AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION, PREPARED FOR STUDENTS OF ALL GRADES; EMBRACING SPECIMENS AND EXAMPLES OF SCHOOL AND COLLEGE EXERCISES AND MOST OF THE HIGHER DEPARTMENTS OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION, BOTH IN PROSE AND VEPSE. BY RICHARD GREEN PARKER, A. M. "Dlmidium facti qui coepit, habet." TWENTIETH EDITION. NEW YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE. 1863. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1845, by HARPER & BROTHERS, In the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New York. PREFACE. IT would be presumptuous in any author to attempt to give rules, or to lay down laws, to which all the departments of English Composition should be subjected. Genius cannot be fettered, and an original and thinking mind, replete with its own exuberance, will often burst out in spontaneous gushings, and open to itself new channels, through which the.treasures of thought will flow in rich and rapid currents. Rules and suggestions, however, are not wholly useless. They encourage the diffi. dent, and give confidence to those whose want of conversance with ap proved models renders it necessary for them to rely on foreign aid. In the volume to which this book is designed as a sequel, the author has attempted to render assistance in the removal of the two obstacles which beset the youthful writer in his first attempts at composition; to wit, the difficulty of obtaining ideas, or learning to think, and that of expressing them properly when obtained. There are those who profess to have been benefited by the assistance therein afforded. In this volume he has endeavored to embrace a wider range in the extensive field before him. He candidly confesses that he is not satisfied with his own labors. He would have been better contented to see the task completed by abler hands. But as his labors have been found useful, he has been encouraged to extend them, in the hope that they will prove beneficial, especially to those who have neither the leisure nor the inclination to seek in the wide fields of literature for other and deeper sources of information. If the water in the bucket drawn from the well has not the coolness and raciness of the fountain, or the spring, it will quench the thirst and cool the brow of the toiler, in his laborious ascent of the hill of science. With regard to the manner in which this volume is to be used, the author has only to say -that he has not aimed at giving a regular and systematic course of instruction. Few teachers would probably follow any path that might be pointed out. It has not been his aim to present rn this volume a progressive course. Leaving to the judgment of those who may use the book the task of selecting such exercises as may in fheir opinion best promote the intellectual advancement of those whose minds they are training, he respectfully submits the volume, i d the hope that it may prove a useful auxiliary in the difficult but highly useful task of Compositition. Orange Street, Boston, January 1st, 1844. ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. THE Publishers having determined to stereotype this work, the Author, unwilling that it should leave his hands and be put into permanent form until he had given it a careful revision, and made it as worthy as he could of the favor with which it has been received, has made some important improvements in the plan, the arrangement, and the materials,- by which he thinks its value as an Aid to Composition is greatly enhanced. The subject of Description in particular has been considerably extended and enriched, from sources not within his reach in the original preparation of the volume. The examples and exercises in various parts of the work have been much improved by the rejection of those which he had borrowed from other works, and which had long been familiar, and the substitution of others more valuable, because they are new. He now submits the work, in the hope that it will not be found unworthy of the continuance of the favor with which it has been received. Ortaigo Street, Boston, June 1i, t85. INTRODUCTION. CoIPOsITION is the art of forming ideas, and expressing them in*language. Its most obvious divisions, with respect to the nature of its subjects, are the Narrative, the Descriptive, the Didactic, the Persuasive, the Pathetic, and the Argumentative. With regard to its form or style, it may be considered as concise or diffuse, as nervous or feeble, as dry, plain, neat, elegant or flowery, as simple, or affected, as cold or vehement, as barren or luxuriant; and its essential requisites are clearness. anity, strength and harmony. As it is strictly a mental effort, its foundation must be laid in a disciplined and cultivated mind, in the exercise of vigorous thought, on reading and observation, and an attentive study of the meaning and the force of language. The proper preparation for its sue cessful performance should be laid in a diligent attention to the rules of grammar, a thorough knowledge of the principles of rhetoric, and a suecessful application of the maxims of'logic; for logic must direct us in dhe selection of ideas, rhetoric must clothe them in a suitable dress, and grammar must adapt the dress to the peculiar form of the idea. In the following pages an attempt is made gradually to introduce the student to the several departments of English composition by examples and exercises, with such observations and illustrations as may appear to be necessary for an intelligent comprehension of its rules and principles. The early lessons are simple and easily performed, but, in the course of the work, suggestions will be found, which, it is thought, will be useful to those by whom composition is not regarded as a task. Of the importance of attention to the subject of composition thus much may be said; that there are few individuals, in any station of life, to whom ease and fluency in writing are not valuable acquisitions. AL who are engaged in professional or commercial pursuits, and even the hardier sons of labor, whose "bread is procured by the sweat of their brow," must have correspondence to manage, or written statements to furnish, requiring at once accuracy and despatch; and therefore the facility which practice alone can impart, in the arrangement of theit thoughts, and a ready and correct expression of them, is an attainment exceedingly desirable. In the language of a late transatlantic writer. then, it may boldly be asserted, that " No acquirement can equal that of composition in giving a power over the material of thought, and an apt INTRODUCTION. ness in all matters of arrangement, of inquest, and of argumentations. "Writing," says Lord Baconr, "makes a correct man;" and the author of the Essay on Criticism asserts, that "True grace in writing comes from art, not chance, As they move easiest who have learnt to dance." " He that begins with the calf," says Mr. Locke, "may canrry the ox, but he, that will go at first to take the ox, may so disable himself as not to be able to take the calf after that." On the same principle, it is recommended that an attention to the subject of com-osition should be commenced early in life. Exercises of a simple cha deter prepare the mind for higher exertion; and readiness and facility in the lower departments of writing enable the student to apply himself without reluctance to those mightier efforts by which the progress of intellectual culture is most rapIdly advanced. The words of Horace may here be recommended to particular attention: "Sumite materiam qui scribitis aquam "Viribus. "')r, in the translation of Mr. Francis: " Examine well, ye writers, weigh with came, What suits your genius, what your strength will btar. C 0 N T E N T. S t PAGI Preface,..... iii Introduction,............................... iv I. Objects and their parts...................... 1 I. Objects, their qualities and uses,................ III. Objects, their parts, qualities, properties, uses, and appendages,.............................. 3 IV. Events,....................... 4 V. Objects and Events,................ 5 VI. Names,..................................... 6 VII. Simple Dialogue, or Conversation,............. 7 V-II. Words,.................................... 15 IX. Of Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences,.. 17 X. Use of Words, Phrases, and Clauses, in the expansion of anidea,........................... 21 XI. Of the Parts and Adjuncts of a Sentence,.. 22 XII. Of Sentences,............................... 24 XIII. Of Capital Letters, X................. 25 XIV. Of Punctuation, -. 27 XV Derivation and Composition of Words;..- - 34 XVI. Synonymes,............................... 40 XVII. Methods of Inversion and Transposition,....... 50 XVIII. Formation of Compound Sentences, from Simple ones,.................................... 58 XIX. Of the English Language,.* 61 XX, Periphrase, Periphrasis, or Circumlocution, Euphemism, and Antonomasia,................. 63 XXI. Tautology and Catachresis.................... 69 XXII. Pleonasm, Verbosity, and Redundancy,........ 71 XXIII. Variety of Expression,....................... 73 XXIV. Translation, or Conversion of Poetry into Prose,. 76 XXV. Anagrams.................................. 86 XXVI. Of Grammatical Propriety, -... 88 XXVII. On the selection of Words and Expressions,.92 iXVIII. Of the Construction of Sentences,............. 93 XXIX. Of Clearness,....................... 94 XXX. Of Unity,.......................... 95 XXXI. Of the Strength of a Sentence,................ 97 XXXII. Of the Harmony of a Sentence,... - 99 CONTENTS. PAGB XXXIII Onomatopoeia, or Sound adapted to the Sense,. 104 XXXIV. Definition and Distinction, or Difterence,..... 105 XXXV. Analogy, ~~.............................. 110 XXXVI. Figurative Language,...................... 111 XXXVII. Translation of Plain into Figurative Lafiguage, 115 KXXVIII. Rules relating to Metaphors,................. 117 XXXIX. Prosopopceia, or Personifcation,............... 118 XL. Simile, or Comparison....................... 122 XLI. Antithesis,................................ 125 XLII. Parallel,.................................. 128 XLIII. Allegory,................................. 131 XLIV. Apologue and Fable,....................... 136 XLV. Riddle, or Enigma,....................... 138 XLVI. Charade,................................. 139 XLVII. Hyperbole,........................... 141 XLVIII. Apostrophe,............................... 143 XLIX. Interrogation,............................. 144 L. Repetition,................................ 144 LI. Exclamation,.............................. 145 LII. Vision,................................... 146 LIi. Climax................................... 147 LIV. Anticlimax, —,........................... 149 LV. Allusion,................................. 149 LVI. Irony,................................... 150 LVII. Alliteration,............................... 151 UVI[I. Paraphrase, or Explanation,................. 153 LIX. Outlines in Narrative,...................... 155 LX. Connected Narrative from scattered Facts,- -... 157 LXI. Narration expanded,....................... 159 LXII. Description,.............................. 165 LXIII. Narration and Description united,............ 178 LXIV. Epistolary Correspondence, or Letter Writing,. 183 LXV. Regular Subjects,.......................... 200 LXVI. Themes,.................................. 203 LXVII. Abstracts,................................ 211 rJXVII. Essays from Abstracts,...................... 213 LXIX. Divisions of a Subject,...................... 215 LXX. Amplification............................. 18 LXXI. Illustration of a Subject,......... 219 LXXII. On the Treatment of a Subject,. 222 LXXIII. Generalization of a Subject,................ 227 LXXIV. Poetry and Versification,.. 230 LXXV. Vocabulary of Rhymes, -. * * * 243 LXXVI. Epithets,................................. 282 LXXVII. Lyric Poetry,........................... 284 LXXVIII. Pastoral and Elegia~c Poetry,................ 289 LXXIX. Of the higher species of Poetry,............. 294 LXXX. Style.................................... 300 CONTENTS. PAGE LXXXI. Directions to Students in revising and correcting their Compositions,..................... 303 LXXXII. Marks used by Printers in correcting the Press, 310 LXXXIIII. Technical Terms relating to Books.......... 313 LXXXIV. Obituary Notice,......................... 314 LXXXV. Critical Notice,.......................... 317 LXXXVI. Criticism,............................... 318 LXXXVII Biographical Sketch,....................... 3-22 LXXXVIIL. College Exercises,........................ 324 LXXXIX. Essay, Treatise, Tract, Thesis,...... 329 XC. College Poem,...... - -.. 336 XCI. Dissertation,.......................... 338 XCII. Disquisition,.*-......-..- -......... 341 XCIII. Discussions, 344 XCIV. Disputations,............................. 355 XCV. Orations,...361 XCVI. Bowdoin Prize Dissertation,................ 381 XCVII. On the Composition of a Sermon, -..... 390 XCVIII. Sqjbjects for Composition of all kinds...- - - - - v 399 XCIX. List of Works consulted in the preparation of this Volume,......................... 419 C. Index of Subjects noticed in this Work,.... 420 AIDS ENGLISH COMPOSITION, OBJECTS AND THEIR PARTS. The first step to be taken in writing composition is to obtain ideas. The second is the proper expression of the idea when obtained. To acquire ideas, it is necessary to cultivate habits of observation; to -use the eyes not only in noticing entire objects, but also their different parts; to consider their qualities, uses, operations, and effects; together with their relation to other things. The mind employed in such processes acquires materials for its own operations, and thoughts and ideas arise as it were spontaneously. For the first exercise in composition, therefore, it is proposed that the student be required to enumerate the parts of some visible object, according to the following Example. A HIOUSEIts parts are The inside, The wainscot, The parlors or The outside, The stairs, drawing rooms The doors, The fire places, The wash room, The entry, The mantel, The bathing room, The rooms, The chimney, The inner doors, The ceiling, The closets, The wood shed, The walls, The kitchen, The out buildings. I AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. -Exercises. In a similar manner enumerate the parts of the following objects A carriage. A sheep. A book. A ship. A cat. A kite. A church. A landscape. A cow. A tree. A school-room. A goat. A map. A watch. A dog. A horse. A clock. A picture. II. OBJECTS, THEIR QUALITIES AND USES. The parts of a visible object having been noticed, the next s.tep to be taken is the enumeration of its qualities and uses according to the following Example. GLASS: It is hard, inodorous, insoluble, solid, colorless, dry, smooth, heavy, fusible, bright, uninflammable, thick or thin, transparent, durable, long, brittle, stiff, short, cold, inflexible, wide, tasteless, water proof, useful. Its uses: Ftor windows to admit light: For spectacles to assist sight: For useful vessels, such as tumblers, pitchers, decanters, wvine-glasses, jelly-glasses, bottles, phials, inkstands, lamps, and lamp-glasses, chandeliers, handles of doors and drawers, vases, cups, and ornaments, such as beads, drops, prisms, &3.I AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 3,Exercises. In the same manner enumerate the qualities of the following objects. Wood. Sugar. A lamp. Iront. Ivory. Lead. Sponge. A pin. Silver. A desk. A chair. Gold. Wool. A table. A feather. Cotton. A penknife. A pen. Wax. A quill. Water. Whalebone. An inkstand. Leather. A horn. Ice. Paper. Chalk. Snow. HI. OBJECTS, THEIR PARTS, QUALITIES PROPERTIES, USE& AND APPENDAGES. The parts, properties, and uses of visible objects having now been considered, the two processes may be united, in the consideration of the parts, qualities, properties, uses and appendages, as in the following Examp2e. A PEN consists of the quill, pith, surfaces, shaft, nib, groove, feather, shoulders, inside, air i lamini, skin, outside. Qualities. IThe qlill is transparent, smooth, elastic round or bright, yellowish, cylindrical, hard, horny, hollow, glossy, tough. The shbft is opake, white, hard, angular, stiff, grooved The pith is white, porous. soft, spongy elastic. lighto 4 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. The use of the pen is to write down what we have seen, read, or thought, and thereby to preserve what would probably soon be lost, if intrusted to the memory alone. What is once written can be read, or preserved for future infdrmation, and thereby we can learn what our friends who are absent, and even those who are dead, have seen or said. IExercises. Enumerate the parts, qualities, and uses of the following objects A book. A work-box. A knife. A house. A saw. A wing. A tree. A chisel. A fin.A table. A plane. The hand. A bureau. A ball. The arm. The contents of a box. A kite. The foot. A secretary. A dressing-case. The eye. A plate. A sofa. The ear. A barrel. A chair. The nose. A laimp. A lock. The mouth. A candlestick. A key. The human face IV. EVENTS. The object of this lesson is to teach the learner to describe, in easy sentences, any circumstances which happen to himself and others. He should be directed to write the incident just as he would relate it to his parents or a young friend; and after he has thus written it, to revise it carefully, to see whether any of his words are mis-spelt, and whether he has used the very words which he intended to use. Example. On returning home yesterday, I saw a man severely beating a horse. I stopped a moment to ascertain the cause; and perceived that one of the wheels of the wagon had sunk deep AIr S TO -ENGLISH COMPOSITION. X in the mire, and the poor anima' was exerting all his strength to drag the heavy load, while the cruel driver was mercilessly beating the unfortunate creature because he could not proceed. Exercisj'. In a similar manner, the learner may describe the following events The meeting of a beggar in the street. The overturn of a carriage. The passing of a procession. The sailing of a ship. The catching of a fish. The capture of a bird. The raising of a kite. A fire. The raising of a building. V. OBJECTS AND EVENTS. The object of this lesson is to accustom the learner to corn. bine the results of the preceding lessons. The same directions should be given to him as are present. ed in the last lesson; and it will be proper to enforce the directions with regard to the spelling, and the proper use of words, in every exercise. Example. As my brother was riding in the country, he saw a beauLi ful, large house, painted white, with green blinds. In the front of the house was a small flower-garden, and the bright tulips, all in full bloom, presented a brilliant show. The rose bushes were not yet in flower; but the lily of the valley was dropping its modest head, while it perfumed the air with its delicious fragrance. At the back of the house weIe a number of fruit trees, in full blossom, among which was the peach tree, with its beautiful pink flowers. Some boys were seen 1* A._DS TO' ENGLISH COMPOSITION. clustering around a willow near the brook, busily engaged with their knives. One was cutting the small leaves and scions from a large branch, which he had just taken from the tree for a whip, while another was busily engaged in making a whistle. As my brother approached the house, the boys. mistaking him for the owner, immediately scampered away; some hiding themselves among the bushes, while the more ac. tive leaped over the high stone wall, to escape being caught, It appeared that these boys were truants from a neighboring school-house, and the little rogues were fearful, not only of being caught in trespassing upon private ground, but likewise lest they should be carried into the presence of their master, to be corrected for playing the truant. Exercises.In the same manner the learner may describe the following objects and events; Boys fishing from a bridge. Girls dressing their dolls. A tree blown down by a tempest. Boy driving cows or sheep to pasture. Horses running at large. A dog, in a state of madness, biting passengers in the street. A lion, elephant, or tiger broken loose from its cage. A menagerie, with the postures and employments of the wild annmals. A museum, with dancing puppets. A public concert. An exhibition of paintings and statuary. VI. NAMES. The object of this exercise on names, is to prepare the student for a f.ture exercise on definitions. How it is to be performed will be readily seen from the following Examples. What is the name which is applied to false or undeserved praise? AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 7 Answer. Flattery. By what name do we call the delaying of that which we know cannot be finally escaped or avoided? Answer. Procrastination. By what name do we designate that animal which has two horns, a long tail, and cloven feet, and that affords beef; butter, and cheese? Answer. The Cow. By what name do we designate the restraint of appetite and passion? Answer. Temperance. Exercises. What name is given to the reverence of God? What name is applied to an effort of genius and art, producing an association of exalted and brilliant ideas in language harmoniously arranged? A general coincident feeling between two persons? Habitual inactivity both of mind and body i? That tranquil state of mind in which the agitations of anxiety and dis appointment are no longer felt? That state of mind which suffers no dismay from danger? The dissolution of corporeal -existence? The resolution to persist in any urdertaking that has been commenced X The time after sunset? That God is present every where, and that he knows all tbings a A habit of being pleased? III. SIMPLE DIALOGUE, OR CONVERSATION. Young persons are seldom at a loss for topics of conversation, when left unrestrained to themselves. But as soon as they are required to write what is called a composition, they feel at a loss what to say. This arises from no inability to form ideas, nor fiom want of words to express them; but rather from a vague apprehension that something is required of them, which they have never done before; and to which they know not how to address themselves. The cultivation 9f the habits of observation, to which allusion has already 8 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. been made in the first exercise, will help them wholly out ox the difficulty; especially, if they be informed, that the art of writing is nothing more than the art of expressing with the hand, in signs which present themselves to the eye, that, which with their voice, they convey to the ears of others. In other words, that in their early attempts at writing composition, they may write down in letters, what they would say to their companions in their common conversations. To cultivate the habits of observation, the following dialogue, from the pen of Dr. Aikin, is presented; with the recommendation that it be read to the young student, or that he be required to read it carefully, in order that he may learn to use his eyes aright, and attentively observe what passes before them. THEX TUTOR AND HIS PUPILS. Eyes and no Eyes;.or, the Art of Seeing. "Well, Robert, where have you been walking this afternoon? I' said a tutor to one of his pupils, at the close of a holiday. Robert. I have been to Broom-heath, and so round by the windmill upon Camp-mount, and home through the meadows by the river side. Tutor. Well, that is a pleasant round. Robert. I thought it very dull, Sir; I scarcely met with a single per son. I would much rather have gone along the turnpike road. Tutor. Why, if seeing men and horses was your object, you would, indeed, have been better entertained on the high-road. But did you see William? Robert. We set out together, but he lagged behind in the lane, so I walked on and left him.Tutor. That was a pity. He would have been company for you. Robert. O, he is so tedious, always stopping to look at this thing ant that! I would rather walk alone. I dare say he is not got home yet. ltutor. Here he comes. Well, William, where have you been? William. O, the pleasantest walk! I went all over Broom-heath, and so up to the mill at the top of the hill, and then down among the green meadows by the side of the river. Tutor. Why, that is just the round Robert has been taking, and he complains of its dulness, and prefers the high-road. William. I wonder at that. I am sure I hardly took a step that did not delight me, and I have brought home my handkerchief full of curiosities Tutor. Suppose, then, you give us an account of what amused you so much. I fancy it'will be as new to Robert as to me. William. I'will do it readily. The lane leading to the heath, you know, ismclose and sandy, so I did not mind it much, but made the best of my way. However, I spied a curious thing enough in the hedge. It was an old crab-tree, out of which grew a great bunch of something green quite different from the tree itself. Here is a branch ~f it. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. lTutor. Ah! this is a mis letoe, a plant of great fame for the uso made of it by the Druids of old ix their religious rites and incantations. It bears a very slimy white berry, of which birdlime may be made, wnence the Latin name, Viscus. It is one of those plants which do not grow in the ground by a root of their own, but fix themselves upon other plants; whence they have been humorously styled parasitical, as being hangers on, or dependents. It was the mistletoe of the oak that the Druids particularly honored. William. A little farther on, I saw a green woodpecker fly to a tree and run up the trunk like a cat. Tutor. That was to seek for insects in the bark, on which they live. They bore holes with their strong bills for that purpose, and do much damage to the trees by it. William. -What beautiful birds they are! Tutor. Yes; they have been called, from their color and size, the English parrot. William. When I got upon the open heath, how charming it was The air seemed so fresh, and the prospect on every side so free and un bounded! Then it was all covered with gay flowers, many of which 1 had never observed before. There were at least three kinds of heath, (I have got them in my handkerchief here,) and gorse, and broom, and bell-flower, and many others of all colors, of which I will beg you pro sently to tell me the names. Tutor. That I will, readily. William. I saw, too, several birds that were new to me. There was a pretty grayish one, of the size of a lark, that was hopping about some great stones; and when he flew, he showed a great deal of white above his tail. Tutor. That was a wheat-ear. They are reckoned very delicious birds to eat, and frequent the open downs in Sussex, and some other counties, in great numbers. William. There was a flock of lapwings upon a marshy part of the heath, that amused me much. As I came near them, some of them kept flying round and round, just over my head, and crying pewit so distinctly, one might almost fancy they spoke. I thought I should have caught one of them, for he flew as if one of his wings was broken, and often tumbled close to the ground; but, as I came near, he always contrived to get al ay. Tutor. Ha, ha! you were finely taken in, then! This was all an artifice of the bird's, to entice you away from its nest; for they build upon the bare ground, and their nests would easily be observed, did they not draw off the attention of intruders, by their loud cries and counterfeit lameness. William. I wish I had known that, for he led me a long chase, often over shoes in water. However, it was the cause of my falling in with an old man and a boy, who were cutting and piling up turf for fuel; and I had a good deal of talk with them, about the manner of preparing the turf, and the price it sells at. They gave me, too, a creature I never saw before - a young viper, which they had just killed, together with its dam. I have seen several common snakes, but this is thicker in proportion, and of a darker color than they are. Tutor. True. Vipers frequent,those turfy; boggy grounds pretty much, ant I have known several turf-cutters bitten by them. 1 0 AIDS TO EINGLISH COMPOSITION. William. They are very venomous, are they not? Tutor. Enough so to make their wounds painful and dangerous, though they seldom prove fatal. Villiamn. Well - I then took my course up to the windmill on the mount. I climbed up the steps of the mill, in order to get a better view of the country round. What an extensive prospect! I counted fifteen church steeples; and I saw several gentlemen's houses peeping out from the midst of green woods and plantations; and I could trace the windings of the river all along the low grounds, till it was lost behind a ridge of hills. But I'11 tell you what I mean to do, if you will give me leave. Tutor. What is that? William.. I will go again, and take with me Cary's country map, by which- I shall probably be able to make out most of the places. Tutor. You shall have it, and I will go with you, and take my pocket spying-glass. William. I shall be very glad of that. Well — a thought struck me, that, as the hill is called Camp-mount, there might, probably, be some remains of ditches and mounds, with which I have read that camps were surrounded. And I really believe I discovered something of that sort running round one side of the mount.'Tutor. Very likely you might. I know antiquaries have described such remains as existing there, which some suppose to be Roman, others Danish. We will examine them further when we go. /William. From the hill I went straight down to the meadows below, and walked on the side of a brook that runs into the river. It was all bordered with reeds, and flags, and tall flowering plants, quite different from those I had seen on the heath. As I was getting down the bank to reach one of them, I heard something plunge into the water near me. It was a large water-rat, and I saw it swim over to the other side, and go into its hale. There were a great many dragon-flies all about the stream. I c'aught one of the finest, and have got him here in a leaf. But how I longed to catch a bird that I saw hovering over the water, and every now and then darting down into it! It was all over a mixture of the most beautiful green and blue, with some orange color. It was somewhat less than a thrush, and had a-large head and bill, and a short tail. Tutor. I can tell you what that bird was - a kingfisher, the celebrated halcyon of the ancients, about which so many tales are told. It lives on fish, which it catches in the manner you saw. It builds in holes in the banks; and is a shy, retired bird, never to be seen far from the stream where it inhabits. William. I must try to get another sight: at him, for I never saw a bird that pleased me so much. Well, I followed this little brook, till it entered the river, and then took the path that runs along the bank. On the opposite side, I observed several little birds running along the shore, and making a piping noise. They were brown and white and about as big as a snipe. Tutor. I suppose they were sand-pipers, one of the numerous family of birds that get their living by wading among the shallows, and picking up worms and insects. William. There were a great many swallows, too, sporting upon the surface of the water, that entertained me with their motions. Sometimes they dashed into the stream; sometimes they pursued one another so quickly, that the eye could scarcely follow them. In one place, where a AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. l1 high, steep sand-bank rose directly above the river, I observed many of Lr m go in and out of holes, with which the bank was bored full. Tutor. Those were sand-martins, the smallest of our four species of swallows. They are of a mouse-color- above, and white beneath. They make their nests and bring up their young in these holes, which run a great depth, and by their situation are secure from all plunderers. William. A. little farther, I saw a man in a boat, who was catching eels in an odd way. He had a long pole with broad iron prongs at the end, just like Neptune's trident, only there were five instead of thres. This he pushed straight down into the mud, in the deepest parts of the river, and fetched up the eels sticking betweqe the prongs. Tutor. I have seen this method. It is called spearing of eels. WFilliam. While I was looking at him, a heron came flying over nay head, with his large flapping wings. He alighted at the next turn of the river, and I crept softly behind the bank to watch his motions. He had waded into the water as far as his long legs would carry him, and was standing with his neck drawn in, looking intently on the stream. Presently he darted his long bill as quick as lightning into the water, and drew out a fish, which he swallowed. I saw him catch another in the same manner. He then took alarm at some noise I made, and flew way. slowly to a wood at some distance, where he settled. Tutor. Probablv his nest was there, for herons build upon the loftiest tree they can find, and sometimes in society together, like rooks. Formerly, when these birds were valued for the amusement of hawking, many gentlemen had their heronries, and a few are still remaining. William. I think they are the largest wild birds we have. Tutor. They are of great length and spread of wing, but their bodies are comparatively small. William. I then turned homeward across the meadows, where I stop ped awhile to look at a large flock of starlings, which kept flying about at no great distance. I could not tell, at first, what to make of them; for they rose all together from the groumid, as thick as a swarm of bees, and formed themselves into a kind of black cloud, hovering over the field. After taking a short round, they settled again, and presently rose again in the same manner. I dare say there were hundreds of them. Tutor. Perhaps so; for, in the fenny counties, their flocks are sc numerous, as to break down whole acres of reeds by settling on them. This disposition of starlings to fly in close swarms was remarked even by Homer, who compares the foe flyinog from one of his heroes, to a cloud of starlings retiring dismayed at the approach of the hawk. William. After I had left the meadows, I crossed the cornfields in the way to our house, and passed close by a deep marl-pit. Looking into it, I saw in one of the sides a cluster of what I took to be shells; and, upon going down, I picked up a clod of marl which was quite full of them; but how sea-shells could get there I cannot imagine. Tutor. I do not wonder at your surprise, since many philosophers have been much perplexed to account for the same appearance. It is not uncommon to find great quantities of shells and relics of marine animals even in the bowels of high mountains very remote from the sea. William. I got to the high field next to our house just as the sun was setting, and I stood looking at it till it was quite lost. What a glorious sight! The clouds were tinged with purple and crimson, and yellow of all shades and hues, and the clear sky varied firom blue to a fine green at tf[~2;AIDS TO ENGLISH: COMPOSITION. the horizon. But how large the sun appears, just as it sets! I think it seems twice as big as when it is over hfead. Tutor. It does so; and you may probably have observed the same apparent enlargement of the moon at its rising. William. I have; but pray what is the reason of this? Tutor. It is an optical deception, depending upo]l principles which I cannot well explain to you, till you know more of that branch of science. But what a number of new ideas this afternoon's walk has afforded you! I do not wonder that you found it amusing; it has been very instructive, too. Did you see nothing of all these sights, Robert? Robert. I saw some of them, but I did not take particular notice of them. Tutor. Why not2 Robert. I do not Kcnow. I did Lot care about them; and I made the best of my way home. Tutor. That would have been right, if you had been sent on a message; but, as you only walked for amusement, it would have been wiser to have s ught out as many sources of, it as possible. But so it is; one man walks through the world with his eyes open, and another with them shut; and upon this difference depends all the superiority of knowledge the one acquires above the other. I have known sailors who had been in all the quarters of the world, and could tell you nothing but the signs of the tippling-houses they frequented in the different ports, and the price and quality of the liquor. On the other hand, a Franklin could not cross the Channel without making some observations useful to mankind. While many a vacant, thoughtless youth, is whirled throughout Europe, without gaining a single idea worth crossing a street for; the observing eye and inquiring mind find matter of improvement and delight, in every ramble in town and country. Do you, then, William, continue to make use of your eyes; and you, Robert, learn that eyes were given you to use. The preceding dialogue, if it has been attentively read, will probably enable the young student to write simple dialogues or conversations, shnilar to that presented in the following Example. DIALOGUE BETWEEN CHARLES AND HENRY, ABOUT DOGS. Charles. Whose dog is that, Henry, which I saw in your yard yesterday? Henry. lHe belongs to my uncle, who bought him, when he wa* very young, of a poor boy in the street. The boy appeared very destitute, and uncle bought him rather out of compassion for the bby, than because he wanted the dog. Charles. Is he good for any thing, —has he been trainedt Henry. 0 yes; he- is a very valuable animal. Uncle would not sell him at any price. He is an excellent water AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 13 dog, and knows more than many boys of his own age. The other morning he. was sitting in a chair at the window, from which he had been accustomed to look at the boys, as they were playing in the street, and, finding that he could not see through the window, on account of the frost on the glass, he applied his warm tongue to one of the panes, and, licking the frost from the glass, attempted to look out; but, the spot which he had cleared being only large enough to admit one eye, he immediately made another, in the same manner, for the other eye, by which he was enabled to enjoy the sight as usual. > Charles. That was very remarkable. But your uncle did nrot teach him to do that. Henry. No; that was rather an operation of instinct than of training. But he will carry bundles, stand on two legs, find articles that are hidden, fetch things from the water, and is also well trained for hunting. Charles. He is a water-dog, then, is he not? Henry. O yes. He is very fond of the water himself, but will not allow others to go into it. Uncle has a fine situation at Nahant, on the water's edge, and many of his friends go there to bathe. But uncle is obligicP to tie up Guido, the dog, when any one wishes to bathe; for the animal will not allow any one to go into the water, if he can prevent it. Charles. That is very selfish in him. What do yqu sup pose is the reason that he is unwilling that others should enjoy a thing, of which, you say, he is himself so very fond? Henry. O, he has a good reason for that, as well as for every thing else he does. The reason is, that, one day, my little brother, George, was standing on a kind of wharf, built of stones, near the bathing place, and, happening to stoop over too far to look at some eels, that were gliding through the water below, he lost his balance and fell in. Nobody was near but Guido, and he immediatety jumped into the water, and held George up by the collar till some one came to his assistance. When the servant man, John, came to help George out of the water, Guido had nearly dragged him to the shore; but he found it rather hard work, for George is very fleshy, and, of course, quite heavy; and, although Guido has a good opinion of himself, and doubts not his ability to drag ary one else out of the water, yet he reasons very 2 [4 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. soundly, and thinks it much less trouble to prevent people from going into the water, than to drag them out when they have got in. Charles. No wonder that your uncle values him; he is certainly a very valuable dog. Henry. O, I could tell you a hundred stories about him, which would surprise you. The other day, George brought home a bundle from Miss Farrar's, for my sister Caroline, which he threw down on a chair in the entry, and then ran off to play. Caroline was in her chamber, and, hearing George come in, spoke to him from her room, not knowing that he had gone out, aid requested him to bring it up stairs. Guido was lying on the rug by the fire in the parlor, and, hearing Caroline call for the bundle, immediately jumped up, and, taking the bundle in his mouth, carried it up stairs and dropped it at Caroline's feet. COharles. I should be very happy to have such a dog, but mother is so afraid of a dog's running mad and biting us children, that she will not allow us to keep one. Henry. Father says, that there is no fear of a dog's running mad, if he has plenty of water. He says, that the reason that we so seldom hear of a dog's running mad here in Boston is, because water is plenty here, and dogs can always get at it, if they have once found their way to the Frog Pond on the Common. Charles. What is the name of that disease which people have who are bitten by mad dogs? Henryr. It is called -hydrophobia, which is a Greek word, and means "fear of water." Dogs, when they are mad, caI.. not bear the sight of water; they will not drink; and therefore, whenever a dog will drink, you may be sure that he is not mad. When a person is bitten by a mad, or rabid animal, he expresses the same dread of water, and hence the disease is called, as I said, hydrophobia. Charles. I thank you, Henry, for giving me all this information. I shall tell it all to mother, and as I have often heard her say, that your father is a very sensible man, per haps she may overcome her fear of hydryphobia, and allow brother James and me to keep a dog. AIDS TO ENG'IdSH- COMPOSITION. 15 Examples.'in tha same manner the learner may write a simple dialogue about the following subjects: A cat. -A walk. A Sunday School ex A fox. A pair of skates. cursion. A horse. A tree, A holiday visit. A watch. A kite. An evening party. A dress. A book. A wedding. A ride. A bonnet. A funeral. A meeting-houR, An excursion on the water. A baptism. A school. A lesson. The celebration of an A sled. A new year's present- anniversary. An evening party. A walk about the city. A visit to a printing A sleigh-ride. An excursion into the woods. office VIII. WORDS. Sentences consist of words, and words are used to express thoughts or ideas. The ideas which they express depend on their connexion with other words. Sometimes the same word will signify an action, an object, a quality, or an attribute. Thus, in the sentence "I shall present the book to Charles," the word "present" signifies an action. If I say "the book will then be a present," the word "present" will signify an object, and is a noun or name. But, if the sentence be, " Charles must be present when the book is given," the word "Present" will signify an attribute, and is an adjective. The proper use of words, and the correct understanding of them, constitutes one of the greatest difficulties in written, language. It is therefore highly important that every writer be careful to use thle proper word to express the idea which he wishes to communicate; and when he is required to use a word, that he endeavor thereby to express no other idea than that, which the word is intended to convey. The Dictionary is however a very unsafe guide to the proper signification of words, because their meaning is so ma terially affected by the connexion in which they stand. 16 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMIPOSITION. There are many words, the sound of which is exactly silni lar to the sound of other words that are spelt very differently. hi using such words there is little danger of their being mistaken the one for the other, because, as has just been said, we are guided by the connexion in which they stand. But in writing them, many mistakes are frequently made, on account of the want of early attention to the subject of orthography. The object of this lesson is to afford an exercise in the use of such words as are both sounded and spelt alike, and of those which have the same sound and are spelt differently. The remark may here be made that the change of a single letter, or the removal of the accent, frequently alters the entire character of a word. Thus the -words advise and practise, -which are verbs, expressing an action, by the change of the letter s to c, become practice, and advice, which are nouns. Again, the words comment', increase', are verbs; while coml'ment, in'crease, &c. are nouns. In the use of such words, the student should be accustomed to note the word, in his early exercises, by the proper accent. Example. "I saw with some surprise that the Muses, whose business was to cheer and encourage those who were toiling up the ascent, would often sing in the bowers of pleasure, and accompany those who were enticed away at the call of the pas. sions. They accompanied them, however, but a little way, and always forsook them when they lost sight of the hill. The tyrants then doubled their chains upon the unhappy captives, and led them away without resistance, and almost with their own assent, to the cells of Ignorance or the mansions of misery." Johnson, slightly altered. Example 2d. "The bold design Pleased highly those infernal states, and joy Sparkled in all their eyes; with full assent They rose." Mi;lton, Paradise Lost, B. 2d. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 17 "He hath deserved worthily of his country; and his ascent (namely, to the highest honors, 8ec.) is not by such easy degrees as those who have been supple and courteous to the people." Shakspeare, Coriolanus, Act 2d, Scene 2d. Exeretses. Air, ere, heir; devise, device; aitar, alter; trans'fer, transfer'; palate, pallet, palette; fane, fain, feign; bear, bare; bore, bo ar; council, counsel; coarse, course;, ceiling, sealing; drawer, drawer; eminent, imminent; canon, cannon; freeze, -frieze, frize; gnaw, nor; hoard, horde;.horse, hoarse; heal, heel; haul, hall; key, quay; lead, led; lyre, liar; manor, manner; mien, mean; meat, meet, mete; pare, pear; peas, piece; practice, practise; assent, ascent; rite, right, write, wright; rose, rows; vein, vain; rain, rein, reign; raise, rays, raze; size, sighs; slay, sleigh, slaie; their, there; vale, veil, vail; white, wight; way, weigh, whey; you, yew; fare, fair; deer, dear; hue, hew; high, hie; hole, whole; seen, scene, seine; stile, style; straight, strait; waist, waste; bell, belle; sell, cell; herd, heard; wring, ring; aught, ought; lessen, lesson; profit, prophet; zholer, collar; well, (a nown,) well, (an adverb); per'fume, perfume'; subSctl; subject; object, object'; im'port, import'; prestent, present'; absent', ab'sent; sur'vey, surveyt; fer'ment, ferment'; tortment, tormentt' insult', in'sult; comfpact, compact'; con'cert, concert'; dis'count, discount'; rec'ord, record'; ex1tract, extract!;+ bow, beau; berry, bury; bough, bow; capitol, capital; cask, casque; censer, censor; claws, clause; site, cite, sight; clime, climb; complement, compliment; creek, creak; flue, flew; blew, blue; fort, forte; frays, phrase; herd, heard; slight, sleight; wave, waive. OF PHRASES, CLAUSES, AND SENTENCES. When names, whether proper, common, or abstract, are joined to their subjects by means of connecting words, but without a verb, the collection is called a phrase. As, The extent of the city; The path up the mountain; The house by the side of the river. If the connecting word be a verb, the assemblage of words 0 There are about sixty words in the English language that are thus dis tinguished by the accent alone. See Rire's Composition, page 21st 2* [s AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION, is then styled a clause, a simple sentence, or a simple propo. qition, words of nearly equivalent import. As, The city is large. The path up the mountain was exceedingly steep. fhey are taught by a good master. See Rice's Composition pages 7th and 65th. The words phrase and clause may therefore be thus de fined: A phrase is a connected assemblage of words, without a finite verb. A clause is a connected assemblage of words, with a finite verb.* A sentence is an assemblage of words making complete sense. The difference between a phrase, a clause, and a sentence, may be stated as follows: A sentence always, a clause some times, but a phrase never makes complete sense. There are various kinds of phrases, such as substantive phrases, participial phrases, infinitive phrases, adverbial phrases, prepositional phrases, and interjectional phrases; so named from the office which they perform, or the parts of speech which they contain. Clauses are frequently designated neuter,.active-transitive, active-intransitive, and passive; in allusion to the verbs which form them. A clause which contains a relative pronoun is called a relative clause, and one containing a verb in the subjunctive mood is called the subjunctive clause. Specimens of most of these will be found in the following sentence: Neuter clause,... Darius was Substantive phrase in apposition,. a King of Persia. Active clause,... Alexander conquered Darius, Relative clause,.... who fled from the field of battle. Passive clause,... (but) he was assassinated Substantive phrase,... by one of his own generals, [der, Participial phrase,.. (who) coveting the favor of AlexanMinor active and relative clause, slew his unfortunate master Infinitive phrase,... to secure his own interest Substantive phrase... with that monarch. A sentence usually consists of three principal parts, the mubject, the verb, and the object. As, The man struck the t- A finite verb is a verb that has a subject or nominative. Verbs in the infinitive mood, or the participle, as they have no nominative, are not con-,,dered finite v erbs. A IDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 19 boy H-lere man is the subject, struck the verb, and boy the object. Some verbs, however, admit no object, after them, and the sentence will then consist of only two principal parts, the subject and the verb. All the other parts of a sentence are merely adjuncts, relating to the principal parts, and designed to express some circumstance affecting their signification. Sentences are of two kinds, simple sentences and compound sentences. A simple sentence contains but one nominative and one finite verb. As, " Life is short." A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences, joined together by one or more connecting words. As, "Life is short, and art is long." The different parts of a compound sentence are called members. Clauses are joined together to form compound sentences by conjunctions and relative pronouns; and phrases are, for the most part, united by prepositions and adverbs; the latter are also frequently employed to connect minor clauses with the other parts of a sentence. Both the subject and the object of a verb may be expressed as follows: First. By a single noun or pronoun. As, [John] struck [him.] Secondly. By a series of nouns or pronouns. As, [Diligence, industry, and proper improvement of time] are mate rial duties of the young. Thirdly. By a substantive, or an infinitive phrase or phrases. As, [The acquisition of knowledge] is one of the most honorable occupations of youth. Fourthly. By a noun or a pronoun, attended by a minor olirelative clause. As, [The veil, which covers from our eyes the events of succeeding years] is a veil woven by the hand of mercy. Fifthly. By an entire member of a compound sentence. As, [He who pretends to great sensibility towards men, and yet has no feeling for the high objects of religion, no heart to admire and adore the great Father of the Universe] has rea son to distrust the truth and delicacy of his sensibility. The object of this lesson is to make the student acquainted vith the constituent parts and members of sentences, both 20 AIDS TO ENGLISHE COMPOSITIONo. simple and compound-. The exercises that are subjoined, ar. presented that he may distinguish the phrases from the clauses, the clauses from the sentences, the imperfect sentences from the perfect, and the simple from the compound. Exercises. The eye of the passing traveller may mark them, or mark them uot, but they stand peacefully in thousands over all the land; and most beautiful do they make it, through all its wide valleys and narrow glens, — its low holms encircled by the rocky walls of some bonny burn, - its green mounts elated with their little crowning groves of plane trees, - its yellow cornfields, - its bare pastoral hill-sides, and all its heathy moors, on whose black bosom lie shining or concealed glades of excessive verdure, inhabited by flowers, and visited only by the far-flying bees. By arguments so strong. If we could imagine. They all agree in the belief. The fearful consequences. In spite of all admonition and reproof. Feel themselves at liberty. Such an undertaking would be vain. I am desirous of explaining. For the reasons already given. We cannot but rejoice that. Directed their attention. Attempted to prove. sMake themselves accountable. The question which arises has puzzled. Has produced in our mind. Religion has its seat in the heart. Were now out in thousands. Would be expedient. Remains for us to notice. On the Sabbath morning. Overgrown with grass and moss. With somewhat diminished lustre. The daisies of a luxuriant spring had covered the spot. Opportunity of addressing each other. Had fatally infected. With indescribable pleasure. The most remote period of time. We hoped that this sight. The interior of the cavern. Very important purposes. Have a tendency to preserve. Withdraws his propitious light. However base or unworthy. Is the emblem of. How boundless. The tender assiduities of friendship. Irregular projecting rocks. Was peculiarly dear. Witk -very great pleasure. The refulgent lamp of night. The science which treats of language is called Grammar. Writing is the art of malking thoughts visible. Now came still Evening on, and Twilight gray Had in her sober livery all things clad. The melancholy days have come, the saddest of the year, Of wailing winds, and naked woods, and meadows brown and sere,~ Heaped in the hollows of the grove, the withered leaves lie dead. They rustle to the eddying gust, and to the rabbit's tread. The lower animals, as far as we are able to judge, are entirely occupied witli the objects of their present perceptions; and the case is nearly the same with the lower orders of our own species. Diligence, industry and proper improvement of time, are material duties of the young. Honor and shame from no condition rise; Act well your part, there all the honor lies. Charity, like the sun, brightens every object on which it shines. Though I speak with the tongue of men and of angels and have not charity, I am nothing. AIDS TO ENGLISH COIMPOSITION. 21 X. USE OF WORDS, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES, IN THE EXPANSION OF THE IDEA. The previous Exercise having rendered the student familiar with the parts of which a compound sentence is composed, it is now proposed that he be exercised in the, construction of such sentences; as in the following Example. We went.? We went in a cairriage. WVe went in a carriage to the meeting. We went in a carriage to the meeting last night. WVe went in a carriage to the meeting in Church Street last night. We went in a carriage to the meeting in Church Street last night, and heard an excellent sermon. WVe went in a carriage to the meeting in Church Street last night, with a number of friends, and heard an excellent sermon from the Rev. Mr. Stevens. We went in a carriage to the meeting in Church Street last night, with a number of friends from the country, and heard an excellent sermon from the Rev. MIr. Stevens, on the duties of children to their parents. We went in a carriage to the meeting in Church Street last night, with a number of friends from the country, and heard an excellent sermon from the Rev. Mfr. Stevens, on the duties of children to their parents, delivered in a very solemn and impressive manner. Exercises. In the same manner the student may expand the following simple sentences: My father sailed. They have done all they eouht John related. A cat caught. If Henry had not disobeyed. A thief was caught. God created. The lightning struck. I remember. The river rolled. HIabitual indolence undermines. The minister preached. 22 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. I heard John say. The artist painted Henry declared. I have purchased. This book contains. His parents reside. A horse ran away. The boy fell. Gentleness corrects. The girls rose. The boys took. A mad dog bit. The servants returned. The sheriff took. My father keeps. The wind blew down. The ship sailed. The tide overflowed. The master came. The earthquake destroyed A large number of peopled assembled. The beggar came. Geography teaches. I heard him sing. XI. OF THE PARTS AND ADJUNCTS OF A SENTENCE. The natural order of an English sentence is to place the subject with its adjuncts, if any, at the beginning of the sentence, and the verb and the objective, with their respective adjuncts after it. This order, however, it is not necessary always to preserve, but on the contrary the beauty and harmony of the sentence are often greatly increased by a departure from it. With respect to the cadence, or close of a sentence, care should be taken that it be not abrupt nor unpleasant. In order to give a sentence its proper close, the longest member and the fullest words should be reserved for the conclusion. But in the distribution of the members, and in the cadence of the period, as well as in the sentences themselves, variety must be observed; for'the mind and the ear soon tire with a frequent repetition of the same tone. In the following example the student will notice the different order in which the parts of the sentence are arranged, while they still collectively convey the same idea. The different forms of construction, which depend on the power of varying the arrangement, have a material effect upon the precision and harmony of the sentence; and therefore that arrangement is always to be preferred, which, while it sounds most harmoniously to the ear, conveys most clearly the idea intended to be expressed. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 23 Example The poet must study variety, above all things, not only in professed descriptions of the scenery, but in frequent allusions to natural objects, which, of course, often occur in pastorals. Above all things, the poet, not only in professed descriptions of the scenery, but in the frequent allusions to natural objects which occur of course in pastorals, must study variety. Not only in professed descriptions of the scenery, but in the frequent allusions to natural objects, which occur, of course, in pastorals, the poet must, above all things, study variety.* Exercsses. [The student will notice that in the following sentences, the members are very badly arranged. It is required of him to present them in such order as will make them most harmonious and exhibit the sense to the best advantage.] There was a feeling of strangeness, as he passed through the village, that every thing should be just as it was when he left. In the trees, there was a melancholy gusty sound. and the night was shutting in about it, as they drew near the house. But not only from its relation to the past night, the morning is a fit time for devotion, but considered as an introduction to a new day. To strengthen a character, which will fit me for heaven or for hell, to perform actions which will never be forgotten, to receive impressions which may never be effaced, to that world where I have often gone astray r am to return. Temptations which have often subdued me, this day, I am to meeti again with opportunities of usefulness, I am to help in deciding the hap-.AIt will save much time and trouble in copying, if the student, in the preparation of his exercises, pursue the following method: placing the different members of the sentence in separate lines and numkering them, ae may afterwards arrange them by their numbers, as in tLe following example: 1 We, 2 with the rest of our party, 3 notwithstanding the storm and darkness, 4 pursued, 5 our jqWluey. 1, 4, 5, 3, 2, 4 1 5 2 3 14 5 23 4 532 13452 51 423 2 1 4 5 3 5 1 4 3 2 21453 51432 2 3 1 4 5 2- 4 5 3 1 2 45 3 2 1 4 5&c. 1 4 5 24 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. piness of their present and future life, in mending their characters, and to influence the minds of others. Having on the mercy and protection of the Almighty cast ourselves, to the labor and duties which he imposes, with new confidence we should go forth. Given in part to prayer, as of devotional topics and excitements, a va riety it furnishes, this period should be. And gone to testify of us to our judge, and that another day has gone, at this hour, naturally a reflecting mind will remember. Time misspent and talents wasted, defective motives and irregular desires, if suffered to speak plainly and inspect faithfully, conscience will recount. Between the brothers was no deadly and deep quarrel and of this un natural estrangement the cause neither of them could tell. In the little hollow that lay between the grave of their father, whose shroud was haply not yet still from the fall of dust to dust, and of their mother long since dead, as the brothers composedly but firmly stood, grasping each others hand, the minister said, " I must fulfill the promise which I made to your father on his death bed" and with a uleasant countenance stood beside them. On a voyage in quest of a north-west passage to India, Henry Hudson iu 1609, an Englishman in the service of the Dutch, discovered the noble river that bears his name. XII. SENTENCES. The following words constitute a perfect sentence. It is required to arrange them into sentences. Example. 1. A gratitude emotion delightful is. Gratitude is a delightful emotion. 2. Exclamation interesting adverse when circumstances under Stark Antony this made "have all I except lost away given have I what." Mark Antony. when under adverse -circumstances, made this interesting exclamation - " I have lost all, except what I have given away." AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 25 Exercises. Sorrows the poor pity sufferings of the and. To itself others heart grateful the duty at performs once its and itself grateful endears. Beings best of God kindest the is and. Lamented an amiable youth sincere of terms in grief parent death affectionate the of a most. Temper even and mild remarkably a possessed Sir Isaac Newton. WVords few these in duties contained all are moral our: By do done be would as you. To eat and drink, instead of living do as many drink and eat we should, to live in order. Glorious the Sun how an object is; but glorious more hew much good is great that and good Being use for our made it who. CAPITAL LETTERS. Th first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other piece of writing should begin with a capital letter. The names of the months and the days of the week should always begin with a capital letter. The first word after a period should begin with a capital letter. The first word after every interrogation, or exclamation, should begin with a capital letter; unless a number of interrogative, or exclamatory sentences occur together, and are not totally independent. The various names, or appellations of the Deity should begin with a capital letter; as, God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, the Holy Spirit, &c. All proper names, such as the names of persons, places, streets, mountains, lakes, rivers, ships, &c., and adjectives derived from them, should begin with a capital letter. The first word of a quotation after a colon, or when it is in tdirect form, should begin with a capital letter. 3 26 IAIDS TO ENGLISH COIPOSITION'. The first word of an example, every substantative and prin. cipal word in the titles of books, and the first word of every line in poetry, should begin with a capital letter The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, are always written in capitals. Any words, when remarkably emphatical, or when they are the principal subject of the composition, may begin with capitals. Exercises. when socrates Was Asked what Man Approached the Nearest to Per feet happiness, He answered, that man who Has The Fewest wants. addison Has Remarked, with Equal piety and truth, that the Creation is a Perpetual feast To the mind of a Good man. diligence, industry, and Proper improvement Of time, Are Material duties of the Young but the young Often Neglect These duties. how often shall my brother sin against me and I forgive him? till Seven Times? but what Excuse can the englishman Plead? the custom Of duelling? how manv lessons are there in this book? are there More Than twenty five? why did You Not Arrive sooner? were you necessarily Detained 2 daughter of faith, Awake! Arise i Illume the Dread Unknown, The chaos of The tomb. the lord My pasture Shall Prepare, and Feed Me With A shepherd's care. father of all in Every Age, in Every Clime Adored, by Saint, by savage, and By sage, Jehovah, jove, or lord thou great first cause, least understood, who All my Sense Confined (confinedst), to Know But This, That thou Art good and That myself Am Blind. yet Gavest me In this Dark Estate, &c. tne language of Manv of the european nations was derived From tm Ancient latin. The english and french Fleets had a Severe Engagement. i saw the dutch Ambassador in the Carriage of the spanish consul Always remember this Ancient maxim, Spoken by the greek philoso pher: "Kf now thyself." The christian lawgiver Says, " take up Thy Cross Daily and follow me. solomon observes, that " Pride goes Before Destruction." johnson's dictionary has long been the standard of english orthography out the work of doctor webster seems in a Fair way to Supplant It. have you read rollin's ancient history. thomson's seasons and cowper's task contain many Poetical Beauties i hope You will be able to Write Correctly All ttLat i have Written. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 27 XIV. OF PUNCTUATION.* Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into sentences, or parts of sentences; and is principally used to mark the grammatical divisions of a sentence. The marks employed in punctuation are sometimes used to note the different pauses and tones of voice, which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require. The characters or marks, used in punctuation are: The Comma t, The quotation marks "" The Semicolon-; The Diseresis The Colon: Crotchets () The Period~. Brackets [], The importance of correct punctuation may be seen by the following extract from the London Times of September, 1818. " The contract lately made for lighting the town of Liverpool, during the ensuing year, has been thrown void by the misplacing of a comma in the advertisement, which ran thus:' The lamps at present are about 4050 in number, and have in general two spouts each, composed of not less than twenty threads of cotton.' The contractor would have proceeded to furnish each lamp with the said twenty threads; but, this being but half the usual quantity, the commissioner discovered that the difference arose from the comma following, instead of preceding, the word each. The parties agreed to annul the contract, and a new one is now ordered." Again; the meaning of the following sentence is materially affected by the punctuation: " I said that he is dishonest it is true and I am sorry for it." Now the pause placed after dishonest, will imply that it is trite that he is dishonest, thus: "I said that he is dishonest; it is true, and I am sorry for it." But, if the pause be placed after true, the sentence implies that it is true that Isaid he is dishonest, and I am sorry that I said so, thus: "I said that he is dishonest, it is true; and I am sorry for it." The misplacing of a comma, by a Mr. Sharpe, converted an innocent remark into a piece of horrid blasphemy:" Believing Richard Brothers to be a prophet sent, by God I have engraved his portrait." Had the comma been removed two words forward, the assertion would have been innocent. t The word comma is derived from the Greek language, and properly designates a segment, section, or part cut off from a complete sentence In its usual acceptation, it signifies the point, which marks the smaller segments, or portions of a period. It, therefore, represents the shortest pause, and consequently marks the least constructive or most dependent parts of a sentence. f The word semicolon is derived from the Latin word semz. which m'eans a if, sand the Greek word kolon, which signifies a member. ~ The word period is derived from the Grezk language, and means "sX aircuit." 28 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. The Exclamationhe race The Interrogation? The Dash - The Acute Accent The Ellipsis..... The Grave Accent The Hyphen - The Circumflex Accent A The Breve The Caret A The Apostrophe' The Cedilla 9 To these may be added the marks of reference' The Asterisk * The Section ~ The Obelisk t The Parallels II The Double Obelisk t The Paragraph ItULES OF PUNCTUATION. 1. When two or more words are connected without,the connecting word being expressed, the comma supplies the place of that word; as, " Alfred was a brave, pious, patriotic prince." 2. Those parts of a sentence which contain the relative pronoun, the case absolute, the nominative case independent, any parenthetical clause, and simple members of sentences, connected by words expressing a com parison, must be separated by commas; as, "The elephant, which you saw in the menagerie, took the child up with his trunk into his cage." " Shame being lost, all virtue is lost." " Peace, O Virtue, peace is all thine own." " Better is a dinner of herbs with love, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith." 3. The following words and phrases, and others similar to them, are generally separated by commas from the rest of the sentence; namely Nay, so, however, hence, besides, perhaps, finally, in short, at least, more-,ver, again. first, secondly, thirdly, lastly, once more, on the contrary,,C.' 4. The words of another writer, not formally introduced as a quotaion, and words and clauses expressing contrast or opposition, though closely connected in construction, are separated by a comma; as, "I ity the man, who can travel from Dan to Beersheba and cry,'T is all barren." "Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull; Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full." 5. When the absence of a word is indicated in reading or speaking by a pause, its place may be -' )lied by a comma; as, "From law arises security; from security, iunyy; from itquiry, knowledge." 6. Nouns in apposition, accompanied by explanatory words or phrases, are separated by commas; but if such nouns are single, or only form a proper name, they are not divided: as, " Paul the Apostle of the Gentiles was eminent for his zeal nnd knowledge." 7. When a sentence consists of several members, each constituting a distinct proposition, and having a dependence upon each other, or upon some common clause, they are separated by seriicolons; as, "Wisdom has builded her house; she hath hewn out her seven pillars; sh hath AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 29 killed her beasts; she hath mingled her wine; she hath also furished her table." 8. The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, which, although the sense be complete in each, are not wholly indepen. dent; as, " Nature felt her inability to extricate herself from the consequences of guilt: the gospel reveals the plan of Divine interposition and aid." 9. The colon is used when an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced; as, " The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity in these words: God is love." 10. The period is used at the end of a complete and independent sentence. It is also placed after initial letters, when used alone; and, likewise, after all abbreviations; as, "One clear and direct path is pointed out to man." "Fear God." "Have charity towards all men." "G. W." for " George Washington.'" "Geo." for "George." "Benj." for " Benjamin." " 0. S." for "Old Style." " F. R. S." for " Fellow of the Royal Society." In a general view, the period separates the paragraph into sentences, the semicolon divides a compound sentence into simple ones; and the comma collects into clauses the scattered circumstances of manner time, place, relation, &c., belonging to every verb and to every noun. The note of interrogation,1 or the question, as it is sometimes called, is placed after every sentence which contains a question; as, "Who is this i" "What have you in your hand?" "The Cyprians said to me, Why do you weep " The exclamation point is used to express any sudden or violent emotion; such as surprise, joy, grief, love, hatred, anger, pity, anxiety, ardent wish, &c. It is also used to mark an exalted idea of the Deity; and is generally placed after the nominative case independent; and after the noun or pronoun which follows an interjection; as, " How mischievous are the effects of war!" "O blissful days! Ah me! how soon ye pass " The exclamation point is also used after sentences containing a question when no answer is expected; as, "What is more amiable than virtue! " Several exclamation points are sometimes used together, either in a parenthesis or by themselves, for the purpose of exuressing ridicule, or a great degree of surprise, &c. A parenthesis t is a sentence, or a part of a sentence, inserted within 5 Some very respectable grammarians tell us, that the propriety of using a colon or semicolon is sometimes determined by the use or omission of a conjunction; as, " Do not flatter yourself with the hope of perfect happi ness: there is no such thing in the world:" "Do not flatter yourselves Wvith the hope of perfect happiness; for there is no such thing in the world." But many respectable writers make no use of the colon; and it may well be questioned, whether the retention of this character among the marks of punctuation adds any thing to the clearness or precision of written language. t The word interrogation is derived from the Latin, and means a qtIes svI. t The word parenthesis is derived from the Greek language, and rmeans in sertion. 30 AhIDS TO ENGLIS1H COMPOSITIOBN. anoteLr sentence, but which may be-omitted without injuring the sense or construction, and is enclosed between two curved lines like these; ( ). The curved lines between which a parenthesis is enclosed are called crotchets. Sometimes a sentence is enclosed between marks like these, []1 which are called brackets The following difference is to be noticed in the use of crotchets and brackets * Crotchets are used to enclose a sentence, or part of a sentence, which is inserted between the parts of another. sentence: Brackets are generally used to separate two subjects, or to enclose an explanatory note or observation standing by itself. When a parenthesis occurs within another parenthesis, brackets enclose the former and crotchets the latter; as in the followving sentence from Sterne: " I know the banker I deal with, or the physician I usually call in [there is no need, cried Dr. Slop (waking), to call in any ohvsician in this case] to be neither of them men of much religion." It may be here remarked, that a parenthesis is frequently placed between commas, instead of crotchets, &c.; but the best writers avoid the use of parentheses as much as is possible. The hyphen ~ is a small mark placed between the parts of a compound word; as, sea-water, semi-circle. The hyphen is also used to denote the long sound of a vowel; as, Epi curdan, dec-rum, balco-ny. The hyphen must always be put at the end of the line when part of a word is in one line and part in another; but, in this case, the letters of a syllable must never be separated; as, extraordinary, not extraordinary. The dash is a straight mark longer than a hyphen; thus, - The proper use of the dash is to express a sudden stop, or change of the subject; but, by modern writers, it is employed as a substitute -for almost all of the other marks; being used sometimes for a comma, semi colon, colon, or period; sometimes for a question or an exclamation, and sometimes for crotchets and brackets to enclose a parenthesis. An ellipsis t or omission of words, syllables, or letters, is indicated by various marks; sometimes by a dash; as, the k-g, for the king; sometimes by asterisks or stars, like these, * *' *; sometimes by hy phens, thus, -- - -; sometimes-by small dots or periods, like these:.... The breve (thus -) is placed over a vowel to indicate its short sound, as, St. HMlena. The apostrophe t is a comma placed above the line. It is used as the sign of the possessive case, and sometimes indicates the omission of a letter or several letters; as, John's; "'T is" for "it is"; "tho'" for "though;" "lov'd " for " loved "; " I'11 " for " I will." The quotation marks, or inverted commas, as they are sometimes * The word hyphen is derived from the Greek language, and signifies utnder one, or together; and is used to imply that the wvords or syllables, between which it is placed, are to be taken together as one word. t The word ellipsss is derived from the Greek language, and means ta mMsszon. $ The word apostrophe is derived from the Greek language, and signifies the trnTing away, or omnission, of one letter or more. AIDS TO ENGLlSH COMPOSITION. 31 called., consist of four commas; two inverted, or upside down, at the be ginning of a word, phrase, or sentence which is quoted or transcribed from some author in his own words; and two others, in their direct position, placed at the conclusion; as, An excellent poet says: "The proper study of mankind is man." Sometimes the quotation is marked by single, instead of double, commas. The diaeresis * consists of two periods placed over the latter of two vowels; to show that they are to be pronounced in separate syllables; as, Laocoon, Zoonomia, cooperate. The brace is employed to unite several lines of poetry, or to connect a number of words with one common term; and it is also used to prevent a repetition in writing or printing; thus, " Waller was smooth; but Dryden taught to join The varying verse, the full-resounding line, The long majestic march and energy divine." C-e-o-u-s ) S-c-i-o-u-s C~i-o-u-s s- arc prononmced like shus. T-i-o-u-s The cedilla, or cerilla, is a curve line placed under the letter c, to show that it has the sound of s. It is used principally in words derived from the French language. Thus, garqon, in which word the q is to be pronounced like s. The accents t are marks used to signify the proper pronunciation of wards. The accents are tlnee in number; The grave accent thus, x The acute accent; thus, t The circumflex accent; thus, A The grave accent is represented by a mark placed over a letter, or sl table, to show that it must be pronounced with the falling inflection of the voice; as, Rceuthamir. The acute accent is represented by a similar mark, pointing in the opposite direction, to show that the letter or syllable must be pronounced with the rising inflection of the voice; thus, Epicurean, European. The meaning of a sentence often depends on the kind of accent which is used; thus, the following sentence if the acute accent be used on the word alone, becomes a question. " Pleased thou shalt hear, and thou aldne shalt hear? " But, if the grave accent-be placed on the word alone, it becomes a simple Declaration; as, 5 The word diceresis is derived from the Greek language. and signifiefs s taking away, or a division. f The word accent is derived from the Latin language, and signifies tio wese of the voice. 82 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. "Pleased thou shalt hear, and thou alone shalt hear." The circumflex accent is the union of the grave and acute accents, and indicates that the syllable on which it is placed should have both the rising and the falling inflection of the voice. The caret * is a mark resembling an inverted v, placed under the line It is never used in printed books, but, in manuscripts, it shows that something has been accidentally omitted; as, recited "George has his lesson." The following marks are references; and are generally used to call attention to notes on words or sentences, placed at the bottom of the page: The Asterisk, * The Parallels, 11 The Obelisk, t The Paragraph,' The Double Obelisk, t The Index, Il The Section, ~ When many notes occur on a page, and these marks are all exhausted, they are sometimes doubled. Figures and letters are also somlietimes used instead of the above marks. It is proper to remark, that, in some books the section, ~, and the para graph, A, are used to mark the parts of a composition, which in writing or printing should be separated. A paragraph t denotes the beginning of a new subject, or a sentence not connected with the foregoing. A section t is used for subdivicling a chapter into smaller parts. It is proper here to remark, that every composition should be divided into paragraphs, when the sense will allow the separation. Different subjects, unless they are very short, or very numerous in a small compass should be separated into paragraphs. *EXERCISES IN PUNCTUATION. Insert Commas in their proper places in the following sentences.'Wife children servants all that could be found were savagely slaugh. tered. Hee had been born bred and educated on a small moorland farm which he now cultivated. Doing to others as we wish them to do to us constitutes the fundamen tal principle of Christian charity. Julius Coesar wrote in a clear natural correct flowing stse. The word caret is derived from the Latin language, and signifies it il wanting. t The word paragraph is derived from the Greek language, and signifies an ascription in the margin. t The word sectzon is derived from the Latin language, and signifies a arvision or cutting. The character which denotes a section seems to be made of ss, and to be an abbreviation of the words sigz*un sectionis, the sign of the section. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 33 Climate soil laws custom food and other accidental differences have produced an astonishing variety in the complexion features manners and faculties of the human race. In our epistolary correspondence we may advise dissuade exhort request recommend discuss comfort reconcile. Exercise ferments the humors casts them into the proper channels throws off redundancies and assists nature in her necessary operations. A wise man will examine every thing coolly impartially, accurately and rationally. Homer the greatest poet of antiquity is reported to have been blind. Milton the author of "Paradise Lost" and " Regained" was blind I am my dear Sir your humble servant. J: The earth like a tender mother nourishes her children. Harold being slain the conqueror marched immediately to London Swift says no man ever wished himself younger. To err is human; to forgive divine. The great Xerxes upon whom fortune had lavished all her favors not content with being master of powerful armies numerous fleets and inexhaustible treasures proposed a reward to any one who should invent a new pleasure. You should not desire says an ancient Greek author even the thread of another man's needle. She let concealment like a worm in the bud feed on her damask cheek. Nature has wisely determined that man shall want an appetite in the beginning of distempers as a defence against their increase. The whole circle of vices like shadows towards the evening of life appear enormous to a thinking person. You are not to suppose that the fate either of single persons of empires or of the whole earth depends on the influence of the stars. Tnsert the Comma, Colon, and Semicolon where they belong in the folloz.ing sentences. Green is generally considered the most refreshing color to the eye therefore Providence has made it the common dress of nature. To err is human to forgive divine. The aim of orators is victory of historians truth of poets admiration. Saint Peter is painted with the keys Paul with a sword Andrew with a cross James the Greater with a pilgrim's staff and a gourd bottle James the Less with a fuller's pole John with a cup and a winged serpent Bartholomew with a knife Philip with a long staff or cross Thomas with a lance Matthew with a hatchet Matthias with a battle-axe Simon with a satv and Jude with a club. Some place their bliss in action some in ease Those call it pleasure and contentment these. Most of our pleasures may be regarded as imaginary but our disqui. etudes may be considered as real. Chaucer we are told by Dryden followed nature every where but that he never went beyond her. A clownish air is but a trifling dlefect yet it is enough to make a mar universally disagreeable. In the New Testament as in the dignified and sober liturgy of thQ Church we see deep humility but not loathsome abjectness sincere repent AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. ance but not agonizing horror steadfast faith but not presumptuous assur ance lively Lope but not seraphic abstraction the deep sense of human infirmity but not the unblushing profession of leprous depravity the holy and heavenly communion but not vague experiences nor the intemperate trance. Do not flatter yourself with the idea of enjoying perfect happiness there is no such thing in the world. Keep close to thy business it will keep thee from wickedness poverty and shame. The path of truth is a plain and it is a safe path that of falsehood is a perplexing maze. Do not flatter yourself with the idea of enjoying perfect happiness for there is no such thing in the world. Were all books reduced to their quintessence many a bulky author would make his appearance in a penny paper there would be no such thing in nature as a folio the works of an age would be contained on a few shelves not to mention millions of volumes that would be utterly annihilated. Insert the Period, Question, and Exclamation Point, where they respectively belong in the following sentences. Honor all men Fear God Truth is the basis of every virtue Every deviation from veracity is criminal The Latin language is now called a deadi Language because it is not spoken a's the mother tongue of any nation America was discovered in the night of Oct 11th O S A D 1492 Have you ever read its history The Rambler was written by Samuel Johnson LL D Sir Josh Reynolds F R S was a very distinguished artist In the formation of man what wonderful proofs of the magnificence of God's works and how poor and trifling in comparison are the productions of man Why do you weave around you this web of occupation and then complain that you cannot break it How superior is the internal construction of the productions of nature to all the works of men XV. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF WORDS. Words, with regard to their origin, are divided into primitive an, derivative; and,i with regard to their form, into simple and compeund. A primitive word is a word which is in its original form, and is not derived from any other word; as, man, good. content. AIi)S TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. TTi A derivative word is that which is derived from another %word; as, manful, manhood, manly, manliness; goodness, goodly, &c.; contented, contentment, contententing, contentedly, &c.; which are derived respectively from the primitive words, man, good, content. A simple word consists of one word, not compounded; as sea, able, self. A compound word is a word that is made up of two or more words, or of one word and some syllable added; as, sea-water, unable, myself. * Words are found, on examination, to be reducible to groups or families, and are related to each other by identity of origin and similarity of signification. Thus the words justly, justice, justify, justification, justicias-y, adjust, readjust, unjust, injustice, &c., are all kindred words, connected with the primitive word just. The primitive- words of a language are generally few in number, and language is rendered copious and expressive by the formation of derivatives and compounds from the primitives. When a syllable is added, in the composition of words, it takes its name from the position in which it is placed with regard to the word. If it is placed before the word it is called a prefix, if at the end of the word, it is called an affix. In derivative words, there are generally three, and sometimes four things to be considered; namely, first, the root, from which the word is derived; secondly, the prefix; thirdly, the affix; fourthly, the letters which are added for the sake of sound, and which may be called euphonic letters. The root is cometimes called the radical letters of a word. Thus, from the Latin word venio, which signifies to come, and its -variation ventum, many English words are derived, in the following manner: The first three letters of the word aretaken, as the radical letters, or root of the word. By adding the prefix contra, which signifies against, we have confraven; to which is added the euphonic letter e, to lengthen the last syllable, and thus is composed the word contravene, which means to come against, or oppose. In a similar manner, we have the words prcant, invent, circumn vent, convemt, and their derivatives. t V- Some compound words are formed by the union of two other words; as sea-water, semi-annual. Such words are generally recognized by the hyphen placed between the words composing the compound. Mr. Goold Brown says, that "permanent compoCsunds are consolidated," that is, are written without the hyphen. But it is contended that " glass-house " is as much a permanent compound as " bookseller." The truth is, that no better reason can be given for the use or omission of the hyphen, than caprice. t The student who wishes to study this department of etymology, will find it more fully displayed in Horne Tooke's " Diversions of Pnrley;" Rice's " Composition," McCulloch's " Grammar " and Towne's " Analysis of Derivative Words." In the first mentioned of these works, the " Diver lions of Purley," may be found a learned and ingenious account of the de rivation snd meaning of many a. the adverbs, conjunctions and preposi fiong of *X English language. so AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Many of the prefixes used in the composition of English words art Latin or Greek prepositions; and the effect which they produce upon the meaning of the root contributes much to the copiousness of the English language. There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, that it would be extremely difficult and nearly impossible to enumerate them. 4 few instances, only, of the various modes of derivation, can be given here. Some nouns are derived from other nouns, or fiom adjectives, by adding the affix hood, or head, ship, ry, wick, rick, dom, ias, ment, and age; as, from man, by adding the affix hood, comes manhood, from knight, knighthood, &c., fromfalse, falsehood, &c. Nouns ending in hood, or head, are such as signify character or quality ] as, manhood, falsehood. Nouns ending in ship are those that signify office, employment, state, or condition; as lordship, stewardship, hardship. Nouns ending in ery signify action or habit; as, slavery, knavery, bravery. Nouns ending in wick, rick, and dom, denote dominion, jurisdiction, ov condition; as bailiwick, bishoprick, dukedom, kingdom, freedom. Nouns ending in ian signify profession; as, physician, musician, &c. Nouns that end in ment or age signify the act, or habit; as command. ment, usage. Nouns that end in ard denote character or habit; as drunkard, dotard Nouns ending in kin, ling, ing, ock, el, generally signify diminution; a? lamb, lambkin, duck, duckling, hill, hillock, cock, cockerel. Nouns ending in tude, or ude, generally signify state, condition, or es pacity; as plenitude, aptitude, &c. ALPHABETICAL SYNOPSIS OF PREFIXES. A, Ab, Abs, from. De, firom, down. Ad, Ac, Al, Ap, At, &c., to. Deca, ten. Ambi, both, Di, Dis, &c., separation, not. Amb, amphi, round. Dia, through. Ante, before. Dys, bad, dyfflcult, hard. Anti, against. E, Ex, El, Em, Er, &c., out of Ana, back.;En, Em, in. Apo, Aph, from. Epi, upon. Auto, one's self Equi, equal. Be, to make, Extra, beyond. Bene, well. For, against. Bi, 3is, two, hialf Fore, prior. Biblio, book. Geo, the earth. ~Bio, life. Hetero, of divers kinds. Centu, hundred. Hex, Hexa, six. Chrono, time. Homo, of one kind. Circum, round. Hydro, water. Co, Con, Col, Com, Cor. witkh. Hyper, over. Contra, against. In, Im, TI, not, with an adjoe Cosmo, the world. tive, into, with a verb, on. Counter, opposite. Inter, among. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITIONo 87. Intro, within. Preter, beyond. Juri, legal. Pro, before, out. Juxta, near. Pyro, fire. Litho, stone. Quad, four. Male, evil. Re, again. Manu, hand. Retro, back. Mis, error. Se, separation. Mono, one, Semi. ] Multi, many. Demi, half. Myth, fabilous. Hemi,J Noct, night. Sex, six. Non, Ne, not. Sine, without. Ob, Oc. &c., before, aanst. Soli, alone. Oct, eight. Steno, short. Omni, all. Stereo, solid. Ornitho, bird. Sub, Suci &c., under Ortho, right. Subtar, under. Oste, bone. Super, Supra, abow Out, beyond. Sur, over. Over, above. Syn, Syl, &c., with Pan, all. Tetra, four. Para, against. Theo, God. Penta, five. Topo, place. Per, through. Trans, across. Peri, around. Tri, three. Phil, friendly. Typo, type. Physi, nature. UlndQr, beneath, Pleni, full. Uni, one. Poly, many. With, opposition Post, after. Zoo, aninal life. Pre, before. ALPHABETICA.L SYNOPSIS OF AFFLak~S. Age, rank, office. Ism, doctrine, state. Ance, ancy,' Ive, ic, ical, ile, ine, ing, it, il. ent Lnce, ency, state or act of ant, pertaining to, having th q rjAnt, ent, ity, relating to. Ate, ary, having. Ize, to make. i3e, that may be. Less, without. Bleness, the quality of being able. Ly, like, resembling. Bly, in a manner. Ness, quality of. Cy, ty, y, ity, state, eondition. Oid, resembling. En, in. Ous, ose, nature of Er, or, an, ian, ex, ess, ee, eer, ist, Ory, some, like, full of ite, san, zen, the person who. Ric, domn, possession. Fy, to make. Ship, office. les, science, art. Ude, state of being. Ion, ity, ment, the state or act of. Ure, act of state of beins Ish, some degree. Ward, in a direction. 4 'cS38 AIDS TO ENGIISH COMPOSITION. AFFIXES TO AFFIXES. Are, ated, ating, ater, ator, ately, ateness, ation, ative, atory, able, ably, ableness, ability, ty's, ties, ties'. Ant, antly, ance, ancy, ancy's, ancies, ancies'. Ful, fully, fulness. Fy, fies, fiest, fled, fying, fier, fication, cative, cator. Al, ally, alness, alism, alist, ality, ty's, &c. Ize, ized, izing, ization, ism, ic, izable. Ous, ously, ousness, osity, ity, y, ty. Irve, ively, iveness, ivity. Ile, ilely, ileness, ility. The English language has, in many instances, two sets of derivative words, expressive of the same thing, the one of Saxon, and the other of Latin origin. Thus, SAxON. LATIN. SAXON. LATIN. Fearful, Timid. Height, Altitude. Swiftness, Velocity. Lifeless, Exanimate. Womanish, Effeminate. Yearly, Annual. Building, Edifice. Watery, Aqueous. Fewness, Paucity. Hearer, Auditor. And, in many instances, the nouns are of Saxon origin, while the corresponding adjectives are from the Latin. Thus, NOUNS FROM THE SAXON. ADJECTIVES FROM THE LATIN. Beginning, Initial. Body, Corporeal. Brother, Fraternal. Father, Paternal. Mother, Maternal. Cat, Feline. Day, Diurnal. Dog, Canine. Earth, Terrestrial. Flock, Gregarious. Flour, Farinaceous. Glass, Vitreous, &c. The student is now prepared to write a list of words derived from the proposed simple words, according to the fol. lowing Example. From the word p-ess, the following words are derived Presser, pressed, pression, pressure, pressive, pressinglv., AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 89 depress, uncompressed, &c. oppressor, depression, &c. repress, oppression, &c. impress, repressed, suppress, impression, &c. repression, suppressor, re-impress, &c. express, suppression, &c. compress, expression, insuppress, &e. compression, &c. oppress, unsuppressed, &c. unompress,.Exercises. Write a list of words derived from the following words or roots by adsl ug the prefixes, suffixes, &c., that have been explained. Faith. Jure. Right. Append. Health. Marry. Good. Absolve. Pity. Merge. Idol. Abridge. Hope. Tend. Law. Answer. Mercy. Stand. Author. Aspire. Art. Run. Contract. Pride. Care. Ply. Present. Blame. Need. Range. Attend. Bless. Fear. Create. Moderate. Caprice. Shame. Pose. Virtue. Censure. Respect. Graphic. Use. Caution. Create. Fac and Presume. Cite. Fine. Factum.* Separate. Commune. Scribe. Divide. Critic. Conceal. Argue. Improve. False. Correct. Sense. Profess. Fire. Reform. Lude. Succeed. Full. Defy. Join. Deduce. Frolic. Define. Real. Defend.' ortune. Discover. Large. Resolve. Multiply. Elect. Form. Calumny. Note. Elevate. Fense. Arm. Conform. Fancy. Move. Peace. Hinder. Faction. Spect. Love. Book. Fault. Sign. Laugh. Apply. Favor. @ The otigin of this word is the Latin verb facio, and its supine factenm, which signifies to make, to do, or to cause, and it enters, in some form, into the composition of more than five hundred of our English words. The word pono, and its supine positum, furnish 250 words; plico, 200; fero and latunt 198; specio, 177; *ritto and missun, 174; teneo and tentzm, 168; caveo and captuom, 197; tendo, tensum, and tentum, 162; duco and ductrnm, Id6; logos, (from the Greek language,) 156; graplio, 152. These twelve words enter, in some shape, into the composition of nearly 2500 English words. From 154 Greek and Latin primitives, nearly 13,000 English words are derived, or are affeoted in their signification. See Towne's Analysis of Derivativs Words. 1o AIDS TO ENGLISH COMIPOSITION. Figure. Mount. Motion. Teach. Form. Open. Rebel. Tolerate. Fury. Peace. Remark. Tradition, Grace. Potent. Represent. Tremble. Harm. Prefer. Secret. Value. Humor. Presume. Spirit.. Vapor. Imitate. Proper. Subscribe. Vivid. Indulge. Pure. Suffice. Wit. Moral. Reason. XVI. SYNONYMES. Synonymes are words having precisely the same meaning. The number of words, in any language, which are strictly synonomous, are few; but, as was stated in the last lesson, in the English language there are many instances of words, derived from different sources, expressive of precisely the same idea. Thus, the words swiftness and velocity, womanish and effeminate, building and edifice, fewness and paucity, brotherly and fraternal, fatherly and paternal, motherly and maternal, yearly and annual, height and altitude, are words of precisely the same import. Although, with exceptions of the kind just enumerated, the words strictly synonomous are few, yet it is often the case that one word of similar meaning may be substituted in a sentence for another, without materially altering the idea intended to be expressed. Thus, in the senence, " I design to show the difference in these words," the word design may be changed into intend, pupTose, propose, or mean; thus. I design to show the difference in these words. I intend to show the difference in these words. I purpose, propose, or mean to show the difference, &c:The word show may, in like manner, be changed into explain, point out, ox illustrate; the word difference may be changed into distinction, and expressions may be substituted for wods, without materially altering the mean ing of the sentence. Such exercises as these give a command of language to the student, and are of great use as a prepara ion for exercises in prose, as well as verse. But to the poet especially a familiar acquaintance with expres sions of similar meaning is absolutely indispensable. Confined as he is to certain rules, it is often the case, that a long word must be substituted for a short one, or a Short one for % long, in order to produce the necessa AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 41 ry succession of syllables to constitute the measure, or the harmony, of his verses. It has been stated, that few words are strictly synonymous. Although, in the sentence just recited, namely, "'I design to show the difference in these words," it has been observed, that the words intend, purpose, propose, or mean, may be substituted for design, without materially altering the sense, yet it must be understood, that the words themselves are really different in meaning. The word design properly signifies to mark out, as wuth a pencil; purpose signifies to set before one's mind as an object of pursuit; mean signifies to have in the mind; propose properly implies to offer, and intend expresses the bending of the mind toward an object. * The words difficulties, embarrassments, and troub5es, are often used as words of precisely similar signification; but there is, in reality, considerable difference in their signification. The three terms are all applicable to a person's concerns in life, but difficulties relate to the facility of accomplishing an undertaking, and imply, that it is not easily done. Embarrassments relate to the confusion attending a state of debt, and trouble to the pain which is the natural consequence of not fulfilling engagements or answering demands. Of the three words, difficulties expresses the least, and troubles the most. "A young man, on his entrance into the world, will unavoidably experience difficulties, if not provided with ample means in the outset. But, let his means be ever so ample, if he have not prudence, and talents fitted for business, he will hardly keep himself free from embarrassments, which are the greatest troubles that can arise to disturb the peace of a man's mind." The words difficulty, obstacle, and impediment, although frequently used as synonymous, have nice distinctions in their meanings. Difficulty, as has already been observed, relates to the ease with which a thing is cdone, obstacle signifies the thing which stands in the tway between the person and the object he has in view; and impediment signifies the thing which entangles the feet. All of these terms include in their signification, that which interferes either with the actions or views of men. The difficulty lies most in the nattue and circumstances of the thing itself; the obstacle and impediment consist of that which is external or foreign; the difficulty interferes with the completion of any work; the obstacle interferes with the attainment of any end; the impediment interrupts the progress and prevents the execution of one's wishes; the dificulty embarrasses; it suspends the powers of acting or deciding; the obstacle opposes itself; it is properly met in the way, and intervenes between us and our object; the impediment shackles and puts a stop to our proceeding; we speak of encountering a dificulty, surmounting an obstacle, and removing an. impediment; we go tlhrough difficulty, oer an obstacle, and pass by impediments. The disposition of the mind oten occasions more difficulties in negociations, than the subjects themselves; the eloquence of Demosthenes was the greatest. obstacle which Philip of Macedon experienced in his political career; ignorance in the language is the greatest impediment which a foreigner experiences in the pursuit of any object out of his own country. W The student who wishes a fuller explanation of the difference be tween these words is referred to that very valuable work entitled, " English Synonyrmes explained in Alphabetical Order, with copious Illustrations and Examples dcrawn from the best Writers, by George Crabb, of X.agdalea Hall, Oxford." 42 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. The following instances show a difference in the meaning of words reputed synonymous, and point out the use of. attending, with care and strictness, to the exact import of words. Ctustom, habit. Custom respects the action; habit, the actor. By custom, we mean the frequent repetition of the same act; by habit, the effect which that repetition produces on the mind or body. By the custom of walking often in the streets, one acquires a habit of idleness. Pride, vanity. Pride makes us esteem ourselves; vanity makes us desire the esteem of others. It is just to say, that a man is too proud to be vain. Haughtiness, disdain. Haughtiness is founded on the high opinion we entertain of ourselves; disdain, on the low opinion we have of others. Only, alone. Only imports, that there is no other of the same kind; alone imports being accompanied by no other. An only child is one that has neither brother nor sister; a child alone is one who is left by itself. There is a difference, therefore, in precise language, between these two phrases: "Virtue only makes us happy;" and "Virtue alone makes us happy." Wisdom, prudence. Wisdom leads us to speak and act what is most proper. Prudence prevents our' speaking or aoting improperly. Entire, complete. A thing is entire when it wants none of its parts; complete when it wants none of the appendages that belong to it. A man may have an entire house to himself, and yet not have one complete apartment. Surprised, astonis/ed, amazed, confounded. I am surprised with what is new or unexpected; I'am astonished at what is vast or great; I am amazed at what is incomprehensible; I am confounded by what is shocking or terrible. Tranquillity, peace, calm. Tranquillity respects a situation free fronm trouble, considered in itself; peace, the same situation with respect to any causes that might interrupt it; calm, with regard to a disturbed situation going before or following it. A good man enjoys tranquillity, in himself; peace, with others; and calm, after a storm. - In a similar manner, differences can be pointed out in the words con guer, vanquish, subdue, overcome, and surnmount. Conquer signifies to seek o? Jr to gain an object vanquish implies the binding of an individual; subldum AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 43 Siguifies to give or put under; overcome expresses the coming over or getting the mastery over one; surmount signifies to mount over or to rise above any one. Persons or things are conquered or subdued; persons, only, are vanquished. An enemy or a country is conquered; a foe is vanquished; people are subdued; prejudices and prepossessions are overcome; obstacles are surmounted. We conquer an enemy by whatever means we gain the mastery over him; we vanquish him, when by force we make him yield; we subdue him by whatever means we check in him the spirit of resistance. A Christian tries to conquer his enemies by kindness and generosity; a warnior tries to vanquish them in the field; a prudent monarch tries to subdue his rebel subjects by a due mixture of clemency and rigor. One may be vanquished in a single battle; one is subdued only by the most violent and persevering measures. William the First conquered England by vanquishing his rival, Harold; after which he completely subdued the English. Vanquish.is used only in its proper sense; conquer and subdue are Rkewise employed figuratively, in which sense they are analogous to overcome and surmount. That is conquered and subdued which is in the mind; that is overcome and surmounted which is either internal or external. ~We conquer and overcome what makes no great resistance; we subdue and sur mount what is violent and strong in its opposition. Dislikes, attachments, and feelings in general, either for or against, are conquered; unruly and tumultuous passions are to be subdued: a man conquers himself, he subdues his spirit. One conquers by ordinary means and efforts, one subdues by extraordinary means. It requires determination and force to conquer and overcome; patience and perseverance to subdue and surmount. Whoever aims at Christian perfection must strive with God's assistance to conquer avarice, pride, and every inordinate propensity; to subdue wrath, anger, lust, and every carnal appetite, to overcome temptations, to vanquish the tempter, and to surmount trials and impediments, which obstruct his course. The nice distinctions which exist among some words commonly reputed synonymous having now been pointed out, the student may proceed to the exercises of this Lesson according to the following Example. The words vision, way, formerly, weaken, unimportant, see, and think, are proposed; and it is required to find a list of words, having a meaning similar to them respectively. Voswon, apparition, phantom, spectre ghost. Way, manner, method, mode, course, means. Formerly, in times past, in old times, in days of yore, aneinntly, in ancient times. Weaken, enfeeble, debilitate, enervate, invalidate. U[isnportant, insignificant, immaterial, inconsiderable 44 AIDS TO ENGLISKH COMPOSITION. See, perceive, observe, behold, look at. Think, reflect, ponder, muse, imagine, suppose, believe deem, consider. * In the sentences which follow, it is required to change the words as in the following examples. The student will notice that every change of words will, in most cases, produce some corresponding change in the idea; but, as the object of the exercise is to give him a command of language, it is not * It may here be remarked that phrases, as well as words, may be expressed by appropriate synonymes. Technically speaking, the term synonyme is generally applied to simple terms. But a compoundterm or phrase may be sometimes expressed by a synonymous word; and a simple term may be also expressed by a synonymous phrase. It will be unnecessary to present in this place, any list of words for the pupil to be exercised upon, as the living teacher, or the pupil himself, may easily select them from any volume at hand. But it may here be remarked that exercises on synonymous phrases may be considered as more valuable than those on simple terms, because they may generally be expressed with greater pre cision. But the value of exercises of both kinds is clearly and forcibly set forth by Mr. Murray, in the' Exercises' appended to his larger Grammar, in the following language:'On variety of Expression. Besides the practice of transposing the parts of sentences, the compiler recommends to tutors, frequently to exercise their pupils, in exhibiting some of the various modes in which the same sentiment may be properly expressed. This practice will extend their knowledge of the language, afford a variety of expression, and habituate them to deliver their sentiments with clearness, ease, and propriety. It will likewise enable those who may be engaged in studying other langua ges, not only to construe them with more facility into English, but also to observe and apply more readily, many of the turns and phrases, which are best adapted to the genius of those languages.' A few examples of this kind of exercise, will be sufficient to explain the nature of it, and to show its utility. The brother deserved censure more than his sister. The sister was less reprehensible than her brother. The sister did not deserve reprehension so much as her brother. Reproof was more due to the brother, than to the sister. I will attend the conference, if I can do it conveniently. I intend to be at the conference, unless it should be inconvenient. If I can do it with convenience, I purpose to be present at the conference. If it can be done without inconvenience, I shall not fail to attend the con ference. I shall not absent myself from the conference, unless circumstances ren der it necessary. I propose to be present at the conference, if I can do so consistently with my other engagements. I purpose to be at the conference, unless I am prevented by other avoca, tions. Unless I am restrained by other imperative duties, I shall cfrtainly be A, the conference. I will be at the conference if nothing unforeseen prevents. If I am master of my own time I will not neglect the conference. I shall by no means abser.t my self from the conference if I Can pcssibl attend it. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 45;eemeda iml ortant in theso Exercises to exact strict verbal accuracy. Example 1st. H-Ie continued the work without stopping. He continued the work without resting. He continued the work without cessation. He continued the work without intermission. He continued the work without delay. lie continued the work without leaving off. He continued the work without interruption. He continued the work without obstacle. He continued the work without impediment, &e. Example 2d. He is free from care. He is free from solicitude. He is exempted from anxiety. He is without concern, &c. Example 3d. I found that he was an enemy. I found that he was a foe. I found that he was an adversary. I found that he was an opponent. I found that he was an antagonist. Exercises. Law and order are not remembered. On that elevated ground where the verdant turf looks dark with fae, yes terday stood a noble house. Thinking deeply on the nature of my existence, the contradictiGns I had suffered filled me with humbleness. I began to think that there was some deception in the sensation conveyed by my eyes. How loved, how valued once avails thee not, To whom connected or by whom begot; A pile 6o dust is all remains of thee,'T is all thou art and all the great shall be. The boy translated the book to my lodgings, and conveyed a chair to the table; and I sat down with the intention of bringing the first chapter, which holds a very interesting story from the French into the English language, in a style suitable to fetch the author's rmeanning clearly to every in telect 46 AIDS TO EoGLISH COGMPOSITfION. We get -up from our thinkings with hearts softened and conquered and we come back into life as into a shadowy vista where we have "disquieted ourselves in vain." Thus he went on until the sun drew near to his nlid-day and the augmented heat, preyed upon his force. He then cast round about him, for some more cormmtodious path. Charity, like the sun, rubs up every object on which it shines. He who is used to turn aside from the world, and hold communication with himself in retirement will sometimes at least hear the veracities which the world do not speak of to him. A more sound teacher will elevate his voice and rouse up within the heart those hidden suggestions which the world had overpowered and put douw. Among all our bad passions there is a strong and intimate joining. WVhen any one of them is taken as a child into our family it seldom jbr. sakes us until it has fathered upon us all its relations. The Creator endowed man with a lofty countenance and directed him to look up to heaven. In the following extracts the student may alter the words fn Italic, so as to complete the rhymes; as in the following Example. Did sweeter sounds adorn my flowing tongue, Than ever man pronounced or angel chanted; Had I all knowledge, human and godlike, That thought can reach, or science can define; &c. Rhyme completed. Did sweeter sounds adorn my flowing tongue, Than ever man pronounced or angel sung; Had I all knowledge, human and divine, That thought can reach or science can define, &< Exercises. A shepherd's dog, unskilled in sports, Picked up acquaintance of all kinds, Among the rest, a fox he knew; By frequent chat their friendship increased. Says Ren'ard, "'T is a cruel case, That man should stigmatize our generation. No doubt, among us, rogues you find, As among dogs and human sort. And yet, (unknown to me and you,) There may be honest men and notfalse. Thus slander tries, whate'er it can, To put us on the foot with the hulnan race. AIDS TO ENPGLISIT COMPOSITIOXYo 47 Not in the solitude, Alone, may man commune with Heaven, or beold, Only in savageforest And sunny vale the present Deity; Or only hear his voice Where the winds whisper and the waves are qlad. Even here do I behold Thy steps, Almighty! here, amidst the crowd Through the great city rolled, With everlasting murmur, deep and-strongChoking the ways that wind'Mongst the proud piles, the work of human kind. "' Without a vain, without a grudging heart, To him who gives us all, I yield a portion; From him you came, from him accept it hereA frank and sober, more than costly, entertainment." He spoke, and bade the welcome tables spread; Then talked of virtue till the time of rest, When the grave household round his hall repair, Warned by -the bell, and close the hour with supplicatun& At length the world, renewed by calm sleep, Was strong for toil; the dappled morn arose Before the pilgrims part, the younger crept Near the closed cradle, where an infant slumbered, And writhed his neck; the landlord's little pride0 strange return! —grew black, and gasped, and expirea. Horror of horrors! what! his only son! How looked our hermit when the deed was completed! Not hell, though hell's black jaws in sunder part, And breathe blue fire, could more assault his breast. Confused, and struck with silence at the deed, He flies; but, trembling, fails to fly with haste. If all our hopes and all our apprehensions, Were prisoned in life's narrow limit; If, travellers through this 5vale of tears, We saw no better world beyond; Oh, what could check the rising sigh? What earthly thing could pleasure bestow? Oh, who could venture then to expire? Oh, who could then endure to live i A few examples are presented below, in which the words eia tcalic are improperly used for others which in some respects they resemble. Example 1st. "The lamb is tame in its disposition." Here the word tame is incorrectly used for gentle; tame. less is produced by discipline; gentleness belongs to the uatuIra disposition. 48 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Example 2d. "Newton discovered the telescope, and' Harvey invented the circulation of the blood." In this example the words discovered and invented should change places. We discover what was hidden; we invent what is new. Example 3d. "Caius Marcus displayed courage when he stood unmoved with his hand in the fire; Leonidas displayed his fortitude at Thermopyle when with three hundred Spartans he opposed the entire army of Xerxes." Here also courage and fortitude should change places. Courage enables us to meet danger; fortitude gives us strength to endure pain From such examples the student will learn the importance 5f proper attention to the exact meaning of words. A loose style of writing is the result of the careless use of words, improperly considered as synonymous. Exercises. I heard a large noise, which, though made at a big distance, must havw been made by a very great animal. The work is capable of great improvement, although it was written by a very susceptible man. Ml1itch men were present, and their united voices caused nmany confusion. Franklinf.ramed the fact that lightning is caused by electricity. Sir Isaac Newton discovered the telescope. Solon invented a new set of laws for the city of Athens. A wicked manfarricates sorrow for his sins, and oftenfeigns an excuse for his crimes. The book has many vices, but the defect is.not in the author, who has uficiently shown his abhorrence of fdults. I know the man and acm acquainted with his faults. We are agreeably amazed to see our friends returning so soon. We are surprised that they accomplished their business so early, as well as astonished at the unexpected events which nearly threatened their ruin. "' We often know the spot where a thing is, but it is not easy to find ou, the exact place where it happened. When dissensions arise among neighbors, their passions often interfere to hinder accommodations; when members of a family consult interest or -humor, rather than affection, there will necessarily be variances; and AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 49 when many member of a community have an equal liberty to express their opinions, there will necessarily be disagreements. A misplaced economy in people of property is low, but swearing and lrunkenness are meaner vices.. We perform many duties only as the occasion offers, or as the opportu nity requires. It is the duty of a person to govern those who are under him in all mat tors wherein they are incompetent to rule themselves. Fashion and caprice regulate the majority as the time of one clock rules that of many others. Exuberance of imagination and luxuriance of intellect are the greatest gifts of which a poet can boast. We may be eminent and illustrious for things good, bad, or indifferent, we may be distinguished for our singularities; we may be conspicuous for that which is the subject of vulgar discourse; but we can be distinguishea only for that which is really good and praiseworthy. Lovers of fame are sometimes able to render themselves eminent for their vices or absurdities, but nothing is more oratifying to a man than to render himself illustrious for his professional skill. It is the lot of few to be noted, and these few are seldom to be envied. Water and snow amass by the continual accession of fresh quantities, the ice accumulates in the river until it is frozen over. The industrious man anmasses guineas and accumulates wealth. France has long been celebrated for its health; and many individuals resort thither for the benefit of their salubrity. The places destined for the education of youth should be salutary; the diet of the young healthy rather than delicate, and in all their disorders, care should be taken to administer the most wholesome remedies. A nation may be extravagant of its resources, and a government may be vrofdse of the public money; but no individual should be lavish of what is Aot his own, nor prodigal of what he gives another. There are but few remarkable things; but many things are extraordinary. A man may have a distaste for his ordinary occupations without any apparent cause; and after long illness he will frequently take a dislike to the food or the amusement which before afforded him pleasure. It is good to suppress unfounded disgusts; it is difficult to overcome a strong dislike; and it is advisable to divert our attention from objects calculated to create distaste.* - Words are sometimes similar in sound, although different in spelling and signification. Such are the words sight, cite, and site; raise and raze aisle and isle; scent, cent, and sent, &c. Although these are not, technically speaking, to be considered as synonymous, they may be here mentioned in order to caution the student with regard to the use of them. The verbs hie and lay, also, although entirely different in meaning, have some parts in common, which are frequently misused. The teacher who wishes for exer cises of this kind, to be corrected by the pupil, will. find a large collection of them in a little work recently published by a distinguishted teacher of this city, entitled " The Companion to Spelling Books, in which the Or thography and Meanmng of many thoussald Words, most liable to be misspelled and misused, are impressed upon the Memory by a regular Series of Written Exercises." The work is by that eminent teacher, Mr. William B. Fowle. See also the exercises on words, page 17 5 bo AIDS TO E.NCXLISH COMPOSITION. XVII. METHODS OF INVERSION AND TRANSPOSITION. The same idea may be expressed in a great variety ot ways by the methods of inversion and transposition suggested in the following examples..Example 1st. By changing active verbs into passive, and the contrary, thus, By the active verb. A multitude of delighted guests soon filled the places of those who refused to come. By the passive verb. The places of those who refused to come were soon filled by a multitude of delighted guests. Example 2d. By using the case absolute, instead of the nominative case and its verb, and the contrary; as,. The class having recited their lessons, the teacher dismissed them. Th e class recited their lessons and the teacher dismissed them. Of these two sentences the former is preferable, because it preserves the unity of the sentence, which requires that the subject or nominative should be changed as little as possible during the course of the sentence. Another recommendation of the former expression is, that it throws out the conjunction, which should never be uhnnecessarily introduced into a sentence. Example 3d. Infinitive mood or substantive and participial phrases instead of nominative or o'iective nouns, and the reverse; as, HIis having been unfortunate is no disgrace; instead of, His misfortunes are no disgrace. Diligence, industry, and proper improvement of time are material duties of the young; or, To be diligent, industrious, and properly to improve time are material duties of the young. Example 4th. By the negation or affirmation of the contrary; as, Solon the Athenian effected a great choange in the gove-:nment of his AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 51 country. Solon, the Athenian, effected no small change in the government of his country. The beauty of the earth is as conspicuous as the grandeur of the heavens. The beauty of the earth is not less conspicunus than the grandeur of the heavens. Example 5th. By reversing the corresponding parts of the sentence, with a negative adverb; as, The grandeur of the heavens is not more conspicuous than the beauty of the earth. Tlhe negation of the contrary.* The beauty of the earth is not less conspicuous than the grandeur of the heavens. By a comparison. There is as much beauty in the earth, as there is grandeur in the heavens. By an expletive cause. There is no less beauty in the earth than grandeur in the heavens. Example 6th. By changing the participial phrases into a personal verb with a Conjunction; as, Charles, having been deprived of the help of tutors, neglected his studies. Charles was deprived of the help of tutors, and therefore he neglected his studies. Example 7th. Change of the nominative and verb into an infinitive phrase; as, He sacrificed his future ease and reputation that he might enjoy present pleasure. He sacrificed his future ease and reputation to enjoy present pleasure. Example 8bh. lie infinitive changed into an objective noun; as, Canst thou expect to escape the hand of vengeance? Canst thou expect an escape from the hand of vengeance? Or into a finite verb with its nominative; as, Canst thou expect that thou shalt escape the hand of vengeance? -E The negative adjective is generally more elegant than the negative adverb. Thus, "I was unable," is to be preferred to the expression,'I'was not able." "Invisible," rather than'not visible;" l"ncomnisstente," rather than " not consistent," &c. 52 nIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Example 9th. Participial nouns converted into common nouns, and the contrary; as, Providence alone can order the changing of times and seasons. Providence alone can order the changes of times and seasons..Example 10th. The change of the verb, an adjective, or an adverb, into a noun and the contrary; and the conversion of a noun into a pronoun; as, Idleness, ease, and prosperity tend to generate folly and vice. The tendency of idleness, ease, and prosperity is to generate folly and vice. Idleness, ease, and prosperity have a tendency toward the generation of folly Folly and vice are too generally the consequences of idleness, ease, and prosperity. Simple language always pleases most. Simplicity of language always pleases most. We please most when we speak simply. Those persons who, &c. They who, &c. Example 11th. The conversion of an active or a passivie verb into a neuter verb with an adjective; as, Sobriety of mind suits the present state of man. -Sobriety of mind is suitable to the present state of man..Example 12th. By the conversion of a declaration into an obligation, with a corresponding change of words. Declaration. Man's present state renders sobriety of mind highly becoming. Obligation. Man in his present state should be characterized by sobriety of mind. Example 13th. By a noun in apposition to avoid the use of the conjunction mnd. Hope is the sustainer of the mind, and supports us ander many a burden. Hope, the sustainer of the mind, stupports us under many a burdenc AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. b3 Example 14th. By the preposition and its objective case, instead of the pos. sessive; as, The moon's mild radiance and the sun's resplen dent brightness are objects which, &c. The mild radiance of the moon and the resplendent brightness of the sun,* &c. The repetition of and t avoided by the use of the preposition; as, God has given us oevnes to enjoy all these beautiful objects, and reason to guide us in the use of them. God has given us senses to enjoy all these beautiful objects, with reas son to guide us in the use of them. By the use of thle potential mode instead of the infinitive; God has given us senses that we may enjoy all these beautiful objects, with reason, &c. An infinitive phrase instead of a nominative noun; To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly, are duties enjoined by Christianity. Justice, mercy, and humility, are duties enjoined by Christianity. The negative adverb with the conjunction but; We can ob serve the exquisite skill of the Artificer in all that we see around us. We cannot but observe the exquisite skill of the Artificer in all that we see around us. It is to be remarked, that although some examples have been given, in which the participial noun is used, yet when there is a common noun from the same root, of similar meaning, the participial noun should be avoided. Thus, "The habit of deceiving " is not so elegant an expression as " Habits of deception.":Example 15th. Resolution of the personal pronoun, wit the conjunction and into the relative pronoun; thus, We can learn a lesson of resignation, and it will prepare us for that happy home where the weary are at rest. We can learn a lesson of resignation, * It is deemed very inelegant to construct a sentence with many posses sive nouns, or with many objectives governed by the preposition rf. Thus, the sentence, The extent of the prerogative of the King of England, or, The Kihg of England's prerogative's extent, would be better expistased thus, Tile extent of the King of England's prerogative. t The use of the conjunction and may often be avoided by diidisg long sentences into short ones. b4 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. which will prepare us for that happy home whcxe the weary are at rest. - Excunple 16th. By the use of the present or perfect participle instead of the verb; as, He was called to the exercise of the supreme power at a very early age, and evinced a great knowledge of government and laws, and was regarded by mankind with a respect which is seldom bestowed on one so young. In this sentence the use of the participles removes one of the conjunctions, which young writers are very apt to repeat unnecessarily; thus, Called to the exercise of the supreme power at a very early age, and evincing a great knowledge of government and laws, he was regarded by mankind with a respect which is seldom bestowed on one so young. By the use of the participles instead of the relative. clause, as, " The smiles that encourage severity of judgement hide malice and insincerity." Smiles encouraging severity of judgement hide malice and insincerity. For the sake of emphasis, or to gratify a taste for singularity, some writers have adopted the poetical style in prose, placing the verb before its nominative; thus, Wlhen we go, for go we must, &c. Proceed we now to the second subject of our consideration. Recoynize we here the hand, of an Almighty power. In some instances, perhaps not strictly proper, we find the definite article placed before the relative pronoun; as, Tt - things, the which you have seen and understood, &c. It is to be observed, that in all the changes suggested, Ahe foregoing models, there must be some slight change in the idea, but still the identity of the thought is sufficiently pre. served in all the changes suggested. * -* Under the head of variety of expression, may be noticed some few peculiarities and improprieties, which are sometimes heard, especially in colloquial intercourse, and which, in some instances, are not noticed by any grammatical authority. And first, the improper use of if for whethler, as follows: " She asked me if I would go with her." It should be, "She asked me whether I would go," &c. Again, the improper use of mo for sny self, and of you for yourselfj As, I am going to wash one. Do you intend to wash you? It should be nzyself and yourself. Again, The use of as for that; as I do not know as I sfhall go. I do not know as I could tell wh6n. It should be that. I do not know that I shall go. [ do not know that I could tell when, Again, The use of asy and got with a negative; as, I haves AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 5 Examples of some of the preceding methods of inversion and transposition. Example 1st. The mind is sustained by hope. Hope sustains the mind. Hope is the sustainer of the mind. The sustainer of the mind is hope. Exacmple 2d. Idl3ness, ease, and prosperity, tend to generate folly and vice. The tendency of idleness, ease, and prosperity is to generate folly and vice. Idleness, ease, and prosperity have a tendency, &c. not got any book. It would be better to say, I have no book. Such words as fetch for bring, sweat for perspiration, and many others of a similar character, are considered, to say the least, inelegant, and are to be avoided. The word so is sometimes heard in use for therefore; as, Charles did not wish to go, so I did not urge him. It should be, Charles did not wish to go, there/ore I did not urge him. Other is sometimes improperly followed by but instead of than; as, I saw no other but him. It should be, I saw no other than him. We sometimes hear the demonstrative pronoun improperly used for the personal pronoun; as, Those who hear must obey. It should be, They who hear must obey. We sometimes hear such expressions as this: I know of hardly [or scarcely] a passage, &c. It would be better to say, I know of no passage, &c. The past tenses of the word lay (to place) are very frequently and improperly used for the corresponding tenses of lie (to lie down). Thus, The water laid in the pool. It sh uld be lay in the pool. You have laid abed too long. It should be, You have lain, &c. Again, We frequently find a want of correspondence in the different parts of a sentence, as follows: He did not mention Leonora, nor that her father was dead. It is better to say, He did not mention Leonora, nor the death of her father. These expressions fall under grammatical rule. In sentences where the negative adverb occurs, it should be followed by the negative conjunction. Thus, " Thou canst not tell whence it cometh and whither it goeth," should be, Thou canst not tell whence it cometh nor whither it goeth. In the use of prepositions we find many manifest improprieties. As no certain rule can be laid down with regard to them, a few examples are pre sented, to show whas prepositions may be properly used with certain words It may, however, be -emarked that the same preposition that follows a verb or adverb, should generally follow the noun, &c., which is derived from it, as, confide in, cznfidence in; disposed to tyrannize, a disposition to tyranny, &c. Accuse of falsehood. Differfrogn. Need of. Accused by his frien.- Difficulty in. Observance of. Acq ut of: Disr iuntion of, Prejudice agaitst. 56 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSiTION. 0 1lly and vice are too frequently the consequences of idle ness) case, and prosperity. * Exercises on the'principles of the preceding methods of Invelr sion and Transposition. Providence alone can order the changing of the seasons. Can you expect to be exempted from these troubles which all must suffer? Earth shall claim thy growth, to be resolved to earth again. That I may convince you of my sincerity, I will repeat the assertion. Sobriety of mind is not unsuitable to the present state of man. lie had no little difficulty in accomplishing the undertaking. A large part of the company were pleased with his remarks. Hope sustains the mind. Indeed, if we could arrest time, and strike off the wheels of his chariot, and, like Joshua, bid the sun stand still, and make opportunity tarry as long as we had occasion for it, this were something to excuse our delay or at least to mitigate and abate the folly and um'easonableness of it. 4 The word it commonly called the neuter pronoun, is sometimes very serviceable in enabling us to alter the arrangement. Thus, It is hope that sustains the mind. It is by hope that the mind is sustained, &c. See Wliately's Rhetoric, Part 3r, Chap. 2d, Part 11thi. Adapted to. Disappointed in or of. t Profit by. Agreeable to. Disapprove of. Provide with, for, or Averse to. Discouragement to. against. Bestow upon. Dissent from. Reconcile to. Boast or brag of. Eager in. Replete with. Call on. Engaged in. Resemblance to. Change for. Exception firom. Resolve on. Confide in. Expert at or in. Reduce under or to. 4 Conformable to. Fal under. Regard to or for. Compliance qvith. Free from. Swerve fi-on. Consonant to. Glad of or at. t Taste of or for. 11 Conversant with * a Independent of or on. Think of or on. person, inz a thing. Insist upon. True to. Dependent upon. Made of. Wait o0z. Derogation fi-om. Marry to. Worthy of. *a Die of or by. Martyrfor. * Addison has1 "conversant among the,writings," &c., and, " conversant about worldly affairs.'" Generally speaking, "conversant with" is preferable. t We are disappointed of a thing when we do not get it; and disappointed ins it when we have it, and find that it does not answer our expectations. t "Glad of," when the cause of joy is something gained or possessed; and "gilad at," when something befalls another; as, " Jonah was glsd of the gourd;"'He that is glad at calamities," &c. ~ " Reduce under,"' is to conquer or subdue." II A taste of a thing, implies actual enjoyment of it; but a tastefor it, implies only a capacity for enjoyment; as, " When we have had a taste of the pleasures of virtue, we can have no tastefor those of vice. " ** Many of these words sometimes take other prepositions after them, to express various meanings; thus, for example, "Fall in, to comply;" "Fall off, to for. sake;" "Fall out, to happen;" "Fall up9on. to attack;" "Fall to. " to begin ea gerly," &c. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 57 The records of Scripture exhibit no character more remarkable and instructive than that of the Patriarch Joseph. He is one twho is beheld by us, tried in all the vicissitudes of fortune; from the condition of a slave rising to be ruler of the land of Egypt; and in every station, favor is acquired by him with God and man, by his wisdom and virtue. When he was overseer of Potiphar's house he proved his fidelity by strong temptations, which were honorably resisted by him. When the artifices of a false woman threw him into prison, he was soon rendered conspicuous even in that dark mansion by his integrity and prudence. Poetry is sublime when any great and good affection, as piety or pat. riotism, is awakened in the mind by it. But in this dark and bewildered state an opposite direction is taken by the aspiring tendency of our nature and a very misplaced ambition is fed by it. The mind is sustained by hope. Idleness, ease, and prosperity tend to generate folly and vice. The beauty displayed in the earth equals the grandeur conspicuous In the heavens. Solon, the Athenian, effected a great change in the government of his country. The Spartans considered war as the great business of life. For that reason they trained their children to laborious exercise, and instilled into their minds the principles of temperance and frugality. He sacrificed his future ease and reputation that he might enjoy present pleasure. When virtue abandons us, and conscience reproaches us, we become tarrified with imaginary evils. Expect no more from the world than it is able to afford you. Canst thou expect to escape the hand of vengeance? Providence alone can order the changing of times and seasons. She who studies her glass neglects her own heart. It is a favorite opinion with some, that certain modes of instruction are more profitable than others, or at least that there are some branches of study which give more full and constant employment to the intellectual faculties. While many considerations allure the young awid enterprising to com mercial pursuits, the amount of capital which is needed, tends to limit the number of those who thus employ themselves. The eye could scarcely reach the lofty and noble ceiling, the sides being regularly formed with spars, and the whole place presenting the idea of a magnificent theatre, that was illuminated with a vast profusion of lights. An endless variety of characters, dispositions, and passions, diversifies thie wide circle of human affairs. A crowd that obstructed his passage awakened him from the tranquillity o0 meditation. He raised his eyes and saw the chief vizier, who had returned from the divan and was entering his palace Let us remember that of small incidents the system of human life is cherfly composed. Her temper and her capacity were the foundation of her singular talents for government. She was endowed with a great command over herself, and she soon obtaired an uncontrolled ascendancy ovrr the people 58 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Few sovereigns of England succeeded to the throne in more difficult circumstances, and by none was the government uniformly conducted so successfully and felicitiously. The enemy was subdued and the garrison was silenced, and the victori ous army returned triumphing. To be docile and attentive is required of the young. Miss Hannah Moore's writings have produced no small influence on the morals of the people. The elegance of her manners is as conspicuous as the beauty of her person. He took great pains that he might obtain the reward. Gentle manners always please us most. Strong expressions suit only strong feelings. Providence has furnished us with talents for performing our duties and reason to gui le in their performance. We can see the wisdom of God in all his works. XVIII. FORMATION OF COMPOUND SENTENCES FROM SIMPLE ONEES. In every composition there should be a due intermixture of long and short sentences. For this reason the student should understand how to form compound sentences from simple ones. * In the prosecution of this. work, he must recollect that in every sentence there must be some connecting principle among the parts. Some one object must reign and be predominant. There is commonly in every well-formed sentence, some person or thing which is the governing word, and this should be continued so, if possible, from the beginning to the end of the sentence. Another principle, which he must also bear in mind, is that X Professor Newman, says, in his Rhetoric, that " Vivacity of Style is sometimes attained by the omission of conjunctions and the consequent division of the discourse into short sentences." The following example illustrates his remark: " As the storm increased with the night, the sea was lashed into tremen dous confusion, and there was a fearful sullen sound of rushing waves and broken surges, while deep called unto deep." " The storm increased with the night. The sea was lashed into temendous confusion. There was a fearful sullen sound of rushing waves and brken surges. Deep called unto deep." AIDS TO'ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 59 which is expressed in Dr. Blair's second rule for the preservation of the unity of a sentence, namely: -" Never to crowd into one sentence, things which have so little connection, that.they could bear to be divided into two or more sentences." The violation of this rule tends so much to perplex and obscure, that it is safer to err by too many short sentences,,Sue by one that is overloaded and embarrassed. Example. The Sultan was dangerously wounded. Thy conveyed him to his tent. Upon hearing of the defeat of his troops, they put him into, titter. The litter transported him to a place of safety. The place of safety was at the distance of about fifteen %gnues Compound sentence formed from the preceding simple ones. The Sultan Deing dangerously wounded, they carried him to his tent; and upon healing of the defeat of his troops, they put him into a litter, which transported him to a place of safety, at the distance of about fifteen leagues. This sentence will be better if it be constructed as follows so that there shall be but one governing word from the begin ning to the end of the sentence. Thus: The Sultan being dangerously wounded, was carried to his tent; and on hearing of the defeat of his troops, was put into a litter, and transported to a place of safety, about fifteen leagues distant. The following rules for the arrangement of WOLds should be particularly observed, in the composition of compound sentences. Rule 1st. The words should be so arranged as to mark as distinctly as ossible by their location, the relation of the several parts to each other. This rule requires that the verb should be placed as near as possible to vse nominative; that the object should follow the verb in close succession, that adverbs should be placed near the word whose signification they affect, that the preposition should be immediately followed by the word which it governs, and that pronouns should be placed in such a position as to leave no doubt in the mirEd, with regard to their antecedents. Rule 2s. When a circumstance is thrown into the midst of a sentanene fit) AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. it should not be placed between the capital clauses, nor so as to hal loosely, but should be distinctly determined to its connexion by the postion which it occupies. The following sentence, composed of several simple sentences, is badly arranged. The parts in Italic show what the'circumstance' is which is thrown into the midst of the sentence.'The minister who grows less by his elevation, like a statue placed on a mighty pedestal, will always have his jealousy strong about him.' In this sentence, a beautiful simile, by its improper location, is not only deprived of its effect, but is an encumbrance. Let a slight alteration of the arrangement be made, and the simile is restored to its beauty, and becomes highly ornamental. Thus: The minister, who, like a statue placed on a mighty pedestal, grows less by his elevation, will always have his jealousy strong about him. Rule 3d. Every sentence should present to the mind a distinct picture, or single group of ideas. For this reason, the scene and the circumstances expressed within the compass of a sentence must not be unnecessarily changed. In the formation of compound sentences, therefore, from simple ones, whatever caqnot be grouped so as to form an harmonious picture, should be presented in a separate sentence. The following sentence shows very clearly the bad effects of a change from person to person.'The Brittons left to shift for themselves, and daily harassed by cruel inroads from the Picts, were forced to call in the Saxons for their defence, who consequently reduced the great part of the island to their power, drove the Britons into the most remote and mountainous parts, and the rest of the country, in customs, religion and language, became wholly Saxon.' This complicated sentence, by means of some slight alterations, and a division into several sentences, will appear clear and accurate; thus, The Britons, left to shift for themselves, and daily harassed by the cruel inroads of the Picts, were forced to call in the Saxons for their defence. But these (the Saxons) soon reduced the greatest part of the island under their own power, and drove the Britons to the most remote. and mountain ous parts. The consequence was, that the rest of the country became inhabited by a people in language, manners hand religion wholly Saxon. Rule 4th. The too frequent repetition of the same pronouns referring to different antecedents should be avoided. The reason for this rule is, that such words being substitutes, can be used with advantage only when that to which the pronoun refers is quite obvious..The following sentence exemplifies this remark:'One may have an air which proceeds from a just sufficiency and knowl.. edge of the matter before him, which may naturally produce some motions of his head and body, which might become the bench better than the bar.' In this sentence the pronoun' which' is used three times; and each time with a different antecedent. The first time that it is used its antecedent is air, the second time it is sufficiency and knowuledge, and the third, motzoms of the head and body. The confusion thus introduced into the sentence may be avoided by employing this for the second which, and such as for the third: thus, "One may have an air which proceeds from a just sufficiency of know', edge of the matter before him, and this may naturally produce some motions of the head, such as might become the bench better than the bar. Rule 5th. All redundant words and clauses should be avoeted. AIDS TO ENGLISH CCMPOSITION. 61 The reason for this rule is, that whatever does not add to the meaning bf a sentence must be useless if not hurtful.* In conclusion, it may be remarked in the words of Archbishop Whately, It is a useful admonition to young writers, that they should always at tempt to recast a sentence that does not please; altering the arrangement and entire structure of it, instead of merely seeking to change one word for another. This will give a great advantage in point of copiousness also; for there may be, suppose a substantive (or noun) which, either because it does not fully express our meaning, or for some other reason, we wish to remove, but can find no other to supply its place. But the object may perhaps be easily accomplished by means of a verb. adverb, or other part of speech, the substitution of which implies an alteration in the construction. It is an exercise, accordingly, which may be commended as highly conducive to the improvement of style, to practise casting a sean tence into a variety of different forms. XIX. OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. t The English Language consists of about thirty-eight thousand words. This includes, of course, not only radical words, but all derivatives; except the preterits and participles of verbs; to which must be added some few terms, which, though set down in the dictionaries, are either obsolete or have never ceased to be considered foreign. Of these, about twentythree thousand, or nearly five-eighths, are of Anglo-Saxon origin. The majority of the rest, in what proportion we cannot say, are Latin and Greek; Latin, however, has the larger share. The names of the greater part of the objects of sense, in other words, the terms which occur most frequently in discourse, or which recall the most vivid conceptions, are Anglo-Saxon. Thus, for example, the names of the most striking ob. jects in visible nature, of the chief agencies at work there, and of the changes which we pass over it, are Anglo-Saxon. This language has given names to the heavenly bodies, the sun, moon, and stars; to three out of the four elements, earth, fire, and water; three out of the four seasons, spring, summer, and winter; and, indeed, to all the natural divisions of time, except one; as, day, night, morning, evening, twilight, noon, mid-day, midnight, sunrise, sunset; some of which are amongst the most poetical terms we have. To the same language we are indebted for the names of light, heat, cold, frost, rain, snow, hail, sleet, thunder, lightning, as well as almost all those objects which form the component parts of the beautiful in external scenery, as sea and land, hill and dale, wood and stream, &c. It is from this language we derive the words which are expressive of the earliest and dearest connexions, and the strongest and most nowerful feelings of nature; and which are, consequently, invested witl # See page 71, where the term Redundancy is separately considered. t The account here given is from the " Edinburgh Review," of Ootober 1S39. See, also, pages 34 to 40, on the subject of Derivatiol. 6 62 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. our oldest and most complicated associations. It is this language which has given us names for father, mother, husband, wife, brother, sister, son, daughter, child, home, kindred, friends. It is this which has furnished us with the greater part of those metonymies, and other figurative expressions, by which we represent to the imagination, and that in a single word, the reciprocal duties and enjoyments of hospitality, friendship, or love. Such are hearth, roof, fireside. The chief emotions, too, of which we are susceptible, are expressed in the same language, as love, hope, fear, sorrow, shame; and, what is of more consequence to the orator and the poet, as well as in common life, the outward signs by which emotion is indicated are almost all Anglo-Saxon; such are tear, smile, blush, to laugh, to weep, to sigh, to groan. FMost of those objects, about which the practical reason of man is employed in common life, receive their names from the Anglo-Saxon. It is the language, for the most part, of business; of the counting-house, the shop, the market, the street, the farm; and, however miserable the man who is fond of philosophy or abstract science might be, if he had no other vocabulary but this, we must recollect that language was made not for the few, but the many, and that portion of it which enables the bulk of a nation to express their wants and transact their affairs, must be considered of at least as much importance to gen eral happiness, as that which serves the purpose of philosophical science. Nearly all our national proverbs, in which it is truly said, so much of the practical wisdom of a nation resides, and which constitute the manual and vade mecum of " hobnailed " philosophy, are almost wholly AngloSaxon. A very large proportion (and that always the strongest) of the language of invective, humor, satire, colloquial pleasantry, is Anglo Saxon. Almost all the terms and phrases by which we most energeti cally express anger, contempt, and indignation, are of Anglo-Saxon origin.* The Latin contributes most largely to the language of polite life, as well as to that of polite literature. Again, it is often necessary to convey ideas, which, though not truly and properly offensive in them selves, would, if clothed in the rough Saxon, appear so to the sensitive modesty of a highly refined state of society; dressed in Latin, these very same ideas shall seem decent enough. There is a large number of words, which, from the frequency with which they are used, and from their being so constantly in the mouths of the vulgar, would not be endured in polished society, though more privileged synonymes of Latin origin, or some classical circumlocution, expressing exactly the same thing, shall pass unquestioned. There may be nothing dishonest, nothing really vulgar about the old Saxon word, yet it would be thought. as uncouth in a drawing-room, as the ploughman to whose rude use it is abandoned. t Thus, the word - One of the most distinguished orators and writers of the present age is remarkable for the Saxon force and purity of his language. He a;ldom uses an Anglicized Latin word, when a pure English expression is at hand. This will account, in some degree, for the strength of his language and the vehemence of his style. The reader scarcely needs to be informed, that reference is here made to the late Secretary of State, Hon. Daniel Webster. i To what is here said of the Saxon, may be added a short extract fron Sir Walter Scott's " Ivanhoe,' in a dialogue between the jester and the swineherd. (Vol. I. p. 25. S. HI. Parker's edition.) AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 63 stench" is lavendered over into unpleasant effluvia, or an ill odor, sweat," diluted into four times the number of syllables, becomes a very inoffensive thing in the shape of " perspiration."* To " squint" is softened into obliquity of vision; to be " drunk" is vulgar; but, if a man be simply intoxicated or inebriated, it is comparatively venial. Indeed, we may say of the classical names of vices, what Burke more questionably said of vices themselves, "that they lose half their deformity by losing all their grossness." In the same manner, we all know that it is very possible for a medical man to put to us questions under the seemly disguise of scientific phraseology and polite circumlocution, which, if expressed in the bare and rlude vernacular, would almost be as nauseous as his draughts ~ud pills. Lastly; there are many thoughts which gain immensely by mere novelty and variety of expression. This the judicious poet, who knows that the connexion between thoughts and words is as intimate as that between body and spirit, well understands. There are thoughts in themselves trite and common-place, when expressed in the hackneyed terms of common life, which, if adorned by some graceful or felicitous novelty of expression, shall assume an unwonted air of dignity and ele gance. What was trivial, becomes striking; and what was plebeian, noble. k See Euphemism. XX. PERIPHRASE, PERIPHRASIS, OR CIRCUMIOCUTION, EUPIEMLISM AND AiNTONOMASIA. Periphrase, periphrasis, and circumlocution, are words all neaning the same thing, and are equivalent to what is gener" How call you these grunting brutes running about on their fore legs?" demanded Wamba. "Swine, fool, swine," said the herd; " every fool knows that." "And swine is good Saxon," said the jester. "But how call you the sow, when she is flayed and drawn up by the heels like a traitor?" "Pork," answered the swineherd. "I am very glad every fool knows that, too," said Wamba; " and pork, I think, is good Norman French; and so when the brute lives, and is in the charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a Norman and is called pork, when she is carried to the Castle-hall to feast among the nobles. There is old alderman Ox, continues to hold his Saxon epithet, while he is under the charge of serfs and bondmen; but becomes Beef, when he arrives before the worshipful jaws that are destined to con sume him. Calf, too, becomes Veal, in the like manner; he is Saxon when ha requires tendance, and takes a Norman name, when he becomes matter cf enjoyment." 64 AIDS TO ENGLISII COMPOSITION. ally called a' roundabout expression;' which explansttion Is its31f an example of the figure, because it denotes in three words what periphrase, periphrasis, or circumlocution does in one. The definitions of words, as they appear in dictionaries, are periphrases. Such circumlocutions are frequently useful, especially in poetry; and are often necessary in translations from foreign languages, when we can find no word in our own, exactly equivalent to that which we have to translate. Periphrases is frequently useful to avoid a repetition of the same word but periphrases of every kind require careful management; because, per. haps, more than any other figure of speech, they are apt to run into bombast.f Under the head of periphrases may be included the figures Euphemism and Antonomasia. Words, or phrases that call up disagreeable ideas are, in po lite language, softened by nieans of circumlocutions. In these changes, as well as in most others, custom is the guide. It is reckoned more decorous, for example, to the memory of the departed, to say that " he perished on the scaffold," than that *" he was hanged." Such softened expression is called eulphem. ism; a Greek word signifying a kind speech. Antonomasia is a term applied to that form of expression in which a proper name is put for a common, or a common name for a proper; or, when the title, office, dignity, profession, science, or trade, is used instead of the true name of a person. Thus, when we apply to Christ the term, " the Savior of the world," or "the Redeemer of mankind;" or to Washington, the term, "the Father of his country;" or when we say His Excellency, instead of the governor, His Honor, instead of the judge; or, His Majesty, instead of the king, the expression is called Antonomasia. So, also, when a glutton is called a Heliogabalus (fiom the Roman emperor distinguished for that vice,) or a tyrant is called a Nero, we have other instances of the same form of expression. Y Periphrase, as defined by Webster, is " The use of more words than are necessary to express the idea; as a figure of rhetoric, it is employed to avoid a common or trite manner of expression." t Bombast is a kind of expression by which a serious attempt is made to raise a low or familiar subject above its rank, thereby never failing to make it ridiculous. Bathos is the reverse of bombast, and consists in degrading a subject by too low expressions. Both of these modes of writin,, equally excite the risible faculties of the reader. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION 65 Again, when we call Geography, "that science which de. scribes the earth and its inhabitants," or Arithmetic is termed 5" the science of numbers," the antonomasia becomes apparent. It will thus be seen, that this form of expression is frequently nothing more than an instance of periphrasis, or circumlocution. This form of expression is very common in parliamentary language and in deliberative assemblies, in which, in speaking of individual persons, they are not called by their proper, names, but by their office, or some other designating appellation.* Thus, in speaking of Washington, the orator designates him, by antonomasia, as " the sage of Mount Verrion," or of Shakspeare, as " the bard of Avon,"' from the river on whose bank he resided. Amplification is the expansion of a subject, by enumerating circumstances which are intended by an orator to excite more strongly in his audience the feelings of approbation or of blame. It is dwelling upon the subject longer than is actually necessary for its enunciation; and is in so far a species of circumlocution.t * It is contrary to the rules of all parliamentary assemblies, to call any member by his proper name. Each individual is called by the name of the state, town, city, county, or ward, which he represents. Thus, we say, " the gentleman from Massachusetts," " the member trom Virginia," "' the member from Ward 10," &c.; or, from his position, "the gentleman on my right," or, "the gentleman who last spoke," &c. The antonomasia is a figure frequently used by the most distinguished historical writers, and especially by Mr. Gibbon, the historian of the " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." t The following passage is quoted by Mr. Booth from Scriblerus, "the. perusal of the whole of which admirable satire," says Mr. Booth, "is indis. pensable to every one who would study the principles of English Composition: ""We may define amplification to be making the most of a thought; it is the spinning-wheel of the Bathos, which draws out and spreads it in its finest thread. There are amplifiers who can extend half a dozen thin thoughts over a whole folio; but for which, the tale of many a vast romance, and the substance of many a fair volume, might be reduced into the size of a primer. " A passage in the 104th Psalm,' He looks on the earth and it trembles, he touches the hills and they smoke,' is thus amplified by the same author''The hills forget they're fixed, and in their fright Cast off their weight, and ease themselves for flight; The woods with terror winged outfly the wind, And leave the heavy panting hills behind.'" You here see the hills, not only trembling, but shaking off the woods fronm their backs, to run the faster; after this, you are presented with a foot race of mountains and woods, where the woods distance the mountains, that Hike corpulent, pursy fellows, come puffing and panting a vast way beotinl them. 6* AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Examples of Periphrasis. Grammar. The science which teaches the proper,vs of language. Woman. The gentle sex; or, the female sex, Arithmetic. The science of numbers. To disappoint. To frustrate one's hopes. The skies. The upper deep. Zoology. That department of natural science which treats of the habits of animals. - Examples of fuphemism. James worked so hard that he James worked so hard that he sweat very profusely. perspired very freely; or the perspiration stood on him in drops. The room smells badly. There is an unpleasant effluvia in the room. [nary is a great slut. 1Mary is inattentive to her personal appearance; or, is careless in her personal habits. Hie is a very dirty fellow. He is destitute of neatness. You lie. You labor under a mistake.* Examples of -Antonomasia. The Queen. Her Majesty. Homer. The author of. the Iliad ard Odyssey. Washington. The Sage of Mount Vernon Hesiod. The earliest of the Poets. Lord Wellington. The Hero of Waterloo. SE No word of Holy Writ has in it a better turn of worldly wisdom than that from the Book of Proverbs:-" A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir up anger." The " soft answer" is, in fact, a euphemism. No one is offended who is told that " he labors under a mistake," while, perhaps, no accusation would give greater offence, than the same idea, expressed as above unsoftened by euphemism AIDS ~O ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 67 Boston. The Literary Emporium. New York. The Commercial Emporium. Philaielphia. The.City of Brotherly Love. New Orleans. The Crescent City. Cincinnati. The Queen of the West. Baltimore. The Monumental City. London. The Mart of the World; or, the British Metropolis. The King of France. His most Christian Majesty. Napoleon Bonaparte. The Hero of a hundred battles. The King of Spain. His most Catholic Majesty. Washington, (the capital of The City of magnificent disthe United States.) tances. St. Luke. The beloved physician. St. John. The disciple that Jesus loved. Cowper. The author of " The Task." The British Court. The Court of St. James. The following sentences present examples of Periphrasis,* Euphemism and Antonomasia, and it is required of the student to designate each. Solomon, (the wisest of men,) says, " Better is a dinner of herbs, where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith." David (The./uthor of the Psalms) was one of the sweetest and most pious writers of the Old Testament. Moses ( The Jewish Lawgiver) was educated by the daughter of Pharaoh. Saul (The first king of Israel) was a man of uncommon stature. Methuselah (He who lived to the greatest age recorded of man) died before his father. t Adam Smith (The author of the Wealth of Nations) says that there is in man a natural propensity to truck, barter and exchange one thing for another. It is pleasant to relieve (be the instrument of relieving) distress. Short and (The transient day of) sinful indulgence is followed by long and distressing (a dark and tempestuous night of) sorrow. Christ (He toho spake as never man spoke) says, in his sermon on the mount, "Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God." * The judicious use of periphrasis or circumlocution, often involves an acjaintance with figurative language. under which head it properly belongs. is taken from that connexion in order to be applied in other exercises rlich precede the subject of figures. t His father was Enaeh, who never died, but was translated. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMZPOSITION. He thought the man a scoundrel (dishonest) and therefore would not pay him the money (would place no confidence in him.) He behaved like a boor (in an improper manner) and therefore the genteel (persons of refinement) would have nothing to do with him. I consider him an impudent puppy (rude in his manners) and shall therefore separate myself from his company. The man was drunk (intoxicated, or had indulged in liquor) when he used these indecent words (that improper language) and although I was very mad (was displeased) with him, I did not scold at (reprove) him. Major Andre was hanged (perished on the scaffold) although he earnestly requested that he might be fired at (shot.) That man eats his victuals like a pig (is unrefined in his manners at the table) and guzzles down his drink like a fish (and is too fondl of his cup.) He has on dirty stockings (His hose are not sneat) and muddy shoes (his shoes are soiled.) A truly genteel man (A man of refinement) is known as well by his talk (conversation) as by his clothes (dress.) He nevAC uses low language and vulgar expressions (indulges in loose conversation.) His hands and face and his whole body are well washed, he cleans his teeth, combs his hair, (His whole person is kept neat and cleanly,) and brushes his clothes whenever they are dirty, (his dress never appears to be soiled,) and he always looks well, as, if he, were going to a party, (and he always looks looks preparedfor the drawingroom.) Of the oldest of the English Poets, (Chaucer) as he is the father of English poetry, so I hold him in the same degree of veneration as the Greeks hold Homer (the author of the Iliad and Odyssey) or the Romans, hold Virgil (the author of the IEneid.) He is a perpetual fountain of good sense; learned in all sciences; and therefore he speaks properly on all subjects. As he knew what to say, so also he knows where to leave off; a continence which is practised by few writers, and scarcely by any of the ancients, excepting the authors of the Iliad, the Odyssey and the /neid. The author of the Essay on the Understanding (Mr. Locke) has advanced the opinion that moral subjects are as susceptible of demonstration as mathematical. The Bard of Avon (Shakspeare) was one of the most remarkable men that the world ever produced, (that ever appeared in the ranks of humanity.) It may truly be said of him that he touched nothing which he did not adorn; and that he has strewed more pearls in the paths of literature than any other poet that the world has seen. His works have had more admirers than those of any other author excepting the writers of the holy Scriptures. The science which treats of language, ( Grammar) and the science whlch describes the earth and its inhabitants, (Geography) are branches frequents ly studied, but too frequently imperfectly understood. The author of the Waverley novels (Sir TWalter Scott.) must have beet a man of remarkable industry, as well as of uncommon talent AIDS TO ENGI.ISH COMPOSITION. 69 XXI. TAUTOLOGY AND CATACIRESIS. Tautology is the repetition of the same meaning in different,)irds, or the needless repetition of the same words. Thus, in the sentence, " The nefarious wickedness of his conduct was reprobated and condemned by all," the tautology consists in the use of nzefarious and wickedness together; which is the same as to say, the wicked wickedness; and reprobated and condemned, which are words of similar meaning. So, also, in the sentence, "The brilliance of the sun dazzles our eyes, and overpowers them with light," the same idea is conveyed by the word "dazzles " and the expression, " overpowers them with light; " one of them, therefore, should be omitted. Whenever anything is represented as being the cause, condition, or monsequence of itself, it may also be considered as a tautology, as in the oUllowing lines: "The dawn is overcast, the morning lowers, And heavily in clouds biings on the day." Addison. Tautologies are allowable only in legs instruments, and other writings where precision is of more importance.nan elegance; when, therefore, it consists in the repetition of a word, it may be corrected by the use of a synonyme; but when it consists in the repetition of an idea, unless such repetition is important for clearness or for emphasis, it should be wholly Oppressed. Example. They returned back agyin to the same city from whence they came forth. In this sentence, all the words in Italic are tautologies; for the word return implies to turn back, thie city implies the same city, and from and forth are both included in the word whence. The sentence, read without the words in Italic, is as clear and expressive as words can make it. Words which do not add to the meaning are useless, especially in prose. Exercises. Ie led a blameless and an irreproachable life, and no one could censure hs conduct. God is eternal, and his existence is without beginning and without end Opium produces sleep, because it possesses a soporific quality.'hlie grass grcws because of its.vegetative power., 70 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. He sat on the verdant green, in the umbrageous shade of the woody forest. How many there are by whom these tidings of good news have never been heard, Virgil in his IEneid tells a story very similar to that which Homer tells in his Odyssey. But the one relates the adventures of a renowned Tro. jan hero, and the other relates the adventures of a renowned Grecian hero. Our sight is of all faculties the most agreeable when we indulge it in seeing agreeable objects; because it is never wearied with fatigue, and it -requires no exertion when it exerts itself. He succeeded in gaining the universal love of all men. A father, when he sees his child going to the silence and stillness of the tomb, may weep and lament when the shadow of death has fully overshaded him; and as he hears the last final departing knell sounding in his ears, may say, I will descend and go down to the grave to my son mourning in sorrow. But he turns away in the hurry and haste of business and occupation; the tear is wiped; his eyes are dried; and though when he returns and comes back to his domestic hearth and fireside at home, the playful and sportive laugh comes up to his remembrance, and is recalled to his recollection, the succeding day blunts and removes the poignancy of his grief, and it finds no permanent and lasting seat. There is a sweetness and sacred holiness in a mother's tears, when they are dropt and fall on the face of her dying and expiring babe, which no eye can see, and no one can behold with a heart untouched and unaffected. It is clear and obvious that \:ligious worship and adoration should be regarded with pleasure by all men. CATACHRESIS. There is another fault into which careless writers are prone to fall, which is the very reverse of tautology; and to which the term Catachresis* may not be inappropriately applied; and this is the use of the same word in different senses.: The literal meaning of Catachresis is against use, and it is applied by rhetoricians to express an abuse, or false use of a word, by which it is wrested from its original application, and made to express something which is at variance with its etymology. It is a sort of blundering denomination, chiefly caused by retaining the name of an object, after the qualities from which it derived that name are changed. The thing that is made, for example, is often designated by that of the substance from which it is fabri cated. Thus a vessel in which liquids are boiled is called a copper, because, in most/cases, it is made of that material, and this figure is a ]Vetonomy, But such vessels are occasionally made of other metals, still retaining the name of coppers, and it is this misnomer which is called a Catachresis From this explanation it will appear that the term as applied above, al though not rigidly restricted to its rhetorical meaning, is not wholly inap Propriate. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITiON. 7] Example. Charity expands our, hearts in love to God and man; and it is by the virtue of charity that the rich are blessed, and the poor are supplied. In this sentence the word charity is improperly applied in two different senses, namely, for the highest benevolence, and for simple alms-giving..Exercises. Gregory favored the undertaking for no other reason than this, that the Ianager in countenance favored (i. c. resembled) his friend. True wit is nature to advantage dressed; and yet some works have more wit than does them good. Honor teaches us to respect ourselves, and to violate no right nor priv ilege of our neighbor. It leads us to support the feeble, to relieve the distressed, and to scorn to be governed by degrading and injurious passions. And yet we see honor is the motive which urges the destroyer to take the life of his friend. The minister proposed a plan for the support of the ministers of the church. The professor was a professor of religion. I expect that you have no reason to expect the arrival of your friend.* XYII PLEONASMI, VERBOSITY, AND REDUNDANCY. Pleonasm consists in the use of words seemingly superflu-,us, in order to express a thought with greater energy: as, " I saw it with my own eyes." Here the pleonasm consists in the addition of the expression, " with my own eyes.' Pleonasms are usually considered as faults, especially in prose. But 4 It will be seen from what has been said in relation to the word Ccta chresis that it is the foundation of many witti visms, under the denomination t f paranonasic, or pee. [See Paranomazsia ] 72 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. m poetry, they may be sparingly allowed as poetical licenses.* They are allowable, also, in animated discourse, to introduce abruptly an emphatic word, or to repeat an idea to impress it more strongly; as, " HIe that hath ears to hear, let him hear." "I know thee who thou art." Pleonasm is nearly allied to tautology, but is occasionally a less glaring fault in a sentence; and, indeed, it may be considered justifiable, and even sometimes elegant, when we wish to present thoughtis with particular perspicuity or force; but an unemphatic repetition of the same' idea is one of the worst of faults in writing. Pleonasm implies merely superfluity. Although the words do not. as in tautology, repeat the sense, they add nothing to it. Pleonasm differs, also, from what is called verbosity. Verbosity, it is true, implies a superabundance of words; but, in a pleonasm there are words which add nothing to the sense. In the verbose manner, not only single words, but whole clauses, may have a meaning, and yet it would be better to omit them, because what they mean is unimportant. Another difference is, that, in a pleonasm, a complete correction may be made, by simply omitting the superfluous words; but, in a verbose sentence, it will be necessary to alter, as well as to omit. It is a good rule, always to look) over what has been written, and to strike out every word and clause, which it is found will leave the sentence neither less clear, nor less forcible, than it was before. There are many sentences which would not bear the omission of a single word, without affecting the clearness and force of the expression, and which would be very much improved, were they recast, and the sense expressed l)y fewer and more forcible words. Thus, for instance, in the following sentence, no word can be omitted without affecting the sense. "' A severe and tyrannical exercise of power must become a matter of Nrecessary policy with kings, when their subjects are imbued with such principles as justify and authorize rebellion." But the same sense may be much better expressed in fewer words, thus; " Kings will be tyrants from policy, when subjects are rebels from prin ciple." Redundancy is another term, also employed to signify superfluity in the words and members of a sentence. Pleonasm and verbosity relate, principally, to the words in a sentence, but redundancy relates to the members as well as the words. As every word ought to present a new idea, so every member ought to contain a new thought. The following sen tence exemplifies the fault of redundancy.'" The very first discovery of it strikes the mind with inward joy, and spreads delight through all its faculties." In this example, little or nothing is added by the second member of the sentence, to what was expressed in the first.' See the article on Poetical Liceero. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 73 The following sentences present examples of pleonasm, verbosity, and redundancy, which may be corrected by the learner. Exercises. The rain, is it not over and gone I hear no wind, only the voice of the streams. My banks they are furnished with bees. It is impossible for us to behold the divine works with coldness or in difference, or to survey so many beauties, without a secret satisfaction and complacency. Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me. This great politician desisted from, and renounced his designs, when he found them impracticable. He was of so high and independent a spirit, that he abhorred and detested being in debt. Though raised to an exalted station, she was a pattern of piety, virtue, and religion. The human body may be divided into the head, trunk, limbs, and vitals. His end soon approached; and he died with great courage and fortitude. He was a man of so much pride and vanity, that he despised the sentiments of others. Poverty induces and cherishes dependence; and dependence strength ens and increases corruption. This man, on all occasions, trea bed his inferiors with great haughtiness and disdain. There can be no regularity or order in the life and conduct of that man wvho does not give and allot a due share of his time to retirement and reflection. Such equivocal and ambiguous expressions, mark a formed intention to deceive and abuse us. Ils cheerful, happy temper, remote from discontent, keeps up a kind of daylight in his mind, excludes every gloomy prospect, and fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity. Bcing content with deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it. In the Attic commonwealth, it was the privilege of every citizen and ooet to rail aloud in public. XXII. VARIETY OF EX'PRESSION. The various modes of transposition and-inversion, by which the same idea can be expressed by different inflections of the words have already been presented. In this exercise the 7 74 AIDS TO ENGLISH CO.MPOSITION. modes are suggested by which the idea may be cblthed in different language, still, for the most part preserving its identity.* -Example 1st. The young should be diligent and industrious, and make a proper use of their time. Diligence, industry, and proper improvement of time are material duties of the young. Young men, be industrious; make the best use of your time; an awful responsibility rests upon you. Young persons should be made sensible, that it is their duty to be diligent and industrious, and to employ their time in useful pursuits. To be diligent and industrious, and to employ their time in profitable occupations, are things which we expect from young persons. In the morning of life, when the phantoms of hope are flitting before their sight, and the visions of fancy are decorating their prospects, the young should not suffer themselves to be deluded by expectations which cannot be realized. The golden sands should not be wantonly wasted in their path, nor should the precious moments of life be suffered to take flight, without bearing on their wings some token of their value. Duty addresses the young in an imperative tone, requiring them to apply themselves with diligence to their proper occupations, and forbidding them to pay one moment but in pur. chase of its worth. "And what is its worth?- Ask deathbeds; they can tell." Young persons cannot be commended when they devote those hours to indolence, which should have been given to industry; for time is valuable, and should be properly employed. # It is to be observed, that, in the practice of the principle involved in this exercise, the teacher should not be too rigid in noticing the faults of pleonasm, verbosity, or redundancy. The object of the exercise is to give a command of language, and it will be well, when this object is partially effected, to require the learner to take his own sentences and prune them on the principles explained in the preceding exercises. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSTION. 75 The young should be diligent and industrious, and properly improve their time.* It is not only when duty addresses them with her warning voice that the young should practisi the virtues of diligence and industry; a proper improvement of their time is at all times expected from them. Example 2d. [The different modes of expressing the same idea glvo rise to the distinctions of style which have been mentioned in the Introduction. The subject of style will be more fully treated in the subsequent pages. The following sentence will exemplify to the student the effect of two of the varieties of style.] Style of simple Narration. Yesterday morning, as I was walking in the fields, I saw John stab James through the heart with a dagger. Style of passionate exclamation, in which the prominent idea is brought forward, and the circumstances are cast into the Made. James is murdered! I saw John stab him to the heart. Exercises. [The student must be careful to make use of his understanding and dig crimination, as well as his dictionary, in the performance of these exei cises.] True friendship is like sound health, the value of it is seldom known' nt.mil it is lost. As no roads are so rough as those that have just been mended, so no sinners are so intolerant as those that have just turned saints. IWhen certain persons abuse us, let us ask ourselves what description of characters it is that they admire; we shall often find this a very consolatory question. / In the Introduction to this book, notice was taken of the different forms, or style, of composition. In this model, an attempt has been made to imitate several of the diversities of style there mentioned; and it will be useful to the student, when he shall have become acquainted with the diversities of style, in the subsequent pages of this volume, to endeavor to designate them respectively by their peculiar characteristics. It may here be remarked, that the style of common conversation,: called the collioqitia style, allows the introduction of terms and expressions, which are not used in grave writing. 76 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Contemporaries appreciate the man rather than the merit; but pos terity will regard the merit rather than the man. All beyond enough is too much; all beyond nourishment is luxury all beyond decency is extravagance. Form your taste on- the classics, and your principles on the book of all truth. Let the first fruits of your intellect be laid before the altar of Him who breathed into your nostrils the breath of life; and with that breath, your immortal spirit. The love of learning, though truly commendable, must never be gratifled beyond a certain limit. _It must not be indulged in to the injury of your health, nor to the hindrance of your virtue. What will the fame derived from the most profound learning avail you. if you have not learned to be pious and humble, and temperate and charitable. There is nothing more extraordinary in this country, than the tran sition of the seasons. The people of Moscow have no spring. Winter vanishes, and summer is. This is not the work of a week, or of a day bat of one instant; and the manner of it exceeds belief. On eagles' wings immortal scandals fly, While virtuous actions are but born and die. XXIV. TRANSLATION, OR CONVERSION OF POETRY INTO PROSE. Poetry when literally translated makes in general but in-,,ipid prose. Prose is the language of reason, -poetry of teciing or passion. Prose is characterized by fulness and precision. Poetry deals largely in elliptical expressions, exelamations, exaggerations, apostrophes, and other peculiarities not usually found in prose. For the purpose, also, of accommodating them to the measure of a verse, the poets fre.. quently alter or abbreviate words, and use expressions which would not be authorized in prose. Such abbreviations and alterations, together with other changes sometimes made, are called poetic licences, because they are principally used by poetical writers. The following are some of the licences used by poetical writers. 1. ELISION, or the omission of parts of a word. When the elision is ftom the beginning of a word, it is called aphatresis, and consists in cut. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 77 htng off the initial letter or syllable of a word; as,'squire for esguire gainst for against,'gan for began, &c. When the elision is from the body of the word, it is called syncope; as, list'ning for listenintg, thund'ring foi thundering, lov'd for loved, &c. When the elision is from the end of a word. it is called apocope, and consists in the cutting off of a final vowel or syl lable, or of one or more letters; as, gi' me for give me, fio' for from, o' foi of, th' evening for the evening, Philomel' for Philomela. 2. SYNwERESIS, or the contraction of two syllables into one, by rapidly pronouncing in one syllable two or more vowels which properly belong to separate syllables; as ae in the word Israel. 3. APOSTROPHE, or the contraction of two words into one; as,'t is f it is, can't for cannot, thou'rt for thou art. 4. DIIaRESIS, or the division of one syllable into two; as, pu-is-sant for puissant. 5. PAR&GOGE or the addition of an expletive letter; withouten for u4A. out, crouchen for crouch. 6. PROSTHESIS, or the prefixing of an expletive letter or syllable tk word; as, appertinent for pertinent, beloved for loved. 7. ENALLAGE, or the use of one part of speech for another; as in the following lines, in which an adjective is used for an adverb; as, " Blue through the dusk the smoking currents shine." " The fearful hare limps awkward." 8. HYPERBATON, or the inversion or transposition of words, placing Lhat first which should be last; as, "And though, sometimes, each dreary pause between." " Him answered then his loving mate and true." 9. PLEONASsr, or the use of a greater number of words than are neces sary to express the meaning; as, " My banks they are furnished with bees." 10. TaMEsis, or the separation of the parts of a compound word; as, On which side soever, for, On whichsoever side. 11. ELLIPSIS, or the omission of some parts not absolutely essential to express the meaning, but necessary to complete the grammatical construction. The poets have likewise other peculiarities which are embraced undei the general name of poetic diction. In order to accommodate their language to the rules of melody, and that they may be relieved, in some measure, from the restraints which verse imposes on them, they are indulged in the following usages, seldom allowable in prose. 1. They abbreviate nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, &c.; as, morn for morning amaze for amazement,fount forfountain, dread for dreadful, lone for lonely, lure for allure, list for listen, ope for open, oft for often, haply for hap pily, &c., and use obsolete words * and obsolete meanings. * Obsolete words are words which, although formerly current, are not now in common use. 7* AIDS ro ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 2. They make use of ellipses more frequently than prose writers omitting the article, the relative pronoun, and sometimes even its antecedent; using the auxiliaries without the principal verb to which they belong; and on the contrary, they also sometimes make use of repetitions which are seldom observed in prose. 3. They use the infinitive mood for a noun; use adjectives for adverbs, and sometimes even for nouns; and nouns for adjectives; ascribe quali. ties to things, to which they do not literally belong; form new compound epithets; connect the word self with nouns, as well as pronouns; sometimes lengthen a word by an additional letter or syllable, and give to the imperative mood both the first and third persons. 4. They arbitrarly employ or omit the prefixes; use active for neuter and neuter for active verbs; employ participles and interjections more frequently than prose writers; connect words that are not in all respects similar; and use conjunctions in pairs contrary to grammatical rule. 5. They alter the regular arrangement of the words of a sentence. placing before the verb words which usually come after it, and after the verb those that usually come before it, putting adjectives after their nouns. the auxiliary after the principalverb; thle preposition after the objective case which it governs; the relative before the antecedent; the infinitive mood before the word which governs it; and they also use one mood of the verb fot another, employ forms of expression similar to those of other languages, and different from those which belong to the English languagt But one of the most objectionable features of poetic diction is the in terjection of numerous details, between those parts of a sentence which are closely combined by the rules of Syntax. Thus, in the following ex tract from one of the most celebrated poets of the language, generally characterized by the simplicity of his diction, the objective case is placed before the verb which governs it, while a number of circumstances are introduced between them.:But me, not destined such delights to share, My prime of life in wandering spent and care, Impelled, with steps unceasing, to pursue Some fleeting good, that mocks me with the view, That, like the circle bounding earth and skies, Allures from far, yet, as I follow, flies; My fortune leads to traverse realms alone, And find no spot of all the world my own. Exercises. [in the following extracts, the student may point out thle peculiarities of POETIC DICTION, which have now been enzumerated. The words in Itanl wIill assist him in recognizing them.] The cottage curs at early pilgrim bark. The pipe of early shepherd. Affliction's self deplores thy youthful doom. What dreadful pleasure, there to stand sublime, Like shipwrecked mariner on desert coast. Ah! see! the unsightly slime and sluggish pool, Have all the solitary vale embroweWd AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. ~ Hereditary bondmen! Know ye not Who would be free themselves must strike the blow! No fire the kitchen's cheerless grate displayed. Effiux atmne! nature's resplendent robe And thou, O sun! Soul of surrounding worlds! in whom best seen, Shines out thy Maker; may I sing of thee! Earth's meanest son, all trembling, prostrate falls, And on the boundless of thy goodness calls. In world-rejoicing state it moves sublime. Oft in the stilly night. For is there aught in sleep can charnt the wise. And Peace, 0 Virtue! Peace is all thy own. Be it dapple's bray, Or be it not, or be it whose it may. Wealth heaped on wealth, nor truth nor safety buys. And sculpture that can keep thee from to die. The Muses fair, these peaceful shades,mong, With skilful fingers sweep the trembling strings. Behoves no more, But sidelong to the gently waving wind, To lay the well-tuned instrument reclined. Had unambitious mortals minded nought But in loose joy their time to wear away, Rude nhatre's state had been * our state to-day. In the following exercises the learner is expected to write the ideas conveyed in the poetical extracts, in prose, varying the words and expressions, as well as the arrangement of *: This' form of expression, where one mood of the verb is used for another, is sometimes imitated by prose writers. Thus, " Sixty summers had passed over his head without imparting one ray of warmth to his heart; without exciting one tender feeling for the sex, deprived of whose cheering presence, the paradise of the world were a wilderness of weeds." —1Vew Montldy 1lragazine. In this extract, the imnperfect of the subjunctive is used without its attendant conjunction for the pluperfect of the potential. Cowper has a similar expression in his fable entitled " The Needless Alarm," where he uses th3 pluperfect of the indicative for the pluperfect -of tke potential: thus, "Awhile they mused; surveying every face, Thou iadst supposed them of superior race. -:80 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. them, so as to make clear and distinct sentences, * as in the following Example. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joy of sense, Lie in three words, -health, peace and competence. Same idea expressed in prose. Health, peace, and competence comprise all the pleasures which this world can afford. _Example 2d. The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. Same line transposed in a variety of ways. The ploughman plods his weary way homeward. Homeward the ploughman plods his weary way. His weary way homeward the ploughman plods. Plods the ploughman homeward his weary way. His weary way the ploughman plods homeward. Homeward.plods the ploughman his weary way. The ploughman his weary way homeward plods. Plods homeward the ploughman his weary way. Homeward plods the ploughman his weary way. His weary way the ploughman homeward plods, &c. The example shows that it is not always necessary to change the language, in order to convert poetry into prose. Of. the ten modes in which the above recited line has been transposed, it will be noticed that several of themi are entirely prosaic. It may here be remarked that in the conversion of poetry into * Sir Walter Scott, in a letter to his son, (See Lockhart's Life, Vol. V., p. 54,) has the following language: " You should exercise yourself frequently in trying to make translations of the passages which most strike you, trying to invest the sense of Tacitus in as good English as you can. This will an swer the double purpose of making yourself familiar with the Latin author, and giving you the command of your own language, which no person qvil2 ever have, who does not study 1t'glis/ Comsposition in3 early life," The conversion of verse into prose it is conceived will, at least in a good degree, subserve the same useful purpose of giving command of language; and for this reason the exercises in this lesson, or similar ones, cannot be too strongly recommended, especially to those whose minds have not bean disciplined by an attention to the classics. AIDS 10 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 81 prose, the animation of the style is often endangered. Poetry admits more ornament than prose, and especially a more liberal use of that figure (Prosopopocia or Personification) by which life and action are attributed to inanimate objects. The exercises, therefore, of the pupil, in converting poetry into prose, will be deemed useful only as tending to give clear ideas and command of language. * The learner is presumed now to be prepared to transpose simple tales and stories from verse into prose, with some additions of his own. Such exercises will be found of much use, not only in acquiring command of language, but also as an exercise of the imagination. In performing these exercises, the greatest latitude may be allowed, and the learner may be permitted not only to alter the language, but to substitute his own ideas, and to vary the circumstances, so as to make the exercise as nearly an original one as he can. Example. The following short tale, or story in verse, is presented to be converted into a tale in prose. GINEVRA. If ever you should come to Modana, (Where, among other relics, you may see Tassoni's bucket, - but't is not the true one,) Stop at a palace near the Reggio gate, Dwelt in of old by one of the Donati. Its noble gardens, terrace above terrace, And rich in fountains, statues, cypresses, Will long detain you, - but, before you go, Enter the house, - forget it not, I pray you, - And look awhile upon a picture there.'T is of a lady in her earliest youth, The last of that illustrious family; Done by Zampieri, -but by whom I care not. He who observes it, ere he passes on, Gazes his fill, and comes and comes again, That he may call it up when far away. She sits, inclining forward as to speak, Her lips half open, and her finger up, As though she said "Beware! " her vest of gold'Broidered with flowers, and clasped from head to foot, An emerald stone in every golden clasp; * Any volume of poetical extracts will furnish additional exercises for the student. It is therefore deemed inexpedient to present in this volrirme an additional number of theem. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMIPOSITION. And on her brow, fairer than alabaster, A coronet of pearls. But then her fac% So lovely, yet so arch, so full of mirth, The overflowings of an innocent heart,It haunts me still, though many a year has fleo, Like some wild melody! Alone it hangs Over a mouldering heirloom, its companion, An oaken chest, half eaten by the worms, But richly carved by Antony of Trent With scripture-stories from the life of Christ; A chest that came from Venice, and had held The ducal robes of some old ancestor; — That by the way, -it may be true or false, - But don't forget the picture; and you will not When you have heard the tale they old me there She was an only child, -her name Ginevra, The joy, the pride of an indulgent father; And in her fifteenth year became a bride, Marrying an only son, Francesco Doria, IHer playmate from her birth, and her first love. Just as she looks there in her bridal dress, She was all gentleness, all gaiety. Her pranks the favorite theme of every tongue. But now the day was come, the day, the hour; Now, frowning, smiling, for the hundredth time, The nurse, that ancient lady, preached. decorum; And, in the lustre of her youth, she gave Her hand, with her heart in it, to Francesco. Great was the joy; but at the nuptial feast, When all sate down, the bride herself was wanting Nor was she to be found! Her father cried, "'T is but to make a trial of our love! " And filled his glass to all; but his hand shook, And soon from guest to guest the panic spread.'T was but that instant she had left Francesco, Laughing, and looking back and flying still, Her ivory tooth imprinted on his finger, But now, alas, she was not to be found; Nor from that hour could any thing be guessed, But that she was not! Weary of his life, Francesco flew to Venice, and embarking, Flung it away in battle with the Turk. Donati lived, -and long might you have seen An old Mnan wandering as in quest of something Something he could not find, -he knew not what. When he was gone, the house remained awhile Silent and tenantless, - then went to strangers. Full fifty years were past, and all forgotten, When, on an idle day, a day of search'Mid the old lumber in the gallery, That mouldering chest was noticed; and't was gsid By one as young, as thoughtless as Ginevra,," Why not remove it from its lurking-plaoe? "'T was done as soon as said; but on the way It burst, it fell; and lo f a skeleton With here and there a pearl, an emerald-stone, AIDS TO EN. LISH COMPOSITION. 83 A golden clasp, clasping a shred of gold. All else had perished,- save a wedding ring, And a small seal, her mother's legacy, Engraven with a name, the name of both - "Ginevra "There then had she found a grave t Within that chest had she concealed herself, Fluttering with joy, the happiest of the happy; When a spring-lock, that lay in ambush there, Fastened her down for ever i Conversion of the preceding Story into Prose. THE LEGEND OF MODENA.* In an elegant apartment of a palace overlooking the Reggio gate in Modena, which, about fifty years before, belonged to the noble family of ])onati, but which now was occupied by a very distant branch of that illustrious race, sat the loveliest of its descendants- the beautiful Beatiice, the flower of Modena. Upon the marble table and embroidered ottomans before her, lay a variety of rich costumes, which her favorite attendant, Laura, was arranging where their rich folds fell most gracefully, and their bright tints mocked the. rainbows hues of colored light; for the fair Beatrice was selecting a becoming attire for a masquerade ball, which was to be given during the gay season of the approaching Carnival. But a shadow of discontent rested on her brow, as she surveyed the splendid dresses- they were too common-place - and she turned from them with disdain. Suddenly her eye rested upon an antique picture, hanging on the tapestried-wall, which represented a young and* beautiful figure in the attitude of "Inclining forward, as to speak, Her lips half open and her finger up, As though she said' Beware!' her vest of gold Broidered with flowers and elapsed from head to foot, An emerald stone in every golden clasp, And on her brow - a coronet of pearls. " rushing aside the costly silks and velvets, she ran to look at the pie. tare more closely. The lady's dress was perfect, she thought; it just suited her capricious taste, and one like it she determined to have and wear, at the approaching festival. In vain Laura expostulated, and the difficulty of obtaining such an antiquated costume was brought to her mind, and finally, the legend connected with the portrait was begun. But the wilful Beatrice would not listen, although a destiny, sad as that of the ill-fated lady of the portrait was predicted, if she persevered in her whim. Regardless of remonstrance, Beatlice proceeded to search among the finery of her ancestors for something to correspond with the dress which she determined to have, spite of all their old legends, whioh she it This " Legend" was written by a young lady of about thirteen yesrs of age, and presented as an exercise at the public school in this city, unqer the charge of the author. 84 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. did not believe. But she searched in vain, and she was returning through the gallery almnost in despair, when her attention was attracted by an old "Oaken chest half eaten by the worms, And richly carved," which she thought might contain something suitable. Impatiently she waited, while her attendants lifted the mouldering cover, and then bent eagerly forward to look at its contents — she shrieked and fell into the arms of Laura, a skeleton met her eye, " With here and there a pearl, an emerald stone, A golden clasp, clasping a shred of gold.' The lec end of the unfortunate lady of the portrait was indeed true - these were her remains. Beatrice was carried to her room, and a month passed before she recovered from a fever occasioned by the fright and excitement she experienced; and never again did she mingle in the dis sipated circle of her native city. These scenes had lost their charms - for the skeleton and its history continually presented themselves to her mind, reminding her, that 1" in the midst of life we are in death," and warning her to prepare for that change which must occur in the course of our existence. After a while, Beatrice lost these gloomy sensations, and became cheerful and happy in the performance of duty, and participated in those innocent amusements of life, which she enjoyed far better than those absorbing pleasures, which she used to admire. The old chest and portrait were placed carefully together, and Beatrice ever after wore the wedding ring and the seal inscribed with the name, " Ginevra," which had been found among the other relics of the chest. She also wrote, for the perusal of her friends, the following story connected with the picture and its mouldering companion. GINEVRA. "And she indeed was beautiful, A creature to behold with trembling'midst our joy, Lest ought unseen should waft the vision from us, Leaving earth too dim without its brightness."' The deep gold of eventide burned in the Italian sky," and the wind, passing through the orange groves and over the terraces which surround ed the palace of the Donati, mingled its soft, sweet sighs with the mur muring of the fountains, which sparkled in the moonbeams, occasionall) sending a shower of spray over the waving foliage that shadowed them At a window, overlooking this moon-lit scene, stood Ginevra, the only child of Donati, "the joy, the pride of an indulgent father." Indeed, hei gentleness and sportiveness made her loved by all, and " Her pranks, the favorite theme of every tongue." She had seen but fifteen summers, and these had glided away like s fahiry dream, - and then " Her face so lovely, yet so arch, so full of mirth, The overflowings of an innocent heart. " AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION 85 And there she stood, looking at those old familiar scenes, till a te.tr glittered in her dark eye, and a shade of sadness rested on her fair brow, like a cloud shadowing her " sunny skies ";- for, on the morrow, she was to part from her childhood's home, she was " to give her hand, with her heart in it," to [Francesco Doria, a brave and handsome son of that noble family, whose name often occurs in the annals of Italy. Long did Ginevra linger at the window. "My only one." The voice was her father's, who, accompanied by Francesco, came to seek her; and there they remained, looking out on that lovely scene; and many were the joyous anticipations, the bright hopes, the dreams of happiness which mingled in their conversation, while Francesco plucked the white flowers from a vine which hung across the casement, and wreathed them in Ginevra's long dark curls. But a neighboring convent bell warned them to seek repose, and reluctantly they parted to dream of the morrow, which they fondly thought would bring with it the realization of their bright hopes. "The morn is up again, the dewy morn," and sunlight and dewdrops were weaving bright rainbow webs over shrub and flower, and the fresh morning breeze blew the vines across the marble pillars of the colonnade, which echoed with the merry voices, - the gay laugh, and the light step of the proud and beautiful assemblage, collected to grace the wedding of Donati's lovely daughter. And lovely, indeed, did she appear among Italy's fairest children. Her dress of rich green velvet, clasped with emeralds, set in gold, the pearls' shining among her dark curls, added to her loveliness, and made her appear the star of that bright company. Proudly and fondly her father and husband watched her graceful form, as she glided among the gay throng, receiving their congratulations as the bride of Francesco Doria. Nothing seemed wanting to complete their happiness. Mirth and festivity, the song and the dance, all lent their attractions and added to their felicity. Ah! did not that happy father and fond husband know that such happiness is not for earth i "Fear ye the festal hour; Ay, tremble when the cup of joy o'erflows!'Tame down the swelling heart! The bridal rose And the rich myrtle's flower Have veiled thee, Death! " Gaily the hours passed by; Genevra was all gaiety, half wild with excitement. As she passed Francesco, she whispered her intention of hiding, and challenged him and her gay associates to find her. Soon were they all in search of the fair bride, and merrily they proceeded through the lofty halls, the dark closets, and secret apartments of that spacious palace, which resounded with merry voices and laughter. Long they looked, but vainly; and, as the shades of evening stole over the scene, wearied and alarmed, nearly all the now dismayed guests retired to their homes, for Genevra was nowhere to be found. Donati and Francesco, half frantic, continued the search, which grew hourly more hopeless. Week after week, months passed away, but nothing was heard. of the lost one. Francesco, weary of that life which was now depriV ed of all that endeared it to earth, joined the army of his countrymen, " And flung it away in battle with the Turk. " Donati still lingered around that home, so connected with the muemory if her whom he idolized, who was now lost to him for ever; A AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. "_And long might you have seen, An old mall wandering, as in quest of something, Something he could not find - he knew not what." And where was Ginevra? Half breathless with haste, she ran to an old gallery in the upper part of the palace, fancying her pursuers had almost overtaken her. As she hastily glanced round the dimly lighted gallery, in search of a hiding place, her eye rested on an oaken chest, beautifully carved and ornamented by a celebrated sculptor of Venice, which once held the robes of a prince of her illustrious race. Quick as thought, Ginevra exerted her strength to raise the cover. The chest easily held her fragile form. Trembling with joy and excitement, she heard the loved and well-known tones of Francesco's voice, who was foremost in pursuing her; when her hand, which held the cover ajar to admit the air, slipped and it fell, " fastening her down for ever." The chest was constructed, for greater security, with a spring, which locked as it was shut, and could only be opened by one outside touching a particular part of the curious workmanship. But, before Francesco reached the gallery, the lovely and unfortunate girl had ceased to breathe in that closely shut chest. {Many times they passed the gallery, but they heeded not the hiding-place of the lost bride; which, alas! was destined to be her grave. No flowers could shed their perfumes over her grave, watered by the tears of those that loved her. HIer fate was a mystery, and soon her memory passed away, like all the fleeting things of earth. And Donati,- what had he to live for? In the beautiful language of Mrs. Hemans, he might have said, "It is enough! mine eye no more of joy or splendor sees! I go, since earth its flower bath lost, to join the bright and fair, And call the grave a lovely place, for thou, my child, art there." Examples for practice may be taken from any source which the teaches or the student may select. XXV. ANAGRAMS. An anagram is the transposition of the letters of a word, oshort sentence, so as to form another word, or phrase, with a different meaning. Thus,-the letters which compose the word stone, may be arranged so as to form the words tones, notes, or seton; and, (taking j and v as duplicates of i and u,) the letters of the alphabet may be arranged so as to form the words Styx, Phlegm, quiz,frown'd and back.* * Pilatte's qaesti&' to Jesus, " Quid et veritas? " (What is truth?) has AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION, 87 Examples. Astronomers, Moon-starers. Telegraphs, Great Helps. Gallantries, All great sins. Democratical, Comical trade. Encyclopedia, A nice cold pie. Lawyers, Sly ware. Misanthrope, Spare him not. Monarch, Mllarch on. Old England, Golden Land. Presbyterian, Best in prayer. Punishment, Nine Thumps. Penitentiary, Nay, I repent it. Radical Reform, Rare mad frolic. Revolution, To love ruin. James Stuart, A just master. Charles James Stuart, Claims Arthur's Seat. Eleanor Davies, Reveal, 0 Daniel. Dame Eleanor Davies, Never so mad a Ladie. For exercises of practice, the student may select his own words or sen Lences. As it is a mere literary amusement, the exercise is not considered worthy of much attention. been happily converted in an anagram to the words, "Est vir quai adest," (It is the man who is before you.) Jablonski welcomed the visit of Stanislaus, King of Poland, with his no ble relatives of the house of Lescinski, to the annual examination of the students under his care, at the gymnasium of Lissa, with a number of anagrams, all composed of the letters in the words Doneus Lesciniac. The recitations closed with an heroic dance, in which each youth carried a shield inscribed with a legend of the letters. After a new evolution, the boys exhibited the words Ades incolumis; next, Omnis es lucidac; next, Omne sis lucida; fifthly, lMane sidus loci; sixthly, Sis columznta Dei; and at the conclusion, Iscande solism. But a still more remarkable anagram than any that has been presented, will be found in the Greek inscription on the Mosque of St. Sophia, in Con stantinople: "Nt1ov dYvo/~, tmCCtrc sun 4ihOVcsV o+iv," which present the same words, whether read from left to right, or from right to left. Sir Isaac Newton was in the habit of concealing his mathematical dis coveries, by depositing the principles in the form of anagrams; by which he might afterwards claim the merit of the invention without its being stolen by others. - This lady fancied herself a prophetess, and supposed the spirit of Daniel to be in her, because this anagram could be formed from her name. But her anagram was faulty, as it contained an I too much, and an s too little. She was completely put down by the anagram made from the name Dane Eleanor Dan,ies, "Never so mad a ladie.' '8 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. XXVI. OF GRAMMATICAL PROPRIETY. Athough the details of Grammar and grammatical rule are not embraced in the plan of this work, it will be proper to present some observations, by way of review, with regard to those principles which are most frequently disregarded or forgotten by careless writers. Some remarks have already been made with regard to a few of the improprieties which are frequently observed, even in writers of respectability. The considerations now to be offered are presented in the form of directions. DIRECTION 1st. In determining the number of a verb, regard must be had to the idea which is embraced in the subject or nominative. Whenever the idea of plurality is conveyed, whether it be expressed by one word, or one hundred, and however connected, and in whatever number the subject may be, whether singular or plural, all verbs relating to it must be made to agree, not with the number of the word or words, but with the number of the idea conveyed by the words. DIRECTION 2d. In the use of pronouns, the same remark applies, namely, that the number of the pronoun must coincide with the idea cntained in the word, or words, to which the pronoun relates. If it imply unity, the pronoun must be singular; if it convey plurality, the pronoun must be plural. These directions will be better understood by an example Thus, in the sentence, " Each of them, in their turn, receive the benefits to which they are entitled," the verbs and pronouns are in the wrong number. The word each, although it includes all, implies but one at a time. The idea, therefore, is the idea of unity, and the verb and pronoun should oe singular, thus, " Each of them in his turn receives the benefit to which he is entitled." The same remark may be made with regard to the following sentences: " Every person, whatever be their (his) station, is bound by the duties of morality." " The wheel killed another man, who is the sixth that have (has) lost their (his) lives (life) by these means." " I do not think that any one should incur censure for being tender of their (his) reputation." DIRECTION 3d. In the use of verbs and words which express time, care must be taken that the proper tense be employed to express the time that is intended. Perhaps there is no rule more frequently violated than this, even by good writers; but young writers are very prone to the error. Thus, the author of the Waverley Novels has the following sentence: * *4 See Parker's 12mo edition of the Waverley Novls, Vol. XIII. p. 14. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 89 "' Description,' he said,' was (is) to the author of a romance, exactly what drawing and tinting were (are) to a painter; words were (are) his colors, and, if properly employed, they could (can) not fail to place the scene which he wished (wishes) to conjure up, as effectually before the mind's eye, as the tablet or canvass presents it to the bodily organ. The same rules,' he continued,' applied (apply) to both, and an exuberance of dialogue in the former case, was (is) a verbose and laborious mode of com position, which went (goes) to confound the proper art of the drama, a widely different species of composition, of which dialogue was (is) the very essence; because all, excepting the language to be made use of, was (is) presented to the eye by the dresses, and persons, and actions, of the per formers upon the stage.'" The'author was misled throughout in the tenses of the verbs in this extract, by the tense of the verb said, with which he introduces it. DIRECTION 4th. Whenever several verbs belonging to one common subject occur in a sentence, the subject or nominative must be repeated whenever there is a change in the mood, tense, or form of the verb. DIRE'CTION 5th. In the use of the comparative And superlative de grees of the adjective, it is to be remarked, that when two things or per sons only are compared, the comparative degree, and not the superlative, should be used. Thus, in the sentence, " Catharine and Mary are both well attired; but, in their appearance, Catharine is the neatest, Mary the most showy," the superlative degree of the adjective is improperly applied. As there are but two persons spoken of, the adjectives should be in the comparative degree namely neater and more showy. DIRECTION 6th. Neuter and intransitive verbs should never be used in the passive form. Such expressions as was gone, is grown, is fallen: is come, may be relied on, &c., although used by some good writers, are ob jectionable.:' Although this form of expression is sanctioned by Murray, Lowth, and other.good authorities, yet reason and analogy will not justify us in assent ing to their decision; for, besides the awkwardness of the expression, it is objectionable as being an unnecessary anomaly. But the author has been influenced in his rejection.of such expressions, by the very sensible and conclusive remarks of Mr. Pickbourn, in a very learned work, entitled " A Dissertation on the English Verb," published in London, 1789. Dr. Priestley, in his " Grammar," page 127, says, " It seems not to have been determined by the English grammarians, whether the passive participles of verbs neuter require the auxiliary am or halve before them. The French, in this case, confine themselves strictly to the former." " This remark," says Mr. Pickbourn, " concerning the manner of using the participles of French neuter verbs is certainly not well founded; for nzost of them are conjugated with avoir, to have." Such expressions as the following have recently become very common, not only in the periodical publications of the day, but are likewise finding favor with popular writers; as, " The house is being built." " The street is being paved." " The actions that are now being performed," &c. " The patents are being prepared." The usage of the best writers does not sane tion these expressions; and Mr. Pickbourn, in the work just quoted, lays down the following principle, whioh is conclusive upon the subject. "fWheever the participle in zng is joined by an auxiliary verb to a ncomina 8* 00 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION DnRECTIoN 7th. In the use of irregular verbs, a proper distinction should be made in the use of the imperfect tense and the perfect participle He done (did) it at my request: He run (ran) a great risk: He hai mistook (mistaken) his true interest: The cloth was wove (woven) of the finest wool: He writes as the best authors would have wrote (written) had they writ (written) on the subject: The bell has been rang (rung): I have spoke (spoken) to him upon the subject. These sentences are in stances where the proper distinction between the preterite and participle has not been preserved. IIRECTION 8th. The negative adverb must be followed by the nega tive conjunction; as, "The work is not capable of pleasing the under. standing, nor (not or) the imagination." The sentence would be im proved by using the conjunctions in pairs, substituting neither for not. In the following sentences, the conjunction but is improperly used. " I cannot deny but that I was in fault." " It cannot be-doubted but that this is a state of positive gratification," &c. DIRECTION 9th. There must be no ellipsis of any word, when such ellipsis would occasion obscurity. Thus, when we speak of" the laws of God and man," it is uncertain whether one or two codes of laws are meant; but, in the expression, "the laws of God, and the laws of man,' the obscurity vanishes. A nice distinction in sense is made by the use ol omission of the articles. " A white and red house," means but one house but, "A white and a red house," means two houses. In the expression. "She has a little modesty," the meaning is positive; but, by omitting thearticle, "She has little modesty," the meaning becomes negative. The position of the article, also, frequently makes a great difference in the sense, as will be seen in the following examples: "As delicate a little thing;" "As a delicate little thing." DIRECTION 10th. The adverb should always be placed as near as pos sible to the word which it is designed to qualify. Its proper position i: generally before adjectives, after verbs, and frequently between the auxil iarv and the verb. The following sentence exhibits an instance of thf improper location of the adverb: "It had almost been his daily custom at a certain hour, to visit Admiral Priestman." The adverb almost shoulk have been placed before daily. DIRECTION 11th. In the use of passive and neuter verbs, care must be taken that the proper nominative is applied. That which is the object of the active verb, must in all cases be the subject or nominative of the passive verb. Thus, we say, with the active verb, " They offered him mercy" (i e. to him); and, with the passive verb, "Mercy was offered to tive capable of the action, it is taken actively; but, when joined to one incapable of the action, it becomes passive. If we say,'the men are building a house,' the participle bZilding is evidently used in an active sense; because the men are capable of the action. But when we say,' The house is building,' or' Patents are preparing,' the participles building and preparing must necessarily be understood in a passive'sense; because neither the house nor the patents are capab le of action." See Pickbour'n oen the Englihsl Ve:rb,' ~. 78-80. AIDS TO ENGLISH- COMPOSITION. 91 him;" nat, " He was offered mercy," because " mercy," and not," he," is the thing which was offered. It is better to alter the expression, by sub, stituting a synonyme with a proper nominative or subject, than to intro duce such confusion of language, as must necessarily result from a change in the positive, fixed, and true significations of words, or from a useles violation of grammatical propriety. In accordance with this direction, (see, also, Direction 6th,) instead of it would be better to say Lie was prevailed on, He was persuaded. He was spoken to, iHe was addressed. She was listened to, She was heard. They were looked at, They were seen, or viewed. It is approved of, It is liked, or commended. He was spoken of, He was named, or mentioned. It is contended for, It is maintained, or contested. It was thought of, It was remembered, or conceived. He was called on by his friend, He was visited by his friend. These examples are commented These examples are ridiculed with upon with much humor, much humor. He was referred to as an oracle. Hie was consulted as an oracle. DIRECTION 12th. All the parts of a sentence should be constructed in such a manner that there shall appear to be no want of agreement or connexion among them. Thus, the following sentence, "lHe was more beloved, but not so much admired as Cynthio," is inaccurate, because, when it is analyzed, it will be, " He was more beloved as Cynthio," &c. The adverb more requires the conjunction than after it; and the sentence should be, "He was more beloved than Cynthio, but not. so much ad mired." Again; in the sentence, " If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them goes astray," &c., the subjunctive mood, have, is used after the con junction if, in the first part of the sentence, and the indicative, goes, in the second. Both of these verbs should be in the indicative, or both in the subjunctive mood. No definite rule can be given, which will enable the learner to make the parts of a sentence agree in themselves, and with one another. They should be diligently compared, and a similarity of construction be carefully maintained; while the learner will recollect, that no sentence can be considered grammatically correct, which cannot be analyzed or parsed by the authorized rules of syntax. [Examples for practice, under these principles, may be found in Pa. ke and Fox's " Grammar," Part II., or in Murray's " Exercises." It has not been deemed expedient to insert them here.] 92 AIDS TO ENGLISIH COMPOSITION. XXVII. ON TiHE SELECTION OF WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS. Besides grammatical correctness, the student who aims at being a good speaker and a good writer must pay attention to the style, or manner of expressing his ideas. Rules relating to this subject pertain to the science of rhetoric. Perspicuity, (by which is meant clearness to the mind, easiness to be understbod, freedom from obscurity or ambiguity) should be the fundamental quality of style; and the study of perspicuity and accuracy of expression requires attention, first, to words and phrases, and secondly, to the construction of sentences. Of Words and Phrases. The words and phrases employed in the expression of our ideas should have the three properties called purity,propriety, and precision. Purity consists in the use of such words, and such constructions, as belong to the idiom of the language which we speak; in opposition to words and phrases that are taken from other languages, or that are ungrammatical, obsolete, newly coined, or used without proper authority. Purity may be violated in three different ways. First, the words may not be English. This fault is called a barbarism. Secondly, the construction of the word may not be in the English idiom. This fault is called a solecism. Thirdly, the words and phrases may not be employed to express the precise meaning which custom has affixed to them. This fault is termed an impropriedy. Propriety of language consists in the selection of such words as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas which we intend to express by them; in opposition to low expressions, and to words and phrases which would be less significani of the ideas that we mean to convey. There are seven principal rules for the preservation of proprie ty. 1. Avoid low expressions. 2. Supply words that are wanting. 3. Pe careful not to use the same word in different senses. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 93 4. Avoid the injudicious use of technical terms; that is, terms or expressions which are used in some art, occupation, or profession. 5. Avoid equivocal, or ambiguous words. 6. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent words or phrases. 7. Avoid all such words and phrases as are not adapted to the ideas intended to be communicated. Precision signifies the retrenching of superfluities and the pruning of the expression, so as to exhibit neither more nor less than an exact copy of the person's Idea who uses it.* The words used to express ideas may. be faulty in three respects, First, they may not express the idea which the author intends, but some other which only resembles it; secondly, they may express that idea, but not fully and completely; thirdly, they may express it, together with something more than is intended. Precision stands opposed to these three faults, but chiefly to the last. Propriety implies a freedom from the two forme: faults. The words which are used may be proper; that is, they may ex press the idea intended, and they may express it fully; but to be precise, signifies that they express that idea and no more. The great source of a loose style in opposition to precision, is the injudicious use of words termed synonymous. They are called synonymous because they agree in expressing one principal idea; but, for the most part, if not always, they express it with some diversity in the circumstances.t While we are attending to precision, we must be on our guard, lest, from the desire of pruning too closely, we retrench all copiousness. To unite copiousness and precision, to be full and easy, and at the same time correct and exact in the choice of every word, is, no doubt, one of the highest and most difficult attainments in writing. XXVIII. OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. t Sentences, in general, should neither be very long, noi very short; long ones require close attention to make us * Precision is promoted by the omission of unnesessary words and phrases; and is opposed to Tautology, or the repetition of the same sense in different words; and to Pleonasm, or the use of superfluous words. t See Lesson XIX The student who wishes for exercises on the sub jects of purity, propriety, and precision, will find them in Parker and Fox's Grammar, Part III., pp. 78-86, or in Murray's Exercises, (Alger's Edition.) $ The substance of the remarks on this subject, is taken from Blair's Rhetoric. A great part of the language, also, is copied literally from that work. 94 AIDS TO ENiLISH COOMPOSITION. clearly perceive the connexion of the several parts; and short ones are apt to break the sense, and weaken the connexion of thought. Yet occasionally they may both be used with force and propriety. A train of sentences, constructed in the same manner, and with the same number of members, should never be allowed to succeed'one another. A succession of either long or short sentences should also be avoided; for the ear tires of either bf them when too long continued. A proper mixture of long and short periods, and of periods variously constructed, not only gratifies the ear, but imparts animation and force to style. The properties most essential to a perfect sentence, are the four following: 1. Clearness. 2. Unity. 3. Strength. 4. Harmony. XXIX. OF CLEAR1NESS. The first requisite of a perfect sentence is clearness. This implies that the sentence should be so constructed as to present the meaning intelligibly to the mind, and without ambiguity. The faults iin writing most destructive to clearness are two, namely: a wrong choice of words, or a wrong collocation of them. " From the nature of our language," says Dr. Blair, " a capital rule in the arrangement of our sentences is, that words or members most nearly related should be placed as near to each other as possible, that their mutual relation may clearly appear. This rule is frequently neglected, even by good writers. Thus, Mr. Addison says, " By greatness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view." Here the place of the adverb only makes it limit the verb mean I do not omily mean. The question may then be asked, " What does hs more AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. C than mean? " Had it been placed after bulk, still it would have been wrong, for it might then be asked, " What is meant beside the bulk'0" Is It the color, or any other property? Its proper place is after the word object. "By greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single obJect only." For then, when it is asked- What does he mean more than the bulk of a single object? the answer comes out precisely as the author intends,'the largeness of a whole view." This extract shows the importance of giving the right position to dverbs and other qualifying words. Particular attention must be given 0.so to the place of the pronouns who, which, what. whose, &c., and of all;hose particles which express the connexion of the parts of speech. The )llowing sentence is faulty in this respect.'It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us against, but the good providence of our Heavenly Father." Which, as it here stands, grammatically refers to the immediately pre ceding noun, which is treasures, and this would convert the whole period into nonsense. The sentence should have been constructed thus: "It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, against which nothing can protect us but the good providence of our Heavenly Father." XXX. UNITY. The unity of a sentence implies its oneness. The sentence may consist of parts; but these parts must be so closely bound together as to make an impression of one object only upon the mind. There is generally in every sentence some person or thing which is the governing word. This should be continued so if possible from the begin ning to the end. Another direction or rule to preserve the unity of a sentence may be thus stated: Never crowd into one sentence ideas which have so little connexion that they might well be divided into two or m.ore sentences. It is the safer extreme to err rather by too many short sentences, than by one that is overloaded or confused. A third rule for preserving the unity of a sentence is, keep clear of paLentheses in the middle of it. 96 AIDS TO ENGIISH COMPOSITION. In general their effect is extremely bad, being a perplexed method of disposing of some thought, which a writer has not art enough to introduce mn its proper place. The fourth rule for the unity of a sentence is, bring it to a full and perfect close. In conformity with thd first rule stated above, it may be observed, that if there are a number of nominatives, or subjects which cannot be connected by a conjunction, or thrown into some other case or form, the sentence must be divided, and the parts constructed in independent sentences. To show the manner in which the rules now stated should be app]:.l, the following extract is presented from " The Quarterly TIeview." " The youth who had found the cavern, and had kept the secret to him self, loved this damsel; he told her the danger in time, and persuaded her to trust herself to him." In this sentence there is perfect unity. The word youtth is the governing word, and the pronoun he, its representative, to prevent tautology, is substituted, to avoid the repetition of the conjunction a?zd. But the writer continues, " They got into a canoe; the place of her retreat was described to her on the way to it, - these women swim like mermaids, —she dived after him, and rose in the cavern; in the widest part it is about fifty feet, and its medium height is guessed at the same, the eoof hung with stalactites." Here, every one of the rules of unity is violated. The nominative is changed six different times. Ideas having no connexion with each other, namely: Their getting into a canoe, - the description of the place of her retreat,- the swimming of the women, -her diving and rising in the cavern, - the dimensions of the cave, and the ornaments of its roof, are all crowded into one sentence. The expression, "These women swim like mermnaids," is properly a parenthesis, occurring in the middle of the sentence; and the clause, " the roof hung with stalactites," does not bring the sentence to a full and perfect close. The same ideas intended to be conveyed, may be expressed as follows, without violating either of the lawsr of unity. "As they got into a canoe, to proceed to the cavsrn, the place of her retreat was described to her. Like the roft of her countrywomen, she could swim like a mermaid, and accordingly diving after him, she rose in the cavern; a spacious apartment of about fifty feet in each of its dimen sions, with a roof beautifully adorned with stalactites." The unity of a sentence may sometimes be preserved by the use of the participle instead of the verb. Thus: " The stove stands on a platform which is raised six inches and extends the whole length of the room." This sentence is better expressed thus: " The stove stands on a platform, six nches in height, and extending the whole length of the room." AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 97 XXXI. OF THE STRENGTH OF A SENTENCE. The third requisite of a perfect sentence is strength. By this is meant such a disposition of the several words and members as will exhibit the sense to the best advantage; as will render the impression which the period is intended to make, most full and complete, and give every word, and mem her its due weight and force. To the production of this effect, perspicuity and unity are absolutely necessary; but more is requisite. For, a sentence may be clear; it may also be compact, or have the requisite unity; and yet, by some unfavora ble circumstance in the structure, it may fail in that strength or liveliness of impression, which a more happy collocation would produce. The first rule for promoting the strength of a sentence is, take from it all redundant words. Thus it is better to say, 1" Called to the exercise of the supreme command, he exerted his authority with moderation," &c., than " Being called to the exercise," &c. It is a most useful exercise, on reviewing what we have written, to contract that circuitous mode of expression, and to cut off those useless ex crescences, which are usually found in a first draught. Care must be taken, however, not to prune too closely. Some leaves must be left to shelter and adorn the fruit. As sentences should be cleared of superfluous words, so also must they be of superfluous members. Thus, speaking of beauty, one of the most elegant writers in the English language says, "The very first discovery of it strikes the mind with inward joy and 5preads delight over the faculties.' In the latter member of this sentence, scarcely anything is added to what was expressed in the first. The second rule for promoting the strength of a sentence is, ray particular attention to the use of copulatives, relatives, and particles employed for transition and connexion. The separation of a preposition from the noun which it governs, is to be avoided. Thus, Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often be aceonm panied by, the advantages of virtue.1" It would be better to say, 98 AIDS TO ENGLISH COME OSITION. "Though virtue borrows no assistance from the advantages of fortune in may often be accompanied by them." Or,'" Though virtue may often be accompanied by the advantages of fortune, it borrows no assistance from them." The strength of a sentence is much injured by an unnecessary multi plication of relative and demonstrative participles., In conversation, and in epistolary writing, the relative pronoun may be omitted; but in compositions of a serious, or dignified kind, it should always be inserted. Thus we may say, in familiar language, "He brought the books I requested." But in dignified discourse, the pronoun which should be inserted. " He brought the books which/ I requested." With regard to the conjunction and, it should not be unnecessarily re peated. Whenever, however, we wish objects to appear as distinct from each other as possible, the and may be repeated; thus, " Such a- man may fall a victim to power, but truth, and reason, and liberty, would fall with him." [N. B. In such cases, the comma must precede each repetition of the conjunction and.] The third rule for promoting strength is, dispose of the principal word or words in that part of the sentence, where they will make the most striking impression. In general, the important words are placed at the beginning of a sentence. Sometimes, however, when we propose giving weight to a sen tence, it is useful to suspend the meaning a little, and then bring it out fully at the close. Thus, "On whatever side we contemplate Homer, what principally strikes us is his wonderful invention." The fourth rule for promoting the strength of a sentence is, make the members of them go on rising in importance one above another. This kind of arrangement is called a climax, and is ever regarded as a beauty in composition. A weaker assertion fhould never follow a stronger one; and when a sentence consists of two members, the longer should in general be the concluding one. Thus, the following sentence admits two arrangements, of which the latter is the better, for the reasons stated above.' We flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken our passions when they have forsaken us." " When our passions have forsaken us, we flatter ourselves with the be lief that we have forsaken them." The fifth rule for constructing sentences with strength is, avoid con eluding them with an adverb, a preposition, or any insignificant word. Sometimes, however, when words of this kind are particularly emphat ical, this rule may be disregarded; as in the following sentence, and others like it in which they present an antithesis' AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 99 " n their prosperity, my filends shall never hear of me; in their adver. 4ity, always." But when these inferior parts of speech are introduced as circumstan ces, or as qualifications of more important words, they should always be disposed of in the least conspicuous parts of the period. Thus, it is much better to say,'"Avarice is a crime of which wise men are often guilty," than to say, Avarice is a crime which wise men are often guilty of."' This latter form is a phraseology, which all correct writers shun. Lastly, it may be observed, that any phrase which expresses a circun.snnce only, cannot, without great inelegance, conclude a sentence. The sixth and last rule concerning the strength of a sentence is this. In the members of it, where two things are compared or contrasted; where either resemblance or opposition is to be expressed; some resem blance in the language and construction ought to be observed. The following passage beautifully exemplifies this rule: "Homer was the greater genius: Virgil the better artist; in the one we admire the man, in the other the work. Homer hurries as with a com manding impetuosity; Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty. Homer scatters with a generous profusion; Virgil bestows with a careful magnificence. Homer, like the Nile, pours out his riches with a sudden,overflow. Virgil, like a river in its banks, with a constant stream. When we look up on their machines, Homer seems like his own Jupiter in his terrors, shaking Olympus, scattering lightnings, and firing the heavens. Virgil, like the same power in his benevolence, counselling with the gods, laying plans for empires, and ordering his whole creation." Periods thus constructed, when introduced with propriety and not too frequently repeated, have a sensible beauty. But if such a construction be aimed at in every sentence, it betrays into a disagreeable uniformity, and produces a regular jingle in the period, which tires the ears and nlainlv discovers affectation. XXXII. OF THE HARMONY OF A SENTENCE. Sound is a quality much inferior to sense; yet it must not be disregarded. Pleasing ideas, and forcible reasoning, lose much by being communicated to the mind by harsh and disagreeable sounds. For this reason, a sentence, besides the qualities already enumerated, under tde heads of Clearneass X00 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Unity, and Strength, should likewise, if possible, express the quality of Harmony. The rules of harmony relate to the choice of words; their arrange ment, the order and disposition of the members, and the cadence or close of sentences. If we would speak forcibly and effectually, we must avoid the use of such words, -1. As are composed of words already compounded, the several parts of which are not easily, and therefore not closely united; as, unsuccessfulness, wrongheadedness, tenderheartedness. 2. Such as have the syllables which immediately follow the accented syllable crowded with consonants that do not easily coalesce; as, questionless, chroniclers, convent iclers. 3. Such as have too many syllables following the accented syllable; as, primcwily, cursorily, summaeSly, peremptoriness. 4. Such as have a short or unaccented syllable repeated, or followed by another short or unaccented syllable very much resembling it; as, holily, sillily, lowlily, farriery. But let the words themselves be ever so well chosen, and well sounding, yet, if they be ill disposed, the melody of the sentence is utterly lost, or greatly impaired. Though attention to the words and members, and the close of sentences, must not be neglected, yet, in no instance should perspicuity, precision, or strength of sentiment, be sacrificed to sound. All unmeaning words, introduced merely to round the period, or fill up the melody, are great blemishes in writing. They are childish and trivial ornaments, by which a sentence always loses more in point of weight than it can gain by such additions to its sound. The members of a sentence should not be too long, nor disproportion ate to each other. When they have a regular and proportional division they are much easier to the voice, are more clearly understood, and better remembered, than when this rule is not regarded; for whatever tires the voice and offends the ear is apt to mar the strength of the expression, and to degrade the sense of the author. With respect to the cadence or close of a sentence, care should be taken that it be not abrupt nor unpleasant. The following examples will be sufficient to show the propriety of some attention to this part of the rule. " Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined with good temper and prudence, are prosperous in general." It would be better thus: " Virtue, diligence and industry, joined with good temper and prudence, have ever been found the surest road to prosperity." An author, speaking of the Trinity, expresses himself thus: " It is a mystery which we firmly believe the truth of, and humbly adore the d,pth of." How much better would it have been with this transposi tion: " It is a mystery, the truth of which we firmly believe, and the depth of which we humbly adore." ,IDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 101 In the harmony of periods two things are to be considered, First, agreeable sound or modulation in general, without any particular expression. Next, the sound so ordered, as to become expressive of the sense. The first is the more common; the second the superior beauty. The beauty of musical construction depends upon the choice and art rangement of words. Those words are most pleasing to the ear, which are -composed of smooth and liquid sounds, in which there is a proper intermixture of vowels and consonants, without too many harsh conso nants, or too many open vowels in succession. Long words are generally more pleasing to the ear than monosyllables; and those are the most musical, which are not wholly composed of long or short syllables, but of an intermixture of them; such as, delight, amuse, velocity, celerity, beautiful, impetuosity. If the words, however, which compose a sentence, beever so well chosen and harmonious; yet if they be unskilfully arranged, its music is entirely lost. There are two things on which the music of a sentence principally depends; these are, the proper distribution of the several members of it, and the close or cadence of the whole. First, the dist-ibution of the several members should be carefully regarded. Whatever is easy to the organs of speech, is always grateful to the ear. While a period advances, the termination of each member forms a pause in the pronunciation; and these pauses should be so distributed, as to bear a certain musical proportion to each other. The next thing which demands attention, is the close or cadence of the period. The only important rule, which can here be given, is this, when we aim at dignity or elevation, the sound should increase to the last; the longest members of the period, and the fullest and most sonorous words, should be reserved for the conclusion. It may be remarked, that little words in the conclusion of a sentence are as injurious to melody, as they are inconsistent with strength of ex pression. A musical close in our language seems in general to require either the last syllable, or the last but one, to be a long syllable. Words which consist chiefly of short syllables; as, contrary, particuklar, retrospect, seldom terminate a sentence harmoniously, unless a previous run of long syllables have rendered them pleasing to the ear. Sentences constructed in the same manner, with the pauses at equal intervals, should never succeed each other. Short sentences must be blended with long and swelling ones, to render discourse sprightly as well as magnificent. There is, however, a species of harmony of a higher kind than mere agreeableness to the ear; and that occurs when the sound is adapted to the sense. Of this there are two degrees. First the current of sound suited to the tenor of a discourse. Next, a peculiar resemblance effected between some object, and the sounds employed in describing it. [See Onomatopein'a.1 9* 102 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. The sounds of words may be employed for representing three classes of objects; first, other sounds; secondly, motions; and thirdly, the emo. tions and passions of the mind. In most languages, the names of many particular sounds are so formed as to bear some resemblance to the sounds which they signify. Instances of this kind will be found under the title of Onomatopceia, on page 104. The following extracts from Milton's Paradise Lost present examples of similar words, united in sentences so happily arranged, that the sound seems almost an echo to the sense. The first represents the opening of the gates of Hell: " On a sudden open fly, With impetuous recoil, and Jarring sounds The infernal doors, and on their hinges grate Harsh thunder." The second represents the opening of the gates of Heaven " Heaven opens wide Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound On golden hinges turning." The sound of words, in the second place, is frequently employed to Imitate motion. Long syllables naturally excite an idea of slow motion; and a succession of short syllables gives the impression of quick motion. Instances of both these will be found under the title of Onomatopceia, to which reference has just been made. The third set of objects, which the sound of words is capable of representing, consists of emotions and passions of the mind. Thus, when pleasure, joy, and agreeable objects, are described, the language should run in smooth, liquid and flowing words. The following extract presents a good example: "But 0 how altered was its sprightlier tone When Cheerfulness, a nymph of healthiest hue; Her bow across her shoulder flung; Her buskins gemmed with morning dew, Blew an inspiring air that dale and thicket rang! The hunter's call, to Fawn and Dryad known. The oak crowned sisters, and their chaste-eyed Queen, Satyrs and sylvan boys were seen Peeping from forth their alleys green; BrownExercise rejoiced to hear, And Sport leaped up and seized his beechen spear." Melancholy and gloomy subjects are naturally connected with slov measure and long words. Thus: "In those deep solitudes and awful cells Where heavenly pensive contemplation dwells," &c. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 10'A Through glades and glooms the mingled measure stole, *.Exercises. The student may correct the following sentences: Want of Unity. The successor of Henry the Second was his son Francis the Second, the first husband of Mary, afterwards Queen of Scots, who died after a reign of one year, and was succeeded by his brother Charles the Ninth, then a boy only ten years old, who had for his guardian Catharine de Medicis an ambitious and unprincipled woman. Weant of Purity. The gardens were void of simplicity and elegance, and exhibited much that was glaring and bizarre. Want of Propriety. He was very dexterous in smelling out the views and designs of others. The pretenders to polish and refine the English language have chiefly multiplied abuses and absurdities. Want of Precisiom There can be no regularity or order in the life and conduct of that man who does not give and allot a due share of his time to retirement and reflection. Want of Clearness. There is a cavern in the island of Hoonga which can only be entered by diving into tihe sea. Want of Strength. The combatants -encountered each other with such rage, that, being cager only to assail, and thoughtless of making any defence, they both fell dead upon the field together. Waint of Hanmomy. By the means of society, our wants come to be supplied, and our lives -ire rendered comfortable, as well as our capacities enlarged, and our vir;uous affections called forth into their proper exercise. t * The teacher or student who wishes for exercises under the heads of Clearness, Unity, Strength, and Harmony, will find a good collecticn of them in Murray's Exercises, an appendage to his large Grammar; or an abridgement of them in Parker and Fox's Grammar, Part 3d in the ap pendix t The student who wishes a larger collection of exercises under the heads abovementioned, will find t.em in Parker and Fox's Grammar. Part 3d 104 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. XXXIII. SOUND ADAPTED TO THE SENSE. "'T is not enough no harshness gives offence, The sound must seem an echo of the sense." ONOMATOPCEIA. Onomatopoeia, or Onomatopy, consists in the formation of words in such a manner that the sound shall imitate the sense. Thus the words buzz, crackle, crash, flow, rattle, roar, hiss, whistle, are evidently formed to imitate the sounds themselves. Sometimes the word expressing an object is formed to imitate the sound produced by that object; as, wave, cuckoo, whippoorwill, whisper, hum. It is esteemed a great beauty in writing when the words selected for the expression of an idea, convey, by their sound, some resemblance to the subject which they express, as in the following lines: The whitewashed wall, the nicely sanded floor, The varnished clock that clicked behind the door. @ Of a similar character, and nearly of equal merit, are those sentences or expressions which in any respect imitate or represent the sense which they are employed to express. Thus Gray, in his Elegy, beautifully expresses the reluctant feeling to which he alludes in the last verse of the following stanza: "For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey, This pleasing anxious being e'er resigned, Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, Nor cast one longing, lingerizng look behind!" And Pope, in his "Essays on Criticism," in a manner, though different, yet scarcely less expressive, gives a verbal representation of his idea, by the selection of his terms, in the following lines: "These, equal syllables alone require, Though oft the ear the open vowels tire, $ These lines will not fail to recall to the memory of the classical stv dent those peculiarly graphic lines of Virgil, in one of which he describes the galloping of. a horse: " Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum." and in another the appearance of a hideous monster: " Monstrum horrendum in forma ingens cui lumen ademptum." AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 10V While expletives their feeble aid do join, And ten low worces oft creep in one didl line." "A needless Alexandrine ends the song, Th7at, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length alon.' "Soft is the strain, when Zephyr gently blows, And the smooth stream in smoother nIzcmbers fows, But when loud-surges lash the sounding shore, The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent roar. When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, The line too labors, and the words move slow. Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain, Flies o'er the unbending corn, and skims along the main." As an exercise in Onomatopoeia, the student may select such words as he can recall in which the sound bears a resemblance to the significat tion. XXXrv. DEFINITION, AND DISTINCTION OR DIFFERENCE The object of this exercise is to accustom the student to acquire clear ideas of things, and to perceive distinctions and differences wherever they exist. Clear ideas of a subject must be acquired before any thing can be correctly said or written upon it. A definition, as described by logicians, consists of two parts, which they call the genus and the difference. The genus is the name of the class to which the object belongs. The difference is the property or properties by which the individual thing to be defined is distinguished from other individuals of the same class. Thus, if a definition is required of the word justice, we may commence by saying, "Justice is that virtue which induces us to give every one his due." Here, virtue is the class to which the object belongs; but this part of the definition may be applied to hon esty, another quality of the same class, as well as to justice; for "Honesty is also a virtue which induces us to give every one his due." Something more, therefore, must be added to our definition, by which justice may be distinguished from honesty, and this something more, in whatever form it may be presented, will be the difference which excludes h onesty from the same definition. 106 AIDS TO ENGLISHI COMPOSITIONB Exaniae. JUSTICE. Justice is that virtue which induces us to give to every one his due. It requires us not only to render every article of property to its right owner, but also to esteem every one ac cording to his merit, giving credit for talents and virtues wherever they may be possessed, and withholding our approbation from every fault, how great soever the temptation that leads to it. It will easily be seen from this definition in what the diffrrence lies, which excludes honesty from the definition. Honesty, it is true, requires that we should render to every one his due. But honesty does not necessarily'imply the esteeming of every one according to his merit, giving credit for talents and virtues,* &c. A definition should generally be an analysisis of the thing defined, that is, it should comprise an enumeration of its principal qualities or attributes. Example 2d. A Swallow. 1. A swallow is an animal. - This definition is not correct, because it will apply also to a horse, or a cow, or a dog, or a cat, as well as to a swallow. 2. A swallow is a bird. - So also is an eagle, or a goose, and therefore this definition is not sufficiently distinct. 3. A swallow is an animal which has two legs. -And so is a man, and therefore this definition is not sufficiently exclusive. 4. A swallow is an animal that has two legs, and wings. - And so is a bat; and therefore this definition is faulty. 5. A swallow is an animal, that has wings, feathers, and a hard, glossy bill, with short legs, a forked tail, and large mouth, and ex ceeding all other birds in the untiring rapidity of its flight and evolutions. Its upper parts are steel blue, and the lower parts of a light, chestnut color. It seeks the society of man, and attaches its nest to the rafters in barns. This definition contains the difference, as well as the class, and may therefore be considered as sufficiently correct for our present purpose. t * See Syno7Sjmes, page 40. t See Parker and Fox's Gramix ar, Part m., No. 387. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 107 -Example 3d. Eternal. The term eternal is properly applied to that only which always Las exsted and always will exist. It implies without beginning and without end. This definition excludes the application of the term eternal from every hing that ever had a beginning, as well as from that which will ever have an end. The circumstance of having no beginning is the specific difference Between the terms eternal and infinite. Infinite, endless, unceasing, &c., imply only without end. After explaining the meaning, or giving the definition of the terms in this exercise, the student should be required to give an instance of the proper application of the word. Exercises. Give a definition to the following words, and point out the distinction or difference between them and other words, which in some respect resemble them. Temperance. To Transpose. Amplify Equity. To Disregard. Composition. Synthesis. Excellence. History. Analogy. Activity. Astrology. Comparison. To Disobey. Literature. Judgment. Tautology. Science. Reasoning. lNarration. Art. Description. Outline. The distinction or difference between two subjects may likewise be exhibited as in the following Example. Grammar, rhetoric, and logic are kindred branches of science, but each has its separate department and specific objects. Rhetoric teaches how to express an idea in proper words; grammar directs the arrangement and inflections of the words; logic relates to the truth or correctness of the idea to be expressed. Grammar addresses itself to the understanding; rhetoric, to the imagination-; logic, to the judgment. Rhetoric selects the materials; grammar combines them into sentences; logic shows the agreement, or disagreement, of the sentences with one another. A sentence may 1;08 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITIOIn. be grammatically correct, but rhetorically incorrect, as in the following extract: " To take arms against a sea of troubles, and, by opposing, end them." Here every word is grammatically correct; but to represent a man clad in armor to ighit water, is a mixed metaphor, violating one of the fundamental principles of rhetoric. So, also, a sentence may be both grammatically and rhetorically faultless, while it violates logical principles. Thus, " All men are bipeds, and, as birds are also bipeds, birds are to be considered as men, Exercises. lThe student may show the distinction between the following words: Quack and charlatan. Projector, speculator, and economist. Bookworms and syllable hunters. Cant, prosing, puritanical. The word liberal, as applied to politicians, theologians, and philosophers; 1st, when assumed by themselves; 2dly, when applied to them by their adversaries. The different senses in which the word independence is used, as applied to nations and individuals, -to a man's charac. ter, opinions, and circumstances, is explained in the following Example. When we speak of a nation's independence, we mean, that it is not connected with any other nation, so as to be obliged to receive laws or magistrates from it, to pay a revenue into its treasury, or in any way to submit to its dictates. When we see a nation whose laws are framed by its own magistrates, whether elective or hereditary, without regard to the pleasure of any other nation; where the taxes are levied for the support of its own interest, and for the maintenance of its own magistrates; where it is not necessary that the consent of another should be obtained, before it is at liberty to make war upon a foreign state, or to enter into alliance with any foreign power that they please, - to that nation custom gives the epithet " independent." Nor does the submission of a people to the will of a despot contradict its claim to be considered an independent nation. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 109 The subjects are, indeed, dependent upon the caprice of a tyrant, and he has absolute power over their lives, property, and political interest; but this internal slavery does not exclude them from being considered independent as a nation, and from taking a part, as such, in the disputes of other governments, provided that their own master is not also subject to some foreign power. A subject province becomes independent, when, finding itself strong enough for its purpose, it throws off the yoke of the ruling power, and declares itself free; and it is recognized as such by other nations, if it succeeds in establishing its claim, either by arms, or the consent of the government to which it was subject. A man is said to be independent in his character, when he does not permit the opinion of the world to influence his actions. Hie is independent in his opinions, when he maintains them in spite of ridicule, or the ideas of the rest of the community. If he conducts himself according to these opinions, carries into action his ideas of right and wrong, though they be contrary to what every one else thinks, he is independent in character. A man may he so subservient to another, that he will disguise his own opinions, and uphold those of the other. For some benefit conferred, or from the expectation of some advantage, he will stoop to flatter the notions of his patron, pretend to guide all his actions according to those ideas, and even regulate his conduct by rules which he knows to be wrong; and merely for the sake of being permitted to expect a slight favor. Such a man has no claim to independence of character or opinions. When a person does not rely on the profits of his business for subsistence, but has laid up or received as an inheritance a sum of money, the income of which is sufficient for his maintenancc, he is considered independent in his circuml stances. Independence is, in most cases, an excellent quality and state; but when a man's independence of character leads him to abuse, and refuse to conform to, the customs of his country, because he perceives in them something absurd, it makes fbin appear ridiculous. 'IUV AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. XXXV ANALOGY. Analogy, as defined by Johnson, is a resemblance between two things with regard to some circumstances or effects. Webster defines it thus: An agreement or likeness between things in some circumstances or effects, when the things are otherwise entirely different. Thus, learning is said to enlighten the mind, that is, it is to the mind what light is to the eye, enabling it to discover what was hidden before.* Example. Youth and morning resemble each other in many particulars. Youth is the first part of life. Morning is the first part of the day. Youth is the time when preparation is to be made for the business of life. In the morning, arrangements are made for the employment of the day. In youth, our spirits are light, no cares perplex, no troubles annoy us. In the morning the prospect is fair, no clouds arise, no tempest threatens, no commotion among the elements impends. In youth we form plans which the later periods of life cannot execute; and the morning, likewise, is often productive of promises which neither noon nor evening can perform. From this example it will be seen that subjects which in reality have in themselves no actual resemblance, may be so contrasted as to present an appearance of resemblance in their effects. Many of the beauties of poetry arise from the poet's observing these similitudes, and expressing them in appropriate language. Thus darkness and adversity, comfort and light, life and the ocean, evening and old age, misfortune and a storm, a clergyman and a shepherd, smiles and sunshine, tears and rain, a guilty conscience and a defenceless body, are subjects which in themselves have no actual similitude; yet, when contrasted with their effects, points of resemblance cwili * When the thing to which the analogy is supposed happens to be men tioned, analogy has after it the prepositions to or wit/h: when both the things are mantioned after analogy, the preposition between is used. - Tohnson. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 1ll be readily seen, which show an obvious analogy. Thus, also, in the following extract the poet in addressing the sun shows an analogy between the evaporation of water, and the flight of a bird. "Thou lookest on the waters, and they glow And take them wings and mount aloft in air," &c. The skilful allusion to such analogies constitutes the highest art of the poet, as it forms also the most pleasing beauty of poetry. Indeed, without such allusions, poetry loses all of its charms, and verse degenerates into mere' sing-song.' It will be a useful exercise for the student to prepare lists of subjects between which an analogy may be traced. XXXVI. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. A Figure, in the science of language, is a departure from the common forms of words, from the established rules of syntax, or from the use of words according to their literal signification. A departure from the commonform of words is called a figure of etymology, or an etymological figure. [See Elision, 8$c;] A departure from the established rules of syntax is called a syntactical figure. [See Enallage, ilyperbaton, Pleonasm, ~c.] A departure from the use of words in their literal signification is called a figure of rhetoric, or a rhetorical figure. [See Trope, Mletaphor.] Figurative language properly includes all of these different kinds of figures; but the term is sometimes restricted to rhetorical figures.* * Holmes's " Rhetoric " enumerates a list of two hundred and fifty figures connected with the subjects of Logic, Rhetoric, and Grammar. The work is remarkable for its quaintness, and possesses some merit as a vocabulary. His cautions with regard to the use of figures are so characteristic, that they may afford some amusement, if not edification to the student. The follow Lng is his language with regard to Tropes and Figures: "The faults of Tropes are nine: 1 2 3 4 5 "Of tropes perplext, harsh, frequent, swoll'n, fetched far, 6 7 ced, low, lewd, beware." El representirg, forced, low, lewd, beware." 112 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITIOG;. Many words that are used in common discourlse have two significations or rather significations of two different kinds; namely, a literal and a figurative signification. A word is said to be used literally or to have its literal signification when it is used in a manner, which is authorized by the general consent of those who speak and write with correctness the language in which it is fbund. A word is used figuratively, when though it retains its usual signific.tion it is applied in a manner different from its common application, Thus when we speak of the head of an animal, we use the word head in its literal signification as implying that part of the body which contains the eyes, nose, mouth, ears, &c. But when we speak of the head of a class, or of a division of an army, or any thing without life, we recall to mind the analogy or resemblance between two objects, separately considering the highest or most prominent part of each, and apply the name of that part in the one, to the similar part in the other. In this manner the word is turned from its literal meaning to a figurative signification, and this turning of the word receives the rhetorical name of a trope; a deriva tion from a Greek word, which signifies a turning. So also, " The dawn," properly means the earliest part of the morning, or of the day; and " twi Iqht " expresses the close or latter part of day. But, by a rhetorical figure, these words are used to express the earliest and latest parts of other subiects. Thus, " the dawn of bliss," expresses the commencement of happiness or bliss; and, "the twilight of our wtoes," is used to signify the close or termination of sorrow. " The morning of our joy," implies the earliest period of our enjoyment. "'The eve of his departure," implies sme latest point of time, previous to his departure. The use of figures, or of figurative language, is, - 1. They render the language copious. 2. The richness of language is thereby increased. 3. They increase the power and expressiveness of language. 4. They impart animation to style.* There is another class of figures styled metaphors, which se nearly resemble tropes, that the difference cannot always be easily described. The literal meaning of the word metaphor is a transferring from one sabject to another. As used in rhetoric, it implies a transferring of the i" And the faults of figures are six: 1 2 8 "Figures unnatural, senseless, too fine spun, 4 5 6 Over adorned, affected, copious, shun." (!!!) "_ Rhetoric mnace Easy, by John Holmes. London, 1755.", d- The student who would see a beautiful illustration of this sutjeet, ia Wferred to Newman's Rhetoric, chap. 3d AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 113 application of a word, in its literal meaning, from one object, or class of objects, to another, founded upon some similarity, analogy, or resem. blance.* A metaphor is a simile or comparison expressed in one word. Thus: The soldiers were lions in the combat: The soldiers fought like lions. [See Comparison.] A trope is the mere change, or turning, of a word from its original signification. Hence, if the word be changed, the figure is destroyed. Thus, when we say, The cloudsforetell rain, we have a trope in the wordforeteti. If the sentence be read, The clouds foreshow rain, the figure disappears. The following examples will clearly illustrate the difference between plain and figurative language:.Examples. Figurative. She had been the pupil of the village pastor, the favorite lamb of his little flock. Plain. She had been the pupil of the village clergyman) the favorite child of his small congregation. Fitgurative., Man! thou pendulum between a smile and tear. Plain. Man! thou who art always placed between happiness and misery, but never wholly enjoying the one, nor totally afflicted with the other. Figurative. He found the tide of wealth flowing merely iie the channels of traffic; he has diverted from it invigorating rills to refresh the garden of literature. Plain. He saw that men of wealth were employing their riches only in the business of commerce. He set the example of appropriating a portion of wealth to the increase and diif fusion of knowledge. Figurative. A stone, perhaps, may tell some wanderer where we lie, when we came here, and when we went away; but even that will soon refuse to bear us record: Time's effacing fingers will be busy on its surface, and at length wear it smooth. Plain. A -stone, perhaps, may be erected over our graves, with an inscription bearing the date of our birth, and the day L* " Metaphore is an alteration of a worde, from the proper and natural! meaning to that which is not proper, and yet agreeth there.unto by some likenesse that appeareth to be into it." — Vilson - The Arte ef Rhetorzque. 175. 10* 114 AlDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. of our death; but even that will not last long. In the course of time the stone will be mutilated or broken, and the inscription be entirely destroyed. It. will readily be seen from these examples that analogy is the foundation of a large proportion of figurative language. Thus in the first example, " She had been the pupil of the village pastor, the favorite lamb of his little flock," the analogy lies between a clergyman and a shepherd; a congregation and a flock of sheep, the little ones of the congregation and the young lambs of the flock. It will be found a very useful exercise for the student fo trace out the analogies thus presented by figurative language. The following extracts are selected, in which he may point out the subjects between which the analogy is directly or indirectly implied. Such an exercise will open his eyes to the beauties of poetry, and prepare him for the imitation of those beauties. Perhaps it will be better that this should be an oral exercise. iExtracts. The meek-eyed morm appears, mother of dews, At first faint gleaming in the dappled east. How reverend is the face of this tall pile, Whose ancient pillars rear their marble heads, To bear aloft its arched and ponderous roof, By its own weight made steadfast and immovable, Looking tranquillity! Youth is not rich in time; it may be poor; Part with it, as with money, sparing; pay No moment but in purchase of its worth; And what its worth - ask death-beds; they can tell. Enter this wild wood, And view the haunts of nature. The calm shade Shall bring a kindred calm, and the sweet breeze, That makes the green leaves dance, shall waft a baler To thy sick heart. Throngs cf insects in the glade Try their thin wings, and dance in the warm beam That waked them into life. Even the green trees Partake the deep contentment; as they bend To the soft winds, the sun from the blue sky 1ooks in, and sheds a blessing on the scene. The breath of night's destructive to the hue Of every flower that blows. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 118 So saying, her rash hand in evil hour Forth reaching to the fruit, she plucked, she ate. Earth felt the wound, and Nature from her seat, Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe That all was lost. The voice of thy brother's blood crieth unto me from the ground. Thou'rt purpling now, 0 Sun, the vines of Canaan, And crowning with rich light the cedar tops of Lebanon. The tempests of fortune. The' last steps of day. The storms of adversity. My ear is pained, My soul is sick with every day's report Of wrong and outrage with which earth is filled. The superb lotus was holding up his cup to the sun. as if for a full draught of his light. Life is a sea as fathomless, As wide, as terrible,'and yet sometimes As calm and beautiful. The light of heaven Smiles on it, and'tis decked with every hue Of glory and of joy. Anon, dark clouds Arise, contending winds of fate go forth, And Hope sits weeping o'er a general wreck. XXXVII. TRANSLATION OF PLAIN INTO FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. The following Examples present instances of plain language converted into figurative. This exercise will require a greater effort of imagination than the last; but the difficulty oof the task must not prevent an attempt at its execution. Fxamples. X Plain. It was evening, and the sun-slowly went down. Figurative.'T was eve: —upon his chariot throne The sun sank lingering in the west. Plain. Showery April.' Figurative. Tear-dropping April. * For an example showing the difference in the vivacity'f style in plain and figurative langnstge, see note on pages 118 and 119. 116 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Plain. The winds made the large trees bend. Figurative. The giant trees leaned back from the encoun tering breeze. Plain. The thunder is echoed from the tops of the moun tains..Figurative. From peak to peak leap~ the live thunder. Plain. It is again morning, a bright, fair, and pleasant morning; and the clouds have all passed away. Figurative The wornh is up again, the dewy morn, ~With breath all incense, and with cheek all bloom, Laughing the clouds away with playful scorn. Plain. Oldest of Lakes.,Figurative. Father of Lakes. Plain. Yonder comes the bright sun, enlightening the East. Figurative. But yonder comes the powerful King of day, Rejoicing in the east. Plain. The light dew — the unpleasant storms. Figurative. The light-footed dews: - the surly storms. Plain. The earth is covered with snow, or The snow covers the earth. Figurative. The earth lies buried in a shroud of snow. Plain. Much rain has fallen from the clouds to-day. Fligturative. The clouds have dropped their garnered fulness down. Plain. The fair morning makes the eastern skies look bright. Eigurative. The fair morning gilds the eastern skies. Plain. Some solitary column stands alone, while the others have been thrown down. Figurative. Some solitary column mourns above its pros. trate brethren. Plain. If pleasant looks will not soothe your displeasure, I shall never attempt it with tears..Figurative. If sunshine will not dissolve thy snow, I shall never attempt it with rain. Plain. The love that is caused by excitement is'soon destroyed by affliction. Figurative. The love that is ordered to bathe in wine, Would be sure to take cold in tears. Plain. Authors of modern date write for money, not foi fame. Figurative.'T is but to -snip his locks they (modern autlors) Follow the golden-haired Apollo. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMIpOSITION. 117 The conversion of plain into figurative language requires 4he exercise of considerable thought, and quickness of perception in tracing.analogies. It is recommended to the student before he attempts an exercise of this kind, to read with attention portions of the works of some distinguished poet, with special reference to the figures he employs. Let him analyze the expressions, and point out what portions are figurative, in wfrat the figure consists, and on what analogy the figure is g anded. An exercise of this kind will bring the mind into lgorous action, and like all exercises having that tendencr, mnnot fail to be highly beneficial. XXXVIII. RULES OF MIETAPHORS. The following are the rules laid down by Dr. Blair, in rolation to metaphors: First. They must be suited to the nature of the subject; neither too numerous, nor too gay, nor too elevated for it. We must neither attempt to force the subject, by the use of them, into a degree of elevation not congruous to it; nor, on the contrary, suffer it to fall below its proper dignity. Some metaphors would be beautiful in poetry, which would be unnatural in prose: some are graceful in orations, which would be highly improper in historical composition. Figures are the dress of sentiment; they should, consequently, be adapted to the ideas which they are intended to adorn. The second rule respects the choice of objects whence metaphors are to be drawn. The field for figurative language is very wide. All nature opens her stores, and allows us to collect them without restraint. But we must beware of using such allusions as raise in the mind mean, low, or dirty ideas. To render a metaphor perfect, it must entertain as well as enlighten. The most pleasing metaphors are derived from the frequent occurrences of art and nature, or from the civil transactions and customs of mankind. In the third place, a metaphor should be founded on a resemblance, or analogy, which is clear and striking, not far fetched, nor difficult to be discovered. Harsh or.forced metaphors are always displeasing, because they perplex the reader, and, instead of illustrating the thought, they renJ.er it intricate and confused. In the fourth place, we must never jumble metaphorical and plain language together; that is, never construct a period, so that part of it must be understood metaphorically, part literally In the fifth place, take care not to make two different metaphors meet on the same object. This, which is called -nixed metaphor, is one of the greatest abuses of tile figure. Shakspeare's expression, for example, 118 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMIPOSITION. " To take arms against a sea of troubles," makes a most unnatural medley, and entirely confounds the imagination.* In examining the propriety of metaphors, it is a good rule to form a picture of them, and to consider how the parts agree, and what kind of figure the whole presents, when delineated with a pencil. Metaphors, in the sixth place, should not be crowded together on the same object. Though each of them be distinct, yet if they be heaped on one another, they produce confusion. The last rule concerning metaphors is, they should not be too far pursued. For, when the resemblance, which is the foundation of the figure, is long dwelt upon, and carried into all its minute circumstances, an allegory is produced, instead of a metaphor; the reader is wearied, and the discourse becomes obscured. This is termed, straining a metaphor. XXXIX. PROSOPOPOEIA, OR PERSONIFICATION. The literal meaning of prosopopoeia is, the change of things to persons. A fondness for life and animated beings, in preference to inanimate objects, is one of the first principles of literary taste. That figure, therefore, by which life and action are attributed to inanimate objects, is one of frequent occurrence among the best writers of prose and of poetry. To poetical writers, especially, it is of the greatest consequence, as constituting the very life and soul, as it were, of their numbers. This will easily be seen by the following example: "' The brilliant sun is rising in the east." How tame and spiritless is this line, compared with the manner in which the same idea is expressed by the poet, thus "But yonder comes the powerful King of Day, Rejoicing in the east." t 1 Mr. Steele, in his " Prosodia Ratioealis," has rescued the Bard of Avon from this inconsistent metaphor, by the suggestion, that it was originally written, " To take arms against assail of troubles." T This extract, from Thomson's Seasons, operates as a temptation, that cannot be resisted, to present another from the same page, which, as a pie ture, remarkable alike for beauty of coloring, dignity of appearance, and sublimity of conception, is scarcely equalled in any other language. That AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 1l1. There are three different degrees of this figure, says Dr, Blair, which it is requisite to distinguish in order to determine the propriety of its use. The first is, when some of the properties of living creatures are as cribed to inanimate objects; the second, when these inanimate objects are described as acting like such as have life; and the third, when they are exhibited as speaking to us, or as listening. The first and lowest degree of this figure, which consists in ascribing to manimate objects some of the qualities of living creatures, raises the style so little, that the humblest discourse admits it without any force. Thus, a raging storm, a deceitful disease, a cruel disaster —are familiar expressions. This, indeed, is so obscure a degree of personification, that it might, perhaps, be properly classed with simple metaphors, which almost escape our observation. The second degree of this figure is, when we represent inanimate objects as acting like those that have life. Here we rise a step higher, and the personification becomes sensible. According to the nature of the action which we ascribe to those inanimate objects, and to the particularity with which we describe it, is the strength of the figure. When pursued to a considerable length, it belongs only to studied harangues; when slightly touched, it may be admitted into less elevated compositions. the student may duly appreciate the skill of the poet, and the magnificence of the design, it is first presented in plain language: " Every thing that grows depends on the light and heat of the sun, as it is passing along the ecliptic. All mankind depend upon it for their daily subsistence. The seasons, the hours, the wind and the rain, the dew and the storm, influenced as they are by the sun, are instrumental in producing herbs, fruits, and flowers, during the whole year." From such a tame and lifeless recital, the poet has formed the following magnificent picture, which he holds' up to the sun, under the iame (see Ouomatopoeia) of " Parent of Seasons: " " The vegetable world is also thine Parent of Seasons! who the pomp precede, That waits thy throne, as through thy vast domain, Annual, along the bright ecliptic road, In world-rejoicing state, it moves sublime. Meantime the expecting nations, circled gay, With all the various tribes of foodful earth, Implore thy bounty, or send grateful up A common hymn; while, round thy beaming car, High seen, the Seasons lead, in sprightly dance Harmonious knit, the rosy-fingered Hours, The Zephyrs floating loose, the timely Rains, Of bloom ethereal, the light-footed Dews, And, softened into joy, the surly Storms. These in successive turn, with lavish hand, Shower every beauty, every fragrance shower, Herbs, flowers, and fruits; till, kindling at thy touch, From land to land is flushed the vernal year." 20 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMIPOSITION..xamplce. " The offended Law draws the sword from its scabbard, in vengeance rgainst the murderer." Here-the law is beautifully personified, as reaching forth its hand to give us a sword for putting a murderer to death. In pRetry, personifications of this kind are extremely frequent, and are, ideed, the life and soul of it. In the descriptions of a poet, who has a lively fancy, every thing is animated. Homer, the father of poetry, is remarkable for the use of this figure. War, peace, darts, rivers, every thing in short, is alive in his writings. The same is true of Milton and Shak speare.* The third and highest degree of this figure is when inanimate objects are represented, not only as feeling and acting, but as speaking to us, or listening whle we address them. This is the boldest of all rhetorical figaures' it is the style of strong passion only, and therefote should never be attempted, except when the mind is considerably heated and agitated. The following is an example of this kind: Must I leave thee, Paradise? thus leave Thee, native soil, these happy walks and shades, Fit haunts of gods! where I had hoped to spend, Quiet, though sad, the respite of that day That must be mortal to us both. It is to be remarked, with regard to this degree of personification,first that it should never be attempted unless when prompted by strong feelincg, and should never be continued when the feeling begins to subside. Secondly. That an object that has not some dignity in itself, or which is incapable of maling a proper figure in the elevation to which we raise it, should never be personified. Thus, to address the body of a fiiend is not at all unnatural; but to address the several parts of the body, or the clothes which he wore, is not compatible with the dignity of grave composition..xanzples of the three degrees of personification for the student to designate: With other ministrations, thou, oh Nature, Healest thy wandering and distempered child. Uncomforted and friendless solitude. Come, funeral flower! thou shalt form my nosegay now. NTo personification is more striking, or introduced on a more prcper ceasion, than the following of Milton, upon Eve's eating the forbidden "So saying, her rasn haUld, in evil hour, "Forth resclling to the fruit, she plucked, she at!' Earth felt the wound; and nature, from her seat, "Sighing, through all her works, gave signs of woe, "That all was lbost" AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 121 Sweet scented flower, who't wont to bloom On January's front severe. The meek-eyed Morn appears, mother of dews. Young Day pours in apace, And opens all the dawny prospect wide. Oh! there is a charm, that morning has, That gives the brow of age a smack of youtlh And makes the lip of youth breathe perfumes exquisite The breath of night's destructive to the hue Of every flower that blows. No arm, in the day of the conflict could wound him, Though war launched his thunder in fury to kill. There is no malice in this burning coal; The breath of heaven hath blown its spirit out, And strowed repentant ashes on his head. Pale Autumn spreads o'er him the leaves of the forest, The fays of the wild chant the dirge of his rest, And thou, little brook, still the sleeper deplorest, And moistenest the heath-bell that weeps on his breast. No might nor greatness in mortality Can censure'scape; back-wounding calumny The whitest virtue strikes. I have marked A thousand blushing apparitions start Into her face; a thousand innocent shames In angel whiteness bear away these blushes. All delights are vain; but that most vain, Which, with pain purchased, doth inherit pain. Let fame, that all hunt after in their lives, Live registered upon our broken tombs, And then grace us in the disgrace of death; When, spite of cormorant devouring time, The endeavor of this present breath may bay That honor, which shall'bate'his scythe's keen edge. And make us heirs of all eternity. * * Any volume of poetry will furnish exercises of this kind to the student. rendering it unnecessary to multiply them here. In personifying inanimate objects, things remarkable for power, greatness, or sublimity, are represented ts males. Things beautiful, amiable, or prolific, or spoken of as receivers and containers,.re represented as females. 17 .22 AIDS TO ENGLISH C DMPOSITION XL. SIMILE, OR COMPARISON.* A simile is the likening of the subject, of which we speak, to another subject having some similarity, in order to render the description more forcible and perspicuous. In a strict sense, it differs from comparison, in which the subject may have an obvious likeness. t But many rhetoricians consider the terms as synonymous, and in this light they are presented in this connexion. This figure is extremely frequent both in prose and poetry; and it is often as necessary to the exhibition of the thought, as it is ornamental to the language in which that thought is conveyed. In all comparisons there should be found something new or surprising, in order to please and illustrate. Consequently they must never be instituted between things of the same species. $ @ Every simile is more or less a comparison, - but every comparnson is not a simile; the latter compares things only as far as they are alike; but the former extends to those things which are different. In this manner there may be a comparison between large things and small, although there can be no good simvile. t The distinction between simile and comparison is, that the former has reference to the quality; the latter to the quantity. Comparison is between Imore and less; similitude is between good and bad. " Hannibal hung like a tempest on the declivities of the Alps " — is a likeness by similitzude. " The sublimity of the Scriptural prophets exceeds that of Homer, as much as thunder is louder than a whisper" - is a likeness by comparison. -J. Q. Ada'ms, Lec. 9. t The simile, or comparison, may be considered as differing in form only from a Metaphor the resemblance being stated in the comparison, which in the metaphor is only implied. Each may be founded on actual resemblance or on analogy. Metaphors and comparisons founded on analogy are the more frequent and the more striking, because the more remote and unlike in themselves aniy two objects are, the more is the mind impressed and gratified by the perception of some point in which they agree. Intimately connected with Simile and Comparison is the Emnblem; the literal meaning of which is, " something inserted in the body of anothzer;" but the word is used to express " a picture, representing one thing to the eye, and another to the understanding:" or, a painting, or representation, intended to hold forth some moral, or political instruction. Thus, a balance is an emblem of justice; a crown is the emblem of royalty; a sceptre, of power or sove reignty. Any thing, which represents another thing in its predominant qualities, is also an emblem. Thus a looking glass, which shows spots, without magnifying them, is an emblem of a true friend, who will show us mr faults without exaggeration. A torch, reversed and expiring, with the AIDS TO ENGLitSH COMIPOSITION. 123 All comparisons, says Dr. Blair, may be reduced under two heads, explaining, and embellishing. But embellishing comparisons are those which most frequently occur. Resemblance, it has been observed, is the foundation of this figure, but resemblance must not be taken in too strict a sense for actual simili tude. Two objects may raise a train of concordant ideas in-the mind, though they resemble each other, strictly speaking, in nothing. For example, to describe the nature of soft and melancholy music, Ossian says' " The music of Can-yl, like the memory of joys that are past, was plaes ant and mournful to the soul." This is happy and delicate; yet no kind of music bears any actual resemblance to the memory of past joys. Comparisons should not be introduced on all occasions. As they are the language of imagination, rather than of passion, an author can hardly commit a greater fault, than in the midst of passion or strong feeling to introduce a simile. Even in poetry it should be employed with moderation; but in prose much more so. The following rules are laid down by Dr. Blair in the use of comparisons: In the first, they must not be drawn from things which have too near and obvious a resemblance of the object with which they are compared; for the pleasure which we receive from the act of comparing arises from the discovery of likenesses among things of different species where we should not, at first sight expect, a resemblance. In the second place, as comparisons ought not to be founded on likenesses too obvious, much less ought they to be founded on those which are too faint and distant. These, instead of assisting, strain the fancy to compre hend them and throw no light upon the subject. In the t/kird place, the object from which a comparison is drawn ought never to be an unknown object, nor one of which few people can have a clear idea. Therefore similes founded on philosophical discoveries, or on any thing with which persons of a particular trade only, or a particular profession, are acquainted, produce not their proper effect. They should be drawn from those illustrious and noted objects, which most readers have either seen, or can strongly conceive. In the fourth place, in compositions of a serious or elevated kind, similes should not be drawn from low or mean objects. These degrade and vilify; whereas similes are generally intended to embellish and dignify. Therefore, except in burlesque writings, or where an object is meant to be de graded, mean ideas should never be presented. motto, My nourishment is my bane," is an emblem of the improper use we are too apt to make of things, when eitherbyusing them improperly, or too freely we subvert the design for which they were at first intended.' The oil thus feeds, thus quenches flame: So love gives honor; —love gives shame." Quarles' Book of Emblems. Emblems are frequently the foundations of both Simile and Comparisesn Analogy is the foundation of the three. 124 aAIDS TO ENG.AISH COMP(SITION. -Examples. 1. W~it and humor are like those volatile essences, which, being too delicate to bear the open air, evaporate almost as soon as they are exposed to it. 2. Like birds whose beauties languish, half concealed, Till mounted on the wing their glossy plumes Expanded, shine with azure, green, and gold, How blessings brighten as they take their flight! 3. And in the smoke the pennons flew, As in the storm the white sea-mew. 4. Then marked they dashing broad and far The broken billows of the war, And plumed crests of chieftains brave, Floating like foam upon the wave. She never told her love, But let concealment, like a worm in the bud, Feed on her damask cheek. She pined in thought, And with a green and yellow melancholy She sat, like Patience on a monument, Smiling at Grief. 0. Oh Night, And Storm and Darkness, ye are wondrous strong, Yet lovely in your strength as is the light Of a dark eye in woman. 7. This quiet sail is as a noiseless wing To waft me from distraction; once I loved Torn ocean's roar; but thy soft murmuring Sounds sweet as if a sister's voice reproved That I with stern delights should e'er have been so moved. 8. They are the native courtesies of a feeling mind, sowing themselves amid stern virtues and masculine energies like gleams of light on points of rocks. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 12.1 9. I never tempted her with word too large; But as a brother to a sister showed Bashful sincerity and comely love. 10. Curses, like chickens, always come home to roost. 11. As no roads are so rough as those which have just been mended, so no sinners are so igtolerant as those that have just turned saints. 12. True friendship is like sound health, the value of it is seldom known' until it is lost. Exercises. Let the student compare a man of integrity with a rock; and show the circumstances of resemblance. Compare Life, with the Ocean. Adversity, with a storm. Affluence, with a fountain. the life of man with the leaves on the tree. " Death with the falling of the leaf. Youth, with Spring. Manhood, with Summer. " Old age, with Autumn. Death, with Winter. The reflection of light from the water, with the. sparkling of the diamond. " Wit and Humor with a volatile essence. The minds of the aged, with the tombs which they are approaching. The style of two writers; one with a convex mirror, scattering the light,- the other with the concave speculum, concentrating the ravs to a focus. Departing blessings to the flight of birds. XLI. ANTITHESIS. Antithesis is the counterpart of comparison, and is founded or the contrast or opposition of t-wo'4bjects. By contrast, 11* 126 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. objects opposed to each other appear in a stronger light, anm; their peculiar beauties or defects appear in bold relief. Antitheses, like comparisons, must be subjected to some rules. They must take place between things of the same species. Substantives, attri butes, qualities, faculties of the same kind, must be set in opposition. Td constitute an antithesis between a man and a lion, virtue and hunger, figure and color, would be to form a contrast where there is no opposition. But to, contrast one man with another, virtues with virtues, figures with figures, is pertinent and proper, because in these cases there must be striking opposition. Antithesis makes the most brilliant appearance in the delineation of characters, particularly in history. The historian, in the performance of this delicate part- of his task has a good opportunity for displaying his discernment and knowledge of human nature; and of distinguishing those nice shades by which virtues and vices run into one another. It is by such colors only that a character can be strongly painted, and antithesis is necessary to denote those distinctions. Antithesis, also, by placing subjects in contrast, prompts the judge ment; and is therefore a very common figure in argumentative awriting. Antithesis is also used with great advantage in descritiions or representations of the power and extent of a quality, as followv. "I can command the lightnings,- and am dust." Again. In the description of the power of the steam-engine, a late writer says: " The trunk of an elephant, that can pick up a pin or rend an oak, is as nothing to it. It can engrave a seal and crush masses of obdurate metal before it, - draw out, without breaking, a thread as fine as gossamer, and lift up a ship of war like a bauble in the air. It can embroider muslin and forge anchors, - cut steel into ribands, and impel loaded vessels against the fury of the winds and waves." - Examples. i. Behold my servants shall eat, but ye shall be hungry; behold my servants shall drink, but ye shall be thirsty; behold my servants shall rejoice, but ye shall be ashamed. 2. Religion and Superstition, contrasted. Religion is the offspring of Truth and Love, and the parent of Benevolence, Hope and Joy. Superstition is the child of A The author of Lacon very justly remarks: "To extirpate antithesis from literature altogether, would be to destroy at one stroke about eight tenths of all the wit, ancient and modern, now existing in the world. It is a figure capable not only of the greatest wit, but sometimes of-the greatest beauty, and sometimes of the greatest sublinity." AIDS TO ENGLISH - COMPOSITION. 127 (.,C~lae~nt, and her chikiren are Fear and Sorrow. The ftrmer invites us to the moderate enjoyment of the world, and all its tranquil and ratibnal pleasures. The latter teaches us only that man was born to mourn and to be wretched. The former invites us to the contemplation of the various beauties ot the globe, which heaven has destined for the seat of the human race; and proves to us that a world so exquisitely framed could not be meant for the abode of misery and pain. The latter exhorts us to retire from the world, to fly from the enchantments of social delight, and to consecrate the hours to solitary lamentation. The former teaches us that to enjoy the blessings sent by our benevolent Creator is virtue and obedience. The latter informs us that every enjoyment is an offence to the Deity, who is to be worshipped only by tho mortification of every sense of pleasure, and the everlasting Qr'rcise of sighs and tears. S. Though deep, yet clear, though gentle, yet not dull. Strong without rage, without o'erflowing, full. 4. Knowledge and Wisdom, far frem being one, Have oft-times no connection. Knowledge dwells In heads replete with thoughts of other men; WTisdom in minds attentive to their own. Knowledge, a rude, unprofitable mass, The mere materials with which Wisdom builds, Till smoothed and squared, and fitted to its place, Does but encumber whom it seems to enrich. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much; Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. 5. An upright minister asks w]hat recommends a man; a torrupt minister asks who recommends him. 6. When the million applaud, you ask what harm you have done; when they censure you, what good. 7. Contemporaries appreciate the man rather than the merit; but posterity will regard the merit rather than the man. S. jontrasted faults through all his manners reign, Though poor, luxurious; though submissive, vain, Though grave, yet trifling; zealous, yet untrue, And e* n in penance planning sins anew. 128 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. The student may now write a list of subjects ill pairl which can be presented in antithesis, and present one or more of them accordingly. XLII. PARALLEL. A parallel, considered as a composition, is; a kind of compail ison made to exhibit the resemblance between two characters or writings, to show their conformity as it is continued through many particulars, or in essential points. The parallel is sometimes diversified by antitheses, to show in a strong light the points of individual distinction, Example 1st. PARALLEL BETWEEN POPE AND DRYDEN. Pope professed to have learned his poetry from Dryden, whom, whenever an opportunity was presented, he praised through his whole life with unvaried liberality; and perhaps his character may receive some illustration if he be compared with his master. Integrity of understanding, and nicety of discernment, were not allotted in a less proportion to Dryden than to Pope. The rectitude of Dryden's mind was sufficiently shown by the dismission of his poetical prejudices, and the rejection of unnatural thoughts and rugged numbers. But Dryden never desired to apply all the judgment that he had. He wrote, and professed to write, merely for the people; and when he pleased others he contented himself. He spent no time in struggles to rouse latent powers; he never attempted to make that better which was already good, nor often. to mend what he must have known to be faulty. He wrote, as he tells us, with very little consideration; when occasion or necessity called upon him, he poured out what the present moment happened to supply and when once it had passed the press, ejected it from his mind; for when he had no pecuniary interest, he had no further solicitude.. Pope was not content to satisfy; he desired to excel, and therefore always endeavored to do his best; he did not court the candor, but dared tie judgment of his reader, and, expecting no indulgence from others, he showed none to himself. He examined lines and words with minute and punctilious observation, and retouched every part with indefatigatle dili. gence, till he had left nothing to be forgiven. For this reason he kept his pieces very long in his hands, while he considered and reconsidered AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 129 them. The only poems which can be supposed to have been written with such regard to the times as might hasten their publication, were the two satires of Thirty-eight; of which Dodsley told me, that they were brought to him by the author, that they might be fairly copied. "Every line,' said he, "was then written twice over; I gave him a clean transcript which he sent some time afterwards to me for the press, with every line written twice over a second time." His declaration, that his care for his works ceased at their publication, was not strictly true. His parental attention never abandoned them, what he found amiss in the first edition, he silently corrected in those that followed. He appears to have revised the Iliad, and freed it frcm some of its imperfections; and the Essay on Criticism received many improvements after its first appearance. It will seldom be found that he altered without adding clearness, elegance, or vigor. Pope had perhaps the judgment of Dryden; but Dryden certainly wanted the diligence of Pope. In acquired knowledge, the superiority must be allowed to Dryden, whose education was more scholastic, and who, before he became an author, had been allowed more time for study, with better means of information. His mind has a larger range, and he collects his images and illustrations from a more extensive circumference of science. Dryden knew more of man in his general nature, and Pope in his local manners. The notions of Dryden were formed by comprehensive speculation, and those of Pope by minute attention." There is more dignity in the knowledge of Dryden, and more certainty in that of Pope. Poetry was not the sole praise of either, for both excelled likewise in prose; but Pope did not borrow his prose from his predecessor. The style of Dryden is capricious and varied; that of Pope is cautious and uniform. Drydem obeys the motions of his own mind, Pope constrains his mind to his own rules of composition. Dryden is sometimes vehement and rapid, Pope is always smooth, uniform, and gentle. Dryden's page is a natural field, rising into inequalities, and diversified by the varied exuberance of abundant vegetation; Pope's is a velvet lawn, shaven by the scythe, and levelled by the roller. Of genius, that power which constitutes a poet; that quality without which judgment is cold, and knowledge is inert; that energy which collects, combines, amplifies, and animates; the superiority must, with some hesitation, be allowed to Dryden. It is not to be inferred, that of this poetical vigor Pope had only a little, because Dryden had more foi every other writer, since Milton, must give place to Pope; and even of Dryden it must be said, that if he has brighter paragraphs. he has not better poems. Dryden's performances were always hasty, either excited by some external occasion, or extorted by domestie necessity; he com posed without consideration, and published without conrrection. What his mind could supply at call, or gather in one excursion, was all that he sought, and all that he gave. The dilatory caution of Pope enabled him to condense his sentiments, to multiply his images, and to accumulate all that study might produce, or chance might supply. If the flights of Dryden, therefore, are higher, Pope continues longer on the wing. If of Dryden's fire the blaze is brighter, of Pope's the heat is more regular and constant. Dryden often surpasses expectation, and Pope never falls be low it. Dryden is read with freleut astonishment, and Pope withl perpetual delight. 130 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. This parallel will, I hope, where it is well considered, be founa jast and if the reader should suspect me, as I suspect myself, of some partial fondness for the memory of Dryden, let him not too hastily condemn me for meditation and inquiry may, perhaps, show him the reasonableness of my determination. Example 2d. PARALLEL BETWEEN JAY AND HAMILTON. It were, indeed, a bold task to venture to draw into comparison the rela yve merits of Jay and Hamilton on the fame and fortunes of their country, - a bold task, - and yet, bold as it is, we feel impelled at least to venture on opening it. They were undoubtedly par nobile fratrncm, and yet net swin brothers, -pares sed impares, - like, but unlike. In patriotic attach ment equal, for who would venture therein to assign to either the superi ority? yet was that attachment, though equal in degree, far different in kind; with Hamilton it was a sentiment, with Jay a principle; with Hamil ton, enthusiastic passion, with Jay, duty as well as love; with Hamilton, patriotism was the paramount law, with Jay, a law sub graeviori lege. Either would have gone through fire and water to do his country service, and laid down freely his life for her safety, Hamilton with the roused cour age of a lion, Jay with the calm fearlessness of a man; or, rather, Hamil ton's courage would have been that of a soldier, Jay's, that of a Christian Of the latter it might be truly said:' " Conscience made him firmn, That boon companion, who her strong breastplate Buckles on him, that fears no guilt within, And bids him on, and fear not." In intellectual power, in depth, and grasp, and versatility of mind, as well as in all the splendid and brilliant parts which captivate and adorn, Hamilton was greatly, not to say immeasurably, Jay's superior. In the calm and deeper wisdom of practical duty, in the government of others, and still more in the government of himself, in seeing clearly the right, and following it whithersoever it led firmly, patiently, self-denyingly, Jay was again greatly if not immeasurably, Hamilton's superior. In statesman-like talent, Hamil ton's mind had in it more of " constructive " power, Jay's of " executive." Hamilton had GENIUS, Jay had wiSDom. We would have taken Hamilton to plan a government, and Jay to carry it into execution; and in a court of law we would have Hamilton for our advocate, if our cause were gener ous, and Jay for judge, if our cause were just. The fame of Hamilton, like his parts, we deem to shine brighter and far ther than Jay's, but we are not sure that it should be so, or rather we are quite sure that it should not. For, when we come to examine and compare their relative course, and its bearing on the country and its fortunes, the reputation of Hamilton we find to go as far beyond his practical share in it, as Jay's falls short of his. Hamilton's civil official life was a brief and single, though brilliant one. Jay's numbered the years of a generation, and exhausted every department of diplomatic, civil, and judicial trust. In fidelity to their country, both were pure to their heart's core; yet was Hamilton loved, perhaps, rnore than trusted, and Jay trusted, perhaps, more than loved. Such were they, we deem, in differing, if not contrasted, points of char acter. Their lives, too, when viewed from a distance, stand out in equally striking but much more painful contrast. Jay's, viewed as a whole, has in it a completeness of parts such as a nicer critic demands for the perfection AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 131 of an epic poem, with its beginning of promise, its heroic middle, and its peaceful end, and partaking, too, somewhat of the same cold stateliness noble, however, still, and glorious, and ever pointing, as such poem does, to the stars. Sic itulr ad astra. The life of Hamilton, on the other hand, broken and fragmentary, begun in the darkness of romantic interest, run ning on into the sympathy of a high passion, and at length breaking off in the midst, like some half-told tale of sorrow, amid tears and blood, even as does the theme of the tragic poet. The name of Hamilton, therefore, was a name to conjure with; that of Jay, to swear by. Hamilton had his frailties, arising out of passion, as tragic heroes have. Jay's name was faultless, and his course passionless, as becomes the epic leader, and, in point of fact, was, while living, a name at which frailty blushed, and corruption trembled. If we ask whence, humanly speaking, came such disparity of the fate be.. tween equals, the stricter morals, the happier life, the more peaceful death, to what can we trace it but to the healthful power of religion over the heart and conduct? Was not this, we ask, the ruling secret? Hamilton was a Christian in his youth, and a penitent Christian, we doubt not, on his dying bed; but Jay was a Christian, so far as man may judge, every day and hour of his life. He had but one rule, the gospel of Christ; in that he was nurtured, - ruled by that, through grace, he lived, - resting on that, in prayer, he died. Admitting, then, as we do, both names to be objects of our highest sym pathetic admiration, yet, with the name of Hamilton, as the master says of tragedy,. the lesson is given " with pity and in fear." Not so with that of Jay; with him we walk fearless, as in the steps of one who was a CHRIS TIAN as well as a PATRIOT. Exercises. A Parallel between the Old and New Testament.,, between the writings of St. Paul and St. John.,, The character of Napoleon and of Washington,, Lord Bacon and Sir Isaac Newton. The Profession of the Law and that of Divinity.,, The invention of the art of printing with the discovery of the application of steam to mechanical purposes. XLIII. ALLEGORY Allegory * is a species of writing, in which one thiing is ex* Dr. Blair says, "An allegory is a continued metaphor; as it is the representation of one thing by another that resembles it." And under the head of metaphor he says, " When the resemblance which is the foundation of this figure is- long dwelt upon, and carried into all its minute circu, star -s, an allegory is produced instead of a metaphor." 132 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. pressed, and another is understood. The analogy is-:intended to be so obvious that the reader cannot miss the application; but he is left to draw the proper conclusion for his own use. It is, for this reason, chiefly employed when a writer desires to communicate some important intelligence or advice; but is not permitted, or does not wish, to deliver it in plain terms. It is also used for ornament, or to convey instruction, so as to interest the imagination, and flatter the mderstanding, by giving the reader the appearance of instructing himself Allegories are of three kinds: first, those designed for or nament; secondly, those designed for instruction; and, thirdly, those intended both to adorn and instruct. In employing allegories, care must be taken that the phraseology be all figurative, and that the attributes of the primary and secondary object be not confounded and interchanged. Example 1st. PATIENCE,'AN ALLEGORY. -Patience was the child of Forbearance and Gentleness, and they lived in the town of Perseverance. When very young, she began to exercise that virtue which was afterwards named from her. She was a very extraordinary child, and it has ever been said of her, that she could work all things. She had an aunt called Adversity, who troubled her very much, but, it was observed, that the more she was subjected to the trials of this relation, the more brightly the lustre of her character shone forth; for, while her uncle, Prosperity was near her, she seemed to have no opportunity of exercising her graces. She had a grandmother, (on her mother's side,) named MSeekness, and she seemed to imbibe many of, This allegory was written by one of the pupils of the school under the charge of the author. It is presented just as it was written by the young lady, who, though but "just in her teens," has certainly sustained the figure throughout in excellent "keeping." As instances of the allegory, which may be studied and imitated, may be mentioned,'"The Hill of Science," and, "The Journey of a Day, a Picture of Human Life," by Johnson; *" An Eastern Narrative," by Hawks worth, entitled, "No Life pleasing to God which is not useful to Man;" " The Eightieth Psalm of David;" No. 55 of the "' Spectator;" and' The Pilgrim's Progress," which is, perhaps, the longest allegory ever written. To these may be added a very recent little work of Charles Dickens, en tiled, " A Christmas Carol," which cannot be too highly commended for the moral lesson which it conveys. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 13S the qualities of that excellent lady. She also had a grand. father, Goodness, whose blood seemed to run in her veins in a large degree. All who lived in her neighborhood used to say, that she was the loveliest child they ever beheld. But, although so much admired, she had no Pride about her, though Vanity, an old man living in the vicinity, used to lay a claim to relationship with her. She was very much troubled by his daughters, Selfconceit and Foolishness, but she never retorted in the least. Even they themselves could not say, that they had ever heard an angry word proceed from her lips, and, although they tried to disturb and ruffle her uniform good nature, they never could succeed so far, as even to be able to say, that she ever appeared to cherish a wrathful spirit. She had no Hatred about her, neither would she foster Spite or 3Malice in her innocent heart. She made rapid advances frown day to day, in every good word and work, and her name even became a proverb among all who knew her. Mothers made her an example to their daughters, and fathers did not forget her when admonishing their sons. She became more beloved and respected every day of her life, by all, for no one could see her without admiring- her for her many good qualities. She appeared to be compounded of all the qualities that -adorn the female character, without the least mixture of anything bad. In due time she was married to a young gentleman, by the name of Longsuffering. Some of the most distinguished among her children were Faith, Hope, and Charity. Example 2d. THE EMPIRE OF POETRY, BY FONTENELLE. this empire is a very large and populous country. It is divided, like some of the countries on the continent, into the higher and lower regions. The upper region is inhabited by grave, melancholy and-sullen people, who, like other mountaineers, speak a language very different from that of the inhabitants of the valleys. The trees in this part of the country are very tall, having their tops among the clouds. Their horses are superior to those of Barbary, being fleeter than the winds. Their women are so beautiful as to eclipse the star of day. The great city which you see in the maps, beyond the lofty mountains, is the capital of this province, and is called Epic. It is built on a sandy and ungrateful soil, which few take the trouble to cultivate. The length of the city is many days' journey, and it is otherwise of a tiresome extent. On leaving its gate, we always meet with men who are killing one another. whereas, when we pass through Romance, -whlkch forms the suburbs of 12 134 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Epic, -and xI Rich is larger than the city itself, we meet with groups of happy, people, wh: are hastening to the shrine of Hymen. The Mountains of Tragedy are also in the province of Upper Poetry. They are very steep, with dangerous precipices: and, in consequence, many of its people build their habitations at the bottom of the hills, and imagine themselves high enough. There have been found on these nmountains some very beautiful ruins of ancient cities; and, from time to time, the materials are carried lower down to build new cities; for they now never build nearly so high as they seem to have done in former times. The Lower Poetry is very similar to the swamps of Holland. Burlesque is the capital, which is situated amidst stagnant pools. Princes speak there as if they had sprung from the dung hill, and all the inhabitants are buffoons from their birth. Comedy is a city which is built on a pleasant spot, but it is too near to burlesque, and its trade with this place has much degraded the manners of Its citizens. I beg that you will notice, on the map, those vast solitudes which lie be tween High and Low Poetry, They are called the deserts of Common Sense. There-is not a single city in the whole of this extensive country, and only a few cottages scattered at a distance from one another. The interior of the country is beautiful and fertile, but you need not wonder that there are so few who choose to reside in it; for the entrance is very rugged on all sides; the roads are narrow and difficult; and there ale seldom any guides to be found, who are capable of conducting strangers. Besides, this country borders on a province where every person prefers to remain, because it appears to be very agreeable, and saves the trouble of penetrating into the Deserts of Common Sense. It is the Province of False Thoughts. Here we always tread on flowers, - every thing seems enchanting. -But its greatest inconvenience is, that the ground is not solid; the foot is always sinking in the mire, however careful one may be. Elegy is the Capital. Here the people do nothing but complain; but it is said that they find a pleasure in their complaints. The city is surrounded with woods and rocks, where the inhabitant walks alone, making them the con fidants of his secrets; of the discovery of which he is so much afraid, that he often conjures those woods and rocks never to betray them. The Empire of Poetry is watered by two rivers. One is the River Rhyme. which has its source at the foot of the Mountains of Reverie. The tops of some of these mountains are so elevated, that they pierce the clouds. Those are called the Points of Sublime Thought. Many climb there by extraordinary efforts; but almost the whole tumble down,ngain, and excite, by their fall, the ridicule of those who admired them at first without knowing why. There are large platforms, almost at the bottom of these mountains, which are called the Terraces of Low Thoughts. There are always a great number of people walking upon them. At the end of these terraces are the Caverns of Deep Reverie. Those who descend into them do so insensibly; being so much enwrapt in their meditations, that they enter the caverns before they are aware. These caverns are perfect labyrinths, and the dif ficulty of getting out again could scarcely be believed by those who have not been there. Above the terraces we sometimes meet with men walking in easy paths, which are termed the Paths of Natural Thoughts; and these gentlemen ridicule, equally, those who try to scale the Points of Sublime Thoughts, as well as those who grovel on the terraces below. They would Do in the right, if they could keep undeviatingly in the Paths of Natural Thoughts; but they fall almost instantly into a snare, by entering into a splen did palace, which is at a very little distance. It is the Palace of Badinage. Scarcely have they entered, when, in place of the natural thoughts which they formerly had, they dwell upon such only as are mean and vulgar. Those, however, who never abandon the Paths of Natural Thoughts, are the most rational of all. They aspire no higher than they ought, and their thoughts are never at variance with, sound judgment. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION.. 133 Besides tha River Rhyme, which I have described as issuing firom the foot of the moacataias, there is another called the River of Reason. These two rivers are at a great distance from. one another, and, as they have a very different course, they could not be made to communicate, except by canals, which would cost a great deal of labor. For these canals of communication could not be formed at all places, because there is only one part of the River Rhyme which is in the neighborhood of the River Reason, and hence many cities situated on the Rhyme, such as Roundelay and Ballad, could have no commerce with the Reason, whatever pains might be taken fot that purpose. Further, it would be necessary that these canals should cross the Deserts of Common Sense, as you will see by the map; and that it is almost an unknown country. The Rhyme is a large river, whose course is crooked and unequal, and, on account of its numerous' falls, it is extremely difficult to navigate. On the contrary, the Reason is very straight and regular, but it does not carry vessels of every burthen. There is, in the Land of Poetry, a very obscure forest, where the rays of the sun never enter. It is the forest of Bombast. The trees are close, spreading, and twined into each other. The forest is so ancient, that it has become a sort of sacrilege to. prune its trees, and there is no probability that the ground will ever be cleared. A few steps into this forest and we lose our road without dreaming that we have gone astray. It is full of im perceptible labyrinths, from whiqc no one ever returns. The Reason is lost in this forest. The extensive province of Imitation is very sterile. It produces nothing. The inhabitants are extremely poor, and are obliged to glean in the richer fields of the neighboring provinces; and some even make fortunes by this beggarly occupation. The Empire of Poetry is very cold towards the north, and, consequently, this quarter is the most populous. There are the cities of Anagram and Acrostic, with several others of a similar description Finally, in that sea which bounds the States of Poetry, there is the Island of Satire, surrounded with bitter waves. The salt from the water is very stronu and dark colored. The greater part of the brooks of this Island resemble the Nile in this, that their sources are unknown; but it is particularly remarkable, that there is not one of them whose waters are fresh. A part of the same sea is called the-Archipelago of Trifles. The French term it L'Archipel des Bagatelles, and their voyagers are well acquainted with those islands. Nature seems to have thrown them up in sport, as she did those of the Egean Sea. The principal islands are the Madrigal, the Song, and the Impromptu. No lands can be lighter than those islands, for they float upon the waters. -Example 3d. A humming bird once met a butterfly, and being pleased with the beauty of its person and the glory of its wings, made an offer of perpetual friend ship. I cannot think of it, was the reply, as you once spurned me, and called me a drawling dolt. Impossible, cried the humming bird; I always entertained the highest respect for such beautiful creatures as you. Perhaps you do now, said the other; but, when you insulted me, I was a caterpillar. So let me give you this piece of advice: Never insult the humble, as they may one day become sour superiors. Exercises. What subject can be illustrated by an allegory with the following hints or aids? 136 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Aids.-A, hill with multitules ascending. The temptations assailing those who are endeavoring to ascend it The temple on the top of the hill. Ths failure of many who attempt to reach it. The labors of those who do finally succeed- their success and ha.piness. What subject, by an.allegory with the following? Aids.-A wide sea or ocean. Vessels of various kinds variously decked. Their similar destination for the same port. The various objects of their several pursuits on the voyage The straight and direct course kept by one single vessel. The wreck or capture, or distress of the other vessels. The safe arrival of the vessel which kept the direct course. What subject by an allegory with the following? oid:. —A foot race. The preparations of the competitors. The rewards offered to the victors, The influence of those rewards on their exertions. The course of the unsuccessful competitors.'The success of the victorious one, and the modes in which it was obtained. XLIV. APOLOGUE AND FABLE. An apologue is a sort of allegorical fiction, from which a separate meaning or moral lesson may be drawn. It is, in fact, but another name for a fable, in which animals, vegetables, stocks and stones, speak and act as monitors to mankind. An apologue, or fable, differs from a tale, in being, written expressly for the sake of the moral. If there be no moral, there is no fable * A parable is a' fable, but is more generally used to denominate those allegorical tales in Scripture, which were introduced for the purpose of illustrating some truth to which thev have a similitude. Such is that of "The Prodigal Son," "The Sower," "The Ten Virgins." * The wordfizble is used here in a confined sense, for, generally speaking all literary fabrications are fables. There are few modern fables that ar sufficiently concise. Those of Gay often lengtl en into tales, or lose them selves in allegory. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 137 An apologue differs from a parable in this: the parable is drawn from events which pass among mankind, and is therefore supported by probability; an apologue may be founded on supposed actions of brutes, or inanimate things, and therefore does not require to be supported by probability. 2Esop's " Fables " are good examples of apologues. Example. APOLOGUE.. Sicily addressed Neptune praying to be rejoined to Italy: "You are foolish," answered the god, " if you do not know how much better it is to be a small head, than a great foot." X E3xample. FABLE. The Belly and the Mienibers. In former days, when the Belly and the other parts of the body enjoyed the faculty of speech, and had separate views and designs of their own each part, it seems, in particular for himself and in the name of the whole, took exceptions at the conduct of the Belly, and were resolved to grant him supplies no longer. They said they thought it very hard, that he should lead an idle, good-for-nothing life, spending and squandering away upon his ungodly self all the fruits of their labor; and that, in short, they were resolved for the future to strike off his allowance and let him shift for himself as well as he could. The I-Iands protested that they would not lift up a Finger to keep him from starving; and the Mouth wished he might never speak again, if he took the least bit of nourishment for him as long as he lived; " and," said the Teeth, "may we be rotted, if ever we chew a morsel for him for the future." This solemn league and covenant was kept as long as any thing of that kind can be kept; which was until each of the rebel members pined away to skin and bone, and could hold out no longer. Then they found there was no doing without the Belly, and that, as idle and insignificant as he seemed, he contributed as much to the maintenance and welfare of the other parts, as they did to his. Application, or Moral. This fable was related by Menenius Agrippa to the Romans, when they revolted against their rulers. It is easy to see how the fable waas applied, for, if the branches and members of a community refuse the government that aid which its necessities require, the whole must perish together. Every man's enjoyment of the products of his own daily labor depends upon the government's being maintained in a condition x Italy, in its shape, resembles a boot. The point in this apoloaE con liats in the allusion te the form of the country. 12* 138 AI[1S TO ENGLISH CO(MPOSITION. to defend and secure him in it. The fable will apply with equal force to the mnurmurs of the poor against the rich. If there were no rich to consume the products of the labors of the poor, none by whom public charity might "keep her channels full," the poor would derive but little Fruit fro'm their labor. XLV. RIDDLE, ORP ENIGMA An enigma, or riddle, is an obscure speech, or saying, m a kind of allegorical form, and written either in prose or verse, designed to exercise the mind in discovering a hidden meaning; or, it is a dark saying, in which some known thing is concealed under obscure language whlich is proposed to be guessed. Example.'T was whispered in heaven,'t was muttered in hell, And Echo caught faintly the sound as it fell: On the confines of earth't was permitted to rest, And the depths of the ocean its presence confessed,'T will be found in the sphere, when't is riven asunder Be seen in the lightning, and heard in the thunder.'T was allotted to man with his earliest breath, Attends at his birth, and awaits him in death; It presides o'er his happiness, honor, and health, Is the prop of his house, and the end of his wealth. Without it the soldier, the seaman, may roam, But woe to the wretch who expels it from home. In the whispers of conscience its voice will be found. Nor e'en in the whirlwind of passion be drowned''T will not soften the heart, and though deaf to the ear,'T will make it acutely and instantly hear. But in shade let it rest, like a delicate flower, Or breathe on it softly, - it dies in an hour. X, The thing deskribed or hidden in this enigma, -and which is proposed AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 139 Comparisons, proverbial speeches, parables, and fables, may be easily Converted the one into the other. Thus, "The miser is like the dog in the manger, who would neither eat the hay himself, nor suffer the hun. gry ox to eat it." This comparison may be converted into a fable as follows: "A dog was lying upon a manger full of hay. An ox, being hungTy, came near, and offered to eat of the hay; but the envious, illnatured cur, getting up and snarling at him, would not suffer him to touch it. Upon which, the ox in the bitterness of his heart, exclaimed, A curse light on thee, for a malicious wretch, who will neither eat the hay thyself, nor suffer others who are hungry to do it." A proverb may be extracted from this fable: " The envious man distresses himself in the consideration of the prosperity of others." XLVI. CIiARADE. A charade is a syllabic enigma; that is,' an enigma, the subject of which is a name or word, that is proposed for to be guessed, is the letter E. The letter f is concealed in the following Latin enigma by an unknown author of very ancient date: "Ego sum principium mundi et finis seculorum; Ego sum trinus et unus, et tamen non sum Deus." The letter E is thus enigmatically described: "The beginning of eternity, The end of time and space, The beginning of every end, And the end of every place." nhe celebrated riddle of the Sphinx, in classic story, was thnis: "What animal walks on four legs in the morning, on two at noon, and on three in the evening? " The answer is Ml'an, who, in infancy or the morning of life, walks or creeps on his hands and feet, at the noon of life he walks erect, and in the evening of his days, or in old age, supports his infirmities on a staff.: Nearly allied to the enigma and charade are the rebus, the paronomasia or pun, and the "low conundrum." [See Catachresis.] They are mere plays upon words, and are scarcely worthy of consideration among the departments of grave composition. The Rebus approaches, or rather is, in fact, picture writing, or a representation of words by things It is an enig matical representation of some name, by using figures or pictures instead of words. The word is from the Latin languag, and literally signifies, by thinzgs. Thus a gallant in love with a woman named Rose Hill, painted on the border of his gown a rose, a hill, an eye, Cuspid or Love, and a well, which leads:' FPose HIill I love well." On a monumental tablet in th:s t40 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMIPOSITION. discovery from an enigmatical description of its several syl lables, taken separately, as so many individual words, anc afterwards combined. A charade may be in prose or verse. vicinity, erected for a family of the name of Vassol, there is the representation of a vase or cup (in Latin, vas), and the sun (in Latin, sol), thus forming the name" Vassol." This is similar to one form of the hieroglyph ics of the ancient Egyptians. The Paronomasia, or Pun, is a verbal allusion in consequence of words of similar sound, or of the same orthography, having different meanings; or it in an expression in which two different applications of a word present an odd or ludicrous idea. It is gene-ally esteemed a low species of wit. Thus, man having a tall wife named Experience observed that " He had by lone experience proved the blessings of a married life." Another having unrertaken to make a puna upon any given subject, when it was pro posed that he should make one on the King, replied, that " the King is not a subject. That Majesty, if stripped of its externals, would remain a jest." Puns are sometimes expressed in verse, and appear among collections of Epigrams. (See Epigraml.) For example, "I cannot move," yon clamorous beggar cries,' Nor sit, nor stand; " if he says true, he lies. Again: When dressed for the evening, the girls now-a-days Scarce an atom of dress on them leave; Nor blame them; for what is an evening dress But a dress that is suited for Eve? Conundrums are the lowest species of verbal witticisms, and are in general a mere play -pon the sounds of words, without reference to their signification. They are generally expressed in the form of a question, with an answer. Thus: When is a ship not a ship? Anser. When it is a-ground, or when it is a-float. When is a door not a door? Answer. When it is a-jar. What part of an animal is his elegy? Answer. His L E G. If you were in an upper chamber of a house on fire, and the stairs were a way, how would you get down? Answer. By the stairs. If a demon had lost his tail, where would he go to have it replaced? Answer. To the place where they retail bad spirits. If a hungry man, on coming home to dinner should find nothing but a beet' on the table, what common exclamation would he utter? An2swer. That beat's all. Such plays upon the sounds of words, without reference to their signification, however they may amuse a vacant hour, or exercise the ingenuity of those to whom they are proposed, can be considered in no other light than as undignified, not to say childish diversions. Of the same character may those witticisms be considered, commonly denominated jests and jokes. It. would be futile to attempt specimhnens of either of these kinds of pleasantries. They are so various in their nature. that no specimens can be given, which would convey any thing like a clear idea of their general character. It may be sufficient to observe, in general, that the jest is directed at the object; the joke is practised with the person, or on the person. One attempts to make a thing laughable, or ridiculous, oy jesting about it, or treating it in a jesting manner; one attempts to ex cite good humor in others, or indulge it in one's self by joking with them. Jests are therefore seldom harmless; jokes are frequently allowable. Noth ing is more easy to be made, nor more contemptible when made, than a lest upon a serious or sacred subject. "' Ne lude cum sacris," is a nmaxirm which cannot be too strongly'impressed on every speaker and writer. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 141 Jxanples. My]first, if you do, will increase, My second will keep you from heaven, Mly whole, such is human caprice, Is seldomer taken than given. Answer, ad-vice. What is that which God never sees, kings see but seldom, a:1d which we see every day? Answer, an equal. XLVII. HYPERBOLE. A writer, under the influence of strong excitement, sometimes uses extravagant expressions, which he does not intend shall be taken literally. Such expressions are called hyperbole. Example Ist. A rescued land Sent up a shout of victory from the field, That rocked her ancient mountains. Example 2d. The iron of itself, though heat red-hot, Approaching near these eyes, would drink my tears, And quench its fiery indignation, Even in the matter of mme innocence. Nay, after that, consume away in rust, But for containing fire to harm mine eye. Example 3d 1 found her on the floor [n all the storm of grief, yet beautiful, 142 AIDS TO ENGLISH COOMPOSITION. Pouring out tears at such a lavish rate, That, were the world on fire, they might have drowned The wrath of Heaven, and quenched the mighty ruin.* Example 4th. There has not been a sound to-day, To break the calm of nature, Nor motion, I might almost say, Of life, or living creature;Of waving bough, or warbling bird, Or cattle faintly lowing; I could have half believed I heard The leaves and blossoms growing. Example 5th. And there are many other things which Jesus did, the which, if they should be written every one, I suppose thai even the world itself would not contain the books that should be written. - [St. John's Gospel, last verse.] Hyperbole or Exaggeration is a remarkable feature of Eastern poetry. Mr. Moore, in his Lalla Rookh, has some extravagant instances, which may be pardoned in that work, written as it was in imitation of the Eastern style, but they should not be exhibited as objects of imitation. The following is one of the instances from Lalla Rookh: "Yet, one relief this glance of former years Brought, mingled with its pain, tears, floods of tWars, Long frozen at her heart, but now like rills Let loose in Spring time from the snowy hills, And gushing warm, after a sleep of frost, Throughvalleys where their flow had long been lost." Hyperbole ought to be very carefully as well as sparingly used; for it is requisite that the mind of the hearer, as well as that of the speaker, should be strongly excited, else it degenerates into Bombast. It is usually the flash of an overheated imagination, and is seldom consistent with the cold canons of criticism. -[See Booth's Principles, p. 138.],5 The reverse of Hyperbole or Exaggeration, is Liptotes or Diminution, which is a figure by which, in seeming t~ lessen, we increase the force of the expression. Thus, when we say, " The man is no focl," we are under stood to assert that he is wise. "I cannot praise such conduct," meanl that I despise it. AIDS TO ZENGLISH COMPOSITION. 1 4 XLVIII. APOSTROPHE. Apostrophe is the turning off from the regular course of the subject, to address some person or thing, real or imagin ary, living or dead. Apostrophe is generally used to address living objects that are absent, - or dead objects with which we were familiar while they-were in life. Some of its boldest efforts, however, exhaust the essence of personification, and call up and address the inanimate objects of nature. Apostrophes addressed to the inimaqination are frequently extended to a Considerable length; while those addressed to the passions must be short to correspond with the frame of the mind in which they are made. Example 1st APOSTROPHE OF PASSION. Oh pardon me, thou piece of bleeding earth, That I am meek and gentle with thy butchers! Thou art the ruins of the noblest man That ever lived in the tide of time. Example 2d. APOSTROPHE OF IMAGINATION. * 0 thou Parnassus! whom I now survey, Not in the phrensy of a dreamer's eye, Not in the fabled landscape of a lay, But soaring, snow-clad, through thy native sky In the wild pomp of mountain majesty I What marvel that I thus essay to sing? The humblest of thy pilgrims, passing by, Would gladly woo thine Echoes with his string, Though from thy heights no more one Mluse shall wave her wing.: This Apostrophe is the production of Lord Byron, who has also presented another splendid example of the same kind, in his Apostrophe to the Ocean. Our own Percival, in his Apostrophe to the Sun, affords another example. which would do honor to thb literature of any age or nation. 144 AIDS TO EN tLISH COMIPOSITION. It may be remarked, that apostrophe is, on the whole, a figure too passionate to gain much admittance into any species of composition, except poetry and oratory. XLIX. INTERROGATION. The unfigured and literal use of interrogation is to ask a question; but when men are strongly moved, they naturally put into the form of a question whatever they would affirm or deny with great earnestness. Thus: Canst thou draw out Leviathan with a hook, or his tongue with a cord that thou lettest down.* - He that planted the ear, shall he not hear. Interrogation gives life and spirit to discourse. It may be used to rouse and waken the hearers - sometimes to command with great emphasis, and sometimes to denote plaintive passion. Cicero uses it with great effect in his oration against Cataline, which he thus commences: " How long Cataline will you abuse our patience? Do you not perceive that your designs are discovered? " &c. Example. Can storied urn, or animated bust, Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath? Can honor's voice provoke the silent dust, Or flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death? L. REPETITION. Repetition seizes some emphatical word, or phrase, and, to mark its importance, makes it recur frequently in the same *- The book of Job abounds in bearltiful instances of this figure. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 145 sentence. It is significant of contrast and energy. It also marks passion, which wishes to dwell on the object by which it is excited. Example 1st. "Weep not, oh Love! "' she cries, " to see me bleed Thee, Gertrude's sad survivor, thee aloneHeaven's peace commiserate; for scarce I heed These wounds; — yet thee to leave is death, is death indeed Example 2d. By foreign hands thy dying eyes were closed, By foreign hands thy decent limbs composed, By foreign hands thy humble grave adorned, By strangers honored and by strangers mourned. Example 3d. lie sung Darius, great and good, By too severe a fate, Fallen, fallen, fallen, fallen, Fallen from his high estate, and weltering in his blood. EXCLAMATION. k2kcamations axe the effect of strong emotions of the mind; such s surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like. Example 1st. Oh Liberty! oh sound once delightful to every Roman ear Oh sacred privilege of Roman citizenship! - once sacred, now trampled upon. 13 146 AIDS TO ENGLISH COAMPOSITIOW. Example 2d. Oh time! time! it is fit thou shouldst thus strike thy mur derer to the heart! How art thou fled forever! A month 1O for a single week! I ask not for years! though an age were too little for the much I have to do! VISION. Vision, another figure of speech, proper only in animated and warm compositions, is produced, when, instead of relating something that is past, we use the present tense of the verb, and describe the action or event as actually now in sight. In tragedy, vision is the language of the most violent passiron which conjures up spectres, and approaches to insanity. Example 1st. iCicero, in his fourth oration against Cataline, pictures to his mind the consummation of the conspiracy, as follows:] I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved in one conflagration. I see before me the slaughtered heaps of citizens, lying unburied in the midst of their ruined country. The furious countenance of Cethegus rises to my view, while, with a savage joy, he is triumphing in your miseries. Example 2d. Miethought I heard a a voice Cry, Sleep no more! Macbeth doth murder sleep, Examvple 3d. * Avaunt and quit my sight! Let the earth hide thee; thy bones are marrowlesa; AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSTION. 147 Thy blood is cold; thou hast no speculation In those eyes which thou dost stare with. Hence, horrible shadow; unreal mockery, hence! LIII. CLIMAX. Climax consists in an artful exaggeration of all the circumstzances of some object or action, which we wish to place in a strong light. It operates by a gradual rise of one circumstance above another, till our idea is raised to the highest pitch. A speaker makes an assertion which he feels is not strong enough for his thought; —he adds another, and another, until he reaches that point'which his mind contemplates to be sufficiently expressive; and then the elimax (or climbing) ends. _Example 1st. Boisterous in speech, in action prompt and bold, He buys, he sells, he steals, he kills for gold. Example 2d. [The following is part of an address, in the case of a woman who was accused of murdering her own child.] Gentlemen, if one man had any how slain another; if an adversary had killed his opposer; or a woman occasioned the death of her enemy; even these criminals would have been capitallypunished by the Cornelian law. But, if this guiltless infant, who could make no enemy, had been murdered by its own nurse; what punishment would not the mother have demanded? With what cries and exclamations would she have stunned your ears? What shall we say, then, when a woman, guilty of homicide; a mother, of the murder of her innocent child, hath comprised all those misdeeds in one single crime; a crime, in its own nature detestable; in a woman prodigious; in a mother incredible; and perpetrated against one, whose age called for compassion; whose near relation.claimed affection and whose innocence deserved the. highest favor? V Such?Tgular ClimaxeN, however, though they have great beauty, veJ 148 AIDS TO ENGLISH CO~IPOSITION. Example 3d. The cloud-capt towers, the gorgeous palac(es, The solemn temple, the great globe itself, Yea, all that it inhabits, shall dissolve, And, like the baseless fabric of a vision, Leave not a wreck behind. Example 4th. W-hen we have practised good actions awhile they become easy; and when they are easy.we begin to take pleasure in them; and when they please us, we do them frequently; and by frequency of acts they grow into a habit. Example 5th. And besides this, giving all diligence, add to your faith, virtue; and to virtue, knowledge;'and to knowledge, temperance; and to temperance, patience; and to patience, godliness; and to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness, charity Example 6th. It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds; it is the height of guilt to scourge him; little less than parricide to put him to death; what name, then, shall I give to the act of crucifying him? at the same time have the appearance of art and study; and, therefore. though they may be admitted into formal harangues, yet they are not the language of passion, which seldom proceeds by steps so regular. Climax and Antithesis are sometimes united, as in the following.Example. Pride still is aiming at the blest abodes, Men would be angels, angels would be gods; Aspiring to be gods, if angels fell, Aspiring to be angels, men rebel. Climax is nearly related to Hyperbole, and differs from it chiefly in degree. The purpose of Hyperbole is to exalt our conceptions beyond the truth: of Climax, to elevate our ideas of the truth itself, by a series of circumstances, ascending one above another in respect of importance,and all pointing toward the same object. This figure, when properly introduced and displayed, affords a very sensible pleasure. It accords with our disposition to enlarge our conceptions of any object that we contemplate; it affords a gratification similar to what we receive on ascending an eminence, situated in the centre of a rich and varied landscape, where every step we proceed presents a grander and more extensive prospect. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 149 LIV. ANTICLIMAX. The descent from great things to small is termed anti. climax. It is the opposite of climax, and is found principallv in ludicrous compositions. Examples. i. -And thou, Dalhousie, the great god of war, Lieutenant-colonel to the Earl of M1aar. 2, Under the tropic is our language spoke, And part of Flanders hath received our yoke. LV. ALLUSION. Allusion is that figure by which some word or phrase in a sentence calls to mind, as if accidentally, another similar or analogous subject. Allusions, though different in form from comparisons, are of the same nature, and their introduction depends on similar principles, Like comparisons, they are illustrative, and give us pleasure from the discovery of unexpected resemblances, or coincidences of thought or expression. In making allusions, care should always be taken, that what is alluded to should be generally klnown.* Examples. 1. You cannot be to them "Vich Ian Vohr," and these * The student who would see this lgure beautifully illustrated, is rs ferred to Newman's Rhetoric. 13* 15(0 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. three magic words are the only " open sesame" to their feei. ings and sympathies. [Here the words "-open sesame " recall to mind the charm by which the robbers' dungeon, in the Arabian tale,: was opened.] 2. There are many religionists of the present day whu make it their shibboleth to be able to tell the precise moment when thew heart was converted to God. t 3. I was surrounded with difficulties, and possessed no clue by which I could effect my escape. + [Exercises may readily be framed by the student who attentively con siders the close remblance of this figurle to Simile or Comparison.] LVI. IRONY. Irony is the intentional use of words which express a sense contrary to that which the writer or speaker means to convey, as when we say of one unskilled in grammar, "Admirable grammarian!" When irony is so strong as to be termed bitter or cutting, it is Sarcasm. Irony turns things into ridicule, in a peculiar manner; it consists in laughing at an individual, under the disguise of appearing to praise or speak well of him. The proper subjects of irony are vices and follies of all kinds; and this mode of exposing them is often more effectual than serious reasoning. The figure is, however, sometimes used on the most solemn occasions, as will be seen by the following: Example 1st. Cry aloud, for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pura The Forty Thieves. I See the Book of Judges, chapter xii., verses 5, 6. t See the story of Ariadne, in Lempriere's Classical Dictionary. In the use of this figure (Allusion), it may be observed that the subject to which allusion is made, should be readily perceived, and that it recompense, by its ieauty or its utility,.the digression necessarily made in introducing it AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 151 suing, or he is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awakened. See 1 Kings, chapter xviii., verse 27. Example 2d. And Job answered and said, No doubt ye are the people, End wisdom shall die with you. Example of Sarcasm. 1n Iht_ name of common sense, why should the Duke of Bedford Ehink that none but of the House of Russell are entitled to the fcvor of the crown? WThy should he imagine, that no king of England has been capable of judging of merit but King Henry the Eighth? Intjed, he will pardon me; he is a little mistaken: all virtue did not end in the first Earl of Bedford; all discernlnnt did not lose its vision when his Creator closed his eyes. Let him remit his rigor on the disproportion between merit and reward in others, and they will make no inquiry into the origin of his fortune. They will regard with much more satisfation, as he will contemplate with infinitely more advantage, whatever his pedigree has been dulcified, by an exposure to thc influence of heaven in a long flow of generations, from the hard, acidulous, metallic tincture of the spring. It is little to be doubted, that several of' his forefathers, in that long series, have degenerated into henor and virtue. LVIII. ALLITERATION. Alliteration is the repetition of the same letter at the begin ning of two or more words immediately succeeding each other, or at short intervals; as, bug-bear, sea-sick, and the f and g in the following line: Fields ever fresh, and groves for ever green. 152 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. And the I in the following: Love laughs at locksmiths. The return of such sounds, if not too frequent, is agreeable to the ear because the succeeding impression is made with less effort than that which precedes. Alliteration, as well as rhyme, is useful as an aid to the memory. Hence proverbs have generally one or the other and sometimes both of these auxiliaries. Thus: Birds of a feather Flock together. Fast bind, Fast find. The following are remarkable instances of allitpration: The lordly lion leaves his lonely lair. Begot by butchers, bht by Dishops bred, How high his honor:its his haughty head. How sweetly slow the liquid lay In holy hallelujahs rose! Let lords and ladies laugh and sing As loudly and as light; -We beggars, too, can dance and fling Dull care a distant flight. Approach, thou, like the rugged Russian bear, The armed rhinoceros, or the Hyrcan tiger, &c. Round rugged rocks, rude, ragged rascals ran. Lean liquid lays, like lightly lulling lakes, &c. these instances are not presented as models for imitation, but rather as exemplifications of the meaning of the term alliteration. It will be suffi cient to observe, that alliterations at the present day have fallen into disre pute; and with good reason, lest the writer in pursuit of them should be tempted to sacrifice sense to sound. Occasionally introduced, and sparingly used, they are not perhaps obnoxious to strong objections. Kames, in his " Elements of Criticism," says: " Where two ideas are so connected as to requige only a copulative, it is pleasant to find a connexion in the words that express these ideas, were it even so slight as where both begin with ths same letter. Thus:' The peacock, in all his pride, does not display half the color that appears in the garments of a British lady when she is dressed either for a ball, or a birth-day.' —Spectator, No. 265. Again:' Had not my log of a steward run away as he did, without making up his- accounts,7 had stillbeen immersed in sint and seacoal.'- -id, No. 530. " S My life's companion, and my bosom friend, One faith, one fame, one fate shall both attend.' " The following is presented as a literary curiosity: ALPHABETICAL ALLITERATION. TE BUNKER HILL MONUMENT CELEBRATIDN Americans arrayed and armed attend; Beside battalions bold, bright beauties blend. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 1.53 Exercises. The student may change the terms in the following expressnms, so ra to pre. sent instances of alliteration. A word of similar meaning may, in eahi phrase or sentence, be substituted, so as to exemplify thefigure. The royal lion. The songs of love. The pride of the sons of kings. One belief, one fame, one destiny shall attend both. The flowing lays. How the brilliant lake shines. His proud head shall bow. The deceitful tiger. The heedful cat. He forsakes his solitary lair. By royal prelates commended. In sacred hallelujahs listened to. Let noblemen and high-born ladies laugh and sing. Birds of the same plumage assemble together. The falling towers with curling ivy bound. Yet would the village commend my wondrous power. And the blithe grandsire skilled in gestic lore Aas frisked beneath the load of fourscore. LVIII. PARAPHRASE OR EXPLANATION. A paraphrase is an ex}lanation of some maxim or passage, in a book in a more clear and ample manner than is ex Chiefs, clergy, citizens conglomerate, — Detesting despots, -daring deeds debate. Each eye emblazoned ensigns entertain,Flourishing from far, - fan freedom's flame. Guards greeting guards grown grey, - guest greeting nest High-minded heroes, hither, homeward, haste; Ingenuous juniors join in jubilee, Kith kenning kin, -kind knowing kindred key. Lo, lengthened lines lend Liberty liege love, Mlixed masses marshalled, Monumentward move. Note noble navies near; -no novel notion; Oft, our oppressors overawed old Ocean; Presumptuous princes, pristine patriots, paled, Queen's quarrel questing quotas, quondam, quailed Rebellion roused, revolting ramparts rose, Stout spirits, smiting servile soldiers, strove. - These thrilling themes, to thousands truly told, Usurpers' unjust usages unfold. Victorious vassals, vauntings vainly veiled. Where, whilsince, Webster, warlike Warren, walled.'Xcuse'xpletives'xtraqueer'xpressed, Yielding Yankeo yeoman zest. 154 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. pressed in the words of the author. It is in fact a translation of the author's meaning into simpler language, accompanied with such explanations as will serve to render the passage easily intelligible. The author's words, therefore, are not so strictly followed as his sense. Maxims, proverbs, * and texts of Scripture often contain much mean ing in few words. To present them in a clear light, and to explain them in all their bearings, is the province of the preacher and- the didactic writer; who thus calls in the paraphrase to their aid for the benefit of illustration. Example 1st. N'Ke sutor ultra crepidam." "Let not the shoemaker go beyond his last." These were the words of Apelles to a Crispin, (a shoemaker) who properly found fault with an ill-painted slipper in one of the pictures of Apelles; but, ascending to other parts, betrayed the grossest ignorance. The proverb implies that no man should pass his opinion in a province of art, where he is without a qualification. Ecxample 2d. Dionysius, the tyrant of Sicily, stripped the statue of Jupiter of a robe of massy gold, and substituted a cloak of wool, saying, Gold is too cold in winter, and too heavy in summer, — It behoves us to take care of Jupiter. From this incident we see that the first consideration with a knave, is how to help himself, and the second, how to do it with an appearance of helping others. Example 3d. A Scottish proverb says, " Cocks are free of horse-corn." This saying implies that people are liberal or profuse of what belongs to another. Example 4th. Use a cat to the churn, and she will call it custom. This, A proverb is a short sentence, expressing a well-known truth or com mon fact, ascertained by experience or observation. A maxim is a principle.generally received or admitted as true. It may here be remarked that proverbs, parables and fables are easily converted the one into the other. - [See Booth's Princi7les, p. 161.] It will be a useful exercise for the student to attempt to convert examples 3d and 4th below into a comparison and s table. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 155 piu rerb implies that if you accustom your servants or other folks, to make too frequent use of what is yours, they will think, at last, that they have acquired a right to it. LIX. OUTLINES IN NARRATIVE. A simple story is here related, with outlines of the same story in different language, which the student may fill out soc as to present the same story, with all the circumstances. Examnzples. When the city of Troy was taken by the Greeks, after the first fury of plunder was over, the conquerors, pitying the misfortunes of their captives caused it to be proclaimed, that every free citizen had the liberty of taking away any one thing which he valued most: upon which iEneas, neglecting every thing else, only carried away with him his household gods. The Greeks, delighted with his piety, gave him permission to carry away with him any other thing he had the greatest regard for; and imme diately he took upon his shoulders his aged father, who had grown decrepit, and was carrying him out of the town. The Greeks, struck with his filial duty, gave him leave to take every thing that belonged to him; declaring that Nature itself would not suffer them to be enemies to such as shewed so great piety to the gods, and so great reverence to their parents. The Out line. The city of Troy thirst for plunder was made proclamation - that every free-born citizen prized the most. IEineas disregarding his household gods.' The Greeks pleased any other thing. his aged and venerable father. The Greeks admiring -...every thing that he Nature itself- ungenerous respect filial regard The outline filled out. The city of Troy having been captured by the Greeks, when their thirst fot plunder was partly satiated, commiseratin.q the misfortunes of their captives 156 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION they made proclamation througtiut the unfortunate city that every flee born citizen might select from the ruins any one thing which he prized the most..Eneas, disregarding his houes, his goods, and valuable possessions, took only his household gods. The Greeks pleased with his regard for the objects of his relgqious worship, gave him permission to add any other thing among his possessions to these objects of his primary regard; upon wshich he immediately took his aged and venerable father zpon his shoclders, who, from the infirmz ties of age, was unable to escape without assistance. TVhile the pious soil wa thus carrying hisfather from the rnins, the Greeks, admiring his disinterested filial reverencefor his helpless parent,gave hint permission to add to what he had already taken, every thing that he ounied, declaring that Nature itself cvould not permit them to-be ungenerous to one who had exhibited such respect to tlh. dead and such filial regard for the being to whom he owed his existence. Rxercises. Sir William Gascoigne was the Chief Justice of England in the reign of Henry 4th. His presence of mind and his great dignity were most nobly exhibited when the Prince of Wales determined to rescue one of his servants, who was on trial before the Judge, presumed to interrupt and even to strike the Chief Justice. Gascoigne supported the character of his station against the bold aggression, and committed the prince to prison, to await the pleasure of the King his father. The King heard Qf the circumstance with becoming propriety, and thanked God that he had given him a judge who knew how to administer justice, and a son who could obey it. Outline. One of the servants of was tried before and condemned, notwithstanding all the interest - by the King's son. The Prince of Wales was so incensed ---. The judge dignity of his ordered - and the prince insult he had offered of the laws -- quietly -— gaol. The Iing his father -. Happy is the King - courage to execute the laws - a son submit. 2. A painter was desirous of drawing an elephant in an unusual attitudt with his trunk erect, and his mouth open; and, in order to induce the' beast to show himself to more advantage, engaged a person to stand by, and throw fimuit into his inouth. The person, however, partly to deceive the unsuspecting animal, often kept in his hand the fruit which he pretended to give to the elephant; who, not liking the mockery, and supposing the innocent painter to be the cause, threw out of his trunk such a quantity of water upon his paper, as entirely spoiled his sketch and prevented him from proceeding in his work. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMIPOSITION. 157 Outline. An artist - uncommon - raised - open -- procured and loss in order to make -- - advautageous. The foolish - deceive - amuse - - made kept the fruit. The sagacious not relishing and believing collected - which he discharged entirely spoiling and preventing -. A gentleman, residing at Gosport, England, was, when visiting Portsmouth, usually accompanied by his dog, in the ferry-boat. One day, it so happened, that the dog lost his master somewhere in Portsmouth, and surmising that he had re-crossed the water for Gosport, sped his way to the house of a bookseller ini High street, and by every possible means intimated his misfortune. "What," exclaimed the shopman, " you have lost your master, have you? Well, here is a penny, for your fare across the water." The dog snatched up the coin, ran directly to Point Beach, dropped the penny into the hand of the waterman, and was ferried across with the other passengers. A resident at wherever he went attended - who with him. It chanced - was missing and supposing - returned speedily....- and by ---- that instinct. Have you lost Q- Well. some money seizing - made ~ ---- and-paying was conveyed —. LX. CONNECTED NARRATIVE, FROM SCATTERED FACTS. The selection of incidents to be presented in a narration or a description, requires some taste as well as judgment. The union of such incidents in a connected narrative-is not altogether a mechanical exertion. The order of time should be strictly observed. Subordinate to the order of time, is the order of the circumstances/themselves. It is perhaps a good general rule, as in the case of the arrangement of the members of a sentence, to reserve the most important for the last. But the application of this rule must be submitted to the taste and j-,dgment, as well as the design of the writer. 14 158 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Exercises. 1. [The following particulars are presented to be united in a connect~o narrative. The expressions may be changed, as it may be necessary tc aeave the circumstances together in one continued narration.] History furnishes no parallel to the character of Washington. Washington died, after a short illness, on the 14th of December, 1799 He captured Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, in 1781. This event established the indepcndence of the United S:ates. On the 25th of December, 1776, he crossed the Delaware, and soon gained the important battles of Trenton and Princeton. He was elected President of the United States in 1789 He was President for eight years. He was again chosen Commander-in-chief of the American army in 1798. His abilities were first exercised by Dinwiddie in 1753. He was the Aid-de-camp of Gcn. Braddock in 1755. After resigning the Presidency he retired to Mount Vernon, where he devoted himself-to the pursuits of agriculture. HIe was born in 1732, in the county of Fairfax, in Virginia. He was descended from an English family, which emigrated from Theshire about 1630. He received his education from a private tutor 2. William Penn lost his wife in 1694, and was much afflicted by the event. He married again in about two years, and employed himself in travelling over Ireland as a preacher of the peculiar doctrines of his sect. In 1699 he visited America with his wife and family, and returned to England in 1701. He died at Rushcomb, near Twyford, in Berks, July 30th, 1718. He was buried at Jordan, near Beaconsfield, Bucks. His character was truly benevolent and hurmane, and his labors were exerted for the good of mankind. The long prosperity of Pennsylvania furnishes the best evidence of his wisdom as a legislator. He was born in London in 1644. He was expelled from College on account of his religious opinions. His religious opinions differed widely from those of the Established Church. The College was of the same-religious sentiments with zhe Established Church. His father left him an estate worth 1500 pounds per annum. Charles 2d, King of England, granted him a province of North America, then called New Netherlands; but now, from William Penn, called Pennsylvania. Wlhen he waas in College, he withdrew froml the iationlll fornms of wo-r AIDS TO ENGLISH COM2POSITION. 159 si)i with other students, who, like himself, had listened to the preaching of Thomas Lee, a quaker of eminence. in 1672 he married a lady of principles similar to his own, and fixed his residence at Rickmansworth, where he labored hard to disseminate the principles of his sect both by his preachings and his writings. In 1682 he came out to America for the first time, and laid out the city of Philadelphia, where he invited settlers from all parts of England, and held out to them a greater degree of religious liberty under his coustitution than had ever before been enjoyed by any sect or people. LXI. NARRATION EXPANDED.* Example. At the battle of Philippi, Lucilius wishing to give his intlmnate friend Brutus an opportunity to escape, pretended himself to be Brutus, and being led before Anthony, boldly avowed the artifice. Anthony, admiring his fidelity to his friend, informed him of the death of Brutus, and offered him his friendship.'Lucilirs accepted the ofer, and continued his faithful friend. Same story expanded. At the, battle cf Philippi, when Brutus, after the route of his army, was in danger of falling into the hands of his enemies, his bosom friend Lucilius gave him an opportunity to escape, calling out, " I am Brutus! lead me to Anthony 1" Being conducted to Anthony, he spoke with great resolution: "I have employed this artifice," said he, "that Brutus might not fall alive into the hands of his enemies. The gods will never permit that fortune shall triumph so far over virtue. In spite of fortune, Brutus will always be found, dead or alive, in a situation worthy of his courage." Anthony, admiring the firmness of Lucilius, said to him, " you merit a greater recompense than it is in my power to bestow. I have been just now informed of the death of Brutus; and as your fidelity to him is now at an end, I beg earnestly to be received in his place; love me as you did him, I wish no more." Luciluis embraced the offer, engaged himself * The plan in narrative writing is simply the statement of events in the order of their occurrence; and the expansion is the mention, with varying degrees of minuteness of their statement, of the different circumstances connected with these events, accompanied by incidental remarks and to flections. 160 AIDS TO ENGLISH COSIPOSITION. to Anthony, and maintaining the same fidelity to him that he had done to Brutus, adhered to him when he wa, abandoned by all the world. Tfze same story still more expanded. After the second battle of Philippi between Anthony and Octavias, tw~ of the Roman triumvirs, and Brutus, which proved fatal to the latter, and indeed, to the liberty of Rome, one Lucilius Lucinus, an intimate friend of Brutus, observing a body of Thracian horse taking no notice of any other in their pursuit, but making directly towards Brutus, resolved to stop them, and save the life of his general at the hazard of his, own. Accordingly, without acquainting Brutus with his design, he halted till the Thxrciam.' came up and surrendered him; then he cried out, "1 am Brutus!" and begging quarter, desired they would carry him to Anthony, pretending that he feared Octavius. The Thracians, overjoyed with their prey, and think. ing themselves happy, immediately detached some of their own body ta acquaint Anthony with their good fortune; and, in the mean time, giving over the pursuit, returned to the field of battle with their prisoner. The report being spread in an instant, all over the army, that Brtitus was taken, and that the Thracians were bringing him alive to Anthony, both soldiers and officers flocked together from all parts to see him. Some pitied his misfortunes, others accused him of a meanness unbecoming his former glory, for, suffering himself out of two much love of life, to be a prey to barbarians. As for Anthony, he was not a little concerned at this adven ture, being quite at a loss in what manner he should receive, and how he should treat his illustrious captive; but he was soon delivered from his uneasiness; for as the Thracians drew near, he knew the prisoner, who had passed himself upon the Thracians for Brutus, and now addressing the Triumvir with a generous confidence: "Be assured, Anthony," said he, " that no enemy either has or ever shall take Marcus Brutus alive; forbid it, ye Gods, that fortune should ever prevail so much above virtue! But let him be discovered, dead or alive, he will certainly be found in such a state. as is worthy of him. As for me, I have delivered myself up to save him, and am now ready to suffer whatever torments you think proper to in flict upon me, without demanding or expecting any quarter." Anthony, wonderfully taken with the fidelity, virtue, and generosity of Lucilili', turned to the Thracians, now sensible of, and outraged at their disappoint nlent, and addressed them thus: "I perceive, my fellow soldiers, that you are concerned, and full of resentment for having been thus imposed upon by Lucilius; but be assured, that you have met with a booty better than that you have sought for; you have been in search of an enemy. and you have brought me a friend. I was truly at a loss how I should have treated Brutus, if you had brought him to me alive; but of this I am sure, that it is better to have such a man as I.ucilius our friend, than our enemy." Having thus spoken, he embraced Lucilius and commended him to the care of one of his friends. The student may now expand the following story or narnative: STORY OF MEGAN. Megan was one of a tribe of Indians, who ranged the extensive wilds about the Falls of Niagara. He was possessed of such superior personal and mental qualities as are very seldom concentrated in the same person, generous and humane, as well as brave, he knew how to conquer a foe. and how to raise him when disarmed; and, while he hastened to shed the blood of his enemies, he paused to drop the tear of sympathy with afflicted AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 161 friends. By these shining qualiffcations he was endeared to those around him, and was looked upon as a future ornament and champion of his tribe. From the age in which he was able to bend a bow, he was ever em ployed, either in pursuit of game in the forest, or in showing his skill in the management of his canoe. His nation was now involved in a war, which opened to him a field of action, and afforded frequent opportunities to display his valor. In one of his excursions, he rescued from captivity a beautiful female of his nation, who had been taken some weeks before, and for whom he had conceived a passion, previously to her being taken Their mutual attachment was not a little strengthened by this adven ture; she was conducted home in triumph, a day was appointed for the nuptial ceremonies, and Megan looked forward with fond, expectation tc the happy days he should spend with his beloved Alcoris. But, alas! how often are the fairest hopes we can conceive, the most deceitful! A few days only had elapsed, since his return, when he yielded to a vice, that may be called a characteristic of these people; —he drank too freely of spirit and lay down in his canoe, which was fastened to a rock on shore, and was soon lost in sleep. Impatient at his too long absence, Alcoris went in search of him, and what was her surprise and horror, as she drew near the place, to see his canoe loosened by a rival, who had made several fruitless attempts to gain her affection, and rapidly floating down the swift current towards the great falls! In vain did she cry out, in vain extend her arms towards the dearest object of her affection. He enjoyed a sweet tranquillity till roused to a sense of his danger by the noise of the cataract. Meegan is now apprised of his fate. He looks back, recognizes Alcoris, and waving his cap - goes over the falls and is seen nohnore.* The student may now reverse the process of e. pac3zdinzg,, and presen.t an abridgement of the followzng nzarration.t Mfany are the tales that have been repeated to us of the revolutionary struggles of our ancestors. Yet each little incident connected with those times of peril, though often listened to, becomes interesting to us, who are now enjoying the bessns of thatpriceless freedom for which our fathers bled. "Proudly, 0 children of freedom, The stars of your banner float high; Bright is the halo of glory, O'er the graves where your ancestors lie. Cherished may every memorial be, Of the brave ones who perished that ye might be free." Such Was the motto that my sister wrote, when I told her that, in my next composition, I should weave up a reminiscence of the Revolution, and * This narrative is a genuine college exercise, presented some years age' at one of the colleges in this State. t This narration is a school exercise, presented within a few weeks by one of the pupils, a young lady of about thirteen years of age, at the public school of which the author has the charge. It has been thought that models and specimens of this kind would be more useful than more finished writings; because they present to the student something within his reach. It will not be very difficult for him, after he has attained some ease in writing, to adopt as' his motto the principle, " Exc lsior " 14* 6 62 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. requested her to write a sentiment to grace the commencement; but, when she glanced at the simple incident I intended to relate, she thought the motto and the sketch were not very appropriate; but, as I insisted on its appropriateness to my brave Arthur's story; and, as I also had the slip of paper in my hand on which it was pencilled, (possession being nine points of the law,) I was allowed to retain it, or rather she was obliged to yield to my whim, and, accordingly, I transferred it in triumph to the top of the page en which I commence - A RIEVOLUTIONAR~Y STORiY. Near the extremity of the beautiful peninsula on which Charlestown situated, stood a large old-fashioned house, in the year 1775, whose timeworn walls were partially concealed, in the warmer seasons; by luxuriant grape-vines, that, spreading over the latticed portico, ran across the small windows, and clambered along the gable roof. A group of horse-chestnut trees, and a hedge composed of the briery bushes of the barberry and blackberry, with here and there a sweetbrier, covered with its delicate pink blossoms, enclosed a yard overgrown with bright green grass, and which extended around the eastern and western sides of the mansion. Beneath the vine-covered windows on the west a small parterre of flowers bloomed while beyond, a vegetable garden extended to where the bright waves of the river Charles rolled onward. The house was occupied by Mrs. Leslie, her two children, and a female domestic, - Captain Leslie being with the American army, at the neighboring town of Cambridge, where it had been stationed for nearly two months, while the British troops lay shut up in Boston. It was the beginning of June, and, as the afternoon of a beautiful day drew noar its clo M, Mrs. Leslie laid aside the sewing materials that had absorbed her attention during the morning, and, stepping out upon the green turf, directed her steps towards a low wooden bench beneath a large apple-tree, where a young and sweet-looking girl was sitting. As her mother approached, Anina Leslie dropped her knitting work and held forth a few simple, but fragrant, flowers. A caress was the~reward which the affectionate girl expected and received for her gift. As she threw q glance so expressive of love on her mother's face, it was sad for that mother to know, that she could not perceive the'smile of affection in return; for her child's dark blue eyes were sightless, -poor Anna Leslie was blind. Few persons would have thought, as they looked in the lovely child's face, as some strain of music, some loved and familiar tone, or some bright, happy thought awakened in her countenance a beautiful expression, which ac corded well with her symmetrical features, —few persons would have thought that Anna had been born blind, that she never had viewed the charming scenes of nature, that her eye had never glanced over the pages of literature, or the works of art. But a mother's watchful tenderness and oatient instruction had, during the twelve yea's of her life, somewhat sup plied the deficiency which her misfortune occasioned; and her brother Arthur, two years older than herself, had, with more than a brother's usual affection, cherished and protected his helpless sister. Unlike the interestng and unfortunate Laura Bridgeman, Anna could hear the loved voices of her friends and the sweet tones of her mother's harpsichord. She could give utterance, too, in a low, clear voice, to her thoughts and feelings, and, although she saw not her mother's smile, she heard the whispered words of love, and returned her affectionate greeting. Drawing her daughter's arma within her own, Mrs. Leslie returned slowly towards the house. The blushing June roses were sending forth their rich odor from the large bushes, covered with flowers, that bordered the path, ri1d I1rs. Leslie plucked an opening bud and placed it hi her daughter's AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 163 nail. All arcund their little domain looked peacefully, but Anna echoed her mother's sigh, as the beating of the drum and other sounds of war came faintly from the hostile camps and awvakened in their bosoms sorrowful thoughts of the situation of their country, and the welfare of the husband and father, whose life was so precious, yet in such peril. As tliey silently approached the house, Anna felt conscious that her mother was becoming absorbed in melancholy reverie, and, to divert her attention, proposed to meet Arthur. Mrs. Leslie consented, and they passed through the flower beds and proceeded to the lower parts of the grounds, where Arthur employed himself in cultivating the vegetable garden; for it was impossible to procure a man in the town for that purpose, all who were able having joined the army of their country. But Arthur, with the occasional assistance of Rachel, their faithful black servant, had managed to raise quite a respectable stock of vegetables, not only for his own family, but he sometimes found means to carry a portion to supply his father's table at the camp. Arthur, who had just completed his work and refreshed himself by a bath in the river, as his mother and sister appeared in sight, hastened to join them, and to communicate an account of an extensive depredation commit ted the preceding night in his garden. Naturally impetuous in his temper, Arthur now complained bitterly, and vowed vengeance on the British thief, as he persisted in calling him, for he had traced the footsteps over his delicate lettuce beds and young peas, till they terminated on the verge of the river. As his boyish imagination magnified his wrongs, Arthur's dark eye sparkled, his cheek flushed., and his red lip curled with scorn, and not till the sweet voice of his sister had communicated in a whisper a plan for watching that night, and at least ascertaining who the thief was, did his brow become unclouded, just as they entered their quiet, low-ceiled sittingroom. A very pleasant room it was, though old fashioned. Its deep window seats weye nicely cushioned, its clumsy-looking mahogany tables, with dark, time-colored surfaces, highly polished, the carved boxes and stands that came from Calcutta, its fireplace, surrounded by small Dutch tiles, the antique-looking portraits, that came over in the Mayflower, it was said, and the painted screens placed around, made the apartment a favorite with Ar thur and Anna. The bright flowers in the old China vases, and the whime drapery of the table, now spread with their simple evening repast, enlivened the somewhat sombre aspect of the room, for the sun had just sunk below the horizon and the vines hung thickly over the windows; but Rachel pushed them aside and commenced swaying her fly-brush, as Mrs. Leslie seated herself at the table. Rachel was somewhat a privileged being in the family, as she was a faithful and trusty domestic, and she often enlivened the children at meal times by her quaint expressions and anecdotes of the olden time. This evening she began to lament, as she glanced ruefully at the plain bread, fresh strawberries, and bright water from their own cool and shaded well, that her lady could no longer preside, as formerly, over the splendid silver plate and beautiful China tea-set,. that once adorned the table, covered with the delicacies of the season. But now what'was the use of the plainest cups and saucers without tea, and even the strawvberries must be eaten without cream, for the British foragers had stolen their last tow. Arthur, who ha:d been absorbed in his own thoughts, now joined in the conversation, for he generally felt interested when any thing was said respecting the injuries inflicted by the foes of his country; and, long after Mrs. Leslie had retired from the room, did the eager boy continue to listen to Rachel's tales, and even Anna at last left them, and passing out of the glass door into the large hall, for she was perfectly acquainted with every nook in her childhood's home, and could find her way without difficulty through every room of the house, she ascended the broad staircase with tarYge wooden balustrades at the head of t.he hall, and entered hler ow~ 164 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. chamber. Drawing the snowy curtain aside, Anna-seated herself on ie window seat, for though she could not look out upon the moonlit scer it was pleasant to feel the cool fragrant breeze play over her face, and hte it rostling among the branches of the horse-chestnut trees. Long did Anna sit there, and longer she would have lingered, indulging in those waking dreams, sad and yet sometimes enchanting, that are peculiarly endeared to those, who, like her, are shut out from many of the bright realities of life, if the door communicating with her mother's apartment had not gently opened, and Mrs. Leslie entered with a mother's care to see that all was safe.'" Anna, my child, nine o'clock, and you sitting here, when the damp breeze f om the river is blowing directly in the window? what imprudence!"'1 he window was closed, and Anna was carefully enveloped in flannel, sand only her urgent remonstrances prevented her mother from administering some hot herb tea. After Anna had retired, Mrs. Leslie withdrew to her chamber, full of anxiety for her beloved child, whose delicate health and helplessness seemed to increase the love she felt for her. When the old clock ill the corner of the hall struck nine, Arthur lighted his candle and hastened to his room. After closing the door, he took from his chest an old fowling-piece, and carefully examined it. Placing it on the table, he repaired to the window, and, parting the waving tendrils of the vine, looked out anxiously. Light clouds had been flying across the deep blue of the sky all the evening; but now, darker and darker they gathered in huge masses, till it was impossible to discern objects with any distinctness on the river, or even in the garden below. Arthur was a brave boy, but he hesitated at the thought of descending to the garden and there watching for the thief, for the increasing darkness made it impossible to see from the window; but his hesitation vanished, for he thought he faintly neard the sound of oars on the river, and snatching up his fowling-piece, and silent~y opening his door, he proceeded lightly along the hall. As he passed the clock, it struck ten, and its silvery sound somewhat startled him as he felt his way in the dark. Noiselessly he opened the hall door, and' stepped out into the yard. Everything around was quiet, except the rustling of the branches as a gust passed by, and the sound of oars striking the waves, which he now heard with more distinctness. Arthur bounded lightly over the hedge of sweetbrier, and made his way through the dewy shrubbery to his garden. It was very dark, and as he hid behind a group of currant bushes and awaited the coming of the depredator, he could scarcely distinguish a single object. Suddenly the noise ceased on the river, and breathlessly Arthur. watched through the gloom. He started as he thought he perceived a tall form bending over-near him; but, looking more closely, he saw it was a large. sunflower bowing its head in the breeze. Again:; did his imagination deceive him? No; a tall Highlander, his tartan and plumes shaken by the wind, crept cautiously through the bushes and proceeded to fill a large bag with all that the increasing dark. ness would enable hiim to lay his hands on. Arthur's fears, if he had any, were now dispelled, so indignant did he feel as he saw the inroads made in his fine beds of vegetables, and he sprung behind the startled Highlander, and in a voice hoarse with rage, levelling his fowling-piece close to his head, threatened him with instant death if he made the least resistance. The frightened fellow, rendered confident and more daring by his former unmolested visit, had come totally unarmed save a dirk in his belt; but the surprise and consternation which his sudden detection had occasioned, not being able to see his enemy and with death so near, his presence of mind utterly forsook him, and he followed implicitly the commands of Arthur, who ordered him to take up the bag and to walk in front whether he should direct. Trembkingly the Highlander, not daring to move his head, for the loaded gun-still threatened him with instant death, obeyed; and Arthur, Collowing closely and silently through the garden and along the road, stopped AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 163 sot till he arrived at the camp in Cambridge, where he delivered his prisonel into his father's hands. Proudly Captain Leslie gazed on his intrepid boy, and many were the compliments that his courage obtained from the officers and soldiers. Nothing could exceed the anger and mortification which the Highlander felt as he gazed in surprise on his youthful captor, and many were the oaths that fell from his lips, as he saw the scornful sneers and listened to the contemptuous remarks of the American soldiers as they passed him and looked upon his sturdy form, and compared it with the slight, graceful figure of Arthlur Leslie. Arthur did not long remain at the camp, but hastened home to relieve the anxiety of his mother and sister, and just as the sun began to gild "tree, shrub, and flower," Arthur with one bound sprang over the thicket, shaking large pearly dew-drops from the roses, and entered the portico just as his mother was descending the stairs from his room, where the bed, which evidently had not been occupied, had dreadfully alarmed her. Her anxiety was somewhat allayed by the appearance of Arthur; and when at the breakfast table lie related to her and to Anna the adventure of the night, Mrs. Leslie knew not whether to blame the temerity, or praise the courage which he undoubtedly had manifested. Rachel was delighted with her brave boy's conduct; and long afterward, when the war was ended and Captain Leslie had removed to the city, where Mrs. Leslie resumed her former station at the head of a splendid establishment, and the sweet Anna had cultivated, with her brother's assistance, the learning and accomplishments attainable by one in her situation, then did Rachel recount to her wondering hearers the s orv of Arthur's adventure with the Highlander. LXII. DESCRIPTION. Description, as defined by Webster, is " a representation of rames, natures, or properties, that give to another a view of the thing,." It is, in fine, a picture, delineated, not by lines, but by words; and it must be so presented as to convey a clear, definite, and exact semblance to the mind, such as the object described presents to the eye. Such a representation may be called a faithful description. Faithful descriptions, therefore, are faithful pictures. All definitions must be less perfect descriptions of a material thing, than a visible figure or delineation. But when a definition is expanded, so as to embrace not only all the particulars in which the object defined differs from other objects, but also those in which it resembles others of the same kind, such a definition, is, in fact, a description. Owing to peculiar associations in the mind, and the difference in the habits of perception and observation, no two individuals would probably describe the same scene or the same object alike. This is particularly the ease with young writers. Some, from a natural sluggishness of mind. I 6(; AIDS TO ENGLITSH COMPOSITION. will perceive few particulars worthy of notice, where others, of different temperament, will find the subject replete with interesting details, all worthy of regard.* A few suggestions will now be presented, which will probably lead those who may use this book to think, and to use their eyes to some purpose, when called upon to give a written description of any sensible object These sug(gestions will be followed by a list of details, some one or more of which may always be noticed in a written description. It will be noticed, that the object in presenting such a list is only, as has already been said, to suggest ideas, which the student himself is to mould as they may arise, and combine with what may spring spontaneously from his own mind. To collect materials for a good description, there must be a devoted at tention to the beauties of nature and to the scenes of social life. The mind will thereby be rendered susceptible and discriminative, acquiring sources of improvement which would otherwise be lost, while variety and copiousness of expression will at the same time be secured. There are three great classes, under one of which all the varieties of description may be arranged. Under the first class are included all those subjects which are immediately under personal notice; which are actually present before our eyes. In the second class may be arranged all those which have been noticed, but have left only their pictures in the memory. The third class includes only those subjects which are purely imaginary. In the descriptions of all these classes, the object to be effected is one and the same; namely, to present to the reader a picture, easy and natural, lively in its character, and animated in- its appearance; making those de tails the most prominent which would affect the beholder as most striking, and throwing, as it were, into the shade those circumstances which are designed to produce a subordinate impression. In producing such an effect, the writer should pay particular attention to the epithets t with which he designates particular objects, that he may render the impression, which he designs that they should convey, strong and durable. For this reason he cannot be too particular in the choice of his qualifying words, for they are sometimes more expressive than the objects themselves when presented il naked simplicity. Thus, for instance, suppose we are describing a scene in a wood or forest; the following terms would appropriately describe the appearance of the scene: Dark, obscure, deep, dreary, gloomy, overcast, indistinct, dim, cloudy, dense, lurid, livid, &c. Or a summer's noon; the following terms will be found in most cases suitable: Bright, shining, clear, lucid, brilliant, dazzling, splendid, resplendent, sparkling, refulgent, ardent, conspicuous, clear, placid, &c. Or a storm, or a cataract; the following terms will be found expressive: Harsh, discordant, roar, howl, hiss, crash, reverberate, dash, splash, murmur, growl, clamorous, confused, terrific, tremendous, thundering, &c. There are manykinds of description, also, in which the following terms may not only, with considerable advantage, be interwoven, but the terms themselves, by the law of association, will slggest ideas; such as, placid, calm, tranquil, motionless, peaceful, serene, restless, lazy, unruffled, W See the " Dialogue between a Tutor and his Pupils," or page 8th. i See the arlticle on euitbets. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMIPoSITION. 167 hush.ed, silent, voiceless, sleeping, breathless, transparent, clear, waveless engulphed, unmeasured, beautiful, mingled, crystal, golden, silvery, mag. nificent, breezeless, kindred, &c., &c., &c. Acquaintance with the beauties of nature, particularly with those of the earth and the sky, and with the lights and shadows of life, must be considered as a great acquisition to any mind; and consequently the command of language, so requisite to embody and depicture the same ith the glow and warmth which imagination lends to description, must be regarded as anl object worthy of the highest regard by all who aim at being distinguished as writers.' In descriptions, the principal point to which to direct the attention is the selection of the circumstances. The scene, or the circumstance, should be brought with distinctness and fulness to the view'. We should be placed, as it were, by the description in the midst of the group of particulars, and be made fully acquainted with all its peculiarities. That which is called truth to nature is effected by the skilful selection and arrangement of the circumstances, and constitutes the anlpZification of descriptive writing. In some instances, especially where it is desirable that the description should be bold and striking, the enumeration of circum stances may be less full and minute. In describing natural scenery, the student will find some'k Probably no writer has ever surpassed Sir Walter Scott in the beauty fidelity, and accuracy of his descriptions.'The following extract, from Mr Morritt's "Memorandum," taken from Lockhart's Life of Sir Walter, Vol. III., page 30, exhibits his views, and the pains that he took to be accurate. Speaking of the visit of the great novelist at Rokeby, Mr. Meorritt says: " i had many previous opportunities of testing the almost conscientious fidelity of his local descriptions; but I could not help being singularly struck with the lights which this visit threw on that characteristic of his compositions,. The morning after he arrived, he said,'You have often given me materials for a romance; now I want a good robber's cave, and an old church of the right sort.' We rode out, and he found what he wanted in the old slate quarries of Brignal, and the ruined Abbey of Egglestone. I observed him noting down even the peculiar' little wild flowers azd herbs that accidentally gvewv arou-nd and on the side of a bold crag, Ilear his intended cave of Guy Denzil; and could not help saying, that as he was not to'be upon oath in his work, daisies, violets, and primnroses qwould be as poetical as anzy of tihd humbler plants lhe was xamaniuinbg. I la-ugihed, in short, at his scrupulous. ness; but I understood him when he replied,' that in nature herself no two scenes are exactly alike; and that owhoever copied truly wqvtt was before Ahzs.eyes, wosddpossess the sane variety in hids description.~s, and exhibit app) rently an imaginatio~n as boundless as the range qf ntaturre int the scenes he recorded; whereas, whoever trusted to imagination, would soon find his own mind circumscribed and contracted to a few favorite images, and the repetition of these would sooner or later produce that very monotony and barrenness which had always haunted descriptive poetry in the hands of any but patient worshippers of truth. Besides which,' he said,'local names and peculiarities make a fictitious story look so much better in the face.' In fact, from his boyish habits, he was but half satisfied with the most beau tiful scenery when he could not connect with it some local legend; and when I was forced sometimes to confess, with the klnife-grinder,' Story! God bless you! I have none to tell, sir,' - he would laugh, and say,'TIis lat lus make one, - nothing so easy as to make a tradit:cn.'' 168 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. aid in the following lists of particulars, which are here intro. duced as suggestive of ideas, which he himself is to mould as they may arise, and combine with what may spring spontas neously fiom his own mind. * A CO UNTRY. Its principal water courses: Its chains of mountains: The nature of the hills, whether more or less rugged; the nature of the morasses, whether more or less practicable: The rapidity and depth of the rivers; the nature of their fords, sluices, and piers; the state of the bridges, and their position: of the roads, and tile necessary repairs; the reasons for preferring one road to another, w hich would lead to the same object, such as the ease of procuring subsist, ence, of travelling in security - the lateral communications opening from tLe great or main roads - the population of the villagecs, occupations of the ii-habitants, the means of transportation, the chief commerce of the inlabitants, their industry, habits, and manners - the productions of the -co Intry, quantity and kind - the liquors, vinous or spirituous, with their effacts on the inhabitants. Or RIvERs: Their direction - their course - the nature of their beds, t!hl.r breadth -their floods and times of drought; their meadows, and ti:C marshes that intersect them; the mills upon their banks; the breadth oftheir valleys - the hills and ridges wlich skirt them —the side on which are commanding heights - the tributary rivulets, and the ravines which open into the valley of the stream - the distance between them; of what nature are the shrubs, the gullies, the brooks, the roads, &c. - the quality of the hedges, they are thin in poor soil, but in rich land they are'Eack, and formidable objects to the march of troops, &c. CANALS. Their communication- the nature of the ground through wehich they are cut - the means of draining them, and of turning their courses; their locks — the mode of destroying and of protecting them - how their navigation may be obstructed or improved. Mills often render water-courses fordable or not, at pleasure, by means of the water dammed up for their supply. When sand is of the ordinary * These lists of particulars are taken, with slight alterations necessary to adapt them to.the purposes of this work-l from " Lallemand's Artillery Service," article " RiecoZnnoiterin." They were original in a work entitled " L'aide nzenoire a luscage des ojfciers adarwtillce de France," par le Generalc Gassendi. From the dialogue between the tutor and his pupils, to which reference has already been made, the student will derive some hints upon " the art of seeivng," or using his eyes aright. This dialogue, calculated as it is to awaken attention, and to fix habits of observation, is particularly recom mended to the careful perusal of the student, who would relieve his mind from the labors of composition. Habits of observation, attended with carefill analysis, not only aid the mind in its search after ideas, but also direct't, in a judicious selection cf thlosQ wbhich amr afforded by associatiom. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION.' 169 color, the roads are generally good; but if the sand be black, or mixed with small white grains, the roads are impassable in winter, and often in time of rain. CLIMATE. The physical causes which may affect health —the quality of the air, cold, hot, wet, or dry; seasons -whether inclement, and how long so - the means of protection from their effects - the customs of the inhabitants in this respect. COASTS. The nature of the coasts —whether lined with sand-hills, co 3red with rocks, which render the approach more or less dangerous; or precipices, which forbid it altogether The parts which are open and uncovered, and proper for landing; the bays which form roadsteads and harbors - the points and capes fit for forts and batteries, which may defend the accessible parts; the adjacent islands, which may serve as advanced works to form barriers against the attempts of an enemy; the gulfs, the bays, the roads, the ports - the nature of the Winds required to enter or leave these ports, the nature and advantages of which may be pointed out - the time of tide most favorable for entering the ports, &c. - the dangers to be met - the obstacles to be surmounted - the actual state of the forts which protect the coast - the batteries, the guard-houses, and the artillery in them; if there be rivers emptying themselves on the coasts, the tides are apt to alter their channel; an account may be given of this influence, &c. FOrtuESTS AND WOODS. Their situation -their extent; the kinds of trees of which they are composed, whether fit for fuel or for timber — their extent - their magnitude; is the ground of the forest level or hilly, from whence do the roads come, and whither do they lead - their quality - the nature of the ground around them - are they near fields, meadows, ravines, hills, mountains, rivers- the streams, marshes, springs, dwel iings, &c., near them - the distance of all these objects from the borders of the wood or forest; the roads which intersect them, and the swamps which divide them. lHousEs. Their situations - style of architecture - the ground which they occupy - the mode in which they are built - the materials of which they are composed - the color given them by nature or art — are they old or new - the indications of age - moss-grown, ivy-hung, black with time - appendages connected with ancient customs - their associations - the improvements of modern art - additional conveniences, &c. LEVEL COUNTRY. Its hedges, ditches, villages, buildings, brooks, canals, marshes, roads, rivers, bridges, &c. * MOUNTAINS. Their position -their slopes in front and rear — th means of reaching their summits - the nature of the ground - its form -are they covered with wood or with bare rocks - their height - their * IL sandy countries, and those filled with brushwood, there are many marshes covered with water during the winter, which are almost dry in summer. In the winter they are impassable, and are to be mistrusted, even in summer, after long rains.'15 170'AIDS TO ENLIS.I CO-MPOSITION fertility - pastures, fodder, vegetation, dwellings, towns, Tillages, castles workshops, roads, paths, &c. RIVERs. Do they branch off, or continue in one undivih ed stream - where do they rise - whither do they flow - what is the nature of the country through which they flow - the quality of the water - clear, spark ling, transparent, thick, muddy, turbid — ruffled with eddies and countel currents - with or without falls - salt or fresh, sweet or brackish - cold or warm - safe for bathing, or dangerous - the manufactories moved b1 the water -the cantlis running from or into it- the streams, brooks rivulets, or other rivers that supply it, &c. VILLAGES. Their situation- the number of fires or chimneys in oper ation - the nature of the soil - the quantity and quality of the produce - the occupation of the inhabitants-their markets-the neighborhood which frequents them -the beasts of burden, the flocks, the beeves and poultry they possess - the architecture, or style in which the buildings, houses barns, and sheep-cotes are built -the position of the church and burying ground- tlhe blacksmith's shop'- whether surrounded by walls, by bushes, by ditches, or palisades - the water and wind mills. t Rivers which divide into several branches, form islands and peninsulas. The rivers themselves, thus divided, are apt to change their channels at every flood. tIn the description of natural scenery, it will be well for tale student to call to memory those beautiful lines of Cowper. " Nor rural sights alone, but riural sou0nds Exhilarate the spirits, and restore The tone of languid nature. Ig-ieghty twinds, That sweep the skirt of some far-spreading wood Of ancient growth, make music not unlike The dash of Ocean on his winding shore, And lull the spirit, while they fill the mind, UZnntnzGbered branches waving in the blast, And all their leaves fast fluttering all at once. Nor less composure waits upon the roar Of distant floods; or on the softer voice Of neighbourincg fibntain; or of -ills, that slip Through the cleft rock, and chiming as they tall Upon loose pebbles, lose themselves at length In matted grass, that with a livelier green Betrays the secret of their silent course. Nature inanimate employs sweet sounds; hBut animnsted natfurt e sweeter still, To soothe and satisfy the human ear. Ten thousasd warblers cheer the day, and one Tihe live-long night. Nor these alone, whose notev Nice fingered art must emulate in vain; But cawing rooks, and kites that swim sublime, in still repeated circles, screaming loud:,Thejay, the pye, and e'en the boding owl, That hails the rising moon, have charms for me. Sounds inharmonious in themselves, and harsh, Yet heard in scenes where peace forever reigns.Anrd only there, please highly for their -sake." AIDS TO ENGLIS.H C03IPOSITION, 171 The particulars which have now been mentioned as suggestive of ideas, will undoubtedly aid the student, and enable him to combine what addresses itself to the eye with that which suggests itself to the imagination, in his endeavors to make verbal pictures of the beauties of nature. The nature and variety of such particulars must necessarily be dependen' on t.he character of the object to be described. If an individual sensible object is to be described, the que"tions which naturally arise, and which should most of them bW, answered in the description, are as follows: WVVhere is it? Who made it? Wbhat is it made of? Is it old or new? What was it made for? How is it adapted for the purposes for which it was made,? Is it beneficial or prejudicial to the comfort and convenience of man kind? Are its effects universal or particular? Its divisions and parts? Its dimensions, form, and color i Does it produce, or is it connected with any sounds? How is it constructed? How does it strike the eye? What are its resemblances or its differences? How does it appear from different positions? In addition to these questions, the student must call to mind What others would naturally arise in the mind of any one, desirous of exact and particular information with regard to the subject of his description, and endeavor fully to answer every such question in his written-exercise. In the description of persons, an entirely different set of questions will suggest the proper answers, to which the description should be a full reply. What is the personal appearance, complexion, stature, figure, &c.; bends, arms, limbs, eyes, &c.? What feature is most prominently conspicuous? The expression of the countenance? Is the individual remarkable for manly beauty; or illy made, awkward, and ungraceful? What is the appearance of his chest, shoulders; length of his limbs, style of his dress? What are his habits, his age; what graces, accomplishments, or attain ments has he? What is his moral character - his intellectual; who are his associates vhat influence have they wrought upon him? For what virtues orvices is he particularly noted q 172, AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. In the, descriptions of persons of the other sex, such ques tions may be a little varied, and answered as in the following exam-les: DESCRIPTION OF PERSONS. Example 1st. DESCRIPTION OF MIARY QUEEN OF, SCOTTS. The turbulence of the times, the rancor of party rage, and the medium of prejudice or partiality, through which every object in those periods was beheld, render it difficult to form a just opinion of the character of Mary Her personal accomplishments and the graces which distinguished her as a woman, are admitted by all parties; respecting these, therefore, there can be no dispute. Her stature rose to the majestic, her form was elegant and her hands and arms distinguished for their delicacy and beauty. Her hair was black, though, in the fashion of the times, she frequently adorned herself in borrowed locks, and of various colors. IHer eyes were dark gray, and her complexion remarkably fine. She walked, danced, and rode, with equal grace. She possessed a taste for music; she played upon the lute with skill, and sung melodiously. Towards the conclusion of her life, she began to grow corpulent, while confinement and bad accommodation brought upon her a rheumatic disorder, which deprived her of the use of her limbs. Her manners were affable and insinuating, dignified and sprightly. She spoke eloquently, and wrote with ease and elegance. Her temper was warm, and her heart affectionate. She loved flattery, and beheld the effects of her beauty with pleasure. If she had acquired the power of dissembling her sentiments in the refined and intriguing court of France, her nature was nevertheless frank and indisposed to suspicion. Her piety was fervent and sincere; her talents, if not of the highest, were undoubtedly of a superior order; and the resolution and courage which she manifested at her death, are truly worthy of admiration. A long series of successive sorrows bespeak, with few excep tions, some imprudence in the sufferer; the misfortunes of Mary, both in degree and duration, exceeded the common measure of human calamities, and even render the distresses of fiction comparatively faint. The vicissitudes of her life have afforded a fine and fruitful subject for the tragic muse. No man, says Brantome, ever beheld her without admiration and love; no one will read her history without pity and sorrow. * * All writers agree in representing Mary of Scotland as distinguished for personal beauty. But on no subject, perhaps, do mankind differ so much as in their ideas of female beauty; and it seems to be wisely ordered by Providence that they should thus differ. Women in the Hottentot country are considered beautiful in proportion to the size of their ears, the flatness of their noses and the projection of their lips. In Otaheite corpulency is the constituent element of loveliness; and in China, small feet, cramped into absolute deformity, are considered an indispensable requisite for beauty. A late physiological writer, speaking of female beauty, says: " A woman -if any height, from the petite almost to the gigantic, may be perfectly beau AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 17T5 Example 2d. BERNARD DE ROHAN. 1 will attempt to paint him, to the eye of the reader, as I have myself seen him, represented by the hand of an unknown artist, in one of the tlful; and of any complexion, from the darkest brunette to the fairest lily. The medium height is generally preferred; but the complexion is a matter that entirely depends on individual taste - the same person, too, would be likely to waver in choice between the darkly beautiful maidens of Spain and the seraphically fair daughters of Circassia. Nevertheless, though the shades of complexion, from the Spanish olive to the Circassian white, or the varieties of altitude, from the petite Cleopatra to that of the towering Rox ana, matters but little; there are many things arbitrarily essential to perfect beauty in woman." "I shall describe," he continues, "a beautiful woman. taking her at the medium altitude, which is generally preferred." As such a description may be interesting to many who have not access to the original work, and as it cannot be considered wholly out of place in a volumre professing to teach the art of description, the author of this volume has, with some hesitation, ventured here to present it. " Her height is five feet five inches; her hair is of any color that agrees with her complexion; her forehead is rather low, and as free from freckle or wrinkle as a piece of Paphian marble; her brows are dark, arched, narrow, and strongly defined; her eyes are large, rather languishing than bright, and of either of the usual colors; for the grey eyes of Mary of Scot land were not less captivating than the raven orbs of the Queen of Sheba; her eye lashes are dark and long; her nose is a mitigated aquiline, - that is, an aquiline curtailed of its severity; her lips are short and small, and yet withal full and pouting; her chin is very slightly developed; her ears are small, thin, and with the tip on a line with the eyebrow; her complexion varies with the emotions of her mind, and the blush that tinges her cheek is delicate, and loses itself in her face, so as to indicate no perceptible outline; her features are exactly regular, though made to appear otherwise by the ever-varying expression of her lips and eyes, and the fluctuations of the rosy tide that ebbs and flows beneath the transparent surface of her skin; her smile indicates sweetness of disposition, blended with a gently-proud expression, dictated probably by the consciousness of her own worth and beauty; her neck is flexible, moderately slender, of medium length, and pure as alabaster; the fall from her neck to her shoulders is gradual (like that of a bird); her bust is a gentle swell, so clear that the blue veins are visible; her shoulders almost verge on broadness, and press backwards; her waist is small, but not too taper; her arms are rounded; her hands delicately small, and fingers rather long and tapered; her instep is high, to secure a good arch to the foot, which adds grace in walking, and her feet are as small as they can possibly be without subjecting them to the character of diminutive." To this description the same author adds, that there are " three species of female beauty, of which all the rest are varieties." rNo. 1. Face round, eyes soft azure; neck rather short; shoulders moderately br ad and gently rounded; limbs and arms tapering and delicate; hands anid feet small; complexion, rose struggling with lily; hair luxuri ant, flaxen or auburn; eyes blue, and whole figure soft and easy. No. 2. Oblong face; neck long and tapering; shoulders broad and deli oate, without being angular; limbs and arms rather long and tapering; feet 15* 174 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMiPOSITION. palaces on the banks of the Brenta. lie was in person about the middle height, rather above it than below, and at this period was not more than twenty-three years of age.'His forehead was broad and fine, with short dark hair curling around it; his features were small, excepting the eye and brow, the former of which was large and full, and the latter strongly marked. The mouth was very handsome, showing, when half open in speaking, the brilliant white teeth, and giving to the'whole countenance a look of playful gaiety; but, when shut, there was an expression of much thoughtfulness, approaching perhaps to sternness, about it, which the rounded and somewhat prominent chin confirmed. The upper lip was very short; but on either side, divided in the middle, was a short black mustache, not overhanging the mouth, but raised above it; and the beard, which was short and black, like the hair, was only suffered to grow in such a manner as to ornament, but not to encumber the chin. In form the cavalier was muscular, and powerfully made; his breadth of chest and shoulders giving the appearance of a more advanced period of life than that to which he had yet arrived. — Corse De Leon, by G. P. 1R. James. and hands rather small; complexion mostly dark; hair abundant, dark and strong; and the whole figure precise, striking, and brilliant. No. 3. Oval face; high, pale, intellectual forehead; eye, expressive and full of sensibility, also indicating modesty and dignity;'movements charac terized by grace and elegance. -' In a note on page 172 is presented, in a quotation from a late physio logical writer, the description of a beautiful woman. The same author thus describes a specimen of masculine beauty: " A fine looking man, (the word handsome detracts from the idea of beauty in the male sex), is above the medium height, but considerably under the colossal; (about five feet ten inches is the perfection of altitude); his forehead is high and rather square; his back head is well rounded, but not too full; his eyes are dark, bright, and fairly set in their sockets — neither tending to recede nor to protrude; his hair inclines to a curl; his eyebrows are rather square than bushy, and leave a space of about three quarters of an inch between their inward extremities; his nose is a medium between Roman and aquiline; his cheek bones are not rominent, but still well defined; his cheeks neither lank nor so rounided as to indicate fatness or inflation; his mouth moderately small; his lips firm, compact, but not thin; his whiskers are well back on his cheek; his complexion is uniform, between brown and fair, with a slight tendency to a blush, but not suffi cient to warrant him in being called rosy cheeked; and the whole countemance, well or even strongly marked; for a smooth, round face; where the features are all regular, and without any characteristic for a limner to fasten on, is incompatible with manly beauty. Then his neck is of moder ate length and inclines to thickness; his throat is free from all protuber ance commonly called'the aplple of Eve;' his breast is fairly fuill; his shoulders square, but not abruptly so, and sufficiently broad to just overhang his hips; his arms are of a length to leave about eight inches between the tips of his middle fingers and his knees; there is a gradual decrease in wards from the hips and shoulder to the waist; his back is free from the least tendency to roundness, but is not thrown very much to the rear; his limbs are full, but not clumsy; his joints small; the calves of the legs so that they just touch, without pressing lgainst each other; his shin rather slen der, his ankle small; his instep high: and his foot slightly hollowed, and of a size corresponding w th his height; for, too smnall a foot interferes with AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 175 Exatmple 3d. THlE EL EPHlAN'T. The elephamn, a native of Asia and Africa, is the largest, the strongest, the most sagacious, and the most docile of all wild beasts. The usual height of this unsightly creature is from eight to twelve or fourteen feet. The color is nearly black; the eyes, which are very small, are lively, bright, and expressive fthe ears are broad, and much longer, in proportion to the body, than those of the ass. It has two long ivory tusks, thicker toward the head than a stout man's arm, and a trunk which it can contract or lengthen, as need requires. The latter is as useful to the animal as our hands are to us. With this singular organ it can take up the smallest object; it serves tself with it; and, in case of an attack, fights with it. It can also untie,knots of ropes, and open an(l shut gates. The legs of this stupendous quadruped are like columns of from twelve to eighteen inches in diameter, and from four to six feet high. The feet are short, and divided into five toes each, and are armed with nails of a horny substance, but which are so covered with skin, that they are scarcely visible. The elephant, in a state of nature, is neither fierce nor mischievous. It is peaceable, mild, and brave; and exerts its powers only in its own defence, or in defence of those of its own kind, with which it is social and friendly. ccanple 4th. NATURAL SCENERY. Long projecting reefs of rocks, extending under water, and only evime Ing their existence by here and there a peak entirely bare, or by the breakers which foamed over those that were partially covered, rendered Knockwinnock bay dreaded by pilots and ship-masters. The crags which rose between the beach and the main land to the height of two or three hundred feet, afforded in their crevices shelter for unnumbered sea fowl, in situations seemingly secured by their dizzy height fiom the rapacity of that elasticity of step, and firmness of carriage, so essential in making up the perfect' tout ensemble' of a well-proportioned man." In descriptions of persons the student will do well to refer to what is said on the subject of epth~ets in another page of this volume. Thus, for example, the mnanners of an individual may be insinuating, sprightly, dignified, or reserved, &c.; speech, elegant, eloquent, &c.; person, thin or spare, fleshy or corpulent; temper,, warm and affectionate; nature, frank and indisposed to suspicion, &c. Notice may also be taken, as occasion requires, of such particulars as the following: resolution, courage, effects of air and exercise, or confinement and exclusion from the air, on personal appearance, - series of sorrows as causing imprudence, constant success as producing temerity, - misfortunes in degree and duration exceeding the com mon measure of human calamity, rendearing the distresses of fiction faint, eec., &c., &c, 176 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. man. Many of these wild tribes, with the instinct which sends them to seek the land before a storm arises, were now winging towards their nests with the shrill and dissonant clang which announces fear and disquietude. The disk of the sun became almost totally obscured ere he had altogether sunk below the horizon, and an early and lurid shade of darkness blotted the serene twilight of a summer evening. The wind began next to arise, but its wild and moaning sound was heard for some time, and its effects became more visible on the bosom of the sea, before the gale was felt on the shore. The mass of waters, now dark and threatening, began to lift itself in larger ridges, and sink in deeper furrows, forming waves that rose high in foam upon the breakers, or burst upon the beach with a sound resembling distant thunder.-Antiquary, Vol. 1. p. 72. Example 5th. NATURAL SCENERY. Cities and villages were scattered over hill and valley, with cultivated environs blooming around them, all giving token of a dense and industrious population. In the centre of this brilliant circumference stood the Indian metropolis, with its gorgeous tiara of pyramids and temples, attracting the eye of the soldier from every other object, as he wound round the borders of the lake. Every inch of ground which the soldiers trod was familiar to them; familiar as the scenes of childhood, though with very different associations, for it had been written on their memories in characters of blood. On the right rose the hill of Montezuma, crowned by the teocalli, under the roof of which the shattered relics of the army had been gathered on the day following the flight from the capitol. In front lay the city of Tacuba, through whose inhospitable streets they had hurried in fear and consternation; and away to the east of it stretched the melancholy causeway.-Prescott's Conquest of Mexico, Vol UL. p. 31. Example 6th. NATURAL SCENERY. They moved cautiously forward, straining their vision to pierce the think gloom of the forests, where their wily foe might be lurking. But they saw no living thing, except only the wild inhabitants of the woods and flocks of the zopolite, the voracious vulture of the country, which, in anticipation of a bloody banquet, hung like a troop of evil spirits, on the march of the army. As they descended, the Spaniards felt a sensible and most welcome change in the atmosphere. The character of the vegetation changed with it; and the funereal pine, their only companion of late, gave way to the sturdy oak, to the sycamore, and lower down, to the graceful pepper tree, mingling its red berries with the dark foliage of the forest; while in still lower depths, the gaudy-colored creepers might be seen flinging their gay blossoms over the branches, and telling of a softer and more luxurious climate. At length, the army emerged on an open level, where the eye, unob AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 17' structed by intervening wood or hill-top, could range, far and wide, over the Valley of Mexico. There it lay, bathed in the golden sunshine, stretched out, as it were, in slumber, in the arms of the giant of hills, which clustered, like a phalanx of guardian genii, around it.* - Conquest of Mexico, Vol. II, p. 463. From the same source from which the preceding extract was taken, the following personal description has been borrowed ]HERNANDO CORT]S. Hernando " Cortes at this time was thirty-three, or perhaps thirty-four years of age. In stature he was rather above the middle size. His complexion was pale, and his large dark eye gave an expression of gravity to his countenance, not to be expected in one of his cheerful temperament. His figure was slender, at least until later life; but his chest was deep, his shoulders broad, his frame muscular and well proportioned. It presented the union of agility and vigor, which qualified him to excel in fencinghorsemanship, and the other generous exercises of chivalry. In his diet he was temperate, careless of what he ate, and drinking little; while, to toil and privation he seemed perfectly indifferent. His dress, for he did not disdain the impression produced by such adventitious aids, was such as to set off his handsome person to advantage; neither gaudy nor striking, but rich. He wore few ornaments, and usually the same; but these were of great price. His manners frank and soldierlike, concealed a most cool and calculating spirit. With his gayest humor there mingled a settled air of resolution, which made those who approached him feel they must obey; and which infused something like awe into the attachment of his most devoted followers. Such a combination, in which love was tempered by authority, was the one probably best calculated to inspire devotion in the rough and turbulent spirits among whom his lot was to be cast." 5 The introduction of figurative language in descriptive writing, if not too luxuriantly indulged, adds much to the beauty and animation of the style. The student will not fail to admire the beautiful figure here introduced from one of the most elegant historical writers of any age or country. Mr. Prescott, in the work from which the. extract above was taken, has conferred a favor on the republic of letters, which will hand himn down to posterity as the modern " Dulcis et candidus et fitscs Herodotus." The samne remark.hat has been made in relation to the Father of History, may be applied with equal truth and justice to the author of " The Conquest of MeZxico." "1 H-is style abounds with elegance, ease, and sweetness; and if there is any of the fabulous or incredible, the author candidly informs the reader that t is introduced on the authority of others." They who are not attracted by the thrilling nature of the fIncidents which he relates, will be captivated by the glowing colors in which they are described, the purity and animation of his style the witcherj he has woven around his subject, and the wonderful skill with which he has thrown into a connected narrative a mass of details, which with indefatigable industry he has tithed from a great variety of authors, often at variance with one another, and not unfrequently at issue with themselves. The pride with which an American peruses his works, naturally breaks forth into the apostrophe, " Perge modo: et quz, te via duciS dirige gresstrn." l 78 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. The character of Cortes seems to have undergone some change with change of circumstances; or, to speak more correctly, the new scenes in which he was placed called forth qualities which before were dormant in his bosom. There are some hardy natures that require the heats of excited action to unfold their energies; like the plants, which, closed to the mild influence of a temperate latitude, come to their full growth, and give forth their fruits only in the burning atmosphere of the tropics. Such is the portrait left to us by his contemporaries of this remarkable man. Thle examples which have now been introduced are deemed sufficient, both in variety and extent, to introduce the student to descriptive writing. The attentive perusal of the examples given, with careful attention to the preliminary hints and observations, it is thought will furnish considerable aid in this department of composition. LXIII. NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION UNITED. That the student may perceive how much is added to the beauty and the interest of a narration by the union of description with the narrative, the following model is presented, which is founded on the simple circumstance, that a young man in a feeble state of health is called home, after a long absence, to be present at the death-bed of his mother. The student will observe how beautifully many of the particulars presented in the list in the preceding exercises are interwoven with the narrative, and how much the union of description with the narration has added to the beauty of the storks Example. In looking over some papers of a deceased acquaintance, I found the following fragment. He had frequently spoken to me of the person whom it concerned, and who had been his school-fellow. I remember well his one day telling me that, thinking the character of his friend, and some circum stances in his life, were of such a kind that an interesting moral little story might be made firom tlhem, he had undertaken it; but, considering as he AIDS TO ENGLISH COMlPOSITION. 179, was going on, that bringing the private character and feelin s of a deceased friend before the world, was something like sacrilege, though done under a fictitious name, he had stopped soon after beginning the tale, —that he had laid it away amongst his papers, and had never looked at it again. - As the person it concerns has. een a long time dead, and no relation sur vives, I do not feel that there can be any impropriety in my now making it public. I. give it, as it was written, though evidently not revised by my friend. Though' hastily. put together, and beginning as abruptly as it ends, and with little of story and no novelty in the circumstances, yet there is a mournful tenderness in it, which, I trust, will interest others in some por tion, as it did me.' The sun not set yet, Thomas?"' Not quite, Sir. It blazes through the trees on the hill yonder, as if their branches were all on fire." Arthur raised himself heavily forward, and with his hat still over his brow, turned his glazed and dim eyes towards the setting sun. It was only the night before that he had heard his mother was ill, and could survive but a day or two. He had lived nearly apart from society, and, being a lad of a thoughtful, dreamy mind, had made a world to himself. His thoughts and feelings were so much in it, that, except in relation to his own home, there were the same vague and strange notions in his brain concerning the state of things surrounding him, as we have of a foreign land. The main feeling which this self-made world excited in him was love and, like most of his age, he had formed to himself a beino suited to his own fancies. This was the romance of life, and though men, with minds like his, make imagination to stand oftentimes in the place of real exist ence, and to take to itself as deep feeling and concern, yet in domestic relations, which are so near, and usual, and private, they feel longer and more deeply than those who. look upon their homes as only a better part of the world to which they belong. Indeed, in affectionate and good men of a visionary cast, it is in some. sort only realizing their hopes and desires, to turn them homeward. Arthur felt that it was so, and le loved his house hold the more that they gave him an earnest of one day realizing all his hopes and attachments. Arthur's mother was peculiarly dear to him, in having a character so much like his own. For though the.cares and attachments of life had long ago taken place of a fanciful existence in her, yet her natural turn of mind was strong enough to give to these something of the romance of her dispo sition. This had led to a more than usual openness and intimacy between Arthur and his mother, and now brought to his remembrance the hours they had sat together by the firelight, when he listened to her mild and melanoholy voice, as she spoke of what she had undergone at the loss oI her parents and husband. Her gentle rebuke of his faults, her affectionate look of approval when he had done well, her care that he should be a just man, and her motherly anxiety lest the world should go hard with him, all crowded into his mind, and he thought that every worldly attachment was hereafter to be a vain thing. He had passed the night between violent, tumultuous grief, and numb insensibility. Stepping into the carriage, with a slow, weak motion, like one who was quitting his sick chamber for the first time, he began his journey homeward. As he lifted his eyes upward, the few stars that were here and there over the sky seemed to look down in pity, and shed a re ligious and. healing light upon him. But they soon went out, one after another, and as the last faded from his imploring sight, it was as if every thing good and holy had forsaken him. The faint tint m the east soon became a ruddy glow, and the sun, shooting upward, burst over every living thing in full glory. The sight went to Arthur's sick heart, as if it were in mockery of his misery. 180 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Leaning back in his carriage, with his hand over his eyes, he was carried along, hardly sensible it was day. The old servant, Thomas, who was sit. ting by his side, went on talking in a low, monotous tone; but Arthur only heard something sounding in his ears, scarcely heeding that it was a human voice. He had a sense of wearisomeness from the motion of the carriage, but in all things else the day passed as a melancholy dream. Almost the first words Arthur spoke were those I have mentioned. As he looked out upon the setting sun, he shuddered through his whole frame, and then became sick and pale. He thought he knew the hill near him; and, as they wound round it, some peculiar old trees appeared, and he was n a few minutes in the midst of the scenery near his home. The river be ore him reflecting the rich evening sky, sooked as if poured out fiom a nolten mine. The birds, gathering in, were shooting across each other, bursting into short, gay notes, or singing their evening songs in the trees. It was a bitter thing to find all so bright and cheerful, and so near his own home too. His horses' hoofs struck upon the old wooden bridge. The sound went to his heart. It was here his mother took her last leave of him, and blessed him. As he passed through the village, there was a feeling of strangeness, that every thing should be just as it was when he left it. There was an unde fined thought floating in his mind, that his mother's state should produce a visible change in all that he had been familiar with. But the boys were at their noisy games in the street, the laborers returning, talking together, from their work, and Se old men sitting quietly at their doors. He con cealed himself as well as he could, and bade Thomas hasten on. As they drew near the house, the night was shutting in about it, and there was a melancholy, gusty sound in the trees. Arthur felt as if approaching his mother's tomb. He entered the parlor. All was as gloomy and still as a deserted house. Presently he heard a slow, cautious step over head. It was in his mother's chamber. His sister had seen him from the window. She hurried down and threw her arms about her brother's neck, without uttering a word. As soon as he could speak, he asked, " Is she alive? "he could not say, my mother.' She is sleeping," answered his sister, " and must not know to-night that you are here; she is too weak to bear it now." " I will go look at her, then, while she sleeps," said he, drawing his hand kerchief from his face. His sister's sympathy had made him shed the first tears which had fallen from him that day, and he was more composed. He entered the chamber with a deep and still awe upon him; and as he drew near his mother's bed side, and looked on her pale, placid, and motionless face, he scarcely dared breathe, lest he should disturb the secret communion that the soul was holding with the world into which it was about to enter. The loss that he was about suffering, and his heavy grief, were all forgotten in the feeling of a holy inspiration, and he was, as it were, in the midst of invisible spirits, ascending and descending. His mother's lips moved slightly, as she uttered an indistinct sound. He drew back, and his sister went near to her, and she spoke. It wvm the same gentle voice which he had known and felt from his childhood. The exaltation of his soul left him, - he sunk down, - and his misery went over him like a flood. The next day, as soon as his mother became composed enough to see him, Arthur went into her chamber. She stretched out her feeble hand, and turned towards him, with a look that blessed him. It was the short struggle of a meek spirit. She covered her eyes with her hand, and the tears trickled down between her pale, thin fingers. As soon as she became tranquil, she spoke of the gratitude she felt at being spnred to see him be fore she died. I "My dear mother," said Arthur, - but he could not go on. His voice was choked, his eyes filled with tears, and the agOny of his soll wan visible AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 181 In his face. " Do not be so afflicted, Arthur, at the loss of me. We are not to part for ever. Remember, too, how comfortable and happy you have made my days. Heaven, I know, will bless so good a son as you have been to me. You will have that consolation, my son, which visits but a few, - you will be able to look back upon your past conduct to me, not without pain only, but with a holy joy. And think, hereafter, of the peace of mind you give me, now that I am about to die, in the thought that I am leaving your sister to your love and care. So long as you live, she will find y:u a father and brother to her." She paused for a moment. " I have always felt that I could meet death with composure; but I did not know," she said, with a tremulous voice, her lips quivering, - "I did not know how hard a thing it would be to leave my children, till now that the hour has come." After a little while, she spoke of his father, and said, she had lived with the belief that he was mindful of her, and with the conviction, which grew stronger as death approached, that she should meet him in another world. She said but little more, as she grew weaker and weaker every hour. Ar thur sat by in silence, holding her hand. He saw that she was sensible he was watching her countenance, for every now and then she opened her dull eye, and looked towards him, and endeavored to smile. The day wore slowly away. The sun went down, and the melancholy and still twilight came on. Nothing was heard but the ticking of the watch, telling him with a resistless power that the hour was drawing nigh. He gasped; as if under some invisible, gigantic grasp, which it was not for hu man strength to struggle against. It was now quite dark, and by the pale light of the night-lamp in the chimney corner, the furniture in the room threw huge and uncouth figures over the walls. All was unsubstantial and visionary, and the shadowy ministers of death appeared gathering round, waiting the duty of the hour appointed them. Arthur shuddered for a moment with superstitious awe; but the solemn elevation which a good man feels at the sight of the dying took possession of him, and he became calm aaaiThe approach of death has au much which is exalting, that our grief isi-for the time, forgotten. And could one who had seen Arthur a few hours before, now have looked upon the grave and grand repose of his countenance, ne would hardly have known him. The livid hue of death was fast spreading over his mother's face. He stooped forward to catch the sound of her breathing. It grew quick and faint..-" My mother." — She opened her eyes, for the last time, upon him, - a faint flush passed over her cheek, - there was the serenity of an angel in her look, - her hand just pressed his. It was all over. His spirit had endured to its utmost. It sunk down from its unearthly height; and with his face upon his mother's pillow, he wept like a child. He arose with a violent effort, and stepping into the adjoining chamber, spoke to his aunt. " It is past," said he. " Is my sister asleep? - Well, then, let her have rest; she needs it.' He then went to his own chamber, and shut himself in. It is a merciful thing that the intense suffering of sensitive minds makes to itself arelief. Violent grief brings on a torpor, and an indistinctness, and dimness, as from long watching. It is not till the violence of affliction has subsided, and gentle and soothing thoughts can find room to mix with our sorrow, and holy consolations can minister to us, that we are able to know' fully our loss, and see clearly what has been torn away from our af fections. It was so with Arthur. Unconnected and strange thoughts, with melancholy but'half-formed images, were floating in his mind, and now and then a gleam of light would pass through it, as if he had been in a troubled trance, and all was right again. His worn and tired feelings at last found rest in sleep 16 itr KAIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. It is an impression, which we cannot rid ourselves of if we would, when sitting by the body of a friend, that he has still a consciousness of our pres ence, - that though the common concerns of the world have no more to do with him, he has still a love and care of us. The face which we had so long been familiar with, when it was all life and motion, seems only in a state of rest. We know not how to make it real to ourselves, that the body before us is not a.ving thing. Arthur was in such a state of mind, as he sat alone in the room by his mother, the day after her death. It was as if her soul had been in paradise, and was now holding communion with pure spirits there, though it still abede in the body that lay before him. He felt as if sanctified by the presence of on, to whom the other world had been laid open,- as if under the love and prouection of one made holy. The religious reflections that his mother had early taught him, gave him strength; a spiritual composure stole over him, and he found himself prepared to perform the last offices to the dead. It is not enough to see our friends die, and part with them for the remain d3r of our days, - to reflect that we shall hear their voices no more, and'that they will never look on us again, - to see that turning to corruption which was but just now alive, and eloquent, and beautiful with all the sensations of the. soul. Are our sorrows so sacred and peculiar as to make the world as vanity to us, and the men of it as strangers, and shall we not be left to our afflictions for a few hours? Must we be brought out at such a time to the concerned or careless gaze of those we know not, or be made to bear the formal proffers of consolation from acquaintances who will go away and forget it all? Shall we not be suffered a little while a holy and healing communion with the dead? Must the kindred stillness and gloom of our, dwelling be changed for the solemn show of the pall, the talk of the passers-by, and the broad and piercing light of the common sun? Must the ceremonies of the world wait on us. even to the open graves of our friends? When the hour came, Arthur rose with a firm step and fixed eye, though his whole face. was tremulous with the struggle within him. He went to his sister, and took her arm within his. The bell struck.' Its heavy, un dulating sound rolled forward like a sea. He felt a violent beating through his whole frame, which shook him that he reeled. It was but a momentary weakness. He moved on, passing those who surrounded him, as if they had been shadows. While he followed the slow hearse, there was a vacan cy in his eye as it rested on the coffin, which showed him hardly conscious of what was before him. His spirit was with his mother's. As he reached the grave, he shrunk back and turned deadly pale; but sinking. his head upon his breast, and drawing his hat over his face, he stood motioinless as a statue till the service was over. He had gone through all that the forms of society required of him. For, as painful as the effort was, and as little suited as such forms were to his own thoughts upon the subject, yet he could not do any thing that might appear to the world like a want of reverence and respect for his mother. The scene was ended; and the inward struggle over; and now that he was left to himself, the greatness of his loss came up full and distinctly before him. It was a dreary and chilly evening when he returned home. When he entered the house from which his mother had gone for ever, a sense om dreary emptiness oppressed him, as if his very abode had been deserted by every living thing. He walked into his mother's chamber. The naked bedstead, and the chair in which she used to sit, were all that was left in the room. As he threw himself back into the chair, he groaned in the bit terness of his spirit. A feeling of forlornness came over him, which was no to be relieved by teams. She wh!lom he had wa'ched over in her dying hour AIDS TO ENGLIISH COMPtOSITION. 183 and whom he had talked to as she lay before him in death, as if she could hear and answer him, had gone from him. Nothing was left for the senses to fasten fondly one and time had not yet taught him to think of her only as a spirit. But time and holy endeavors brought this consolation; and the little of life that a wasting disease left him, was passed by him, when alone, in thoughtful tranquillity; and amongst his friends he appea-ed with that gentle cheerfulness, which, before his mother's death, had been a part of his nature.@ Exercises. Narration and Description may now be united in the history of Moses Elizabeth of England Saul Arabella Stewart Elijah Arabella Johnson Elisha Washington Daniel Jay Judith Marshall Joshua Franklin Jepthah Montezuma. To the historical data which can be gleaned from any authentic source, the student may be permitted to add fictitious circumstances of his own invention. In the same manner, he may present notices of any other character which may occur in the course of his reading or observation. He may also reverse the process of amplifying, and present an abridgement of the example. LXIV. EPISTOLARY CORRESPONDENCE, OR1 LETTER WRITING. I A Letter is, perhaps, one of the most common, as well as one of the most useful forms of composition, and there are few, who can read or write at all, who are not frequently called * It is recommended that the student be required to analyze this beautiful specimen of narration united with description, by presenting a list of the particulars which enter into the narrative and descriptive parts respec tively. t It is generally allowed, that epistolary writing, if not one of the highest, is one of the most difficult branches of composition. An elegazt letter is much more rare than an elegant specimen of any other kind of writing. It is for this reason, that the author has deviated from the usual order prac tised by respectable teacher whllo give enistolary writing the first place in .8S4 AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. upon to perform it. Under the head of Letter Writing, it is intended in this exercise to include all the forms of epistolary correspondence, whether in the shape of billets, notes, formal letters, or ceremonious cards, &c. It is proper to premise,,ha;, whenever a letter is to be written, regard should be had to the usual forms of complimentary address, to the date, the superscription, and the closing. The folding, also, of the letter should not be disregarded. If it be true, that " trifles form the principal distinction between the refined and the unrefined," surely those trifles deserve some sort of consideration. And, first, it is to be observed, that, whenever a written communication is made by one individual to another, the usages of society require that the reply should also be written; and thlit the same style of address should be preserved in both the communication and the reply. A different style, or form, seems to express a want of respect, or an arrogance of superior knowledge, - faults equally to be avoided in the intercourse of polished society. If the letter is written in the first person, the reply should also be in thefirst person. Thus, when the letter begins "Dear Sir, "I write to inform you," &c., the answer should be in the first person also; thus: "Dear Sir, "I have received your letter informing me, &c., has been received, and I hasten to say," &c. If the letter is written in the third person, thus: "SMlr. Parker has the honor of informing the Hon. IMr Brimmer," &c., the answer should also be in the third person; thus: " 3r. Brimmer has received the letter of Mr. Parker," &c. the attention of the student. He has deemed it expedient to reserve the subject for this part of the volume, and for the practice of the student who' has been previously exercised in other attempts. At this stage of his progress, he may be profitably exercised in the writing of letters. The teacher may now require him to write notes, billets, and letters addressed to a real or fictitious person, announcing some event, or on some formal subject. The teacher cannot be too particular in his directions with regard to folding, sealing, &c., for early habits of negligence, or want of ieatness, are with difficulty eradicated. AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 185 The name of the writer should always be subscribed to the letter when it is written in the first person, but never when it is written in the third. The date of the letter should also be written at the beginning, when the letter is written in the first person, and at the end, when it is written in the third. The address of the letter should be written under the signature, and towards the left side of the letter, when it is written in the first person, but not when it is written in the third. A neat and well-written letter is a much mole rare production than it ought to be. Few directions can be given with regard to the composition of a letter; but it is intended in this exercise to give some general directions with regard to the mechanical execution of letters, notes, and billets. And, first, with regard to Letters. A letter should embrace the following particulars, namely. 1st. The date. 2d. The complimentary address. 3d. The body of the letter. 4th. The style, or complimentary closing. 5th. The signature; and, 6th. The address, with the title, if any. The date should be written near the right hand upper corner of the sheet. The complimentary address follows, a little lower down, near the left hand side of the sheet. The body of the letter should be commenced very nearly under the last letter of the complimentary address. The style, or complimentary closing, should stand very nearly under the last letter of the body; the signature very nearly under the last letter of the style; and the address should be placed a little below the signature, and towards the left hand side of the sheet. 16' '86 AIDS TO ENGIISYH COMPOSITION. Exanmple 1st. FORM OF A LETTER. Date. OC mplimentary address. Body of the Letter. Sty e, or Complimentary Closing. S inat. re. Address,or Superscriptibn. Title, if any. I- - -I~ —s —— a~~ AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 1 7 Example 2d. A LETTER, WITH ITS PARTS. (date.) g4tvIn, C 2a0 /6S43. (:rplimnentary address.).Xe..Zfaz