K-) g-)~o -1:.,.:. - " - I I I A COMPARISON OF THIE LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. By the late Rev. E. T. DOANE; With additional notes and illustrations by SIDNEY H. RAY, Memb. Anthrop. Inst., London. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 5, 1894.] I I Z- 9Q['13 2 I 01 y,~cj9 420 SIDNEY H. RAY. A COMPARISON OF THE LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII By the late Rev. ET. DOANE; With additional notes and illustrations by SIDNEY H. RAY, Memb. Anthrop. Inst., London. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 5, 1894.] CONTENTS OF PART I. 1. Introduction. 6. La directive. 2. Sounds. 7. Prepositions, 3. Syllables. 8. Nouns. 4. Accent. 9. Adjectives. 5. 0 emphatic. CONTENTS OF PART II. 10. Numerals. 14. Verbal directives. 11. Pronouns. 15. Syntax. 12. Verbs. 16. Comparative Vocabulary. 13. Participles. PART I. [This paper was sent to me by the Rev. C. M. Hyde, D.D., of the Hawaiian Evangelical Association in Honolulu. It was written by the late Rev. E. T. Doane, who was for many years a missionary of the American Board of Congregational Foreign Missions, not only in the Caroline Islands, but also in the Marshall Islands. Referring as the notes do, to a portion of the Oceanic world which is comparatively little known, they will probably be found of some value. Mr. Doane's language has in a few instances been abridged, but without in any way altering the views he has set forth. My own additions are in every case inserted either within square brackets or as foot-notes. Quotations from Alexander's Hawaiian grammar are distinguished by inverted commas.] ~1. INTRODUCTION. Ponape is one of the most important islands of the Micronesian Archipelago. It claims this eminence not in population or geo c V.,,.-.e- a.-.;.0 -LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 421 graphical position, for there are other islands more populous and of greater commercial importance, but rather in the language, which is in vocables the fullest, and in grammar the most complete. Micronesia is situated in the eastern portion of the great Malayan island realm, lying there as in a broad gateway through which it has received the population which now covers its sunny atolls and volcanic islands. It embraces three important groups of islands, the Caroline, Marshall, and Gilbert, with not a few widely separated coral islets. A fourth group, that of the Ladrones, would be added had not its pure native population, and so its language, been exterminated. The enumeration of these different groups may suffice for any more definite deseription of the whole archipelago, yet if more be needed, we may say that the whole is grouped between 2~ S. lat. and 20~ N. and 130~ and 178~ E. long. Within these lines two important tongues are represented: the one Polynesian which may be called the Polynesio-Micronesian, and vhich finds its habitat mainly in the Gilbert Group, taking in some atolls near the line, with perhaps a preponderating influence in the volcanic islands of Yap, the Palaus and the Ladrones. The other may be called MalayoMicronesian, and is represented mainly by the dialects spoken in the Marshall Group and the islands lying west of this, and throughout the larger part of the Carolines, from Kusaie to Uoleai. A paper prepared some time since treated of the relationship of the Ponape to the Malay tongue.1 In this paper it is proposed to take the same Ponape dialect and note what are its relations to the Polynesian tongue, and especially to that spoken by the Hawaiian people. Probably the larger number of those to whom this question may be put as to what is this relationship would reply, ' Just none at all, or only that of the most nebulous sort.' They would reply that in the migration of the people either from east to west, or from west to east, there is no connection between the two languages. One is Polynesian, the other Micronesian, 1 This has apparently been lost.,: 422 SIDNEY H. RAY. would be the conclusive answer. Let us see what other answer can be found. In this research we begin with the rulers of all language, the sounds, or the characters rather by which those sounds are set forth. And here it may be remarked that all through this discussion the Hawaiian Grammar of Andrews and Hale's work on the Polynesian tongue will be our authority.1 ~ 2. SOUNDS. The Hawaiian Grammar gives us the characters representing the pure sounds of the language when first reduced to writing, and as further distinguished from characters afterwards introduced to represent newer sounds brought in by a wider contact with the civilized world. There are twelve of these characters in all, seven for consonants and five for vowels. Those for the vowel' sounds are the common European a, e, i, o, u; those for the consonants are the English h, k, 1, m, n, p, w. The vowels are almost uniform in their sounds, Mr. Hale remarking "the changes that do take place are occasioned not by different shades of sounds in the vowels themselves, but by the influences of the consonants." Of the Ponape sounds and characters it may be said that the vowels are far from possessing such uniformity. There are the usual five long vowels, then as may short, then of the vowel o there are three additional sounds, of a one, of e one. The consonants, however, possess much the same sounds as exist in Hawaiian, thus: ng,.j, k, 1, m, n, p, r, t. Tabulated the two systems stand thus:CONSONANTS. VOWELS. Hawaii. Ponape. Hawaii. Ponape. Labial p. a a (long), a (short), a (as u in nut), Dental 1. t, r, 1. e e (long), 6 (short), e (as in there) Nasal m, n. m, n, ng. i (long), i (short) Guttural k. k o 0 (long), 6 (short), o (in or), o (int come), o (in wood) Aspirate h.. u u (long), u (short). Sibilant. j 1 I have added where necessary, a few notes from more recent works. LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 423 On this table it is necessary to remark that Hawaiian h is h aspirate. Ponape possesses no such character, but h lene is not an unusual sound. Both tongues are alike in the use of k, save that occasionally the Hawaiian presses on it t dental, Kawai becoming Tawai, while Ponape softens k to ng, especially when the guttural is preceded by its own letter. Thus rok ki is pronounced rong ki. Hawaiian I often becomes r. There is no change in Ponape. M and n hold their usual powers in both tongues.1 The labial p is also common to both, though p of Ponape is often softened to m when p precedes itself. Thus kap pul (yam soft) is pronounced kam pul. W in sound is common to both languages, but in Ponape is unsatisfactorily represented by u. J, t, r, find no place among the pure Hawaiian sounds, though afterwards introduced.2 In Ponape ng is manifest and common; but in Hawaiian has passed into n.3 In the vowels there is a wider diversity between the two tongues. This may be accounted for by the finer ear of the Ponapean. His language is vocalic, but this fact is not a radical break between the languages. ~ 3. SYLLABLES. In Hawaiian a syllable may consist of a single letter or vowel, thus: a, prep. of i, adj. stingy. a, to burn, as fire o, prep. of e, adv. yes o, to stab e, to enter u, to rise on tiptoe i, to speak u, grief All this is purely Ponapean; thus: a, pron. his i, sail u, to rise up 1 The writer has not noticed the nasal rm, represented in Ponape at first by mw and now by mu. This sound is common in Melanesia. 2 The Ponape j represents sounds which may be represented by the English j in jump, ch in chin, and is nearly sh or ts. 3 Ponape has also the sound known as the Melanesian q (really kpw, but with one of the elements obscured). It was written pw, mpw, now pu. 424 SIDNEY H. RAY. a, but i, pron. he o, locative e, pron. he, she, it o, and u, a hill In Hawaiian, again, a greater number of words is formed by the union of a consonant and a single vowel; as, ha, ka, li, me, no, pu, wa'. But this again is Ponape, thus, ka, la, ma, ta, ua, pa, re, po.2 The great majority of radical words consist of two syllables both in Hawaiian and Ponapean. Haw. po-no, good, i-no, bad, lo-a, long, etc. Pon. tu-ka, tree, na-na, mountain, ma-taui, ocean, etc. The Hawaiian Grammar discusses the various ways in which words are formed, some by doubling the first syllable of the root, others by doubling the second syllable. It shows also that a numerous class of words are formed by repeating both syllables or by reduplicating the root, thus: pala, to paint, pala-pala lawe, to carry, lawe-lawe pulu, wet, pulu-pulu helu, to count, helu-helu. This is also characteristic of Ponape. koma, to punish, koma-koma tang, to run, tang-tang monga, to eat, monga-monga pe, to fight, pe-pe. We need not dwell further upon this point. The Hawaiian Grammar, however, notices as "a peculiar trait" of the Hawaiian language, that a majority of words can be used as nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs. This "peculiar trait" is also found in the Ponape tongue, and the same is true of its parts of speech. ~ 4. ACCENT. The tone syllable of most Hawaiian words is the penultimate. To this there are a few exceptions. In some the tone falls on the ultimate, in others on the ante-penultimate. Suffixed particles possess great power in attracting towards them the accent. This is also the simple law of the Ponape tongue in its accentuation. 1 Four; a baler; to strangle; with; to belong; trumpet; time or season. 2 These; away; storm; what; flowers or fruit; hand; grass; smell. LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 425 In almost the opening sentence on word-making the Hawaiian Grammar states, " Every Hawaiian syllable ends in a vowel," and further, " No Hawaiian without a special effort will attempt to pronounce two consonants together," the one following the other. As this is a very striking feature of the Polynesian tongue, is there any feature in the Ponape corresponding to it? In the first place a large part of the two-syllable words in Ponape, begin and end with a consonant: pit, quick, pit-pit mat, soft, mat-mat tik, small, tik-tik mot, to need, mot-mot. Now for a Hawaiian to utter these words would be very difficult i.e., to utter them as they stand, and so would it also be for a Ponapean. But the language delights in soft sounds, and the Ponapean delights in the legato. For him to say tik tik, mot-mot, mat-mat, with the full hiatus between the syllables would be almost impossible, and he never attempts it. But skilfully throwing out a string piece, a stretcher, as it were, or euphonic vowel, as tikitik, motomot, matamat, he glides from point to point with the utmost ease. Every Ponape word does not end in a vowel, as is seen in some of those given above, but many Ponape words end in consonants, which are largely semi-vowel, a great help to any vowelistic speaking people. From this we see how easy in a comparative sense the Malayo-Micronesian dialects can be made to adapt themselves to such organs of speech as the Hawaiian possesses, and how near, too, the languages are in this ability to enunciate them. ~ 5. "0 EMPHATIC. The Hawaiian Grammar opens the subject of etymology by a description of the "0 emphatic." Its position in the sentence is unique. Untranslateable as a particle, it is yet indispensable to the language. Thus: Make o kahekili ma Oahu. Kahekili died at Oahu. Iolo aku la o Lono. Lono sailed away. Alaila malu o Maui. Then Maui will be at peace. 426 SIDNEY H. RAY. This character without doubt is found in the Ponape dialect, becoming not o emphatic, but o locative, an office not very dissimilar to its Hawaiian use. It is used to point out, or as one may say to locate persons or things. Of a canoe it would be said, if far away, war o, the canoe yonder in the distance. So of a man ol o, so of some subject under discussion which has been remarked about, then dropped, the thought o. As a locative, in the plural it is suffixed to the root letter of the particle of plurality kan, thus, k + o = ko or ako with prefixed vowel, and in use stands thus: war ako, the canoes yonder, jop ako, the ships yonder, ran ako, the days passed away. In Ponape this particle often adds to its power of location and becomes almost an adjective meaning 'same,' as war o ta, the canoe yonder, the same one seen but a little while before; aramaj o ta, the same person disappearing has reappeared; likau o ta, the same cloth shown a little while since. Such are the offices to which o locative is appointed in the Ponape dialect. Possessing a little less or a little higher power than "o emphatic" in Hawaiian no one would for a moment doubt but that the two are one and the same particle. It was so recognised by the Rev. L. ii. Gulick.'[The Hawaiian particle o is of course the same as the common Polynesian ko, Samoan 'o, used principally with absolute nomin-.ative cases of nouns in an assertive sense. The only Melanesian language which employs it in this sense is the Fiji, but as a demonstrative the word is very common throughout the Melanesian region. Cf. Neugone, o re koe, the ship, a certain known ship;. Aneiteum, aien aig ko, that same yonder is he, ko, an affix meaning yonder; Tanna, nadi igo, that thing, in igo, that there; with the Ponape examples above. Dr. Codrington2 gives ko, ka or o as a demonstrative particle in the New Hebrides, Arago and Santo;. in Bank's Islands, Gaua, Vanualava, and Motlav. The Solomon Islands Ulawa ho is probably the same. The Fiji has the particle 1 Ponape Grammar, p. 20. 2 Melanesian Languages, p. 105. LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 427 nasalized as nggo (qo) equivalent to "this," or "here." In Mota it appears as an article o tanun, the man.] ~ 6. La DIRECTIVE. Closely allied to o emphatic, not in office but as an important particle is the word la. In Hawaiian it is "a beautiful expletive" accompanying all verbal directives. It is said also to have "a slight reference to locality." Its position in the sentence changes the accent, In Ponape the same particle meets us, not the same merely in orthography but often in similar uses, as well as in dissimilar, though the latter by no means negative its uses in similarity. In Ponape la seems often in its uses to be merely an "expletive," it often has reference to locality, it largely affects the accent when suffixed, but its more important use is as a directive, putting things to the farthest extreme of time and space. It at times seems to give to the verb a passive power; thus, a me la, he is dead, a o la, it is broken; but these passive sentences can easily be referred to la as directive. [The particle is of common use in the Polynesian dialects. In Samoan la is "there," and ra is used in the same way in Rarotongan and Tahitian. In Nukuhivan na is used like the Hawaiian la, and the Mangarevan ara is used both of place and time. In the Melanesian languages la is used as a demonstrative, chiefly relating to place, pointing to an object as this, or that, to a place as here or there. The degree of nearness or remoteness indicated varies in different languages, but the demonstrative character of the word is plain. In the following table I give a summary of the forms found. Simple1. Pointing near, ("this," or "here") la, lo, le. 2. Pointing far, ("that" or "there") la, lo, li. 3. Indefinite, la, lo, le, ii. Compounds with other particles1. Pointing near, ro-ne, ku-ri, ke-li. 2. Pointing far, ka-la, nia-la, ku-ra, re-k. s S e A! +'r 428 SIDNEY H. RAY. The languages in which these forms occur extend from the Loyalty Islands to the Solomons. In New Guinea and the Malay Region la is not apparent as a demonstrative, but is probably found in the Malagasy iry, that afar, ary, there.] ~ 7. PREPOSITIONS. The prepositions of Hawaii and Ponape have much in common, though in form they widely differ. The Hawaiian are: a, o, ka, ko, na, no, i, ma, me, mai. The Ponape are: en, ong, ni, iang, ki, pa, pan, ren, jong. The Hawaiian Grammar refers to two classes of these particles, the "simple" and the "compound." The "compounds" are the simple prepositions joined to other words, generally denoting place, and they may be regarded as "adverbs of place." The Ponape also possesses compound forms, but in these the simple prepositions suffix pronouns rather than adverbs, and they may be called pronominal prepositions rather than adverbs of place. The "simple prepositions" possess in both tongues the mere office of "showing a connection and relation between other words." There are three features to be especially noted as common to the two languages. 1. The simple prepositions are used to decline the noun and pronoun. The Hawaiian noun is spoken of as declined, but it is not declined in the proper sense of the term, i.e., by possessing terminals to denote its relation to other parts of speech, as in Greek, Latin or German. There is nothing of this. But these simple prepositions come in, or some of them, to denote the relation of the noun, whether in the genitive, or dative, or other cases. As these are well marked by the preposition, the noun is spoken of as declined, an expression proper enough if it be understood. It has not been usual to speak of the Ponape noun as thus declined. It has been described as possessing the three general divisions, nominative, possessive, objective, but the last case was made to include the dative, accusative and ablative. This form of expressing the noun or pronoun arose from the fact that it is LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 429 very generally found with a possessive particle suffixed or prefixed. It is not in this respect, altogether like the Hawaiian free, or largely so. In the Ponape almost every noun takes, as we have said, its possessive. But with these attached particles the preposition enters to play its part, and gives the cases-the Hawaiian noun possesses, the Genitive taking en, of, the Dative ong, to or for, the Accusative ong, to, the Ablative ki or pan, meaning by, and further taking iang, ren, denoting with. If then the Ponape noun is arranged with the prepositions as in Hawaiian, we shall have it much the same. And this, it will be seen is not a mere form, but because the conditions as truly make for it as those affecting the Hawaiian noun. 2. The second point to notice with regard to the simple prepositions or some of them is, that they possess the power of marking a shade of difference among persons or things, a difference which the native mind is ever disposed to make. The objects of nature, persons and things, animate and inanimate, are often the subject of the narrowest distinctions. The Ponape mind has gone still further and made sharp distinctions in articles to be enumerated, and appointed class particles to designate them.l In the Hawaiian the two prepositions a and o, while performing their prepositional office, take a further duty, a will denote one class of object, o another. As the grammar puts it " whatever relates to instruction, learning, work, food (and it may be added, children) requires a; whatever relates to one's own passions, person, residence, clothing, takes o."2 Passing to the Ponape noun we find the same method of marking the shades of difference, but different articles will be included. 1 This use of classificatory particles is found also in Melanesian languages. Cf. Codrington, Mel. Lang. pp. 242, 305. In New Guinea also the numerals are preceded by words showing the kind of thing counted. 2 Though called prepositions by Mr. Doane, these words may be shown to be really nouns. Cf. Codrington, Mel. Lang. p. 132. They are the only nouns which, in the Polynesian languages have retained the possessive suffixes. 430 SIDNEY H. RAY. What the Hawaiian would put into one category the Ponapean would put into another. This will be discussed further on. 3. The third point is the distinction inherent in the Hawaiian prepositions ka and ko. Their office is to express the possessive case, or that case expressed by the apostrophic 's in English, ko ka hale, the house's or that which belongs to the house, ko ke kino, the body's, or that which belongs to the body.' The Ponape impresses much the same law on the particle en, using one particle rather than two. The first office of en is simply prepositional, to denote the relation expressed by the preposition of. But it has a larger use, to give forms or turns to the genitive, similar to the ka and ko of the Hawaiian. It does not as distinctly denote the form of the apostrophic 's, but it does give another meaning to the simple possessive. This will be more distinctly seen in the examples of declension. The singular noun with the prepositions will sufficiently illustrate the points under discussion. Hawaiian-KA HALE, the house. Nom. ka hale, the house. Ge. o ka hale, a ka hale, of the house. ko ka hale, ka ka hale, the house's. Dat. no ka hale, na ka hale, for the house.. Acc. i ka hale, the house. ( ma ka hale, at or to the house. Voc. e ka hale, o the house. ( mai ka hale, from the house. Abl. me ka hale, with the house. (e ka hale, by the house. Ponape-OL, man. Nom.-Nom. ol, man. poss. Gen. ol en, man of. Gen. en ol, na, a, of the man. (Dat. ong ol, for the man. Acc. ong ol, ni ol, to or at the man. Obj. Voc. ol la, man o. Abl. ren ol, iang ol, with the man.,Abl. pan ol, ki ol, jong ol, of or from the man. 1 Ka and ko are abbreviations of ka a, ke a, or ka o, ke o, i.e. the article with the possessive words a and o. LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 431 Looking at the Hawaiian noun as thus declined we see how completely this is done by the prepositions, and notice that the Ponape noun may be declined in the same way. We observe the force of the preposition en, and its twofold use. The first simply denotes of, as man of, while the second use, of the man; or the man's denotes that which more particularly pertains to, or belongs to the man. Here we get much that is analogous to the Hawaiian ka, ko, yet as we have remarked, it does not denote simply and solely the apostrophic 's. It may do so, but the idea is rather to give a new form to the genitive. At times it seems to be required by the peculiar state of the noun with its suffix or prefix, and sometimes seems to be demanded to satisfy the ceremonial form of address. But we need not remark further, the two forms exist and hold much that is analogous to the Hawaiian ka and ko. Then as to that other very peculiar and marked characteristic of the two tongues, to denote " the shade of difference between things " in the Ponape the law is as marked as in the Hawaiian, but in the Ponape it is expressed by the two particles na, a, personal pronouns, rather than prepositions.1 Na equals a in Hawaiian covering the possessive of certain things, while a in Ponape also indicates the possessive and resembles in its shade distinction the o of Hawaiian. These words will be further referred to under pronouns. ~ 8. NOUNS. We cannot better present these than by following somewhat closely the order of the Hawaiian Grammar. 1. The Hawaiian noun takes both the abstract and the concrete state, so also does the Ponape, though in the latter the abstract is the more common. 1 Since these words correspond to what Dr. Codrington has called Possessives (Mel. Lang. p. 128), and are used in Ponape with suffixed pronouns, like nouns denoting relationships and parts of the body, e.g., nai, nom, na, etc., ai, am, a, etc., it would be more correct to call them possessive nouns. A is of general use; na is used of kava, sugar cane, banana, dog, child, fowl and is of more limited application. 432 SIDNEY H. RAY. Examples. Hawaiian. Abstract ka oiaio, the truth ka pono, the justice ke kaumaha, the weight ka ino, the badness Concrete elemakule, an old man luwahine, an old woman halau, a long house oopa, a lame person Ponape. pirap, theft lamalam, purpose likak, grief toto, weight kirip, unmarried person peneinei, a married couple tanipaj, a chief's house pokolong, a cripple. 2. The Hawaiian noun is often formed by prefixing a syllable to the " radical form." The syllables so used are, ma, na, po, ko, o, thus:malu, shade, mamalu, umbrella hae, to break, nahaehae, rent, broken ino, bad, poino, unfortunate.1 Ponape observes the same rule but with different particles: pirap, to steal; li-pirap, a theif. patak, to teach, joun patak, a teacher.2 porone, to send, wan-poron, a messenger. The Ponape particles most generally used are li, jou, wan, ai, ka, kan. 3. In Hawaiian person, number, gender, and case are not indicated by any change in the noun itself. The same applies to Ponape. 4. The singular, dual and plural numbers are distinguished in both languages, but there is no change in the noun itself, particles of peculiar form being used. 5. The signs of the Hawaiian dual and plural are, (excluding numerals) na, mau, poe, pae, puu. 1 Examples of this formation are not very clear in the Hawaiian Grammar. The words given are verbs rather than nouns. 2 The word jou is the Melanesian ta or tau, man. Cf. jou n patak, man of teaching, with the New Guinea Motu, ahediba fauna, teaching its man. LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII.;433 In Ponape the particles are, a, ka an (or ke en), kan, kat, ka, ko.l Hawaiian na denotes indefinitely large numbers, poe is a sign of plurality as indefinite, but is restricted to the set or company of things under discussion, and is used more in reference to persons and animals than to inanimate objects. Pae and puu have much the same office of plurality as poe, but refer rather to collections of things inanimate. In Ponape, kaan (or keen) gives plurality, but with the special idea of "repetition," "rows." Kan denotes plurality, any number above duality. Kat refers to numbers equally as large, but they must be things "at hand" in close proximity; the particle does not notice the kind of thing, whether animate or inanimate. Ka is much the same as kat, but refers to objects or persons at a little further remove. Ko still expresses plurality large or small, above the dual, but has no reference to persons, or things distant in.time or-place.2 Tabulated the particles would stand thus:HAWAIIAN. Na, plurality indefinitely large. Pae, plurality of objects under discussion and objects inanimate. Ptuu, nearly the same as pae. Poe, plurality, relating to things under discussion, excluding all others, refers to animate objects. PONAPE. Kaan (or keen), plurality, but things in rows; repetition. Kan, plurality, all above duality. Kat, plurality, but only of things at hand. 1 In Gulick's Ponape Grammar ka seems to be used as a noun of multitude. Ka'n im a multitude or collection of houses, (Cf. Fiji vei vale) a village. Kan is not referred to separately, but is given as a demonstrative, all these or those. Ko is given as a pronoun and referred to a demonstrative kao. 2 In Mortlock Island kana is the usual sign of the plural. In Ebon, Marshall Island, ko is used for the plural, except with names of human beings. BB-Dec. 4, 1895. 434 SIDNEY H. RAY. Ka, plurality of things under discussion but a little more removed. Ko, plurality of things under discussion, far removed, but animate or inanimate. The Hawaiian Grammar gives all the above particles as also signs of the dual, adding to them the mau, as an expression to denote a few. The table shows how each language is governed by a common law in expressing the dual or plural by particles. 6. Gender.-" There is nothing in Hawaiian to mark the genders of nouns." The real difference, existing in animate beings is denoted by words expressive of sex. This is denoted by the words kane, male, wahine, female.l The same rule applies to the Ponape, the words used being ol, male, and li, female. In both languages different words are use to designate the gender, as the words for parents, children, animals or fowls. ~ 9. ADJECTIVES. There is much similarity in the use of the adjective. 1. The Adjective of Quality. Hawaiian-He manawa loihi, a long time. He papa makolukolu,2 a thick board. Ponape-Anjou uarai, a long time. Par en tuka nejul,2 a thick board. 2. Adjective of Quantity. Hawaiian-He makani oluolu, a pleasant breeze. Ka la ino, the stormy day. Ponape-Ang tik, a light breeze. Ran katauin, a rainy day. 1 Sam. tane, fafine, etc. 2 These words makolukolu, and mejul are representatives of a more common matolu. Cf. Samoan matolutolu, thick (pork), Maori, matotoru, Efate matulu, Malekula, metetir, Epi, mererolu, Mota, matoltol. All of these words have the conditional prefix ma. Cf. also the Fiji tolo, the thick part of the body or of a tree. LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 435 3. The Adjective of Number. Hawaiian-Lehulehu na kanaka, numerous people. Na kanaka umi, the ten men. Ponape-Aramaj ngeter, many persons. 01 ri/k, twenty men. The general law of the adjective of both tongues is, that it shall follow the noun qualified. It is exceptional when it does not. In Hawaiian the numeral is allowed to precede the noun. This is at times the case in the Ponape, though usually the numeral follows the noun, thus:Hawaiian-Eha hale kula, four school houses. Elima la papa ka oleo ana, five days perhaps the discussion lasted. Ponape-Ran limau, five days. Im patak uonu, six school houses. 4. In both languages a particle prefixed to an adjective becomes its copula,1 to express or affirm the quality of the adjective. In Hawaiian the particles are wa, he, thus: wa ino, it is bad; wa maikai, it is good. he ino, it is bad; wa loiho ke ala, long is the road. In the Ponape this equally/marked, but only one particle is used, thus:me juit, it is bad; me mau, it is good. me rai rai, it is long; me tikitik, it is small.2 1 In these we probably have the remains of former verbal particles. Cf. wa with Banks Island we.-Mel. Lang. p. 276. 2 Gulick (Amer. Orient. Soc. Journ., Vol. x., p. 30) regards this me as the same as the Polynesian mea, thing, substance, any person or thing mentioned; me mau, thing good, or the thing (or it) is beautiful. There seems, however, very little doubt but that it is the particle ma or me, which is almost universally used in Melanesia to express the condition in which a thing is.-(Mel. Lang. p. 169,188). It seems possible so to regard it in Ponape. Gulick states "It very commonly takes the power of a personal pronoun and stands in apposition with the nominative of a verb, so heightening the affirmative force of a sentence, and almost entitling it to the term "affirmative particle." e.g., kowa me wiata, you are the one that did (it). Ape me koto, such a one has come. In this affirmative use, we may compare me.with the m, me or ma so common in Melanesia as a verbal sign. 436 SIDNEY H. RAY. 5. Comparison of Adjectives.-The three degrees, positive, comparative, and superlative, common to all languages are here expressed much in the same way, though by different agents. Particles are used in both languages to form these degrees, the two latter especially. In Hawaiian the positive degree is the simple expressed subject, long, short, white, black. There is nothing in the adjective to express comparison, thus: Hawaiian Positive, poko, short Comparative, poko iki, short a little poko ae, shorter (lit. short really)1 poko iki ae, shorter still. Superlative, poko loa, shortest, very short.2 In Ponape the order is somewhat different, especially in the comparative. The positive simply asserts the long or short, the good or bad, the black or white condition of things under discussion. The comparative appropriates the preposition jong, from to express its comparison, as, this is white from, or whiter than that.3 The comparative as in Hawaiian is often expressed by simply stating that one thing is different from another, as, this is long, that is short; this is good, that is bad. The superlative is formed by suffixing the particle ia, and by taking a heavy accent. Ponape Positive, mau, good. Comparative, maujong, better than (lit. good from) puotjong, whiter than (lit. white from) Superlative, rau ia, best of all, supremely good. puotopuot ia, whitest of all. 1 Ae in Marquesan augments the force of the word to which it is added and forms a comparative. 2 Loa, really means long (of time and measure), here it means very or excessive. 3 This is the common Melanesian Method. Cf. Ex. in Codrington's Mel. Lang. Mota, o qoe we poa ran o gasuwe; Maewo, New Hebrides, a qoe u lata dan ra garivi; Wango, Solomon Islands, bo raha bania kasuwe, a pig is big from a rat; New Britain, ingala tadiat, it is large from them. LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 437 [Mr. Doane has not discussed the use of maj in Ponape with the superlative. This word intensifies the quality or number expressed by the adjective, maj totoia, very numerous indeed, majapueka, exceeding afraid. It is the same as the Duke of York Islands and New Britain, mat and the Florida, Solomon Island mata, and in these languages it is used as an intensive in the same way. Duke of York liralira mat, very white, New Britain I ququ mat, he rejoices very much. The word is probably the common Oceanic mata, eye, face, front, also used as an adverb, before.] PART II. ~ 10. NUMERALS. The numerals are distinguished in both Ponape and Hawaii as cardinal and ordinal. Hawaii also possesses distributive forms. The first ten numbers stand thus: CARDINAL. ORDINAL. Hawaii. Ponape. Hawaii. Ponape. 1. kahi at ka mua ka at1 2. lua ari ka lua ka ari 3. kolu ejil ka kolu ka ejil 4; ha apong ka ha ka apong 5. lima alim ka lima ka alim 6. ono auon ka ono ka auon 7. hiku ej ka hiku ka ej 8. walu aual ka walu ka aual 9. iwa atu ka iwa ka atu 10. umi katongaul ka umi ka tongaul In the formation of the ordinal, particles come into use which are alike in form and office. In the Hawaiian it is the definite article ka, in the Ponape the causative. In what we may call the infancy of things, both were no doubt one, but in the lapse of ages and wide roaming of the people from the home land they became possessed of different powers. One people has taken ka 1 This ordinal is often ka moa, the first, before all others, the first in precedence.-Rev. E.T.D. 438 SIDNEY H. RAY. for the definite article, the other has appropriated to it, the office of a causative. [The names of the numbers in these decimal systems are substantially the same in both languages, but the Ponape words for four and nine, apong and atu are uncommon. These agree with the Palau Islands awang, oanq, four, and ettew, etew, nine, which are probably only forms of the common wa, fa, and sio, siwo. The Hawaiian kahi by a regular change of t to k, and s to h, is the common Polynesian tasi, which, though probably formed from the root ta or sa, common in Melanesia does not agree with it to closely as the Ponape at. The change of t to k, andf to h in Hawaiian, and of t to j in Ponape show kolu and ejil, hiku and ej to be the common tolu and fitu. The ordinals in Hawaiian appear to follow the ordinary Polynesian rule and prefix the article as in Maori, te tahi, te rua, te toru, Samoan 'o le lua, 'o le tolu. The Ponape ka prefixed though identical in form with the causative prefix may not be really the same. In Fiji and other Melanesian languages, and also in Malay, the ordinal is formed by a prefix ka or ke, e.g., Fiji karua second, Efate and Nguna kerua second, kelima fifth, Malay kaduwa second. In these languages ka is not the causative prefix and hence the Ponape ka (and possibly the Hawaiian) may be of similar origin to the Fiji ka. In Melanesia the causative prefix usually forms a multiplicative numeral as in Banks' Islands vaga-rua, twice, vaga-tol, thrice. This form is also found as ordinal in some parts of Melanesia, but usually with a substantive termination. In Malagasy also the causative faha forms an ordinalfaha-roa, second. The Ponape ordinal ka moa shows the word moa or mua, used in many languages of Oceania for "front," "before." Banks' Islands moai, first.] The Hawaiian Grammar notes that " Formerly, in counting, the Hawaiians, when they reached the number forty turned back and commenced at one and counted another forty, and so on till they laid aside ten forties; these ten forties they called a lau, LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 439 four hundred. It is a modern improvement that the word kana has been prefixed to lima, ono, hiku etc. to express fifty, sixty, seventy, etc. At the present time the Hawaiian enumerate by units, tens, hundreds, thousands. The words haneri, hundred, tausani, thousand, miliona, million, have been introduced from the English. The order of counting by fours was as follows: aha kahi = four units = 1 kauna = 4 umni kauna = ten fours = 1 kanaha = 4% umi kanaha = ten forties = 1 lau = 400 umi lau = ten 400s = 1 mano = 4000 umi mano = ten 4000s = 1 kini = 40000 umi kini = ten 40000s = 1 lehu = 4000001 Turning now to the Ponape we find the same method of fours in use. It is less perfect than the Hawaiian, but though simpler was probably derived from a common system. The terms are as follows: Four units are termed at = 1 Another,,,,,, ari = 2,,,,,,, ejil = 3,,,,,,,, apong = 4,,,,,,, alim = 5 This order is followed till the tenth number is reached which is called forty. This order repeated gives 40 + 40 = 80, this repeated again = 80 + 40, i.e., 120 and so on ad infinitum. The Ponape system is the simpler of the two, but it seems quite impossible that two peoples should have such a system unless they held much in common to both. 1 These words have various meanings in the other Polynesian dialects. Kauna may be the same as the Tongan and Maori te kau, ten pairs. Kana-ha is simply ' tel fours.' Lau is 100 in Samoan, and is the Tongan au, Rarotongan rau, also meaning 100. Mano is 1000 in Maori, 2000 in Rarotongan and Tahitian, 10000 in Samoan, Tongan, and 4000 in Hawaiian and Marquesan. The Hawaiian kini, Marquesan tiini is 40000, but Maori tini is 10000, and Rarotongan 20000, and an indefinitely large number in Mangarevan. Hawaiian lehu is Tahitian rehu, 200000, Fiji levu, great. 440 SIDNEY H. RAY. ~ 11. PRONOUNS. The personal pronouns in these tongues are: HAWAIIAN. PONAPEAN. Singular. Singular. au, wan I ngai, % I oe you koe (komui, chief's lang.) you ia he, she, it I, a he, she, it Dual. Dual. maua (exclusive) We two kita (exclusive) We two kaua (inclusive) We two kit (inclusive) We two olua you two koma you two laua they two ira they two Plural. Plural. makou (exclusive) We kit, je we kakou we kitail we oukou you komail you lakou they irail they In the second personal pronoun the Hawaiian oe is Ponape koe. In the third person ia is bisected in Ponape but intact in Hawaii. Both tongues have forms in the dual and plural to express the inclusion or exclusion of the person addressed. All wear a strong family look. [The Hawaiian pronouns are substantially the same as in other Polynesian languages. In the dual first and third persons ua is an abbreviation of the numeral lua, two. Similarly in the plural kou, is an abbreviation of kolu. three, the common tolu. The Ponape presents some differences which are worth noting. Ngai is a Melanesian rather than a Polynesian form. In the dual and plural ki, i, may be regarded as demonstratives, and are used similarly in many Melanesian languages.l In the plural il is an abbreviation of ejil, three.2 The root forms compared in rhe two languages are thus 1 Cf. also the Tongan kimaua, kitaua, etc., Aniwa agimawa, agitawa. 2 Cf. similar abbreviations in the Solomon Islands Languages.-Codrington, Mel. Lang. p. 507, 512, etc. LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 441 * 1 2 3 1 2 3 Singular, Hawaiian au, oe, ia Plural Hawaiian ma, ta, o, la Ponape i, koe, i. Ponape t, ta, om, ra.] With the prepositions the first personal pronouns are as follows: HAWAIIAN. Nom. au, wau I Gen. o'u, a'u of mte Gen. ko'u, ka'u mine [to me Dat. no'u, na'u for me, belonging Acc. ia'u me, to me [of me Ace. ma o'u la by me, by means Abl. mai o' u la from me Abl. me au with me, like me Abl. e au by me as agent PONAPE. Nom. Ngai, X I n i(Gen. nai, ai mine p4 LGen. en nai, en ai of mine Dat. ong ia for me Dat. ong, nai, ai for mine Ace. ongia to me Abl. rei with me Abl. pai by me as agent. The chief features in the plural and dual are the distinction between the exclusive and inclusive in the first person, but there is no need to give here the full forms. The point to notice in the declension of the pronoun is the distinction made in the use of the genitive singular, and the agreement of the two languages. The Ponape nai and ai of the first person, nom and am of the second, na and a of the third, agree with the double forms of the Hawaiian o'u, a'u, for first person, ou, an of the second, ona, ana of the third. The use of these may be sufficiently illustrated by the Ponape nai and ai for the first person singular genitive. These words are both suffix and prefix, at least ai is emphatically so, thus uar ai, canoe my, or ai uar, my canoe; so also ai im, my house, im ai, my house. The nai is more generally a prefix. It is doubtful if it ever becomes a suffix, if so, only in a special sense. As possessive pronouns both are important, and it is in this pronominal form that they carry the character of the Hawaiian prepositions a and o, and indicate the "shade of difference between things" which has been already spoken of (~ 7 Prepositions). The Ponape a is the equivalent of the Hawaiian o, and stands as the exponent of all possessions, goods, lands, boats, canoes, largely things with which to work, then relations, the brother, 442 SIDNEY H. RAY. sister, uncle, aunt, parents, and wife. Ponape nai is the a of Hawaii, and possesses a narrower range of service. It refers to children, to servants, to trees and their fruits, to certain implements of work, and also to things which are highly prized. The two pronouns stand thus in wide contrast, and may be thus illustrated: Tn what may be called the " stone and shell age " of this people, the possession of a piece of iron hoop was of more worth than its weight in gold; and one getting possession of a knife, that was a treasure indeed, at once addressed it as nai kapit, my knife, but his wife at his side, a piece of property he could pick up at any time or anywhere was addressed as ai paut, my wife. We need not further illustrate this point, we only refer to it to show how fully this idea of the different shade of things has possessed the Ponape mind. It is as strong with him as with the Hawaiian. But while the Hawaiian lets the preposition bear the the office of expressing the "shade of difference," the Ponapean has passed it on to the personal pronoun. We may perhaps say here all that is needed to be said on the prefixed pronoun of the Hawaiian. It is simply the inferior brought to the front, made to face about and take a new position; he aina o'u, the land of mine; he kapa o'u, the cloth of mine become ko'u aina, my land; ko'u kapa, my cloth. Now as we have intimated above in the remarks on nai and ai, Ponape possesses the same order, sometimes a prefix, sometimes a suffix. But the change cannot be so fully made as in the Hawaiian, for certain articles are restricted to either the suffix or prefix, but apart from this the idea is the same. [The distinction made between nouns when used with the possessive pronoun, or rather the difference made in the pronoun when used with certain nouns, though obscure in the Ponape and Hawaiian may be clearly understood by reference to the Melanesian languages. In these certain nouns are used with a pronoun suffixed, others require a particular form of possessive word to be used with them, and the latter can always be shown to consist of LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. another nouh with a suffixed pronoun. Thus taking examples from Mota of Banks' Islands and from Fiji, we have: 1. Mota -k, Fiji nggu, used as suffixed pronouns to names of parts of the body and relationships: qatu-k, ulu-nggu, my head, tama-k, tama-nggu, my father. The Ponape suffixed pronoun is also used with the same kind of nouns: nong-ai, my head,jam-ai, my father. So also other Micronesian languages: Gilbert Islands atu-ku, tama-ku, Marshall Islands bor-a, jeTn-a. No examples of this construction are found in the Polynesian languages. 2. In Mota 'my garment' is no-k siopa, Fiji, no-nggu isulu, where no is plainly a noun used with the same pronouns suffixed as in the previous examples. If no be translated "thing" or "property," the literal construction is my-thing (a) garment, and the Ponape nai (na-ai) kapit, my knife is of the same form. The Hawaiian ko'u kapa, my garment is in Maori toku klakahu, and in these the 'u and ku are suffixed pronouns, being in fact of identical origin with the Mota, Fiji and Gilbert Island forms given above. The Hawaiian k, and Maori t represent the articles ke and te. Hence the o in Maori and Hawaiian may be regarded as of the same use as the Mota and Fiji no or the Ponape na. The construction is identical in the Melanesian, Micronesian and Polynesian tongues. 3. It is probable that the Ponape prefix possessive ai is distinct from the suffix ai, and that the pronoun is really i. Cf. the prepositions rei, with me, ren, with him, pai, with me, pan, with him.] ~ 12. VERBS. 1. The Hawaiian verb as shown in the grammar is certainly elaborate when compared with that of Ponape. Possessing about as many moods, the tenses are more numerous and fuller, so are the causative forms. The passive voice is more perfect. Whether we may call it "philosophical for a language to agglutinate to itself so many particles to explain the various shades of thought needing to be expressed, when the same particles in their tense 444 SIDNEY H. RAY. use often exchange themselves one for the other, may be questionable." But for the " philosophy of things we are not seeking." As a first remark upon the verb we may say, in almost the opening sentence of the Author of the Hawaiian Grammar, " in comparison with European languages the Hawaiian verb has many peculiarities. In every full sentence of these languages a verb is necessary to complete the idea intended. No so in Hawaiian; some of the most common, clear, and strong affirmatives are fully expressed without any verb." This feature is also characteristic of the Ponape verb. 2. We will here group as far as we can all that is said in a preliminary way of the verb. (1) The grammar states: In Hawaiian a verb is not necessary to complete the idea. This, as stated above is true also of the Ponape sentence. (2) In Hawaiian there is no verb to express the idea of existence or being. This is expressed by particles, and by the pronoun in the nominative or objective cases. Ponape has the same use. (3) There are no verbs in Hawaiian (and also in Ponape) to affirm the quality of a substance, this being done by adjectives, nouns or pronouns. (4) The verbs 'to possess,' 'to have,' in the Hawaiian are wanting, equally so in Ponape. (5) The verbs to express duty or obligation are wanting in Hawaiian and also in Ponape. (6) There are no variations of the Hawaiian verb to express number or person, neither are there any in the Ponape. In both languages the pronoun expresses these, and more distinctly than the noun. 3. We here reach what may be called the " accidents of the verb," and will now give the verb as affected by these. In the three numbers, singular, dual, and plural, the paradigm is as follows: LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 445 HAWAIIAN. Hele, go. Singular. 1st Person hele au, I went 2nd Person hele oe,.You went 3rd Person hele in, He went Dual. 1st Pers. (excl.) hele maua, we two went 1st Pers. (incl.) hele kaua, we two went 2nd Person hele olua, you two went 3rd Person hele laua, they two went Plural. 1st Pers. (excl.) hele makou, we went 1st Pers. (incl.) hele kakou, we went 2nd Person hele oukou, you went 3rd Person hele lakou, they went PONAPE. Tang, run. Singular. ngai tang, I ran koe tang, You ran a tang, he ran kit tang, we two ran kita tang, we two ran korma tang, you two ran ira tang, they two ran kit tang, we ran kitail tang, we ran komail tang, you ran irail tang, they ran. In this table we have the verb, simple, fixed and unvaried. In the Hawaiian it is simply hele, to go, in Ponape, tang, to run. There is not the least change in the verb, but person and number are entirely indicated by the pronoun. 4. Moods —In the Hawaiian there are four moods, Ponape possesses five, thus: Hawaiian-Indicative, subjunctive, infinitive, imperative. Ponape —Indicative, potential, subjunctive, infinitive, imperative. 5. Tense-It is the same with tense as with person and number, there is no alteration of the verb which expresses this. Particles must come in, and it may be remarked generally, that when particles are appointed to express the tense of the verb, there is not a little uncertainty about the whole matter. However as in both tongues the particles of time are used, they answer their purpose very well. 6. The Hawaiian Grammar begins with the preterite tense, and we follow the same order. There are five forms of this tense in Hawaiian, but only three in Ponape. In illustrating this point we will give the three Hawaiian corresponding to those of Ponape, in the singular of each form. 446 SIDNEY H. RAY. HAWAIIAN. First form of the preterite. The simple form of the verb. 1. holo au, I ran 2. holo oe, you ran 3. holo ia, he ran Second form; this form prefixes a to the verb, meaning "and when," thus: 1. a hana au, and when I made 2. a hana oe, and when you made 3. a hana ia, and when he made Fourth form; the verb prefixes ua.1 This particle according to the grammar is more often used as the perfect tense. 1. ua huna au, I have concealed 2. ua huna oe, you have concealed 3. ua huna ia, he has concealed PONAPE. First form of the preterite. Simple form of the verb. 1. I tang, I ran 2. kco tang, you ran 3. a tang, he ran. Second form; this form prefixes ap, meaning " and then " or better, "then " simply. 1. I ap uia, I then made 2. kco ap uia, you then made 3. a ap uia, he then made Third form; this form uses the particle er suffixed, and denotes "done, perfected, finished." 1. I ua er, I have brought 2. ko ua er, you have brought 3. a ua er, he has brought 7. Future Tense-The Hawaiian possesses two forms of this tense. The first prefixes e to the root,2 the second has an additional e suffixed, thus:First Form. Second Form. 1. e lohe au, I will hear 1. e lohe e au, I shall have heard 2. e lohe oe, you will hear 2. e lohe e oe, you will have heard 3. e lohe ia, he will hear 3. e lohe e ia, he will have heard Ponape also possesses two forms of this tense. The first is denoted by the particle pan,3 "will," prefixed, the second by the particle nok, meaning "shall, intend," or "about to." First Form. Second Form. 1. I pan rong, I will hear 1. I nok uia, I shall or intend to do 1 This is the common kua of Polynesia, usually a perfect sign. 2 In Samoan, Maori, Tongan and Marquesan, e is both a present and future particle. In Rarotongan and Tahitian it is usually future, but.sometimes present. 3 Pan is a verb common in Melanesia as van, vano, to go. Hence Ponape pan rong means " going to hear." Of. Lifu tro deng, also meaning " going to hear." LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 447 2. ko pan rong, you will hear 2. ko nok uia, you will or intend to do 3. a pan rong, he will hear 3. a noku ia, hewillorintendstodo 8. Present Tense-The present tense of the Hawaiian verb differs so materially from the Ponape, that both are here omitted. 9. Subjunctive Mood-Particles are used to indicate this mood in both languages, but the simpler use is found in Ponape. 10. Imperative Mood-The Hawaiian grammar shows two forms of this mood, both indicated by particles. The first prefixes e to the verb, thus: e nana oe, look you. The second form prefixes mai, " do not," to the verb, thus: mai huli oe, do not you turn. The Ponape also possesses two forms, the first prefixing en, the second ter: e.g., en ngar, do you look, or simply, look; ter tang, do not run. 11. Infinitive Mood-In the Hawaiian, the grammar notes that this mood is not infrequently of the same form as the imperative, and can only be distinguished by the sense of the passage. This is also true of the Ponape verb. In Hawaiian, however, the particle e is prefixed to the root of the verb to indicate the " to" of the English infinitive. ~ 13. PARTICIPLES. 1 These are marked in the Hawaiian. Certain particles are used to designate them, called the present and preterite, e.g., e lawe ana, carrying; i lawe ia, carried. The same idea is not indicated in Ponape by a particle, but usually, the simple form of the verb is used participially. The reduplicated form of the verb gives a present participle, tang, to run, tangtang, running; alu, to walk, alualu, walking. The Hawaiian has a Gerund. "It takes the definite article k(fa) or a prefix pronoun "; ka lawe, the bearing, ka papa, the forbidding. Ponape possesses a part of speech similar to this, or it may be called a verbal noun. It prefixes, ka causative, and suffixes a prepositional pronoun, thus: ka maua pa-i, "the making.good of me." 448 SIDNEY H. RAY. 2. Other Verbal expressions-(a) The Hawaiian possesses a passive voice, formed by suffixing ia to the root of the verb. Ponape also possesses a passive, which exists in two forms. The first, and more regular, prefixes the preposition pa to the root. The other form is made by suffixing certain particles to the root. (b) The Hawaiian verb is reduplicated in the following ways: (1) First syllable only: lawe, to carry, lalawe. (2) Both syllables; lawelawe. (3) Second syllable only: lawewe. (4) First syllable is repeated three times: lalalawe. This gives a frequentative sense, "to carry often." The Ponape possesses some of these forms. (1) The simple root is reduplicated: tang, to run, tangtang. (2) First syllable only: naitik, to beget; nainaitik. (3) The root except the last letter: matang, to play, matamatang. (4) A syllable is inserted, similar in sound: inta, to say, in(tin)ta. The reduplicated forms while somewhat numerous in Ponape, do not possess the power of the Hawaiian, to beget new forms of conjugation, nor is the meaning of the word so materially changed. The Hawaiian possesses a causative form, made by prefixing the particle hoo: hoo-lawe, to cause to carry, hoola, to save, to make live. Ponape has also a causative, formed by prefixing ca to the verbal root, ka-maur, to make live, ka-mela, to kill, make dead. [Though so dissimilar in form these two prefixes are probably of identical origin. Hawaii is exceptional among the Polynesian languages in having the form hoo for the causative. The prefix is the same as the Marquesan haa, which by the elision of k and substitution of h for f is the fakca of Tonga.1 The prefix among the Melanesian languages takes similar variations. In Fiji it is vaka, in the New Hebrides, vaka or vaga, 1 That the syllable ho is the representative of fa or fe is evident by comparing allied words in the Polynesian tongues: e.g., words for land, star: Hawaiian honua, hoku; Tongan fonua, fetuu; Samoan fanua, fetu. LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 449 in the Solomon Islands it is faga or haa. A very common Melanesian form is fa, va, wa or ha, in the Loyalty Islands a or o. Coming to the Micronesian languages we find the same prefix. As in Melanesia it is simplified by the suppression of the guttural so in Micronesia it is usually wanting in the labial. Hence the Kusaie ak, Ponape *ek, Ebon and Gilbert Islands ka. This is further weakened in the Mortlock Islands to a.] ~ 14. VERBAL DIRECTIVES. "Verbs generally, in Hawaiian, are supposed to have a motion or tendency in some direction. This motion or tendency is expressed by several little words which follow as near after the verb as the construction of the sentence will allow. The motion is either towards the speaker or agent, or from him, up or down or sideways, either to the right hand or left. Even those verbs expressive of the most quiescent state, have this peculiarity. We have something similar in the English phrases, drink up, drink down, etc." This paragraph from the Hawaiian Grammar applies also to Ponape. Hawaiian Directives are: Ponape Directives are: Mai, hither, towards one To, towards one Aku, from the speaker We, from one, a short distance Iho, downwards La, from one, at the farthest Ae, upwards extreme Ae, also means 'sideways' or Ta, upwards oblique motion. Ti, downwards. [The Hawaiian directives are those common in Polynesia; mai, atu, ifo, ake. They are used also in most Melanesian languages, the two last in the fuller forms of siwo and sake. In Micronesia the Ponape directives seem to be limited to the Caroline Islands languages, Ebon has tok, hither, lok, thither. The Gilbert Islands have the Polynesian directives in the forms, mai, hither; rio, downwards, rake, upwards. The directive 'thither' is nako, which is commonly used as a verb 'go' in Melanesia. Cf Fiji lako.] Cc-Dec. 4,1895. 450 SIDNEY H. RAY. The following table illustrates the use of the directives: Hawaiian-lawe au mai, I brought hither lawe au akcu, I took away lawe au iho, I took down lawe au ae, I took up. Ponape-I ua to, I brought here, to the speaker I ua we, I carried from the speaker, a short distance I ua la, I carried from the speaker, far off I ua ti, I carried down I ua ta, I brought up. ~ 15. SYNTAX. Our remarks on this subject will be few, because in the main there is so much of unity. In the Hawaiian the subject is rarely the first member of a sentence-a verb may and often does take its place. On this point the divergency of the two tongues is marked. In Ponape the noun is usually the first member, and it is rare to see the verb in any other position than following its subject. In all the minor parts of speech, the adjective following the noun qualified, the adverb or directive its verb, the similarity in both tongues is striking. [The Ponape order is that common in Melanesia, except in Fiji and a few other places. The Hawaiian is the usual Polynesian order.] ~16. COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY. [In comparing these lists it must be remembered that in common Oceanic words: t is represented by j in Ponape, by k in Hawaiian; a commonfis dropped in Ponape, and is h in Hawaiian; a common k is retained in Ponape, but is dropped in Hawaiian; the common ng is retained in Ponape, but becomes n in Hawaiian.] ENGLISH. PONAPE. HAWAIIAN. Animal man manu, bird. Common Bag et eke Before moa mua. Common Breadfruit mai mei LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 451 ENGLISH. By (prep.) Canoe Cold Conjunction Cocoanut tree Die Face PONAPE. ci mar pan a ni mat maja Father jama Fear Fight Fire Fish Five Fly, (insect) Food, chewed Fruit Hand Hear Mili, one of the Marshall Islands under which is the abode of the departed Moon Moss Mouth Night majak pei ai, iai man-ikca alim long mama ua Uir (chief's lang.) rong mili HAWAIIAN. i uaa. Common vaka hau, cold breeze a niu. Common make. Common mate maka, eye or face. Common mata tana, son. (tama expresses the relationship between father and son, rather than the persons.) matau papai, to strike ahi ia lima. Common nano. Common lango mama, to chew hua lima. Common lono. Common rongo milii, god of the infernal regions malama. Root lama, shining. limu auha Po marama lim au pong 452 452 SIDNEY H. RAY. ]ENGLISH. Outrigger Oven Powerful (super-,natural) Path, road Pillow Rain Round -Scales of fish Seven Side (of precipice) Skin Sky Spirit Star Stand Tooth Walk; Want Weep You PONAPE. tam mcanaman al uilinga, ut un pale (side of house) lkili lan~q aiii U nugi alu anane jongi lko HAWAIIAN. ama. Melanesian sama umzt. Common mana. Common. ala. Common uluna. Banks Is. and Solomon Is. uhtnga ua. Common usa poepoe unahi hi/cu. Commonfitu pali, a precipice iii. Common lani. Common langi uhani Ito/u. Common fetzs /cu. Common tzu nihto alit anoi, to covet lcani-/kau. Coin. tangi Oe. TIlE PARABLE OF THE HAWAIIAN. 5. ele aku la /ka mea lulu /tua e lulu iho i kana hua; a i kona lulu ana, /telelei kekahi ma kapa alanui; a /te/iia ihto la, a ua aila i/to la, e na manu o k-a lewa. 6. A heleiei i/to la kekahi maluna o ka pohaku; a kupu ae la, mae koke i/to la ia, no ka mea, aohte ona mau. SOWER.-Luke viii., 5 - 8. PONAPE. 5. foumot men kco Ian kamoroka ta uan lu/ta kai: a ni a kamokamorok, akai mori ti pon kailan al; ajp tiaka la, o manpir /kai noma la. 6. A akai mori ti pon patp; a lao uoja ta, ap mongi ti pueki jota lamuilamuir. LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 453 7. A helelei iko la kekahi iwaena o ke kakalaioa; a kupu pu ke kakalaioa, a hi/jia iho la ia. 8. A lhelelei iho la kekaki ma ha lepo maihai; a kupu ae la ia, a hua mai la ia pahaneri ha /iua. A pau kana hai ana ia mau rnea, kahea mai la ia, 0/ka mnea pepeiao lohe, e hoololte ia. 7. A ahai mori ti nan uel en karer; a kaner lang uoja ta kajohla la. 8. 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