parad. N, ~ 73, 1), Kal 38 38 lI~~EBREW CHRESTOMATHY. Impf. 1st pers. Ilth. between; see the origrin of this usage, i. 4. -- 1,P; Ol, Parad. Ml Kal irnpf. With SIffh (pretonic vowel shortened, iSect. 'VI, Rule ii); second accus. (on the head), ~6 139, last. -- (penult.), with. strengthened sn/f (demonstrative Nun), ~. 58, 4. -— (ult.), Parad. IV, -Expil. 4, 2d ~1. — For the letter O in the open space, see the Ciavis, '0, 3, 6, in Titeile, and ',-3, /9,in Hahn. V. 16. (Mi, Parads. J) and D), Hiph. lhf. absol.; see ~4 75, IRemarks, 1.4, where lby the pleonastic Lhf is meant (more properly speaking) its intensive use in ~., 131, 3 I will with multiplying r multip~ly =-= I will greatly multiply. II= Of the form No. 15, ~6 83;Parad. III. (cornip. ~ 83., 1115); Parad. I. -- Thy pain and thy concep~tion (hendiadys, ' 1505, 1, a, 2d ~R) =-thy p)ains of conception, i. e. consequent upon it. =%v~ Parad. VI. a; lex. 3. ~,Parad. K, ~69, 1. ~ ~ =%n 96, In. -- itn (~5, IV, 27), Parad. A; desire (or, resort),. indicating dependence. (penult.), ANshl without the tone, 16, 1~27, 1. ~(,ult.), ~ 103, 2, table, a;,~140. V. 17. wowlIfm (see masc. in ver. 14), 94 I,1,1II position,. ~ 145, 1, b. - ( fo r b,~9,6 extr.) see lex. "1M A, 2. Another solution ln the act of passing-r or of being passed (from one to another) with -t pretii (lex. 1, B,3 3), -I fo n r the exchange of =in exchange for; thenr, more generally, on account of -;suff. ~. 58, 4; prosodially longvowel shortened, Sect. V, Rule vi;,comnp. p. 34, at the top, b. V. 18. _111- a Pilpel form, ~ 8o', II, at the end. (in pause), ~ 103, 2, table, a), 2, m; dative of the one affected. V. 19. (1).,i.T, Parad. A; of the form No. 10, ~ 85, 111. (So lex.; F-iirst (concordance), of the formi No. 2, ~. 85-, IV b ut partially retracted in his hehr. ui. chald. Ilandwv6rterbuch.) --- (2), see ii. 7, (10). — __- (3), with retracted tone (as shown hy the accent), ~29, 3, b. C 7 p. 170, last ~1. ~~q:~ Parad. MA ~ 132, 1. 'i; see lex. 'i (I), A, (whence thou wast takew. ~ 123, 1); but the signif. for (lex. B, 2, a, m-id.) is equally pertinent. V. 20. (ult.), lex. A, 1. V. 21. (1), see i. 7, (1). ~~fll n (/k~th); lex. nearly as Parad. DA b; see the forms in the lex. The plur. constr. IV. DEATH OF ABEL 3 39 takes in the first syllable a shortening of the radical vowelsound; comp. ~ 61, 1. ~~(ult.), Hiph. Impf. with Vav' consec., adsf. ~ 58, 1, table. V. 22. (4), lex. -'p7 (II). -_"PI., ver. 3, (penult.). ~~"M.17, Parad. G, Kal Perf. with Vav consec., as also the two preceding verbs. (ult.), Parad. II. Behold, the man is become as one of us, to know good and evil; as one of us in respect to this. To know for himself, is the meaning; to decide for himself, what is good and what is evil, and to make his own choice irrespective of his Creator's will. In this respect, man had become as God to himself, his own will being now his supreme law. V. 23. (1), Mb6 PiW Impf., with Vav consec. and suff.; prop. 77t (~ 65, 1, c), tone-long vowel shortened before sufl., Sect. V, Rule vi; on the contrary, Kal Impf. Mb& (short -) with su "ff. l Rule I;,therefore; analogous to the case in ~6 129, 2, Rem. a. (ult.), see ii. 10; with the sign of relation, ~123,1. V. 24. (1), Parad. E, Piel; ~ ~22, 1, and 5, a. at the east of (or simply, before); lex. V7P mt. lit, part of the east = on the east; '~of, ~ 115, 2. Parad. I. tomb,~ 106, Rem. 1; t he glittering sword, art. ~. 111, 1. The use of the article here, and with the preceding noun, shows that these terms represented well known and familiar conceptions. to turn; Hithp. Part. (with fern. ending, ~94, 2, b), reflexive, ~ 54, 3;art. ~ 109, 2d ~r, 2. J'VWay to the tree,.~ 114, 2, near the end. IV. DEATH OF ABEL: IMMEDIATE DESCENDANTS OF CAIN. Genesis, ch. iv. Parad. P. ~~'N lex. 1. -- r%,, prep).. wvit/h. lex. rI (11), 2. 'V. 2. (1), ~,Parad. K, Hip/i. Im~f. apoc.; 78, table; with the following Inf. as its complement, ~ 142, 2. -- (2), wib, ~.69, 1, inf.; with ~,~102, 2, Reins. c, cc. -- 1"R ~ 96. —..' 40 40 ~~~HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. i Paiad. IX, constr. state of Kal Part. Parad. P; syntax ~135, 2. --, ~108, 1. -- V 3. rr~ Ilex. J', 4, c, and (~ 85, II, 2, Parad. VIII), 2. i — ays =some days, ~1.24, Remt. 5. (penult.), Parad. A. -- (ult.), ~. 1-02, last ~. In this sentence, one (jialifying circumnstance (of time) is placed before the verb,. and another (of material) af-ter it; compare 4145, 1. V. 4. H;,415-4, '3, c, lex. 1, b. -- And of their fat; n-:. for1., 5?ff. to a Jplur. noun defectively written, 491, 2, Rem. 1. The si~ff. refers to anmd the noun is plural, because the fat of more than one is meant, as in Levit. ix. 19. It has been rendered fatlingrs of. them, i. e. of the flock (19Z), but improperly. -- Vil Kal impfV. 5. jlex. '0'r 1,1 b; ~75, Remzarks, 3, d; syntax 4137, 2. — (penult.), ~. (l.,i. 2, (7); rl hardened, though preceded by a Vowel-sound, being separated from it inl pronunciation (4 21, 1, and Set. III, p.. 11). Observe the prevalence of the physical, in the ideas -and imagery of these early records: here, e. g. the burning flutsh of' the countenance in anger; the downcast look of sullen discontent, in contrast (vcr. 7) with an elevated cheerfihl aspect. V. 6. 6~ 1.02, 2,d. ~~(ult.), t softened by the preceding vowel-sound, ~ 21, 1, at the end. V. 7. (1t), nonne? is there not2 Y,7 iii. 1I., (8). (3), Paa. Hiiph. Impf.; syntax 1.27 2..-(1) ~( 62a Kal Juf., for (comip. /4, hemi 3 a~nd 91 Rem. 1) a 4liftng' up, viz, of the countenancc lox. I C.(. l at the door (viz, of the tent) is saini crouchingo don u lyino in wvait. Or bctteir, pclhap~s:at t/he door is sin. a irlu 1ru i. e. a lurkingr beast of prey.. In the foimer case. th e Part. (tnaw c) is construed ad sensumn with a fem. noutn (4 6. 141);inl the latter, it is used substantively, in apposition wvith it,( 147, JRem. 2; lox. 7`1, a. (accents, i. 2, (3)),~ 103, 3; (foll. word); Parad. A; ma~sc. su/j. construed ad setisunm. or wvithi the Part. taken as a [ioun. But t h ou (~ 1.3 7, 3, Remt. 2) shalt rule over hint. TIhis is said, either imiperatively (~ 127, 3, c), == do thoui rule over him (that he may not over thee) or as a promnise of victory, should the warning be heeded. IV. IMMEIATE DESCENDANTS OF CAIN. 4 41 This is the most simple, grammatical construction of the words. Another could be defended, on more general grounds; but they would be out of place here. V. 8. (1 & 2), and Cain, said (it),== told (it); omission of the object, ~ 121, 6, Rem. 2. (7'), ~Sect. VI, No. 27'. Mpl I72, Remarks, 4. ~,lex. ~b (III), A, 3. ~~(ult.), and slew him; iSect. VI, No. 29. V. 9. "bt)iii. 9, (ult.); here, in the constr. state, the where of thy brother? where is thy -brother? '~ 126, 3. (ult.), 1 29, 4, c. V. 10. rm, 137', 1, c. ~~1. (Parad. II); see lex. plur. 1. V. 1 1. J'P I143.-~~'#I; -1~96, MI. r. MI r (see ii. 15, (1)), Kal Inf,., with b, ~ 102, 2, c, cc. (ult.); a new penultimate syllable for the sake of the cadence, ~29, 4, b. V. 12. ~,lex. 4. (6), comp. ver. 2, (1). ~~tn; jt~,T 166, 1, and Rem. 3. tifl; tj~,Parad. I, lex. 1, c. ~,V and '7 Kal Parts. ofI (lex. 2), and 1I lx ) op.2 (3 & 4). V. 13. (penult.), 1ViV, 1 8, 2, 3d ~. ~~(ult.), n(1119, 1), 7~tKal Inf. (full form, 1 66, Rem. 1), of ft~ ley.. 2, b;my gi soreater than can be forgiven =- too great to be forgiven. But f~ may be understood as in lex. c, and bti as in lex. 4, (Engl. version, my punishment is greater than I can bear); wvhich accords better with the spirit of Cain, and with what follows. V. 14. (2), ~,comp. iii. 24, (1). ~~(3), see on i. 17',(2). ~ 109, 2d ~f. bn i. 7'., 1 126, 6; tone, 149, 3, Remt. b. comp. 1 126, Rem. 2. ~~(penult.), Kal Part., Parad. VII; 135, 2. ~~(ult.), comp. ASection VI, No. 29. V. 15. (4), lex. J (), 'with Preps., c. 197', 3, Item. 1. -; Mp~, Hoph. Impf. (1 53, 3, Rem. 9), shall be punished; or (impersonally, ~ 137', 2), it shall be avenged, the preceding Part. construed absolutely, 1 145, 2, Rem. t~;I see on ii,'7) -~see on iii. 11.ir=; Pe Nun, and Lamedh He (trace the peculiaiities of each class, in Parads. H and P); Hiph. Inf. For its subject and object, see 1 133, 3, and Rem. ~~(ult.), ver. 1.4 (penult.). 42 42 ~~~HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. V. 16. (1), see on i. 12; Kal Impf. (feeble form, ~ 69, 1). (3), lex. 10'11M Iwith Preps., E'. ~~(penult.), on the east of=z- eastward of, ~ 118, 1, b. V. 17. (5), ver. 1, (6). ~~Mh Par ad. P, Kal Part.; with T# as a periphrasis for the finite verb, ~' 134, 2, c, 2d ~; comp. i. 6, (7 & 8). ~~(penult.), ~ 96, 11. V. 18. ( 1 ) Nip h. Impf. ~69, 2; passive, ~051, 2, d; with the accus. of the object, ~ 143, 1, a. V. 19. 4n Gram.- p. 179, Note Mi. ~ 96, mt (penult.), fern. ordinal, ~ 98. V. 20. ".bt ~ 96, =9; here, ancestor, the first who followved this mode of life. -~ (last clause), lex. =t" 3, mid.; see also ~138, 3, c. The dweller in the tent, sing. used collectively. V. 22. MM see on ii. 12, (3). nit ~ 96. V. 23. ~ 46, Rem. 3. rIo ZTht'M; ~ 38, 2, c, and ~53, 2, 3d ~; radical expressed by doubling that of the sufformative, ~ 20, 1, a. ~~MItt Parad * C, b. = suffix~ used objectively, ~ 121, 5; for my wound, i. e. a wound inflicted on me. ~~(ult.), my, as before. V. 24. (2), see on ver. 15. '~Shzould Cain be avenged, ~ 127, 5. - (penult.), ~ 97, 3. The order, usual in the earlier wvriters (ibildem), is reversed in order to give seventy the emphatic position. The oldest specimen of thle poetical formt of composition. It is the language of one glorying in an act of revenge; and boasting that the sevenfold vengeance, promised to Cain, should be light compared with what he would inflict. It seems to have been preserved as an expression of the spirit of the time. V. 25. if ~ 'J.00,2, b., see on iii. 15, (2). — 'in~ relative pronoun, giving a relative sense to the following suff. (~ 123, 1); see lex. 'i (I), A, mid. But if we take this clause as the explanation of the narrator, the signif. for is appropriate. V. 26. (first clause), ~ 121, 3, extr. -- M~; Parad. G, Hophal, impersonally (~ 137, 2), it was begun, camptum est, == men began. This case is distinguished, by the nature of the act, from the one in ~ 127, 31, d. WIP lex. NIP(I),2, gl,8 V. ACCOUNT OF THE FLOOD. 43 DZ It is not intended to make any further allusion, except in special cases, to the numerous points already explained by reference to the grammar; and the student should, therefore, carefully review them all, before he proceeds. This will be an easy task, if the passages referred to have been marked in the grammar, as recommended. V. ACCOUNT OF THE FLOOD. Genesis, chs. vi.-viii. Ch. vi resumes the account of the two lines of descent from Adam, through Cain (ch. iv), and through Seth (ch. v), and describes the effect of their union by intermarriages, in the universal corruption of the human race. V. 1. (3), see iv. 26, (11). — hb; ZVI, Kal Inf.; ~142, 2. -- har, ~ 96, ri. V. 2. (1), _ that; ~129, 2, Note *.- Sons of God; his worshippers, lex. 9., 9, c (not angels, letter a; an opinion based on a false theory of the passage). The descendants of Seth are meant; among whom, as a people, the worship of the true God had thus far been maintained. -- Daughters of man, is the appropriate designation for the females of the other race, who were not worshippers of the true God. -- - hb; lex. iMa, 1, a, cc; observe the prevalence of the scriptio defectiva, throughout these earliest specimens of Hebrew writing. --- Pi?_, ii. 15, (1); Ap, 20, 3, b. - Of all whom they chose, probably indicates the abuse of the marriage relation, by the introduction of polygamy, among the descendants of Seth; which is the most natural, though not the necessary, meaning of the words. V. 3. 5qt (comp. ~ 72, Remarks, 2, and 4), from 7..' or ~.T = ], ~ 73, 2. See lex. ]T, 2, and letter a. Here it means, to act the part of a judge, or magistrate, in reproving and punishing. 1 — m, lex. 4, the last two offices there ascribed to it. — ta3p, for their transgressing; ~, lex. B, 5, b; 1t (lex. 2), Parad. G, Kal Inf. ~ 67, Remarks, 3; suff. -. Compare John xvi. 8, and 2 Peter ii. 5. The meaning is: this course of probationary and punitive discipline shall not continue on without end. — '1; hisfrailty and mortality are meant; comp. lex. 44 44 ~~~HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. 2 and 3. ~,~126, 4.-~ A hundred and twenty years; this period shall still be allowed him, for repentance and reformation; comp. 1 Peter iii. 20. V. 4. (1), see lex. ~"M at the end. The literal meaning is given in the ancient Gr. version of Aquila (t~r'rv-) and the sense in that of ASymmachus (of /9taiot,), as there (juoted. Men of violence, the article denoting a known and dreaded class; comp. also ~ 109, 2. ~~fil ~ 122, 1. ~~13 and also, lex. 2 (not 3). ~~After (it was) so that =after that; see lex. 1IM Plur., 4, and '~tb, B, 1. ~ 76, 6; comp. on ii. 19. Then they bore to them == bore them sons, the verb used absolutely; before the apodosis, ~ 155, a, 3d ~T. ~~ —1 ~122, 1, 2d ~5; (ult.), ~ 111, 1. ~~The mighty men, —the men of name == men of renown (lex. Ot 2, a, mid.); the predicate here requires the art., as a particular and wvell known class of men are designaited. V. 7. From-to, lex. J', 3, cc. V. 8. (penult.), JV, Parad. VI, h. Here begins one of the greater sections in the Jewish division of the text, marked by the triple M (see Clavis Not. Mfasoret., letter ID) 3, in Hahn, and 1in~VII in Theile), and followed by the number two (2 t), being the second in order; the third begins with the twelfth chapter. V. 9. (2), comp. on ii. 4, (2). ~~(6), adj.-, as an epithet, placed after the subst. (~ 112, 1, and Rem. 1); (7), as predicate, is placed first in the clause; perfect was hie. ~~M, lex. Mt (II), 2. Hithp. 2. ~~V. 10. (3), ~ 97', 1, ~ 120, 1, b. V. 11. (3), lex. #-c; " with preps.," D, 1, b, 2d ~, b. - (ult.), the second accus. after the Pass. of a verb governing two (~ 143, 1, ~ 139, 2). ~~V. 12. (6), for the new, penultimate syllable, see ~ 29, 4, b; comp. ii. 205, (ult.). -- inw J.T.. Parad. VI, a. V. 13. btz ver. 4, (1 0). -- Before me; see ver. 1 1, (3),here as in b, 1st IT, at the end. -- Is full of, with the accus., ~ 138, 3, 6. -- ~ lex. F, 2. -- '~Ine, ~ 98, 5. — About to destroy, ~ 134, 1. V. 14. (4),, 108, 4, Rem. 1, and lex. 2, Plur. —; for the construction, see -Mr 2, a, extr. (~ 139, 2); but also, it118 3, with cells shalt thou make the ark. -- rlbIt; lex; r14 7. (penult.), YIM 2, c. ~~(ult.), ~ 109, 3, Rem. b. V. ACCOUNT OF THE FLOOD. 4 45 V. 15. 171t, 1 118, 3; three hundreds, by the cubit; i. e. with the cubit as the unit of measure. - V~(r) V. 16. (1, 5, & 6), see lex. (6), i i. 2, (1); ~ 58, 4. *.t~ lex. (II); 4. ~~o-w-2t ('2 193, Ex'pl. 8, last 1,~27, Rem. 3). Vl-ln and the two fol,. words; 86, 5, 193, Expi. 8, 3, syntax 1118, 3; with lower, second, and third (stories) shalt thou make it (or, with a different construction, 1 139, 2). V. 17'. (1), ~ 145, 2, contrasted with ver. 21, (1). ~~(2), 1 100, 5, 1 75, Remarks, 19, 1 20, 3, b; lex. 2d ~, mid. VM the adverbial accus., ~ 11 8, 3, at the end. rin see on i. 7 and 9. ~~(ult.), 1 72, Remarks, 10. V. 18. (1); tone, 1 49, 3; comp. 1 126, 6, Rem. 1. - 1 103, 1, Rem. 1. V. 19. (2); art. with -., comp. ~ 35, 2, A, a. The asterisk refers to the marginal note ('the He with Qamets'); Clavis, letter If 1 and 2. ~~~ followed by art. ~1111, 3d If. And of all the living of allflesh, two of all shalt thou brin'g. rit!r V. 20. (1);,1 102, 1, Rem. b; M1, 135, 2, B, a. V. 21. (1), contrasted with ver. 17', (1). ~~(2), 66, Rem. 2. - ~ 127, 3, d. ~~And collect, 1 126, 6, c. ~~(ult.);, lex. A, 2. V. 22. And Noah did (it); 1 121, 6, Rem. 2. (second clause); arrangement of words, ~ 145, 1, a, at the end. OHa. VII. V. 1. Thee, 1 145, 1, c, 1 121, 3, Rem. - Before me, lex. D, 1. ~~V. 2. (3), adj. with art. ~ 111, 2. ASeven, seven (== by sevens), distributively (1 120, 5) for seven of each. A male and its mate, lex. "VN 1. - Which not clean (is) it = which is not clean, 1 121, 2. V. 4. For unto days yet seven (that being the limit of time, at which the act should take place)== in seven days; comp. lex., B,2,c. — ~(in the sing.), 1 120, 2. -- art. 1 35, Iat the end. -- ~ 1154, 2. -- V. 5. (penult.), with suff. r. 75, Remt. 19. V. 6. -In ~ 106, 2,c. r~;the object numbered is conceived as the accusative (1 120, 1, b), six hundreds by the year (~ 118, 3), viz, as the unit of measure. ~~And the flood was 46 46 ~~~HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. (=when the flood came); waters upon the earth, 0"' being in apposition with ~1.1 V. 7. (1), ~ 148, 2. — From before (with the idea of fleeing, or escaping- implied); lex. ~,F, 1. V. 8. "It gives a relative sense to the following suff. pron., ~123, 1. - 100, 5. -- V. 9. (1 & 2), ~ 120, 5. — V. 10. r.~t (~97, 1), to the seven of days (=- a week), viz, the one' named in ver. 4; hence the art., 1 120, 4, Rem. 1; for ~,comp. on ver. 4, (2). Observe the septimal division of time, throughout this account of the flood. — Vm i152, a,3d~T. V. 1 1. In the year of six hundred years, i. e. in the year that completed that number of years; but comp. 1'120,. 4. - Of the life of'Noah; ll'115 2, b. — "7hb; ~,~ 15,2, c. V. 12. (2), the heavy rain just before referred to, by the opening, of the windows of heaven; hence the art. ~ 109, 3d ~. V. 13. (1), 1 124, Rem. 3, mid. -- V. 14. (uit.), of every wving (1 106, 1), i. e. of every species. -~ V. 15'. -In which. was the breath of life; lex. MI 1, b. V.- 16. (1), 1 109, 2d IF,.~ 145, 2, a male and a female, of all f.lesh, came they. ~~(ult.), lex. 2, mid. V. 17'. lbirl; i (1 76, 2, a), ir without Dctgh. ~ 20, 3, b. =, n; =T (lex. 1), Kal Impf. apoc. with tone retracted by Vav consec., 1 72, Remarks, 4, mid. V. 19. 1=4; o Pual Imp~f ~ ('1, Parad. VIII) art. ~ 35,2, B, a. ~~V. 21. J~tl lex. n, 2, C. V. 22. 'It gives a relative sense (~ 123, 1) to the suff. in 14; (see on ii. 7'); ML= lex. 2; in whose nostrils was the breath of the spirit Of life, i. e. the breath that sustains the spirit of life, the vital principle. -~ (pen-ult.), ~,~102, 2, 6; art. ~ 35, 2, B, b. -~ (ult.), ~ 72, Remarks, 1. 'V. 23. (1), M-rn M~ph. Impf. apoc., ~75-, Remarks, 8; syntax ~ 143, 1, a. ~ V. 24. (penulIt.), ~ 120, 1, Rem. CH. VIII. V. 1. (penult.); Parad. G, Kal lImpf. V. 3. Z9~ t 131, 3, Rem. 3. V. 4. (1)n Kal Impf. apoc., 1672, Remarks, 4, at the end. -- V. 5. 'Iri lae ~ 131, 3, Rem. 3; here in the accus. used V. ACCOUNT OF THE FLOOD. 4 47 adverbially (see No. 2 of that 4~), and with the subst. verb expressing state or cond ition,-were continually decreasing. V. 6. The window; art., as in Engl. and other languages. —.-V. 7. The raven, with. the art. as the namie of a class or species. ~~Went forth, with going forth and with returning (~ 131, 3, 6), i. e. continued to go out from the ark and to return to it, till the drying up of the waters. r — " (t='), ~ 69, Rem. 1, at the end. V. 8. The dove; art. as in ver. 7,. ~;~ al Perf,2 lex. 3. ~V. 9. ripn with-suff- M- ct V, Ru le v i. V. 1 0. (1), from Car and ~~r (~ 73, 2, mid.), Parad. N, Kal Impf. apoc., with retracted tone; for signif. see lex. No. 6.see ~ 78, *1".~ V. 11. (4), ~,~154, 3, e, 2d ~; lex. B, 2. I01,t.see ~ 96,'-0 ~; 'al the forms are given in the lex. V. 12. (1), from bM, Niph. Impf. (with tone retracted); see ~4 69, Rem. 5. -- V. 13. ~hon the first (1 98), viz. mdnth. '10I; ih mf apoc., ~ 72, Remarks, III, N. B. V. 1 7. N21i Hiph. Imp.; the points belong to the marginal reading (1 17), comp. ~ 70, 2; the pointing of the text would be =il ~~11~ Kal Perf. wvith the force of the Imp., ~ 126, 6, c; and let them swarm in the earth, i. e. scatter abroad and occupy it. ~~And let them be fruitful, and let them multiply on the earth; MID and =I i Kal Pe~f with Imper. sense, as before; tone (of the second word), ~ 49, 3. V. 20. (1), M= ~ 75, Remarks, 3, a. ~~(3), 1Parad. VII, Expl. 7, a. -~ (4), 1 102, last ~. - Z;~ Hiph. Impf. V. 21. (1), 1711 Hiph. Impf. apoc., 1 72, Remarks, III, N. B. lh noun of Parad. I; art., 1 11, 1; th e sweet fragrance, namely of the sacrifice j ust mentioned. ~~I. ~ (script. defec t. 1 I 8, 4, Rem. b); see ver. 10.?,Piel Itqf.; comp. ~67, 1, at the end.;comp. on iii. 17. h~ 11 '~.29, 9, 6), ~ 108, 2, a. — ~ Prd.H & P); 1142,7 2. V. 22. (1), lex. 3; yet all the days of the earth (accus. of time how long, ~ 118,,2, b), i. e. so long as they continue. - The succeeding words are grouped thus, by the accents (day 48 48 ~~~HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. and night distinguished fromn the seasons by a greater pause) syeed-time, and harvest, and cold and heat, and summner and winter,-and day and nizght,.-shall not cease. -,lex. a. -— ~ (old accus. formi used as nominative), p. 144, Note ', 3. - st: lex. 2. VI. JOTHAAM 'S PARABLE. Judges, chi. ix. 1-21. V. 1. (1), Vav consec. ~ 129, 2. (lex. tn~ 3); accus. local, ~90, 2, a (lex., erroneously, IrV comp. RMdigcr, rIhIes. p. 1408). - Mb, ~ 96, MR; kindred, lex. 2. ~~And to all the family of his mother's ancestral house, i. e. to which it belIonged; see lex. r~'l 11, and 'itl~,2 V. 2. ~,p. 192, Note, a, ~ 130, 2d If. ~~,r lex. 3. %.Oti; r, ~. 100, 4, Rem. 2 (Dagrh. omnitted, ~20, 3, b); =-l uttrum-an, 153, 2. Cornp. ~. 133, 2, at the end. And r-emnember, ~, 126, 6, c. ~~(ult.), ~ 29, 4, b, at the end. Kal IJ~f.apoc.; final vowel lengthened, ~20, 3, a; see lex. 3. at the end. -- -V. 4. (1), jt. &~~venty, &c., ~. 120, 4, Rem. 2. ~~House =-teniple; lex. 4. -- ~', lex. 5, a. V. 5. rrlb (to Ophra) accus. local, ~90, 2, a. -- MI (in pause; see ~96, '01); construed as an adjective, ~. 971,1L ~, Mph. inp~f. ~~The youngest, ~119, 2. — (ult.), Niph. Peif, reflexive, ~ 051, 2, a. V. 6. (1), Niph. Impf. lex. b. M~3ade A. king, here, with piconastically;lex. J*', Hiph. mnid. ~ by, lex. 2. The oak, &c., lex. -* --- V. 7. (1), 1z; ~137, 3, b. -- sw.. lex. 1, e. — That God may hearkn,~155, Ie, ~128, 1, c. -- V. 8. (1), ~. 1-3 1, 3, a. ~~(penult.), is pointed. for the marginal reading; see ~' 46, Rem. 2, and~ 48, 5. Thme formi in the text is not noted in the grammiar. V. 9. Do I leave =-cane I be, persuaded to leave,; (lex. 2, b), Kal.Perf. -with interrog.- r (~ 100, 4, Remt. 4). The pointing of the verb (M) is irregular.;lex. (Pit~l, 2, c), "which in. me both God' and mnen do honor;"rather:I with whom (i. e VII. RAISING OF SAMUEL 4 49 with whose precious fruit, the oil I yield), they honor God and men,-the fortner in o1)lations, thie latter in acts of consecration, by anointing,&. as in ~6 123, 1, Rem. 1, the pron. of the 1st pers. taking a relative sense. ==I with whom, the nearest expression of it in English.,V, lex. 1,5 C. V. 10. ~ ~,~ 69, Remarks, 8. ~(penult.), ~ 46, Rem. 2. MY sweetness and my goodly increase (hendiadys, ~ 155, 1,a, 2d ~)the sweetness of iny goodly fruit. ~~V. 1 1. ri. v Pi~ Pat.,with art. (~ 20, 3,14) ~ 109, 2d ~. ~~V. 14. J.W", comp. ~ 47, Rem. 1, and letter b. -- V. 15. If in good faith ye will anoint me king over You; Part., ~ 134, 1...'.0i; Mo 1. b.V Parad. VIII;1 93, Expi. 8, last T.- X=,Jussive. (nit.), art. ~ 109, 3. V. 16. (1), and now == now then. ~~And have made kin~g — in that ye have made king. ~~According to the desert (bnzW) of his hands,-the benefits which his hands have wrought'. V. 17. (6. 123, 1, Rem. 1), ye for whom myfather fought, and cast his life from him; see ~ 154, 3, b, mid.; lex.,B, 3, a, and Hiph. 2d ~f, a. --- b;, Hiph. (lex. 3), bnipf. apoc. -- V. 18. But ye have risen up against, &c. —and have slain, &c. &~Sventy men (6.120, 2), including the intended murder of himself. V. 19. The two preceding verses, 17 and 18, intervene between the apodosis and the conditional clauses (in ver. 16), which are summarily repeated in this verse, and followed by the apodosis. -~ URI, and if = if then. V. 21. (1), tM ~ 72, Remarks, 4, ~6 128, 2, d. — ~ accus. local, ~ 90, 2, a. VII. THE RAISING OF SAMUEL. 1 Samuel, chi. xxviii. 3-25. V. 3. (2), ril, verb middle E, ~ 72, Remarks, 1. — I Ramah; art. ~ 109, 3. -— Even his own, city; ~, 155, 1, a, 2d ~1, lex. 1, c. ~ ~,Hiph. Perf. ti lex. =~ 2. ~~(penult.), -— V. 4. And encamlped; lex. 71,1 2. (ult.), art., as before. 4 50 IHEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. V. 5. rN?; NT;, p. 123, at the bottom. — V. 6. (3),, ~ 154, 3, a, 2, mid.; ~ 102, last T. --- =, with suif. ~ 75, Rcmarks, 19. --;, lex. 2, at the end. V. 7. Mn.s, constr. state in place of simple qapposition, ~ 110. 5. --?-n;, ~ 106, 2, b, lex. 5__, 4. - That I may go, ~ 128, 1, c. -— (eult.), lex. -Y, 2 c. --- V. 8. i c1, accus. of time when (~ 118 2. a); see p. 441 Note *3 3. -— ^ (marg. note, Vav is superfluous); the pointilg is for 'r { (qo-s~-zi), with the final o sound partially preserved (p. 34, 2d T), the corresponding short vowel being supplied before it, as in Parad. E. For the form in the text (final vowel retained), comp. the analogous case in ~ 47, Remr. 1, c. --.', O 123; 2, at the end. — n'4, 68, 2. V. 9. The second 'lti is a relative conj. that (lex. B, 1). ~%r", art., t 109, 1. --,, ~ 134, 2, a. --- n, lex. A, 1, mid. Wt, 155, 2, f, 2d ~i. --: (~2?), Kal Impf., with szuff. 75, Rem. 19; the Dagh. (~) is euphonic, ~ 20, 2, b; marg. note, the p dagheshed. - V. 12. (1), ~ 75, Remarks, 3, c. - or thou art Saul;, ~ 155, 1, c. Her terror indicates the actual appearance of the prophet, and unexpectedly to herself: The suggestion (Thenius in, loc.) that she feigned terror, in order the more effectually to deceive S;aul. is an assumption merely, and is contradicted by the whole passiirce. From the well known relation of the two parlies. thuls confionltd;grain by a divine power, she inferred the personl ald rank of her visitor. V. 13. b, ~ 127, 3, c. -- ]5*, lex. B, 5: ' a godlike form."' Strictly: I see a god ascendingE out of the earth (i. e. a being superhulnan. in her view accounted a god). --- "; K}~, Kal Part.,""b. Parad. IX. -- ', Parad. VI, f. r. see lex. 2. -b.,_ lex. T' (II); with the face eartlhward. (ult.). see ~ 75, /emarks, 18i V. 1.5. ^; '3_ (lex. 2, c), Petf. 3d sing., used impersonally, 137; 2. --;!; 23, 2. —:; see lex. (C, (II), 2. at the end. --- -- m (,;.49, 2, a), Kal I;mpf., colhotalice form (with M- for M-). ~ 48; 3, Rein.; syntax.' 128, 1, e. —. --- —- yr,; witlh st? ~ 61, 1. -- - V. 16. _'{, with si'ff., Sect. V,?R2le vi. tWhy then sl/otld/st thou aCsk me, whent JChorah has turned atl'tayl flrom. thee. (il/.' is. become thine enemy / VIII. NATHAN'S PARABLE. 5 51 V. 17'. 'IV-, ~ 52, Rem. 1, at the end. - with sufi'. (tone-long vowel shortened, ASect. V, -Rule vi). In the words, hath done to him, David is naturally implied; but some prefer the reading 1,for which there is some authority. ~~V. 18. (1), because; see 1, c, in the lex. after the article n. His fierce anger; the suff. belongs to the complex idea, ~ 121, 6. V. 20. (1), ~ 64, 3. -- (1 & 3), ~ 142, 3, a. No lex. 1 mid. ~~On account of the words of;,lex. 2, f. V 22. -n~i~ and let me set, ~ 128, 1, b. ~7~(joined to an Im.,and let there be ==that there may be, ~ 128, 2, a. that thou mayest go, &c.; that thou mayest have strength to go on thy way. ~~V. 23. Y~- lex. 3, b. —N, lex. B. V. 24. (1); ~,denoting possession, lex. 3, d, ~ 1-15, 2; the woman had. (i).- (penult.); ri'b, Kal Impf. (N omitted, ~ 68, 2, Rem.), with sujJ. as accusative of material (1139, 2, 2d If); and baked of it unleavened cakes. VIII. NATHAN'7S PARABLE. 2 Samuel, cb. xii. 1-14. V. 1. rIM comp. above (VI), on Judg. ix. 5. — 1,Kul Part. of VI here written fully, comp. ~7', 2, end, ~ 8, 3, and Rem., ~ 9, 1, 1, and spec. ~ 23, 3, Rem. 1, ~25, 2; mnarg. note, N is superfluous. V. 2. (1), ~;comp. above (VII), on I Sam. xxiii. 24. - (penult.), ~ 70', Remarks, 14, and ~ 1.31, 2. -- V. 3. (2), ""Y constr. state; nothing of all=- not any thing, nothing. - MN -1 except; lex. B, 2 (after the article %-). — ~ Parad. V111; ~'93, Expl. 8, Rem. 4, case 21.- ~11il6121, Rem. 4. -- r (above, VII, ver. 22), Parad.'VIII, Expl. last T.Zg was wont to eat, 127', 4, b. Marg. note Qamets.,zwith Zaqeph-qaton. V. 4. (4), art. with adj. only, ~6 1 11,~ 2, Rem. a. - (?~66, Rem. 2, ~ 102, 2,C cc ),~ 142, 2, and Rem. - Hi.V (Ilex. 2, c), a ogeru-ndial form, ~645, 3. ~ri~ see lex. rie,6 (I), Kal Part. 52 52 1-L~~~EBREW CIIRIESTOMAAT1LY. V. 5. ~,lex. B, 1, a. -- J, 106, 2, C. -- V. 6. Fourfold, i97' Rem. 1. — t ~,lx,and ~ 104, 1,. 1Z ~; lex. ~r A, 2, d, and bib B, 9. V. 7'. House; lex. 3. ~~Thy master; for the plur. see.Os, 2, b end. and lex. Plur. ~~House of Israel, &c., as descended from one comnmon parent, and in this sense forming one household or family; comp. lex. 9. Ltand i~f little (if not enough), then would I add (~. 127', 5); the lengthened Impf. used emphatically. lex. 1, end; so, and so. V. 9. (1), ~ 99, 3. ~~V. 11. And I will take, &c., ~ 126, 6, and Rem. 1, last clause. -- lit secret; lex. 'Iro, 3, end. - V. 13. r&b;i 'Mk lex. 8. The circle (Clavis, x-t) refers to the marg. note: space in the midst of the verse; the space indicating an important division of the sense, within the verse. V. -14. (1 & 2), hex. Ctt B, 4. 71~ Piel Inf. with i, for the sake of the paranomasia (so Maurer and Thenius); syntax ~ 131, 3, a. SELECTIONS IN POETRY. THE form of Hebrew poetry, as distinguished from that of prose, is not a proper metre, based on the quantity and ac~centuation of syllables. All the attempts to define and establish the laws of such a versification in Hebrew, have failed. The language has every where indeed, even in its prose, a measured movement (~ 29, 3, Note), a kind of Iambic rhythm, which is better adapted to poetic expression than the less regular accentuation of our Western languages. The external characteristics of Hebrew poetry were pointed out by Lowth (Lect. on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, and afterwards more fully in the Prelim. Diss. to his Trans. of Isaiah); and his suggestions may still be read with profit by the student, as an introduction to the subject. A more complete view will be found in Dr. Torrey's elegant translation of De Wette'8 Introduction to the Psalms, Biblical Repository, vol. iii. pp. 479-508. The poetic parallelism is well treated by Rddiger, in Ersek and Gruber's Encyclop. Sect. III. Tb. 11, art. Parallelismus Membrorum. I. The chief characteristic of the poetic form in Hebrew, is a measured adjustment, or rhythmical proportion, of the successive members in a sente nce, technically called the parallelism of members. The corresponding terms are called parallel terms. Its most perfect forms have been arranged in the three following classes: 1. THE SYNONYMOUS PARALLELISM; in which the parallel members express the same, or nearly the same, sense in (lifferent words. E. g. Ps. VULi 5. What is man, that thou art mindlful of him,:and the son of snan, that thou visitest him! Xxi. 56. Thine haad shiall find out all thine enemies; thy righit hand shall 11nd out those that hate thee. Some variety is given to this otherwise monotonous form,1) By inversion, in the second member: e. g. P's. xix. 2. The beavens declare the glory of God, Mid the work of Ids hands showeth the firmaiaent. Kcl. 14. Because he hath set his love upon rue, therefore will I deliver him; I will plaoe him -on.high, because hie hath known mny name. 2) By repeating only a part of the fi rit i n the- second member: e. g. Irs. wilL 4. When I conside& the heavens, the work of thy. fingers, the, moon and the stars. which thou hast ordained. lxxii. 1~~ For hie shall delivver the need~y, when he crieth, the poora sos. mud hima that iiatlh noi helper. 54 IiEBREIN. CIIRESTOMA.IATIY. There are many simiflar v-ariations of this form of parallelism, which is frequent, andl without such chatnzge would weary the ear by its mionotony. The above instances will suflice for illustration. 2. THE SYNTrHETrIC PARALLELIS-M (or, Constructive Pa-rallelism); in which the const~ruction of the sentences is the same, or very similar, but with more or less variation of the sense. E. gr. Ps. XiX. 7-10. The law of the Lord is perfect, converting the soul; the testimony of the Lord is sure, making wise the simple; The statu-tes of the Lord are right, rejoicing thme heart; the cornmandmnent of the Lord is pure, emilightening time eyes. The fear of the Lord is clean, einduring forever; the judgilents of the Lord are true, and ri.-htleous altogetlier. This form is varied like Wie p)receding one. 3. TusE ANTIrTHETIC PARALLELISM; in which the correspondence, consists in an opposition or contrast of sentimnent and of the terms employed. This form is most frequent in the book of' Proverbs. E. gr. Ps. xx. S. They are hewed down, and fallen; but we are risen, andi standi uprighmt Pitov. xxvii. 7. Thme full soul loathetli tie lioneycombl but to time hungry soul, every bitter timing- is swveet. XI v. 1S. Thme sim~ple inherit fohlly Itut the prudent are crowned with knowledge. ver. 34. Righteousness exaltetli a nation; but ala is a reproach to any people. The form of parallelism is most perfect, when both members contain the same number of words of about equal lenigthi. This is niot unfrequent, especially in the bocsk of Job, e. g. vi. 7, 9, 14, 16, 17, 18, 23, 26, 28; viii. 2, 7, 9, 11, 12, 22; xxiii. 2, 4, 8, 9, 12, 14.-But the freer forms of parallelisme (see below), often exhibit great variety in the length onf parallel nemabers. rrhe above examples consist of bisnemnbral parallelisms, or distichs. Th~is fcsrm is the most usual one in Job, Proverbs, and many of the Psalms. But in the later books, and still oftener in the prophetical diction, occur comnpound parallelisms, of three, four, and sometimes of still more members. E. g. Ps. i. 1. Blessed is the iiman, that walketh not in time counsel of time wicked, nor standetim in the way of sinners, nor sitteth in the seat of scoriiers. A compound stanza of four members may contain two simple parallels: e. Or.,Joii vii. 13, 14. When I say, iny bed shall comfort iue, lily couhe shall ease mny complaint; Tiesi thou iscarest inc with drceamms, and terrifiest iiie by- virsions. Or the first niermaber mnay answer to the third, and the second to the fourth:e. gr. Ps. ciii. 1i, 12. IFor as time heaven is high above the earth, s-o great is his nimercY towards them that fear him; me far as time east is from tie west, 2so far lmatim mie reimoved our tramnss-ressiomms frosm is. SELECTIONS IN POETRY. 55 A stanza of five lines is similarly constructed, by inserting an isolated member between two parallelisms: e. g. Is. 1. 10. Who is among you, that fears Jehovah, that hearkens to the voice of his servants, who walks in darkness and has no light? Let him trust in the name of Jehovah, and stay himself upon his God. There is sometimes an antithesis of the two parallel members: e. g. Is. i. 8. The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib; but Israel doth not know, my people do not consider.Y liv. 40. For the mountains shall depart, and the hills be overthrown;. but my kindness shall not depart from thee, nor shall my covenant of peace be removed. An elegant stanza is formed of five lines, when the odd member either closes the stanza after two complete distichs, or is inserted between them: e.g. Is. xliv. 26. Who establishes the word of his servant, and performs the counsel of his messengers: who saith to Jerusalem, thou shalt be inhabited, and to the cities of Judah, ye shall be built; and her desolated places will I restore. JOEL iii. 16. The Lord also shall roar out of Zion, (HEB. iv. 16.) and utter his voice from Jerusalem; and the heavens and the earth shall shake: but the Lord will be the hope of his people, and the strength of the sons of Israel. These are the most regular and perfect forms of parallelism. But there are others, more imperfect, in which there is a less exact correspondence of the sense and grammatical construction, both being often continued from one member to the next, and even from one distich to another: e. g. Ps. lxviii. 7, 8. 0 God, when thou wentest forth before thy people, when thou didst march through the desert; The earth shook, yea the heavens dropped, before God, that Sinai, before God the God of Israel. In the prophetic style, especially, the construction is often continued through a series of parallelisms, of which there is a fine example in Hab. iii. 17, 18. In many passages of the Psalms, and especially in the prophets, the poetical form differs from that of prose, only by the uniform division of the sentence into members of nearly equal length, which have no special correspondence in sense or construction, forming a mere rhythmical parallelism; (comp. Ps. cxv. 1-8.) But with these are intermingled the more perfect forms, giving a higher poetical effect to the whole. It is the interchange of these numerous varieties of parallelism, that constitutes the principal charm in the external form of Hebrew poetry. 05 6 56 ~~~HEBREW CJIRESTO-MATHY LI. An occasional peculiarity, not essential to hie form of Hebrew poetry,. is- assonance, or tire recurrence of the same sound in the initial or final syllables of words. It abounds in H-ebrew" the structure of' the language being favorable to it. E. gr. G E N- i x. 7. Grider (in Ersch, and Gumber's Encyclop. Sect. I. Th. 6, art. Assonanz), has attempted an investigation of somei of' thre laws of the initial assonance. But the usagre is manifestly arbitrary, anid regulated] by no fixed laws. As a trait of poetic diction, it is mnost striking,. when the assonance occurs at the begrinningr or the end of' successive lines. Of' the former, there are examples in Num. xxi. 14. 15, Ps. civ. 28, 29, ix. 2, 3. Of the final assonance, or rhymne, the instances are more numerous; see, e. g. Gen. iv. 23, Num. xxi. 27, 28, Ps. vi. 2, viii. 5. xxv. 4, lxxxv. 4, cvi. 4. 5, cxi. 9. III. Of' the poetic diction the chief peculiarities are the following. 1) Poetical words and significations of words, and poetical florms and constructni.See examples in the grammar, p. 10 and p. 194; also, a) the use ol' M for '1Z~ b) ellipsis, especially of prepositions -and the particles of neg-ation in the second member of a parallelism (~152. 3. ~1.54, 4), and of other parts of speech. 2) Paranomasia, or the union of words similar in sound. It is frequent in Hebrew, especially in proverbial forms; e. gr. Gen. i. 2, Fir; xviii. 27, nnN- 'ay But it abounds in the poetic diction e. g. Nah. ii. 11, 'MDI'M fa;; sometimes with interveningr words-, either in the same. or a parall~el member, as H-os. viii. 7, rlm (the stalk) yields no (meal); Is. v.7 he looked ='r- (for equity) and behold Mq6 (bloodsheddinr). for ai't (righteousness) and behold -M:- (a cry). 3) Play n woch, ii ) on word1s similar in sound but drifferino' in sig-nification (Joel i. 15, Mrlcah r. 8); b) on different meaninffs of the sanie word (Ecel. vii. 3, Judo' x. 4); c) on the etymological rneanrn' land the sound ofproper names. Of the last case. the mnost remarkibl ddxanx jm)l is Me i. 10-15. IV. Peculiarities of structure, in some poemns, are the followving. 1) The acrostic. or alphabetic form. Of these there are twvelve: viz. Lamn. i-iv, Prov. xx.\xi. 10-31, Ps. Xxv, Xxxiv. xxxvii, cxi, arid cxii (these two the simplest examples of this form), cxix, cxlv. Lamr. iii is a fine example of it. containring twenty-two stanzas of three lines, each line beginning with the initi-al letter of the stanza.-Ps. cxix is constructed with equal regrularity. ini twenty-two stanzas of eight parallelisms, the first line in each parallelisnir be(,ginning with the initial letter of the stanza.-Prov. xxxi. IO-:.3II is at Poem conlsisting(r of acrostic stanzas or two lines, the first line of' each colrirre-ninig with thre initial letter of the stanza. Lam. iv is a poem of' thesame f'ormn-Lamn. i and ii contain each a poem of acrostic stanzas of' three lines, only thre first line in each having the initial letter of the staniza. 2) Thn., gradational form, where thre closing expression in each paralleli~si is resumedl it) the followingr one; e. gr. Ps. cxxi, Is. xxvi. 3-15. 3) Thre strophic forin; e. g. Ps. cvii, where the divisions are made at vs. SELECTIONS IN POETRY. 57 8, 15, 21, 31; Ps. xlii and xliii, evidently one psalm as in many Mss., and divided into three nearly equal portions by the refrain in xlii. 6, 12, xliii. 5; Ps. lvii, divided into two equal parts by the refrain in vs. 6, 12; Ps. ]xxx, divided into four strophes, at vs. 4, 8, 15, 16, 20. Another fine example is found in Is. ix. 8-x. 4. 4) The choral form; e. g. Ps. cxxxv; see an analysis of it, in Prof. Stowe's ed. of Lowth's Lect. on Heb. Poetry, Note to Lect. xix. Ps. xxiv is a still more remarkable example; see the arrangement of it in Herder's Spirit of Heb. Poetry, vol. ii. p. 234 of the excellent translation by Prof. Marsh. The parallel members are, in general, correctly indicated by the accents. The division is made in the simple parallelism, usually by Athnach (-), sometimes by Merka-mahpakh (- ). In the compound parallelism, they mark the principal division, and the minor ones are made usually by Zaqeph-qaton (-) and Rebhia (-). See, e. g. Joel iv. 16, Is. xliv. 26, 1. 10.-The subordination of Athnach to Merka-mahpakh (~ 15, 1, 3, and Gesenius, hebr. Leseb. 7d ed. by De Wette, p. 81), is not so certain.* * The Book of Psalms has been recently published, from the Leipzig edition, by Rudolph Garrigue, 178 Fulton-street, New York; which is recommended to the student as a beautiful and accurate copy of the Psalms, metrically arranged. IX. CHARGE TO THE NIGHT-WATCH IN TIE TEMPLE, AND THEIR RESPONSE. Psalm cxxxiv. V. 1. (2), prop. ascents or ascensions; also (fiom a step, or stair), gradations, degrees; see lex.:br4, 4, and remarks below.. —?'n, the common form for awakening and directing attention here used for incitement and cxhortation, lex. 1st ~,l end. — Bless, is applied (lex. 1) to every act of religious adoration, in which God is worshipped. The exhortation was specially suited to the occasion, that the service of guarding the sacred edifice, oy night, might not become a merely secular one. -- Those who stand, &c. (art. ~ 109, 2d IT, 2), i. e. who have an office and a service there by night; comp. lex. ",= 1, 7, and the reference to Dan. i. 4. — (Ult.), P, Parad. VI, h, ~ 87, 4 lit. in the nights -during the night, by night. V. 2. (1), s?, see lex. 1, a, "'in prayer," &c.; marg. note: other copies, "'^t (i. e. with MIethegh on the final syllable). --- 'tip, towards the sanctuary; here, for the inner sanctuary, or most holy place (lex. 3, end); accus. of direction, ~ 118, 1, a. V. 3. Response of the watch. (1), ~.64, Rein. 4. Out of Zion; a common formula for the place consecrated by Jehovah's presence and worship, fiom whiclh his power vent forth to save or to destroy. Zion is used with special reference to the part (see lex.) on which the temple stood; and the whole phrase has here the same meaning as " out of his holy hill " (i. e. fioln his temple) in Ps. iii. 4. -- Maker of; ~ 105, 2. This Psalm belongs to a collection, fifteen in number (Ps. cxxcxxxiv), to each of which is prefixed the title r.% -l'n r'U. The different interpretations of this title arc given in Gesenius' Lexicon. The one proposed by him (and approved by De H1ettel B3ib. i.cIpos. vol. iii. p. 477), fails unless it is applicable to every psalm in the collection; for why should any other be recloned a psalm of cradations in that sense, a name founded solely on the structure of the psalm? There is more probability in the suggestion, Lex. 4, a, iZ, viz. that this was a collection, made from psalms already in use, of such as were X., XI. HUMILITY -FRATERNAL UNION. 5 59 adapted for the devotions of those who went up to the annual feasts, both while on their way and during their stay at Jerusalem. On this supposition, it is not necessary that every one of the number should have a direct and specific reference to the occasion, as if written expressly for it; it is enough, if the devotional spirit of the psalm is in harmony with it.-They may properly he called Pilgrim Songs. X. PROFESSION OF HUMILITY. Psalm. cxxxi. 'V. 1. '7; (Lamedh auctoris), ~ 115, 2, a, end. 75, 3d ~. I-V (MIl), lex. 1, a. ~,t I (lex. Pi?~l, 1), to go about in = to concern one's self with. In great matters; fern. as neut., ~ 107', 3, and letter b. ~~(penult.), ~,Niph. Part.; lex. Niph. 2. ~~(ult.), ~ 103, 2, c; I'P, ~ 119, 1, and lex. 5, b; too difficult for me. V. 2. (1 & 2); ~ 155, 2, f, 2d ~. ~~(3), ~ 72, Remarks, 10. (4); -0T Poi~l, ~ 55, 1. ~ ~~ (lex. ~= II, 1), Kal Part. pass. As one weaned (as a weaned child) upon its mother,-or, with its mother (lex. ~., 3, d); as a weaned child is my spirit within me (letter e). V. 3. (1), Pii~l Imp.; hope, 0 Israel! ~~~R indicating the direction of hope, to the source of the expected blessing. XI. PRECIOUSNESS OF FRATERNAL UNION. Psalm cxxxii. v. 1. ri~a (iv, Kal luf.), ~ 133, 2.-,makes the following word emphatic (~ 155, 2, a); in u ni on. ~~V. 2. As the precious ointment; see the description and use of this " holy anointing oil," in Ex. xxx. 23-33. The second member should close with 1;6lt as indicated by Athnach and required by the sense. h~;1for '~W,~ 36. ~~"D; lex. MD, 2, mid.7"11 lex. 2. V. 3. Second member: is here implied from the 60 60 ~~~HE BREW CHRESTOMATILY. preceding memiber (~ 1054, 4), the pronotini Inc[ Udingr antecedent and relative (~ 123, 2); as that which descends. _-,01 Parad. IV, plur. constr. XII. A GENERAL PSALM OF THANKSGIVIlNG. Psalm cxxxvi. The Psalm consists of three partLs; in which God is praised, 1) as the Supreme God and Creator (vs. 1-9), 2) for national blessings (vs. 10-25), 3) for his universal bounty (ver. 2.5). V. 1. (1), #l,' Hiph. Imp. --- F1or good (is hie); see on Gen. i. 4. V.3. (2); miarg. note: N movable (mobilis, p. 26, note *), in distinction from ~&,~23, 2, at the end. ~~V. 4. (2), see lex. ~,Niph. 3. see on Gen. ii. 18. V. 6. (1), Kal Part. consir. ~65", 1, c, Rem. ~~V. 8. Fordominion over the day;-(ver. 9) in the plur., referringr to the separate domninion of the mnoon and of the stars. V. 10. (1), (~ 76, 2, b)., Hiph. Part., Parad. IX. (3), 'a. lox. Ba 5.-V. 11. (1), transitionirmtePr.t h finite verb, 6 134, Remn. 2. ~~(3), "j~, '~n (Gen. i. 6),.V. 1 2. (4), 11 Kal Part. pass. femz.. ~ V. 1.3. (4),? lox. A. 2. ~~V. 14. (1), as in ver. 1. V. 15"a. (1), (lex. 1, I), Pitl P'erf., ~ 64, 3; shake out, as one shakes out the contents of the lap; see Neh. v. 13. ~~V. 16. (1), 69, Rem. S. V. 18. (1), as in ver. ii. V. 1.9. (1), ~, ~1541, 3, e, end; lex. A, 3, g. ~~(3), ~ 109, 1. - V. 21. (1), And lie gave (or made), begins a new construction. ~~(3), l 1ev At 2. -- V. 22. (2),; sign of the dative (~117, 1) with the first signi-if. of 17',-or of the gen. (~ 115, 2) with the second. V. 23. (1), *z 36,, Parad. VI,. b, suft. wvho, inl our humiliation. viz, under the Babylonian power. (3). ~ 103, 21, a; am int- ver. 1.9. -— V. 21. (1), _,Kazl Iinp~f. with. suff.; tone-l0ong vowel shortened, iSect. V, Rule vi; 1.29, 1. (2), '12 lox. B, 1, Parad. VIII. ~~V. 25. (1), giving = who giveth-the giver of. XIII. THE CAPTIV ITY. 6 61 XIII. THlE CAPTIVITY: A COMMEMORATIVE PSALM. Psalm cxxxvii 'V. 1. (1), ~ 154, 3, b, lex. 3, a. ~~~= the province (lex.), through which the captives were dispersed. ~~ ~itZ; ~61, 1, ~132, 2. - 'V. 2. (2), lex. =- II. -- In, her midst; for the fern. see ~ 107, 4, a. ~~(ult.), masc. with fern. plur. ending, 1 87, 4. The weeping willow is here meant, which grew by the water-courses (Is. xliv. 4, xv. 7, Job xl. 22, and Lev. xxiii. 40). The last reference suggests the particular occasion of the incident alluded to in the following verses; viz, the greatfeast of tents after the harvest, the festival of thanksgiving for the fruits of the earth, and also of commemoration for the deliverance from Egypt (Lev. xxiii. 39-43), when willows of the brook (ver. 40) were gathered as a part of the joyful pageant. This season of festivity was now turned to mourning; and the willow, so associated with it, need not be taken (as by Lengerke and others) for an idleal symbol. Such a season of mourning seems alluded to in Ezek. iii. 15, compared with Lev. xxiii. 41. 'V. 3. (3), Ruh see ~ 64, Rem. 1, and comp. ~ 509, 2, table, plur. 3d corn.; with twvo accusatives, 1 139, 2. The first mnember of this verse should end wvith this word. -- (4);,Kal Part., Parad. IX, with the nomtinal suff. (1.135, last ~); oulr captors. and outr oppressors. ~,lex. 1, b,~' 'V. 5. (3); proper pointing, 1~;see lex. 2d IT, at the end. — Let my right hand forget, i. e. become forgetful,-lose its skill. -- 'V. 6. (3), 1:7 Parad. 'VIII. -- '1_'Tbt; suff. (unusual form) ~' 91, 1, Rem. 2. — ih. Impf.; cautse to ascend over == place above. --- ) lex. 2, d; chief of joy (41 106, 1, Rem. 1)= chief joy; with suff. (1 121, 6), my chief joy. 'V. 7. (3);, sign of the dative; to the sons of E., i. e. against them. -- The day of J. (of its capture and destruction), lex. t:- 71, b. -- They who said (~ 109, 2d ~); comp. Obad. vs. iP4, Ez. xxv. 12 (comp. ver. 3). -- 11;; Pidl Imp.; retraction of the tone in pause, ~ 29, 4, b, at the end. 'V. 8. (1), poetical personification of a city or country, ~ 107, 3, d, lex. 5, at the end. --- (3), 71t, Kal Part. pass. = Lat. 62 62 ~~~HEBREW CIIRESTOMATIIY. Part. in -ndus (~134, 1), vastanda, vastationi (levota;but see lex. Kfal, at the end. (4), see lox. %N. Parad. VI, a. The genitive here, is the antecedent implied in the foll. nr (~- 1.23, 2); 0the happiness of hiwo hpy iwo c (5), ML~ Piel, e; final vowel, ~ 27, 1. &c. see lex. '7, Kal,) at the end. V. 9. (2), 'Iyj and ~Tm-, ~ 6S, 1. (3), 7~, Pidl Perf., ~ 126., 6, a. (nit.), the stone, referring to the wvell known manner of immnolatingr the infants of a captured city; compare 2 K. viii. 12, Is. xiii. 16, Nah. iii. 10. XIV. REWARDS OF PIETY. Psalm cxxvii. V. 1. (1), comp. above (XIII) ver. 9. ~~(3), ~. 135, 1st ~, 2. (penult.), ~6 109, 2d ~. — V. 2. ~ inserted, like enim, after other words in the clause, lox. B, 2, a, end of 1st ~. (5), happiness of thee! =happy thou! lex. B, 2. --- V. 3. (1), ~. 95, Eaixlpl. 3, Renm. It has &grhol with Aleph only in this instance. ~~(3), al,:) Kal Part. fern., ~ 705, Remarks, 5. — (4), ='" Parad. B, c, Dual constr., lox. 2. ~~OliveIPlanits, 106, 1. ~lin the circuit of == arouind; lox. T 1 mid.;, 115, 2. V. 4. Lit. Behold, that thus, &c. - Mark well, that thus, &C. Bai ~6 29, 4, a; marg. note, Qa'inets wvithout Athnach and iSop~h-pasuq. ~~V. 5. And see thou and thou shalt see, in the sense of a promise; 130, 1, a. ~,lex. B,4, a ~154,,2, end. XV. ASSERTION OF JEHOVAH S, SUPREMACY: SECURITY OF THOSE WHO TRUST IN HIM. Psalm cxv. V. 1. (2), ~ 103, 2, a. ~,Gram. p. 272, d; lox. 3, a. -,~66, Item. 3. I-elx. 2, d. ~~The first m-inor division is made by Merkoa-mahpalkh. V. 2. N", conmp. Gram. p. 1.92, Note, and lex. 5;here tauntingly used: wvhere nowv, pray! XVI. EXALTATION (1'x GOD. 63 V. 3. (1), 1 adversative (~ 155, 1, b, lex. 2), and yet, but yet, but; i. e. notwithstanding the adverse circumstances, on which this reproach is founded; our God is still supreme over all, and has done his own pleasure in our humiliation. V. 4. (1), lex. =V. V. 6. (ult.); rm, Hiph. Impf., the original full form, ~47, Rem. 4. V. 7. (1), absolutely,-as for their hands. For the use of I after an absol. subst., see ~ 145, 2, at the end. V. 8. (1),. 103, 2, and table, b. (3), ~135, 2. - V. 9. (penult.), ]J~, Parad. VII. V. 12. Divided first by Merka-mahpakh, and then by Athnach. - V. 13. (2); RI, plur. constr.; p. 60, mid. V. 14. (1), ~ 78, _d;, add upon = make additions to; Jussive form: Jehovah increase!-V. 15. (3), b, ~143, 2. V. 16. The heaven, heaven, is Jehovah's (, 113, 2), emphatic repetition; or, as it may be construed, The heavens are Jehovah's heavens, which is favored by the omission of the art. V. 17. (3), p. 10, at the top, ~ 20, 3, c, end of 2d T. -- T, poetic form; see lex. ((ult.), ~ 118, 1, a. XVI. GOD'S EXALTATION ABOVE ALL, AND HIS CARE FOR THE LOWLY. Psalm cxiii. V. 2. (1), Jussive. - (4), ~ 64, 3, end, ~ 27, table. — V. 3. Praised (be) the name of Jehovah; 5b_, Part. of the regular conj. Pual, ~ 67, Rem. 10. V. 5. Like Jehovah, viz. both in his majesty and in his care for the lowliest; the construction, in the following verses, shows that both ideas are included here. - (4), Hiph. Part. of tr, ~75, 3d f, ~ 90, 3, and letter a, followed by a prep. (ibid. and 116, 1); he who sits (enthroned, lex.:d', 1, b) on high; he who, ~109, 2d ~; sits on high, 142, 4, Rem. 1. - (ult.), ~ 29, 4, a. V. 6. He who looks far down, on the heavens and on the earth; lit. makes low in seeing, references as before. --. 7. 64 64 h~~~TEBREW CHIREST0OMATIHY. (1), ~90, 3, a, comp. 1 1-16, 1. ~~(penult.), ~134,. Rein. 2. V. 8. (1), the hIf., as a verbal noun (145), takes the ending ~~ references as above. V. 9. (1), ~-, as before. --- (2 & 3), the barren (one) of the house,-as reqluired by the, constr. state and the, accentuation; only the proper mistress of the house, can be meant by such a forin. -- Causes... to sit. the retjoicing mnother of children; the verb to sit, is the appropriate one here, expressing the qUiet contentment of her now favored lot. XVII. TII E' woirTIl OF WISDOM. P~roverbs Hii. 13-24. V. 13. (1), comp. above (XIII), ver. 9. Who findeth,.... who getteth (lex. '~T (II), HIph.), Peif. and Ifinp.f. used indifferently in the sphere of the abstract present (1126, 3, 2d ~) omission of the relative, 123, 3, a. V. 14. See lex. bils and I, b. ~, 1119, 1. ~~V. 1 5. (3), pointed for the mlargin;see lex. ~ 5), lex. rrp7 2. ~~V. 16. (4); quiadriliteral, ~ 30, 3;see lex., Note. V. 18. (nit.), hl4N Pual Part.; singe. with piur-. subject, 1146, 4. ~~V. 19. 'Inn~, Pul. Pe~f. V. 20. (3), lex. ypz,) Aiph. 2. ~-(4),. 7,, Parad. VI, d.- (penzilt.), ~138, 1, Rem. 2. V. 21. (3); let thent not dep~art fromn thine eyes (i. e. keep them ever in view),-thie mnasc. -form, thouigh referr'ing to Subjects which are both fern. (1 137, 1, comp. ~. 147, Rem. 1). () (lex. ~,2, mid.), 1 66, Remn. 1. --- (penult.), lex. 3. - (it) lex. 3. — V. 22. (1), mzasc. as before;and they shall be life to thy soul, and r'race to thy ncck,-an inward life, anti an outward orn~ament. To thy neck;where preciouis metals and jewels were worn, -for ornament, and as a badge of honor and dignity; see clh. i. 9, Gen. xli. 42, Dain. v. 7. V. 23. (1), 1127, 4, a, Note ** (3), B. B 3; 1 102, 2, c,;' -- (It.) T, 3. -V. 24. (1), -if thou shalt lie down == when thou liest dowvn. -— (5), 1 intensive (lex. 1, cc),-yea, thou shalt lie down (1 126, 6, a). — (pn lt)hex. VV (IV), 1; (and sweet shall be thy sleep. A LIST OF NEW WORKS IN GENERAL LITERATURE, Published by D. APPLETON & CO., 346 & 348 Broadway, New York. Complete Ca6talogues, containing fill descriptiois, to be had on application to thIe IPublishers. Agriculture and Rural Affairs. Atlus of tlf] Midtdi e Ages. BA v Kieppen, 4 50 Adventures of Daniel Boone. lBy.. llwuks Gcni' l kilos. I Miupo, 1( 0' elDwiaiis of Genius. ly Arooe i'rott. i;i. Blsiainogauhli' Rural l';coii ck,..G I5Cornell,'isrv ograh,.50 Lie and Aidvlctures of Hc [luson. The Poultr oo Ihk, ilhistr~ltcil. l5 0 ermediate Geograph, 1. y thie Author of Uncle Philp, 3, Warinig's Ele ments of Agriculture,. 75 c Iligh School Geographl,. Lif and Adventures of Iernall (.r'c. Arts, Manufactures, and Archi- History. Pllip Randolph. A Tale of' Vi'i,,i 3 tecture. Arnoold's Hlistory of Rome,. 3 00 Bv M'1 ar Gerlrude,. S,ApT0ilon's TDieitonmuurv of Mleluunm'cs. iLater (Commonweoaltl,. i 50 Ro'wan's Ilistory of the FrenchI Rvoh'ucApp('lton's T)ictl o.1200 l' Mecthanics. c Lectures on MModern Ilistory, 125 lion. 2 vls. 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'Cl~~ifi1Neton e r aTJ oe. y iWrigh es dt, 3 Pell's Guide for the o'ig,.. 38 Child's uicturne and N erse Book. 100 Engs. O i-I P Bou, I si S..1' Reid's New English Dictitonary,. Picre Ple.sure Book, Ist Sries, 1 96 Stewart's Stable Economy,... 00 COUSIN ALICE S WORKS. b n Cs.- d Serimes,.. I tO Spaluinug's Hist. of Eiglish iLiterature,. 1 O 0All's Not Gold that Glittlers,.. 5Sus Pindars Story Book, 7 Soyer's Modern Cookery,... 00 Contentment Beltter thnn 'eanlth, 63 Snshine of Gre0tone, 7 The Successful Merchnt... 00 Notliinug Venture, Nolthing Hlave,. 63 Travels of Iob the Sirrel, 71 Thomson on Food of Animals,. 50 No such cWord ius Fail,. 6 'Wonderful Story Soo e " Commerce and MercantileAffairs. HFienst w'amiting Nmi 63.'.f 3 sirst lresent. 75 Anderson's Mercantile Correspondence,. 100 nshwond Pri. y the Auho of e 's Delight; or, Gamnes and Storiks Deliuser's Inuterest Tables, 4 00 Edgur Clifion,fo Our the Parlorr.....m mi Merich-anIs' Refirence Ohob, i 4 00 dg Clifton'o Right.d ro, 7 ni 'eb. t lru nluod,. Omutes' (Geo.) Intenest 'Tables ut 6 Per 'irside iic. i n ir,. Youg Stue. BY Mle ui, us Dojuc. dom. Abridlgeil ed. 1 itS iiMiscellaneous and General Liter. h 7 er Ccnt. In'slt. l'bles, 00 I.ife of Punchinello,. a 75 o.. ature. P l Abridgedo, 1 5e Smiuth's Mercantile I.r,... 4 00 LOIBRARY FOR MY YOUNG COUNTRY- An Attic Philosopher in Paris,.. 25 Geography and Ettlases. hos' ibrry ithu ul,... 1 15 Appleton's Modern Atlas. 34 Maps,. 3 50 Adventures of Capt. John Smith. By the Arnold's Miscellaneous Works,. 0 < Complete Atlas. 61 Maps, 9 00 Author of Uncle Philip,... S Arthur. The Successful Merchant,. 15 2 D. Appleton & Company's List of New Works. A Bnook for nSunninr Timen ill the Ctntrn, 56 Brant.' s Poems, m2 vs.:i clothn I Ta,' t's Sten p from i-n _New World to ltwi'sn Ill ) nTiws i. Alabmi-1i5, 1 tlII.717 Chum Hints~~I~. I- llt-, li- i j:In. ) miiismJ1 19lmnisf? n.Iltiinnininn Y(Iids'. Ca~:lhoun (.I. C.), Works o{..i v,,,s. Imbi.rit -wd v r' ti,,W k f Fictio n.:. J m~~~~~Vanhrii~san}Fo;u,,' ' Eeach '. '...... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o 00' ' ' Anthique nor. 06 ' 1 Clark';' (W. (:.) KnIlick;,h1 5 Burns','.'i,: Works::. Chi-,tnitt hll ISI- AI I t......, t-i': Wi- s. -t.-l ai-iitsnC.- i It Is, i'rii It i. n B~:tl,,. r ' n ii ti..lt, '. Essays.~.,:;!,,.!..,.d..n Ti'.,,s. 1st &:i llitim l,-n t st..eliti il W,,rms. C b-t — Set~o,, e~t.. u 5m') C,,leridk'e's P,,micnl,,:I- Is. Cmltihn- ' 2 W orks of Ficti on..li.i. iii i Iii- - i..i}':wb~~~~~~~~mks' W,,rld [.n W~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.~rs~.b..'5 (,,wp,.r's iPoetical Works, I 0( ~ 11111~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1NIIRS " I - \It~ht:tiim-iiii i[. i-.i...~1ate',.m.C,:h Els WIn'tim ii t t tmrn s I ann terburty n- T ttitnini I oi- it I h itiI-ii- - in i~i-i,15 1; IT ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~75 1!~II~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Im.q',1: mI,l Im' ':~hs::o n.ititiis -itti — llr.r'l ' n.::n..: ('h'i:::Ln'.. it,.m, [l';.r ''ln, Ii,' Hm ti l,lh ' 75-: Vli-tn-Ini'th-Itimi-tI — iIii ni sl,,i..,,ith's pi,,-.n wak i,!, 1;,,;.th,'sli-i-i —oi.IL-t i, Tam'i". ' rshMi/:'i'n, S?..n-i li5 G;.it:i:n.li's Vitar --- n s.iw.s 1'Snli,,,i' if, ] 'i -. unt it,if tl.ti. -,'..1 Grnn:,-:, - S —itsd ititi-u Ilt — I — 1" S. Intimniinq ' iw-ai-i 150i-i Mii- - IIINII.-[, 5 '1:'.[ (;,-v!!,.s. lly II.T'e1 1 X Snfi Ib Ii 1:2, i shn.i. in '! etil r vnil. cI, t i-: n 4;lui-,,l's i[[[, fvs-.) I n-,-... lf, ir.i.::) Basil. A.t,,l'v,ii' i.51. I J.,',-2 Ii:'s) l,. limi5 ~ir I I v I —n lnis.. dnnn lu1ll',:lrnnil in' n nioll nut!-, d i i-i-i-I -ii S.ti sg- li, tII Griflfli Res (Iff~ligiouse. "' If Il I'',I,. l"aArs. i. -5 tl) '[b~~~~~en1)s~ It~a'.,hi~t~ I -;';-,',p l n:. /',,1 n}ln-nl,-tl's tlt-,. tn,-n i6inn-i. — Ili nt n ( ln.-i. n A l'.; vn Is.. I 1 N5 11 itinnit in- I itititit't its li-litd -4;l~t l iii-r? Nit S ----i i iii - l i rst-i- i-i s In-mi X. Illlll. ishai' s 5 b;. '.. I" Kcto,': 1'10icall \W,,rks. (.1'1 I'i.L.:25ntn ltiii,.'lSi 1i i -Qin- i n2I,l,:ms.i's.~,l..::,,h~..- 0-nit W iirds, in~ innk,? t nite's Il-tin-nl Vn- s. i i,,b in.- mitt 0 fuy I.-\ I- I(A ). I iI l i —t inn h'llu e..i' Ka..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~',l....u-, ' 'd'I.., ':.teaiy';' X.,,'i'.., I',},q s. I,,.:2..`75'5 ].,.,..',,r's..\pi,,rd.M,-',:,.:is~~~~~~~~~~~~~n,. ]!? u~~~~xi(A. I.:.L Th,. C',.),~t,:,-:(A.,. Tl, C-,.,-,.-r I (wl Chlrist iln Ihl,-s4. 1 ]",n,.: u n a,% TrialIIs II.,f l,e h.:t, 6:!1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ u, A,i lint-si I It) li1n-uiinii-t,(: l-t- 7llin~tmnnl l;\l; l~p r j Iar:ntr ri.,:, Works.. ust.,.t!, n - nIi l:ts 1 It I nit Ii., n I-d istinctitis, 1, 0 Madnad3:'i. ~f-I 'll A.51t y ]. a'l, 5J ~ l,. elxt'..a, 6w Iu ]everltlon I'hl!trr }},an ('r 75 ~h!rt, m.M,.u,.;; m' ~,.t:)'a C h r~is - ~ tI I I ery $ -od 1.en:l. I v. l:2m. if;' Woni.t-u (I m:ut:it t0l tian's Ch.,iwo... 'I5 I w,,p, I,,,tieall Works. 1.. I v,.} In;o. 1! B. 25 M CII.-]t v~tlt's Mis'.lltni",'. v]. 5 t;',',Ith(v's Poem i"lh' W,.rks. ].I. %.d " ' Em au.llhl!:;.ivl;,,.. '5 ~Maxim. s.fi -~si I I:.t.. B v J' '. F Spells, r's l`2.,'i.; Qm'm..-. I cvl. tll~ eJ11,)th Y " anfn1ladle. ]', (':tL,,i(:. l'].` as I 00 i~~~~~~~nnn-. Iitn-ni ~1 I % 'Sredr.I ~. I'.i' Ihei:a Ii' I v:} XI I 1 1,' ll~ hron(.' y G~;.'. T].;v Ih.:) ' V Mi 'l.t Iv '15 I' i - Lt,!i - it n I i.tt.isi, - - s Ilizitwt or [r,~, 0'I he E.:tdy o, `i i, f the1 G-k..;,'i.. " "h (-;,-ar, ~~. M,:,r ] vf,dd.;iS~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i I''I(, A SIC LBIA. "~~~.:' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i nIit R ti 'i-inn Wr. nlpnipt - -riI -,,i-nI, t5 -P,)eth: Ira..,.,,):,r~ A~.h,',risms from t~te Ppets~ aS Shakspt~:u'~.:s IraArnoid's Vu',,:'Seho.,l Sr T hens"; reItf rs.v]M xir A A T. u. nas.L.f '1 B,,nd's (;..-d,.:t.-h~x'iw~s~. Nit i-nTas,, ttornnih.nm.i),.ii->nKI. n v,.l.'l 1 (,:~ - ore(Mrs.). 'rh,. i),.m~'s l~au,4'htt',r. 1t-,'nl. I~~n iii I uin-ititiiitli-ntntn I i fbi-i 4CI'Inintilltngstn N ('larko's..' ~rmit;. I,.is.si'ni 3, i tnlnTli,..., ]...i..Ni-i-5n- F-li-ab,.ti:: I. ", '1it,, I';xii i',n it 'i -i-n-neria,,:hl-ni's NliINr it l V'akfiht. NI 2. ( 'it 5 3~~~~~~~~~~~ 1 i,'lsnfith'g \' I N:n iiit;'ni- i-itr-l ligos Works 1;~ liii:,.~. w~h-,,,,,.::)~,.,:., ),,,,, `2s Pn!;, I ' `-s vs, S.:IS A r n olds. ]"'It Ai,x'.cmdSm,:.. 50 v '/. 5 h:nts i'-tutu..[i,. ' ~ thin.lS I in in-in-itir. A ~ 'l ' a:t. ' Scx~Ii-tn'.-. Nil ShRm l SI' T NI 01-li-n - n. i —is I-Li-II tintv —: —I I 's Lw, S '~~~.4I3'; b!JIt. Inlha.1',v's Fit1u:]]vs,.nd P}it, S1.,m onis,,6 It.ari [.7nvcTh,, I. r i;,,, 5,'h "1-hi:lin'tk" I - l' i i,,.v "I Mv tI-i-u ( ism iiIn t-t.r ihi-n- I2ikoi-, i. N;5 Ma nua t':Itl'.:,s.; In.n}n-hts Iit —s.:vfh. I,: r tin. I.; l ictl.,iinst, T m(ti lr. r's'li-i,'- I ls. 1 5.:1 I Nhirt.-sNmincA-i rh t NI ]l tir nt IG~cvi;,' hi,,]ils. itt-i-t.ni-I 1 sit nuth.-:ma '.ms. - ",\ -'-.;" nn, - iii NIl N i:tn Ntiiiim t l 1.ltnsllintn ) Tvnn —nI-iinmin i —ns o i-i. NII-n-tn in-1ine. Aitt- (,S?, H h~] Man i:lx G ys,f' True I{'11.s.::, &C 3:':,sll,. its T"hei:Im l': uiri orml, Way '; lb.hs~' i-lis },v,'],,S.'S I-,[e,.r tinte itu'v.a~,<..ni't.t:2 li-in ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~3 (,,Inrst.Mass-i nm, I'.r I[,'st i; ],1s.. 5- i-.n~ Ni~ 1. I-h... li- i5 Voyagesrc'si tni-n!t':t 1. 1ittlis, tuItI. I.i-tn P';.:,l, lIr:zi.. (;,m i h..I VJ,,.50 ',.;!..k's (7..u,.,.'''n,,. (r/i!; S~lis~w):,v.~t. 1.,. A 'Ja..f -,i.. A;Iceien[ F'a:~e. ]'.2i,,.' '5 I G, i ~.::h, nl o )'s ~fx,rVisi..n. l 's sP,, - I S I %,k A d T ra e l s l t.i ' I, 1 ~~~~~~~~~~The Ir-,n C,.tus[1. By.Mary Cwu.ndcn Punl G".i!'I. 11 I;.~r N`Vis:!: 11) -ci ers 4 ilo Soul li..m,-p.,'s 1-,.:ti-s A::-m.I,snCoralt., t ninnnr. -2 v,,Is.t4 -o' T,.,k,.n,4'!},,. II,.,t,'t. I)',. t.;~~~o: a-ll'-' Ii;~'i. Itm. ' lh.i~l..wss,. n5 J,m,: 0';. ]'. R{.). 'Adrian or C1ouds 1 i~.... I'.,'.,~;M".e.,'. w IIs 1i te Na''t o' t vil, lt-. l 1 - Ans l}t-h I5 II; i crti-tiltint U~~~~~~~~~~I. v.. t:'.[)'h''l Philosophical' N.,orks i'a'i, l-Jri.-nt n~,I N o S 111. nnt n[. Inn-n —n- n or, I snniiPi-~ttt -a t.mIn~ in-i 't1-na)is Cit.;: Wi- r:..-ht... —. - iiiii:ti;to Ii, ni i,-,i,,iitmi B:s,,. —.;Men~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~wh ',w,,,,!o ~,sl,..5 liii - -— t llm n Irunt-in inn hit-il Wi~~s.,:.'.~ ~ ~.<:,,:t~ ~ l ) I1 1)i!'flyii;:.1I)bl;l 31 I'&.l/1.:.'sC[ris[. Y.:'.3` J:!,l'I A l:2AVANAG'S ' WORKS. Il~mg'sii; r.''i. (,:,ts Ins.t-mint-s N.itin.rsni, It nI-i ii imSninisi,,ln n-t 2 5 - -~ako~r!'~' J~~orr'i. ns Sermonsa:nd Exposito;ry L..,:ct resA 1 i: Poetry -n and the Drama Nit-ni-i slitniiiiiiuitii tIt -ti In 1 - tn-!n s li-situ:n,. i Taln. li-n:i,, ( IP. N. I 0 T~th?:.l.n:lld t,, P.,'ti h iu:m. niunns. n'tn:Ln-'\1 s. nli tnnu dsl IND. Brn s. Imvllni-n (i-i-It i;i-.. l;. l'Anti-irllls s li-nt.~, ~is I n-i t i 1 nninnns. - s is t i sn C; u -ins. I (,( wra~s F1,,, erni.,ns & '.'S~uleci-."',] the 5 ]av 1I) p Itnpu ni,i-, t -i —tin li-Sn t s. lls ] t " ni' sstt on nhris I.isns Tnisciltin-. A T ile.f -hngary. 3 l',%&c... 1 0 f:ilv,la ll, apiV. 5,. 1,011(;l)i~l) Ln D)o\v kT}h ).:A L. rt-irid, O; Ikysnuni i-ntis In — tnt linninsind, tnt ln( —nnitiln~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~nnlnn I On Xliintiil-a~~~~~~~~~ntnnsne nn Aimninn-d f.DV 0 llnlInisIn. 5 'l~is Anqe h.... n05 1 c7 M sense, I~~~~~~~~~tl' l,:t (Tv6lrim.ldia and 1Miis[,:rs' ol-M I T.;II A '('I, Sh,[f.rP,,ii. I hvCas. (;:tvcrre, ].5 ]:tb0? 'T Iios: B ' )l:2o. St~~h~~et lmC'"1:l~m ('.,!:n,.dhs. Tra,-c:(,,d. ';5 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5I% MjNTrql' 'O'01K (,cwt'l;]'s? I~.,.mitqz l'c l~nam: ll:t,,r y ) lllrknvs ~ ~ ~ k. cl.: (~'i..nh"-,qhiiakcsiaro's,,~s S.: t:'. Ily iI.. 5 ' ' ';. ~ ';5 G AN Aunt Kitiy's 'l' tl.- s. l' w.'n,,. ';5 speel'ool. ciTh-). Nfiiw (:,i- 6 -,sj!g. l.0. I M (%,!Oir%.-' G- lln!-S.,,5 Clilvills n e. Jl I 2, n o. I (1 1 swett's 'ireatti,:, rNI 1)s.:s.s(. the Chest) ("~ Sk.:ews a.,l Sk,[11,.I,.ns of Srn,,,ns 2 5,; E'venIinI;s at Dnti.n.1M..rO, 75 S tories rol'r, Blat,'kw...d. 50 SpcC" s Chris!;.t)) hisirucl,.d, T Loi ~v ILrM lit! 2 %-oIS:o " " Au~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Thqe L~,fty a.t0(0S;lc' li~naa: Il.:2 v.)ls. j0 zm.. 1 & Shrr],,k's P~r;,li(.al ('hristi::.t, 75 TIIA('KEIRA'~S ~,'ORI'S.. "nt..:'s D):sec,'Vh'crc -La:rn'.1-Lv, [.zn" -ie.B.uMA1ie',,'7 The Book of Sm~~bs,.. 5~J Swutrtz's Ll~ t,.rs to II:y (;..,i,-hIhl, 5 The~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~~~:lqk?,htwis 11rie b.,uis\,.; o.r, 'rilJ' o)lp,. sittN.ih,,s 5 Mr. Bro,.%-?),.'S 5:) I II S -.I thw, Par:;Ibl.-. Maiden Amnt (liw).L A St,,-',,..; Th'le Co.rifftsi,,nls of lFitzlwo~, t,:IIlM ia:,S.;2v,('h, 15 '; The Fat ('.r:.... 5 ) Taylor',r' I I.,l- ILiving, and I)Jvti:;ao ~(-i;o, I Cai ~alt) ug JearmeCs' l')1:itry. A l-. m 'rthe R'hi( 5u 181TW n '"all Mot-i';lint,,,Ta,\s.rt, 'l'l(:tmr shtnTle Luck (4 oi|:t~rrv Chx':iVi..,. bmt i ~.. ' Men's Wiv,.s,. ' '.. 50 Tvn-,'s l.',m'..i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~y L.'.. ' 2 [,[~~~~~~51 T - 1 Men's ]I,_, S Fal~~~~~~~~~~~lilv I '-f-~~~Nrman Leslie. l'v [-. C. I f.. '5 The Paris Sk;,tch B,.~.k.,;',,Is. 1,'0 a,(,':,lk,,r's,,'..tis,.,Prat:vial $,l1jel, l'2 P,,ris:m tis ' laIf )f ',,m. l v'1y - ']he Phar' l;,ic;.e el.<vl,.rvlo jou eVts.,n. C Tai!'mstli,),,I 'I'liSh abbylwllLs G 'ape,,'s. I- Nv,,l., 1....T), W oliMri.c,: 0!....]f. '.,...[a't;:1.,, w..\.,.L.';... ' aln..I - 'A S.. a wsM,.,I i.i v.' 212,;~. ] Ti 'e~rt S'r s "bi: iril mIol Cl,1o 1I2iI,'t tsChristian Altar,... I n i;-,. 3" -2I5I, 'I'rese..tt's r~~~~~~il~~l,'.n,,~cv t f"'~.,, I'.,.v~~~~~~~~fiu~~b~~n. ' P,,:.ul~~~~m 5h~~~dlic,,t~: m', TM, (1`7..tuinledico 5Ttt~[The '75 Trekermtt's Ar;isti —T.:w.f- th -olfi1, 1. 5 Voyages and. Travels. Ros,, ]oughtlss. }Iv S.'.t. NV.. 7 1-'I.) C - s,,utitry ].ruh,r.. 75 L,,little ].(.f ~~~~~A'rica and Ihe American l;'htENV,.W. Ward's [..:.'s:')'- Th Ir..e C,,ntimo;In,, I, I]9 "i;( Nrhr nd l',.rn G'uide, I- -5 Amy Ilerl,.rt. A 'l':t,'. 75.~ " C..mIIhlt,; 1:. S. G;uide B,,oq. ~ u(o E'x],wri,..,e (f L~ii'e. 1v"'-. '5 W ar'ner's L': v,,.~f. ss n-; -in:l '2il's:e,'~ lIiI M lG rtu e ae WVomlan's W,.:?-;i,h..; i'Barth~lt's Now -1'.xico,h &('- -2 VOs. }fIlush, 5I I, Katherine, Ashton. -_ vols. l'.h~,'.. 1 I50 Philosophical W orks. Bur!-'It's N'. West,-,'], 'l',rrit,,r,.. '2I 0 L!.'teton )':rs,.naze. A Tah.,. 3,-I.s. I-'ni o. 2o '5 Brv'tni's WAhat I Sanw iln C( ',';:rnai, I.1-.5 Maulrgaret Percival. 9, 5..1)5 Coulsin's C,,ur1s-y ot,' AM,.,iorn Philns -l,(,by, 3(0 (M 1,,:sh~i V",\v.t,.s.:2 v,',,s..2 "' 'Walter l.orinier, anld O);hr Tal',.s. Io9 llo.;5 "Phil, I..!,hy B".tt: 'a.:rtiful1,' Co6:2'. ft 6od E.'Ix ~ Wi t e Iill '.aeia A J o, A rnatl lK-p f or Chi~dr..' of:t illage '; i on h Triw. Bohlmi:[ful.:tn'i DiGoodii6 il % 11uo'sT aes ill Tai'tarv and 'Thibet] Schouol,.. I 00 Colmte's I',,silix-e Il'hilos.th." 2 vi.I S. IIif) Hm,,,nt.,l'i P'~,i:..!,,-ph.:,v-,.!~V. ~, -.... ~Vt1I I~ V[l.MS-,&.i:.,-4s,,, ~ ~ Sunb~eamns and Shndu-ws. C~'4h t,.. '5 N',IIcs ofi itl'heolohgical St,,d.t. lt mo. 1, 10. 0 Thorll,e's }lfive of ilhe Be l nlu,!r.. I0 Poetry and the Drama. ( 0liphantn's,Journe y to Katimail'h).I T0 i'ae rfv s Works. 6 vols. l:-2no.. C) 00 Atnelia's Poems. I V,,I.('m..12 25 Parkvns' Ab.vssizia. 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DICTIONARY OF THE E]N( 1IS l LANGUAGE. BIY ALEg XANDER REID, A. M., 12mo. 572 pages. Price $1 00. This work, whichl i.s designed for sichools, conltainsli tlhe 'PRONUNCIATI.ON and EXP'LNATION of all English words aut:horized by eminent writers. AA oeab)ularv of the roots of o English words. An Accented l ist of G!'.:I:a L.vIn, L.Iand Scil'rti:Tl.:i proper nanles. An Aplpendix, showing the pronllnciation of nearly 3000 of the most important GEOGRAPIIICAL a111'111'. It is printet! oil fine paper in elear typ, 1and strongly bound. And is I!un.u((estionlably onec of the best dictionaries for the school-room extant. Froom. C. S. K. Ill, I)o'/.i seo f '/hilosopiy, JI[.itoiy. an(i I.l 's-Letties, in the University ofthe Cityof Newc-,Yoi.;" l'(il's.)ictiolnarv of t!e En glish Language is ii antlllir;ible bolk for tle iuse of schools. Its plan combines a greater rnume r of (lesiliable corllitions fo)r such a wo(,r, tllain a: with hllich I aml acquainteod; land it SeenS to ule to 1)b executed in "crgral w'ith grea:t judlllg ent, filelit!, amIll!clllr':l(c.".Y',oori, II'1-:NxY lIE:1:),.Z'r(>fO's of (.f En2Fli.si.Lrture 5'intl 1 i the Llticer'tsi;t of Pennsylvania. "i' eid's D)iction iry of tlhe ]English Language applrs to have been compiled upon sound principles, and with judgment 1and accurlacy. It has the Ierit, too, of combining much llore than is usually looked for in Dictionaries of small size, allnd will I believe. be found excellent as a convenient manual for general reference, and also for various plurposes of edlucation.' MANUAL OF ELE3ME NTARY GEOLOGY. BY SIR CHIARLES LYELL, M. A., F1. R. S. 1 vol. 8vo. 512 pages. Price $1 75. Thiis is a reprint of the fourth London edition of a w-rk of distinguished reputation, b.anitifuil illistrated bv FlIv.: I[(;.Rll>.l) AVoo)Ct.U-rs. 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On exarminlation, it - il l. be found tlhat (Il' l ore th l o(rdi ry labor has been expended Iup(o this work, andt that the author lias proceeded lp)On Iliglle'r princ iiples, and ll iase haligher aims in view than historical eonipilers ordinarily propose to thellselves. n, ltead of being mere catalogue of events, chronologrically arrangled, it is a careful, lal,,,rious, a1nd instructive digest of the lLaws, custolms, manniers, insltitutions, and civilizationl of tile ancient and modern n atiorns. The department of modern history in particullr Il as been prepare(d with unuslal care tand in ristrv. From.) JO.hI J. OviS-, Professor iL Neiw- 'Yo)A Free AcademRy. "I have examined wiih lmchl pleasure Prof. Dew's 'Iigest of the Laws, Manners, (Custorns, &c., of Ancient and Modern Natio..ns.' It fu:rnlishes a: desideratmn in the stludy of history which I have leot desired to see. The manner iln which lhistory is rener:ally studied in our institutions of learningr i iin tny jiiudgl ent very defective. The great central Ipoint, o(r eloclis of history are not ma:de to stland out witlh stlficient prominence. E'vents of minor imnportanc(e are:nade to emb:arrass the imenory by- the confuseld metlhod of tlleir pIrsentation to tlie minrl, istory is st'udieli I': l '(s:t l ( not by subjects. In tlie wil(lerness of events t!iroiugl mlric.hl tlie st(udent is groping his way. lie soon l)(bcnoes lost a:n perllexell. Tlie pIast is as olsecure 'ls tle fututre. Tis le.sson soon becomes arn irksoie ta.lsk. T'Ie 'menl(m!' is w\ea:riedl witll tle nmnoltonous task of strivin to retain tlie ImultitudinoIus events,.f (eacl d:ril lesso;!. I"Tis ( vl liae:rs to lbe reI'cedlie' in a great ldegre by Prof. I)ew's admirable iarrangrement. Around the Cri;eatt loiil' if I,i-!!ryi- li lI:s routiedl tliose of subordinate importanice. l.ach section is introdtlceld ly 1 ca)tion. in whi(,lh tli, siiil-. 't is,hrit. y stated,:and so ais to be easily remierniberetd. Thus the( student lhaviln mIasteredl tle le:adlin eve-; ts, will i'-iid little ir nio difiitclty- in treasuring up tile irinor points in their ordler and connection. I trust tlie look w\ ill I,e aild;ted ill (!our liler institutions of learninrg. I greatly prefer it to any history for tle iuse t' s(llool! whici I I!ave seen." MiANU Ai O'()i. NCIE 1 NT ANI) MIOI)ERNI IIISTOIIY. BY W. C.:TAYLOR, LT. D., M. R. A. S. REVI-4ELI) PiY C. S. IIENl"IY, 1). D. 1 vol. 8vo. 870 pages. Price $2 50. ANCIENT HISTORY, separately, 358 pp. $1 25. Containing the Political llisiory, Geographical Position, tnd Social State of the Principal Nations of Antiquity, carefully digested fronl the Ancient Writers, and illustrated by the discoveries of TModern Scholllas and T'ravellers. 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