GLO BE E NCYCLO PiED IA nibntarat sgnfuormation, He.s ____ ___~~___ ~ —__I_~_~~I__ ~ —~ THE E N CYC L OP D I A OF t'nitberCal anformatton. EDITED BY JOHN M.: ROSS, LL.D. FORMERLY ASSISTANT EDITOR OF " CHAMBERS'S ENCYCLOPAiDIA."> VOL UME I, BOSTON: ESTES & LAURIAT, 301 WASHINGTON STREET. I876. PREFACE. HOUGH several Encyclopaoedias of high reputation have already been issued in Great Britain, most if not all of which are seeking to keep themselves abreast of the age by new editions or extensive changes, yet it can hardly be doubted that a work which is not hampered by the fetters of a previous issue has considerable advantages over its predecessors in regard to the treatment of all important topics. There must always be a temptation, even in the newest editions, to retain as much as possible of the old matter, when not absolutely incorrect in statements of fact, though the general conception of the subject may be faulty, or even antiquated. On the other hand, an entirely fresh work leaves an editor and contributors free to make the amplest use of the most recent research, and to give effect to that change in the relative proportions of things which time infallibly brings about. A new Encyclopaedia, therefore, may be said to have a reason for its existence, if it honestly tries to avail itself of the natural advantages of its position. It is believed that in some measure the GLOBE ENCYCLOP.EDIA will be found to have done this. In offering the first volume for the consideration of the ptublic, it may be thought necessary or desirable that the Editor should briefly state what kind of work has been projected, and in what particular way it seeks to- win a place for itself. The time for elaborate and costly Encyclopaedias, in the opinion of many, is gone by. Whether this be so or not, it is absolutely certain that there is an ever-increasing tendency on the part of the public to demand the greatest amount of information in the smallest possible compass. The necessity for knowing something of everything becomes more imperative every day. No man can now read a newspaper for any length of time without being brought face to face with a multitude of details about all questions of interest to the human race; and he is often unable to grasp the meaning of what he reads for want of additional knowledge or explanation. Much may not' be necessary, but some is indispensable. This is what an Encyclopaedia should give him. The more succinct the information, the better,-always assuming that the succinctness is not mere triviality and poverty. The editor of the GLOBE ENCYCLOPEDIA has tried to produce a work from which superfluous elements should be strictly excluded, but which, at the same time, should embody the results of the most exact and careful research. Its limits make it, of course, impossible that an exhaustive treatment of subjects should be attempted, but it is hoped 4 * vi PREFA CE. that what is stated under any heading will in general be found clear, correct, and in harmony with the best knowledge or the best teaching on the point, so that readers, at any rate, shall not be misled, or need at some future time to unlearn and cast aside what they have acquired. In all the important parts of the work, the GLOBE ENCYCLOPADIA intends to carry out more thoroughly than any of its predecessors the practice of referring to authorities on the matters discussed or described. The meaning of names of places, &c., always interesting and often suggestive, has been given with a fulness, and, it is believed, with an accuracy, not hitherto aimed at. Although the articles, as a rule, are extremely condensed, it must not be supposed that no room has been left to present substantial information. A glance at the great departments of Geography, Biography, History, and General Literature, will show that the GLOBE ENCYCLOPAEDIA is designed to be as complete in treatment as much larger works. Whenever fresh and valuable statistics regarding foreign countries and great towns were obtainable from Consular reports or other resources, they have been used without stint. The Editor's previous experience has taught him where compression may be most judiciously exercised; and he believes that in five or six volumes he will be able to produce an Encyclopaedia which, as a book of reference, will effectually serve the purpose of the public. J. M. R. IV —--------— ~ —~-.~ — I —-~ ---------- THE uGLOBE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF antibrr~at unformation. ", the first letter in nearly every alphabet, represents il giving a permanent red colour to the native cotton cloth worn.g62 | n At in English four distinct sounds, heard in fale, by the water-carriers of India, and to turbans. n/eame-itsourigina Englishopertsoundhid is pr in Jutland, with a fine haven, on the Lynxmfiord, about I3 miles its ceriginaly thandwi propr iso, anad is afrom its mouth, the seat of a Lutheran bishop, has a public cothertainly t by whihe purt isnamed fulle ond a library of I6,ooo volumes. Its manufactures, chiefly in leather, otherill hllang Itnds the element and greatestsound, sugrar, and tobacco, are rapidly increasing. A. is capital of a strength both in the earlier and later forms of provinc language. By the combination of a with the other Aar, the largest purely Swiss river, rises in the glaciers of the two fundamental vowels, i and u, have been pro- Grimse[, and joins the Rhine at the village of Coblentz, after a duced in the Aryan tongues the diphthongs ai and course of nearly 200 miles. It passes Interlachen, Thun, Berne, au, which in turn harly every alphabetn rise to egiving and permanent red olothurn, and Aathau. ile nati a mountain ttorrent the A. hence the most delicashades and modistfications ofheard in pale, by the forms the Farrlers of Handeck, 2oand feet high. primary mean, ratings of verbalroots.e is iALPHABET.s ably its original andar (Fr. proper sound, antod is in utland, with a fine hae o the Lymfior land, ab so called cer, the s ixth diatonic, nly the tenth diatoch romatic step of from the river Aar, by which it is watered. The Rhine forms our mod thern scale starting from C as the key-note; and the note its north boundary, separating it from of 6,adevolumes. A. is a nufactures, chgion of sou innded by the third string of the violin when open A used to high hills and f ertile valleys rich in agcreasing. A. is capitalh considerb e the lowest or first notBy the scale, but ina y the addition of Ga with ablthe otherton, silk, and l eather industries. A rea about 53 sq. F, two Efundamental vowels, i and C, it became the sixth of C mand joins. miles; pop. (87) I98,87, more than half being Protestat. A 1. In Lloyd's Register (q. tongue) this m ark is appended to each ourse of nearly miles. It passes Itelache, Thun, Berne, Britis h and foreign trading vessel whose original build and a g and Solothurn, and Aarau. While still a mountain torrent the A. entitl e it to first-clashades r ank; cmodifications ofequently to insure at lowestalls of Handec, 200 feet high. rates. The mak A, which indicates the first-class character of Aar'huus, the most importe), a cant and populous tozern in Jutland, so called A, the ship itself, may bthe qualified by the figure 2, to indicatep of from the river Aar by ofwhich it is watered. the mouth of the Mine-Aa. It its gear is not first class in quality or quantity. The character is the chief town of a fertile province of th e same name, and the'Abe' is assigned for firsta term of yeth s pe cific stipulations for seat of G, able cotton, s with one ofleathe grandest Gothic cathedrals in periodical surveys, repairs, &che sixth of C maor. miles; pop. Fishing is the8 main industry th ere are al so considxtended und's Registerain conditions. When.) this e letter is app writtended to e rabl manufactures. A. he first Christian; pop. 5449 Nearcurinznch in Dein reds. The mark A, which indicates that the vessel isstill fairly trustw orthy for mark. Pop. (87o) important and populous town i J25 general merchanip itse and long voyages, but too old to indicate that lies in a bay of the Kattegat at the mouth of the Mlled-Aa. It its ear is not first class in quality or uantity. The character is the Aa'ron (Heb. aron, etymology uncer tan), the elder brothhe'Ais assigned for a term of years ith specific stipulations for seat ofwas a bishop, with on of theram grandest Gothic cathe bedrals into only fo r a s nort voyages, butha t toohe vessel is only fit for goods.. only for a short voyage'E' that the vessel is only fit fr goods the tribe of Levi, and is first mentioned in connection with the which cannot be llljuretd by being made wet by the sea.'I divine commission given to Moses to deliver the Israelites from places the same limit; on the vessel's carrying power. bondage. Ever after he is a prominent figure, though his history Aa, a word probably of Celtic origin, but allied to the old shows him to have been more of an orator than a statesman. Ger. aha, Gothic ahva, Latin aqua, and Sansc. ap or ab,'water.' He is the chief miracle-worker at the court of Pharaoh; he It is, either with or without additions, the name of numerous strengthens the hands of his brother in the fight with Amalek; rivers and streams in Germany, Switzerland, north-eastern he is left to guide the people when Moses is hidden amidst the France, Holland, the Baltic Provinces, and Denmark (where, clouds of Sinai (when lie proved a failure by yielding to the however, Aa is pronounced o). In parts of Low Germany, clamour for a return to the Egyptian idolatry), is soon after such as Hanover, Holstein, &c., the form Au and Alue appears, consecrated to the high priesthood, and is henceforth associated while in High Germany the prevalent term is Ach and Aach. with his brother in the government of the wandering commonwealth. A. died, aged 123, at Mount Hor, on the southern Aa'chen, the German name for Aix-la-Chapelle (q. v.) borders of Idumea. Aal, the name of a red dye obtained from the roots of Mo- Ab'aca, the name given in the Philippine Islands to a species rinda citrifolia, a small tree, native of Central India; it is used of Banana (q. v.), Musa textihis, which yields Manilla hemp, a 4.~ —------ JABA T7YE GL OBE ENC YCI OPEDIA. ABB woody fibre obtained from its leaf-stalks, and imported into and Mantua. In Great Britain there are now a good many; Britain for the manufacture of cordage. more would be required but for the fact that the meat supply of Ab'~/acus was the name given by the Greeks to an instrument our towns is largely derived from cattle killed in the country. In London some of the old slaughter-houses still exist, under employed for purposes of practical reckoning by children, mathe- sanughtrhoses still exist, under maticians, and astronomers. It is still used in China and Fur-sitary inspection. In Edinburgh an excellent abattoir was ther India, and consists of a frame covered with parallel wires on which counters are strung. —A., in architecture, is the square or A Battuta. See BATTUTA. oblong tablet which rests on the capitals of columns, and was either rectangular, as in the Doric, Old Ionic, and Tuscan orders, Abauzit, Firmin, savant and theologian, wasborn at Uzes or concave-sided, with acute angles, as in the New Ionic, Corin- in Languedoc in 1679, and died at Geneva in I767. Though his thian, and Roman. parents were Huguenots, it was only by being sent to Geneva that he escaped an education into Catholicism, owing to the Abad'don, a Hebrew word signifying the'abyss' or'un- revocation of the Edict of Nantes. He was an eager and sucder-world.' In Rabbinical tradition it denotes the lowest depth cessful student, and in his twentieth year was intimate with of Hades or Hell; but in the Apocalypse of St John (ix. II) it Newton and Bayle. He aided in the French version of the New is the name given to the angel of destruction, who is represented Testament (I 726). His orthodoxy has been challenged, and his as king of the locusts that rose from the smoke of the bottom. leanings seem to have been Unitarian. Rousseau has a fine eioge less pit. on him in the Nouvelle tHloise. An imperfect edition of his works Abaiss6 (Fr.'lowered'), a term used in heraldry to denote waspublished at London in I773. that any armorial figure is placed below the centre of a shield. Abba, the Chaldaic form of the Hebrew word ab,'father,' Other French terms have been borrowed by English heralds, as is used in the New Testament as a designation of God, but in affrontr (fronting one another), adossd (back to back), aild ecclesiastical language has become a title of honour among (winged), &c. men. In the Western Church, under the Latin form abbas Abandon. The word has various legal significations corre- (whence are derived the Fr. abbe, Eng. abbot, Ital. abbate, Ger. spending to the popular meaning. abt), it officially denotes the ruler of a monastery, but among the Abandonment, in marine insurance, is the giving up to the Syrian and Coptic Christians it is given to bishops and patriarchs. underwriter of all claim to the subject saved; the owner conse- In Abyssinia, however, the head of the Ethiopic Church is called quently requiring payment in terms of his policy. See INSUR- abbuna,'our father,' while the simpler form A. is reserved for ANCE. learned scribes. Abazndonment of Railays. 13 and 14 Vict. makes regulations Ab'badie, Antoine-Thomson and Arnould-lichel d', for winding up of railway companies under warrant of the Board born at Dublin, the first in 18io, the second in 1815, French of Trade. See RAILWAY. explorers in Abyssinia from I837 to I845. Their papers conAbandoning or deserting seamen by captains of merchant tributed to the French Geographical Society bear specially upon vessels is a misdemeanour punishable by imprisonment. See questions of language and race. Antoine commenced in i8fo SEAMEN. Geodesie d'une Partie de la Holne tzthiopie. Arnould published Abandoning' an Actiotn. In Scotch law the'pursuer' (i.e., in 8 iSoze s dans la Hne-Etkicpie. plaintiff) may withdraw from an action on close of the record on paying expenses. After the judgment he cannot do so. In Abbandonament'e, a term in music denoting self-abanEngland the result is effected by a' NolZe Prosequi' in courts of donment. common law. In the equity courts, either the plaintiff or de- Abbas I., surnamed the Great, a Persian monarch of the fendant may move the'dismissal' of the suit. See ACTION. Sofi dynasty, was born in 557 d sceded the throne on the Ab'arim, or Aborim, the name of a mountain-range in assassination of his brother, I589. As a conqueror and governor Palestine east of the Dead Sea and the Lower Jordan, the most his career was brilliant. In ten years (I590-I600) hesubdued famous summits of which are Peor, Pisgah, and Nebo, from Ghilan, Mazanderan, Afghanistan, and part of Tartary. Then the second of which Moses surveyed the promised land, and on turning his arms against the Turks, who had long been fomentthe last of which he died. From the language of Deut. xxxiv. ing discords in his western provinces, he inflicted on them a 1, we may perhaps infer that Pisgah and Nebo were only sepa- terrible defeat at Bassorah in 1605, and in the succeeding years rate peaks of the same mountain. extended his conquests beyond the Euphrates. In i6ii lie dictated a treaty of peace to the Turkish Sultan Achmet I., by Abate'ment (Old French, abakre, to beat down). The which the possession of Shirvan and Kurdistan was guaranteed word has various meanings in the law of England, mostly corre. to Persia. His fame now began to spread over Europe, and his sponding to its general meaning, as,'to abate a nuisance'- court, which he fixed at Ispahan, was thronged with embassies to take legal steps to put it down;'to abate an action'-to both from eastern and western states. The envoys of the Great quash it by an objection, ipso facto fatal, as that the plaintiff is an Mogul, and the lesser princes of India, encountered those of outlaw.'To abate into a freehold,' means to take posses- England, Russia, Spain, Portugal, and Holland. All were sion without a title, to the wrong of the lawful heir. amazed at his splendour, and charmed with his hospitality, but ~ Abatement, in heraldry, is a mark placed over part of the none could forecast his policy. One of the later schemes of his coat-of-arms of a family, and implies that the wearer has been life, the wresting of the isle of Ormuz (622) from the Portuguese, guilty of some unworthy act. There are different marks for by the help of the English, was the ruin of that island's prosdifferent kinds of offences, as rape, disloyalty, &c., but all are perity. His domestic life was not a success. From distrust or in either one or other of the two disgraceful colours, tawny and jealousy he killed one son, put out the eyes of two others, and sanguine. Few heraldic authorities acknowledge these marks, poisoned a number of his khans, in whose dying agonies he found which must not be confounded with others that denote real horrid pleasure. Remorse hastened his own end, which took diminutions of dignity or rank, such as juniority of birth, removal place in his palace at Ferahabad, 28th January 1628. Abbas was from the principal branch of the family, &c. an ardent Shi-ite, and worked astutely on the religious zeal of his countrymen, who, in consequence, venerate his memory, and Abat'tis, a kind of intrenchment, consisting of a line of believe that he even worked miracles. felled trees (Fr. abatis), with their branches pointed towards the enemy, whose advance it greatly impedes. Ab'basides, a Moslem dynasty which obtained the califate at Bagdad in 750 A.D., and held it till 1258 A.D., when it was A'battoir (Fr. abattre, to fell), a slaughter -house. The overthrown by the Mongols. It takes its name from Abbas, the use of the word has passed into England from France, where, uncle of Mohammed, who for awhile was a strenuous opponent by decree of Napoleon in 1807, public places, with proper sani- of the Prophet's pretensions, but after the battle of Bedr (624 tary arrangements, were first appointed for killing cattle. It A.D.), where he was taken prisoner, became a convert to the new was not, however, till i8I8 that the use of private slaughter- religion, and used all his wealth and influence to make a party houses was discontinued by the Parisian butchers. Abattoirs for Mohammed among the powerful tribe of the Koreish, to have been established in other towns in France, and in Brussels which they both belonged. A. died in 652 at the great age 42 ABB THE GI OBE ENCYCZ OPEDIA. ABB of 86. Abul-Abbas, the great-grandson of Abbas, was the first mnajors, priors, guardians, rectors, &c. The relation of the A., of the Abbaside dynasty, and Motasem was the last. on the one hand, towards his order, and, on the other, towards the monks placed under him, varied considerably. Among the bbathird son of the Shah Feth - An prince, borut was preferred y his Benedictines, for example, he was elected by the convent, but fathird son of the Shah Ferth-Ali, andhihbut was preferred by his after his election was absolutely independent, while in the Cisterfather to his two elder brothers, and his rights as heir-presump- cian order his authority was subordinate to a bureaucratic court at tive to the throne were guaranteed by Russia in the treaty of Clairvaux. Before the monks were reckoned to belong to the Gulistan in t1814. A soldier from his youth, he led the Persian clergy, it was the duty of the A. to see that the rule of the order troops in the disastrous campaigns against Russia of I8o3, 1813, was observed, to administer the revenues of the monastery, and and 1826, in the second of which his enemies made themselves to compel the unqualified obedience of the monks. The Bene masters of the Caspian, and in the last of which they snatched dictines, however, possessed obedience of the m onks. the bishop of from him Persian Armenia, over which he ruled as his father's dictines, however, possessed the right of appeal to the bishop of from him Persian Armenia, over which he ruled as his father's the diocese or to the Pope. From the 6th c. abbots have been viceroy. A treaty of peace followed (I828), and Russian envoys ecclesiastics, and since the d Con cil of Nice (7abbots have been were sent to Teheran, hut somve of these heing murdered in a ecclesiastics, and since the 2d Council of Nice (787) have been emwere sent to Teheran, but sonie of these being murdered in a powered to consecrate monks for the lower sacred orders. They popular tumult, A. was sent to St Petersburg by his father as a are all pred to onsecrate Church, have the lower sacred orders. They sort of hostage to prevent an outbreak of hostilities between the are all prelates of the Church, have the same rank as bishops, and two countries. He was received with distinction, and returned an equal vote in ecclesiastical councils. I the 8th and th cent to his own countrie.y loadsed with presents. He died in a 833 ries the dignity of A. began to be conferred by lkings on laymen; to is own country loaded wit presents. He died in 833 the Carlovingians, in particular, used to reward their faithful Abbate, Niccolo Dell, or Niccolo Abati, a painter, born followers with abbacies. In the Ioth c. many of the most imat Modena in I509 or 15I2, died at Paris in I571. His best portant abbeys in Western Christendom were in the hands of known works-viz., the frescoes for the castle of Fontainbleau laymen, who were called Abba-comites (count-abbots) and -were destroyed in 1738 in the course of some alterations on Abbates milites (soldier-abbots), and who kept the monastic the building. A.'s influence is visible in the art of the latter revenues for their own use. In such case the spiritual and half of the i6th c. Several artists of lesser note have sprung ecclesiastical oversight of the monasteries was intrusted to from the A. family. deans, priors, and vicar-abbots. The Frankish sovereigns beAbb6, the French form of the Latin Abbas, originally denoted stowed monasteries freely on the members of their own families. the ruler of a monastery, but since the concordat between Pope Hugo Capet was lay-abbot of St Denis near Paris, and of Leo X. and Francis 1. (15i6) its meaning has changed. That St Martin at Tours. A great reform in monastic life took concordat secured to the French monarch the right to nominate place in the iith c. Towards the close of the middle ages, 225 Abbes commendataires, and, in consequence, many careless however, grave departures from the severe purity of the monastic 225; Abbe~ Cntnz~zdtai~s, ndin onseuene, any areessrule became prevalent. A worldly spirit pervaded the abbeys. and idle youths of good family betook themselves to a clerical rule became prevalent. A worldly spirit pervaded the abbeys. and idle youths of good family betook themselves for which to a clerical Princes claimed and exercised the right of election, and the offices no spiritual work. After the middle of the i6th c. the title of were again bestowed on laymen who took no care of the spiritual A. was distinctively bestowed on all young ecclesiastics, whether Scular Abbos, the vicars who discharged their duties, as well as in office or not. All, indeed, could not obtain benefices, and all abbots belonging to the monastic o rders, were called Regul as many had therefore to betake themselves to other careers. Not all abbots belonging to the monastic orders, were called Reg a few became tutors in great families, and in this capacity, when Abbots. In those countries that adopted the Reformation-such they happened to be men of spirit, intelligence, and taste, in- of the monasterieny, Switzer, as a rule, wholly confiscated by the creased the appreciation of culture in the higher circles of rulers, and shamefully misappropriated. The evils resulting society. Their influence in families, however, was not always rulers, a seclarising s piri t in t hose countries the evilst retained the wholesome or moral. In the French comedies of the time the fiom a secularising spirit in those countries that retained the A. often plays a not very edifying le. Othes, again, more ancient faith are visible enough in the concordat between FranA. often plays a not very edifying r-Se. Others, again, more cis I. and the Pope. See Anne. Italyhas recently secularcreditably sought distinction in science and literature, and thus ised monastic prope. S e e ABBE. Italy has recently to national a certain respect continued to be attached to the name. The ed monastic property, but is in the Grely to national Revolution of I789 may be said to have abolished the A. as a whose superiors are are monasteries in the Greek Churcts, and thelso distinctive feature of refined French society, and the title is now abbots-general, Are called rites.ies and heir only given out of courtesy to young ecclesiastics. Abbeville, a fortified town in the department of Somme, Abbot, George, English prelate, was born at Guildford in France, situated on the river Somme, about 2 miles from its1562, and educated at Oxford. He attracted the notice of King mnouth. It is badly built, and the streets are narrow; but it po James I. by his zeal and prudence in the mission of the Earl of sesses one splendid building, the church of St Wolfran, beg Dunbar (I6o8) for bringing about a union between the Churches sesses one splendid building, the church of St Wolfran, begun in the reign of Louis XII. A. is connected by canals with Amiens, of England and Scotland, and was successively created by him Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, i609; Bishop of London, same Paris, Lille, and Belgium; and small craft can sail to it up the Bishop of Li and Coventy, 69; Bishop of Londo, same Somme. Its chief manufactures are velvets, cottons, linens, year; and Arch'ishop of Canterbury, March I6Io-II. Having hosiery, jewellery, and soap. Pop. (872) 6753. accidentally shot a keeper, while hunting, in 1622, a commission was appointed to examine whether this incapacitated him for his Abbey. See MONASTERY. duties. Its decision was favourable to A. As an opponent Abbey, in a legal sense, denotes in Scotland the limits of of the despotic policy of Laud and the court, he was for a time Ab'bbey, in a legal sense, denotes in Scotland the limits of out of favour with Charles I. A. had a share in the translaprotection to a debtor against legal process afforded by the A. tion of the New Testament in I604, and wrote several theological of Holyrood. This privilege had, of course, its origin in the works. He died in 1633. fact that churches were sanctuary and shelter to all who sought refuge within their walls. When the A. of Holyrood first Abboteford, the seat of Sir Waiter Scott, in Roxburghbecame a secular refuge for the impecunious is not known. shire, about three miles west of Melrose, where Gala Water Buchanan is the first to record an instance-that of John Scott, falls into the Tweed. In IS I Scott here began his great terniA.D. I53. torial scheme by the purchase of one hundred acres of bleak moorland, full of historical association, substituting the name A. kabburazte urrasso, a town of Ttaly, ~province of Milan, on for that of Clcrltey Hole. The castle was built at various periods, the Bereguarda Canal, noted for its silk manufactures. Pop. for that of Clartey Hole. The castle was built at various period, at a cost of not less than /20,000, and has been happily described 9177. At some distance north and north-west lie Buffalora, as'a romance in stone and lime.' The present proprietor is the Magenta, and Turbigo, which acquired celebrity during the Hon. Joseph Constable Maxwell, son of Lord Herries, who Franco-Italian war of 1859. in 1873 married the poet's great-granddaughter, and took the Abbot, from Abbas, the Latinised form of Abba (q. v.), ori- name of Scott. ginally denoted an aged monk, but after the 5th or 6th c. the Abbott Charles SeeTENTERDEN LORD name was given exclusively to the superior of a monastery. Down to the Ioth c. he bore no other title. After that time, Abbott, Rev. Jacob, a voluminous writer for the young, however, monastic orders multiplied in the Church, and many was born in Maine, United States, in 1803. His works, which of the new monasteries chose new titles for their superiors, as are full of simplicity, earnestness, and interest, have been fre ADBB TlE GLOhE BlNCYCL OAPAIiVA. ABD quently republished, and some have been translated into various of saving many lives during the Syrian massacres of I86o. He European and even Asiatic languages. The best known is visited France and England in I865, and was again in France The Young Chris/ian. Among the others are, Historiesfor the in I867, at the time of the Paris Exhibition. YonZg, I9 vols.; Histories of Celebrated Persons, 30 vols., &c. o vols.; Histories of Celebrated Pesons, 30 vs &. Abdica'tion, the act of giving up office; usually, however, Abbrevia'tions are in use among all nations who write, the word is only applied to resignation of sovereignty. In some and have been so from very early times. They are of two countries the sovereign can abdicate whenever he pleases, but kinds-first, A. consisting in the omission of letters or words; in England it is held that the king or queen cannot abdicate and second, A. consisting in the substitution of signs. The without the consent of Parliament. Abdication of the sovereign former are the older of the two, and their employment goes may, however, be presumed in England, and acted on by the back to the period when uncial characters alone were used. It people, if his conduct is-inconsistent with the established system was then customary to shorten syllables, words, phrases, &c., as of constitutional government. Thus the word'abdicated' was one may see from inscriptions on monuments, coins, &c. The advisedly used instead of' deserted,' with reference to the most familiar instance of this mode of abbreviation is mak- departure of King James II., at the conference between the two ing the initial letter of a word do duty for the whole, as when Houses of Parliament, previous to the passing of the Act which P. stands for Publius. After the invention of the small Greek settled the crown on William III. and Mary-the meaning being and Roman letters, particular signs of A. were introduced to that the king had not only deserted his office, but that, by his represent syllables, double consonants, double vowels, and acts, the desertion included, he had forfeited his right to the words. From Greek manuscripts the signs found their way throne. The Scotch Convention, however, resolved that King into printed editions of Greek books, and it is only of late years James had'forfaulted' (forfeited) the crown. The following they have been wholly abandoned. The Roman A. were very are some of the most remarkable abdications of sovereignty: numerous. L. Ann eus Seneca classified 5000 of them. They The Roman Emperors Diocletian and Maximian, A.D. 305; increased in number during the middle ages, and continued to Emperor Charles V., I556; Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland, be used long after printing had rendered them unnecessary. I8IO; Napoleon Bonaparte, I814 and i8i5; Charles X., King Deciphering these A. requires careful and patient study, and of France, i83o; Louis Philippe, King of the French, 1848; has given birth to a science called Diplomatic (q. v.) In Eng. Amadeus, King of Spain, 1873. land, since the reign of George II., the use of A. has been for. Abdomen. The trunk is divided into two compartments by bidden in all legal documents. In one or other of their two a muscular partition called the diaphragm. The upper cmforms, however, they are still employed in philosophical works. partment is temed the chest or torax, the lower the abdom partment is termed the chest or thorax, the lower the abdomen. In particular sciences, as mathematics, astronomy, physics, The abdomen extends from the diaphragm above to the floor of chemistry, natural history, grammar, and music, in which certain the pelvis below, and is subdivided into two parts: the upper signs have obtained a definite technical meaning (see MATHEMATsigns have obtained aefiite techn pubicationl meain which it is of and larger part, the abdomen proper, and the lower the pelvis. MATICS, PLANETS, &C.), and in publications in which it is of See PELvIs. The abdomen proper contains the stomach, the See PELVIS. The abdomen proper contains the stomach, the essential moment to save space, e.g., lexicons, encyclopndias, liver, the pancreas, the kidneys, the supra-renal capsules, the bibliographical works, &c. Besides these, there are certain spleen, the omentum, and small and large intestines, with the groups of A. which are conventionally used, and which have so exception of the last part of the great intestine termed the recstrongly established themselves that you hardly ever see the t, and blood-vessels. It is lined by a thin serous membrane words written in full. Thus the forms Mr and Mrs (for Master called the peritoneum, which sends reduplications over the variand Mistress) are invariably employed before the names of per- ous organs. sons. To the same class belong Christian names, titles, the terms used in indicating time, the marks for coins, weights, and Abdomina'es, a Linnsean order of fishes, including those I measures, citations from books in general use or widely known, species which have the pecsuch as the Bible or the Corpus Juris. toral placed before the ventral fins, or upon the abdo- Abd, in Arabic, means'slave,' or'servant,' and, along men, the cartilaginous fishes with the name of God, enters into the composition of many being excepted. Naturalists, names in use among the Moslems, e.g., Abd-Aliah,'servant of however, now apply the term God;' Abd-el-l-ader,'servant of the mighty God;' Abd-ul- only to the family or subLatif,'servant of the gracious God;' Abd-ur-RZahmzan,' servant division of Malacopterygious to the merciful God.' The Hebrew and Syriac form is Ebed, or soft-finned fishes, includwhich in the same way enters into the composition of Jewish ing nearly all the fresh-water and Christian names. species, and such as periodi- - Abd-el-Xa'der, born in I807 at Ghetna, near Mascara, a cally migrate fdom the sea to heir - man of a lofty, intrepid, and tenacious character, distinguished the rivers todeposit their himself by his determined resistance to the French arms in N. spawn, such as the salmon, Africa. His father had great influence with his countrymen, trout, herring, pike, &c. Pike. both from his high lineage and his personal sanctity, an influence Abduc'tion means, in the which his son inherited. A.'s intelligence, morality, humanity, criminal law of England, the unlawful taking away of a female, and devotion to his own faith, without a trace of intolerance, and the use of the word is commonly restricted to this marked him out as fitted to act an important part in the although under the Jewish and according to civil law the word history of his country. The Turkish pourer being broken is also applied to the illegal taking away of males. A. may by the French conquest of Algiers (July I829), the Arab either be by force or fraud. tribes of Oran made A. their emir, and he was soon at the I. Abduction of Child.-It is provided by 24 and 25 Vict., that head of Io,ooo cavalry. Two sanguinary battles, December 3, if any one shall unlawfully, by force or fraud, lead or entice away 1833, and Januaiy 6, 1834, obliged General Desmichels to con- any child-'under the age of fourteen with intent to deprive the clude a treaty with him, and his power was acknowledged in parent or other lawful guardian of the custody of the child, or Oran and Titeri. On June 28, I835, he was strong enough to with intent to steal any article on its person, or shall with such inflict a signal defeat on General Tretzel. But the French intent harbour the child, knowing it to have been stolen, he shall gradually obtaining the mastery, in I84I A. had to seek shelter be held guilty of felony, and shall be liable to penal servitude for in Morocco, which thus incurred the enmity of France. A. seven years; if the offender be a male under sixteen, he is liable twice attacked the French, in October I845, and in March to be whipped. It is a misdemeanour subject to two years' imI847. Having failed in an attack on the Moorish camp, he prisonment to take or decoy out of the lawful guardian's possessecured his retreat into Algeria, where most of his followers sion an unmarried girl under sixteen. gave themselves up to the French, and on December 22, 1847, 2. Abduction of Wife.-Formerly, in England, the husband he had himself to surrender. He was sent to Toulon, and had in this case a claim for damage against the male offender, after two further changes of residence, was liberated by Louis who was also liable to two years' imprisonment, and to be fined Napoleon in I852. He resided first at Brussa, then at Constan- at the pleasure of the crown. Now, under the statutes relating tinople, and finally settled at Damascus, and was the means to divorce and matrimonialcauses, the marriage maybeannulled, sX, j _ ABD TIVIl GL OKE2 EVC YCL OPrADIA. A3BE with, in case of the wife's adultery, damages from the adulterers, to the queen of George III. His merits as a composer were or the husband and wife may be'judicially separated.' never great, and are now forgotten. He died in 1787. 3. Abduction of Ward or Pupil. —In England a guardian is Ab'elard (in the oldest MSS. Abailard), Pierre, an illusentitled to bring an action against any one taking from him the trious scholastic philosopher and theologian, was born in I079 custody of his ward or pupil; but the proper remedy is by appli- at Palet or Palais, a village near Nantes in France. After a cation to the Court of Chancery, to which court belongs the youth marked by an insatiable thirst for knowledge, he went to supreme guardianship of all the infants in the kingdom. In supreme guardianship of all the infants in the kingdom. In Paris at the age of twenty, and became first a disciple and soon Scotland a similar jurisdiction is exercised'by the Court of after a rival of Guillaume de Champeaux, surnamed the' Pillar of Session. Doctors,' and head of the great episcopal school in that city. A. 4. Abduction of Women.-The statute 24 and 25 Vict. makes next established himself as a philosophical lecturer at Melun it felony to take away any owoman against her will, or by fraud, (IIo2), and then at Corbeil, and finally, in 1113, at Paris, where with intent to marry or violate her, or to cause her to be married he obtained the chair of his former master. At this moment or violated; and when a woman is abduced who is an heiress, his reputation was immense. Paris idolised him. From the expectant or in possession, and marriage is the result of the distant regions Rome England and Germany students abduction, the husband forfeits all right and interest in the pro hastened to listen to his eloquent and impassioned logic. Poet - hastened to listen to his eloquent and impassioned logic. Poet perty which would otherwise have come to him by marriage. and musician, as well as philosopher, he wrote songs in French To aid or abet in the abduction of a woman is also by the above his students, and won the love of a statute rendered f. for his students, and won the love of a woman whose grace was statute rendered felony. irresistible, for she charmed even St Bernard himself. This was It is an offence against the statute to take a female natural the niece and ward of Fulbert, canon of Notre Dame, a lady child from the custody of its putative father. The operation of celebrated for her beauty, wit, and elegance. A. became her the statutes extends to Ireland. teacher and companion, and the pair soon learned to love not Abd-ul-Hamid-Bey, a French traveller, whose real name wisely, but too well. When it became for Heloise impossible to is Du-Couret, born at H-uningue, Alsace, in I812. In 1834 he conceal her frailty any longer, A. carried her into Brittany, where departed for Egypt, ascended the Nile into Abyssinia, and re- she gave birth to a son, who received the curious name of Astroturned to Cairo along the W. coast of the Red Sea. Here he labe. A secret marriage followed, but the uncle was not satisembraced Islamism, took an Eastern name, made the pilgrimage fled, and when A. removed her to the monastery of Argenteuil, to Mecca, traversed Arabia, and landed sick and exhausted on Fulbert in revenge hired some wretches to emasculate the rash the island of Bourbon. Thence, in 1846, he repaired to Persia, lover, and thereby incapacitate him for ecclesiastical preferment. where he was thrown into prison, but returned to France in After this inexpressible outrage, A. became a monk in the abbey I847. In 1849 he explored N. Africa, the results of which of St Denis, and Heloise a nun at Argenteuil. His disciples are given in a lAlemioire' NVanpoleon,z, Paris, I853. His asked him to resume his lectures, and his popularity became earlier swanderings are described in Ze'dinz e et Meleke, 3 vols., greater than ever. But a council held at Soissons in II2I conParis, I855. demned his opinions on the Trinity as heretical, and soon after he withdrew to Nogent-on-the-Seine, where he built an oratory,.'bd-ul-Latif, a learned Arabian born at Bagdad vin I IfI, and named it the Paraclete, or Comforter; thence he passed into and died there in 123. He completed his education in Mo- Brittany, where it is thought he wrote his singular book Sic et hammedan literature at Damascus, where Saladin had collected. Cousin, and consisting of arguments the first scholars of the age. Thence he proceeded to Egypt, for and against the pryncpal doctrines of the faith, culled out of where he became acquainted with the famous Maimonides. Medi- the Church fathers. ut St Bernard could not pardon him for cine now became his principal study, more than a half of the 136,h... S cine nov became his prncipal study, more than a half of the 136 vindicating the rights of reason against blind submission to auworks ascribed to him relating to this science; but he also wrote thority, and in I 540 the Pope again condemned him as a heretic a valuable description of Egypt, translated into Latin by White to perpetual silence. Two years after (April 21, 1142), A. died of Oford in oo, and into French by De Sacy in o in the abbey of St Marcel, near Chalons-sur-Marne. Heloise, Abd-ul-M:edjid-Khan, thirty-first of the Ottoman sultans, who had succeeded him at the Paraclete, and survived him was born 6th May I822, and succeeded his father, Mahmud twenty years, received his corpse. The ashes of both were taken II., Ist July I839. His accession to the throne occurred at to Paris in 18o8, and are now in the Pere la Chaise. A. had a a critical condition of the empire. A few days before the great respect for the human intellect, and thought nothing credTurkish army had been routed by the Egyptians, led by Ibra- ible that could not be understood. He was a superb dialectihim Pasha, and only the intervention of the great European cian, and the most brilliant orator of the schools in his own age. powers prevented Mehemet Ali, Viceroy of Egypt, from over- The principal editions of his writings are those of Paris (I616), throwing the Ottoman dynasty. The sagacious counsels of Oxford (1728), Turin (I841), and that of Cousin (Par. I850). Reshid Pasha tended much to restore and confirm the authority See also Letlres d'Abailardet de Hreoifre, translated from the Latin, of the government. Judicious reforms were instituted, and reli- with an essay by M. and Madame Guizot (Par. I837); Cousin's gious equality, partially declared in the hatti-sherif of I839, was Ouvrages in/dits d'Abailard (Par. 1836); and Rimusat's A belard formally proclaimed in I 85o. His attitude during the Crimean war (Par. 1845). was not heroic; but his soldiers fought with enthusiasm for a Abele-tree. See POPLAR. monarch who kept his seraglio in the presence of the foe. Yet on several occasions A. acted, at great risk to his own interests, with Abelmos'chus, a genus of plants of the order HMnlvacee (q.v.) admirable spirit and resolution against foreign dictation adverse The name, which is derived from the Arabic, has reference to to the claims of freedom and humanity. T'he case of Kossuth the odour of the seeds of some species, which resembles musk, will not soon be forgotten. A. died 25 th June i86. and is accordingly used to perfume pomatum. A. escuzlentus furnishes the ochro gombo or gobbo pods used for food in the Abd-ul-umn. See ALOADS. E. and W. Indies. The young fruits are also used like capers. Abd-ur-IRahman. See OMMIADES. Different species of A. yield a strong and durable fibre, and Abel (Heb. Nebel,'breath,''vanity,' probably so named abound in mucilage. from the shortness of his life) was the second son of Adam. He Abencer'rages figure in the old Spanish chroniclers and was a shepherd, and was slain by his elder brother Cain because romancers as a noble Moorish race in Granada, who were at feud his offering was accepted by Jehovah, and that of Cain rejected. with the family of the Zegris, were allured into the Alhambra, and No reason is assigned in the original narrative for this preference, murdered there in the time of Abu-Hassan, about I46o. This but in the New Testament (Heb. xi. 4) it is explained that A.'s tale first acquired celebrity in literature through a picturesque sacrifice was made more excellent by'faith,' an opinion which historical romance, entitled Historia de las Guerras Civiles de Gorahas been generally adopted by the Christian Church. Some nada, by G. Perez de Hita (1595-I604, Madr. 1833 and 1846), theological scholars consider the story only the fragment of an which is the basis of Chateaubriand's Les Aventuries du Dernier older and more complete tradition. Abencerrage. A'bel, Karl Friedrich, asi accomplished performer on the Aben-Esra, the most learned rabbin of the middle ages, viola Cd gzambn, born at Koethen in I719, was a pupil of Bach. was born at Toledo, in Spain, I088-89. He travelled in various In 1758 he came to England, and was made chamber-musician countries, but in his later years lived in Rome, though he died at b 9 —------------- e ABE iTHE GL OBE ENVC YCL OPAEDIA. ABE Calaharra, in Spain, II1176. A. was a mathematician, astronomer, The British Government erected a monument to his memory philosopher, poet, physician, theologian, and grammarian —a in St Paul's Cathedral, and his widow was created Baroness perfect encyclopoedia of learning, and the whole of his vast re- Abercromby, with a pension of/2000. sources were devoted to the elucidation of Scripture. His commentaries on the Old Testament literature are a curious mixture Aberdeen', the capital of the county of A., and principal of rationalistic criticism, intense piety, and ardent faith in reve- seaport in the N. of Scotland, at the mouth of the river Dee lation. He doubts the genuineness of parts of the Pentateuch, about III miles N. of Edinburgh. It was made a royal burgh believes in a'younger' Isaiah who wrote the latter part of the (II79) by William the Lion, but its present privileges are work that goes under that prophet's name, accuses the Chronist founded on a charter granted by Robert Bruce in I3I9. The of blundering, declares the history of Jonah a dream, and de- town was burned by the English in 1336, and on being rebuilt nounces free inquiry as heretical! Yet in spite of such contra- was called New A. Old A. is a small town a mile N., within dictions, A. is an admirable commentator, and was the first the same parliamentary boundary. A. had formerly two univerbiblical scholar that raised exegesis to a science. Many of his sities, King's College and University in Old A., founded by the works have been printed during the last two hundred years. good Bishop Elphinstone 1494, and Marischal College and University in the new town, founded by Keith, Earl Marischal, Abeoku'ta, a cluster of villages forming the capital of the I593; but in I86o they were merged in one, called the UniverEgba territory, on the W. coast of Africa, about 8o miles N. sity of A., which in I873-74 had 624 students. Its general of Lagos, and 240 W. of the Niger. The mud wall which council, with that of Glasgow University, returns one member surrounds these villages is nearly 20 miles in circumference; the to Parliament. The University of A. is distinguished for the houses themselves are also built of mud, with high thatched thoroughness of its Latin scholarship, and can boast of many ro6fs. There is said to be a total population of I5o,ooo. The illustrious names both in literature and philosophy. Its two chief trade is in palm oil and grain. grammar-schools are also justly celebrated. During the last Ab~ter, a Celtic word, essentially the sam~e as DIzver, denot-ing half century the'granite city,' as it is called, from the material of which it is mainly built, has been greatly improved; the the confluence of waters, either of two rivers or of a river with of which it is mainly built, has been greatly improved; the the sea. It originally existed both in the Gaelic and Cymric harbour has been enlarged, and a pier I200 feet long has been branches of Celtic, and examples can be found in all the dia- e. The total registered shipping of the port in I87 lects; but in Gaelic it died out at an early period, and ]hver amounted to I03,I49 tons. The chief exports are linens, woolbecame more common. In Wales and Brittany, on the other lens, cotton yarns, granite, grain, and fish. A. has considerable shipbuilding and iron trade, and the largest comb and graniteh]land, Inver became obsolete, and only A. survived, hence polishing works in the kingdom. Pop. in 87, of municipal polishing works in the kingdom. Pop. in x87z, of municipal frequency of the name-in these countries, burgh, 76,348; parliamentary burgh, sending one member to Abera'von or Port-Talbot, a parliamentary and municipal Parliament, 88,125. borough in Glamorganshire, Wales, about 30 miles W. of Car-ire, a maritime county in the N. diff, and a mile above the mouth of the Avon, which flows into ounded N. and E. by the North Sea, W. by the counties of anff Swansea Bay. It is a station on the South Wales Railway. Swansea Bay. It is a station on the South Wales Railway. bounded N. and E. by the North Sea, W. by the counties of Banff The great works at Cwm Avon, in the neighbourhood, com- and Inverness, and S. by the chain of the Grampians; between prising collieries, iron-works, copper-smelting, tinplate, and N. lat. 560 52' and 570 42', W. long. I' 49' and 3' 48'. It is 102 charcoal works, are among the largest in Wales, and are the miles long, and attains a breadth of 50; area, Ig80 sq. miles, main cause of the prosperity of the town. The portwas greatly with 60o miles of sea-board. In point of size it stands fifth improved in 1838. Pop. in 1871 of the municipal borough, among Scottish counties, and third in respect of population. 3574; of the parliamentary borough, IIo906. The most notable of its old historical divisions were Mar, Buchan, Garioch, and Strathbogie. The'Buchan dialect' is Ab'ercrombie, John, M.D., an eminent Scottish physician a form of Lowland.Scotch surcharged with Scandinavianisms. and philosopher, was born at Aberdeen in I78I. He studied A. is in great part mountainous, well watered, and towards medicine and took his degree at Edinburgh, where he also the N. has a rich loamy surface. The highest mountains, devoted'himself to the practice of his profession, soon attaining all in the S.W., are Ben-Muic-Dhui, 4296 feet; Cairntoul, a great reputation. He wrote several professional works of 4245; Cairngorm, 4090; Ben-na-Buird, 3860; and Lochnagar, considerable worth, but his celebrity is chiefly connected with 3786. The rocks are chiefly granite, gneiss, and mica slate. his Inquiries resp5ecting the Intellectual Powers (I830), and The The principal rivers are the Dee (96 miles long), Don (78), Philosophy of the Moral Feelizgs (I833). In these works he has Doveran (58), and Ythan (37); they all run N. or E. into the North applied his medical experience to mental and moral philosophy, Sea. The coast-line is regular, but occasionally precipitous; producing books of great interest and value, if not marked by in some parts cliffs 200 feet high overhang the sea. With a soil much depth or originality. Dr A., who was also eminent for of ordinary character and a severe climate, A. is remarkably prohis genuine and unassuming piety, died in I844. ductive, fully 36'6 per cent. of its entire surface being cultivated. Its'forests yield the finest fir timber in Great Britain, and it ebercrwas born at MenstryR, in Cla celebrated British is unexcelled in Scotland for the rearing of cattle. There are general, was born at Menstry, in Clacb mannanshide, in It34a I88 miles of railway, and the public roads, which are excellent, ofHe entered the army in 1756, and by 787 had attained the rank are maintained by rates instead of tolls. A. sends two members of major-general. In 1793 he accompanied the Duke of York toParliament. Pop.in 1871, 244,603; and,excludingtheburgh to Holland, where his bravery in the field, and his humanity in of A., the value of real property (873) amounted to 6798,ig9. the disastrous retreat of I794-95, won universal admiration. In There are nearl 300 churches, almost equally divided between There are nearly 300 churches, almost equally divided between 1795 he was appointed to the chief command in the West the Established and Free; and 84'83 per cent. of the children Indies, where he quickly took from the enemy, in little more than under thirteen years of age attend school. a year, the islands of Grenada, Trinidad, St Lucia, and St Vincent, besides part of the mainland of Guiana. For a short Aberdeen, George H:Eamilton Gordon, Earl of, was time during the Irish rebellion he was commander-in-chief born in Edinburgh in 1784, and educated at Harrow and Camin Ireland, but on expressing his dislike to the service, was bridge. He entered public life in i8o6 as one of the represenremoved to a similar post in Scotland. He accompanied tative peers of Scotland. Sent as ambassador to Vienna in the Duke of York in his second unfortunate campaign in 1813, he succeeded in bringing over Austria to the alliance Holland in 1799, and distinguished himself as before by his against France, and in I8I4 was created Viscount Gordon. In bravery and skill. The last service of this gallant officer was in the Duke of Wellington's ministry, i828-30, he held the office command of the expedition sent against the French in Egypt. of foreign secretary; in the brief administration of Sir Robert Earlyin March ISoI he landed his forces in the Bay of Aboukir, Peel, i834-35, he was colonial secretary; and from 184I till 1846 successfully encountering the troops that opposed him. On the he filled his old post of foreign secretary under the same leader. 2ISt of the same month the whole French army attacked his During the last period he carried through the famous'Aberdeen lines, but was completely defeated. A., however, was mortally Act,' which neither hindered the disruption of the Scotch wounded during the engagement, and died a week afterwards. Church, nor gave satisfaction to those for whom it was meant, Besides his fine qualities as a soldier, A. was an able and and which is now virtually repealed by the' Act for the Aboliaccomplished man, of a most attractive personal character. tion of Patronage' (1874). A. was placed at the head of the ABE THEE GLOBE ENC YCLOPJZDIA. ABO coalition ministry formed in 1852, but dissatisfaction with his Aberyst'with, a seaport of Cardiganshire, S. WVales, and management of the Crimean war caused his retirement in 1855. one of the Cardigan parliamentary boroughs, is situated at the He died at London, I4th December I860. The distinguishing mouths of the rivers Ystwyth and Rheidol. Sheltered from the feature of Lord A.'s career was the gradual paling of an early E. by a hilly background, which overlooks the wide expanse of Toryism into a very liberal Conservatism; and of his policy, Cardigan Bay, it has become the most fashionable bathing-place nlon-intervention in the internal affairs of other nations. He is in Wales. A large building, intended as a national Welsh known as an author by an Essay on Grecian Architecture (I822). college, has been recently erected here, but it has not prospered. Aberdevine', more ge- In i872, 320 vessels, of 18,316 tons, entered the port. Pop. nerally termed the Siskin (I87I) 6898. (Carduelis spinus), a small Abey'ance, an English law term, implying that a freehold migratory song- bird allied inheritance, dignity, or office is not vested in any one. In the /j~ E _~ A to, but smaller than, the law of Scotland the principle is that the'fee,' or right of possesgoldfinch. In the S. of sion, of tangible property must be vested in some one. In both England it is called the countries titles of honour and right to office may be in abeyance, barley-bird, as it is usually a or'dormant.' visitant about the barley-seed Ab'ies, a genus of coniferous trees, See FIR. time. When kept as a cagei>H?(~ 2 bird, it crosses freely with Ab'ingdon, a town in Berkshire, 6 miles S.W. of Oxford, and the canary, the green variety 56 N.W. of London. It is as old as the time of the Britons, and of which it somewhat re- became the seat of a monastery in 680, which was destroyed by Aberdevine. sembles the Danes in 871, and rebuilt as an abbey in the reigns of Edgar and Canute, whence the town was called Abbandune or AbbenAbergavenny, pron. Abergann'y (the Gobazniun of the don,'the town of the Abbey.' In 1645 Lord Essex held it sucRornans), is a town of Monmouthshire, picturesquely situ- cessfully against Charles I., and put every Irish prisoner to death ated amidst wooded hills in the valley of the Usk, about I3 without trial; hence the phrase,'Abingdon law' (like the Sc. miles from Monmouth, at the confluence of the Usk and the'Jeddart justice'). A. has manufactures of woollens, carpets, Gavenny. A. has a large trade in wool, but there are also sacking, &c.; corn and cattle markets; and sends a member to numerous collieries and iron-works in' the neighbourhood. A Parliament. Pop. (1871) 657I. notable feature of the place is the Cylmreigyddion Society, estab- Primn.PP 81 5 lished for the promotion of Welsh literature and the Welsh Abington, a township of Massachusetts, United States, 20 industrial arts. Pop. (1871) 4803. nmiles S.E. of Boston, with manufactures of boots, shoes, and industrialarts. Pop. (I871)4X03. nails. Pop. (1870) 9308. Aberneth'y, Jobhn, one of the most distinguished of English nirs. o 17 e 38 surgeons, was born in 1763 or I1764. He was apprenticed in 780 Abjuration, Law of. See ABJURATION OATH. to Mr (afterwards Sir Charles) Blicke, surgeon at St Bartholo- Abjuration, Oath of. Formerly three oaths, called the mew's Hospital, where he became assistant-surgeon in I787. The Oaths of Allegiance, Supremacy, and Abjuration, were required lectures which he began to deliver at the hospital soon after from all persons before admission to any public office, but by this were extraordinarily popular. In 18I3 he was appointed 21 and 22 Vict. one oath was substituted for the three. By it surgeon to Christ's Hospital, and in I8I4 Professor of Anatomy allegiance was sworn to the Queen and fidelity to the Act and Surgery to the College of Surgeons. His death took place limiting the succession to the crown, while all foreign jurisdicat Enfield in 1831. A. has the honour of first enunciating and tion, civil or ecclesiastical, was abjured'within this realm.' establishing the great principle-completely revolutionising the By 3I and 32 Vict.,however, this form of oath was abolished, whole field of surgery-' that local diseases are symptoms of a and three other forms of oath established. These are calleddisordered constitution, not primary and independent maladies,' Ist, the oath of allegiance; 2d, the official oath; and 3d, the and to the exposition of this is devoted his principal work, judicial oath. Some officers require to take the oath of allegiance Observations on the Constitutional Origin and Treatmtent of and the official oath, and some others the oath of allegiance and Local Diseases (ISo6). He was distinguished by a blunt eccen- the judicial oath. The oath of allegiance is as follows'I, tricity of manner, regarding which many anecdotes are narrated. A. B13., do swear that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to. in botany,. means somether Majesty Queen Victoria, her heirs and successors, according Aberr'ant, in botany, means something which differs from to law. So help me God.' Most of the other statutes regarding ordinary structure of related group of plants; thus, a natural oaths were repealed by the statute 34 and 35 Vict. There is not orders. may be A. by being ntermediate beteen two other now, as formerly, any special form of oath required from Roman ~~~~~~~~~~orders. ~Catholics; the above-quoted oath of allegiance being the fornm Aberra'tionl of Light is an apparent displacement of a star prescribed for members of all religious-persuasions, and for the from its true position, arising from the combined velocities of whole of the United Kingdom. The oath of homage taken by the earth in its orbit and the light emitted from the star. This ecclesiastical dignitaries was not affected by the statute 3' and phenomenon is analogous to the apparent obliquity of a perpen- 32 Vict. dicular shower of rain to a person in rapid motion; and is ob- Ab'lative Case. See DECLENSION. viously dependent upon the law of the composition of velocities. Abnor'mal denotes in botany a deviation from normal See VELOCITY. Hence the line drawn from the star's appar- condition. Stamens standing opposite to petals are A., it ent position at any instant to its true position represents in in tam stan to al te. t direction and magnitude the velocity of the earth in its orbit at being customary for stamens to alternate with them. In the that instant; so that the star seems to describe, in the course of European lime-tree the flower-stalk is adherent to the midrib of a year, the Hodograph (q. v.), or projection of the hodograph, a bract, and is therefore A. of the earth's orbit. Therefore, in consequence of A., each Abo (pron. Obo), a town in the Russian government of Abo. star describes a circle, whose plane is parallel to the plane of Bjbrneborg, Finland, situated in the Gulf of Bothnia, near the *the ecliptic. Accordingly all stars, with but few exceptions, mouth of the river Auraj okki. The Swedes founded it in II57, appear to describe ellipses, whose major axes are equal. A. and it remained theirs till the Peace of Abo (I743), when it was'was discovered in 1727 by Bradley, who fixed the major axis at annexed to Russia. In I827 the university, with its fine library, about 40'. was destroyed by fire, and the institution was afterwards removed Aberration in Optics is the deviation, after reflection from to Helsingfors, which since I8I9 has superseded A. as the capierrtio inOptcs s te dviaion afer eflctin fomtal of Finland. Pop. (i870) I919,793-The government: of Aboa concave mirror, or refraction through a convex lens, of the Bjtaeborg has an area of 870) 9,793. milThe government of Abo-870) of rays of a pencil of light from that point in the axis of the pencil Bjrneborg has an area of 9450 sq. miles, and a pop. (870) f known as the principal focus of the mirror or lens in question. 306,33 I. In the lens this is due to two causes-viz., the spherical form Aboli'tionists, a name used in the United States to desigusually given to the lens, and the different degrees of refran- nate a class of political philanthropists who sought by means of gibility possessed by the different coloured rays of light-which literature and popular oratory to destroy the institution of slavery. give rise respectively to Spherical A. and Chromatic A. They are as old as the Republic itself. The first Pennsylvania *it ABO THSE GLOBE ENC YCL OPM/DtIA. AB abolitionist society was formed in 1775, with Benjamin Franklin chose to treat him as a German subject on account of his being for its president. Similar associations were soon formed all over a Lorrainer. the North, but strenuous and organised opposition to slavery Ab'racadab'ra, a word formerly used by pretenders to was first begun by Lloyd Garrison in his Liberator, started Ist magic, and supposed by the ignorant to be capable of expelling January 183I. The exigencies of the civil war compelled the from the system various deadly fevers, more especially tertian Republican party to adopt the creed of the A., and on the Ist and semi-tertian agues. It is now only employed in contempt, of January I863, President Lincoln proclaimed the emancipation like the expression ocuzs-pocus, to denote a formula that has no of the negro, and the long agitation of the party came to an end. meaning. The word was often written in the shape of a triangle. It expired in the moment of victory. It expired in the moment of victory. A'braham, the founder of the Hebrew nation, was a native Abo'mey. See DAHOMEY. of Ur of the Chaldees (Mesopotamia), and -with his wife Sarah Abori'gines, a name generally used to denote the earliest and his nephew Lot, emigrated into Canaan. His life and char(Lat. ab orzigize) inhabitants of a land, like the Gr. autochtthoncs, acter are exquisitely pictured in the Mosaic narrative; he is the though the latter term strictly signifies sprung from the soil. In noblest type of a pastoral chief in all literature; free, simple, the half-fabulous history of pre-Roman Italy, however, the name hospitable, valiant, and devout. His trust in the Eternal was (but aborigfnies, not aborigzins) appears as that of a special without a shadow of doubt, and it was'counted to him for people first settled in the Apennines about Reate, and afterwards righteousness.' Later tradition, which finds an expression in in the district of the Lower Tiber, where they are supposed to Josephus (Ant. i. c. 7), ascribes to A. vast scientific knowhave taken the name of Latins. ledge. He is the inventor of letters, and first taught the EgypAbor'tion, the name given in medicine to the expulsion of the tians astronomy and mathematics. The Arabs, who also venerate his memory, affirm that he rebuilt the Caaba, but most of their ovum from the uterus before the sixth month of gestation. Ex-s memory, affirm that he eb uilt the Caaba, b t of their pulsion between the sixth and ninth month is called a prematureee'labour. Miscarriage, as popularly understood, is the expulsion of Abraham-a-Sancta-Clara, whose proper name was Uthe fcetus at any period of gestation, and in law there is no distinc- rich Megerle, a once popular preacher of Germany, born tion made between A. and premature labour. A. may be either x642, died 1709. His sermons are coarse, racy, grotesque, but natural or violent. One natural A. occurs in about 2000 preg- full of good sense. Even the titles are marked by a rude humour, nancies. Natural A. may be the result of disease of the uterus, e.g., HteiZsames Gemtisch-Gemasch ('Wholesome Hodge-Podge,' placenta, or membranes, or it may be due to general weakness Sc.'Mixty-Maxty'). A.'s Sin'mmtliche [l/erke were published of body, or to the action of zymotic diseases, such as smallpox in 21 vols. (Passau and Lindau, I835-54). A selection appeared or fevers, or to violent agitation or shaking, as by jolts on a at Heilbron (7 vols., I840-44). rough road. Criminal or violent A. may be caused either by Abrahamites', called also Bohemian Deists, is the name mechanical means, such as pressure externally, or by the intro- given to a religious sect that first appeared in Bohemia about duction of weapons into the uterus, or by the action of irritating I782. They made their creed as simple as they supposed that medicinal substances on the bowels or uterus. Such abortive of Abraham to be, and would not admit that they were either substances are very numerous, but the principal are oil of savin, Jews or Christians. The Emperor Joseph declined to tolerate ergot of rye, pennyroyal, apd powerful purgatives, such as cro- them, and in I783 scattered them over various parts of the ton oil, elaterium, hellebore, &c. Any person producing or Austrian empire, where, in their isolation, they were partly conattempting A. in her own person, or in the person of another, verted and partly martyred. is guilty of felony. It is occasionally necessary, however, to induce premature labour with the view of saving the life of Abraham-men, sturdy beggars who roamed about the counmother or child. Such interference is justifiable. try pretending to be lunatics, and extorted a living from the compassion or terrors of the weak.'To sham Abraham' is a Aboukir' (anc. Canopus), a fishing village in Egypt, about I5 phrase still in use. In the time of James I.,' an Abram cove' miles N.E. of Alexandria. It is celebrated on account of Nel- and a'Tom o' Bedlam' were identical expressions, as the son's victory over the French in the battle of the Nile, fought (Ist sturdy beggar who had infringed the law often claimed the iamAugust I798) in the Bay of A. A Turkish army of I5,000 was munities of lunatics discharged from Bethlemn Hospital. defeated here (I799) by 6000 French under Bonaparte; and inn order of animals bel I8oI Sir Ralph Abercromby, at the head of a British expedition T h ey receive their name fom having nonging to the ordinary to Egypt, landed at A., which was surrendered by the F Theyrenchceive t heir n ame from havthing none of the s ordinary exafternal organs of respiration, breathing from the surface of the skin, or, as some suppose, by interior cavities. The earth-worm Abousam'bul, or Ipsambul, a place in Nubia, on the W. and leech belong to the order. bank of the Nile, notable as the site of two old Egyptian rock- Abrantes, Duke of. See JUNOT. cut temples. They stand a few hundred feet apart. The larger Abrav'anel (also Abarbanel), Isaac Ben Jehudah, one temple is ornamented in front with four colossal figures, 65 of the ablest Jewish statesmen and scholars, was born at Lisbon feet high. An immense doorway opens on the principal hall, in 1437, of an ancient and illustrious Jewish family. His talents in which two rows of brightly-coloured statues rise from floor to attracted the notice of the Portuguese king, Alfonso V., who roof. This temple contains fourteen chambers, and retires about frequently employed him on affairs of state, and held him in the 170 feet into the rock. The walls are covered with rude frescoes, highest esteem. On the death of Alfonso, le passed into the supposed to relate to the life of Raeses the Great. service of Ferdinand of Spain, but had to follow his countrymen About', Edmond- Frangois-Valentin, a well-known into exile on their expulsion from the Peninsula. He then beFrench litterateur, born at Dieuze (Meurthe), I4th February took himself to Naples, and after various changes, died a minister I828. IHe was educated at the Lycee Charlemagne, and the of state in the service of the Venetian Republic il the year 1508. Ecole Normale, in Paris, and studied archaeology for two years A. was both a learned and eloquent man; his style is flowing at the French school in Athens. On his return to Paris in 1853 and elegant. His principal writings are exegeses of the Pentahe published La Grkce Contem-poraine (I855), a satire on the teuch and the Prophets, commentaries on the Talmudic literashortcomings of the modern Greek character and government. ture, and a polemical treatise against Christianity. See Jost's Liveliness of style and humorous incident secured popularity for Geschicite des Yndeznt/ums tnd seiner Sekten (3 vols., Leipz. the work, and gained for the author an instant reputation which I857-59), and Fiirst's Bibliotlheca %udaica (3 vols., Leipz. his later writings have not done much to extend. The best x849-63). known of these are Tolla (i855), Les Mariages de Paris (I856), Abrax'as Stones, the name given to a class of gems cut in Le Cas de M. Gueirin (I862), Madelon (I863), Les fllariages de various symbolic forms, such as the head of a fowl, the body of Province (I868), and Le Pellah (I869), and A4sace (I872). La a serpent, &c. The word A. is made up of Greek letters. It Question Romaine, a pamphlet published in I86i, which attracted first figures in the theological speculations of the Gnostic sects, some attention, urged the abolition of the Pope's temporal power, especially the Basilidians, and was probably carried to Spain and was supposed to be inspired by Napoleon III. As the au- (where many of these stones are found) by the Priscellianists, thor of some abusive newspaper articles, A. was imprisoned (I3th who had adopted their views. It is believed that most of the A. September 1872) for a week by the German authorities, who were manufactured in the middle ages to serve as talismans. 8 __ __ B TI STE GL OBE1VC YCLOPMED~IA. ABT Abricot Sauvage, a nanle given to the mammee apple proachfully styled'Absentees;' and it was maintained that (Afamme,Amtericana), and also to the fruit of Couroup ita guia- their conduct was the great source of Irish poverty, as it drained nensis, which is also called from its appearance the cannon-ball the country of money. While those who so argued failed to see fruit. The shell of the latter is used as, a drinking-cup in the certain truths in political economy, that gold is not wealth, but West Indies. merely its representative, and that the quantity of it permanently Abroga'tion of a law is the repealing or recalling of it. See held by any country is infallibly determined by the productive ACT OF PARLIAMENT. power of that country relatively to the productive power of other countries, they were nevertheless right in considering' absentee. Ab'rus, a genus of leguminous plants. A. p-ecato)rics is ism' a real evil to Ireland. The industrial energy of a people a native of India and other tropical countries. It has small is impaired or destroyed by the continued absence of its natural globose seeds, which are of a bright scarlet colour, with a black leaders. Power over the tenantry fell wholly into the hands of scar on one side. These are used for necklaces, and in India agents, who, so long as they supplied the pecuniary wants of their are employed as a standard of weight. The weight of the principals, were allowed to exercise that power oppressively and famous Koh-i-noor diamond is stated to have been ascertained cruelly. The evils arising from'absenteeisl' in Ireland have been in this way. The roots are similar in taste to those of the forcibly drawn by Miss Edgeworth in her novel called The Abliquorice plant. sentee; but while the evils are evident, the remedy will probably Abruz'zo, a district of Italy, between the provinces of Latium only be found in such measures as will promote the general social and Umbriaon the W. and the Adriaticon theE., and formerly the and industrial improvement of the country. Much may with most northern part of the kingdom of Naples. Area 4899 sq. time be expected from the wise and generous legislation of recent miles; pop. 920,000. Its old divisions, Abruzzo Ultiore I. and years. II., and Abruzzo Citra, have given place to the three Italian Absinth and Absinth'iumn. See ARTEMISIA and WORMprovinces, Chieti, Teramo, and Aquila. A. is traversed by the WOOD. wildest portion of the Apennines, forming the cradle of numerous Ab'solute (Lat. absolctus,'freed from') means that a streams, of which the largest is the Pescara. The famous Gran thing is considered in itself, and quite apart from any reference Sasso d'Italia here lifts its snow-capped peaks to a height of to other things. In metaphysics it signifies the unconditioned 9590 feet. These mountain masses encircle a multitude of indefinite original of things-the ground of all visible pheno. valleys, where the soil is the richest and the husbandry the most mena; in politics, that form of government in which the authorwretched. At different altitudes, on the mountain slope and ity of the ruler is unrestricted. in the plain, flourish the oak, fir, almond, walnut, and olive. The natives are a simple, hardy race, occupied in the highlands, Absolute Zero. See HEAT. for the most part, in rearing and tending sheep. As a rocky Absolu'tion is a term borrowed by the Christian Church barrier on the north, A. was important in the defence of Naples, from Roman law, in which it properly signifies the freeing or and was often the scene of invasion and civil war. In I799 the acquitting a person of the charges brought against him. The French troops were strenuously opposed here by the sturdy earliest form of ecclesiastical A. was pronounced by the presbyter mountaineers. and elders in the presence of the congregation, which is underAb'salom (1Heb. Abshalom,'father of peace') was the third stood to imply that the concurrence of the congregation was sonn of David, and was noted for the beauty of his person, and necessary. As early as the 4th c., however, A. had become an especially for a profusion of fine hair. The main incidents of his exclusive right of the episcopal office, and the public confession life are the murder of his half-brother Amnon for dishonouring had become a private one, made to a priest, authorised by his his sister Tamar, his three years' exile at the court of his father- bishop to hear, impose penance, and grant A. Protestant in-law the Syrian prince of Geshur, his return to Israel and re- churches, as a rule, hold A. to be merely declarative i.e., that conciliation with his father, his rebellion and temporary triumph, God enjoins or permits ministers to dce His forgiveness of sin and finally, his overthrow and death in the wood of Ephraim. to those who repent. David dearly loved his handsome treacherous son, and bitterly Absorb'ents. See LACTEALS and LYMPHATICS. mourned his loss. mourned his loss. Absorp'tion. The fluid and soluble portions of food enter Absalom, Archbishop of Lund. See AXEL. into the blood of the living animal by absorption. This is effected partly by means of the blood-vessels of the stomach and intes~Ab'scess. An A. is a collection of pus in any part of the tinal canal, and partly by the agency of special absorbent.vessels tissues or organs of the body. The pus is usually surrounded on known as the lacteals, present in minute finger-like processes on all sides by a layer of lymph which is deposited in the neigh- the lining membrane of the small intestine called the villi. See bouring tissues, called the wall of the abscess. Thus the pus is VILLUS. prevented from diffusing itself through the tissues. An A. may be acute or chronic. Acute A. is the result of acute inflammation. Absorp'tion (in botany). Plants absorb carbonic acid gas It is usually accompanied by pain, heat, redness, and swelling, as well as uids by their leaves and other green parts, but they depend chiefly upon the roots for nourishment. At the exand soon, unless very deeply seated, the wall of the A. gives they depend chiefly upon the roots for nourishment. At the exay at soone point, ulesand the pus isdeeply seated, tIne wall of theronic A. givthe tremities of the rootlets there are a set of delicate cells called way at one point, and the pus is discharged, In chronic A. the formation of pus is very slow; sometimes a dense layer of lymph spongeobes, which absorb the nourishing matters from the soil forms a cyst round the matter, but usually, as these abscesses do by a process called Endosmose (q. v.) not'point' quickly, they burrow for a considerable distance Ab'stinence Societies. See TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. from their original seat. Pus sometimes forms with very slight Abstrac'tion is an operation of the mind in which it withprecursory symptoms, and with no pain. Such an A. is called draws (Lat. absfrahere) certain attributes of objects from the a cold A. In some cases there is no limiting wall of lymph objects themselves, and either considers them apart or considers formed, and the pus spreads quickly and destroys the tissues. the objects exclusively in relation to these. Thus John Smith Occasionally from abscesses in one part of the body pus is car- forms an objective or concrete image. But I can think of him ried by the blood to other organs, and there produces what are not only in connection with the attributes which are peculiar to termed secondary or metastatic abscesses. him, but in connection with those that are common to him, and Abscis'sa. See CO-ORDINATES. some or all of the race to which he belongs. It is a succession Absentee', a term applied to proprietors of land and to of acts of A., each rising higher than the other, to think of Pbsereea em ppicit pori osoflndad ohim as an Englishman, a European, an Aryan, a man, an anicapitalists who derive their income from one country and spend hm as an Eglshman, a Euopean, an Aryan, a man, an ancm from one country and spend ~mal, a creature. Among the most refined abstractions may be it in another. In no country is this practice more prevalent than reclaoned the ideas of time and space. in Ireland. Previous to the union with England, the principal Irish proprietors for the most part resided during the summer on Abt, Franz, a favourite German song writer, born at Eilentheir own estates and during winter in Dublin. The Union burg, 22d December x8I9. He studied for the Church at Leipchanged the habits of the Irish nobility and gentry in this respect. zig, but an acquaintance with Mendelssohn determined his They were in a great measure drawn away to London or the preference for the pursuit of music. A.'s songs are full of rich Continent. Those who thus left their own country were re- harmony; several of his male quartetts are specially popular. 2 _ _ _ _9 ABU THE GIOBE ENCYCLOP/SEiIA. ABY Abu, means in Arabic father, and is merely a form of the Abyssi'nia, a country in the N.E. of Africa, bounded on the Hebrew Ab. See ABBA. In both languages the word enters E. by the Red Sea, on the N. and W. by Nubia and Kordofan, into the composition of many proper names-e.g., Abu-Bekr, and encircled on the S. by the Blue River or Nile. It lies'Father of the Virgin.' Often, however, the term father is between 8' 30' and 15~ 4o' N. lat., and between 35~ and 42~ E. used figuratively for'possessor' in such cases-e.g., Abzjedda, long., and is in the form of an immense tableland, inter-' Father of Fidelity,' i.e.,'the Faithful;' Abner,'Father of sected by deep gullies worn by the rivers. It is separated by Light,' i.e.,'the Brilliant.' nature into three great divisions; going from north to south, Abu the highest mountain of the Aravulli range in Raj these are (I) Tigre, where the Geez, a Semitic dialect, is spoken, AJu., the highest mountain of the Aravulli range, in Raj- d w. w and which forms the main approach to the Red Sea; (2) Amhara, pootana, Hindustan, about 5000 feet above the sea, with a very where the language is on-Semitic, and which contains Gondar, broad base and a summit divided i.to numerous peaks. At where the language is non-Semitic, and which contains Gondar, broad base aboutnd a summit divided into numerountain, ous peas. At the nominal capital of the kingdom; and (3) Shoa, in the exDilwara, about the middle of the mountain, are four Jainthese treme south, surrounded by hostile Galla tribes, and also speaking temples, to which frequent pilgrimages are made. One of these the Amharic dialect. Some of the minor provinces are Lasta, temples is said to be unsurpassed in all India. The English of Waag, Semen, and Godjam. Though within the tropics, the late years have begun to use A. as a sanatorium. Waag, Semen, and Godjam. Though within the tropics, the late years have begun to use A. as a sanatoriumclimate is equable and salubrious, because of the great elevation Abu-Bekr, the first Arabian calif, belonged to the great of its tablelands, which rise to a height of from 7000 to 10,000 Koreish tribe, and was born at Mecca 573 A.D. His original feet. From these plains spring many volcanic mountain name was Abd-el-Kaaba ('servant of the Temple'), which he chains, the highest being that of Samien, I5,oo000 feet above changed into Abd-Allah (' servant of God') when he became a the sea. There are many rivers, the largest being the Abai or disciple of Mohammed. The name A. was given to him after Blue Nile (Bahr-el-Azrek), the Takkazie, a tributary of the Nile, the Prophet had married his daughter Ayesha (who was a virgin, and the Hawash, which flows east towards the Gulf of Aden. and not a widow like the other wives of Mohammed). He only In the heart of the country, lies the Tzana or Dembea, a held the califate for two years, dying at Medinah 23d August large lake, through which the Blue Nile flows. The productions 634; but it was during his brief rule that the new religion first are chiefly wheat, barley, maize, native grains called Teff began to seriously threaten the Byzantine empire. A., was a and Tocusso, coffee, sugar-cane, and tobacco. The soil is man of much learning and of great enthusiasm. generally rich, and in many parts the coffee-plant is indigenous. The most numerous of the wild animals are the lion, Abulfaraj', otherwise Barhebraeus ('son of the Hebrew'), leopard, wolf, hyena, and jackal; elephants, rhinoceroses, born at Malatia, Armenia, in 1226, died 1286. His profound buffaloes, and giraffes are found; and hippopotami abound in acquaintance with philology, philosophy, theology, and medi- the large rivers. The name A. is derived from the Arabic cine procured for him the title of the phoenix of his age. He Habesh, which means a mixed people, and seems to throw some died primate of the Christian sect of the Jacobites. A.'s best light on its ethnology. The predominant race occupying Amhara known work is a chronicle of universal history from the creation is Semitic, with oval face, thin lips, sharp nose, and straight to his own time, written first in Syriac and afterwards in Arabic. hair. Another race, with features approaching the negro, inhabits The Arabic chronicle was translated into Latin by Pococke (Oxf. the north; and the Gallas, a savage, warlike people, with round I663). There is also a German version by Bauer (Leyden, faces, thick lips, and woolly hair, occupy the south of Shoa. All I783-85), and Bruns and Kirsch published both the Syriac and the native races are of brown colour; the only negroes being Arabic texts with a Latin translation (Leipz. I789). The work those brought from the interior as slaves. is full of details little known concerning the wars of the Mongols A. wras first made known in Europe in the I5th c. by the Portuand Tartars. A. wrote numerous other works, one of which, guese missionaries; but long before that period it had a place in an Ecclesiastical History, has been translated by Tullberg of history. Christianity had found its way thither in the 4th c., if Upsala. not earlier; and in the 6th c. the nation was sufficiently strong Abulfe'da, a Moslem prince sprung from the same Kurdish to invade Arabia and seize part of Yemen. Misfortune followed stock as Saladin, of high repute as a writer of history, born at this conquest, however, and for many centuries A. was a scene Damascus A.D. I273, died in 33I. From 13Io to his death he of chronic confusion and bloodshecl. In I540, assisted by the was prince of Hamat, Syria. His Annals, written in Arabic., Portuguese, the empire was rescued from the hands of the sultan were published at: Copenhagen by Reiske (I789-94), under the of Adal. As a condition of the support of the Portuguese, the title of Annales Moslemici. His Geography was published in full royal family embraced the Roman Catholic faith, and a fruitless by Schier (Dresden, 1842), and also by Reinaud (Paris, I848), effort was made to supplant the old Coptic Church. The monwlith a French translation. archy, which had long been absolute, now greatly declined, and the question of succession frequently gave rise to protracted Abushe'hr, or Bushire, a seaport on the Persian Gulf, at the struggles, which.ultimately broke up the kingdom into petty point of a barren sandy peninsula. It is well situated for com- governments. There have been at one time as many as twelve merce, and, despite a capricious climate, has become the emporium claimants to the crown, each supported by one of the powerful of the Indo-Persian trade. A strong natural position enabled A. feudatories, who, under the name of Ras (head o1' chief), were to make a vigorous stand against the English in I856, when it the actual powers in the kingdom. In 1847 Ras Ali, a man of was taken by Sir H. Leelce. It is now an Indo-European tele- great intelligence and enterprise, became chief of Amhara. graph station. Its chief exports are silk, fruits, pearls, asafce- Under his rule the province made considerable advance, and for tida, and horses (for cavalry service in India); imports, sugar, the first time relations were entered into with England. Military rice, indigo, and British manufactured goods. Pop. 5,ooo, success, and the marriage of his mother to the nominal emperor, had all but established the supremacy of Ras Ali, when a rival Abu'tilon, a genus of plants belonging to the order Mal- appeared in Kassai (afterwards Theodore), his own son-in-law, vacea. In Brazil the. flowers of A. esculentum are used as an who had early shown courage and skill as a soldier. Kassai was article of food. A. indicutm and polyandrum, two Indian at first defeated and forced towithdraw, but finally overcame the shrubs, furnish a strong fibre used for ropes. All the species of troops sent against him, and was crowned in x858 by the Abuna A. contain a quantity of mucilage. of the Coptic Church as Theodore of Abyssinia. Elated by sucAbut'ment, the name given in architecture to that part of a cess, the new-made king marched on Shoa, the third great propier o wall from which the arch springs when thte partch is vince of the old empire, attacked and defeated the Wollo Gallas, pier or wall from which the arch springs; when the arch is and reached Ankobar, the southern capital, almost without opposemicircular the term used is imnpost. In bridges, the walls that and reached Ankobar, the southern capital, almost without oppoSUPPOrt the ends of the roadway are also called abutments. sition. Great leniency was shown to the conquered countries, and support the ends of the roadway are also called abutments. the commercial relations entered into with Europe were encourAby'dos, a town of Asia Minor, on the Hellespont, opposite aged. In 1863 Theodore applied to Queen Victoria foriaid to Sestos. The channel here is only 7 stadia wide. Near A. repel the Egyptians from his north frontier, but his letter was Xerxes formed the bridge of boats (B.C. 480) over which his army unaccountably neglected. Enraged by this supposed slight, he crossed to Europe. A. is associated with the story of Hero and imprisoned the newly-appointed English consul and a party of Leander. Another A., on the Nile, has acquired some celebrity missionaries. Meantime an answer from England arrived, but from the discovery there of a hieroglyphical genealogy of the Theodore cast the envoy into prison. This direct violation of I8th dynasty of the Pharaohs, international law occasioned a great outcry in England, and all *3~P —0; —-— ~ —-— I —----------------— ~ <_ AGA THE GIOBE EO C YC' OPFSlDZ1A. AC attempts to negotiate with Theodore having proved ineffectual, the clergy, who feared that it would injure their authority as Lord Stanley's ultimatum was issued in April I867, ordering the the sole expounders of civil and divine law. delivery of the prisoners within three months. No notice was The fall of Constantinople in I452 caused many learned taken of this missive, and an expedition was accordingly pre- Greeks to take refuge in Italy. There, under the liberal patronpared. An army of i2,000 men, under the command of Sir age of the Medicis, they worked with zeal and success to reRobert Napier, was brought from India and landed at Zulla on kindle the torch of classic learning, which had been extinguished the Red Sea in November. After encountering many difficulties for Iooo years. In the following century academies of wider the expedition reached Magdala (q. v.), and on the ioth April scope arose in Italy; whose example was followed over Europe I868 completely routed Theodore's army, and released the Euro- generally. pean captives. No lives were lost on the British side; but of the There are two classes of academies, the one having general Abyssinians there were 5oo killed, including Theodore himself, and the other specific objects. The most noteworthy examples who was found shot in the head. The object of the war was of the former are the Institute de France, founded by Colbert solely the release of the captives and the punishment of Theo- under another name in I666; the Berlin Academy of Arts and dore, and the internal affairs of A. were left untouched. The Sciences, founded in I700, and enlarged and vivified by Fredecost of the expedition amounted to s8,6oo,ooo. A. has been a rick the Great; the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St Petersgood deal disturbed since the death of Theodore by intestine burg, designed by Peter the Great, and established by his war, and is now governed by Kassa, formerly Ras of Tigre, who widow, Catherine I., in I725; the Academies of Sciences at was made king at Axum in January I872. The chief exports are Stockholm, Copenhagen, Munich, and Vienna. It is imposdye-stuffs, spices, ivory, and gum; but of late the trade of A. has sible within our limits to note examples of all the different very much decreased, and the want of good internal communica- kinds of s.fecial academies. It is enough to say that they exist tion in so wild a country may seriously interfere with the pros- for the advancement of linguistic, historical, archaeological, pects of commerce. A considerable trade in slaves is still carried medical, artistic, and other studies. Many learned societies on with Turkey and Egypt. The pop. is estimated at 3,o00,o00. differ from academies only in name, such as the Royal Society See Plowden's Tr-avels in A. (Lond. i868), Wilkins's Reconl- of London, &c. nzoitrinzg icn A. (Lond. I870), and the official Recorad of tSe Ex/peditionz to A. by Holland and Hozier (2 vols., Lond. I870). Acee'na, a genus of rosaceous plants, including upwards of forty species, mostly small, and found chiefly in temperate Acacia, a genus of dicotyledonous trees and shrubs belonging regions. Certain species are met with at a great elevation on to the sub-order Mimosac of Legumninosw. There are numerous the Andes. A. ovina is a common weed in Australia and Tasspecies, chiefly found in the warm countries. The Australian mania, where it is a troublesome plant to sheep-farmers, from species are called leafless, as the true leaves are seldom de- its spiny fruit getting entangled in the wool of the sheep. The veloped, but the petioles or leaf-stalks become large, and perform'Piri Piri' of New Zealand is a decoction of the leaves of A. the functions of leaves. Sanzzuisorba. These are termed phyllodia. Some of the species Acaleph's, a class of marine animals, commonly known as are of great economical sea-nettles, on acimportance. Gum-arabic count of their prois exuded from A. Verek, ducing a stinging A. arabica, A. vera, A. sensation when' gAdansoni, and other spe- touched, or jellycies, natives of the East. fishes or sea-blubThe drug called Catic hers, from their is prepared principally gelatinous consisfrom A. catecuiv. The tece. The name wood is boiled, and the Medusb is fredecoction evaporated, quently given to which leaves an astringent them. They are extract. Babool or Babul transparent, often gum and bark are ob- shaped like a Acacia arabica. tained from A. arabica, mushroom, and The latter is used in vary in size from Scinde for tanning. A. Farnesiana yields a perfume. The a pin - head to phorescent, and render the sea luminous. Acad emyr. The word is derived from a spot in the suburbs pha, a genus of dictyledonous plants belonging to of Athens called Akadengeia. There Socrates, and subsequentlyg about 00 species, caegins. Plato, used to meet and converse with their pupils. It was the theorder rbace, embracing about ioo species, natives of latter, however, who made the place famous by the establish tropical and sub-tropical regions. Many of them are perennial meat of his A., the school of philosophy over which he presided shrubby plants, with nettle-lie leaves. A. ubrand, the stringfor fifty years. Plato died 348 B.c. After his death the modi- wood of St Helena, is now supposed to be an extinct species. fications of his doctrine which came to be taught occasioned It was a small tree, with long spikes of reddish-coloured flowers. A. indica, an annual weed in India, is said to attract cats as a division of the school into three branches-Old, Middle, and much as vale-riant tew A. The first term is applied to the school holding the al Platonic doctrine pure, the second to the school of Arcesilaus, Acantha'cees, a natural order of dicotyledonous plants, the third to the school of Carneades. including about oo species, common in tropical regions. It is now common in England and America to call an A. They ared of lit le economical value, the most of them beins. any school professing to give a high class education; but weeds, although a few have beautiful foliage and floers, such societies formedfor the advancement of learning, science, or was somaleth species of usticia and iuellia. Some alore mucileare als freqenly sa i rs institutions of th is as s oetsine ofunica and rtueona is are mfct-ht ost art 2re also frequently so named. The first institution of this laginous and hitter, others yield dye. Room, a blue dye, is kind in ancient times was the famous Museum founded at Alex- obtained from a species of Ruerlia in Assam. andriain the 3d c. B.C. by Ptolemy Soter. It was the model of later institutions founded by the Jews and Arabians; and of Acantho'phis, a genus of Australian venomous serpents that of Charlemagne in the 8th c. Though it did not survive closely allied to the vipers (q. v.) They inhabit holes under the the death of Charlemagne, his A. gave an important impulse to roots of trees and stones, and are very tenacious of life. One learning, and probably laid the foundations of the modern species (A. brownii), found at Port Jackson, is one of the most French language. Its extinction was owing to the jealousy of venomous. *>II ACA TIE GLOBE ENC YC'LOPxDJIA. ACG Acanthop'tery'gii, one of the three natural orders into I2,000 B.C., and will continue so to decrease till 37,000 A. D., which fishes are divided. They have bony skeletons, with after which it will begin to increase. prickly processes in the dorsal fins, as, for example, the perch and stickleback. Ac'cent, in grammar, is the stress or pressure of the vcoice placed upon a syllable of a word to make it prominent, either Acan'th-us, a genus of for oratorical or vocabulary purposes. The Greek grammarians, dicotyledonous plants, the used accentual marks, it is said, to assist foreigners in learning ffi type of the natural order their language, and there can be no doubt that A. played a far tyAcanthzace n. The plants more important part in the enunciation of ancient Greek than i which awere formerly called most modern scholars (except Prof. Blackie) allow. In HIebrew, 13ranc-ursines are emollients, A. was always on the last syllable or the last but one; in Greek \ and especially noted for the it might be on any of the last three syllables of a word; in Latin beauty of their foliage. A. it was confined to the penultimate or ante-penultimate; and in mAo//is and A. s/iosus, whiclh English the irregularities inseparable from so composite a lan-f At J l are natives of the south of guage have shown themselves in a certain lawlessness of A., but Europe, are the two species it may be said that there is a strong tendency at present to throw geneially cultivated ill our it back to the beginning of words, which was its usual place in gardens. The leaves of A. the English spoken and written before the Norman Conquest. grienosns are supposed to have It is interesting to trace the struggle of English and French A.: furnished the model for the in Chaucer. WVe find him writing at one time bataitle' and again *i S ornamentation of the grace- bat'aitle, for'litze andfortue'ne, &c.; but on the whole the native ful Corinthian style of archi- method triumphed, and Romance words received not only an Acanthus spinosus. tecture. Roman drinking- English form, but an English A., though the exceptions are cups have also been found numerous. ornamented with A. leaves, resembling those of the last-named |Ac'cent, in music, is the emphasis or stress laid upon single species. notes, parts of bars, or whole bars, and is divided into two kinds, Adcapel la or Alla capella, a term applied in old Italian'viz., grammatical (metrical) and rhetorical. The grammatical church music to vocal compositions in the severest state without accentuation is the natural one, without which any piece of music any accompaniment. This was up to the time of Claudio Mon- would be wanting in organic cohesion, and would therefore be teverde, in the second half of the I6th c., the usual state of incomprehensible. The rhetorical accentuation is not an artificial church music. Inn modern times A. cape//a denotes a piece of "antithesis to the former, but surpasses its simple regularity, and vocal music, sacred or profane, without accompaniment, or with iS n essential part of an expressive performance the instruments playing in unison with the voices. Accep'tance, in its general sense, is the act by which any one Acapul'co, a torwn of Mexico, on a bay of the Pacific, rwith agrees to terms, or undertakes a duty. The word is not technione of the finest harbours in the world. It had at one time the cal in the law of England (see CONTRACTS) except as applied to monopoly of the rich Spanish trade with the East, but the port a bill of exchange (see BILL OF EXCHANGE); when it means is now little frequented. The climate is extremely hot, and thle act by which the person or firm on whom the bill is drawn, -town mean and unhealthy. The principal buildings were de- i.e., the'drawee,' binds himself to pay the bill in whole or in stroyed in I852 by an earthquake. Pop., chiefly coloured, 4000. part. In England this act may consist in the drawee merely The main exports are cochineal, indigo, cocoa, wool, and skins; writing on the bill the word'accepted,' or A. may be inferred from circumstance. In Scotland the signature of the acceptor the imports silks, spices, cottons, and hardware. is required. The term is also technical in Scotch law of conAcaridsa, a group of small spider-like animals, including the tracts. It may be written, verbal, or by inference. mites (Trombidites), ticks (Ricinites), water-mites (JHydrachnellae), and flesh-worms (Microphthira). The itch-insect, the ci cessary or Accessory is one guilty of crime, not princheese-mite, the red spider of oui gardens, and the common cipally but by participation. The incriminating act may be harvest-bug belongr to the group. either before or after the fact. An A. before the fact is one who advises or incites another to commit a crime, himself being Acarna'nia, anciently the most western part of northern absent at committal. An A. after the fact is one who assists the Hellas, bounded N. by the Ambracian Gulf, E. by ZEtolia, W.' felon. In Scotch law the equivalent term is'art and part;' a and S. bythe Ionian Sea. The numerous harbours on its rocky verdict of'guilty art and part' having the same effect as a and mountainous coast became at an early date the homes of verdict of'guilty.' Doric colonists, but the native Acarnanians were not prominent in Greek history, and were noted mainly for stubborn valour. Acces'sion, the acquiring of property by addition. In the In modern times A. forms, along with _Etolia, a nomarchy of Inl modern times A. forms, along with 2C~tolia, a nomarchy of law of England and of Scotland A. is either natural or artificial. the kingdom of Greece, and has for its capital Missolonghi (q. v.) By natural A. the young of cattle belong to the owner of their 0 s mother. Artificial A. denotes the acquisition of property Acathist'us, a song of praise in the Greek Church in honour which is the result of human industry; thus a house belongs to of the Virgin Mary, sung in the fifth week of Lent, and derives the owner of the soil on which it is built, and not to the its name from the congregation not being permitted to sit down builder. during the whole night. during the whole night. Accession, Deed of, in Scotch law the deed by which Acaulo'sia, a diseased condition of the stems of plants, in creditors accept a trust-settlement of their debtor is so called. which the stem is either imperfectly developed or entirely want-'Liquidation by arrangement' is the analogous procedure of ing. English law (see BANKRUPTCY). Acceleran'do (Ital.), speedily (phfi, much, poco a poco, gra- Accessory Action is, in the law of Scotland, an action dually), means with growing rapidity (tezmo crescendo) and in- subservient to another. creasing expression. Accessory Obligation, in the law of Scotland, is an obliAccel'erated Naotion, in dynamics, is motion in which the gation annexed to another, antecedent. velocity is never for any finite time constant, but is continually Accidental Colours. See LIGHT. increasing. The rate of increase of velocity is called'acceleration.' Ac'cidents, in logic, is the name given to those predicables Acceleration of tAe Moon, the fact first observed by Halley of an object which may be changed, or abstracted, without, it is that, for several thousand years, the time of the moon's revolu- said, the object becoming essentially or substantially different tion round the earth has been decreasing, or her velocity has from what it was before, e.g., a man may be'intoxicated.' The been increasing. Laplace showed this to be due to the varying'accident' is a separable one; he would be no less a man if he eccentricity of the earth's orbit, which has been decreasing since were'sober.' 9 —-------- --. I-~ ACO THES GLOBE tENZCYC~LOP/'D1A. ACE Accip'itres, the name of a Linnean order of birds, including accompanied only by two or three others; and in some cases a those which have the beak hooked, with a broad lobe on each vocal chorus is used to accompany a solo voice. With the older composers the A. to a vocal solo was often itself a composition written in parts, and possessing considerable inherent difficulty and complication. The modern Italian writers, and the com_ posers of operas bouffes, and of'drawing-room' songs, have gone to the other extreme, and made their accompaniments mere meaningless rhythmic repetitions of commonplace chords. A good A. should express the same idea as the solo, but enlarged and developed; it should have form and interest of its own, but should neither drown the solo by its loudness nor dwarf it Ly appropriating interest properly due to the principal part. The songs of Schubert form excellent illustrations of the beauty and variety which A. can take in the hands of a great musician. Accipitres. s ide near the. They have also sog sap-ooked cla Accor'dion, a toy instrument in which wind supplied by sidles, nearcons th, an ls ae e lesofteode bellows causes the vibration of metallic tongues of various Eagles, falcons, hawks, and owls are examples of the order, strengthand various sizes. which are described under the separate heads. Acclimat'isation. I. A4nimzals. This term may be used Account'ant, a profession whose business it is to audit and as somewhat synonymous with the domestication of animal forms unravel accounts, and to adjust and balance mercantile accounts in a country foreign to them. The peacock at present domesticated and books. An A. ought to be thoroughly skilled in Book-keepin Europe generaily, has thus become acclimatised, its native coun- ing (q. v.), and in mercantile practice generally. He ought to try being India, where immense flocks of these birds occur in a have a competent knowledge of commercial law. It will also wild state. The domestic turkey is similarly indigenous to N. be an advantage to him to have at least an elementary knowledge America, where it still occurs in a wild state. Numerous examples of algebra. In a commercial country like England, this profesof acclimatised animals may be thus found-the horse, originally sion is plainly one of very great importance. Hence in all our from Central Asia; our numerous breeds of cattle and sheep, the great cities it is one which has been largely followed by men of progenitors of which are so difficult to trace or discover; and requisite education aid ability. Yet, strange to say, it is only other analogous instances, will readily suggest themselves. The of recent years that it has been recognised as forming a distinct term'acclimatise,' in the abstract, at least, may also be used and honourable profession, for whose proper exercise some years with regard to the introduction of the fishes of foreign seas of preliminary study and training are required. See notice of and rivers to British waters. In view of the breeding of such Chartered Accountant, infrja. fishes to maintain a food supply, their A. becomes a feature of Accountant in Bankruptcy. The A. in B. is a Scotch law great commercial and economical import. The Silurus glanis officer whose business it is to watch over the proceedings of of the European rivers and Swiss lakes has thus been pro- trustees and commissioners in bankrupt estates. The office wuas posed as a valuable addition to our food fishes, and experi- created under the Act of I854. See BANKRUPTCY. ments with a view to its cultivation are still in progress. Simi- Accountant of Court of Session is an officer whose duty it is to larly, in Australia, British salmon, reared from ova exported superintend the conduct of all judicial factors, tutors, and curato that colony, are now thriving. The conditions under which tors in Scotland. the A. of animals can be successfully carried out, are chiefly Accountant, Chartercd. In addition to the usual duties of an involved in the study of the natural and surrounding phases A. in Scotland, the profession discharge the duties which in of their existence. Thus, temperature, food, the occurrence England formerly belonged to the Masters in Chancery. They of migration, the breeding seasons, and many other and kin- act as trustees on bankrupt estates, as judicial factors, as arbidred points, have to be carefully considered, with a view to ters and referees, privately, or under remit from the Court of successful A.-2. Plants. Some suppose that tender plants Session. In Edinburgh the body was incorporated by royal of warm countries can be acclimatised by slow degrees to charter in I854. The members are professionally designated by cold climates, but this has not been clearly proved by facts. the initials C.A. For admission to the corporation a pupil There are certain limits of temperature within vwhich certain must be articled to a member, and pass examinations in law, species will only exist, although these limits often vary much. mathematics, and book-keeping. There is a similarly constiMany plants from warm regions, when first introduced into tuted society in Glasgow, incorporated by royal charter. Britain, were grown in greenhouses and stoves, and subsequently planted out, and quoted as cases of A., whereas they were cap- Accrington, a town of Lancashire, is miles N. of Malable of enduring the cold of this country from the very first. clester, on the banksofthe Hindburn, is an important seatof the The Japan laurel (Asucubz jajpolnica), now so common in gardens, cotton-printing trade in England. It has also numerous cottonwas treated at first in this manner. The African pondweed mills, large bleaching -works, and coal - mines. Pop. (871) Aponogzton (q. v.) was long grown in hot-water tanks at the 21,788. Edinburgh Botanic Gardens, when accidentally a specimen was Accum, FriedrichChristian chemist was bornatBiickethrown into an open-air pond, where it has flourished ever since. burA on 2gth March 1769. He went to London in 1793, held Species brought from warm countries, and supposed to be deli- for ome time the post of lecturer at the Surrey Instituion, but cate, are often quite hardy in Britain, such as the Ar1zlucaria from ultimately returned to Germany, and obtained employment in Chili, and many Japan and Nepaul plants; while, again, the Berlin,where he died 28th June 1838. His bestknown work is potato, the dahlia, and some others which have long been cul- A ail Treatise o Gas-it (Lond. i8i ),k which was the tivated in Britain, are not in the slightest degree hardier t A Practcal Treatie on Cas-Librkt (Loud. i8s5); which was the tivated in Britain, are -not in the slightest degree hardier than means of introducing that mode of illumination into this country. when first introduced, but are killed down by the first touch of A.'s writings, both German and English, entitle him to more recognition than he has got. Ac'colade. When a candidate for knighthood was received Accu'sativeCase. See DECLENSION. into his order, the grand-master embraced him, folding his arms round the neck (ad collum) of the new member. This act was Aceph'ala, a class of Mollusca having no conspicuous termed in French the A. head. Some of the species are naked, others have a shell Accom'paniment (in music), part or parts added to a solo, coveringthe latter are the most numerous. instrumental or vocal, to support and enrich it. In chamber- Aceph'alocysts, a name given by Lmennec to small bladdermusic the A. is commonly played upon the pianoforte; in opera like bodies found in various tissues of the body, more especially or oratorio it is arranged for an orchestra. The A. for a concerlo, in the liver. They are now called hydatids, and are known to or accompanied instrumental solo, is always for an orchestra. be tape-worms in a particular stage of development. See TAPEOccasionally a piece of music is written for a solo instrument WORMS or TtENIA. 4' 13 *mp~~~~ _ — -------- ACE TH.E GLOBE EN1CYCLOP/DA14. ACET A'cer, a genus of dicotyledonous trees, including the sycamore tube; in the strawberry they are borne on the succulent recepand the maples; they are indigenous to temperate regions. From tacle which is eaten. their rapid growth, and beauty of foliage, several species are largely planted in Britain. In America A. saccharinumn is of Acha'ia, anciently the name given to the northern coastland great economic value, sugar being manufactured from the sap. of the Peloponnesus. It is mainly mountainous, but the valleys See MAPLE-STUGAR. The common sycamore, A. Pseudo-P/a- and shores are fertile, and still produce abundance of corn, wine, tanus, called plane in Scotland, is supposed to have been intro- oil, and fruits. The Achaians in Homer's time were of such duced into Britain from the Continent in the I4th c. The tree importance that their name was given to all the Greeks, and after grows to a large size, and its wood, which is white and firm, is the Roman conquest, B.C. I46, the ancient designation was used fora variety of purposes. It is one of the most valuable of revived, and Greece became the province of A. From B.C. woods as fuel, and for making ordinary charcoal. It received the 280 to B.C. I46 the Achaian Lteag.oe was the most powerful name sycamore from a former belief that it was the tree of body in Greece. In modern times A. forms, along with Elis, that name mentioned in the New Testament, which, however, town.achy of the kingdom of Geece, with Patas fo its chief is a species of fig (Ficus Sycomorus). Other important species of A. are A. campeslris, a small tree, native to England, but Ach'ard, Franz KXarl, a German naturalist and chemist, naturalised in Scotland; it is the badge of the Clan Oliphant; was born at Berlin in I753, and died at Kunern in I821. He is A. platanoides, the Norway maple; A. striatum, the striped chiefly celebrated for his improvements in the manufacture of maple; and A. rubrum, the curled maple of America. beet-sugar, in which he was supported by the King of Prussia. His principal literary work is an essay on the rEzuropean.&/anu_Acera'cem, a natural order of exogenous or dicotyledon- fac/ure of Sugar from Beet (Leipz. 1809). ous trees inhabiting the temperate parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. The sap of some species in the order yield Achar'd, Louis Amdd6e, Eugbne, a prolific French litsugar. See MAPLE-SUGAR. Their wood forms useful timber. terateur, born at Marseilles in x8I4. He first acquired note as Their bark is astringent, and yields reddish-brown and yellow an author by his contributions to the Vert- Vert, Entr'acte, and coloured dyes. The order includes three genera and about Charivari. Among his best known writings are his Lettres Parissixty species. iennes (I845), under the pseudonym of Grimm; the romance of Be/le-Rose (1847), perhaps the most charming and popular of all Acer'ra (anc. Acerrce), a cathedral town of Italy, province of his writings; a new set of Lettres Parisiennes (I849); La Clhasse Caserta, 9 miles N.E. of Naples, with which it is connected by Royale (I849-50); Les Petits-fils de Lovelace and Les Chlteaux railway. The neighbourhood is malarious, partly owingto half- en -Esfane (I854); Maurice de Treuil, Maloame Rose, and Le stagnant canals, and partly to the stalks being left to rot in the Clos-Pommir (I856-57); LesSieuctions (I86o); Les Miseres d' flax-fields. Pop. I2,000. Millionnaire (I86I); Noir et B/anc and Le Romant du Manri Ace'tic Acid diluted with water is the principal ingredient of (i862); oes Folrcl es Caudines (i866); 8a Chasse sd Plndal common vinegar, whence its name (aceturn, Lat., vinegar). It fictions, A. has written many pieces for the theatre. Besides these occurs in small quantities in the juices of plants and of animals, fictions, A. has written many pieces for the theatre. He died sometimes in the free state, but usually combined with bases. March 27, 875. It is produced by the oxidation of alcohol; one atom of oxygen Achelo'us, now the Aspropo'tamo, or White River, the removes two atoms of hydrogen in the form of water, and an- largest and most famous river in Greece, rises in Mount Pindus, other atom of oxygen replaces the two atoms of hydrogen thus and flows into the Ionian Sea. It is celebrated in ancient myremoved. thology, for the combat between its tutelary deity and Hercules (C2Hr,)OH + 0, = (C2H30)OH + H2O for the possession of Deianeira. ~~ ~ ~t-d~ ~ -- 1t Ach'enbacha, Andreas, one of the most prolific German Alcohol. Oxygen. Acetic acid. Water. painters of modern times, was born at Cassel 29th September Vinegar, which contains about 5 per cent. of A. A., is produced by I8I5, studied at Dusseldorf under Schadow, and has devoted exposing beer or wine mixed with nitrogenous substances to the himself chiefly to landscapes and sea-pieces. The Rhine, the air; a particular ferment (Mycoderma aceti) develops, and through Alps, Norway, Italy-all places, far and near, have furnished its agency oxidation of the alcohol, contained in the beer or scenes for his vivid and brilliant pencil. Most of the Ger. wine, gradually takes place. Pure A. A. is usually obtained from man galleries contain specimens of his work, but the greatest the acid liquor produced by the distillation of wood. See PY- number are to be found in the Pinakothek of Munich. A few of ROLIGNEOUS SPIRIT. From this liquor acetate of lime is pre- his more notable pictures are, High Yide at Ostend, View of Corpared, and on distilling this salt (previously dried) with strong leone in Sicily, A Storroy Sea on the Coast of Sicily, Moonlight, sulphuric acid, pure A. A. passes over. a Landscape,-all of which figured at the Paris Exhibition of In its pure state A. A. is known by the name of glacial A. A., 1855; Sea-shore at Schevening inz HToland (I86I), Landscape in and is a solid crystalline substance at temperatures below i6~ C. the Netherlands (i863), Neigwhbourhood of Ostend in rainy Weather It boils at II9~ C., and has the specific gravity I'o63. Applied (I866). A. is a member of the Royal Academies of Berlin, to the skin it causes a blister, and is sometimes used as a caustic. Amsterdam, Philadelphia, &c. It is miscible in all proportions with water, alcohol, and ether. Ach'eron (Gr.'river of woe'), the name of several rivers, A. A. combines with bases to form salts, which are called Ace- once supposed, from their bitter taste or dark colour, to have tates. The best known of these are acetate of lead, or sugar of a connection with the infernal world. The A. in Epirus passes lead; acetate of ammonia, known in solution as spirit of min- through lake Acherusia, and flows into the Ionian Sea; the A. dererus; acetate of alumina, used in dyeing; and a basic, acetate in Elis, now the Sacuto, is a tributary of the Alpheius; and of copper, called verdigris.. Pliny mentions an A. which cannot now be identified. Homer's A. A. is used in the arts and in pharmacy. Its chemical compo- A. is one of the rivers of the nether world. sition is expressed by the formula C2H402. Its constitution by the formula CI3 - COOH, which shows it to be a monobasic har a ed of the young shoots of bamboo acid. It has been prepared synthetically, that is to say, has- n s been built up from its elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.'echill, or' Eagle' Isle, lies off the county Mayo, Ireland, and has an area of 35,oo000 acres. The soil is boggy and barren; Ach, the name given to a red dye obtained from the bark of the houses are mere hovels; and emigration and a high deaththe root of Morinda tinctoria, a small tree of Central India. rate are gradually reducing the population. A. is one immense The colour is rather fugitive, but alum is used to fix it. The mass of mica slate, and rises towards the north in a mountainous wood, which is hard and durable, is used for gun-stocks and ridge about 2000 feet high, overhanging the sea. The largest of other purposes. the three villages of A. is a mission-station, with a corn-mill, Achae'ne, or Achene, a term applied to any small, hard, printing-press, and schools. Pop. (87) 64I7. indehiscent fruit, such as Linnaeus called a naked seed. Examples Achil'lea, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order of A. are seen in the fruit of buttercup, borage, and dead-nettle. Compositc. A. Ptarmica, sneezewort, and A. Afillefolium, yarThe achenia of the rose are enclosed within the fleshy calycine row or common milfoil, are natives of Britain. The former is I4 iACH THE GLOBE ENCYGCLOPADIA. ACI common in moist meadows, and when pulverised it has the pro- nature of A., and hold that hydrogen is a necessary constituent perty of exciting sneezing. The plant is aromatic and pungent. of all A. The common milfoil is astringent, and was at one time used as a They define an acid as a compound of hydrogen with an elevulnerary. Ithas been called nose-bleed,'because the leaves being ment, or group of elements, which yields, when treated with put into the nose caused it to bleed.' The musk milfoil, A. a metallic hydrate, water and a salt; the hydrogen of the acid moschata, is sometimes cultivated as food for cattle. The Swiss becoming partially or wholly replaced by the metal. tea of the Alps is formed of the dried plants of A. atrata and On this view of the constitution of A. only the hydrated A. uana. A. ageratumnt is used on the Continent as a vulnerary. oxacids and the hydracids can be regarded as belonging to the list. The anhydrous A. cease to be called A., and receive the name A1c.il'les, the son of Peleus, and of the Nereid Thetis, was of'Acid Anhydrides.' The great advantage of this definition instructed in eloquence and the arts of war by Phcenix, and in of A. is, that it establishes a close relation between hydrated medicine by the centaur Cheiron. Though warned by his mother oxy-acids and the hydracids; in fact, regards all A. from a that the pursuit of glory would result in an early death, he led his common stand-point, and enables their reactions to be expressed myrmidons to Troy in fifty ships, and was there the great bulwark in a uniform manner. of the Greeks. Being deprived by Agamemnon of Briseis, he By the basicity of an acid is understood the number of replaceceased to take further part in the war, and the fortunes of the able hydrogen atoms it contains, or, on the old view of the constiGreeks became desperate. The slaughter of his friend Patroclus tution of A., the number of ezquivalenzts of base with which the acid at last roused him to action, and reconciling himself to Agamem- can combine. Thus, hydrochloric acid (C1) H is monobasic; sulnon he attacked the Trojans, of whom he slew great numbers, and phuric acid (S04) H. di-basic; phosphoric acid (PO4) H3 triamong them their bravest warrior Hector, whose body he after- basic. Regarding the nomenclature of A., thehydracids invariably wards restored to Priam for a ransom. Here the Homeric legend have the prefix iydcro or,ya, the suffix ic, the intermediate sylends, the death of A. in battle at the Scaean gate not occurring lable being a contraction of the name of the element or group of in the Iliad, though mentioned in the Odyssey. Later legends elements with which the hydrogen is combined-thus,'ydrorepresent his mother as having dipped him in the Styx to render c/h/or-ic, hydr-iod-ic, hydro-cyan-ic A. The nomenclature of the him immortal, in which she succeeded, with the exception of the oxy-acids is more complicated, on account of the greater number ankles, by which she held him, while the so-called Dictys Cre- of A. one element may form on combining with different proportensis affirms that he was assassinated by Paris in the temple tions of oxygen. For instance, there are four oxy-acids containof Apollo at Thymbra, whither he had come as the lover of ing chlorine:Polyxena, one of Priam's daughters. His concealment, disguised Hypo-clior-ous acid, HC10 as a maiden, among the daughters of Lycomedes of Scyros, that Chlor.ous acid, HC102 he might not accompany the Greeks to Troy, where it was pro- Chlor-ic acid, I-HC103 phesied that he should perish, his discovery by Odysseus, the Per-chlor-ic acid, HI-C10l contest between Odysseus and Ajax for the possession of his contst btwen Odsseu an Aja fo thepossssin ofhisThe termination ic denotes a high stage of oxidation; otis, a low armour, are legends of comparatively late date, as also that of his The termination ic denotes a high stage of oxidation; os, a low being appointed a judge in the infernal regions, and having his stage; prefix pe suffix ic, the highest stage; prefix yo, su abode in the'Islands of the Blest.'s, the lowest. Subjoined is a list of the most important A.:Achil'les Ta'tius, called by Suidas, Achilles Statius, a By- ubjoined is a list of the most important A zantine rhetorician, who probably belonged to the end of the HYDRAcIDs r 5th or beginning of the 6th c., as he imitates Heliodorus of Hydrochloric acid (spirit of salt), HC. Emesa. He is the author of a licentious romance (The Loves Hydrocyanic acid (prussic acid), HCN. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Hdof ecyleand lico OYaciD (Inrganic.ai), lN of Leuczi51e and Cleitojahon), which is, notwithstanding, one of OXY-AcIDS - (Inorganic.) the best love-stories of the Greeks. It has been edited more NewView OldView. nhydride, or than once, but the best edition is that of Fr. Jacobs, Leipzig, Anhydrous Acid. I82I, 2 vols. 8vo. Nitric acid (aqua fortis)....... HN03 H20N205 NO5 Sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) IH2S04 H20S03 SOs Achime'nes, a genus of dicotyledonous herbs belonging to Sulphurous acid................ SO the order Gesneracew. They are much cultivated for the beauty Phosphoric acid.................H3PO4 3H2OP25 PO5 of their flowers and foliage in British stoves and greenhouses. Carbonic acid......................... CO They increase principally by scaly underground tubers. ( aic (Orffa~ic.) Acho'lia. When from destruction of the liver-cells the ele- New View. ments of thebile are not separated from the blood, jaundice is Acetic acid.............. C2H402 Acitric acid...............C6eH807 the result. This is A. It is to be distinguished from those cases Citric acid........... 10 of jaundice in which, from obstruction of the bile-ducts, bile is Tartaric acid..CHO Tartaic acid...............C21204 prevented from flowing away, and is consequently reabsorbed. A. is jaundice from suppression; the other condition is jaundice Acidi'metry is the name given to the process for determining from obstruction and reabsorption..the quantity of free acid in a solution. Achromat'ic (without colour) is the name applied to a com- The process is based on the fact, that a certain quantity of an bination of lenses of different kinds of glass, by which chromatic alkali will neutralise a definite quantity of any acid, or that an aberration (see ABERRATION) is overcome, and the image is equivalent of the alkali neutralises an equivalent of an acid. See presented to the eye clearly defined and free from coloured EQUIVALENTS. Thusfringes. Newton, from defective experiments, was led to believe 56 grains of caustic potash (KHO), or 40 grains of caustic soda such A. combinations impossible; and it is to Dollond that we (NaHO), are equivalent to, or neutraliseowe the first practical solution of the difficulty. See TELESCOPE. 49 grains of sulphuric acid (H2S04) 49 grains of snlphric acid (HNSO3) Acids. The most characteristic and important properties of 63 grains of nitric acid (HNO3) A. are, that they possess a sour taste, colour blue vegetable 36~ grains of hydrochloric acid (HC1) substances red, and combine with bases to form salts. The two 6 grains of acetic acid (C2H402) first of these properties apply only to A. soluble in water, and A solution is said to be neutral when it exercises no action on are also possessed by some salts; the third property is common vegetable colouring matters. Ttncture of blue litmus, if added to all A., and is the most distinctive. Most A. contain oxygen, to an acid solution, becomes reddened; if a solution of any and are called in consequence oxy-acids or oxacids. These, alkali be now added to this red solution, the acid the latter conagain, are divided into hydrated and an.ydrozus A., according tains is gradually neutralised, and when a certain quantity of as they contain water (or the elements of water) or not. alkali is added, the litmus assumes its original tint. The acid is There is a second group of A. which contain no oxygen. now completely neutralised, and will neither colour blue litmus In them the element hydrogen is always present, hence they are red nor red litmus blue. This, then, is a means of knowing called hydro-acids or hydracids: their number is small. when a solution of acid has been neutralised. Suppose that it Many chemists of the present day take a different view of the is desired to determine the quantity of sulphuric acid in a solution 4 _ _ _ _ ~_ ___ I~'c ACOI TT CG OE ELzNC YC'IOPA./DIA. ACO containing this acid in the free or uncombined state. A standatrd Aconi'tum, a genus of plants belonging to the order AIasolution of alkali is first prepared. For this purpose 56 grains nunculacea, with peculiar irregular flowers. They are natives of caustic potash, or 40 grains of caustic soda (or equivalent of Europe, Asia, and N. Amequantities of the carbonate of potash or soda), is dissolved in oo00 rica. A. iNapellus, or monk'sfluid grains of water. hood, is a doubtful native of As 56 grains of caustic potash, or 40 grains of caustic soda, Britain. All the species, except neutralise 49 grains of sulphuric acid, it follows that Ioo fluid A. heterojp ylucs, possess virugrain measures of the standard alkaline solution will also neutral. lently poisonous properties. The ise this quantity of acid. famous Bikh poison of the E. A measured quantity of the solution containing the sulphuric Indies is prepared from several acid is now taken-say, Ioo fluid grains-and to it a drop or two Indian species. The roots of A. of litmus solution is added; to the red solution thus produced ferox are used in Hindostan for the standard alkaline solution is gradually poured in from an poisoning arrows. When an aniapparatus called a buretle, which is nothing more than a glass mal, such as a tiger, is struck by tube graduated in such a manner as to show how many fluid one of these arrows, it generally grains of standard solution are being used. The addition of the falls dead within a few seconds. alkali is continued until it is seen by the colour of the litmus The roots of A. Naj ellus have that the acid is just neutralised. been used by mistake for HorseSuppose that 20 fluid grains of the standard alkaline solution radish (q. v.), with fatal results. have been required for this purpose, the quantity of sulphuric The poisonous property of the acid is deduced by the following proportion:- A. depends on an alkaloid called Aconitum Napellus. IOO: 49:: 20: 9'8 Aconitine (q. v.) A tincture of There are, therefore, 9'8 grains of sulphuric acid in IOO grains the root is used in cases of heart disease. of the solution. In this manner the amount of any acid in a solution can be A'corn, the fruit of the different species of oak. The acornIn this manner the amount of any acid in a solution c-an be cups of several species of oak are emplo ed for tanning. See determined. - cups of several species of oak are employed for tanning. See OAK and VALONIA. Acine'sia, a term used in medicine, meaning paralysis of mo-, tion, as distinguished from anaesthesia, meaning paralysis of Aracece, or the Arum family. A. Cblong s, or sweet-smelling sensation. The paralysis may be complete or partial in both flag, is a native of Asia, and naturalised in Europe, A'ci Rea'l, an important town, province of Catania, Sicily, Britain, and N. America, at the mouth of the small river Aci. It lies near the base of where it grows by the banks Mount,Etna, is built of lava, and is noted for its mineral of ponds and rivers. The / waters. The manufactures are chiefly linen, cotton, and silk plant, more especially its I and there is considerable trade in flax, cutlery, filigree-work, farinaceous rhizome, has an and grain. In the neighbourhood is the cave of Polyphemus aromatic and bitterish acrid and the grotto of Galatea. Pop. (I872) 35,787. taste; it has been used in Ack'ermann, Rudolf, born at Schneeberg, Saxony, in medical practice as a stimuI764, and finally settled in London as a printseller. He brought lant and mild tonic. Confrom Germany the art of lithography, and inaugurated with his fectioners and perfumers Forget-me-not the once popular'Annuals' (q. v.) A. greatly use the rhizome. Gin and rid promoted English science and art, and published many fine beer are frequently flavoured topographical works, including Histories of Westminster Abbey, with it. In Constantinople Oxford and Cambridge Universities, and the Public Schools. it is eaten freely during the He died 30th March 1834. prevalence of epidemic disAc'ne, a skin disease, characterised by the presence of small eases. Formerly large isolated pustules, with deep red bases. These pustules, after quantities of it were grown suppurating and bursting, leave behind small reddish-coloured norfol, an sent an- cou s. hard tumours. A. occurs most frequently on the nose, givin aly to te onon market; rise tumours. A. occurs most frequently on the nose, giving but it has now nearly disappeared. The plant very rarely fruits rise to the appearance called' copper nose.' in this country. Ac'olytes, a name first used in the 3d c. to denote an Acos'ta, Gabriel later Uriel surnamed the'Jurist,' the inferior order of ecclesiastics who assisted the bishops and son of a Portuguese Jew who had embaced Christiailty, was presbyters in lighting candles or tapers, in handing round the born at Oporto in 594 For awh he shared his lather's bread and wine at the communion, and whose presence was also born at Oporto in 1594. For awhile le shared his father's rrequand wine at the ommunion, and whose preence was als enthusiasm for the new creed, but ultimately lapsed into his rankequired immediately under the sub-dadministration of the other sacramentshe 7th c. hey ancestral faith, and with his mother and brothers quitted Porturanked immediately under the sub-deacons. Since the 7th c. the offices of the A. have been performed by lay servitors and boys, gal took the in Holland, wheref Ui el. But he soon beubmitted t o ircumcisionubt but the name is still retained in the Roman Catholic Church, udaism, as he had doubted Christianity, and was before long and an aspirant to the priesthood still passes'hrough astage Judaism, as he had doubted Christianity, and was before long through a stage entangled in controversies with the rabbis. The remainder of nwhere he receives the name, and is presented with the candles his life was a succession of squabbles, persecutions, and impriand cups that marked his former duties. sonments. Finally, in an access of rage at some intolerable Aconcag'ua, one of the highest peaks in the Andes (q. v.), chastisements inflicted on him when seeking readmission to the 22,422 feet above the sea-level and 10,5oo00 above the snow-line. Synagogue, he blew out his brains with a pistol, April 1647. It gives name to a province (pop. (I868) I,I30,672) and river of Among his papers was found an autobiography, which Limborch Chili, in which kingdom A. is situated. printed in i687; a new Latin edition, with a German version, appeared at Leipzig in 1847. His principal work, first pubAcon'itine is an alkaloid' contained in the leaves of the lished in Portuguese, and afterwards in Latin, is Examen das monk's-hood (Aconitlum NAajellus). It is a white uncrystallisable Tradicoens Phariseas conferidas con ca ley Escrita (' Examination substance, having a bitter acrid taste. Its chemical composition of the Traditions of the Pharisees compared with the written is expressed by the formula C30H47NO7. It is a virulent poison. Law:' Amst. 1624). See Tellinek's A.'s Leben und Lekre When rubbed on the skin it causes tingling, followed by numb- (Zerbst, 1847). ness, and is thus used to allay local pain, as rheumatism and neuralgia. Tincture of aconite taken in very small doses dimin- Acotyle'donous Plants, applied to cryptogams, or flowerishes the pulsations of the heart,-and is very useful in certain less plants, as their spores possess no seed-leaf or cotyledon. forms of heart disease. They comprehend ferns and their allies, mosses, lichens, fungi, * K MS AGO THE- GIOBE ENCYCL OPAiDI1A. ACT and sea-weeds. Acotyledones is the third great class of plants, XIV., frequently practised it; but it was perhaps carried to its according to the natural system. greatest perfection by the English Elizabethans. Sir John Davies has no fewer than twenty-six poems entitled' Hymns to coustics Gr. kou, I hear) isstrictly the science of hear- Astraea,' every one of which is an A. on the words'Elizabetha ing, but it now embraces all phenomena connected with the ori- Regina.' evention of the A. proper may belong.Z> at n. r 1 _ Regina.' Although the invention of the A. proper may belong gin, nature, forms, and perceptions of Sound (q. v.) Except as to post-classic times yet traces of something analogous are regards its applications to music, A. may be regarded as a wholly found in the poetry of the Jews (e*g, the 9t Psalm), the modern science. The mathematical investigation of the proper- Latins (Plautus), and the Greek'Anthology. ties of sound dates from the time of Bacon and Galileo; and Ltins (Plutus), nd the Greek Anthology Newton first showed how the propagation of sound through any Act, in the general legal sense, denotes the formal execution medium depends upon the elasticity of that medium. Since then and completion of any legal procedure. the most distinguished mathematicians, such as Lagrange, Euler, Z. Act, in the university sense, is an exercise to be done by and Laplace, have brought their powerful analysis to bear upon students the unversityir degree. It is chiefly in force by the subject. Considering the extent of our knowledge of acoustic principles, it is surprising how little they are regarded in prac- Cambridge as a test of tie comparative merits of candidates for tical life. There are many instances of halls or churches, spe- the degree of Bachelor of Arts who aspire to /zonouzs. It concially intended for speaking in, of which the acoustic properties sists of a syllogistic discussion in Latin. are so defective that a speaker finds the greatest difficulty in Act, in the drama, is a portion of a play during which action making himself distinctly heard. In some cases the sounds is supposed to be going on unseen; it is marked by the fall of cause numerous and perplexing reverberations; in others they the curtain. Greek plays were not so divided, action being inare almost completely lost on account of the height of the roof. dicated by the chorus, who occupied the stage when the other Acuavi'va, a town in the S. of Italy, province of Bari, i6 actors had left. On the Roman stage the play was divided as miles S. of the town of Bari, and a station on the Bari and with us. A play seems naturally to divide itself into three Taranto Railway. It is walled and ditched, has several convents parts-the exposition, the development, and the catastrophe. If this be so, it is difficult to see why five acts have come to be and two hospitals. Pop. 6776.t conisidered the proper nlumber. Ac'qui (Lat. Aquae Statielloe), a walled town, province of Alessandria, N. Italy, on the N. of the Ligurian Apennines. It has Act and Cotmmission is the judicial act of the Court of a fine cathedral and many beautiful buildings. The hot sulphur Session in Scotland empowering a special commissioner to take springs, from which it is named, were known to the Romans, a proof in a legal action. and are still a favourite resort of invalids. Pop. 6824. Act of Bank'ruptcy, an ostensible proof of inability to A'cr (A..S. naerl a field;* comp. Lat. ager, Gr. agros, a 1pay a debt is so called in the law of England. The proof may field) is the standard British measure for the areas of fields. Its be passive on the part of the debtor as well as active; thus if he allow himself to be arrested for debt he is held to have comsize varies in different localities; thus the Scotch A. and the mitted an himself. The Banforupt Lew Consolidation Act, Irish A. are both larger than the English or standard A., the former in the proportion of I'27: I, the latter in the proportion 12 and 13 Vict., enumerates legal proofs of bankruptcy; the of 1 -62: I. The English or standard A. contains 4 roods, I60 principle of the law being that proof of intention to delay payperches, 4840 -square yards. I-Ioth of an A. is called a square ment of a debt, or to defraud a creditor, makes the debtor chain, the linear chain being 22 yards. bankrupt. The equivalent term of Scotch law is'Notour Bankruptcy;' regarding which the principle of the law of ScotA'cre, St Jean d', the Accho of the Old Testament, and the land is the same as the English. See BANKRUPTCY. Ploflemzais of the New Testament, a seaport on the Syrian coast, about 8 miles from Mount Carmel. The harbourage is unsafe, Act of God is a legal expression lsed to signify an occur rence in which human action forms no element, such as the the harbour being shallow and exposed. Pop. estimated athe from Io,6oo to I5,ooo. A. has been the scene of many a bloody esults of lightning. No one is bound to make good to another.conflict. It was taken by the Crusaders in I Io4, by Saladinloss so arising. in II87, by the Turks in I517, by Ibrahim Pasha in I832, Act of Grace, an old Scotch Act (I696) for the relief and by the English fleet in I840. Bonaparte besieged it unsuc- of paupers imprisoned for debt. cessfully in 1799. Act of Par'liament is a bill which has been passed by Ac'ri, a town in the S. of Italy, province of Cosenza, and both Houses of Parliament, and received the assent of the 13 miles N.E. of the town of Cosenza, on the small river sovereign. Acts of P. are eitherpnlblic or pi-vale in their scope. Macrone, lies in a fertile and beautiful district, and has a pQp. of The term statzute is applied only to the former. A public Act about I2,000. affects a community; a private Act only regards a private concern. In England the law is that a statute is in force until Ac'robat (Gr. akron, extremity, and baino, I go), a name repealed; in Scotland, again, it is held that it may become generally given to athletes who vault, and walk or dance on a obsolete by disuse. Anciently in Scotland Acts of P. were rope, slack or tight. The ancient acrobats seem to have been proclaimed in towns and burghs. The Act of I58I declares as skilful as the modern ones, though some of these perform proclamation at the cross of Edinburgh sufficient. But no profeats of extraordinary difficulty and daring. mulgation is now required for an A. of P. to become binding, ~Acc'rogens, a division of flowerless plants, whose stems in- which it does from the date of passing, unless it be otherwise crease principally by the summit. Ferns, mosses, club-mosses, provided by the Act itself. By the Act I3th Vict. provisions and horsetails are examples of A. The plants are Acotyledo- are made for the forms of bills submitted to Parliament. There nous (q. v.) is the title, the preamble, the enacting sections and clauses, and, if required, the forms and schedules for working the Act. Acrop'olis, a name applied to the citadel of many Greek Three volumes preserved in the Court of Exchequer contain cities, as Athens, Corinth, Argos, Messene, &c., because form- the earliest Acts of the English Parliament-the first containing ing the'highest part of the city.' The A. was a centre round the Acts before the reign of Edward III.; the other two, those which a population gradually collected, and was not only a from Edward III. to 7th of Henry VIII. They are all well stronghold, but a depositary of the treasure and most valuable written. The printing of Acts began in the reign of Richard effects of the citizens. III. Between I8IO and 1824 ten volumes were printed containing the whole Acts of the English Parliament to the end of Acros'tic is the Greek name (akron, an extremity, and slichos, a verse) given to a poem the first or last letters of whose verses taken together form a complete word, phrase, or sen- Act of Set'tlement is the title given to the statute 12 and tence, but most frequently a name. The invention of this spe- 13 Will. III. c. 2, which regulates the succession to the throne cies of composition cannot be traced to any particular individual, of Great Britain. Immediately after the Revolution of I688, but it originated on the decline of pure classic literature. The Parliament had passed an Act by which the succession was early French poets, from the time of Francis I. to that of Louis barred to Roman Catholics, or to any one married to a Roman 4 3 __ 177 $, ACT THE G OBE ENC YCL OPA~DIA. ACT Catholic. The same Act settled the crown on' the issue of Ac'ta Sancto'rum, the collective title of all the old records Queen Mary, Queen Anne, and King William, but made no that have come down to us concerning the saints and martyrs of further provision. This becoming necessary by the death of the Greek and Latin Churches. The beginnings of this branch Anne's son, the Duke of Gloucester, led to the passing of the of ecclesiastical literature are the Actca Ma-lyrum, or accounts of A. of S., settling the crown upon the line of Elizabeth Queen the trials, condemnation, and execution of the early Christians of Bohemia, daughter of James I. of England. Elizabeth and in the times of persecution. The greater part of these, however, her daughter Sophia, Electress of Hanover, having died before were destroyed by an edict of Diocletian, A.D. 303, and the Queen Anne, the son of Sophia succeeded as George I., who rest perished during the inroads of the barbarians in the 5th c. was succeeded by his son George II., predeceased by his eldest When the Christian religion became dominant, many people son Frederick Prince of Wales, father of George III., father of found a pleasure in collecting the fragmentary notices of the George IV. and of Edward Duke of Kent, the father of Queen martyrs still extant, or the more picturesque oral traditions of Victoria. The inheritance, formerly absolute, is now conditional, the times in which they lived. Examples of such collections are being limited to the heirs of Elizabeth daughter of James I., the Martyrologies or Menologies of the Pseudo Hieronymus, being Protestants, married to Protestants, and members of the Bede, Rabanus Maurus, &c., the Martyrologium ]?omanum, the Church of England. MIenologium Gracorum, and the IMartyrologium Ecclesiasticum Germanicum. By far the most famous collection, however, of Act of Tolera'tion. This title is especially given to the the kind, and the one to which the name A. S. has been specially Act i William and Mary, c. I8, confirmed by Io Anne, c. 2, given, is that undertaken by the Bollandists (q. v.), a society of by which all persons in England dissenting from the Established learned Jesuits at Antwerp. This vast work, begun in 1643, Church, except Roman Catholics and those denying the Trinity, and not yet finished, though it had reached in 1868 the month are allowed religious freedom. In Scotland the Act allows all of October in the ecclesiastical year, contains the entire literature sectarians to meet for religious services, imposes a penalty on of the subject, and is not only a colossal monument of human any one disturbing them, and allows the Episcopalian clergy to industry, but, within certain limits, is marked by careful and celebrate marriages. The progress of religious toleration since even critical treatment. the reign of Anne has been slow but steady. 53 Geo. III. c.a x6o, removes the disability of those denying the Trinity; 9 Act', a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Geo. IV. c. 17, freed Protestant dissenters from the fetters of anuncuae, so called from the fancied resemthe Test and Corporation Acts (q. v.); 15 and i6 Vict. c. 36, blance of their leavd res aem-nd allows them to register their churches, births, deaths, and marfrutaonhoe of thei eldeavsrnt riages with the Registrar-General, freeing them in these matters frit to those of the elder, from the supervision of the Church of England. in Greek akta. A. spicata, Roman Catholic disabilities were in full force in England, baeberry, is the only and in still greater force in Ireland, in the earlier years of the species native in Britain, reign of George III. The American war extorted some con- being found in the limebtoeing found in the lime cession from government in the latter country; in England the stone districts of the N. severer penalties were greatly mitigated in the reign of Geo. III; ofEngland. Its berries are black and poisonous. Its while IO Geo. IV. c. 7, commonly called the Roman Catholic blck and poisonous. Its Emancipation Act, admitted the members of that faith in Eng- root has been used with goota befecin nevusedwith land and in Ireland to almost full civil rights. Liberal progress good effect in nervous diorders. Two American has been continued in the present reign, and 21 and 22 Vict. c. oer Tw in 59, may be said to have completed the work of religious eman- species re grown in our cipation. gardens. About Lake Iluron they are considered Act of Uniform'ity is the title of 13 and 14 Car. II. c. 4. valuable medicines by the It enacts that the revised Book of Common Prayer be used in natives, especially as a rethe parish churches of England, and that the schoolmasters sub- medy against the bite of Actea spicata. scribe a declaration of conformity to the Liturgy. It also the rattlesnake, hence they required a declaration by the clergymen before the congregation are sometimes called rattlesnake herbs. of assent to the doctrine and ordinances of the Book of Common Actm'on, grandson of Cadmus, and trained to hunt by Cheiron, Prayer, the penalty of refusal being loss of ecclesiastical status. was torn to pieces by his own dogs-Diana, whom he had surImmense numbers of the clergy were thus deprived of their w iec by hisn dcs ia wo a livings. 9 and Io Vict. c. 59, repealed a provision of the Act prised while bathing, having changed him it astag requiring schoolmasters to get a licence from the ordinary to Actin'ia, a genus of interesting marine animals closely allied entitle them to teach privately, to the sea-nettles (Acalephe). The popular names given them are animal-flowers andsea-anemones, from their resemblance to A8cts of the General Assembly of the Church of Scot- flowers when they land are binding on all members and judicatories of that are fully expanded. Church. See GENERAL ASSEMBLY. are fond They are found on Acts of Sede'runt are rules made by the judges of the the rocks by the Court of Session in Scotland for the conduct before them of shores of every sea. civil and criminal business. The original power of the court In Britain there are to make these rules is derived from a Scotch statute passed in many beautiful speI540. More explicit powers are given to the court under com- cies, but those of paratively recent statutes; but Acts passed in virtue of these tropical regions surrequire, with a few exceptions, to be laid before Parliament pass them in gorgeous within a limited time. Nine judges are a quorum in passing an brilliancy. The A. Act of S. 7ordiaca, a deep crimson species of.... ___ Ac'ta Diur'na, the name of a Roman publication resembling the Mediterranean,is our newspaper, being a daily record of public affairs. Under esteemed a delicacy Actinia. consulship of Julius Coesar it gave an account of the proceed- by the Italians. Dr ings of the Senate. Under Augustus this was stopped. M'Bain, at Trinity, near Edinburgh, has an A. cailed'Grannie,' Ac'ta Erudito'rum, the title of one of the oldest and most Mesembryanthenmum, which has lived in a glass tumbler for fiftyone years, having been taken from the Firth of Forth at North celebrated literary and scientific journals, begun at Leipzig Briki uutx2,b h aeSrJh;D~el January I682. The last volume is for I776. A work on simiJanuary i682. Th atvlm sfr 76 oko ii Berwick in August 1823, by the late Sir John G. Dalyell. lar principles, called Account of Books and T73ansactions of the Ac'tinism is the property possessed by certain solar rays Learned' World, was begun in Edinburgh in x688. See Watt's (hence called actinic rays) of producing chemical effects. See Bibliotheca Brit. SPECTRUM. * _ ACT THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP-EDIA. ADA Action, in its legal sense, means a judicial proceeding, crimi- Ad'a, a town of the Austro-Hungarian empire, in the Woinal or civil. Civil actions are'real,''personal,' or'mixed.' wodina, on the river Theiss, 8 miles S. of Zenta. Pop. 9350. The first demands restitution of property, the second damages Adafu'dia, a towl of Sudan, Central Africa, in the Fellatah for wrong sustained, the third demands both. In the equity country, about 400 miles S.E. of Timbuktu, and I50 miles W. courts of England the word'suit' is used to denote the litiga- of the Niger. A considerable slave trade i of the Niger. A considerable slave trade is carried on here. tion;'A.' being only applied to procedure at common and about 2 statute law. The function of an equity court in England is toout 24000 consider the circumstances of the individual case, and, so far as Adag'io (Ital. slow, lingering), a musical term used to signify legal principle permits, to do what is equitable in it. In Scot- a very slow rate of movement. It comes between'grave and land, again, there is no distinction between law and equity in the'andante,' and is nearly equivalent to'largo' and'lento.' The legal administration. While in both countries any one who has second part or movement of a sonata or symphony is very frebeengal adm stratlly onged may. While i both coutries ay oe whoe law quently in this time, thus forming an effective contrast to the first been actually wronged may seek redress from the law, the law m e w i o a'' v I a of Scotland has this advantage, that any one having a latent movement, which is commonlyan'Allegro' (q. v.) In speaking right may have it declared-that is, established-by law, even of such a movement, the word A. is used as a substantive, as right may have it declared —that is, established-by law, even the A. of the Sonata Patbe'tique,' &c. though no one is denying the right. The danger of lapse, or lapse of proof, by time is thus averted. The necessary A. is Adal', or Adel', the Arabic name given to the sterile maricalled'A. of declarator.' There is no analogous procedure in time country between Abyssinia and the Red Sea, extending as the law of England, though endeavours have been made to in- far S. as the Somauli country. troduce it. Ad'albert (of Prague), the apostle of the Borussi (mod. Action, Principle of Least, is a law of motion first given Prussians), was the son of a Bohemian nobleman, and was born by Maupertuis, and afterwards extended by Lagrange. It may in 956 AD. Educated at Magdeburg, he was made Bishop of be enunciated thus:' The integral of the product of the kinetic Prague in 983, but his zeal for religion, and his rigid attachment energy (see ENERG) of a system and the ENERGY)ment of tima syse item an to the usages of the Romish Church, involved him in quarrels minimum's or in analytical language, aJnemv2dt = o. with his half-pagan countrymen, in consequence of which he Varying Action is a remarkable extensio of the above by Sir quitted his diocese for a monastic seclusion in Italy. Recalled Varying dction is a remarkable extension' of the above by Sirt o a 9 hred th W. R. Hamilton of Dublin, and consists in an investigation of to Bohemia in 993, he was forced to leave again within two the integral when it is not and minimum. in an investigyears, and after visiting Germany, and the monasteries of Tours and Fleury in France, he went to Poland, where he conceived Ac'tium (now Azio), a town and promontory at the entrance the idea of converting the heathen Borussi. At Danzig he bapof the Ambraciot Gulf (Gulf of Arta), near which Octavian tized his first converts, and thence passed into E. Prussia, (afterwards Augustus) defeated Antony and Cleopatra in the where, however, he was assassinated by a pagan priest on his famoussea-fight of September 2, B.c. 3I. The defeat was owing second attempt to preach the gospel, 23d April 997. Boleslav mainly to the flight of Cleopatra with the Egyptian fleet. An- Duke of Poland, it is said, ransomed his corpse with its weight tony, infatuated by his passion, followed her with several ships, in gold, and brought it to the metropolitan church at Enesen, and in a few days his land forces surrendered to Octavian. On where it was reported in later times to have worked miracles. the promontory was a temple of Apollo, where a festival had A.'s'day,' as a saint and martyr, in the calendar of the Church, formerly been celebrated in honour of that god. Grateful for falls on the Ist of June. his victory, Augustus enlarged the temple and revived the festival, Adam, the name given in Scripture to the first man. The which was observed quinquennially. He also founded, on the word conveys in Hebrew the sense of'redness,' and may have opposite coast of Epirus, Nicopolis (city of victory). reference to the earth (Heb. adamahz, Gen. ii. 7) from which Acts of the Apostles, the earliest historical record of the he was formed. (Edom, i.e., the'red' desert region, is but Christian Church, forming part of the literature of the New Tes- another form of the name.) In Gen. ii. 23, considered by some tament, announces itself as the work of the same person who scholars to be part of a later narrative (see GENESIS and PENwrote the third Gospel, who is believed to be'the beloved TATEUCH), A. calls himself Ish, i.e.,'one of substance or physician' of Col. iv. I4, and whom tradition (Nicehorus; worth.' The biblical tale is familiar to every one. The Talb Cent.) declares to have been a painter also. The style of both mudists have spoiled its simple beauty by their tasteless exaggertreatises is similar, even to the usage of particular words, and no ations. According to them, A. was at first a hermaphrodite; one, in early times, except the Marcionites and Manicheans, is his head reached the heavens, and the splendour of his counteknown to have denied either its authenticity or its genuineness. nance outshone the sun. He inspired the angels themselves Baur, the head of the TUbingen School, however, has tried to show with fear, and all created things hastened to do him reverence. that instead of being an unsophisticated narrative of the more But the Lord, wishful to show his superior power, caused a important facts regarding the spread of the gospel, it is a partisan deep sleep to fall upon A., during which he took away, by a effort of the Pauline party in the 2d c. to vindicate their Master curious process, his colossal stature. His first wife was Lilith and his principles at the expense of the apostle Peter. But (i.e., the'night-spectre'), the mother of the demons, who forthis view, though urged with much critical subtlety, has not tunately fled off through the air. After her departure, the Lord established itself, and the book still keeps its ground as an evan- formed Eve from a rib of A., and brought her to him superbly gelical product of the apostolic age. appareled. The angels descended and played around them, upon heavenly instruments; sun, moon, and stars danced in Ac'tuary. In ancient Rome the actiardii were the recorders their courses. But the envy of the angels was now excited, of the Acta of the Senate and corporations. In recent times, the and one of their number, the seraph Sammael, seduced Eve development of the business of life assurance has originated a from the paths of innocence. She and her husband were distinct profession, whose special function it is to calculate the immediately driven out of Paradise, and forced to wander over monetary results of the combined elements of rate of interest, the the face of the earth. According to the Koran, all the angels laws of probability, and age, with reference to the expectation did reverence to A. except Eblis, who was in consequence exof life. See LIFE, EXPFCTATION OF. The members of this pelled from Paradise, which received A. in his place. Here profession are called actuaries. Many other questions, however, Eve was created. In revenge, Eblis seduced the pair, who besides those connected directly and indirectly with duration of were then driven down to earth and separated. But after a life come within the scope of the profession; all practical ques- time God had compassion upon A., and sent the archangel tions do whose solution requires mathematical knowledge of the Gabriel to teach him the divine law, which he faithfully folLaws of Probability (q. v.) lowed, and as a reward had Eve restored him on Mount Acupres'sure. By this term is meant the occlusion of an Arafat, after the lapse of 200 years. See Eisenmenger's Entartery, by means of the pressure of a needle in such a way as to decktes 7udenthum (Frankf. x7oo), and Herbelot's Biblioth/que arrest the flow of blood through it or bleeding from it. The Orientale (Par. 5697).-In the New Testament theology A. apmethod was in.troduced by the late Sir James Simpson, Bart., as pears as the federal head or representative of the human race in a substitute for the ligature usually employed, but has now been the covenant of works which God made at the creation. abandoned by almost all surgeons. See WOUNDS and ANTI- Adam (of Bremen), an old German chronicler and geoSEPTICS. grapher, was a native of Upper Saxony, and was called to * * I9 ADA THEE GLOBE ENCYCLOPL)DIA. ADA Bremen in IO67 as canon of the cathedral and magister scholarumr. and thence to Spalatro in Dalmatia, where he made drawings of He died in 1076. His chief work is the Histori - Ecclesiasticc the ruins of Diocletian's palace. These he published in I763, itamburgensis et Bremensis vicinarumque Locorupn Septent. ab on his return to England, under the title Ruins of thb Palace Anno 788, ad I076. It is a storehouse of information about the of the Ernjeror Dioclesian at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, a magnifiaffairs of his own diocese, and of the northern countries, Den- cent work, containing 7I plates. He soon acquired such dismark, Sweden, and Russia, visited by the devoted missionaries tinction in his profession that he was appointed architect to the of the north. In reference to the Slavic peoples it is especially king. In conjunction with his brother James, he executed many valuable. The work was first printed by Velleius (Cop. public and private buildings, among which are Caenwood. 1579) from a MS. discovered in the monastery of Soro; the best House, Luton House; the Register House, the University edition is that of Pertz, in the Monumenta Germzaniae Historica. buildings, and St George's Church, in Edinburgh; the Glasgow Adanm, Albrecht, a celebrated German painter of animals Infirmary, the Adelphi buildings, London, the gateway of the and battle-scenes, was born at Nordlingen I6th April 1786, and Admiralty, &c. His designs, though marred by a fondness for died at Munich 28th August i862. His principal works are a minute ornamentation, exhibit good and even elegant taste. In died at Munich 28th August I862. His principal works are a 1768 he was returned to Parlianent for Kinross-shire. He died series of pictures representing scenes in the French campaign in 3d March w792, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, in hich Russia, of which he was anl eyewitness * a splendid series of 3d March I 792, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, in which Russia, of which he was an eyewitness; a splendid series of there is a tablet to his memory. lithographs (I20 in number), entitled Voyage fittoresgue militaire; portraits of the King of Wiirtemberg on horseback, and Ad'amites, or Adam'ians, an ecclesiastical sect of the 2d of his finest Arabian steeds; the battle of Moscow, for King c., of Gnostic tendencies, who sought to bring back the state of Ludwig of Bavaria; the battles of Novara and Custozza, in the innocence that existed before the Fall by abstaining from all Austrian campaigns against Sardinia; and the famous fight of sensual gratifications. They rejected marriage, went about Zorndorf for the Maximilianeum at Munich shortly before his naked, &c., but soon got involved in moral confusions, which death. There is a wonderful life, clearness, and artistic accu- ended in a worse licentiousness than that against which they had racy about his pieces. As a horse-painter, in particular, he had originally testified. In the 15th c. a fanatical sect of the same no equal among his contemporaries. Four of his ten children name appeared in Bohemia and Moravia. They also called became painters, and have won celebrity-Benno and Franz in themselves Picards (from their founder, Picard), and' Brethren the same style as their father. of the Free Spirit.' Among other wild crotchets, they declared Adam, Alexander, LL.D, a celebrated Scotch teacher for the abolition of the priesthood and a community of wives. and scholar,.,,was a native of Rafford parish, in the county oteacherf Both Hussites and Catholics naturally disliked them, but in Elgin, and was born in I741. He was educated at the Univer- spite of great persecution from both parties they managed to sity of Edinburgh, became head-master of Watson's Hospital, survive, and as late as 1849, when the edict of religious tolerain the same city, in I76r, and seven years later was appointed tion was issued by the Austrian government, some A. reappeared rector of the Edinburgh High School, a situation which he held nd actually began to proselytise till his death, December I8, I809. A. was a man of high character Ad'amnan, or Adomnan, an Irish saint and ecclesiastic,' and liberal thought, not uninfluenced by the republican senti- best known as the biographer of St Columba, was born in Donegal ments that sometimes flow from a classical culture. He was, about A.D. 624. He belonged to one of the great families in the moreover, an educational reformer, and his efforts to infuse N. of Ireland, and in consequence exercised considerable influence animation and reality into the study of Latin, though much in secular as well as ecclesiastical affairs. At the age, of fiftyopposed by the municipal authorities, and sometimes frustrated, five he was chosen abbot of Hy or Iona, and ruled that famous conferred a renown on the school which it has never since lost. monastery for twenty-five years. It cannot, however, be said His best known production is his Rooman Anztiuities (1791; that his rule was a success, for during one of his visits to Aldtransl. into German by J. L. Meyer; Erlang. I8o6; 2d ed. frid ICing of Northumbria, whose acquaintance he had made in 1812: and into French; Par. I818), a work which has fallen Ireland, he became converted to the Roman view of the true into disuse since the appearance in later times of larger, more time for celebrating Easter, and provoked bitter opposition accurate, and more searching treatises, but which was long the among the Scoto-Irish clergy by seeking to introduce the foreign best thing of the kind either in England or Scotland. He was usage on his return to Iona. The last years of his life were also the author of a Summarz y of Ancient Geogtraphy and His. spent mainly in Ireland, but he died in Iona A.D. 704. A.'s Vita tory (I794), Classical Biography (I8oo), and a Compendious Sancti Columba ('Life of Saint Columba') is a work of great Dictionary of the Latin Tongue (I805). value for the light which it throws on the dark Pictish times, which were soon after again swallowed up in gloom, and on the Hunchback of Arras), a trouvlre of the 13th c., was the son of a peculiarities of that Scoto-Irish Christianity which was parcitizen of Arras, and died at Naples about I287. For the amuse- ally independent of Rome. It was first printed at Ingolstadt ment of the Neapolitan court he composed, shortly before his in i619i, but the latest and best edition of the work is that exement of the Neapolitan court he composed, shortly before his cuted by Dr Reeves in 1857 for the Bannatyne Society of Edindeath, iLi e de Robin et de Marionz, a pastoral operatic comedy, cuted by Dr Reeves in I857 for the Bannatyne Society of Edindeatwhich is printed Robin th de Melanges de a pastoral operatic comedy, burgh and the Irish Archaeological Society, and which, with an whicFrah is (Par. in822). the Megesr pr oductioni des fBib ieus English translation, forms (I875) the 6th volume of the admirable d'an Li d'Adan dArras822). O ther productions of A.'s arce, iand a series of Scottish Historians in course of publication by EdmoncfAdanl i CongiE d'Adaajn dAras, C'est du Roi d'e Se'zle, and a ston and Douglas (Edinb.) A. also -wrote, from information number of songs and rondeaux, which may be found in Roquefort; ston and Douglas (Edinb.) A also wrote, from information Atat de la Poesie Franfaise aux douzilte et treizilme Sue/es. furnished to him by a French bishop, an account of the Holy Like most of the poets of his age, A. composed the music for his Land, which is the earliest we possess belonging to the dark ages. works, and followed the notation invented by Arezzo. The Adam's Bridge, a spit of shoals, 6o miles long, reaching from Li yeu de Robin et ia/arion is the oldest comedy of modern the peninsula of H:iIldostan to Ceylon. There are two openings Europe; it is a real operatic work, is divided into scenes, has in the barrier, but these only allow small craft to pass. the dialogue interrupted with music, and has eleven dramatris A persontz. It gives A. a claim to be considered one of the founders of the French theatre. Adam's Peak, a mountain in the S. of Ceylon, 7420 feet high. On the platform at the summit of the granite peak there Adam, M~l8chior, a German scholar and writer, born in is a deep impression like that stamped by a monster foot, which Silesia about the middle of the I6th c., became rector of the is an object of curious tradition. The Mohammedans believe College of Heidelberg, and died in 1622. His chief works are, that after Adam was expelled from the garden of Eden, he did Apogran hum M3onumentorum Heidelbergiensiumt; Parodie et penance on this spot by standing on one foot for a thousand Metaphrases Horatiana; Vite Germanorum Philosophorum; De- years. The Buddhists regard the indented mark as the Sri-pada, codes dui, Continentes Vitas Theologoreum exterorum Principum. or holy footprint of Buddha. The place attracts immense numMoreri and Bayle, the great encyclopaedists, made liberal use of bers of pilgrims. the writings of this laborious author. Adams, John, second president of the United States, was Adam, Robert, architect, born at Edinburgh in rn n at Edinbrgh in 728, and born at Braintree, Massachusetts, October I9, 735, educated educated at the university there. He proceeded to Italy in I754, at Harvard College, and afterwards qualified himself for the bar. 20 - hi' i t ADA THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPEDIA. ADD He removed to Boston in 1765, and soon acquired a high profes- was founded by the caliph Haroun a] Raschid, on the site of the sional reputation. He was a member of the congress which anc. Anttiochia ad Satrum, and commands the passes of the Taumet at' Philadelphia in September I774, and strongly supported rus mountains. It is now a chief place of trade between Syria Jefferson and Lee in their proposal for total separation from and Asia Minor. Pop. 30,000, mostly Turks. the mother country. In November I784 A. signed the pre- Ad'anson, ]Michel, an eminent French botanist of Scotch liminaries of a peace with Britain, and was American minister in extraction, born at Aix in Provence 7th April 1727, studied his London in I 785. There he published his Defence of the Constilt- favourite science at Paris under M. M. Jussieu, sailed for Senegal tions of Government of the United States (I787). In I789 he was in Africa when only twenty-one years of age, and after a five years' elected vice-president of the United States, and president in f797. residence returned to Europe with a valuable collection of speciThe latter part of his life was devoted to agriculture and litera- mens in natural history. In I757 appeared his Histoire atlur-ede ture, and he died 4th July 1826. du Sen gal, and in I 763 his Families des Plantes, in which he endeaAdams, John Couch, astronomer and mathematician, born voured unsuccessfully to supersede the Linnian system of classinear Bodmin in ISi6. Entering St John's College, Cambridge, fication. His proposal (I774) to the Academie des Sciences of an he was senior wrangler in 1843, and afterwards fellow and tutor. immense encyclopoedic work on his peculiar method of classifiIn I84i he began to investigate the irregularities of the motion cation was not adopted, and the rest of his life was spent in soliof Uranus, which in October I845 he showed to be caused by tary speculation, and in amassing materials for a work that was an unknown planet within a definite range. Le Verrier's an- never to be finished or even published. He died at Paris 3d nouncement of the same import was made on the Ioth of Novem- August i8o6. See Cuvier's Elo'oe a'Alansovn in the 2iecueid des ber following. The discoveries being independent, the Royal ~loes Historiques, &c. (Paris, I8I9). Astronomical Society gave each a printed testimonial, instead Adanson'ia, a genus of trees belonging to the natural order of awarding its gold medal to either. In i858 A. became B3ombaree. There are only two known sp-cies. A. nd'itata Lowndean Professor of Astronomy at Cambridge. the baobab, sour Adams, John Quincy, sixth president of the United gourd or mon States, and son of John Adams the second president, was born key-bread, coin-, t/ at Braintree, Massachusetts, IIth July 1767. Whilebut a youth mon in several - he accompanied his father to Paris, where he acquired a tho- parts of Africa. rough command of the French language, which in his subsequent Itmishort career proved of great importance to him. After graduating at but grohws to a Harvard College he devoted himself to legal pursuits, and to great thickness. It has been writing for the press. He was sent as minister to the Hague in spoken of as 1794; was minister at Berlin i8oo-i8oi; and in 1803 wasof as elected to the Senate of the United States. After being for some thousand of a years professor of rhetoric in Harvard College, he was in i8Io years, and'the oldest' -' "s appointed by Madison minister to Russia, whence he was trans- d....... ferred in 1815 to London. In 18I7 he was appointed secretary olganic monu of state, and obtained the presidency in I825. From I830 till ment of our. his death, 23d February 1848, he was a member of the House of globe.' Adan- Adansonia digitata. Representatives, and latterly an uncompromising advocate of sonwhose name the abolition of slavery. From a party point of view, his poli- the genus bears, and who travelled in Senegal in last century, tical career was somewhat shifty, but he was much superior in met which tw o trees, one of which was 30 feet in gmeters, and knowledge and intelligence to the majority of American states- would h e supposed toowana (the native name for it at Lae saysmi) fw would back a true mowand (the native name for it at Lake Ngami) of which appeared in 1874 (Philadelphia, Lippincott &o Co. ) against a dozen floods, provided you do not boil it in salt wvater; but I cannot believe that any of those now alive had a chance of ~A~d~darms, Samuel, a prominent leader in the movements being subjected to the experiment of even the Noachian deluge.' that led to the separation of the American colonies from Britain, The wood of the baobab is soft, but the inner balk yields a strong b)orn at Boston, U.S., 27th Septemnber I722. He graduated at fibre. The stems often become hollow, owing to the attack of a Harvard in I743, became a member of the legislature in I766, fungus, and within these hollows the natives suspend the bodies and ten years later signed the Declaration of Independence. of those who are refused the honour of burial. A. Gregozii is From 1I789 to 1794 he was lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts, a native of N. Australia, and is called the cream-of-tartar tree governor for the succeeding three years, and died at Boston, 2d from the agreeable acid taste of its fruit. October 18o02. A. was an eager, passionate, obstinate republi- Adda (Lat. Addua), a river of Lombardy, rises in the can, who won and deserved the title of the American Cato. Rhmtian Alps. After flowing througl Lake Cono, it crosses Adamson, Patrick, a notable Scotch ecclesiastic and an the plain of Lombardy, passes Lodi and Pizzighetone, and elegant scholar, born in Perth I543. He studied at St Andrews, about 8 miles above Cremona joins the Po. became. minister of Ceres in the Reformed Church, passed some Adda, a small lizard found in the East. It is supposed to be years on the Continent as tutor to the son of Macgill of Rankeil- efficacious in cases of cutaneous diseases, to which Arabs and lor, one of the Lords of Session, escaping with difficulty from the Egyptians are very subject. massacre of St Bartholomew, and returned to Scotland in I570 Adder, a venomous reptile of the serpent kind. See VIPEa. to find a party among the nobles bent on keeping up Episcopacy in the Kirk of Knox. The remainder of his career is part of the Adder's Tongue, the English name of a small British fern, ecclesiastical history of the time. Appointed minister of Paisley Ophiog/ossznz vulgatutm. by the General Assembly, he soon after (I 577) amazed his breth- Ad'discombe. See CADET. ren by accepting from the Regent Morton the yet unabolished Ad'dison, Joseph, the most exquisite of English essayists office of Archbishop of St Andrews, and henceforth was almost of society, the founder of our periodical literature, and a poet of at open war with the General Assembly, of which, however, till graceful genius, was the son of the Rev. L. Addison, Dean of his excommunication, he continued to be a member. His shifty, Lichfield, and was born at Milston in Wiltshire, st May I672. unprincipled, and worldly policy closed in disaster and misfortune. Sent to the Charterhouse School, London, he there, as a boy, King James neglected him in his later years, and bestowed the made the acquaintance of Steele, afterwards his coadjutor on the revenues of his see on a favourite. Driven to despair by debt, Tatler and Spectator. At fifteen he entered Oxford, where he disgrace, and misery, he sent a' recantation' of his anti-Presby- signalised himself by the peculiar excellence of his Latin verse, terian policy to the Synod of Fife; the excommunication was and graduated M.A. in I693. Having secured the patronage taken off, but he died in the first stages of his humiliation, of Lord Keeper Somers, and obtained a pension of /3oo a February I9, 1592. A collection of the best of A.'s writings year, he travelled in Italy for two years, returning to England was published by his son-in-law, Thomas Wilson (Lond. I6I9). in I703. During his residence in Italy, he penned his poetical As a Latin poet he may almost rank with Buchanan or Melville. Letter to Lord Halifax, in which his classic enthusiasm gives Ada'na, the capital of a Turkish vilayet of the same name, an unwonted ardour to his verse. In 704 he wrote Tie CamAsia Minor, on the river Seihun, 52o miles N. W. of Aleppo. It paing, a poem addressed to the Duke of Marlborough, celebrating i, 2I A —----- ADD THE GL OBE ENCYCL OPiEDIA. ADI his' famous victory' of Blenheim, became member of parliament Ad'elung, Johann Christoph, a once notable philologist, for Malmsbury in I708, and so rapid and fortunate was his public born in Pomerania 8th August I 732, studied at Halle, became career that in I717 he was appointed secretary of state. In the a professor at Erfurt 1759, and librarian at Dresden 1787, where previous year he had married the Dowager-Countess of War- he died Ioth September I8o6. He is best known by his Mit~h)iwick-a union which did not yield him any happiness. He died dates oder Aligemeine Sprachenkunde, only one volume of which at Holland House I7th June I7i9. A. commenced to write for he lived to publish. Three additional volumes were added by the Tatler in I709, and for its successor the Stectator in 7 II. Vater (I809-I7). Other works of A., of much use in their day, His tragedy of Cato, produced in I713, met with unbounded suc- though now superseded, are his Verssc/h eines volisti'ndigen gr-am cess. Whigs and Tories vied with each other in the enthusiasm matisch - kritischen WlWrterbuchs cder Hochdesutschenz Murudazlof their admiration. The work seemed immortal, but is long (Leipz. I774-86; 2d ed. 1793-I8OI), and Aeltere Geschic/hte der since dead. A. is also the author of an unfinished work on Tze Deuztschen, i/hrer Sp-rache und Literatzlr. Evidences of the Cistianz Religion, and of numerous pamphlets, poetical epistles, and political articles. Of his poetry one or badeoa, a frem ort and peninsula in the S.W. of Arabia, at the two sacred pieces will endure as long as the language; but it is base of mountain range which rises to the height of 1776 feet. It as an essayist that he maintains his place among the illustrious was called Aden or Eden (Paradise) by the Arabs, because of its of English authors. For humour, exquisite in ingenuity, play- srich trade and splendid climate. The town lies in a hollow formed fulness, and poetic grace; for satire, incisive as it was wise and by the vast crater of an extinct volcano, and has caeital harbours. wholesome'; and for a moral influence powerful enough to elevate Itwas aflourishing entrepot inthe ancient commercial world, the tone of social intercourse even of his own day, the essays being known to the Greeks and Romans under the name of of the Spectator remain unsurpassed. The most complete edition Adana or Athana. The town played an important part under of A.'s works is Greene's (6 vols., New York and Lond. I854). the Himyarite, Abyssinian, and Sassanide dynasties, was long the See also /se Life of A. by Miss Lucy Aiken (2 vols., Lond. capital of Yemen, and the greatest emporium in Arabia for the 1843). products of Southern Asia and E. Afiica. It first began to decline under Turkish rule (I 538- 163o), and continued to do so under Ad'dison's Disease. This name is given to a peculiar form of all changes, until it passed into the hands of the British in 1839. disease first described by Dr Addison of London. It is character- It is now a strong garrison, a coal-depft for Indian steamers, and ised by anemia, or a deficiency of the coloured corpuscles of the a station of the Indo-European telegraph line. It is rapidly blood, great and progressive debility, loss of appetite, faintness, increasing in trade and population. The opening of the Suez flabbiness of the muscles, and a peculiar brownish or dingy dis- Canal in November I869 gave a strong impetus to its growth. coloration of the skin. It is associated, though not invariably, An extensive range of rock-cisterns was lately discovered, cap. with disease of the supra-renal capsules, two small ductless able, it is estimated, of holding 30,000,000 gallons. Pop. 36,000. glands placed in close proximity to the kidneys. A.'s D. is invariably fatal, and is not amenable to any known treatment. Adenanthera, a genus of leguminous plants, principally indigenous to India. A. pOvonina is a large E. Indian tree, Addi'tion is a mathematical operation by which two or from the wood of which a dye is obtained. The Brahmins use more quantities are put together so as to form one new quan. the dye for marking their foreheads after their ablutions. The tity, which is said to be the sum of the original quantities. In seeds of the tree are bright scarlet, and are used by jewellers arithmetic the distinctive mark of A. is + (plus). In algebra, in the East as weights, each seed being very uniformly four however, there is an extension of meaning, not only +, but grains. They are sometimes used for food, or made into bracealso - (minus) being employed; and these two signs are con- lets and other ornamental articles. nected by the law, + a - a = o; or if + a be added to - a, the result is zero. Adeni'tis, inflammation of a lymphatic gland. It usually proceeds to suppuration and destruction of the gland. It is Ad'elaer, Cort Sivertsen, a famous admiral, born 1622 common in the cervical glands of children while recovering from at Brevig in Norway, entered the Dutch navy at the age of eruptive fevers, more especially in those of a strumous habit of fifteen, and subsequently fought for the republic of Venice body. Inflammation of the glands of the groin frequently folagainst the Turks. On one occasion near the Dardanelles in lows venereal disorders, and is then termed a bubo. I654, A. won a most brilliant victory over the Ottoman fleet. With a single ship he broke a line of 65 galleys, sent I5 to the Adeno'ma, a tumour of the mammary gland, consisting of an bottom, burnt several others, and destroyed about 5000 of the hypertrophied condition of the proper gland structure. The enemy. In i66I he left the Venetian service. Frederick III. term is also sometimes applied to any tumour formed by hyperof Denmark, who made him a splendid offer in respect of salary, trophy found in lymphatic glands. obtained his services in i663, and in i675 he was appointed Aderno (anc. Adraszum), a town of Sicily near the river admiral-in-chief of the Danish fleet, but died at Copenhagen in Simeto, 17 miles N.W. of Catania. It lies at the foot of Mount the same year. Etna, and is built chiefly of lava. Convents and nunneries Adelai'de, the capital of S. Australia, founded in 1836, lies abound in the place. Pop. 13,000. on both banks of the river Torrens, about 7 miles E. of the Gulf Adhesion is a kind of attraction subsisting between two of St Vincent, in 34' 45' S. lat., and 138 26' E. long. It is separate bodies, bywhich they tend to remain attached to each built on a sandy plain, and walled in on the E. and S. by the other when their surfaces are brought into contact. The most Mount Lofty range (21oo00 feet). The streets run at right angles, in and are broad angd well kept.. A. possesses ra number of hangd.- interesting cases are those with respect to solids and gases, which and are broad and well ktept. A. possesses a number of hand- latter become so condensed that in many instances their chemical some public buildings, chief among them, in addition to those latter become so condensed that in many instances their chemical occupied by the governor, the legislature, and government de- action is increased. Thus oxygen is so condensed on the SUroccupied by the governor, the A ustralian Institute and tl de- face of spongy platinum, that it will unite at once with hydropartments, being the South Australian Institute and the Hospi- gen to form water without the application of heat. tal, and several other charitable institutions. The number of churches is remarkable. A. is lighted with gas, and well sup- Adhesion, a term employed in pathology to express the plied with water from reservoirs several miles distant. It has union between two cut surfaces or between two membranes by beautiful botanical gardens, and is surrounded by a public de- the effusion of lymph between the opposed surfaces. The kind mesne half a mile wide, called the Parklands. A. supports four of lymph necessary is called plastic or fibrinous, because it tends daily and nine weekly newspapers, besides several monthly rapidly to become developed into connective tissue, and to be publications. It is a see of the Anglican and Roman Catholic supplied by blood-vessels. Thus the parts become firmly and Churches. Pop. (1873) 29,000. permanently united. Ad'elsberg, a market town of Carniola, 22 miles N.E. of Adi'abatic Lines are curves which express the relation Trieste, in the vicinity of which is the largest stalactite cavern between the pressure and volume of a gas of given mass, the in Europe. This cavern is of double form, the larger chamber quantity of heat in the gas being constant. Hence, as the being 8550 feet long, fretted with beautiful stalactites, and re- volume increases, not only the pressure but also the temperature sonant with the music of a rapid stream. The cavern is in the decreases. Accordingly these lines cut successive equal temcare of guides, who show it by torchlight. perature lines, which represent the variation of pressure with a 4- + ADI THE GIOBE ENCYCZLOAED.14. ADM volume, supposing the temperature constant. These curves The A. is not legally binding, but it is held to transfer tlie onus are of immense service in treating of Thermodynamics (q. v.) Jrobandi from the insurer to the underwriter. Adian'tum, a genus of ferns. See MAIDENHAIR. Ad'jutaznt (Lat. a,:',vare, to help) is the title of the officer A'dige, a river of N. Italy, rises in the Rhbetian Alps, who assists the commander of a regiment or fort. He keeps flows E. into the Tyrol, then turns to the S., passing Trent, the books of the regiment, promulgates orders, inspects genl Roveredo, and Verona, and enters the Adriatic about 5 miles erally, and notes all infraction of discipline. The Adjutantbelow Chioggia. Next to the Po, it is the largest river in General assists the general of an army. The Ajtzant- General Italy, having a course of about 250 miles. It is a means of of the Forces is an important officer of the Horse Guards. transit for the trade between Germany and Italy; nearly 200 Adjutant, the English name for Zepbtoptios Argala, a large flour and rice mills are driven by it; but it is subject to over- Indian bird allied to the stork. The natives call it argala. It flowings. Near the A. the Austrians gained a triple victory is of great use in removing noxiover the French in March and April 1799. ous animals and carrion, on Ad'ipocer6. This is a fatty substance formed under certain which it feeds. Its capacity of conditions in the dead body when exnosed to the action of water swallowing is remarkable, makor a damp soil. It is an unctuous soapy substance, varying in ing but one mouthful of any subcolour from a pale white to yellow or brown. It melts at 202~ stance agreeable to its fancy a F., and burns like spermaceti, but with an ammoniacal odour. foot square. Marabou feathers It is essentially a kind of soap produced by the union of the fatty are obtained from its wings, as acids of the fat of the body with ammonia. Many specimens well as from a Senegal species. might be termed oleate or stearate of ammonia. It is supposed Adjygu'rh, a town of British that during decomposition ammonia is formed from the breaking India, Presidency of Bengal, up of the muscular structures. This unites with the fatty acid about Ioo miles S.W. of Allaof the fat to form A. After being converted into A., the body habad. It is notable only for its may retain this condition for many years. Bodies immersed in fortress, which occupies an isohard water containing lime, or buried in graveyards traversed by lated granite hill, and contains - water which has percolated through chalk, produce a harder kind within it the ruins of richlyof A., which consists of oleate or stearate of lime. sculptured temples, whose archiAd'jective is the name given to that part of speech which tecture resembles that of the Aljlltanlt. adds to the meaning of a noun, by the mention of some circum- Deccan and the Carnatic. Pop. 5000. stance or quality that renders our knowledge more definite. In Ad Lib'itum (in Ital. a piacere), an expression sometimes doing this the A. necessarily narrows the range of the noun. met with on the titlepage of musical compositions with referFor example, the term' rose' is applicable to all kinds of roses, ence to their execution by different instruments. For instance, a but'red rose' denotes only one kind. The image presented to Sonata for the piano, with horn and flute or vioioncello ad lib.; the mind is more distinct, but all other classes of possible images it being left to the performer to choose one of the three instru-such as white roses-are wholly excluded. It is not true that ments for accompaniment. It means also that the solo singer an A. always qualifies. a noun. It may only express an acci- or player may introduce a spontaneous ornament or leave it out. dental circumstance or peculiarity. Thus in the phrase'three Administra'tion and Administrator. In England, men,' three obviously does not express any quality or property when any one dies intestate or ithout appointing an executor We ren wbhen any one dies intestate or without appointing an executor, inherent in men, as red does in the phrase'red rose.' We ren-or wen an executor declines to act, the ordinry or bishop of der the term'men' less vague in point of number by the intro- his diocese appoints some one to'administer'-that is, to collect duction of an external and separable accident. Adjectives are and distribute his property. The personal property of the declassified according to their characteristics into those of qualty, ceased vests in the A. from the date of grant of letters of A. quantity (in which may be included'number' and distribution), In ancient times the right to administer fell to the crown; but and pronominal adjectives. In modern English the A. is in- by Magna Charta it was given to friends and relatives, under flected only for comparison. direction of the Church. Under ecclesiastical guidance, however, Adju'dication is a term in the law of England and in the law beneficiaries found that what seemed to them an undue share of Scotland; but the meaning in the former differs from that in the was applied to'pious uses.' This view led to the passing of an latter. In English law, A. is the fiat of court by which a debtor Act under Edward III., by which the right to A. was given'to is adjudged bankrupt, and his estate and effects made the property nearest and most lawful friends.' See EXECUTOR. of his creditors. The A. proceeds upon a petition to the court Administration, in politics, is usually used in England to by a creditor, or more than one, setting forth that the debtor has denote the sovereign's Cabinet or Ministry (q. v.) In its larger committed an Act of Bankruptcy (si. v.) See also BANKRUPTCY. sense it denotes the whole executive machinery of a state. In Scotch law there are various kinds of A. Atdjudicationzfor DZebt is a process by which a creditor attaches the land or other Admiistration of Charities is chiefly regulated by heritable estate of his debtor. The process applies to heritable 16 and 17 Vict. c. 137, giving powers to the crown to appoint estate (see HERITABLE and MOVABLE) in its widest signification. officers for the purpose. The relative claims of the English and Addjzldicatioz conztra Hareditateozacentemn. When the debtor's Roman Catholic Churches are equitably provided for. Chariapparent heir renounces this succession, the creditor obtains a ties ore or less depending on voluntary contribution are exempt decree cognzitionis cazesa. This A. carries right to the rents due from the operation of the Act. prior to the date of the decree, and is redeemable within seven Administrator-in-Law is, in Scotch law, the office of years by any coadjudging creditor, either of the deceased debtor Tutor or Curator (q. v.) for one in Pupilage or Minority (q. v.); or of the heir who has renounced. belongs to the father, who has jurisdiction over all property Adjuzdcication in Security is the form to be followed when the bequeathed to the child, unless otherwise provided by the beclaim is contingent or latent. The debtor must be vergenzs ad quest. It ceases if the child discontinues to live with the father, inotiaem, or other creditors must be adjudging. unless he continues to live at his expense. It ceases on the Adjudication in fmplemenzt is a form for completing a defec- marriage of a daughter. tive title. Ad'miral, the title of the highest rank of naval officers. The A.djudication on Trust Bond is a mode of making up titles to word probably comes from the Arabic Eniir or Amir,' lord,' heritage where an heir is apprehensive about incurring repre- and was originally'written in English'Amiral' or'Ammiral' (e.g., sentation of his predecessor. Paradise Lost, B. i. 1. 293, 294),' To be the mast of some great A/lQedication on Trust Dispositionz is a similar legal choice. ammiral'). It is so preserved in French. The first English'AdAidjudication Declaratory is a form of action appropriately miral of the Seas' mentioned is William de Leybourne, 1286. classed with adjudications. The title under which the powers of this office were subsequently Adjust'ment, in the law of insurance, is the fixing the amount held was Lord High Admiral of England. The last Lord High of indemnity which the insurer is entitled to under his policy, Admiral was the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV. The and the adjusting of the loss among the underwriters. In com- administrative functions which belonged to the office are now plicated or disputed cases a professional referee is usually chosen. vested in the Lords Commtnissioners of the Admtiralty; and the judi* _ 2* ~ _3 ADM THIE GLOBE EiC YCLZOPBDIAI. ADR cial authority which belonged to it is exercised by the High Court of Ratisbon in 792, and again by the Synod of Frankfurt in 794, of Aldmiralty. In the British navy there are three classes of at which Charlemagne himself was present. Felix retracted his admirals-Admirals, Vice-Admirals, and Rear-Admirals. The views at the Synod of Aix-la-Chapelle in 799, but Elipandus admiral carries his colours at the main, the vice-admiral at the adhered to them with courage or obstinacy, and in later times fore, and the rear-admiral at the mizzen mast-head. Admiral they have been maintained by various distinguished men, as of/the Fleet is a higher rank conferred at the will of the sovereign. Duns Scotus, the schoolman (I4th c.); Basquiz, the Jesuit (17th c.); and the Protestant theologian Calixtus (17th c.) Admiralty Court; The jurisdiction of this court now embraces all questions relating to war prizes and piracy. Abroad, Adop'tion, in Roman law, was a term properly applicable to the Vice-Admiralty courts have jurisdiction in the latter ques- the act by which, in the case of a child, the latria Jotestas was tions. While the office of Lord High Admiral existed, the transferred from the real parent to the person who adopted it. judge in this court derived his authority from him, but he now The child took the name of its adoptive father, and came under holds it directly from the crown. The decisions of the Admiralty an obligation to perform all the religious rites and observances courts at home and abroad are now subject to appeal to the incumbent on the members of the family into which it had Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. The jurisdiction of passed. When the person adopted was old enough to be his the Vice-Admiralty courts in the foreign dominions of the Queen own master, the act was called adrogatis, and sometimes it was has been extended and defined, and their procedure regulated by resorted to for political ends. Thus a public man would get statute. The civil jurisdiction of the courts embraces all ques- himself transferred from a patrician to a plebeian family that lihe tions of maritime rights and contracts, such as arise between might be eligible for some office. A. was only possible where shareholders of ships, or regarding wages, pilotage, bottomry, the adoptive father had no children of his own. The practice and respondentia bonds, salvages, wrecks, collisions, &c. By was also folldwed in Greece, but was not known among the the statute, the judge in the A. C. is, in virtue of his office, also Teutonic nations, and it is a part of the Roman law which has a judge of the Central Criminal Court, and that court is em- not established itself in modern communities. In England or powered to try criminaI offences which would formerly have Scotland a child may be adopted, i.e., received into the house of come under the jurisdiction of the A. C. There is a separate one who is not its real parent, and may receive the name of such A. C. in Ireland. In Scotland it has been abolished, and its person, but no filial duties are imposed by law, and no legal ordinary jurisdiction transferred to the Court of Session, the position in the family is secured to such a child by the act of its Court of Justiciary, and the sheriffs. Jurisdiction in questions adoptive father. regarding prizes and condemnations, however, belongs exclusively Adour', a river of France; nearly 200 miles long, rises in the to the High Court of Admiralty in England. department of the Upper Pyrenees; forms a fall Ioo feet higl Admiralty Droits once formed part of the revenues of the in the beautiful valley of Carnpan; flows through Gers and Lord I-gih Admiral, or when his office was vacant, of the Landes, entering the Bay of Biscay three miles below Bayonne. crown. They were obtained from the seizure of enemies' ships It is navigable for about So miles. lying in port at tlhe declaration of hostilities, or coming into port Ad'owa, a town of Abyssinia, capital of Tigre, and 145 miles in ignorance of hostilities having been declared, from the capture N.E. of Gondar, lies on a tributary of the Atbara. It is the of piratical cruisers, or from the proceeds of wrecks. All such great entrepdt of trade between the N. of Abyssinia and the moneys or chattels obtained in this way are now paid into the Red Sea ports, has manufactures of cotton cloths, iron, and brass, public exchequer. and exports by transit gold, ivory, and slaves. Pop. supposed Admiralty Island, on the N. American coast, belongs to to be about oo. United States, lies about 58' 24' N. lat., and I35' 30' W. long. Ad'ra (the Abdera of the Phoenicians) is a seaport in the S. It is about So miles long and 20 wide, and is clad with pine of Spain, province of Graniida, 49 miles S.E. of Granada. The forests. inhabitants are largely employed in the neighbouring lead-mines, Admiralty Islands, about forty in number, lie in the but also carry on a considerable export trade in grapes and Pacific, N.E. of New Guinea, between lat. 2' and 30 S., and wheat. Pop. 9ooo. long. 146' iS' and I47' 46' E. The centre isle of the group, A'dria, a very old town of N. Italy, in the province of Rosurrounded by a cordon of reefs, is about 50 miles long. Some vigo, with a population of 0o,ooo, gives name to the Adriatic of the islands are covered with cocoa-nut trees, and are inha- Sea. Anciently it was a station for the Roman fleet, anda conbited by a race of the negro type. siderable seaport, but owing to the gradual silting up of this' Ado'nis, the Graecised form of the Phoenician word Adon, part of the Adriatic it now stands I0 miles from the coast.'lord,' is the name of a beautiful youth beloved by Aphrodite. A'drian, a name borne by six popes. Of these Adrian IV., Being mortally wounded by a wild boar, Aphrodite sprinkled wlose name was Nicolas Breakspeare, vas the sole Englishman xnectar into his blood, whence flowers immediately sprang up* tlat ever wore the triple crown. He was horn near St Albans; On his descent to the infernal world, Persephone also became entered the abbey of St Rufus, near Avignon, as a lay-brother, enamoured of him; but commiserating Aphrodite, she allowed and was elected abbot in 1137; was made cardinal-bishop of A. to spend six months every year with her in the upper world. Albano in II46 by Eugenius III.; succeeded Anastasius on the The myth of A. was introduced into Greece from Syria, and papal throne in II54; died September II59. The notable thing inwoven with the Greek mythology. Originally, perhaps, it lapal throne in I154; died September I159. The notable thing was nothing morhe than an emblm of of natur inin his pontificate was the beginning of the papal conflict with the was nothing more than an emblem of the' death of nature in Hohenstaufens of Germany-the fourth crisis of the Guelf and winter and of its revival in spring, an idea strengthened by the Ghibelline struggle. fact that the name Adon was applied by the Phoenicians to the sun. A'drianople, the second city of Tuikey, stands on the Maritza (anc. Hebrus), in a vilayet of the same name, and is Adonis, a small genus of plants belonging to the order Ra- walled and defended by a citadel. Its finest buildings are nunculacew. One species (A. auzumnalis) is naturalised in the immense bazaar of Ali Pasha, and the beautiful mosque Britain, and called Pheasant's Eye. It has also received the name of Selim II. A. was the European capital of the Ottoman of Flos Adonis, from its bright scarlet-coloured petals having Turks till the capture of Constantinople in 1453. The war poetically suggested the notion of their being stained with the with Russia was terminated here in 1829 by the Treaty of A., blood of Adonis. A. venois and A. &vssiavazis, natives of Central which virtually restored to independence the Danubian Princi. Europe, are commonly cultivated in gardens. Europe, are commonly cultivated in gardens. palities, and ceded to Russia the plain of the Kuban, and the Adop'tian Controversy, The, arose in Spain towards the right of navigation of the Black Sea, Danube, and Dardanelles, close of the 8th c. Elipandus, Archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, the Danube to be the northern boundary of Turkey. The chief Bishop of Urgel, maintained that though, in respect of his divine manufactures are silk, cotton, and perfumes; exports, opium, nature, Christ might be called the Son of God, yet in his human wool, and leather. Pop. (Almanac/ de Got/a, 1875) from nature he could only be supposed to be such by adoption. From 100,000 to 150,000ooo. Spain the controversy was carried into the Frankish empire, and Adriat'ic Sea, a name applied to that arm of the Mediterthe new opinions were condemned as heretical, first by the Synod ranean that stretches from S.E. to N.W., between Italy on the ~+24 ADU T2HE GLOBE ENC YCL OPL.EIA4. _ADV one hand and Turkey and Austria on the other. It is connected rister, was, as with us, quite distinct from that of the attorney or by the Strait of Otranto with the Ionian Sea. In the N. lies the agent, who represented his client in the litigation and furnished Gulf of Venice, in the N.E. the Gulf of Trieste, and to the S. of the A. with information regarding the case. The division the peninsula of Istria the Gulf of Fiume or Quarnero. Except of these occupations does not everywhere prevail. They are the Po and the Adige the rivers rtinning into it are mere moun. united in many of the states of Germany, in Geneva, in America, tain-torrents. and in some of our colonies. Adu'16 (mod. Zulla), on the W. coast of the Red Sea. Here In France the avocat and avoud correspond pretty nearly to the Cosmos Indicopleustes (q. v.), a merchant of the 6thc., found barrister and attorney in England. The French A. possesses the Costnos Indicopleustes (q. v.), a merchant of the 6th c., found a piles t rsoniiy r s dc, d r h a Greek inscription, the illonumnentum Adulitanum, useful for same privileges as to irresponsibility for his advice, and for the purpsesof aciet gograhywhih hehaspreerve inhisstatements of his instructions, as belong to members of the correpurposes of ancient geography, which he has preserved in his sponding branches of the legal profession in this country. Like Topog),alhia Chi-istiana. ~~~sponding branches of the legal profession in this country. Like Topograf~tihia Chr~istiana. the English barrister, he has no legal claim for his fees. It is Adul'tery is the sin of incontinence in a married man or etiquette at the French bar that in communicating articles of woman. According to the Roman and Mosaic law, a man was process to each other no acknowledgment shall be given; and it not guilty of the offence unless the participant woman was mar- is asserted that during the many centuries this rule has existed, ried. Following the ecclesiastical law, however, modern Europe it has never once been ignored. and America generally have held that a man may commit A. In Belgium, Geneva, and those German states by which the with an unmarried woman, thus placing husband and wife Code Napoleon has been received, the organisation and discipline on the same footing. During the Commonwealth in England, of this branch of the legal profession are similar to the French. the offence was made a capital crime. It is now only held by the law to be a civil injury, the remedy being provided by the Advocate, Lord. This is the title of an important legal and Divorce Acts of the present reign. The adulteress is made co- political officer in the management of Scotch affairs. He is nerespondent in the suit, and may be found liable for costs and cessarily a member of the Faculty of Advocates; and, according csom eissaely ember ofro the mosuty emien dounses; belnd -odn damages. The extent of the latter will be affected by the social to custom, he is selected from the most eminent counsel belonging to the- political, party in power. He is ex officio one of the position of the plaintiff, means of the defendant, and circum- g to the plitical party in power. He is nx oci one of tse stances of the case. By the old law of Scotland, certain flag- Queen's ministers, but he is not usually a member of the cabinet. rant forms of A. were held a capital crime. But the statute slctr-gnrl n orjno doae aldavcts rant forms of A. were held a capital crime. But the statute TThe L. A. is assisted in his duties as public prosecutor by the (1563) so constituting it has long since fallen into desuetude; and solicitor-general, and four junior advocates called advocatesin Scotland now, as in England, the offence is not held'to be a depute.'he parliamentary duties of the office are very onerous, crime; but it constitutes a ground of action of divorce, and of involving the preparation and intoduction of all government a civil action for damages. See DIVORCE, SEPARATION. a civil action for damages. See DlvoRcE, SEPA~RATION, measures which are especially Scotch. An excellent historical account of the office will be found in a judgment of the late Lord Ad'vent (Lat. adventus, the'coming' or'approach'), in Medwyn, in'King's A. against Lord Douglas,' 24th December ecclesiastical usage, denotes a certain period before Christmas. 1836. The title was originally King's A.; one of the fifteen In the Greek Church it lasts forty days; in that portion of the original judges of the Court of Session being so named beLatin Church which still observes it, viz., the Roman, Anglican, tween I525 and I538. The first mention of a Lord A. is in and to some extent the Lutheran communions, it lasts four the record of the Court of Justiciary in I598. In I582 the salary weeks. A. is first mentioned as a festival enjoined by the of the office was /,40 Scots. It is now /2387, with considerable Church at the Synod of Lerida, 524 A.D., which forbad marriages emoluments from patents and other sources. The official duties to be celebrated during its continuance. The explanation of the of the L. A. do not prevent him from continuing his ordinary four weeks is to be sought in the old theological view of the practice. Though not necessarily a privy councillor, he is by foumfold coming of Christ, viz., his coming in the flesh; his courtesy addressed as'The Right Honourable' during his coming at death to receive the spirits of the faithful; his com- tenure of office. ing at the fall of Jerusalem; and his coming at the judgmentJ ~~Advocates, Faculty of, in Scotland. The constitution of day; and the'gospels' for the four Sundays were chosen in barmony with this. As the beginning of the ecclesiastical year, and this body is derived from that of the French avocats. The prothe season withat ushers in the holy day of the Nativity, it has fession of advocate is a very old one in Scotland. In 1424 we the season that ushers in the holy day of the Nativity, it has fn ttt o euigteassac fa doaet h always been regarded as an appropriate time for solemn and find a statute for securing the assistance of an advocate to the always been regarded as an appropriate time for solemn and penitent thought. ('Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at poor:'And gif there bee onie pure creature,' says the Act,'for penientthoght.('Rpen, fr th kigdo of eavn i atfault of cunning or dispenses that cannot or may not follow his hand.') Hence the prohibition of worldly amusements and festi- fault of cunning or dispenses that cannot or may not follow hi vities in the Roman Catholic Church. This view of A. was cause, the king, for the love of God, sail ordaine the judge before finally sanctioned by Urban V. in 370 quhom the cause sulde be determined to pursue, and get a leill finally sanctioned by Urban V. in I37o. and wise advocate to follow sik pure creatures causes.' This Ad'verb. This part of speech receives its name because it is regulation has remained in force with but little alteration to the most frequently joined to the verb, which it limits in same way present time. See PooR's ROLL. The profession, however, that an adjective does a noun. It can, however, be also joined was not constituted a Faculty till the institution of the College of to an adjective or another A. Like the adjective, it admits Justice (q. v.) in I532. The number of mnembers was originally of comparison only where gradation is possible. As we can limited to ten, but it is now unlimited. All candidates for adhave the adjectival forms bright, brighter, brightest, so we can mission require to pass an examination in law. An examination have the adverbial forms brightly, brightlier, brightliest, but must also be passed in general scholarship, unless the candidate degree- is alike inconceivable in the adjective'round,' and the is a Master of Arts in a British university, or has so graduated in A.'here.' Adverbs are classified by grammarians under the a foreign university, as to satisfy the Dean of Faculty and his heads of time, place, degree, manner, cause, &c. council that such scholarship has been attained, as is denoted by the British degree of M.A. The scholarship examination is on Adver'tisement (Fr. averlissemnent), a notice to the public,' hdvr'tsemnt ~r.avetisenelz), noiceto he ublcthe following subjects' Latin; Greek, or, at the candidate's usually given in the newspapers and other periodicals. An A. the following subjects: Latin; Greek, or, at the candidate's has often an important legal effect; thus tile advertising of a ship option, any two of the following languages —French, German, for a particular voyage places the master on the footing of a Italian, or Spanish; Ethical or Metaphysical Philosophy; Logic, for a particular voyage places the master on the footing of a r t cniae oin Mhmtcs e ndae public carrier, entitling the merchant to have his goods shipped or, at the candidate's option, Mathematics. The candidate so long as sufficient freightage is disengaged.- See CHAIRTER-,being found qualified, may, after one year, go in for the law exaPARTY', CARRIER. A. is:freightage quentlrequied asaqulifcaior mination. He must not, however, in the meanwhile, have been A. is frequently required as a qualification engaged in any trade or profession either on his own account or for statutory privilege, as under Road and Bridge Acts, &c. In as assistant. Proof of attendance at the lawclasses of Edinburgh as assistant. Proof of attendance at the law-classes of Edinburgh the Gazettes of London and Edinburgh it is frequently required University is requisite. An advocate may plead before all the law by law, as in dissolution of partnership, under the Bankrupt courts of Scotland, civil and ecclesiastical, as also before the Acts, &c. See NEWSPAPER.~ ~Acts, &c. See NE,~WSPAPER,. House of Lords. There is a widows' fund belonging to this Ad'vocate (Lat. advocatus), one cancld in, inferentially, to body, which is regulated by statute. The supreme judges of plead for another. In Scotland, the profession of an A. cor- Scotland and the sheriffs of the counties are always chosen from responds to that of a barrister in England. See ADVOCATES, the Scotch bar; so also are generally the sheriffs-substitute. FACULTY OF. In ancient Rome, the office of the A., or bar- The fees of admission to the Faculty of A. are about/34o. 4 ___ 2 ADV THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPIDIA. iNA Advocates' Library, the library belonging to the Fa. cases of dysentery in India. The fruit, when ripe, has a plea. culty of Advocates, Edinburgh, instituted i682 by Sir George sant flavour, and a yellow dye is obtained from the rind. Mackenzie. It ranks as the fourth British library, and is by far the largest in Scotland, containing (I875) 250,000 volumes. It gophony s a term employed in medicine to describe a is specially rich in Scottish history, law, and scholastic theology; peculiar sound, similar to the bleating of a goat, heard when the but modern foreign literature is not adequately represented. The ar Is applied to the back of the chest, over the bases of the lungs, complete character of its collection of English literature is due to in cases of pleurisy in which a large amount of fluid has been its receiving a copy of every new book published in the king- effused into the pleural cavity. It is produced by the sound of dom, a privilege granted by the copyright law of 1709, and con- the voice being modified by passing through a layer of fluid. tinued down to the present day. 2gopod'ium Podagra'ria, an umbelliferous plant, which Advoca/tion, the process was so called in Scotland by is a great pest in many gardens. It is known as herb Gerard, which a cause was moved from an inferior to the ash-weed, English master-wort, cow-cabbage, and gout-weed. hih a cause was moved from an inferior to the superior It was formerly used as a specific for gout, hence its specific court, either that it might go on there or that a judgment might be reviewed. The process was abolished in I868; and an ap- name. The A. is indigenous to Britain. pellant from a sheriff-court judgment does not now, as formerly, MEgospo'tami (the Goat-River), in the Thracian Chersonesus, require to find security for expenses. An appeal is open for where Lysander defeated the Athenian fleet, B.C. 405. This twenty days after date of final judgment, and it is competent for defeat virtually brought the Peloponnesian war to a close. six months after the twenty days, unless it has been extracted or'fri, an English ecclesiastic of the oth or IIth c., whose implemented in the meantime. history is more obscure than his fame. He is said to have been Advoca'tus Dia'boli (' Devil's Advocate') is the name given of noble birth, but the evidences are not satisfactory. From a in the Roman Catholic Church to the individual whose business simple'monk and mass priest,' as he calls himself in the preface it is when any deceased person is proposed for canonisation, to to his Homilies, he rose to be Archbishop of York or Canterurge all possible objections to the proposal. His opponent who bury. The date of his death is uncertain. A. had the true Engfavours the canonisation is called Advocatus.Dei ('God's Ad- lish love of the mother tongue which marked our countrymen vocate'). before they came under the foreign rule of the Latinised NorAdvow'son, the right of presenting to a benefice. The per- mans, and a good deal of his scholarship and literary activity was bestowed on the vernacular. Of his good sense and clear son who presents is the patron, the presentee is the clerk, and the was bestowed on the vernacular. Of his good sense and clea bishop of the diocese is the ordinary. An A. is either apj~endant Christian doctrine we have abundant evidence in his writings, or in gross. An A. appendant, having been immemorially an some of which were popular long after the Conquest, and reorAn A. appendant, having been immemorially an- appeared in the corrupt English of the time. Those usually nexed to a manor, is conveyed by any deed that transfers the appeared in the corrupt English of the time. Tose usually lm-anor itself. An A. once detached from a manor becomes ascribed to A. are two volumes of homilies, canons or injuncannexed to the person of its owner, and is then an A. in gross. tions to the clergy, a translation of the younger Priscian, with a When the bishop and patron are one he collates a clerk, and the glossary, and a translation of various parts of the Old Testament. A. is collative. A donative A. is when the patron can appoint 1l1ia'nus Claudius, who lived probably about the middle to the benefice without the approbation of the ordinary, the of the 3d c. A.C., was born at Palestrina. He was a citizen of right of visitation being vested in himself. Rome, where he taught rhetoric. He acquired such a mastery 2E'diles, originally so called from their having the care of the of Greek that he spoke and wrote it with ease and elegance. temple (edes) of Ceres, though their supervision subsequently two principal works are his Varia Iistoria, or Miscellaneous extended to all public buildings and places. At first there were History, in fourteen books, a compilation valuable for its numertwo plebeian Ad., their institution dating from B.c. 494. Two ous extracts from authors whose works have been lost; and a curule LE. were selected from the patricians, 365 B.C., and in gossiping treatise, in seventeen books, De Aninalium Naturs, B.C. 45 Julius Caesar added other two ple number o O te Pcuian ls. OfE., the fornumber there is an being then six. plebeian edition by Kuiihn, Leipz. I780, 2 vols. 8vo; and of the latter one by Fr. Jacobs, Jena, 1832, 2 vols. 8vo. 2Ega, a genus of Isopodous crustacea. They are generally 2mi'lius Paulus, subsequently surnamed.acedonicus, termed fish-lice, being parasitic on the bodies of fish. They are son of the consul Lucs milius Plus, who fell at Cann, found in all parts of the world. The fishermen of Newfound- son of the consul Lucius Emilius Paulus, who fell at Cann, land call them'fish-doctors.' was born about 230 B. C. Though inheriting the patrician prejudices of his family, and too proud to flatter the people for 2Egilops, a genus of grasses allied to wheat-grass, or 2Tri- office, his unquestioned integrity in the midst of manifold tempticum. ZE. ovata is supposed to be the plant from which has tations secured for him unbroken respect and confidence. After originated our cereal wheats. having rendered the state valuable services, both as a civilian and Elgi'na, an island in the Gulf of Egina, area 41 square miles. as a soldier, he was, when fully sixty years of age, pressed to The western part is level and fertile, but the rest is hilly and conduct the war against Perseus, King of Macedonia. Elected barren. Rocks and shallows render it difficult of access, and it consul for a second time, B.c. I68, he arrived in Macedonia in possesses only a single haven. Of the ancient LE. (now Egina) June of that year, and by the defeat of Perseus at Pydna terminumerous remains are still extant. The islanders, who number nated the war, and put an end to the Macedonian kingdom. He 7000, are remarkable for their industry. Corn, wine, oil, and sent immense booty to Rome, where in November I67 B.C. he fruits are the principal products. celebrated his triumph with extraordinary magnificence. But J~gine'tan Sculptures. iEgina was anciently celebrated- family misfortune dimmed his glory, for of his two younger sons one died five days before, and the other three days after, his as a school of art, and the names of many of its sculptors were one died five days which he bore th three days after imity. fo I ar a uens triumph-calamities which he bore with touching equanimity. famous. In i8ii a party of English and German art-students He diedB.C. 6o. excavated the sculptures which had occupied the tympana of the temple of Jupiter Panhellenius, or, as some believe, of Pallas..2Ene'as, the son of Anchises and Aphrodite, after Hector They were purchased for the Royal Gallery of Munich. Casts the great bulwark of the Trojans in their contest with the Greeks. of them are now in the British Museum. Though not of the On one occasion he led the fourth division of the Trojans, and best age of.Eginetan art, they are natural, graceful, and well on another engaged in combat with Achilles, from whom he was proportioned. rescued by Poseidon. Such is the Homeric story. After the fall M'gis (a goat-skin), the shield of Zeus, who is hence styled of Troy, according to later stories, he collected the people at aegis-bearing. This shield exhibited the head of the Gorgon. Mount Ida, but being threatened by the Greeks, lie left the The isE. was also an attribute of Athena, and symbolised the coasts of Asia, and crossed over into Europe, and finally settled The &E. was also an attribute of Athena, and symbol/sea the in Latium. He is the hero of Virgil's epic, the _ En divine protection. in Latium. He is the hero of Virgil's epic, the 4e9neid, in which,,divine protection. to connect him with the Julian family, he is, after many wandermgle, a genus of plants belonging to the order Auran- ings, conducted to Latium. Latinus, King of the Aborigines, tiaceae, or Orange family..E. Marmelos yields the Bhel or prepared for war, but afterwards concluded an alliance with Bael fruit of India, which resembles a large orange. The IE., and gave him his daughter Lavinia in marriage. JE. rind of the unripe fruit is strongly astringent, and is used in founded a town, which he named Lavinium, after his wife. 26 THE GLOBE ENCYCIOPiDIA. AER After becoming sole ruler of the Aborigines and Trojans, he is sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid in a generator, and washed said to have fallen in a battle with the Rutilians. The account by passing through water. It then enters a receiver, or strong of his wanderings given in the ahneid is substantially the same vessel, in which is placed the water intended to be aerated, and as that of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Virgil's contemporary, by its own accumulated pressure the gas sufficiently saturates and neither has any historic value. the water. An example of this method, on the small scale, is MEo'lian Harp, a musical instrument producing harmonic seen in the'gazogene,' an apparatus used in houses and small sounds by the action of the wind on strings of catgut or wire, establishments. In the second system, which is that usually tuned iln unison, and stretched, over a box of thin deal. The adopted by manufacturers, the gas is generated as above stated, inventor is said to have been the German Jesuit, Athanasius but after washing it is stored in a gas-holder. From this it is Kerches (I602-oh); but it first became well known through drawn into the receiver by an air-pump, where it meets and Pope and the Scotch musician Oswald in last century. saturates the water, the admission of both being regulated by means of cocks, so that any desired pressure may be maintained..JEolians, one of the most powerful of the Hellenic people. The bottling and corking are performed at an apparatus which Originally settled in Thessaly and Bceotia, at an early period has to be guarded specially to prevent accidents by the burstthey spread themselves over the N. of Greece and the W. of ing of bottles. Soda, potash, lithia, and other waters, are Peloponnesus. Still later they sent numerous colonies to Asia prepared by placing measured quantities of solutions of these Minor and to Lesbos. The Lesbian colonists established a salts in the bottles before drawing off the aerated water; and variety of the 2Eolic dialect, carried to perfection in the lyrics similarly, lemonade and other fruit flavours are placed in the of Alcceus and Sappho. bottles and the plain aerated water added to them. Nothing AE'on (comp. Lat. crvurm, Eng. ever, Ger, ewig), a Greek but the aerated water passes through the machines, and the word strictly denoting an age, but also applied to eternity. The pressure of gas varies only for the different class of beverages. 2Eons of the Gnostics were certain emanations of the divine The variety of recipes for lemonade, seltzer, potash, and soda nature, and were so called either because as powers they were waters, &c., is infinite, each manufacturer suiting his own and placed over the different ages of the world, or because they his customers' tastes. It is of great importance that the water partook of the eternal duration of God. used should be pure, and that no lead should be employed in Aerated Bread. The vesiculation or raising of bread in any part of the apparatus beyond the point where the gas is' baking is accomplished in two distinct ways. By the ordinary,er charged with carbonic acid acts powerfully on lead, and a large admixture of that metal has been detected in or fermentation, process (see BREAD) carbonic acid gas is gener- a a large admixture of that metal has been detected in ated in the dough by induced alcoholic fermentation, but when samples of A. W., to which cases of lead-poisoning hve been traced. the carbonic acid is developed from a foreign substance, such as an alkaline carbonate, or introduced from without,-aerated or Aerodynam'ics is the science which treats of the motion of unfermented bread is the result. The principal method of air and other gases, investigating the laws of the passage of air manufacturing A. B. is by a process patented by the late through an orifice or through a tube; the force, nature, and Dr Dauglish. It consists in making dough with water charged effects of wind, &c., and also the resistance of the air to a body with carbonic acid under high pressure, which, by its expansion moving through it. For moderate velocities the law that the on removal from the closed mixing vessel, renders the mass resistance varies directly as the square of the velocity is suffiuniformly spongiform throughout. The water for mixing is ciently true for practical purposes; but when the velocity becharged with carbonic acid in the same manner plain Aerated comes considerable, there is another cause which must be taken Water is prepared (q. v.), and the mixing is accomplished in a account of, viz., the great condensation of the air particles in strong cast-iron cylinder, in which a series of arms revolve by front of, and the partial vacuum formed behind, the moving body. steam-power. The whole process of mixing a sack of flour A'erolites (Gr. aer, air, and li/kos, stone) are stony or into dough can be finished in less than half an hour. The dough metallic masses which from time to ime are precipitated upon * metallic masses which from time to time are precipitated upon is expelled from the lower end of the cylinder into a box the earth. There are different names given to A., according as which is gauged to hold a two-pound loaf, and from the theyappear with or without box it is removed into pans for firing without any portion explosion, at daytime, o at of the material ever being handled. The advantages claimed eight. Meteors and fireballs for A. B. are —I, rapidity and certainty of manufacture; 2, (orbolides) are explosive, the cleanliness of processes; 3, economy, resulting from the fact former appearing during the that there is no waste of flour in mixing nor any degradation of day, and the latter at night. material as in fermentation; and 4, the practicability of making It is probable, however, that good bread from flour which, by the common process, requires the dark cloud accompanying the addition of alum. The absence of flavour in A. B. is one the explosion during the day of the chief bars to its more extensive use. would be luminous at night. ASratedl Waters are effervescent beverages prepared by the Shooting - stars do not exsolution of carbonic acid gas in water, to which small quantities plode, but A. similar to shootof saline substances or fruit syrups are frequently added. The ting-stars have been observed simplest form of aerated water is seen in the preparation of to be projected from fire-'seidlitz powders,' which are made by dissolving separate por- balls. Such facts seem to tions of tartaric acid and bicarbonate of soda in water. A tend to the conclusion that chemical reaction takes place in which the tartaric acid com- these are similar in all but bines with the soda to form tartrate of soda, liberating the outward circumstances. carbonic acid, and the solution is drunk while the carbonic acid Until the beginning of this is bubbling up through the water. The so-called effervescent century, the numerous records citrate of magnesia is essentially the same as seidlitz powder in of the falling of stones from Aerolite,. its character and action. The free use of water so aerated intro- the sky were not generally duces within the system tartrate of soda, or other alkaline salts, believed by scientific men; and it was only when M. Biot's inin proportions which have a'deleterious influence. Such an quiry into, and report of, the extraordinary meteoric shower at objection is obviated by the ordinary methods of manufacturing L'Aigle, in Normandy, in the year I803, was given to the world, aerated water, which depend for their operation on the fact that that all doubts of the phenomenon were dispelled. water absorbs its own volume of carbonic acid at ordinary tem- Among the ancients meteoric stones were regarded as mysteperature. Increase of pressure consequently increases the absorp- rious visitants from the gods, and were consequently worshipped tion of the gas, but on removing the pressure, as in the case of with great veneration. As examples of such we may mention uncorking a soda-water bottle, all the gas beyond what is re- the holy Kaaba of Mecca, and the black conical stone at Emesa tained by ordinary atmospheric pressure escapes. Plain aerated in Syria. water, which is the basis of all the numerous effervescent waters, A most interesting fact connected with shooting-stars is their is prepared by two principal methods. In the first case, car- periodic appearances. They usually appear singly, and may be bonic acid is evolved from:chalk or whiting by the action of either observed almost every night; but at certain times they appear B —----— 4 - -- _ _ i_ _ -_ 27. AER THET GLOBE ENCYCLIOPAD~A. TS in great number, radiating from a fixed point in the heavens; Bellotti (Milan, I82I) has a high reputation; the French version and these appearances take place annually. This periodicity of Pierron (Paris, 1841) has been crowned by the Academy; the affords a strong argument in favour of the theory that they are best German version is that of Voss (Heidelb. I826); and the planetary bodies revolving round the sun in an orbit intersecting -English version of Professor Blackie is faithful and spirited. that of the earth, and especially as they radiate from that point in the heavens towards which the earth is travelling at that time. tescnma'pius, the god of the healing art, represented The great American shower of November I2th and I3th, i833, first in the Homeric poems melely as a human being, but the comdrew the attention of astronomers to this fact. Exactly a year later mon tradition made him the son of Apollo and Coronis. He another great shower was observed, and now these phenomena was instructed in medicine by Cheiron, and was reputed to are yearly expected. It would also appear that the intensity of have succeeded in restoring the dead to life. He was killed the shower varies from year to year, reaching a maximum every with lightning by Zeus, who feared that men might escape thirty-four years. Another great periodic swarm occurs from the death altogether, or because Pluto had complained that the 9toeth of A,the a eand of which number of the dead was diminishing. At the request of Apollo 9th to the Idth of August, the magnitude and brilliancy of which reach a maximum every tsenty-two years, The August display he was placed among the stars. He was worshipped over the reach a maximum every twenty-two years. The August display has also been connected with the appearances of Beila's Comet whole of Greece, and had a famous temple and grove at Epidaurus. His statues resembled those of Zeus. One hand held a (q. v.) staff, the other rested on the head of a serpent, while a dog lay A. are to a great extent composed of metals, iron especially by his side. Serpents were always connected with his worship, being present in great abundance, and resemble very much our own ad he himself often appeared in tht form. Those cured of anid he himself often appeared in that form. Those cured of plutonic or volcanic rocks. It was upon this resemblance that disease sacrificed a cock or a goat to,ZE., and hung up votive the now exploded hypothesis of their being projected from lunar tablets in his temple. Several of these have been preserved. volcanoes was advanced. The specific gravity varies from two to eight times that of water; but Reichenbach remarks that their 2Esculus. See HORSE-CHESTNUT. mean specific gravity is rigorously that of the earth; and, reasoning from this, he suggests that the earth and other planets are Ae'sir is the common name given to the gods of the Northern merely a combination of A., which may be thus an intermediate mythology. At first we hear of only three, Odi, Vili, and Ve; step between asteroids and comets, which, he urges, differ from but afterwards the number was increased to twelve, not countthe other bodies in the solar system only in their much less ing Odin, viz., Thor, Njord, Frey, Baldr, Tyr, Heimdal, Bragi, density. Forseti, Had, Vidar, Vali, Ullr. Loki, who figures among Aeronaut'ics. See BALLOON. them (like Satan in the prologue to Job), is rather to be regarded as the Norse Fiend, or Adversary. Along with these Arqsertat'ics is the science which treats strictly of the equili- rank certain goddesses, of whom Frigga, Freyja, Idun, Eir, Saga, brium and pressure of air, and the methods for measuring such; Nanna, and Sif are the best known. The old chroniclers but it now embraces similar properties of all other gaseous por- of the I3th c., connected the word A. with Asia, and imagined tions of matter. For information concerning air in particular, an emigration from that continent, under the leadership of see ATMOSPHERE. a chief named Odin, who established himself in Scandinavia, According to Boyle's or Mariotte's law, the pressure, or expan- and carried thither -the language and culture of the South. sive force, of a gas at constant temperature varies inversely as But such attempts to give a pseudo-historic reality to Odin have the volume, or directly as the density, of the same gas. Gay- long been abandoned, and it is now believed that the A. is the Lussac's law is an extension of this, and states that the absolute mythic expression of an old indigenous Teutonic worship. The temperature (see HEAT) of a gas varies directly as the product name appears in all the great Teutonic languages; e.g., Goth, of its pressure and volume.' These laws are, however, only ans, pl. anseis; old High Ger. anrs, pl. ensid old Norse, dss, pl. approximately true for known gases. The ideal gas which obeys aesir; Sax. &s, pl. Es; and it is seen in such names as Ansgar, of these laws is called a perfect gas. which the Norse form is Asgeir, Anselm, and the Eng. Oscar. Aerostat'ic Press is a machine for extracting the colouring Oswald, Osborne. matter from dye-woods, and similar substances, by means of the MsE'sop, the fabulist, on the late authority of Diogenes Laerpressure of the atmosphere, which forces the extracting liquid tius and Plutarch, is stated to have lived in the 6th c. B.c. through the substance, below which a vacuum has been formed. No work of his is extant, nor is it probable that he committed 2Es'chines, an Athenian orator, was born 389 B.C. De- any fables to writing. Some have even denied his existence. mosthenes accused him of accepting bribes from Philip, King According to the writers mentioned, he was originally a slave, of Macedon, who had planned the conquest of Greece, to advise but subsequently received his freedom, visited Crcesus and Pisisthe Athenians to conclude a peace with him..E., who believed tratus, and was thrown from a precipice at Delphi in consethat this policy alone could avert ruin from his country, headed quence of a dispute with the citizens. Fables, ascribed to LE., the peace party, while Demosthenes roused his countrymen to a were popular at Athens, and allusions to them are found in final but unavailing struggle at Chmroneia 338. A crown hav- Aristophanes. Bentley's theory, that his fables were transmitted ing been proposed to Demosthenes for his lofty and stainless by oral tradition, is the only probable one. Both Socrates and patriotism, Al. accused Ctesiphon, the proposer, of illegality, Demetrius Phalereus turned some of them into verse. The but being defeated, withdrew to Asia Minor, and finally estab- fables now bearing his name are undoubtedly spurious, and are lished a school of eloquence at Rhodes, which afterwards acquired not found in any MS. older than the I3th c. The different sets celebrity. He died 314 B.c. Of the three orations published of them that are extant were published at Breslau in i8ro by by TE., against Timarchus, on the Embassy, and against Ctesi- J. G. Schneider. phon, the best edition is that of Bekker, vol. iii. of his Oratores Msthet'ics (Gr. aisth.tikos, belongig to perception, or senAttiri, Oxford, 1822, 8vo. sation; aisthanolzai, I feel), the name originally applied in GerMEs'chylus, the father of Greek tragedy, born at Eleusis many by Baumgarten (q. v.) and his followers to the'science of 525 B.C., died at Gela, in Sicily, 456 B.C. He fought at Mara- the Beautiful,' or the philosophy of the fine arts as the highest thon 490 B.C., and ten years later in the great naval engagement expression of the beautiful. Baumgarten's view of the science at Salamis. Of the seventy dramas which he is said to have included all sensuous apprehension. He perhaps states his posi. written, only seven are extant-the Persians, the Seven against tion most clearly when he says,'We perceive beauty wherever Thebes, the Suppliants, the Prometlheus, the Agamemnon, the we meet with perfection manifested in reality, and a thing is Choephore, and the Eumenides. The energy and sublimity of his perfect if it is adequate to its notion; beauty, accordingly, is the style well become his daring genius, and the lofty characters he perfectness of an object manifested in its appearance.' Kant inportrays. His plots are simple, and the obscurity with which sisted that beauty is not a property of objects, but has its origin he has been charged is probably owing to the acknowledged in the disposition of our mental faculties. Schiller regards beauty corruption of the text. The drama owes to,E. the formation of as originating in the perfect union of matter and spirit. Hegel's dialogue, properly so called, by the introduction of a second theory of the beautiful is that of the absolute ideal realising itself. actor, and artistic effect was produced by improved scenery, and Consequently, there is nothing absolutely beautiful in itself, appropriate masks and dresses. Numerous versions of Al. have although, on the other hand, there is an eternal aspiration tobeen made in various languages. The Italian version of F. wards this. Poetry reaches mlore nearly the absolutely beautiful 28 -__ c An... A_ A, —----- than the constructive arts, for in poetry the ideal element of 428 and 43I), of the Burgundians (AD. 435 and 436), and thought obtains a higher development than in the more material of the Celts of Armorica (A.D. 436)..When he saw the great arts of Painting, Architecture, or even Music. storm of Hunnic savages about to break over the West, he The discussion of the theory of the beautiful, in England, may swiftly formed an alliance with Visigoths, Armoricans, Burgunbe said to have begun in the early part of last century. Dr dians, Alans, and Franks-the very tribes with whom he had Hutcheson, in his Enquiry, argues for the existence of an' inter- been warring for nearly twenty years-and by their help scattered nal sense,' by which we perceive the beautiful. In his Treatise the hordes of Attila on the world-famous field of Chalons on the Sublime and Beautidll, Burke has drifted into confusion (A.D. 45i). The struggle was renewed on the N.E. border of as to what is meant by beauty. Next came Alison's once famous Italy in 453, and A., though no longer supported by his Celtic Essays on the Nature and Prinzciples of Taste, in which the'asso- and Teutonic allies, was preparing to obstinately defend the ciation' theory is maintained. His brilliant and clever disciple, peninlsula, when Attila was induced by Pope Leo I. to withdraw Jeffrey, made it very attractive for a time. According to him, his forces. A. then presented himself at the imperial court, to our emotions in the contemplation of the beautiful'are not pro, ask from Valentinian the fulfilment of his promise, viz., the duced directly by any qualities in the objects which excite them;' hand of his daughter in marriage. The answer of the jealous they'are occasioned, not by any inherent virtue in the objects voluptuary was the murder on the spot of the hero who had before us, but by the accidents, if we may so express ourselves, saved the empire (A.D. 454). by which these may have been enabled to suggest or recal to us.Mtna. See ETNA. our own past sensations or sympathies.' Sir Wm. Hamilton, jto'1ia, a district of ancient Greece, bounded on the W' by in his Lectures on Metaphysics, maintains that beauty is both Acarnarda, E. by Locris, N. by Thessaly and Epirus, and S. by absolute and relative. The former is the result of a free exercise th entrance to the Gulf of Corinth. It had only two plains of of imagination, perception, recognising, say, the absolute beauty the entrance to the rest of the ountry being ocupied by wooded of a flower or shell; the latter is attained by an act of the under- and craggy mountains, which neither in ancient nor modern standing, in which the adaptation of means to an end is seen to times have been crossed by a road. At the time of the Peloponbe admirable. Among the most lucid British writers on.AE. are nesian war the 2tolians were wholly uncivilised, but tsey ultioDr M'Vicar (Philospahy of the Beautfi,855), oMr Ruskin mately became one of the three great powers of Greece. The (Modern Painters), and Professor Blackie, whose work Ofn Etolian League, the general assembly of -which was styled the Beauty: Three Discourses delihered in the Uhtiversity of Edin- Panatolicon, first became important after the death of Alexander burgh, I858, is perhaps the simplest and most satisfactory hand- the Great, and was formally dissolved B.C. 67, te. having book on the philosophy of the beautiful yet written. In the some years before been subjugated by Rome. Along with main points of the discussion these writers agree. Ruskin says, Acarnania (q. v.) it now forms a nomarchy of the Greek kingdom.' There is not one single object in nature that is not capable of conveying' ideas of beauty. The'internal sense' of the older Affida'vit, an oath in writing, or a written declaration, the writers, by which we appreciate beauty, is not, says Blackie, truth of which is sworn to or affirmed (see AFFIRMATION) before'a distinctfaculty of the mind, but only a function of the imagi- a person legally authorised to administer an oath. In England, nation, whereby it perceives beautiful forms and sounds, accom- when evidence is laid before a jury, it is given orally; where panied by a pleasurable emotion.''What then,'he asks,'is it is to inform a court or judge it is put in form of an A. the specialty in the case of what, with the Germans, for want In Scotland a voluntary A. is not generally received as eviof a better epithet, we must call the mesthetical action of intellect? dence, there being no opportunity to cross-examine the deponent. Plainly, the mind in this case has to do with concrete wholes Under the Scotch Bankrupt Act, however, claims must be originally insinuated by means of the inlets of the internal lodged with affidavits of verity; and there are similar statutory senses, but acted upon and moulded by the imagination (which provisions. The Lord Chancellor of England is empowered to is a sort of inner and more intellectual sense), so as to receive grant commissions for taking affidavits, affirmations, and declarafrom it a new, and, in the case of the fine arts generally, a more tions in Scotland. perfect type; and these types, of well-ordered form and colour, Affin'ity, in law, is the relationship arising fiom marriage being entertained by the mind, produce an emotion of serene between the husband and his wife's blood-relations, ard between pleasure and complete satisfaction.' In a very clever little work, the wife and her husband's blood-relations. A husband's relaThe Philosophy of Art, by Taine (q. v.), Professor of Esthetics tion is held equally related to his wife, and a wife's relation in the Acole des Beaux Arts, Paris, the author explains his system equally related to her husband; but no A. is created by of LE. as an'application of the experimental method to art in marriage between the kinsmen themselves. Thus the husband's the same manner as it is applied in the sciences.''The modern brother or sister is not related to his wife's brother or sister, and (oestlletic) method,' says Taine,'which I strive to pursue, and the connection is no impediment to marriage. The legal effect which is beginning to be introduced in all moral sciences, con- of A. as regards marriage is somewhat obscure. See MARsists in considering human productions, and particularly works RIAGE. of art, as facts and productions of which it is essential to mark the characteristics, and seek the causes; and nothing beyond to unite togethem ical) may be defined as tendency is greater or this.' But perhaps M. Taine too easily satisfies himself. Te lessto soite the r. In proportion a s in question is sgreater or whole philosophy of the subject lies beyond his'positive' criti- so the A. o he s u bstances in question is said to be cism, and is probably to be found in the higher idealism of powerful or reak. The more powerful the A. of two bodies IHamilton and Blackie. Iso much the greater is the difficulty experienced in disuniting them, when combined. The stability of a compound (or its 2Estiva'tion, a term used in botany to denote the mode in power of resisting decomposition) is a measure of the A. of which the parts of a flower are folded in the flower-bud before its components for one another. Hydrogen has a strong A. it opens. for chlorine; the two elements readily combining to form a very Ae'tius, the last champion and bulwark of the Western Roman stable compound called hydrochloric acid (HC1). Hydrogen Empire, was of Scythian origin, and was born, AD. 395 or 396, and iodine, on the other hand, have a very slight A. for one at Dorostana, iln Lower Moesia. He entered the imperial armyanother. They do not combine directly under ordinary condiat Dorostana, ie Lower Moesia. He entered the imperial army tions; nevertheless a compound called bydriodic acid (HI) is at an early age, and for some years was a hostage among the ions; nevertheless a compound iodic acid (HI) is Goths and Huns, over whom he exercised great influence. In easily obtained by indirect means, and this compound is in A.D. 424, after the death of Honorius, he brought together many respects very analogous to hydrochloric acid. It is so un60,ooo oft them to maintain the claims of the usurper Joln stable, however, that if heated, or even kept for some time exagainst the descendants of Theodosius, and on his reconcilia- posed to the light, it splits up into its components hydrogen and tion with the latter, he employed them to combat Boniface iodine. Moreover, if chlorine is introduced into a vessel con(q. v.), who had delivered Africa into the hands of the Van- taining hydriodic acid, the chlorine immediately combines with dais. Under the regency of Placidia, and the rule of her the hydrogen of the hydriodic acid, forming hydrochloric acid, sonl Valentinian III., A. became patrician, and wielded the and setting the iodine free. Thus chlorine is said to have a whole force of the empire. In a series of brilliant campaigns A. for hydrogen than the iodine has. (A.D. 426 and 430) he repelled the assaults of the Visigoths Affirma'tion, a form of oath or declaration specially adapted in Southern Gaul, of the Franks on the Lower Rhine (A.D. to members of certain religious persuasions inl place of the usual $~~~ - ~29 AFF THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPIEDJA. AFR oath, on the judge being satisfied that the recusant's motive is child, and of a host numbering 15,000 only one man (Dr Brydon) conscientious. The penalties of perjury are imposed on those reached Jelalabad. When the news of the disaster reached who knowingly affirm falsely. See OATH. India, a fierce cry for vengeance arose. General Pollock was despatched by way of the Khyber Pass with a retributive force, fri'que,, a town in the S. of France, dep. ofAvey- and being joined by General Nott, who marched N. from ron, on a feeder of the Tarn, 31 miles S. of Rhodez, and 79 Candahar, routed the Afghan army, releasing captives and devasmiles N.E. of Toulouse. It lies in a fine valley on the N. side tating the country. It was not, however, till te battle of of the Cevennes, in the midst of orchards and vineyards, has Gjat, inc tgy that the Afghans weve r, till the battle of some cotton and woollen manufactures, and a large trade in Gujerat, in I849, that the Afghans were fairly subdued, along.some cotton and woollen manufactures, and a large trade in with their famous enemies the Sikbs. The consolidation of Royuefort cheese, made from ewe-milk in the hill pastures, which lis empire occupied Dost Molhammei fron this time till his death was famous as long ago as the time of Pliny. Pop. (I872) wras famous as long ago as the time of Pliny. Pop. (1872) in I863. He appointed as his heir Shere Ali, the third and favour5071. ite of his sixteen sons. The two elder brothers, who were thus Afghanista'n, a country of Asia (part of ancient Ariana), disinherited, rebelled, and plunged the country into a civil war, extends from lat. 28~ to 38' N., and long. 62' to 73~ E. It is which lasted for five years. Shere Ali has, however, firmly secured 450 miles long, and 470 broad; its area 212,000 sq. miles, and his position as Ameer, aided by British money and arms, and the population differently estimated at from 5,000,000 to by the intelligence and bravery of his son Yakub Khan. Lord g,ooo,ooo. A. is bounded N. by Turkestan, E. by the Punjab, Mayo officially conveyed to the Ameer in I869 the assurance S. by Beloochistan, and W. by Persia. Its mountainous char- that the British government regarded the Indus as the permaacter makes it a valuable barrier for the protection of India. In nent boundary of the Indian empire, and had no other intention the E. the Soliman Mountains completely separate A. from the towards A. than to promote its national prosperity. After a plains of the Punljab; the only passes are the ravine of the long course of ungenerous treatment at the hands of his father, Cabul river, in the N., part of which is known as the Khyber Yakub Khan rebelled in I870, but was propitiated when made Pass, and in the S. the Bolan Pass. The Hindu Kush Moun- governor of Herat. Shere Ali many years ago determined to tains, a continuation of the Himalayas, extend along the make Abdullah, a younger son, his heir, and, unmoved by northern frontier, rising in alpine grandeur to heights of more Yakub's valuable services, he formally announced this intention than 20,000 feet. Owing to the inequality of surface and irre- in I874. The treacherous seizure of Yakub as a prisoner, while gular distribution of water, the climate of A. varies greatly, and on a friendly visit to Cabul, has caused considerable anxiety, but the products are most diversified. On the high tablelands of there is little fear of the Ameer committing any crime that would the N. the fruits of Europe grow wild; the fertile terraces provoke the certain displeasure of the Indian government. produce aromatic herbs, tobacco, rhubarb, and asafoetida; Yakub Khan has shown military genius, and great administrative luxuriant Indian vegetation covers the deep valleys; and in the ability, and his popularity throughout A. associates his name southern plains cotton and sugar are cultivated. The only with the future welfare of the country. important rivers are the Cabul and Helmund. The country See Lady Sale's 7yozrnal of the Disasters itn A. (Lond. 1843); is rich in copper iron, and other metals. The Afghans are Kaye's History of tze War inz A. (Lond. 2 vols. I85I); and an a powerful race, independent, trusty, hospitable, addicted to article in the Edinzbzurgt Review for July 1873. predatory strife, and strongly influenced by national sentiment. Their religion is Mohammedan after the Sunnite or'orthodox' Af'ium-Kara-Hissar (Opium Black Castle), a town of form, but the utmost toleration is extended to all other creeds. Asiatic Turkey, vilayet of Anatolia, I70 miles N.E. of Smyrna. The PZsh/u language belongs to the Aryan family of languages, It derives its name partly from the opium grown in the neighbut whether to the Indian or Iranian branch is still uncertain.ade of the place Poets are the only authors who employ the native language; and partly from the lofty rock behind the city, which was once all prose writings are in Persian. The name Afghan is Per- crowned with a fortress. A. is an entrepot for-the great trade sian; the natives calling themselves Pushtaneh (pl. of Pushtu). between Smyrna and the interior of Asia, and it has also manuAfter many centuries of family feuds and harem intrigues, the factures of sacllery, carpets, &c. Pop. estimated at 60,ooo. history proper of A. begins with the advent of Ahmed Khan in Af'rica, the second in size of the great divisions of the I747, who seized the moment when Persia was disturbed by the globe, lies in the eastern hemisphere, and extends from lat. assassination of Nadir Shah (q. v.) to effect the independence of 37~ 20' N. to 34~ 50' S., and from long. I7' 34' to 5I' I6' his country, and to make it one of the most powerful king- E. Its greatest length is about 5000 miles, its greatest doms in the East. He founded the Douranee dynasty, and was breadth -4700, its area II,700,000 sq. miles, and its coastsucceeded byTimur, who died 1793, and left the crown to be line I5,000 miles. A. is shaped like an irregular triangle, fought for by his three sons, Zemaun, Mahmud, and Shah having its vertex to the south, and is bounded N. by -the Sujah. Zemaun first succeeded in obtaining supreme power; Mediterranean, E. by the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, and W. but after some years he was dethroned by his half-brother Mah- by the Atlantic Ocean. It is joined to Asia by a narrow mud, who in turn was compelled, by an insurrection of the neck of land, which, however, has been cut through by the Afghan chiefs, to abdicate in I823. Dost Mohammed, one of Suez Canal. There are few large gulfs and bays; the most these chiefs, made himself master of Cabul and Ghizni, and was important are the Gulfs of Sidra and Kabes (the greater and recognised as virtual ruler of the country. Shah Sujah, full lesser Syrtes) on the N.; Suez, Aden, and Delagoa Bay on the brother of Zemaun, and the legitimate sovereign, was expelled E.; Algoa Bay on the S.; and the Gulf of Guinea on the W. from A., and lived as a stipendiary on the British government The principal capes are Bon on the N.; Guardafui on the at Loodianah, always keeping an eye on his lost kingdom. E.; Good Hope on the S.; and Verd on the W. Dost Mohammed's foreign policy was to'check the encroach- Chief Political Divisionzs. - N., Egypt, Tunis, Tripoli, ments of Runjeet Singh (q. v.), the ruler of the Punjab, and to Fezzan, Algeria, Morocco; E., Nubia, Abyssinia, Somali, cripple the power of Persia. The close relations between Dost Mozambique, Sofala, Natal, K(affraria, Transvaal Republic, Mohammed and Russia induced the British government to sign Orange River Free States; S., Cape Colony; W., Senegambia, a treaty of alliance with Runjeet Singh and Shah Sujah, at Upper and Lower Guinea; interior, the States of Sudan. Lahore, 26th June I838, for the purpose of replacing the C/hiefIslands.-Socotra, Scychelles, Comoro Islands, Madalatter on the throne of A. War Was declared against Dost gascar, by far the largest, off the coasts of Mozambique, and Mohammed (Ist October I838) by Lord Auckland, then Gov- Sofala, Mauritius, Reunion, St Helena, Ascension, Cape Verd ernor-General of India. A strong force, under Sir Alexander Islands, Canary Islands, Madeira Islands, &c'. Burnes, advanced through the Bolan Pass, and reached Canda- Physical Features,.Mounlains, &c.-I. The southern trianguhar, where Shah Sujah was formally placed on the throne. After lar part of A. consists'of a large elevated tableland surrounded the taking of Ghizni (q.v.) Dost Mohammed surrendered, and by mountain ranges. On the N. its boundary is undefined. The the supposition was that the country had been finally conquered. ridges on the W. and E. subside before reaching the sea, leaving The British took up quarters at Cabul; but in the winter of I84I, belts of flat country ori the coasts. The W. ranges have their when help from India was cut off, they were hemmed round, and highest point (I3,000 feet) in the Cameroons, to the N.; the forced, with every circumstance of humiliation, to evacuate the E. mountains are also highest (20,00o feet) towards the N., country. Duringthe retreat by the IKhyber Pass, the severity of where they enter the mountainous district of Abyssinia. On the weather and cruelty of the enemy spared neither woman nor the S. the mountains rise from the coast in three distinct stages, * _ *30 A~~~~~~~~ iAFR TIHE G OBE ENCYCLOP/EtDIA. AJFR having broad terraces or karroos between them. Their highest bok, &c.) The African elephant differs considerably from the point is about Io,ooo feet. The tableland is composed partly Asiatic, and is nowhere tamed. Lions, leopards, hyenas, of waste lands, such as the Desert of Kalihari, N. of Cape jackals, the hippopotamus, various species of the rhinoceros, Colony, and partly of fertile and populous districts. Towards monkeys (gorillas, chimpanzees), wart-hogs, &c., are abunthe E. edge, inland from Zanzibar and Mozambique, is the dant. Crocodiles (smaller than those of Asia) abound in great lake district of A., containing the Albert and Victoria the rivers, and there are many gigantic and poisonous Nyanza, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Nyassa, Lake Bangweolo or snakes. Among birds are the ostrich, flamingo, secretary-bird, Bemba, &c. Further S. is Lake Ngami. The principal parrot, and bright-plumaged small birds in great variety, though rivers, besides the Upper Nile, are the Zambesi, of this division, few songsters. Locusts appear in enormous hosts, and often do which falls into the Mozambique Channel; the Orange River, great damage; the ant species is numerous; and the tsetse fly the Congo, Coanga, and Ogowai, which fall into the Atlantic; in S. A. has earned for itself an evil reputation from its destrucand the imperfectly-known Lualaba. tion of cattle. The most important of the domesticated animals 2. Sudanlz, comprising the whole of A. between the S. table- are the horse (Barbary, Abyssinian, Nubian), the camel and land and the Sahara, including on the W. the basin of the rivers dromedary (introduced from Arabia), asses, oxen, cattle, sheep, Niger, Gambia, and Senegal, and having on the E. the moun- and goats. These are found in all parts of the continent. tainous region of Abyssinia, which occupies the space between Minerals. -The mineral wealth of A. is but imperfectly known. the Nile basin and the Indian Ocean. In the centre is the Salt is very generally diffused, though large tracts, such as very large alluvial basin of Lake Tchad. In the W. there Sudan, are without it. Egypt and Abyssinia are rich in mineare mountain ranges of no great elevation, in which the river rals. Gold is found iu the sands of nearly all the great rivers. Niger (the second largest in A.), which flows into the Gulf of The diamond-fields of Griqualand, in the S., have proved very Guinea, the Senegal and Gambia, which flow into the Atlantic, productive, and coal has been found in the eastern part of the have their origin. On the E. we have the White Nile flowing southern plateau. The geological formation of the known disfrom its source S. of the equator, and the Blue Nile, passing tricts of A. is treated under their various headings. through Lake Tsana in Abyssinia, to join it at Khartum. The PoPuelation.-The population of A. is estimated at about Welle is another large river towards the E. of this district. i9o,ooo,ooo. It is densest in Sudan, round the Gulf of Guinea, 3. The Sehaara or Great Desert, between Sudan and the in other small coast-places, and near the great rivers. Later lands of the Mediterranean coast. This division consists of a vast reports announce thickly-populated regions in the interior. N. undulating district of hard barren soil, with tracts of shifting sand, of Sudan the Caucasian race prevails, embracing both light and occasional oases, spots of great fertility, owing their existence aind dark coloured human beings. The chief varieties are the to subterranean springs. Over a great part of the Sahara rain Berbers, in the Atlas region, the Desert, and Nubia'; the never falls. It is a tableland of considerable elevation, and Abyssinians; and the Copts, the representatives of the ancient reaches in some peaks a height of 5000 or 6ooo feet. Egyptians. Turks are numerous in Tunis, Tripoli, and Egypt. 4. The regionsof the Atlas Mountains, and Tripoli. The Atlas The middle of A. is peopled by the Ethiopian or Negro race, range extends across the N.W. corner of A., running through and the S. is occupied by the Hottentots and Kaffirs. European Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis. In the loftiest summits a height of colonists are numerous in the islands and coasts, especially in upwards of io,ooo feet is attained. The southern slope of these Cape Colony and Algeria. mountains extends to the Sahara; the northern slope reaches elieigionz. -Mohammedanism has about 67,00ooo,ooo votaries N. to the sea, and in climate, productions, &c., is very similar to of so' N. lat. Christianity is found among the Europeans, and, in the opposite coast of Europe. There are numerous short rivers a corrupt form, in Abyssinia. It embraces about 9,0oo,ooo00 flowing into the Mediterranean, and several small lakes. people. There are about 1,000,000ooo Jews. The remaining Tripoli, further E., stretches along the Mediterranean coast I 13,o000,ooo are heathens, following varieties of fetichism, &c. for about 0ooo miles. Near the sea it is very fertile, further Government.-There are few great organised states, except inland it is barren. Fezzan, lying immediately S. of Tripoli, is those on the N. coast, the most important of which is certainly the largest oasis in the Sahara. Egypt. Zanzibar, on the E. coast, may also claim notice, but 5. The regions of the Nile, viz., Nubia and Egypt. A range despotic or patriarchal governments prevail. Algeria and Cape of mountains runs along the whole coast of the Red Sea through Colony are the chief of the European possessions, which are less Nubia and Egypt. On the W. side or these countries is a low important than those of Asia and America. ridge of hills separating them from the Sahara. Between the Science, Art, Literature.-These may be said to be unknown two ranges lies the fertile basin of the Nile. After the While among the natives. There are schools for teaching the Koran Nile is joined by the Blue Nile at Khartum, the two roll on as a in all Mohammedan districts. single river through Nubia and Egypt into the Mediterranean. Commerce.-The trade of A. is in a great measure carried on Climate.-A. lies almost wholly within the torrid zone, and is by barter. The internal trade is in the hands of the Arabs, and the hottest of the continents. The warmest part is N. of the (in Sudan) the Mandingoes and Fulahs. It is conducted by equator, owing to the greater extent and less elevation of the caravans crossing the interior, especially the deserts of the N. northern half. The coasts of the S. and N. possess the climate The coast trade is chiefly in the hands of Europeans. The of the temperate zones in which they lie. The flat regions next principal exports are coffee, sugar, rice, dates, palm-oil, gum, the sea are generally unhealthy, while the terraces a little inland cotton, ivory, spices, ground-nut, timber, hides, ostrich-feathers, enjoy an agreeable climate, and are made temperate by the prox- musk, wax, and gold-dust. The traffic in slaves has been a imity of the sea. The district of tropical rains extends from 25' great blot on African commerce, the slaves being brought from S. lat. to about 20' N. lat. In the greater portion of the Sahara, the interior to the coasts. In 1873 Great Britain made a treaty and in thle desert of Kalihari, rain never falls. The N. is much with the Sultan of Zanzibar, by which he agreed to abolish exposed to hot, dry winds from the Sahara. slavery in his dominions; and Sir Samuel Baker returned in Vegetation.-The vegetation of A., in the neighbourhood of the same year from a successful expedition up the Nile, organised the tropical rivers, and wherever humidity and heat are com- by the Khedive of Egypt, ostensibly for the purpose of putting bined, is extraordinarily luxuriant, vigorous, and abundant in down the slave traffic. Until the slave trade is extinct, the species, though, on the whole, less grand and varied than that legitimate commerce of A. cannot be fully developed. of Asia or S. America. The productions of the temperate Agriculture is prosecuted on a large scale and in an effective zones are found on the terraces in several parts of A. Among the manner on the coasts, in the Nile Valley, Abyssinia, Sudan, most important wild plants are the baobab (Adansonia), butter- Cape Colony, and Kaffraria. tree (Bassia), various palms, aloes, papyrus, gum-trees. Of Aifining is carried on in Upper Sudan, Abyssinia, and Kafcultivated plants the following, grown with success in many fraria. The Kaffirs are skilful miners. parts of A., may be mentioned: cotton, indigo, banana, maize, Explorations.-The early name of this continent was Libya, wheat, rice, vine, European fruits, durra, coffee (wild in Abys- Africa having been originally merely the Roman province in sinia), and sugar-cane. which Carthage was situated. Until the 15th c., Europeans Animals.-The wild animals of A. surpass those ot similar knew little of A. except the N. coast; but explorers have been kinds in other parts of the earth in strength and ferocity. numerous since Vasco de Gama doubled the Cape of Good The number of peculiar species is great, such as the giraffe, Hope in I497. Nothing more can be attempted here than a zebra, quagga, and the various kinds of antelopes (gnu, spring- list of a few of the greatest travellers in the present century. *~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 AFR gTHE GLOBE ErNC YCL OPDiA. AGA which has been the great era of African exploration. The to separate the A. from the celebration of the Eucharist. After travels of Mungo Park in the valley of the Niger; of Burck- the establishment of Christianity in the 4th c. the A. were hardt in Nubia; of Oudney, Clapperton, Denham, Lander, and placed under strict regulations by ecclesiastical councils, they Barth in the Sahara and Sudan; of Burton, Speke, Grant, were not allowed to be held in church. A distinction is made Baker, and Stanley in the valley of the Nile; and of Moffat in between the Eucharistic love-feasts, and others of which we read S. A., have resulted in great discoveries, and in vast addi- in ecclesiastical writers; as A. natlaliti, held in honour of the tions to our stock of geographical knowledge, for a special martyrs; A. connubiales, which were simply marriage-feasts, and notice of which we refer to the names of the explorers. David A. funerales, or funeral-feasts. Livingstone, however, is the greatest name in the annals of In modern times the Moravians, the Wesleyans, and the African exploration. He devoted twenty-five years to making Glassites hold love-feasts in connection with the celebration of known to us the interior of S. A., where he finally lost his life the Eucharist. in I873. In the end of I874 the important discovery of an effluent on the western side of Lake Tanganyika was reported Agapem'one (Gr.' abode of love'), a curious religious estab. from Lieutenant Cameron, who was then exploring that region, lishment near Bridgewater, in Somersetshire, set up in I859 by which seems fatal to Livingstone's theory in regard to the a Mr Henry James Prince, at one time a clergyman of the source of the Nile. Church of England. While curate at Charlynch, in the same county, he first began to preach certain mystical doctrines about himself and the Holy Ghost, which excited great scandal and in shipbuilding, for which it is generally imported. It is very alarm, and the Holy Ghost, which excited gre mat scandal and durable, bult rather heavy. The tree is called Old~e~dia afioica alarm, and led to his withdrawal to Suffolk. Here matters grew durable, but rather heavy. The tree is called Ofieldia africana, worse with him, and after holding a conference with some cleriand belongs to the natural order E oriac. cal adherents whom he had secured, it was resolved to secede A'ga, or Agha, in old Turkish, means the elder brother, but from the Church. Prince started preaching on his own account in modern Turkish is given as a title of honour to illiterate dig- at Brighton, and his principal ally, Starkey (who had formerly nitaries. It is therefore used in contrast to Effendi, which is been his rector), at Weymouth, in Dorsetshire. Both met with never given except to those who possess, in addition to rank, great success in various quarters, and among different orders of literary culture. The title acquired its greatest historical dis- society. At last three of the brethren, Prince, Thomas, and tinction in the time of the Janissaries, whose commander was Cobbe, crowned their good fortune by marrying three lovely and an A.; now the only high officer who bears it is the chief of wealthy girls, daughters of a widow of the name of Notridge. the Black Eunuchs. With the money thus obtained all went on admirably for a Ag'ades, a town of Central Africa, the capital of Air or time, but at last (I846) Mrs Thomas became discontented with Asben (q. v.), situated, S. of the Sahara, in lat. I6~ 33' N., her situation, and was expelled from the society. This led to long. 7~ 30' E. It was formerly a prosperous city, and before legal proceedings (X850), in which she sought (successfully) to the decline of the gold trade of Gogo had probably 6o,ooo obtain the custody of her child. The revelations of the'inner inhabitants. Though it still sends out caravans to the rich of this strange community did not tend to elevate it in marts of the Sudan, its trade is trifling, and the population public estimation, and if Mr Hepworth Dixon's account (Spirihas dwindled to about 6ooo. The people are partly of Berber tual Wives, 2 vols., I868) of his interview with Prince is not descent. overcharged, its singular sentiments and usages are still maintained. Meanwhile the'abode of love' at Spaxton, near Ag'ama, a genus embracing numerous species of saurian Bridgewater, was getting ready, and in I859 it became the final reptiles, natives of warm climates. They have a loose skin, residence of these strange saints. Prince has been a zealous which can be distended with air at the animal's will. Certain pamphleteer all his life, but it is scarcely possible for a sane S. American species are called chameleons, owing to their power mind to understand his mysterious and apparently impure jargon of changing their colours like the true chameleon. The frilled about the redemption of the flesh. In I859 appeared Brot/her A. is a singular species found in Australia. Prince's yournal, an Account of the Destruction, of the TWorks of Agamem'non, son of Atreus, and brother of Menelaus, tthe Devil in the Humzan Soul by the Lord yesus Christ through whose wife Helen was carried off by Paris, son of Priam, King the Gospel, in which he calmly expresses his belief that he has of Troy. The Greek chiefs made A. generalissimo of the forces at length reached perfection, which they had collected to punish Troy. At the close of the and cannot possibly become siege, returning home with Cassandra, the daughter of Priam, better than he is. The sect A. was murdered by his wife Clytemnestra, who had been is still (I875) in existence, seduced during his absence by iEgisthus. His children-Iplhi- but is making no further genia, Electra, and Orestes-were favourite subjects of Greek progress. It vegetates rather I/ tragedy. than lives in the sleepy luxury of Spaxton, and must perish ALg'ami, or gold-breasted trumpeter-bird of S. America. with its founders. It is the Psopilia crefitans of zoologists; is rather larger than a domestic fowl, but has much longer legs and neck. It runs Agar'icus. One of the very swiftly and is easy of domestication. largest and most important Ag'apse (Gr. agap?, love), in the primitive Christian Church, genera offungi. See MUSH- tion of the Eucharist. The two together were originally re- Agas'siz, Louis Jean garded as a whole, which was spoken of as the'Lord's Supper' Rodolphe, a distinguished (Gr. deipnon tozi kurion). In the early apologists and fathers naturalist, was born May 28, of the Church, Justin, Tertullian, Chrysostom, &c., we find a 1807, at Motiers, between full description of the A. They were provided by the richer the lakes of Neufchatel and,4g' e iasricus cxCtr~. (Common brethren; they were introduced and closed by prayer, and, Morat, in the canton of Musiroo mn). according to Tertullian, every one during the feast was required Freyburg, Switzerland, re. to sing something to the praise of God either from Scripture or ceived his earlier education at the Gymnasium of Bienne and his own thoughts, so that it soon became visible if any one had the Academy of Lausanne, and studied medicine and the expepartaken to excess. Pliny, in his famous letter to Trajan, rimental sciences at Ziirich, Heidelberg, and Munich, where he alludes to these A., and mentions the sobriety with which they took the degree of M.D. In I829 he published an account were conducted; he also indicates the prevalent but erroneous and classification of II6 species of fish collected by Spix; suspicion of the pagan magistrates that they were secret societies, and having by this means been attracted to the study of ichthyand had sinister political aims. From a very early period, ology, he published from I839 to I845 three volumes entitled however, a tendency to irregularity in the celebration of the A. NAatural History of the Fresh- Water Fish of Europe. At the had shown itself. St Paul (I Cor. xi. 20-22) earnestly rebukes same time appeared Researches on Fossil Fishes, and Descripit, and though the persecutions would repress selfish and tions of Echinodermes. His best and most generally known work sensual indulgence, yet it was found advisable in the 2d c. is his Study of Glaciers, which he supplemented by his Researches 4A 32. AGA THE GLOBE ENCYCL;OPED[A. AGE of Glaciers (Paris, I847). In I846 A. removed to America, and Agde, a walled town of France, on the left bank of the became Professor of Geology and Zoology in the Lawrence Herault, about a league from the Gulf of Lyons. It was founded Scientific School at Harvard; and subsequently explored exten- by Greek colonists. From the dismal aspect of the basalt of sive portions of the New World, accompanied an expedition which it is built it has been called the Black Town. The trade to Brazil (I865-66), and superintended deep-sea soundings in of A. is rapidly increasing, and is chiefly in wine, oil, salt, corn, the Gulf Stream (I87I). In his Outlines of Comaparative Phy- silk, wool, and timber. It has an active coasting trade, and siology (1848) he has advocated the anti-evolution theory. A. considerable commerce with Spain, Italy, and Africa. Pop. died Dec. 14, I873. (I872) 7843. A'gata de Goti, Santa, an episcopal city in the S. of Italy, Age. A man or woman is said in law to have arrived at prlovince of Benevento, 14 miles E.- of Capua, lies on a hill, Lat ~'age' on the day preceding the twenty-first anniversary of his or the base of which flows a tributary of the Volturno. Besides her birthday. In English law the boy or girl under twenty-one the cathedral it has seven other churches and an abbey. Pop. is called an infant, and relatively to the person having charge of him or her a ward. If an estate be left to an infant, the father 795I. is by common law the guardian, and must account to his child Ag'ate, a siliceous mineral, composed of closely-compressed for the profits. A father may by deed or will appoint a guardian. layers of coloured varieties of quartz, capable of a fine polish, A male at twelve years old may take the oath of allegiance; at and much used in the manufacture of ornaments. It is found fourteen he may consent or not to marriage; at twenty-one he is in Saxony, Scotland, Siberia, India, Java, Arabia, and other at his own disposal. A female at seven may be betrothed or countries. given in marriage; at nine is entitled to dower; at twelve may consent or not to marriage; and at twenty-one may dispose of Ag'atha, St, according to the legend of her life, was the herself and lands. Marrying a ward of Chancery without condaughter of a Sicilian nobleman, and was celebrated for her sent of the court is'contempt, and as such punishable, even beauty and wealth. When the Decian persecution of the Chris- though the offender be ignorant of the wardship. In Scotland tians broke out in the middle of the 3d c. A.D., she steadfastly the period of life under twenty-one, or minority, is subdivided refused to save her life by granting unworthy favours to the into pzltyilarity and puberty. In a male pupilarity extends to Roman prefect Quintianos, and was in consequence put to death fourteen years of A., in a female to twelve. In both puberty is the with horrible cruelties, 5th February 25I, which is the day dedi- period between pupilarity and twe.ty-one, or tabrity A minor cated to her in the Catholic calendar of the saints. period between pupilarity and twenty-one, or ~llajority. A minor cated to her in the Catholic calendar of the saints. wuho has reached puberty may take an oath and give evidence. Agath'ocles, a Sicilian Greek of humble birth, born at No one under twenty- one can vote at an election for member Thermae, in Sicily (B.C. 36I). Having married the widow of his of Parliament, or be elected a member. In France the male patron, Damas of Syracuse, he obtained great wealth, which marriageable A. is eighteen, the female fifteen. In America a enabled him to collect an army, by the aid of which he made member of the House of Representatives must be twenty-five, of himself sovereign of Syracuse. His rule was marked by oppres- the Senate thirty. See INFANTS, LIABILITIES OF, CONSENT, sion and cruelty. In an attempt to expel the Carthaginians he CONTRACT, MARRIAGE. was defeated at Himera, but passing over into Africa, his suc- Agen, an old episcopal town in France, capital of the dep. of cesses were rapid and brilliant. In a mutiny which followed a Lot-et-Garonne, stands on the right bank of the Garonne, midway defeat there, his son was slain, but he himself escaped, and between Toulouse and Bordeaux. In early times it was plundered returning to Sicily, he re-established his authority. His grand- successively by Goths, Vandals, Huns, and Saracens. The Engson, Archagathus, having killed the heir to the throne, that he lish held it in the reign of Henry II., and in the I6th c. it was might obtain it himself, caused his grandfather, aged seventy-two, twice captured by the Huguenots. Joseph Scaliger was born in to be destroyed by a poisoned quill, used as a toothpick (B.C. the immediate neighbourhood, and long lived in A., which now 289). carries on a prosperous trade in woollen fabrics, sailcloth, colours, hemp, brandy, and plums. Pop. (I872) I5,752. Ag'ave. A genus of monocotyledonous plants belonging to hem n, to act for another. An A. cannot the order A4naiyllidacec, principally natives of S. America. They Agent, one uthorised to ct for nother. An A. cnnot have large, succulent, spiny leaves, forming a spreading tuft, from bind his principal by deed, unless empowered by deed to do so. the centre of which the flowering stem is developed. The A. Authority given him is revocable at any time, and falls by the americana, which is cultivated in conservatories in Britain, is death or bankruptcy of the-constituent. As A. must act in good the best known species. It is commonly called the Americ faith and according to business usage; he must act with due Aloe, but is not to be con- diligence and skill: if he fail in these points his principal can founded with the true aloes, recover damage. An A. must keep accounts, and duly inform which belong to a different his principal of material acts. He is entitled to remuneration, natural order. See ALOE. and has a'lien' (Scot. Law Hypothec, q. v.-see LIEN) over The plant was introduced property in possession, both for incidental charges and for the A into Europe in 1561. Its general balance due to him, An. A. acting gratuitously must slow growth under artifcial act in good faith, but he is not answerable for want of skill, or treatment inBritain has given rise to the erroneous notion COMMISSION AGENT, MASTER AND SERVANT. that it flowers once only in Agent and Client. The constituent of a law agent is called a century. In reality it only his client. The general principles of law given above apply in flowers once, and then dies, this relationship. The law agent has a'lien' (Scot. law hybut this may take place at pothec) over deeds and other papers in his possession for his any period of the plant's life account against his client; and the client has a claim for damage after it is five or six years against an agent acting with gross professional ignorance. The old. The flowering stem agent is not responsible for a result, whatever opinion he may pushes up with great rapidity have given. See ATTORNEY, SOLICITOR, WRITER TO THE to the height of 15 or 20 SIGNET. feet, giving off many hori- Agent, Army, an official chosen by the colonel of a regizontal branches, which bear ment, who is answerable for his honesty to the Crown. His Agave. numerous erect yellowish- functions are to apply to the War-Office when money is required green flowers. The leaves to pay the officers and men, and other regimental charges. He and roots furnish a coarse but tough fibre called'Pita flax or also assists the private soldiers in remitting money to their Maguay, which is used for making ropes and paper. The juice families, and in their other pecuniary arrangements. Hie accounts of the leaves has been used as a substitute for soap, and forms annually directly with the Paymaster of the Forces. The tena lather with salt as well as with fresh water. The roots of dency of recent years has been to curtail the functions. and A. saponaria are employed in the same way. The Mexican emoluments of the office; and many competent authorities have Indians ferment the juice of A. mexicana, which forms an in- been in favour of its abolition, on the ground of its causing an toxicating drink called paue. unnecessary complication and expense. 4 5 33 AGE TIE GLOBE ENCYCYLOPADIA. AGR Agent, Navy. By 27 and 28 Vict. c. 24, each of H.M. The enraged youth then caused her to be publicly stripped naked, ships of war, while in commission, have an agent appointed by but her long hair fell down to her feet and clothed her like a the commander, and registered. His duties are to act for the garment. When Symphronius sought to approach her with Ship in questions of salvage, merchant shipping law, capture of unchaste looks, he fell to the ground, bereft of eyesight. At slave-ships, distribution of prize-money, &c. He receives 2z the entreaties of his friends, she caused his sight to be restored. per cent. as payment in full for his services. She was then condemned to be burnt, but the sportive flames Ages, a term of unprecise import used to denote supposed refused to touch her body. At last she was beheaded A.D. 303 periods in the history of the human race. The idea first occurs Her emblem is a lamb, perhaps from the similarity of the Latin in Greek writers. Hesiod reckons five A.-the golden, the word for a lamb (agnus). Her day is the 29th of January. silver, the brazen, the heroic, and the iron. The first was, of Readers of Keats will remember the linecourse, the purest and best; the others marked a gradual deteri-'St Agnes' Eve, ah, bitter.chill it was!' oration, except perhaps the heroic, which was a sort of wild desire for a better state of things, and the last, or iron age, in Agne'si, Maria Gtetana, an Italian lady, born in 17IS which the poet himself lived, was one in which all virtue and and at a remarkably early age distinguished for her knowledge goodness had departed from the earth. From poetry the idea of Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, German and various Oriental passed into the speculative philosophy of the Greeks. The languages. She next betook herself to mathematics, and in cosmos, or universe, had now its A. These formed the divisions 1748 published her Instituzioni Analitiche. When thirty-two of a great worlcd -year, on the completion of -w~hich the events of* years of age, she succeeded her father as professor of mathematics history repeated themselves. The Apocalypse seems to sanction in the University of Bologna. Subsequently she retired fronm learned society, became a nun, and devoted her,hole time to the notion, which is also to be found in the ancient literature of the Hindus, and, with modifications, in the recent metaphy- worksofcharity. A.died attheage of eighty-one. See Vita sicians of Germany and the positivists of France. di Mar. GCa. Agnesi, by Bianca Milesi-Mojon, Milan, 836, Ages'ilaus, KingC of Sparta, succeeded to the throne (B.c. ~hAgno'ne, a town in the S. of Italy, province of Campobano, 22 miles N.W-. of the town of Campobano, has large copper398) while the hegemony or leadership of Sparta was still uncontested. Two years later, to aid the Ionians, he crossed into works Pop. I0,500, Asia and defeated the satraps of Artaxerxes (B.c. 395). Being Ag'nus De'i (Lat.' Lamb of God'), a name given to Jesus by summoned home to suppress a rising of the Greek states against John the Baptist (John i. 29). In the liturgy of the Roman Spartan authority, he defeated his enemies at.Coroneia (394 Catholic Church it is also the name of a prayer, which since the p.c.) He approved of the treacherous seizure of the Cadnzeia, close of the 6th c. (when it was first enjoined by Pope Gregory the or citadel of Thebes, and was therefore responsible for the Great) has been used by the priest during the service of the subsequent reverses that befell his country, though his heroism Mass shortly before the communion, who recites three times, in the field continued unabated. A. died in Egypt A.D. 36I, in Agnuzs De'i, gui lollis peccata zundi, miserere zobis (' O Lamb of his eighty-fourth year, a true Spartan, but not a great Greek. God, who takest away the sins of the world, have mercy upon Agincourt, or Azincourt, a village in the dep. of Pas- us!) except that si the third repetition of the prayer, da de-Calais, France, where Henry V. of England, with from nobis pacen ('give us peace') Is substituted for ziserere nobis. I0,000 to I4,000 maen, defeated about 6o,ooo French on the Pope Sergius I. (7th c.) commanded this prayer to be sung both, 25th October 14I5. Not fewer than Io,ooo French were slain, by the priest and the congregation during the consecration of the including'princes of the blood, feudatories of the crown, war- Host. Still later the name was given to an oval-shaped medal like bishops, and innumerable knights;' among the prisoners were the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon. The English lost Ianb bearing a cross. some I6oo, among whom were the Duke of York and the Earl Agos'ta, a fortified town on the E. coast of Sicily, 12 miles of Suffolk. This brilliant victoryoccurred after the siege of N. of Syracuse, on a rocky isle connected by a bridge with the Harfleur, while King Henry was returning to Calais with his peninsula of Santa Croce. The harbour islarge and safe, but not sadly-reduced forces. easy of access. The chief export is salt, but a trade is also carA'gisi3, the name of several Spartan kings, the first of whom ried on in wine, oil, flax, honey, sardines, &c. Pop. 9735. A. is said to have reigned in the I Ith c. B.C. The second flourished was founded bythe Emperor Frederick II. in 1229, and suffered in the 5th-ancdt the thsird in the 4th c. B.C. A. IV. commenced severely in the Sicilian wars of the middle ages. It was the Iis eventful reign in 244 B.C. The Sartans had then greatly scene (1676) of a great defeat of the combined Dutch and Spanish degenerated, the old simplicity and virtue having given place to fleets under De lyter by the French lnder Admiral Duquesne. luxury and its kindred vices, and A. resolved to restore the In this battle De Ruyter got his deatlh-wound. A. was destroyed ancient discipline. As the land was possessed by only a few by an earthquake ip 1693. families, while the poor were overwhelmed with debt, A. pro- Ago'iti (Dasv?~rocta), a genus of mammals belonging to the posed a cancelling of debts, and a redistribution of the land, as Guinea-pig tribe of the Rodentia. The species are natives of S. to the first of vwhich he was strongly seconded by a large land- America and the W. India Islands, and resemble the hare and owner called Agesilaus, who was himself involved in debt, but rabbit in their form and manner of living, One species is very who contrived to delay the execution of the second to save his destructive to sugar-cane plantations.. own estates. This incensed the poorer classes, who had hitherto been the chief supporters of A., and they permitted his enemies Ag'ra, the chief city of the N.W. Provinces, British India, to throw him into prison, where he was strangled (240 B.c.) 139 miles S.S.E. of Delhi by rail, is the seat of the government, Ag.n.t. (Lat..gnatz~s'a kinsman by birth') ~s fi name and headquarters of the military force for the N.W. Provinces. Its Agnate (Lat. ognazus,'a kinsman by birth') is the name t t can accommodate Io, troops. Te daily market cantonment can accommodate xo,ooo troops. The daily market giveisn both in Eglish and Scotch law to persons related is well supplied with meat and vegetables. The Agra Banking through the father, those related through the mother being Co.'Agra Prize,' Assembly Rooms,'Metcalfe Testimonial' termed' cognate. This is not exactly the meaning the word had (dancing-room and refectory), and the churches and chapels are in Roman law. There the A. denoted strictly a relationship not prominent institutions. The Tal Mnahal, mausoleum of Shah 1only to, hut also tlroz~gk snases; e.g., a brother's son was his uncle's Jehan and his consort, is a beautiful building of marble, dazzling A., but a sister's son was his uncle's cognate, because the rela-white, carved and ornamented with imitations of flowers in pretioship as preserved by means of af. The oiin of the cious stones, many of which, however, were removed during the Roman distinction is to be sought in the institution known as the utiny (I857-59). The building of this tomb occupied 20,000 patria potestaO, and the reason why a different distinction exists moo0,oo. The Pearl.men for twenty-two years, and cost over;,65,ooo,ooo. in modern latw is that the;atria POtes/as in its ancient sense has.in modern law is tlat the atri poesas in its ancient sense has Mosque is a marvel of architectural and decorative beauty. Pop. not been introduced into any modern society, not been intr ed into any modern society (872) 142,66i, engaged in the cotton, salt, and transit trade. Agnes, St, according to the legend of her life, was born at During the mutiny the Europeans, to the number of 5846, took Rome, and on account of her beauty and wealth obtained in her refuge in the fort, an important stronghold with a rampart 80o thirteenth year, from Symphronius, the son of the Roman printor, feet high, which was gallantly relieved by Colonel Greathed. an offer of marriage, which, being a pious Christian, she declined. The garrison made several effective sallies; but thle most brilliant 34 w ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ — +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ AGR THE GLOBE ENC YCL OPIA7DIA. AGR exploit was Major Montgomery's march to Allygurh, where, Agricola, Johann, a notable German theologian and with 300 men, he defeated a vastly outnumbering force of writer, surnamed Magister Islebius, from his place of birth, Eislerebels.-The British district of A. is populous and fertile, ben, in Saxony, but whose real name was Schneider or Schnitter, yielding chiefly cotton, flax, tobacco, maize, and some rice. was born zoth April 1492. In 1525 he was sent to Frankfurt Area 1887 sq. miles. Pop. (1872) I,094,184. to establish the Protestant worship, and on his return became a preacher in his native tow~n, where he remained till I536. Agra-agra (P[ocaria candida), a sea-weed which is Occasion- a preacher in his native town, where he remained till 1536. Meanwhile his opinions began to change in the direction of ally imported into this country for making a jelly for dressing Antinomianism, and hen called to Witteberg in 1537 c upsilks. It is used as an article of food in India and China. ture took place between him and Luther. After some persecuWhen boiled in syrup or sugar it forms an excellent preserve. tio et found a refuge in Brandenburg. fe died at Berlin tion he found a refuge in Brandenbur g. He died at Berlin Agram, a fortified town of Austria, capital of the crown- 22d September 1566. A. was a man of bold and active genius, land of Croatia, pleasantly situated at the base of a woody moun- but he had not much discretion, and his career was therefore tain range. It is cut by a stream into three divisions, each stormy and distracted with quarrels. Besides numerous theolohaving a distinct jurisdiction. The town is, on the whole, well gical writings, some Church hymns, and a tragedy, he published built, and contains a royal academy and public library. Its in Low German a truly national work, full of strong sense, pure trade is chiefly in porcelain, silk, tobacco, and wheat. Pop. morality, and hearty patriotism, Die genzeinen Deutsclen Sjruch(i869)zI9,857. warter mit ilrer Ausleg'ung ('Common German Proverbs, with Agra'rian Law. In the Roman State there were two kinds their Explanation,' Magdeb. 1528); shortly after, in High GerAg~ra'rianLaw. In the Roman State there were two; kinds, ud t il Dyne l Gmnl Sp-cw~r man, under the title 7Dreyliundert Gemeyner S, pric/zob'rter of land, public and private, and till the time of the Licinian roga- (Nurdb. I5t); and later still, Siebenunert nd Fnitzig I i ~~~~~~~~(Nuftnb. rI529); and later still, Siebenhundert uind ~iinffilzioe tion, or bill, the public land was held only by the patricians, who Deser Sricwier (Hagena, 534) iDeutscher 6rih're Hen, 1534).formed the original popduuts, or burgesses. For liberty to culti6 vate this an exaction was made of a tenth of the produce of Agricola, Rudo'lphus, properly Roelof Huysmanil arable land, and a fifth of the produce of oliveyards and vine- ('husbandman,' Latinised into A.), and also, from his fatherland, yards, while a rate was fixed for the right to pasture. Gradually Frisius, one of the most distinguished restorers of classical the rich, by force or purchase, got possession of the smallor literature in Germany in the 15th c., was born at Bablo, near holdings, and thus became cultivators of extensive tracts. Though Griningen, in Friesland, in I443. After studying at Louvain the land was the property of the State, and the cultivators mere and Paris, he went to Italy, where he stayed two years. On tenants-at-will, long possession produced the feeling of owner- his return to Germany in I479, he did much by his lectures and ship, and the land was regularly transferred by sale. The State, otherwise to revive a taste for ancient literature. His principal however, occasionally asserted its rights. When the plebeians, work, De Inventione Dialecticd Wivas mostly written while on a as distinguished from the patricians or original burgesses, became journey to Rome with the Bishop of Worms in 1485; but his a separate estate, they claimed a share in that portion at least fame rests not so much upon hh written works as upon his perof the public land that had been acquired by conquest, and many sonal influence at that period. He died at Worms in I485. difficulties arose between the two estates, which were attempted See Tresling's Yita et lflerita R2zd. Agricole (Grin. i83o). to be settled by enacting agrarian laws, which are not to be con- gricul'tue, a word derived from the atin, signifying founded with the modern proposal of an equal division of te the tillage of a plot or field of land. rom the time that lands of the rich among the poor. The A. L. of Spurius Cassius'Adam delved,' the culture of the ground has been one of the sl5'Adam delved,' the culture of the groun&- has been on-e of the (B.c. 484) proposed that the unassigned portion of the public chief industries of man. A system of mixed husbandry has land should be divided among the plebeians, and that the rent prevailed from primeval ages, and no better method of supplyor tithe of the remainder should b'e exacted, and applied to the ing corn and cattle for the food of the population of the earth payment of the army. It n-e-ver, however, came ilnto operapayment of the army. It never, however, came into oper has ever been devised. Since the abolition of the Corn Laws tion, as its author was put to death in the following year. By n the United ingdom, the question has constantly cropped the A. L. of C. Licinius Stolo: (B. C. 367) no occupier was to have A.more than 5o acres, and the surplus was to be divided up as to whether the growing of corn or the rearing of cattle amore than5. ac the surlu as to-be diied is the most profitable method for the farmer to adopt. Duris the most profitable method for the farmer to adopt. Duramong the plebeians, at the rate of seven acres each. After a ingtheCrimean war prices of wheat rose to a height unpretime the Licinian law began to be disregarded, and at length cedented, except in the days when the'Iron Duke' waged cedented, except in the days when the I Iron Duke' waged Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (B.c, 133) revived the measure deadly feud in the Peninsula against Napoleon. In 8 foreign deadly feud in the Pen~insula against Napoleon. In i,8I2 foreign for restricting the possession of public land to 50'0 acres, givingere debarred fom entrance to Englih ports; in 56 growers were debarred from entrance to English ports; in I8S56 each son of a possessor 25v acres additional; while the land reseson of a possessor 250i acres additional; while the lan they were not, and yet the prices obtained by British farmers in esued was to be distributed among the poorer citizens, who the latter period were nearly equal to those realised before that were not to have the power of alienating their allotments. This Act which gave a'free loaf to the people. What was the remeasure Gracchus carried in spite of the opposition of the patri- sult ofthese high values placeduponwheat? Ageneralreconcians, but he lost his life in a riot exoited by his legislation, mendation thatll or nearly all pasturelands should be subjected mendation that all or nearly all pasture-landsshudbsbjce The Sempronian law was not repealed, but it became virtually to the operation of the plough. Cattle and sheep were at that inoperative, and shortly after the death of its author the clause time rather a sluggish trade in themaret. ool had to be sold time rather a sluggish trade in the market. Wool had to be sold forbidding the alienation of allotments was rescinded, and they at a moderate ate, and stock-farmers had the worst of it. The naturally fell into the hands of the rich, who soon became again grazing lands were broken upsand before the value of the Othe agarin lwssuc asgrazing lairds were broken up, and before the value of the possessed of overgrown estates. Other agrarian laws, such as manures had been nigh exhausted, corn slid down the scale and those that proposed the division of conquered lands among vet- meat ent up. Meat has continued at high rates, and it is urged eran soldiers, were less violently opposed. Various objects were now (75) that grass should be more extensively cultivated than contemplated by this system, one of the least satisfactory of whic it i One reason, besides the high price of meat, given for this it is. One reason, besides the high price of meat, given for this was the extending, of the influence of a popular leader. As a was the extendig of the influence of a popular leader. As a course of cultivation, or rather the negation of cultivation, is that means of relieving the wants of the poor these laws were a much horse and manual labour might be saved. orses are much horse and manrtal labour migh~t be saved. Horses are failure, for the refuse of a large city never prove efficient culti- very dear, the average value of a good farm-horse being about very dear, the average value of a g~ood farmn-horse being about vators, as they have ri-eiher patience nor skill. 6vators, as they have neither patience nor ski. 60 to ~80; and wages of agricultural labourers have increased Agric'ola, Gnanus or Cneius. Julius, a Romnan commander in proportionate ratio with that of the equine quadrupeds. It is and statesman, born at Forum Julii (mod. Frejus, in Provence), a mistake to recommend all grass and no corn, The land re37 A.D., commenced his military career in Britain under Sue- quires change. It is not possible to develop it to its full extent tonius Paulinus, 60_A. D. After holding many civil offices he was without varying the rotations in ordinary farming practice. The elected consul, 77 A.D. Next year he was made Governor of land, like that mythical boy Jack, if it have no play, is a dull Britain, the greater portion of which he subdued. He defeated clod. It is not necessary, however, that it should lie bare fallow, the Caledonians in the great battle of the Grampians, circum- although in some cases on heavy soils, where weeds have congrenavigated Britain, built a chain of forts between the Clyde and gated, owing to the unpropitiousness of the season, entire nonthe Forth, and introduced civilisation into the island. Being production for one year might be recouped by the crop of the recalled by the jealousy of Domitian, he lived in privacy till his succeeding one, if due care were expended on the choice of good death, A.D. 93. His life by Tacitus, his son-in-law, is a biogra- seed and the after tidiness and carefulness of treatment. Mr phical masterpiece. Lawes, the great experimentalist, has grown successive crops of 35 AGR TIHE GL OBE ENC YCL OPlEDIA. AGR barley on his farm at Rothamsted for twenty-three years (up to House of Commons to inquire into the A. C. of England and 1875), but it would be unadvisable for all farmers to follow his Wales in respect to tenant right. The evidence taken was very example. Before such continuous rotation is resolved upon, the voluminous, embracing information from all the principal agrisoil and climate ought to be thoroughly understood, and looking cultural counties in England. An admirable digest of this generally at farms where rent must be paid out of profit, it would unwieldy blue-book was made by Messrs William Shaw and not be very wise to farm on a fourth for the rotation, or at the Henry Corbet of the Mark Lane Express, and published by most a sixth. Ridgeway, Piccadilly, London. The conclusion arrived at The practice of conducting A. has so much changed within a from evidence given by fifty-three representative witnesses was, quarter of a century, that the old modes of tilling the soil may be that customs giving compensation for purchased food for stock, passed by with a reference. The land was scratched to a depth of and certain kinds of manure, for draining, chalking, and working some three or four inches, and grain was scattered upon it at the of the soil-the result of all which outlays is to effect an improvediscretion of the sower. His hand was not always judiciously ment of the soil, more or less lasting, and requiring more or steadied, or else the wind came and blew the seed upon furrows less time to elapse before the increased productiveness, thereby which wanted not. The consequence was that at harvest-time obtained, reimburses the expenditure incurred-existed oaily in the fields exhibited much'patchiness.' On some places there few districts of counties, and that only in these few localities, proved not to be tenfold return where a hundredfold might have unless by direct stipulation with the landlord (who generally been expected. There is not much danger of such blank spaces made the incoming tenant pay), was compensation for any imoccurring now in fields, because the drills which the ingenuity of provements made to the outgoing tenant, however short the time agricultural mechanists have invented are nearly proof against between their completion and the termination of the occupancy. wind and weather. The evidence on custom proves how much revision of customs A., not long out of its cradle in the United Kingdom, is is required.'Where best known and most practised, they still wrapped in its swaddling-clothes in most other countries on scarcely ever in reality possess a stronger power than that of a the continent of Europe and our colonies. Reaping-machines, custom by courtesy. Any man can sesist or defy them, if he by saving labour, have given a stimulus to the practice of A., and thinks fit to do so, for the expensive, tardy, and problematical tended to an increase of rents in some districts. Portable thresh- process required to eniforce his obedience is, from motives of ing-machines proved a great boon to agriculturists. In out-of- prudence, rarely resorted to. Even then the custom conies into the-way districts they quite superseded the flailand the cumber- court to claim the support of an authority it has only indirectly, some horse-gearing machines, and even the fixed stearm-ma- if ever, actually received, and which will require very clearlychinery, as it was found cheaper to employ these peripatetic traced proof of its existence to extend to such a usage any recogseverers of the corn from the chaff than to light unwonted fires nition at all. The custom of the county, in short, has been and burn expensive coals. allowed, or rather been received as law, from the want of any After drainage A. in this country depends more for success law upon the matter; and vague and uncertain in its origin, it upon steam-ploughing than on any other mndus operandi on the naturally becomes equally so in its action. Twenty-seven years farm. The success which has attended the workling of the vari.- have made no notable alteration in the matter of tenant right. ous systems in use has been very marked. It is claimed for We gather this from the reports and summary schedules of an these steam-drawn ploughs, cultivators, and grubbers that they inquiry into the A. C. of England and Wales(I875). Customs can accomplish worlk at seasons when horse-ploughs would not are very capriciously distributed, the greater portion of England be able to overtalke it. They can achieve thorough tilth at a still remaining without compensation to the tenant for capital time when the pressure of horses' hoofs upon the land would be expended in improvements. A. map of England in which the extremely inimical to the growth of the seed soon after. The prevalence of such custom should be represented by a distinhollows horses make leave the land water-logged at every step, guishing colour would exhibit a series of most irregularly-shaped and consequently at every step the grain falling thereon is and unequally-distributed patches-the most conspicuous feature doomed to blight. being the very small proportion of the surface of England enjoyHalf of the land in occupation is not cultivated properly, be- ing any custom of adequate compensation even for purchased cause the tenants do not get security for their capital. Were feeding stuffs. (See Reports of Committee of Central and Assothey to drain and manure, and feed, off cake in their stalls or ciated Chambers of Agriculture on Unexhausted Improvements.) sheds for cattle, and on turnips for the sheep, the fertility of the The universal opinion of farmers is that a general principle of land would be immensely improved. Leases are the safest compensation should be legalised. agreements that a tenant can have, however good the landlord's Agriulturl Education. It is impossible to give a defiintentions may be. A new landlord might come in after the one nition to this heading. It embraces all the sciencesteoretithat the farmer had bargained with, and in England dismiss him with a six months' notice..re h brae iha i gacally); practically it means that those who till the soil should with a six months' notice. be well acquainted, with natural laws. If seed is sown at a Wheat, barley, oats are the principal cereals in Great Bri. e well acquainted with natural laws. If seed is sown at a tam. Roots are now one of the best paying, crops-potatoes B wrong season, or when the soil is not in proper tilth, then the farmer is not educated. There is a great want of general educaparticularly so, if that wondrous malady, about the origin of tio among farmerstoo much haphazard work. Farmers do P ~~~~~~~~~~~~~tion among farmers —too much haphazard work. Farmers do which so many doctors differ, did not every now and again iot, as a rule, Ieep farm-books; their accounts extend from appear in their midst. week to weelck in the corn-markets, and then, the items on their It has been said that there are scarcely any small holdings i note-books England. There are nearly 230,000, ranging between five and Cenotebooks struck through, the transactions are at an end. The and very nearly hfof arenot aove te Cirencester College, established in I845 entirely through the twenty acres, and very nearly half of these are not above the efforts of Mr E. Holland, has been very successful. The terms smaller figure. There is therefore a fair opportunity for the frugal are 50 for non-residents, an 30 foesiden pupils. After are -65o for non-residents, and oI3 for resident pupils. After agricultural labourer to obtain a plot.;1 agricultural labourer to obtain a plot. a good general education, in which geology and meteorology Up to the end of 1874 there were 47, I43,oo00o acres under crops, 7 bare fallow, and grass. To look after the land there were, in- should be combined, the best education for a young farmer is that which is to be obtained by going over the farm of a skilled eluding farmers, graziers, and bailiffs, 1,246,oo0 persons in farmer. There are many gentlemen who talce in youths as 6 ~~~~~~~~~~~~farmer. There are many gentlemen who take in youths as England and Wales; in Scotland 220,000, and in Ireland 931,706. pupils, and the three Lothians of Scotland are the best for those From these figures it would appear that Scotland can accom- who desire nowledge of arable and stock husbandry. t, ~~~~~~~~~~~who desire knowledge of arable and stock husbandry. plish better work at a smaller expenditure of labour than other countries. Agricultural Implements and Machinery. For cenIt has been thought sufficient here to give a general sketch of A. turies attempts have been made to improve the implements as it stands at the present time, reserving other information for intended for the cultivation of the soil-to supersede the mere special heads, such as Agricultural Implements, Agricultural wooden forked stick of Eastern countries, and the scarcely more Societies, Agricultural Education, Chambers of Agriculture, efficacious instruments that prevailed from that time down to a Land Tenure, Leases, Rural Cottages, Game Laws, Irrigation, comparatively recent date. It is curious, in looking over old Sewage, Tillage, &c. books on agriculture, to notice what prejudice existed against the use of iron and wheel ploughs-a prejudice which in Kent Agricultural Oustomes. In I848 Mr Philip Pusey, an especially is not entirely removed from the minds of the farmers eminent agriculturist, obtained a Parliamentary Committee of the with regard to tillage instruments of iron construction, and * 36 AGR THE GIOBE ENCYCIGOPADIA. AGR which is only being gradually overcome in Scotland with regard don, and Windsor, the last three within easy distance of London. to wheels on ploughs. Lord Kames, in The Gentleman Farmer, It is extremely popular wherever it goes, much more so than expresses his dislike to two-wheeled ploughs thus:' All cornm- the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland or the Royal plicated ploughs are baubles; and this as much as any. The Agricultural Society of England. Venetian flags and festoons pivots of such wheels are always going wrong; and besides they of evergreens wreath the whole streets on its progress from the are choked with earth, as to increase the friction instead of triumphal arch at entrance of the town it visits to the place diminishing it.' A good authority on husbandry, as it was prac. where its tents are pitched. The prizes offered are very liberal, tised in I765, the Rev. Adam Dickson of Dunse, agrees in this. and accordingly attract a large number of exhibitors of horses, opinion; and in 1795 Mr Robertson, an eminent farmer at cattle, sheep, and pigs from all parts of the kingdom. It pubGranton, whose Agricultzural Survey of Midlothian is an exhaus- lishes annually a volume of 7Tansactions containing many valutive one, writes still more contemptuously about the wheels on able essays on practical and scientific questions specially relating the earliest instruments employed in tillage. He says of a to agriculture. Next in date and importance comes the Highland plough made by Mr Small (an implement still in use, and of and Agricultural Society of Scotland, by far the wealthiest in proved utility), that it'is now universal over Scotland, and per- the United Kingdom, its accumulated funds being about haps were it better known in England, it might come to displace ~6o,ooo. This society was instituted in I784, its object being the complicated ploughs with wheels and other trumpery with then limited to the improving of waste districts in the Highlands which agriculture there is at present encumbered; as it is not of Scotland. It was not long, however, before it extended its apt to. be put out of order, but simple in the construction, and area of usefulness, and it now embraces the whole of Scotland, effective in operation, it is adapted to almost every situation.' holding its annual shows of stock and implements in rotation in The swing-plough and the wheel alike are gradually giving Edinburgh, Glasgow, Stirling, Perth, Aberdeen, Kelso, Inverway to the double-furrow and the three-furrow ploughs, and even ness, Dumfries, and Berwick. Besides the encouragement these are being superseded by steam-tackle on moderately-sized which this society bestows upon exhibitors at its own displays, farms where too many land-fast stones do not present almost it likewise gives prizes and medals to local exhibitions, and insuperable obstacles in the expensive process of removal. stimulates proper cultivation of the soil by awards to efficient There have been many abortive efforts in perfecting machines ploughmen in most of the agricultural districts of Scotland. for cultivating the soil, for sowing seed, and for drilling; for Further, it takes an interest in agricultural education generally, rolling, for hoeing after the blades attain a certain height, for but perhaps not to the extent that its means would enable it to reaping and gathering when the cereal crop reaches fi-uition, do; in the veterinary art, especially-in the Edinburgh Veterinary and for digging potatoes without manual labour. But the College; and it also supplies its members with cheap analyses of supremacy of mechanical adaptation over either manual or horse feeding stuffs and manures by chemists whom it salaries. In I 793 labour, or both combined, may be dated from the'Great Exhi- the Board of Agriculture was established through the instrumenbition' of 185I. Long and wearisome was the struggle to tality of Sir John Sinclair, which had for its secretary the famous get reaping-machines introduced into the United Kingdom, Arthur Young. In I798 the Smithfield Club was formed for although to Scotland belongs the honour of having first invented the purpose of improving the breed of stock through the agency these great savers of human toil. To a Forfarshire clergy- of fat animals, which have to combine symmetry with weight, man, the Rev. Patrick Bell, is undoubtedly due the invention early maturity, and good quality of flesh. The Royal Society of for cutting corn. In 1826 he tried the machine in the Carse of England, now the first in the world, did not come into existence Gowrie, but it was then only in a rudimentary state, and the prin- until I838, and the Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland until ciple practically lay dormant until the'World's Great Fair.' three years afterwards. Like the Highland, these two combine Then came M'Cormack and Hussey, Americans, who'bettered' exhibitions of stock with the publication of instructive essays the instruction given, and whose first machine was tried in upon husbandry. Among the more prominent provincial societies I85I, upon a field on Mr Mechis farm at Tiptree. Since that the Yorkshire Society may be mentioned, which is not excelled, time these machines have been multiplied by hundreds and if even equalled, by any, in its exhibition of that grand breed of by thousands, and the names of the makers are legion. So also animals, the shorthorn. The London Farmers' Club was estabare they in grass-mowers, in combined machines, in harrows, in lished in 1845, the first of its kind; and since then similar institurollers, in chaff-cutters, in root-pulpers, in hay-makers, in root- tions have become common in all central rural districts. These washers, in cake-breakers, in corn-grinders, in winnowers, in societies have effected vast changes for the better in the form and threshing-machines, drills, &c. Steam cultivation is rapidly quality of cattle and sheep, causing production of more palatable growing in favour. It was at first looked upon askance; it is beef and mutton, heavier fleeces of wool, and, as a rule, at much now recognised as the most profitable mode of cultivation where less cost in proportion to the prices realised. The Benevolent fences are not too frequently interposed. Fences, forest-trees, Association, founded in I86o, mainly through the efforts of Mr and small holdings are the great obstacles to steam in the field. Mechi, ought not to be forgotten in this list. It has proved of Winnowers were introduced in I710 from Holland by a Scotch- great benefit to aged and decayed farmers, and to widows and man; Jethro Tull, in 1740, was first to make the drill known, offspring of agriculturists. and a long time it took to make it popular. The horse-hoe was also his invention (the inventor of both died in Fleet Prison). Agrigen'tum (Gr. Akragras), now Girgenti, on the S.W. Andrew Meikle introduced a threshing-mill into Scotland in 1786, coast of Sicily, founded by a colony from Gela (582 B.c.), was at and mills, after his construction, became very general in East one time so flourishing that Diodorus estimated the population and Mid Lothian shortly after. This machine was propelled by at 200,o000o. The Carthagiiiians destroyed it n.c. 405. After the horse, and was a very primitive affair. In 1788 a dibbling- Punic wars it became subject to Rome. The Saracens held it machine was invented, and the first agricultural portable steam- from 825 to Io86 A.D. The modern town, of which the populaengine was set in motion by Davies of Birmingham in I84I. tion is about I5,000, has a cathedral and a public seminary. It Since that time marvellous strides have been made in the manu- also contains magnificent and extensive ruins of the ancient A., facture and improvement of all the implements and machinery the best preserved of which are the Temple of Concord and that mentioned. The character and description of the more impor- of Juno Lucina, both Doric. tant machines will be found under their particular headings. Agrimonia (Agrimony), a genus of herbaceous plants belonging to the order laosacer. A. EuA. atoria, or common agriof agricultur e have existed from about the commencement of the mony, is a frequent roadside plant in Britain. Its foliage is of agriculture have existed from about the commencement of the astringent and slightly aromatic, and is occasionally used as an x8th c., but they can scarcely be said to have done much to for- astringent and slightly aromatic, and i occasionally used as'herb tea.' It contains tannin, and has been recommended as ward the improvements in agriculture in this country before,777, a tonic. Iemp A. is Ez6taorim cannabizenem. when the Bath and West of England Agricultural Society was established for advancing the cause of agriculture, and combining Agrip'pa, Cornelius Heinrich, a celebrated writer, with this object the encouragement of the fine arts. For nearly philosopher, and physician of the I6th c., was born at Cologne 100 years the history of this society has been one of almost unin- in I486. First a teacher of theology in Franche Comtd, terrupted prosperity. It holds its annual exhibition of stock, and then at Cologne, where he also dabbled in alchemy, he next poultry, roots, seeds, and implements in various parts of the king- distinguished himself as a soldier, and was knighted by Maxidom, its operations ranging from Plymouth to Guildford, Croy- rmilian I. Not content with such honour, he took the degrees AGR THSE GLOBE EVC YCLOP5s~Af. AGT. of Doctor of Laws and Medicine, and lectured for a time at and more than once he saved his country by the skilful negotiaPavia. After a wandering and harassed life, owing to the tion of loans. For these services A. was made Marquis de Las hatred felt for him by the monks, he died at Grenoble in x535. Marismas del Guadalquiver by Ferdinand VII. Having become His first work, a Tr-eatise on the Excellences of Women, procured a great proprietor in France, he naturalised himself as a Frenchhim the favour of Margaret of Austria, through whose influence man in I828. He died I4th April I842. A. left a fortune of he was made historiographer to Charles V. His most celebrated 6o,ooo,ooo francs; his landed property included the estate of work, De Irncerlitudine el Vanitate Scienliarum, is a severe satire Chateau Margaux, celebrated for its wines. A magnificent art upon the sciences as they then existed, but is scarcely consistent collection of A.'s was engraved by Gavarni, and published with his later work, De Occuzltd Philoso hii. The most complete under the title Galerie A. (Paris, 1837-42.) collection of his works was published at Lyon about I550. See Aguas Calientes, a town of Mexico, province of Zacatecas, Morley's Bio~grajhyv of A. (Lond. 1856.) on a tributary of the Rio Grande de Santiago; lat. 2I~ 53' N., Agrippa, Herod, I., son of Aristobulus and Berenice, was long. IoI~ 45' W. It stands 6ooo feet above the sea; has a educated at Rome with Claudius and Drusus, and soon involved good situation for trade; and is noted for its hot springs, from himself so much in debt that he had to leave the city. After which it has derived its name. It has numerous woollen facsuffering many reverses of fortune, Caligula (A.D. 37) gave him tories. Pop. 20,00o. the tetrarchies of Abilene, Batanaea, Trachonitis, and Auranitis, A'gue is intermittent fever, a disease due to miasms rising to which were added Galilee and Perea on the banishment of from marshy groind. The febrile symptoms occur in paroxysms, Herod Antipas, and Claudius afterwards gave him Judaea and at definite periods, are ushered in by rigors or shivering, and Samaria. He courted the Jews, but persecuted the Christians, terminate in copious sweats. During the interval the person is causing James to be beheaded, and Peter to be cast into prison. in good health, but at the end of a certain time, varying from His singular death at Caesarea, A.D. 44, in the fifty-fifth year of 24 to 72 hours, the attack happens again and again until the his age, is recorded in Acts xii. disease is cured. At one time common in England, it has now Agrippa, Herod, II., the last of the Herods, son of A. I., nearly disappeared before drainage improvements. It is still educated at Rome, was seventeen years old at his father's death. prevalent in India and in other parts of the tropics. There are Claudius, appointing a procurator for the kingdom, gave A. the three distinct varieties, which differ in the length of the interval small principality of Chalcis, but soon restored to him the greater as follows: quotidian, interval 24 hours; tertian, interval 48 portion of his possessions, which Nero increased. A. adorned hours; and quartan, interval 72 hours. The intervalis the time Jerusalem and Berytus with costly buildings. When the Jews between the commencement of one paroxysm and the beginning rose in rebellion against the Romans (67 A.D.) he joined the of the one immediately following it; tihe intermission is the time latter. After the fall of Jerusalem (70 A.D.) he, withdrew to between the termination of a paroxysm and the beginning of the Rome, where he died 97 A.D. It was before him that Paul iiext one. In quotidian A. the attack usually occurs in the answered for himself. morning; in tertian, at noon; and in quartan, in the afternoon. Agrippa, M. Vipsanius (nc.C. 63-12), a Roman of obscure |The poison causing the disease is produced by the action of a family, the main instrument in securing undivided sovereignty hot sun on moist ground, and is probably derived from decomfor Augustus, whose niece Marcella, and daughter Julia, he in posing vegetable matter. The poison is found chiefly in the turn m d. He c e th ft at Ai (c 3) mists which lie low near the ground, and being associated with turn married. He commanded the fleet at Actium (B.c. 3I), and the vapour it may be distributed by the wind. Quinine is a adorned and benefited Rome by many beautiful and useful specific remedy e treatment of this disease. In the absence works while dileof the city (B.c. 33). Horaceinoneofhisspecific remedy in the treatment of this disease. In the absence works while aedile of the city (B.c. 33). Horace, in one of his.f quinine, arsenic may be used. satires, alludes to the applause A. received for his munificence, Bssfounes Ague. A peculiar form of intermittent fever and has dedicated to him an ode, in which he professes his attacks rassfounders' Age. A peculiar form of intermittent fever attacks brassfounders and other workmen exposed to the fumes inability to do justice to his merits. of deflagrating zinc. It has nothing in common with true A. Agrippi'na I., the daughter of M. Vipsanius Agrippa and except a general resemblance of the symptoms. Intemperance his wife Julia, was born shortly before B.c. I2, and was married favours the disease; emetics are said to cure it. to Caesar Germanicus. Her love for her husband and children, Agues'seau, Henri Franuois d', a celebrated French the courage of her spirit, and the chastity of her life, make her a model Rom a] 1 matron. A ter he murder of ler h inchancellor, born at Liroges 27th Nov. i668. Early. devoted a model Roman matron. After the murder of her husband in to legal studies, he became vatira when only twenty-two. _.. to legal studies, he avocat-gvneral when only twenty-two Syria (A.D. I9), she returned to Italy with his ashes, and from years of age. In 700 he was named rore anin Brundusium to Rome the funeral procession was everywhere this gepacty he greatly improved urisdictions underaliareceived with imperial honours. After years of concealed hatred, mentary control, and steadly resisted the urisdictions under parliaTiberius banished her (A.D. 30) to the island of Pandataria, where y she probably starved herself to death (33 A.D.) Papacy on the liberties of the Gallican Church. His demeanour in regard to the famous Unigenitls bull at this time was both Agrippina II., the daughter of the foregoing, born at Co- brave and patriotic. The Duke of Orleans appointed him chanlogne some time between 13 and 17 A.D. Thrice married-first cellor in 1717; but within a yea] he was deposed for resisting to Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus (28 A.D.), secondly to Crispus the financial chimeras of Law. He was recalled in I720, but Passienus (40 A.D.), and thirdly to her uncle, the Emperor again displaced at the instance of Cardinal Dubois. The years Claudius-she seems to have lived for nothing but the gratifica- spent in his country retreat he was wont to call les beaux jours tion of lust and hate. Her career is, in truth, an unbroken de sa vie. The foundations of all his great legislative reforms record of detestable crimes. She poisoned two of her husbands, in regard to gifts, testaments, &c., were now laid, and he also and caused the assassination or the suicide of numbers of men beguiled his leisure by poetry, scholarship, literary intercourse, and women whose virtues or rivalship she feared, but was at last and religious meditations. After the lapse of fifteen years, he put to death (60 A.D.) by her son, Nero, who was wearied out was again prevailed upon to accept the seals, which he held with his mother's intrigues. till I750. He died 9gth February I75I. His linguistic and legal Agtelek, a village in Hungary, between Pesth and Kaschau, erudition was immense, and his memory prodigious. His various near to which is a celebrated stalactite cavern, called in Hunga- writings and speeches fill thirteen quarto volumes (Paris, I759rian Baradlo, a suffocating place. The entrance to this cavern is 89; later editicn, I8I9). See Boullee's Nistoire de la Vie et des at the base of a mountain, and is scarcely 31 feet high; but it O vrages du Ciancelier d'Agezesseau (2 vols., Paris, I835). leads into numerous chambers, the largest of which is nearly 9oo Aguila'r de la Fronte'ra, a town of Andalusia, Spain, 26 feet long, 96 high, and 90 wide.'The Flower-Garden,''Mo- miles S.S.E. of Cordova, on a tributary of the'Xenil, in the midst, saic Altar,' and'Image of the Virgin' are descriptive names of a wide broken plain covered with vineyards, and near the applied to different parts of the labyrinth. large salt lake of Zoiiar. The monastery of Santa Clara contains Aguado', Alexander JMaria, banker and political finan- valuable paintings by the best Spanish masters. Agriculture cier, of Jewish extraction, born at Seville 2th June i784. In and the breeding of cattle, horses, and mules are carried on. I8i5 he settled in Paris, where, by his tact, energy, and ingenuity,. II,836. he soon became the wealthiest banker of his time. The financial Agul'has Cape ('Needle Cape'), usually said to be the affairs of the Spanish government were often intrusted to him, southern extremity of Africa, in lat. 340 5I' S., long. I9~ 55' E. A 38 AHA THE GLOBE ENt VCYCL OPxELDJA. AIL There is, however, a rocky promontory near it which stretches died A.D. 651. Bede (Ecci. Hist. Gent. Angl., lib. 3, cap. 17) still further into the sea. A. is a point of some danger, and a speaks in the highest terms of his character and labours; of his lighthouse was erected on it in 1849. An immense shoal, love of peace, his charity, his humility, his tenderness to the called A. Bank, about 560 miles long, stretches along the whole poor, and his priestly fire when the proud trampled on justice. southern coast. ~~~~~southern coast. ~Aide-de-Camp. In active service this is a highly imporA'hab, son of Omri, seventh ruler of the separate kingdom of tant officer in the army. He acts as secretary and messageIsrael, and the second of his dynasty. By his marriage with bearer to the commander. According to military law, his orders Jezebel, daughter of the King of Sidon, a fanatical pagan who must be obeyed as though they came direct from the general. had been a priest of Astarte before he usurped the throne, A. Accuracy in receiving and delivering orders on the field of battle was seduced into the idolatries of the Phcenicians, and the priests is therefore of the utmost consequence, and want of it has been and prophets of Jehovah were persecuted. The most majestic known to lead to very fatal results. The pay of an A. is 9s. 6d. figure in his reign is the prophet Elijah, who predicted the de- a day extra. The Queen has also the right of appointing Aidesstruction of the monarch's house. A. waged three wars with de-Camp for herself. As an honorary office, that of A. is in Benhadad, King of Damascus, in the first two of which he was request as conferring on the holder the rank of colonel in the victorious, but in the third he was defeated and slain. A. had army. The number of Aides-de-Camp allowed to a commander glimpses of truth and fits of remorse, but Jezebel, like Lady is, according to his rank, from one to four. Though the appointMacbeth, was too much for her husband. ment is in the patronage of the Crown, before it can be given Ahasue'rus, the name given to one Median and two Persian to an officer he must have been with his regiment for two kings mentioned in the Bible, of whom the best known is the years, and must have passed an examination. husband of Esther (q. v.) He is probably the same person whom Aidin, or Aidin-Enzel-Hissar (i.e.,'the fair town of A.'), we know under the name of Xerxes, because the Hebrew form a large and flourishing town of Asiatic Turkey, vilayet of Anaof the word Ac/zashverosh is apparently the same as the old Per- tolia, about 60 miles S.E. of Smyrna, on a brook that joins the siain Kyschydrsc/zan. Comp. Sansc. KTshahalr, a king. Mendere (anc. Meander). The ruins of the ancient Tralles lie Ahme'dabad, formerly the most magnificent city in the W.'on the plateau above the town. It carries on a great trade in of India, Presidency of Bombay, and 290 miles N. of the city of fruits, especially figs, with Smyrna. Pop. from 35,000 to 6o,ooo. Bombay. Its walls are lofty, its principal streets wide enough for Aidon'e, a town in the interior of Sicily, province of Caltaten carriages abreast, and among its great buildings, many of nisetta, on a lofty hill overlooking the wide plain of Catania. which are decorated in the most lavish Oriental style, are the It has some trade. Pop. 5920. Juma'ah Masjid, the Ivory Mosque —its lining of ivory enriched with gems in imitation of natural flowers-and the Mint, now tn sohei nd icrtalimsndfar.Sue occupied by gold and silver wire drawers. There are Englishqunlthycetobrgaddsmterfrit.Ty occupied by gold and silver wire drawers. There are Englishl tenants to their landlord in critical times and affairs. Subseschools, college, museum, library, &c. Its manufactures of gold ently they came to be regrded as matter of right. They d silver cloth, silk carpets, inlaid work, c., are famous were abolished in the reign of Charles II. When a tenant of the and silver cloth, silk carpets, inlaid work, &c., are famnous. Crwe sreqaboished to pay reintb aotherlies mIhnay teappl for advie Cotton is largely cultivated in the neighbourhood. Pop. about Cown is requirel to pay rentby another, he may apply for avice 13o,ooo. Founded by Ahmed Shah in'1412, it was taken by the 130,000. Founded by Ahmed Shah in 1412, it was taken by the to the Crown counsel. This is called asking'Aid of the King.' British in I780, and annexed on the fall of the Peishwa in i818. Aigues-.Mortes (Aqu_ Morluo), a decayed town of France in the dep. of Gard, surrounded by lagoons, and connected Ahmednug'gur, town and military station of India, Presidency of Bombay, tand 164 miles E. of city of Bombay. Pres- with the Mediterranean by a canal 3 miles long. St Louis sailed deney of Bombay, and. I64 m~iles E,. of city of Bombay. It is the headquarters of the Bombay Artillery, and the t hence on his crusading expeditions in 1248 and 127o. A. is the eadqartes ofthe omby Ariiley, ad th canon-unhealthy, but occupies a good military position for the defence ments, arsenal, and fort are striking features. There are English unhealthy, but occupies a good military position for the defence and native schools. The water supply is good. The lofty tomb of the coast. POP. (872) 3833 of Salabat Khan (8 miles S.) commands a superb view. The Aigui'lle (Fr. a needle), a military engineering instrument'pig-sticking' here is famous. Founded in 1494, it was taken intended for piercing a rock preparatory to blasting. by Wellesley in 1803, and definitely occupied by the British in Aiguille'tte, a military decoration worn by officers on the 1817. Pop. (1872) 32,84I. right shoulder, but chiefly confined to the officers of the Life Ahmednuggur, a walled town and capital of a Rajpoot Guards and Horse Guards, and composed of gold or silver district of the same name, in Guzerat, Presidency of Bombay, cords and loops. on a branch of the river Sabarmati. Pop. 9ooo. Aikman, William, a Scotch artist, born in Aberdeenshire Akhmedpu'r, a town in the N. of India, native state of Bhaw- in 1682. His father was an eminent advocate, and he was in i682. His father was an eminent advocate, and he was pur, on a small stream flowing into the Sutlege, near its junction educated for the same profession, but was allowed to follow his with the Chenab; has manufactures of cotton, silk, gun~powder, predilection for the fine arts. He studied at Rome, and after wiandh matchlocks. Pop. said to be about 30,000. wandering in Turkey, returned to London, where he acquired a and miatchlocks. Pop. said to be about 3o,0ooo. high reputation for portrait-painting. He moved in the brilliant Ahriman (Zend, Aiio-ainyus, the malignant or destroy- society of Pope, Swift, Gay, and Arbuthnot, and was intimate ing spirit), in the religious system of Zoroaster, is the personifi- with the author of The Seasons, who speaks of him as'the cation of evil. He does not, strictly speaking, possess an inde- just, the good, the social, and the wise.' A..died in London pendent creative power like Ormuzd (Ahuramazda), but he can June 4, I731. plant the seeds of evil in the pure and good creations of the il o, the name given to Ailnlus ulos in China latter. In this way he is the original source of whatever is Aiant'o, th e name given to dilanlus giandselos in China harmful or destructive in nature, the poisons of plants, the fero- and India. It is a large handsome tree belonging to the natural city of wild beasts, and in general of all that is bad, both phi order Simarubace. It has been introduced into Britain, and physical attains a height of from 50 to 6o feet. Its timber is suited for and moral. At a later period he is regarded as the prince of theatins beio frm5to6fe.Istimeistdf Daevas, or evil spirits, the lord of darkness and death, the eter- cabinet-work, being fine grained, and of a satiny, yellowishwhite colour. In France the tree is called Fernis dua oYa oi. nal opponent of Ormuzd. At this point a connection is traceable between A. and the Satan of the Hebrews. Aile'ttes (Fr. little wings) were appendages, commonly Ai'dan, St, originally a monk of a, was invited to made of leather, covered with a kind of cloth called carda, ~~a~~i'darm, a~~~~~~t, ~orign by knights of thea ~3th.beind r tthesde tofh Northumbria by Oswald, king of that country, to assist in worn by knights of the 13th c. behind or at the side of the restoring Christianity, which had been nearly destroyed by the shoulders, and probably intended to serve as a kind of protection. restoring Christianity, which had been nearly destroyed by the victories of the pagan Mercians. He arrived in England A.D. Ailly, Pierre d', a French theologian and scholastic philo634, and threw himself with Celtic enthusiasm into his evange, sopher, born at Compiegne in 1350, first acquired celebrity as listic work. Christianity rapidly revived. The central ecclesi- a supporter of Nominalism, and a brilliant preacher. In 1380 astical authority was transferred from York to Lindisfarne, a he was appointed Head of the College de Navarre, and formed bleak isle on the Northumbrian coast, where a monastery was the minds of many great theologians; in 1389 he became Chanbuilt and filled with monks from Iona. A.'s office was essen- cellor of the University of Paris; in 1398 Bishop of Cambrai; tially episcopal, even arch-episcopal, though there were, pro- was made cardinal in 1411 by Pope John XXIII., and papal perly speaking, no bishops in the early Scoto-Irish Church. He legate in Germany, in which capacity he took a prominent part * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~39 AIL THE GLOBE Et CYCLOPzEDJA. AIR in the Council of Constance, and was accessory to the death of The word kel denotes' settled people;' many of the tribes, howHIuss. Though holding strongly the superiority of councils to ever, are nomadic. popes, and in favour of ecclesiastical reform, he was thoroughly Air is the name applied to the atmosphere of the earth, but opposed to the tenets of Huss. He died at Avignon in 1420 or was formerly a general term for all those ahriform fluids which I425. A. was surnamed the Hammer of Heretics and the Eagle are now included underthe name of gas. The properties of A. of the Doctors of France. His works are numerous, and have will be found under AERODYNAMICS, ATMOSPHERE, BAROMEbeen often printed in part or in whole. See Dinaux's Notice Historigue el Litz-raire sur P. d'Ailly (Cambrai, 1824).,Air-Beds are mattresses made of vulcanised indiarubber Ailsa Craig, a huge rock near the entrance to the Firth divided into separate compartments, each of which is provided of Clyde, and about Io miles from the coast of Ayrshire. It is with an air-valve. When inflated, they form very light, clean, a mass of trap, 2 miles in circumference, rising in a cone shape and comfortable couches. They are chiefly used for invalids. II 14 feet above the sea. It slopes abruptly, and on the N. W. Air-cushions are similarly prepared. strikes perpendicularly to the sea froam a height of 300 feet. It is haunted by myriads of solan geese and other sea-fowl. or- mladder, swibnming - lander, or'fSound.' A sac or membranous bag found in many fishes, and generally Ain, a frontier dep. in the E. of France, occupies an angle lying beneath the spine. It varies greatly in shape, being in formed by the confluence of the Rhone and the Saofne, and is some (as in the perch) a simple closed cylindrical sac, or divided bounded on the N. by the dep. of Jura. Where it adjoins (as in Cyprinid&e). It may consist of a single sac, or be divided Switzerland, in the N. and E., A. is hilly and fertile, but a vast internally into cells, as seen in the Lepidosiren, or mud-fish. In malarious swamp covers most of the portion W. of the river some cases (e.g., perch, &c.) it is entirely closed; whilst in others A. The chief town is Bourg (q. v.) Area, 2258 sq. miles; (carp, herring) it communicates with the throat by a tube, the pop. (I872) 363,290.-The river A. rises in the Jura, and joins duclus pneumaticus, which is the homologue of the windpipe, the Rhone i8 -miles above Lyon, after a course of nearly Ioo just as the A. itself is the hSoiologue of the lungs of higher miles. vertebrates. It is never used for breathing, however, in any Ainnuiiller, Maximiliarn Emanuel, the restorer of tlhe fishes except in the 7Leidosiren (q. v.) The A. contains gases of?il m s Er die various kinds; oxygen abounding in that of marine fishes, and art of painting on glass, was born at Munich in 1807, and died nitrogen in that of fresh-water forms. Its use in fishes is to alter at the same place in I870. When very younlg he showed an their specific gravity, and to enable them thus to rise or sink in extraordinary talent for decorative art, to which he ultimately the water by expanding or compressing the contained gas. Some wholly applied himself. Many cathedrals and churches possess fishes (e.g., flat-fishes, sharks, skates, mackerel, &c.) want this monuments of his skill, e.g., the windows of the cathedrals of structure. Ratisbon, Augsbuig, and Cologne. But the most elaborate and comprehensive of all his undertakings was the restoration of the Air- Ce lls, or Air- Sacs, and Air - Tubes. The term windows of Glasgow Cathedral (I864). His talent in architec- applied to certain sacs or cavities in the interior of the bodies of tural oil-painting is also well known, and specimens are to be birds, formed by folds of the lining membranes of the viscera, seen in many galleries and churcwhes in Europe. and into which air from the lungs is sent. The obvious function of these air-cells is to render the body of the bird light for flying, Ainsworth, Robert, born near Manchester in I66o, and whilst the distribution of air also tends to increase the temperaeducated at Bolton, was the author of a once popular Latin dic- ture of the body. The air-cells of the lungs (see LUNGs) are the tionary, commenced in' I71I4, and published in I736, which is minute cavities or sacs in which the bronchial tubes terminate, now superseded by more accurate and scientific works. A. and on the walls of which the capillary networks of blood-vessels was long engagedin teaching, first at Bolton, and afterwards at ramify, and so subject the venous blood to the action of the Bethnal Green, London. He composed some Latin poems, and oxygen contained in the air within the air-cells. Air-tubes, or several treatises now forgotten. He died 4th April I743. trachece, constitute the respiratory organs of insects. Ainsworth, William Francis, geologist and traveller, born Air-Cells or Air-Cavities, in plants, consist either of cirat Exeter in I807, studied medicine in Edinburgh and geology in cumscribed spaces surrounded by cells, or of lacuna formed by France, accompanied the Euphrates expedition as physician and the disappearance of the septa between a number of contiguous geologist in 1I835, and in 1838 was again sent to Asia Minor by the cells, as in hemlock and pith of walnut. They are large in Geographical Society and the Society for the Diffusion of Chris- aquatic plants, and enable them to float. tian Knowledge, to explore the river Halyr, and visit the Chris- Air-Engine. See CALORIc ENGINE. tigas in Kurdistan. His chief works are, Researcles izn Assyria ( tians in Kurdistan. His chief works are, Researches Gees, ands Air-Gun is an instrument for projecting bullets by means of CiZ41), Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand Greeks, and compressed air, which is condensed in a chamber by a condensing Gilicia and its Governors. syringe in the stock of the gun. This chamber opens by a valve Ainsworth, William Harrison, a well-known English in connection with the trigger, just behind where the bullet is novelist who was born in I8o5. His works are numerous, and lodged. In some forms the condensing syringe is distinct from were once popular. None exhibit high talent, and those in the stock, thus affording more room for the air. The advantages which he selects highwaymen and housebreakers for his heroes of the A. over the rifle in producing no noise, smoke, or disare positively pernicious. The following may be named: Rook- agreeable odours, and in being less expensive, are more than wood (I834), Crichton (1836), sack Sheppard (I839), Old St counterbalanced by its much smaller range. Paul's, The Tower of London, The Lancashire Witches, T7he Court of St 7arnes, and The Good Old Tinmes (I873), and Merrie r-Plants, a name applied England (1874). He edited Bentley's Miscellany for some years, to plants which derive their and in 1842 started Ainsworth's Magazine. He is (875) pro- nourishmentfrom the moistatprietor and editor of the New Monthly Mlagazine.mosphere. See EPIPHYTES. Air-Pump is an instrument ib" Ain-Tab, or Antab, a town of Asiatic Turkey, vilayet of for removing air from a vessel Syria, 60 miles N.N.E. of Aleppo, on a tributary of the and consists essentially of a Euphrates. It is a place of military importance, is well built, metal or glass cylinder in which has abundance of water, and carries on a considerable trade in hides, leather, cotton, wool, wax, wheat, and rice. The castle apistonwithavalve opening outof A. is a picturesque object. Pop. 20,o00oo. wards is fitted air-tight; a plane disk of metal (usually brass) conAir, or Asben, a country of Central Africa, lies between the nected with the lower end of the kingdoms of Tebu and Songhai, towards the S. of the Sahara, cylinder by a tube; and a glass Air Pump extending from about I7~ to 9~' N. lat., and from 8' to 9~ E. bell-like vessel called the'relong. It is naturally fertile, but wretchedly cultivated, most of ceiver,' which is placed upon the disk, and in which it is intended the food being imported. The sultan, who is merely nominal to produce the vacuum.. At each stroke of the piston, the quanruler, resides at Agades, the capital (q. v.) The population is tity of air in the receiver and connecting-tube is lessened, and by chiefly divided into the Kel-owi, Kel-geres, and Itisan tribes. repeating the operation again and again, a tolerably perfect 40 AIR THE GLOBE ENCYLOPIEDIA. AJM vacuum may be formed. A mercury gauge is usually present, Aix-la-Chapelle (Ger. Aachen), a town of Rhenish Prussia, in order to ascertain at once the pressure of the air inside the and capital of a district of the same name, lies in the rich valreceiver. ley of the Wurm, 20 miles S.E. of Cologne. It derives its French Aird, Thomas, poet, born at Bowden, Roxburghshire, Aug.name from its famous springs (a/x) and from a chapel built here 28, i802, and educated at Edinburgh University. He contributed by Iing Pepin before 765 A.D. Charlemagne made it his capito Blackwood's Magazine most of those poems which were after- tal, rebuilt its chapel, and died here in 84 A.D. The chapel wards collected into a volume in I848, and republished in I856. was destroyed by the Normans, but restored in 983 by Otho III., The more select students of poetry and the best Scottish critics who opened a tomb inscribed'Carolo Magno,' and discovered praised them highly, but they have never become popular, with the body of Charlemagne in almost perfect preservation. The the exception of The Devil's Drezam, a poem combining stern emperor, sceptre in hand, and dressed in state robes, was seated grandeur with touching pathos and beauty. In I835 A. was on a marble chair, with a copy of the Gospel on his knee. The appointed editor of the Dum~friesshire Herald ands Gallzoway tomb was reverently built up, but was twice subsequently reRegister, an office which he held till I864. Two prose works opened, by Frederick I. and II., and finally in I215 the remains Religious Characteristics (1827) and Thie Od Bachelor (I848), are were transferred to a costly chest, still preserved in the sacristy full of quiet grace and beauty. In I852 he edited, with a bio- the cathedral. Till 1558 the mable chair of Charlemagne graphical memoir, the poems of David M. Moir (Delta). was used as a throne when German emperors were being crowned. The cathedral of A. is built in the Byzantine style, Aird'rie, a flourishing town in Lanarkshire, on the highroad and is rich in relics, the display of which once in seven years between Edinburgh and Glasgow, i miles E. of the latter. brings many thousands of devotees to the city. What remains of Though an old town, it has only risen into importance during the the imperial palace is now included in the town-house, which present century. The cause of its sudden growth is the abun- contains a splendid hall, where thirty-seven emperors and eleven dance of coal, and of the'black-band' ironstone peculiar to the empresses of Germany have been crowned, and which has lately district. A. is a station on a branch of the Caledonian Railway. been ornamented with frescoes from Charlemagne's life by It unites with Falkirk in returning a member to Parliament. Rethel. Long a decayed town of great historical interest, A. is There is considerable cotton-weaving, paper-making, and distil- fast becoming an important industrial centre. It is a station on lation of spirits. Pop. (I871) 15,67I. the Belgian-Rhenish Railway; contains a Polytechnic school, Ai'ry, Sir George Biddell, K.C. B., F.R. S., D. C.L, &c., erected in 1870; and is noted for its manufactures, chiefly of Astronomer Royal, was born June 27, I8oI, at Alnwick, in machinery, bells, chemicals, woollen fabrics, and cigars. The Northumberland. He finished his education at Cambridge, and French captured A. in I792; it was retaken by the Austrians in was Senior Wrangler in Ix823. As Plumian Professor in I828, he I793; but by the treaties concluded at Campo Formio and superintended the Cambridge Observatory, and succeeded Mr Luneville it was ceded to France (I797), and made capital of the Pond at Greenwich in I835 as Astronomer Royal. His Astro, dep. of Roer; finally, in x8I5, it became a Prussian city. Pop. nomical Observations were published at Cambridge in 9 vols., (1871) 74,238. See Quix, Geschichte der Stadt A. (History of A., I829-38. A. has made many improvements in scientific instru- 2 vols. I84I.) ments, and conducted many interesting investigations, such as The mineral springs of A., known as early as the time of the determination of the density of the earth by pendulum expe- Charlemagne, attract many thousands of visitors to the city riments at the Harton coal-pits, the effect of a ship's magnetism annually. There are six hot and two cold springs: the former on the compass, &c. He has also written many valuable scien- are sulphurous, with a temperature from I x I~ to I36~ F., and are tific treatises, such as the article on Gravitation in the Penny very effective in the cure of gout, rheumatism, and cutaneous Cyclopredia; Trigonometry, for the Encyclopedia Metrapoitana; diseases; the latter are chalybeate. treatises on Sound (I869), Light, Magnetism (I870), Errors of The first treaty ofpeace concluded at A. (i668) settled the suc. Observation (I86I), and Mathematical Tracts, besides numerous cession to the Spanish Netherlands, and resulted from the triple papers in the Philosophical Transactions, the Cambridge Trans. alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden against France. actions, the Athenceum, &c. It allowed Louis XIV. to retain the fortresses of Charleroi, Lille, Aisle (Fr. aile, Lat. ala, a wing) is a term in architecture &c., on returning Franche Comte to Spain. The second peace, concluded 1748, terminated the Austriai War of Succession. properly applied to those parts of a church which lie between The Congress of A. inated w as attended by the sovereigns of the outside walls and the columns or pillars which flank the The Congressia, and Prussia, as attended by m inisters from Englan nave. It is also applied to the lateral divisions of the choir d and France. It Prussiaulted in the withdrawal from France of the an and France. It resulted in the withdrawal from France of the transept. Many of the Continental churches have double aisles, army of occupation, I50,000 strong, and in the formation of a ologne has three.'Holy Alliance' (q. v.) of the great powers. Aisne, a dep. of France, in the basin of the Seine, and extending to the Belgian frontier. It contains rich pasture Ajac'cio, the chief town of Corsica, on the W. coast of the and arable land, and has considerable manufactures of cotton island, mainly notable as the birthplace of Napoleon. It has fabrics, soap, glass, and leather. The chief town is Laon (q. v.) considerable anchovy and pearl fisheries, and some trade in Area, 2830 sq. miles. Pop. (i872) 552,439.-The river A. rises wine, olive-oil, and fruit. Pop. (I872) I3,580. in the dep. of Meuse, and flows first N.W. and then W. past ja, an unexplored tract of the. coast of Africa, from Soissons, till it joins the river Oise above Compiegne, after a an unexplored tractof the E. coast of Africa, from course of I50 miles. Cape Guardafui to the equator, inhabited by Somauli tribes. Aix (Aqure Gratiane, Allobrogum), a town of Savoy, in a A'jax. Of the Greek heroes at the siege of Troy there were pleasant valley, 823 feet above the sea-level. It lies picturesquely two of this name. x. A. the Less, son of Olleus, King of the near Lake Bourget, and as early as the Roman empire was Locrians, brave and fleet of foot, next to Achilles. On his return celebrated for its two hot springs, which still attract above from Troy, Athena caused him to be drowned because he had 2000 visitors annually. Among various Roman remains are an violated the sanctuary of the goddess in the seizure of Cassandra. Ionic temple, a vaporarium, and the arch of Pomponius. 2. A. the Greater, son of Telamon, King of Salamis, excelled all the Greeks in stature, and in beauty was second only to Aix (the Aqulr Sextie of the Romans), a town in the S. Achilles. On the death of that hero, A. and Ulysses contended of France, in the dep. of the Bouches-du-Rhone. It pos- for his armour, and A. being defeated killed himself. sesses a court of justice, an academy, and a public library of 1oo,ooo volumes and IIoo MSS. Its graceful architecture, Ajmee'r, an old city of Hindustan, capital since I87o-71 of sheltered situation, and hot springs, make A. a pleasant and a British province of the same name, lies at the base of the Tarafashionable resort. It can boast of an unbroken municipal life gurh mountain. For the most part it is meanly constructed, since its foundation by the Consul Sextius (I20 B.C.), and has but possesses some fine temples, and is the seat of British authobuildings now devoted to the service of the Christian religion rity, a medical school, and an English and Oriental school. A that were first used as pagan temples. Under the Counts of great annual fair is held here in honour of Kwajah, the MussulProvence, in the middle ages, it was long the centre of the man saint, whose tomb is visited by large numbers of pilgrims. Troubadour literature. There is an active trade, chiefly in olive- Pop. (I87i) 34,763.-The province of A., comprising A. and oil, cotton, wine, and leather. Pop, (I872) 18,905. Coorg (q. v.), is directly under the government of India, and has __ _ _ _ _ AJtU I'r11 GLOBE ENCYCLOPzI7DiA. ARS an area (see Annals of Ind. Addmin., Dr G. Smith, I874) of i-Akbari, translated into English by Gladwin (3 vols., Calcutta, 3522 sq. miles, and a pop. of 594,580. The Koree is the only 1786), and again in part by Blochmann (Calcutta, 1874). constant stream in the district, which suffers much from drought. A kbarpu'r (' city of Akbar'), a town of India, N.W. ProAjuruo'ca, a town of Brazil, province of Minas Gernes, about vinces, district of Cawnpore, 28 miles W. of Cawnpore. Pop. Ioo miles N. W. of Rio Janeiro. It lies at the base of the Sierra 6330. Mantiqueira, near the sources of the Parana, and is the centre Akee' the name given to the fruit of Blihia scpida, one of of a district which produces coffee, sugar, tobacco, millet, and mandioc. Pop. of town and district, 12,000. introduced into the W. Indies and S. America, where it is now Aka, the New Zealand name for Metrosideros scandens, a widely spread. The fruit is about the size of a goose's egg. plant belonging to the natural order Mvrtacece. Its wood is It splits into three parts when ripe, exhibiting three black seeds called New Zealand Lignum Vitae, on account of its hardness, immersed in a white cellular substance called the aril, which is the eatable part of the fruit, and which possesses a slightly Ak'bar (' the Great'), properly Jalil-ad-din-Mahomed Akbar, acid taste. The seeds yield a fatty oil. the greatest of the Mogul emperors, and one of the most enlightened monarchs the world ever saw, was the seventh in Akensde ark, poet and physician, was bn at ewdescent from Timur-Leng, and the grandson of Baber, who first castle-on-Tyne, November 9, 1721. He commenced his medical established the Mogul ascendancy in Hindustan. He was born studies at Edinburgh in 1739, and continued them at Leyden, at Umarkot, in the desert of Sind, 14th October 1542, during where he graduated MI.D., I744. In the latter year he published the exile of his father Humaiyuin, who had been driven from his his Pleasures of he Isbgiraliot, a poem suggested by Addison's throne by an Afghan prince named Sher Shah. His childhood essays on the same subject in the Spectalor. He was engaged was passed in perils or captivity; but in I555, when A. was only in rewriting this work, and had half completed his task, when thirteen years of age, Humayun crossed the Indus, defeated the his death took place in London, June 23, I770. A second Afghans in a memorable campaign, and remounted the throne edition of the Pleasuires of the Imagination, with odes and miscelof Baber. He died a few months afterwards. A., who suc- laneouspoems,waspublishedbyMrDysoninI772. A.'spoetry, ceeded him, was fortunate in having for his guardian and min- though it lacks abiding human interest, evinces high command ister Bairam Khan, a friend of his father's, who on the plains of of the rhetorical capabilities of blank verse; and the study of Panipat (5th November s556) thoroughly crushed a formidable Ihis chief work in its original and in its amended and improved Afghan insurrection. Bairam Khan, however, was proud and form is one of the most useful exercises in English composition tyrannical, and when A. reached the age of eighteen he relieved which the language affords. The best edition of A. is that by him of office. Stung with rage the fierce minister rushed into Dyce, in the Aldine edition of the'British Poets,' to which is rebellion, but was soon beaten and captured. A. behaved very prefixed an excellent memoir. magnanimously to his old guardian, who was, however, soon Akhalzikh, or Aki'ska, a town of Russian Armenia, on a after assassinated on his way to Mecca. tributary of the Kur, about 90 miles W. of Tiflis, in a valley of Henceforth the career of A. in war and peace is alike splendid. the Keldir Mountains. The mosque of A. had one of the most He never met defeat in the field, he was never baffled by a for- valuable libraries in the East, but when the Russians took postress. The earlier years of his reign were partly spent in sup- session of the place in I828, they carried off its treasures to St pressing disorder or mutiny among his enemies, which he did Petersburg. A. carries on trade with the ports on the Black with such promptitude, skill, valour, and wisdom, that at the Sea, in the produce of the neighbourhood, maize, wheat, barley,. age of twenty-five (I567) he was thoroughly master of his own flax, grapes, figs, and honey. Pop. (I867) 15,977. dominions. He then turned his attention to external conquest, reduced Rajpootana in spite of the heroic struggles of the native Ak-Hissar, the Thyatlira of Scripture, a town of Asia princes, conquered Ahmedabad, Surat, and Guzerat (1573); in- Minor, province of Anatolia, 52 miles N.E. of Smyrna, aboundvaded and established his power in Bengal (I575-77), which had ing in fragmentary remains of antiquity. Pop. Io,ooo. become the home of the vanquished Afghans; made himself Akrla't, or Ardi'sh, a fortified town of Asiatic Turkey, master of Cashmere,'the paradise of India' (1586); after two vilayet of Van, on the N.W. shore of Lake Van. Pop. 6o00. campaigns, confirmed his authority in the basin of the Indus and At a short distance from it lay the old city of A., the capital of Western Afghanistan (I587-92); and finally, passing the Vin- the Armenian kings, which was plundered by the conqueror dhya Mountains, compelled several of the kingdoms of the Deccan Jalil-ad-din in I228, and utterly destroyed by an earthquake to acknowledge his supremacy (1595-I60I). Thus the empire eighteen years later. of A., which on his accession to the throne comprised only the Punjab and the provinces of Delhi and Agra, four years before Akhltyreka, a town of European Russia, government of Kharhis death formed an immense quadrilateral, more than a thousand kov, 58 miles N.W. of Kharkov, on a petty tributary of the miles in length from E. to W. Dnieper, has some manufactures, but is chiefly noted for its great His activity and intelligence in furthering the material pros- yearly fair. Pop. I 7,500. perity of his subjects was no less remarkable. He constructed Ak'jermann, or Akkernann ('white town'), a fortified roads, introduced a uniform system of weights and measures, town in Bessarabia, Russia, at the point where the Dniester enters insisted on a prompt and faithful administration of justice, and the Black Sea. It has a capital harbour, and in the vicinity are established an admirable financial system, of which a complete important salt-pits. By the treaty of A. (I826) between Russia account is given in the A'n-i-Akbari of Abu-l Fazl'Allami, court and Turkey, the latter consented to the separate government of historian and friend of A. The monarch also surrounded himself Moldavia and Wallachia, and granted to Russia free intercourse with men eminent not only in war and government, but in arts with all the states of the Porte, and the right of navigation of the and letters. He was likewise singularly tolerant and philoso- Black Sea and the Strait of Constantinople. In 1828 Russia phical in matters of faith. At an early age he doubted the infal- took up arms to enforce the fulfilment of these terms, and the libility of the Koran, in spite of his name, Jalal-ad-din (' Glory war ended in the peace of Adrianople (q. v.) of the Faith'), and began to dream of a religion which would not be dependent on the character or pretensions of its founders. Ak'ron, a town of Ohio, United States, 36 miles S. of CleveThe result was a pure deism, belief in a God infinitely powerful, land, at the junction of the Ohio and Erie Canal with the Pennjust, and good. On this basis he hoped to unite Mussulman and sylvania ahd Ohio Canal, and a station on the Cleveland and Hindu, and throughout his whole reign he sought to bring about Zanesville Railway. It has woollen factories, flour-mills, and a closer relation in thought and feeling between these two. The manufactures of agricultural implements. Pop. (870) Io,oo00. memory of his humane ambition long survived him, and he is Ak-Shehr, the'white city,' and the Philomelion of the ancient still remembered in the East as a' benefactor of the human spe- Greeks, a town of Asiatic Turkey, paslalic of Karamania, 5 cies.' He died in i6o5, after a reign of fifty years. A.'s history miles S. of a salt lake of the same name, is famed for its manuhas been written by three of his contemporaries-Nizam-d facturesofcarpets. Pop.about6. Din, Abd-ul-Kadir, and Abuf-l-Fazl, whose Akbar-Ndima is a great work, though written with Oriental servility. But the Aksu', a town of Eastern Turkestan, at the foot of the greatest and most enduring monument of A.'s reign is the Ain- Thian-shan range, 260 miles N.E. of Yarkand, on the river AKY THE GL OBE E~NCYCLPOPEDIA. ALA Aksu, a tributary of the Tarim. On the decay of the empire of The government resembles that of the other states. The Genghis Khan, it became the capital of an independent state, governor is elected for two years, the 33 members of the senate but was almost destroyed by an earthquake in I7i6, and an for four years, and the Ioo members of the house of representainundation in the present century. It was a Chinese garrison town tives for two years-all by the people. A. is divided into 63 till I867, when it surrendered to Yakub-Beg. A. has manufactures counties. The largest town and chief seat of commerce is Mobile; of cotton cloth, saddlery, &c., and is an entrepat for the caravan the seat of government is Montgomery. trade between Russia and China. Pop. from 6ooo to 20,000. The population of the state in I870 was 996,992, of whom Ak'yab, formerly a native fishing village called Ixit-daw-way, History-T5, were name A., which means'here we rest,' is taken at the mouth of the Kaladyne river, is situated on the right bank from the language of the aborigines. The first Europeans who of the river, and is now a flourishing seaport, and the principal visited A. were the adventurers under De S oto, who fought their town of the province of Aracan, British Blrmah. It possesses visited A. were the adventurers under De Soto, who fought their town of the province of Aracan, British Burmah. It possesses one of the finest harbours in India, being effectually sheltered way through the aboriginal tribes on their march'to the Missisby a double reef of rocks. A lighthouse stands on the outer sippi in I541. The first settlement was made by the French at reef on Savage Island, and another screw-pile lighthouse has Mobile Bay in 1702. Nine years afterwards the city of Mobile been lately erected. A. has no direct import trade, and rice is was found it was incorporated first with Georgia and the Brith almost the only article of export. The first cargo shipped to crown, and it was incororated first with Georgia and then indeith Europe was in I847, when the first European houses settled the M pp territory in i802. In 189 it became an indethere, and so rapid was its progress that in I855 over i6o,ooo pendent member of the United States of America. A. was one tons were exported. In x874 the exports were I62,744 tons, so of the slave and seceding states, but in I868, after the war of tons were exported. In 1874 the exports were 162,744 tons, so secession, it acceded to the demands of Congress, and was that its commerce has been almost stationary of late years. Five restored to it acceded to the deman ds o f Con gress, and was large rice-mills on the European principle have during the last few years been erected here. A. is daily visited by a cool sea- Alabama, The, a vessel built at Birkenhead in 1862, by breeze, and is styled the Brighton of the Bay of Bengal. Messrs Laird & Sons, for the Confederate Government. Her A. has a fixed population of over 6ooo, composed of Mugh6, career was frightfully destructive, but far from honourable. In Bengaleescoe, and Madrasees. But as many as from 5000 to 6sooo the opinion of Americans she was essentially a piratical craft, and Bengalees come from Chittagong to work during the busy season it is certain that she was forced to deal with her captures precisely from'January to June, returning to their homes by the time the as a pirate does, against whom every port is closed, i.e., she first plundered and then burnt them. As her devastations gave rise Alabalma, one of the southern states of the United States to the'Alabama Question,' and ultimately cost Great Britain a of America, bounded N. by Tennessee, E. by Georgia, S. by heavy sum of money, it may be important to note the circum. Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by the Mississippi. stances under which she was built and her subsequent fortunes. It lies between 30~ Io' and 35~ N. lat., and between 85' and When the civil war in the United States broke out in I86I, the 88~ 30o W. long. It contains an area of 50,722 sq. miles, or Northern or Union Government rapidly effected a complete 32,462,o80 acres, is 336 miles in extreme length, and varies in blockade of the Southern ports. Now and again an adventurous breadth from 150 to 200 miles. A. would form a rectangle were ship managed to run the blockade, but on the whole the Conit not that Florida occupies the greater part of the coast-line, federates were powerless at sea. They neither received much leaving to A. only about 60 miles on the Gulf of Mexico. The help nor were able to do much harm. They could not carry Alleghany Mountains terminate on the N.E. part of the state in out their original idea of equipping a fleet of swift cruisers to a series of low hills. The surface gradually declines from the make havoc of the Northern merchant shipping. After three or N. to the S., till near the coast it becomes level. There are four months of civil war, however, the Sumnter, a small steamer three bays in its short coast-line, of which Mobile Bay is the hitherto employed in the Gulf trade, and commanded by Captain chief. The rivers, which are numerous, follow the general south- Raphael Semmes, formerly of the United States navy, and a man ward deflection of the surface. The three largest are the Ten- of strong and resolute character, ran the blockade of Nrew Orleans nessee, the Tombigbee, and the A., the last two of which unite (30th June I86I), and quickly filled with consternation the mernear the coast to form the Mobile. Though A. reaches to nearly chants of the North, who saw their entire commerce imperilled within 7' of the torrid zone the thermometer is seldom above by the incessant attacks of a solitary cruiser. Before the close of 90go. In I85o-6o the average annual temperature was 66'14~, the year she had become unseaworthy, and was laid up at Gibthat of summer 79', that of winter 52'43~. Snow does not lie raltar, after having captured or destroyed eighteen vessels. Her long, and the rivers never freeze. The climate of the elevated success, however, only showed the Confederates what might be country is very salubrious, but the lowlands near the rivers are achieved by a ship thoroughly equipped for such work, and engageunhealthy. ments were accordingly entered into with Messrs Laird & Sons, The hilly regions of the N. afford excellent pasturage, while- Birkenhead, for the construction of a screw steam-sloop. Everythe valleys interspersed are exceedingly rich in soil. The undu- thing was arranged with such caution and secrecy that this ship lating prairie, which forms the central part of the state, is also was nearly finished before the United States officials suspected its remarkably fertile, and, though the soil in the S. is often sandy, purpose and destination. The greatest care was taken to avoid the river bottoms are all wonderfully productive. Oaks, hickories, any infringement of public law. Nothing was done except what chestnuts, poplars, and mulberries cover the N. and centre of was perfectly lawful in the case of any'belligerent,' and the the state, while in the S. are the cypress, loblolly, and pine. A. Union Government had been compelled by the necessities of is mainly an agricultural state, and includes among its principal war to grant belligerent rights to the South. At length the products cotton, Indian corn, wheat, r1ye, buckwheat, oats, United States minister demanded that the suspicious vessel barley, potatoes, tobacco, hay, indigo, sugar, rice, and wool. The should be detained. The Crown lawyers at first hesitated to total value of the-agricultural products in I870 was 67,522,335 recommend this course, but subsequently advised it. It was too dollars. The yield of cotton was inferior only to that of Missis- late!'No. 290' (the name of the new ship, from her number sippi and Georgia. Among the wild animals are deer, bears, in the list of steam-ships built by the firm) was gone! No one wolves, foxes, turkeys, geese, and ducks. The minerals, in can doubt that there was a great deal of illicit knowledge and which A. is very rich, include iron, coal, lead, manganese, underhand activity in connection with her hasty departure from ochres, marble, and a little gold. There are also numerous salt, Birkenhead, and the conduct of Messrs Laird & Sons, viewed sulphur, and chalybeate springs. The sulphur water of Blount's in regard to its results, cannot be commended as either prudent springs attracts large numbers of visitors. According to the or patriotic. The new cruiser was a wooden ship of I040 tons state reports for 1870, the value of manufactured articles-in that register, barque-rigged, with two engines of 350 horse-power year was 13,040,644 dollars, in the production of which 8248 each, pierced for 12 guns, besides being able to carry two hands were employed. In I872 there were I602 miles of rail- heavy pivot-guns amidships, and cost in all nearly 52,ooo. At way. In 1870 A. possessed Io colleges and 2812 public schools. Terceira, one of the Azores, she was'equipped,' i.e., she received The state university, a very handsome building, is situated at guns, stores, and coals from another vessel, the Agrippina of LonTuscaloosa. Among religious denominations, those of the don. Captain Semmes then stepped on board, and on the 24th Baptists and Methodists embrace by far the largest number of of August I862 produced his commission, named the vessel the adherents. A., hoisted the Confederate flag, and prepared for her deadly.He ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~43 v~~ --- - t ---- ALA THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPzEDZA ALA work. Before the I6th of September she had destroyed more Al'amos, Los (i.e., The Poplars), or Real- de-los Alamos, than her own cost, and for nearly two years after she was the a town of Mexico, province of Sonora, on the right bank of the terror of Northern fierchantmen in every sea. In all, she cap- Mayo, about 50 miles from the Gulf of California, is the chief tured sixty-five vessels, and destroyed property estimated at town of a district noted for its silver mines. Pop. Io,ooo. 4,000,000 dollars. The shipping trade of the United States was partially paralysed, and had to be carried on in foreign of which are inhabited, situated at the entrance to the ulf'bottoms.' Public indignation was great, not only against I'bottoms,' Public indignation was great, not only against 80 of which are inhabited, situated at the entrance to the Gulf Semmes, but against the British Government, which had allowed of Bothnia, and named from the chief island. The population'No. 290' to escape. Swift-sailing cruisers scoured the seas in consists of Swedish sailors, seal-hunters, and fishermen, and search of the'pirate,' who was at length forced, partly from amounts to I6,ooo, of whom, however, Ii,ooo belong to Aland want of stores, to take refuge in the port of Cherbourg, on the itself. The archipelago was ceded by Sweden to Russia, I809, coast of Normandy, Ilth June i864. A few days later, the and in the reign of Nicholas I. the island of Bomarsund was United States steamer Kearsage, commanded by Captain Win- strongly fortified. During the Crimean war this fortress was slow, also arrived at Cherbourg, and was soon after recklessly destroyed by an Anglo-French force under Sir Charles Napier challenged by the'pirate' ship. It is supposed that Semmes and Baraguay dHilliers. was ignorant of the great superiority of the Kearsage to the A. Alangium, a small genus of trees belonging to the natural in equipment; but at any rate, on the Ig9th of June, the fight order Alangiaceze. The fruit of some of the species is fleshy and took place outside the port, in presence of thousands of specta- edible, but rather slimy. Their roots are aromatic, and their tors, and in less than an hour the terrible A, was sunk, Semmes timber is durable and of a beautiful colour. They are natives of and others were picked up by an English yacht, the L)eerhound, India. and at once placed within neutral jurisdiction. See The Cruise of the Alabama and the Sunter, compiled from the papers of Alar'con Y Mendoza, Juan Ruiz de, a Spanish drams Captain Semmes, and also the work written by Captain Semmes tist, born at Tasco in Mexico towards the end of the I6th c., himself, entitled My Adventures Aftoat (2 vols. I868). was a jurisconsult by profession. In I622 he is mentioned as Not many months after the A. had commenced her destruc- Reporter of the royal council of the Indies, and must have then tive career, Mr Seward, in his capacity of Secretary of State, been in Spain. He failed to conciliate contempolary writers, informed the British Government that the United States held probably from having formed too just an estimate of his and their themselves entitled to damages for the injuries done to Ameri- powers, and was therefore subjected to much vituperation and can commerce by a vessel fitted out for war in a British port, ridicule. He did not even enjoy the credit of his own works, and would claim them in due time. The idea took strong hold some of the best of them being assigned to other poets. There of the American mind, and at length Great Britain was induced is as yet no complete edition of them, and as they are scattered to submit to arbitration the question of her culpability in regard through miscellaneous collections, he is less known and appreto the escape of.the.A. A congress met at Geneva, 17th ciatedthan he deserves to be. A number of his Conzedias were December I87I, consisting of representatives of Great Britain published in two parts, the first at Madrid in I628, and the and the United States, and of three members appointed by the second at Barcelona in I634; a complete edition was carefully King of Italy, the President of the Swiss Confederation, and the prepared by Hartzenbusch (Madrid, 1848-52). He ranks next Emllperor of Brazil. The decision was given I5th September after Calderon and Lope de Vega, and the works of no poet of 872g. It was adverse to Great Britain, which was ordered to his nation could with more justice be selected as a model for a pay teothe United. States the sum of/3,22g9166, 13s. 4d. national drama. His plots are ingenious, and his style chaste and vigorous. He is simple, unaffected, and possesses rare eleva. Alabaster. See GYPSUM. tion of moral feeling. He excelled in the heroic drama, in Alago'as, a maritime province of Brazil, bounded N. and V. Character-comedies, and in comedies of intrigue. He died in by the province of Pernambuco, E. by the Atlantic, and S. by I639. the navigable river San Francisco. A flat belt of rich alluvial- Al'aric I. (the name is a form of Atalaric,'noble ruler,' soil runs parallel with the coast, abounding in lagunes (iagoas), comp. Eng. Ethelic), the famous Visigothic warrior, born about from which the name of A. is derived. The productions are 376 A.D., first emerges into history in 394, when Theodosius gave chiefly sugar-cane, cotton, mandioc, maize, rice, dye-woods, and him the command of his Gothic auxiliaries. The discords that timber. Area, 530 sq. miles; pop. 300,000. The capital was followed the death of Theodosius inflamed his ambition. In 396 formerly a city of the same name, but is now Porto Calvo, a he invaded and pillaged Greece, from which, when pressed by prosperous shipping town in the N. Stilicho (397), he made a masterly retreat to Illyria, of which the Alais (anc. Alesiunz), a town of France, dep. of Gard, at scared Arcadius made him governor, In 400 he invaded Italy, the southern base of the Cevennes, on the left bank of the but sustained a defeat from Stilicho at Pollentia (403), followed Gardon, a tributary of the Rhone, and 23 miles N.W. of Nimes, by a treaty, in terms of which A. transferred his services from with which it is connected by railway. The neighourhood is Arcadius to Honorius. But Honorius having failed to pay rich in coal and iron, and also produces lead and manganese. him 4000 pounds of gold, A. made a second invasion of Italy Besides large iron-foundries, the town has manufactures of silks, memorable for three sieges of Rome. The first (408) was gloves, glass, earthenware, machinery, &c. In the time of the bought off, but the second (409) resulted in the surrender of the Huguenots A. embraced. the'Protestant side, and suffered in city, and the substitution of Attalus for Honorius. The incapacity consequence. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes it of AttalusinducedA. to restore Honorius,whohavingsanctioned was erected into a bishopric for the conversion of Protestants. a treacherous attack on the troops of A., Rome was besieged Pop. (i872) I5,384. for the third time, taken 24th August 4Io, and sacked for six days. A. intended to invade Sicily and Africa, but dying at Alajue'la, a town of Costa Rica, Central America, 23 miles Cosenza, he was buried in the bed of the Busento, the captives W.N.W. of Cartago, Pop. about I2,000, many of whom are who had assisted in the work being put to death. A. was largely engaged in the cultivation of the sugar-cane. naturally generous, and it was owing to him that the splendid edifices of Greece and Rome suffered so little damage during Alaman'ni, Luigi, an Italian poet of noble extraction, born his invasions. The faith which he had learned from Arian at Florence 1495. For a time he stood high in the favour of teachers was not without effect on his conduct. The most Leo X., but had twice to leave his country for political offences, lasti efect of his inroads on the ste and finally settled as a diplomatist at the French court. He sting eect of his inroads on the Western Empire was the establishment of the Visigothic Empire in Spain by the wardied at Amboise in I556. His chief works are (I) a collec- riors whom he left behind him. See Simonis' r e Unter tion of eclogues, hymns, satires, elegies, fables, &c.; (2) Opere rruchuen left behind him. c See A.'s (Gitt.sche U5) Toscane; (3) La Coltivazione, a didactic poem in blank verse, considered the author's finest work; (4) Girone il Cortese, and Alaric II., eighth king of the Visigoths, succeeded his La Avarchide, both epic poems; (6) a pleasant comedy in verse, father in 484 A.D. He preferred peace to war,.and, though an entitled Flora;-all remarkable for their clearness and purity of Arian, granted privileges to the Catholics. Clovis, King of the style. A. is probably the poet who introduced blank verse into Franks, coveted his possessions to the W. of the Loire, and on Italian poetry. the pretence that A. was an Arian, broke the peace. Theo44 — I — -- ALA THE GLOBE XATYC~OPIED1A. ALB ~~~~L ~ ~ ~ ~ JNCCOADA AL ~~3 ~ria4~~~k~~k.~~B doric, King of the Ostro Goths, and father-in-law of A., tried the emperor in the unsuccessful campaign in France to recover conciliatory measures, but in vain. In a battle at Vouille, near the fortresses of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which Henry II. had Poitiers, the army of A. was defeated, and himself slain (507). seized, and several times defeated the combined armies of the King The Breviarium Alaricianunt, a selection from the imperial of France and Pope Paul IV. in Italy in 1555. After the abdicadecrees and the writings of Roman jurisconsults, called also tion of Charles V. in 1556, the French army having retreated, he Lex Roltmalza and Corpus Theodosii, is a proof of his anxiety for held the States of the Church in complete subjection, but the law and order. It is a work of great importance in the history new Spanish monarch, Philip II., ordered him to restore his conof Roman legislation, and contains documents not to be found quests ind to make peace with the Pope. Iii 1559 he visited elsewhere. An edition was published at Basel in 1528. the French court, where as proxy for his sovereign hlie married Elisabeth, daughter of Henry II. When the Netherlands rose Ala'ria, a genus of sea-weeds (A/gce), embracing few species, ]liaeh agtro er I hnteNtelnsrs Ahla'ria, a genus of sea-weeds (Al-), embracing few species, against the tyrannical and bigoted rule of Spain, A. was sent confined to the colder regions of the Atlantic and Pacific. One in thetrnia and le o S in ss (1567) with absolute power and a large army to quell the i nsurspecies is very common on British shores, viz., A. esculenta, which rection. Having defeated the Princes Louis and WilliamIi of is known in Scotland under the names of badderlocks, henware, Orange, and driven the latter into Germany, he made a triumand murlins. It is regarded as the best of all the esculent Age phant entry into Brussels, d December i568. Tere is pro191phant entry into Brussels, 22d December 1568. There is pro. when eaten raw. Badderlocks is believed to be a corruption of bably no other record of such atrocious cruelty and oppression Balderlocks, or the locks of Balder, a Scandinavian deity. as that of A.'s rule in the Netherlands. He established what Alarm', in a'military sense, means a warning of imminent was called the'Bloody Council.' All were condemned by this danger given to a camp or garrison. - When the enemy has tribunal who were even suspected of disaffection to the Spanish effected or is supposed to be designing a surprise, a drum is beat rule, or whose wealth was a cause of jealousy, and their property or a gun fired, and soldiers know tohastento a rendezvous called confiscated. Even the dead were not exempt:from trial. A the alarm-post. grateful -Pope conferred on the successful warrior a consecrated hat and sword as' Defender of the Catholic Faith,' an honour Ala-Shehr (' the variegated city'), a town of Asiatic Turkey, which no one hadc hitherto received under the rank of a monarch. pashalic of Anatolia, at the foot of Mount Imolus, 75 miles E. The contest for freedom was meanwhile maintained in Holland of Smyrna, in a fertile district on the caravan route between and in Zealand, the insurgents ultimately succeeding in destroySmyrna and the interior, and carries on a considerable trade in ing the Spanish fleet, Philip was at last convinced of the imcorn, cotton, and tobacco. A. is the ancient P/]iiadelpiia, so possibility of effecting union by force and oppression, and A. was called because enlarged by Attalus II. Philadelphus, and was at his own desire recalled, after having, in the course of six years, the seat of one of the seven churches of Asia. It was the last according to his boast, executed I8,ooo men. His reception at place in Asia Minor that submitted to the Ottoman Turks. Madrid on his return to Spain was highly flattering; but in a Many remains of Greek antiquity are still to be found. Pop. short time a court intrigue of one of his sons, whom he assisted 8ooo.000, to escape after detection, caused his disgrace and banishment. las'a, a peninsula on the N.W. coast of. America, For two years he lived at his castle of Uzeda. War then broke whose natural continuation, the long chain of the Aleutian Isles, out between Spain and Portugal, and A was again put at the head of the Spanish forces. Portugal was swiftly conquered and stretches towards Kamtchatka. Its connection with America ed of the Spanish forces. Portugal was swiftly conquered and was not known till Captain Cook explored the region in plundered by a rapacious soldiery. The treasures of the capital search of an Arctic passage. A volcanic mountain range, subject were seized by the leader himself. Philip was dissatisfied, but to frequent eruptions, extends through the entire length of the dread of a revolt and the determined bearing of the duke, pre peninsula, which abounds with morses, reindeer, bears, and vented him from giving practical effect to hisdispleasure. A. seals. The name A. is now given to the whole territory once died th january 582, aged seventy.four. Se e Rise of e known as Russian America, which was ceded by Russia, 1867,Dutc Reubic, by J. L. Motley. to the United States on payment of 5,ooo000,000ooo dollars. Area, Alba (anc. Alba Pomleia), a town in the N. of Italy, pro. 577,390; pop. (1870) 70,46I. vince of Cuneo, on the river Tanaro, 31 miles S.E. of Turin. Its finest buildings are the cathedral (I486), the Franciscan church, lates, the name of a common evergreen shrub ( t the episcopal palace, and that of the counts of Castelletto, rich nus alaternus), native of the S. of Europe. Its roots and bark It is also noted for its promenades, in treasures of antiquity. It is also noted for its promenades, ~~have been used in dyeing. ~lined with splendid acacias. A. carries on trade in wine, trufAlau'si, a town of S. America, republic of Ecuador, and pro- fles,:cattle, and cheese. vince of Chimborazo, on a small stream of the same name, which Alba Longa'(the'long white' city), one of the most flows into the Gulf of Guayaquil. It stands 7980 feet above the ancient cities of Latium, on the eastern side of the Alban Lake, sea. The neighbourhood very abundantly produces grain, sugar, was built, according to Roman legend, by Ascanius, and Was' the and fruits. Pop. 6ooo. parent city of Rome. It was certainly the metropolis or sacred Ala'va, Don Miguel ]Ricardo de, a distinguished general city of the Latins. Tullus Hostilius destroyed it, and removed the inhabitants to Rome. of Spain, born at Vittoria 1771. In the war of independence le the inhabitants to Rome. sided with the French till the fortunes of Joseph began to de- Albace'te, a town in the S.E. of Spain, capital of the pro. cline; he then joined the national party, and was appointed aide- vince of the same name, on a broad plateau rich in corn-fields, de-camp to Wellington, who soon advanced him to the rank of 82 miles S.W. of Valencia, and a station on the Madrid and general of brigade. After the restoration of Ferdinand VII. he Alicante Railway. It is well built, and has considerable manuwas appointed ambassador to the Hague. When the revolution factures of steelgoods. Pop. 15,150. of I820 broke out, he was returned as a deputy to the Cortes by the province of Alava, and became a leader among the Exal- Alban, St, surnamed the prolo-malyr of England, flourished, tados, voting for the suspension of royal authority.' The restora- according to the Church legend, in the 3d c., and suffered martyrom r25ADduing to he Churscuteenion the Dio, acl sfetian tion of Ferdinand in 1823 drove him to England, where he martyrdom in 285 A.D., during the persecution of Diocletian. Bede, who wrote in the 8th c., is the first to recodtesryf remained till the regency of Maria Christina. He then became Bede, who wrote in the 8th c.,is the first to record the story of Spanish ambassador to London in 1834, and to Paris in 1835. his death, but he surrounds it with such grotesquely miraculous A. gave in his resignation in 1837, after the insurrection of La accessories that one is tempted to doubt the whole narrative. Granja, retired to France, and died at Bareges in i843. A.'s name, however, is known to the hagiographers of the 6th c. His anniversary is celebrated on the 22d of June. Al'ba, or Alva, Ferdinand -Alvarez de Toledo, Albani, Francesco, an Italian painter, born at Bologna Duko of, a notable Spanish, general and statesman, was born ue o a notable Spanish general and statesman, was born 578, studied under the Caracci, and won a great reputation both in 1508. Though his education as a soldier began very early, by his religious and mythological pictures. His altar-pieces are for e ws peset a thebatle f Pviain 125,it as ongby his religious and mythological pictures., His altar-pieces are before he showed himself to possess military taoent of the highest seasons A. died at Bologna ii. befre e sowd hmsef t psses mliarytalnt f he ighstseasons. A. died at Bologna i66o. order. The victory, however, which Charles V. gained at Millberg in 1 547 over Johann Friedrich, Elector of Saxony, was con- Albania, a province of European Turkey, bounded E. by sidereda to be mainly due to the efforts of A. He served under Macedonia and Thessaly, N. by ontenegro, Servia, and Bos* "4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ALB 5THE GLOBE ENVCYCL OP/E@D4A. ALB nia, W. by the Ionian and Adriatic Seas, and S. by Greece. Duke of York and Albany. Its city hall is a fine marble Upper or Northern Albania corresponds to ancient Illyria, and building with gilded dome, the capitol is a costly specimen of Lower or Southern Albania to Epirus. It is now divided into Renaissance architecture, and the most imposing church is the the vilayets ofJanina, Uskub, and Scutari. The mountain ranges Catholic Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception. A. has a are the Bora. dagh and Pindus, and the valleys between the ridges scientific university instituted in I852, and a medical school are swamps. The highlands of Epirus, densely wooded, stretch founded in 1839, with a large museum. From its central posion to the sea. The most remarkable river is the Glykus tion and facilities for transit, it is rapidly becoming one of the (Acheron), which for a portion of its course is subterranean; first cities in the Union. It has large manufactures, chiefly in and Janina is one of the principal lakes. In the N., though tobacco, iron, and ropes, and an immense trade in timber. Pop. the conditions are favourable, agriculture is not actively prose- (I870) 69,422. cuted; some maize and barley and rice in the moister valleys being the only cereals. In Epirus, however, vines and olives, Albany, Louise-earie-Caroline, Countess of, daughter mulberry and other fruit trees are cultivated, and even fair of the Prince of Stolberg Geden, born in 753, was married to crops of wheat, maize, and rice are produced. Enterprise alone Prince Charles-Edward, the Young Pretender, in I772. In is wanted to put agriculture on a hopeful footing. The Alba- 1780 she left her husband, who ill-used her, and retired to a nians, or Arnauts, estimated at about a million, like most half- convent. After his death in I788. she settled at Florence, where civilised mountaineers, prefer semi-warlike to industrial pusuits he died 29th January 1824. She was privately married to The country is the abode of anarchy, neighbouring villages, Alfieri (q. v.), and their remains rest in the same tomb in the and even the different divisions of the same village, being often church of Santa Croce, at Florence. at deadly feud. After the death of Scanderbeg many of the Al'batross (Diomedea). These birds are included in the Albanians, who were all previously Christians, became Moham- order of natatorial or swimming birds, and form a genus bemedans. The Suliotes, inhabiting the steep valleys of the longing to the division Pracellaride or Petrel family. The upper Acheron, distinguished themselves by their determined resistance mandible or bill is strongly arched or curved, the lower mandible to Ali Pasha. The chief ports are Durazzo and Avlona; the being abrupt or truncate at its point. The anterior part of both chief inland towns, Scutari and Arta. mandibles is separated from the posterior or basal portion. The Alba'no, a town on Lake Albano, i8 miles from Rome, a nostrils exist in the form of tubular structures, which open on favourite retreat of the more opulent Romans. Alba Longa the surface of the upper mmadible. The hinder toe is of rudistood on the opposite side of the lake. Near A. are the remains mentary nature-this toe in the of an amphitheatre. A fine wine is grown in the neighbour- gulls being well developed — hood. Pop. 5000ooo.-The ALBAN LAKE (Lago di Castello), and, as in swimming birds about Iooo feet above the level of the sea, and Iooo feet deep, generally, the three front and t with a circumference of 6 miles, occupies the basin of an extinct developed toes are webbed., _ volcano. Roman legend says that in 390 B.C., during the siege These birds resemble the other of Veii, the Romans let off the water by means of a tunnel members of the petrel tribe in driven through the banks of lava that girdle it, which still remains. that they are of free oceanic The Alban Mount (Monte Cavo), 3000 feet high, is on the E. habits, spending the greater bank. part of their existence on the - Al'bans, St, an ancient borough in the county of Hertford, gost stornly weateroad in the 21 miles N.W. of London. It lies on the slope and summit of tr wthe n f out at sea. The nest is of a hill at the foot of which flows the Ver, on the other side of rudimentary construction, the which is the site of the ancient Roman town of Verulamium, an eggs frequentary b eing deposited Albatross. important place during the whole period of Roman occupation. on the ground. The A. is the Here St Alban (q. v.) suffered martyrdom, and 500 years later, largest member of the tribe, the wings frequently measuing Offa, King of Mercia, founded a Benedictine abbey in his memory, fifteen feet from tip to tip. The familiar species is the Dionedea which became famous during the middle ages, its abbot obtaining exuians, or wandering A.; the habitat of this form being from Pope Adrian IV. the right of precedence over all English to the S. of the Cape of Good Hopethern species, abbots. This abbey was the origin of the modern town, abbots. This abbey was the o.uriging s of the modern town, the D. fuliginosa, inhabits the N. Pacific and Antarctic regions. which dates fiom the ioth c. During the wars of the Roses The colour of the former is a general white, greyish on the A. was the scene of two battles, in the first of which (I455) upper parts, with black feathers on the tail and back.The the Yorkists were victorious, and in the second (I46I) defeated. upper p arts, with black feathers on the tail and back. Not a few great Englishmen were born here in past times: Nicholas Breakespeare, afterwards Pope Adrian IV. (12th c.), Al'bay, a town in the southern part of the island of Luzon, Alexander Neckham (I3th c.), Sir John Mandeville (14th c.), Philippine Islands, about 2 miles from the bay of A., capital Sir F. Pemberton and Sir J. King, both great lawyers of a province of the same name, is well built, but subject to (I7th c.), &c. earthquakes, and carries on considerable trade. Pop. 13,000. The chief industries of A. are the manufacture of straw-plait, silk fabrics, Berlin wool, canvas, &c. There are also foundries, Albe, or Alb (Lat. - rope-walks, breweries, and in the neighbourhood numerous corn- a/bus, white), the a/ba mills, &c. Pop. (I87I) 8293. tunica, alba linea, camzisia,interior tunicaof Al'bany, or Albainn, the original Celtic name probably of ecclesiastical writers, the whole of Britain, certainly of the Highlands of Scotland. is the long white garThe root of the word is alp or alb, which in Gaelic and Kymric ment worn under the denotes a hill or craggy rock, so that A. means'the land of chasuble or tunic by hills.' Philologists, however, believe that the Celtic term is priests in the Roman connected with the Lat. albus,'white;' and that'Albion,' the Catholic Churchwhile oldest name of Britain (see Aristotle's Treatise on the World), engaged in divine serwas perhaps so called because its' white' cliffs were visible to vice. The Anglican the natives of Gaul. As a titular name A. was first used when surplice is essentially the brother of King Robert III. was made Duke of A. in I398. the same thing. Alb. The last who legally bore it was Frederick, second son of George III., but Prince Charles Stuart assumed in exile the title of Albero'ni, Giulio, Cardinal, a subtle, ambitious, and'Count A.' unscrupulous minister of state, was born at Firenzuola on the 3Ist of May I664. Though but the son of a gardener, his Albany, the capital of New York, U. S., on the W. bank abilities were so great that in I7II he was thought worthy to of the navigable river Hudson, 145 miles N. of New-York city, accompany the Duc de Vend6me to Spain in the capacity of his It was founded by the Dutch in I623, and passed into English secretary. In r713 the Duke of Parma employed him as his possession in I664, when it was called A. in honour of the agent at Madrid, where he quickly rose into favour at court, * 6 _46 con 4 ALEB THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPDRIA. ALB and brought about the marriage of Philip V. with Elizabeth a treaty of peace (I229) was forced on Raymond VII., by which Farnese. He was made successively bishop, prime minister, and he gave two-thirds of his estates to Louis IX., paid large' cardinal. To gratify the ambition of the queen he invaded Sar- sums to the Church, and made his son-in-law, the brother of dinia in violation of the treaty of Utrecht, and afterwards the king, heir of his remaining possessions. Soon afterwards Sicily. This unlooked-for audacity made England, France, and he died, and Toulouse reverted to the French crown. When the emperor unite against Spain in I7I9. As Holland subse- peace was declared, the newly-instituted order of Dominicans quently joined them, the league was known as the Quadrzutle began the work of proselytising among the scattered sects. Most Alliance. But A. was unmoved. To irritate England he favoured of the A. who had escaped the sword were afterwards condemned the Pretender; he claimed for Philip V. the regency of France; by the bloody tribunals of the Inquisition. Before the end of and to annoy the emperor he corresponded with the sultan. the I3th c. the name disappears. See Flauriel, Croisade conlre But the misfortunes which he brought upon the country by land tes Albigeois (Par. I838); Faber, iznquiry ilnto tie History and and sea provoked general indignation, and a court conspiracy Theology oftfe Vallenses and Albifeenses (Lond. I838); and Hahn, drove him from Spain Dec. 20, I720. He wandered about Italy Geschic/zfe der Kezer int Miftelalter (Stuttg. I845). in disguise, and was for some time imprisoned in the territory Albino, the term applied to such members of dark-skinned of Genoa, but after the death of Clement, Innocent III. rein- negroes) as exhibit a want of the full development of stated him in his dignities. He died at Piacenza June 26, 1752, races (e.g., negroes) as exit a want of the full develpment of at the age of eighty-eight, entirely forgotten by the world. See normal colouring-matter or pigment in the skin. This condition Rousset, Vie d'A. (Elague, I7I9), and Bersani, Stos-ia del Car-is occasionally known as lerucosis. The pigment is deposited in dinale Gielia A. (11Piaceu 17ig), and Bersanza,, i delIC862).a the deeper, layer of the outer skin or epidermis, and hence in d~inale Giulio A. (Piacenza, i862). albinos the skin appears of an unusually pale tint. The eye, in Al'bert, Francis - Augustus - Charles - Emmanuel, which colour is also deposited, exhibits a similar want of pigPrince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, late Consort of Queen Vic- ment, the iris appearing of markedly red or congested appeartoria, was the second son of Ernest, Duke of Saxe-Coburg- ance. The hair also participates in this colourless condition. Gotha. IHe was born in I819, and educated at Bonn University. The absence of pigment in the eye renders the sight of albinos In I840 he became the husband of the Queen of England. On weak in diffuse or ordinary daylight. The causes of albinism his marriage he was naturalised as a British subject, received the are among the undetermined points connected with developtitle of Royal Highness, and then and afterwards he had con- mental and reproductive processes and conditions. This con. ferred upon him many other honours and dignities. In I857 dition -occurs also in lower animals-the ferret being thus his status was definitely settled by his being declared the'Prince supposed to be an A. polecat. Consort.' The name of Prince A. will ever be remembered as Albion. See ALBANY or ALBAINN. that of a true friend of progress and the people. lIe was an earnest promoter of science and art, and was the first to suggest Al'boin, the founder of the Lombard kingdom of Italy; was the International Exhibition of I85I. The manner in which he a descendant of the Amals, and succeeded his father in 561 A.D. filled his somewhat anomalous position as the Queen's Consort as ruler of Pannonia, and other countries in the valley of the was marked by the greatest sagacity and tact. IHis death in I86I Danube. Five years later he destroyed the nation of the Gepidoe, caused the most profound grief throughout the nation. See ze slew their king Kunimund and married his daughter Rosa Early Years of te Prince Consort, by Iieut.-General Grey (1 867),munda in 567. A. invaded Italy at the instigation of Narses, the and zife of the P rince Consort, by Theodore Martin, the first Byzantine conqueror of Italy, who had been recalled to Constanvolume of which appeared in 1874. A collection of the principal tinople by the Empress Theodora'to spin with the other eunuchs,' speeches of Prince A. was published soon after his death. and who swore that fhe would spin her a thread that would serve her all her life.' The whole valley of the Po was swiftly Al'bert N'yan'za, an immense lake of E. Central Africa, conquered, A. was, however, murdered in 573 by one of his about 80 miles W. of the Victoria N'yanza, extending from lat. own soldiers, whom Rosamunda had hired to avenge the outrage 2~ 45' N. to 2~ S. It is oblong shaped, upwards of 300 miles A. had inflicted on her at a public banquet, in compelling her to long, and at the equator 92 broad. The E. shore is overhung drink wine from a goblet made of her father's skull. by high cliffs, rising in occasional peaks to from 5000 to Io,000 feet; and the N. and W. sides are bordered by the Blue Moun- Albornoz, Gilles, or 2Egidius Alvarez Carillo, a wartains, which have an altitude of over 7ooo feet. The A. N. lies like Spanish prelate, born at Cuen9a about the beginning of I470 feet below the general level surface of the country, and the 14th c. Alfonso XI. of Castile appointed him, while still 2720 above the sea-level. It drains an equatorial mountain a youth, Archbishop of Toledo. In the wars against the Moors range where rain falls for ten months in the year, and its water he saved the life of the king, Incurring the enmity of Peter is sweet and of great depth. The Victoria branch of the Nile, the Cruel, he repaired to Avignon, and was made a cardinal by here:called the Somerset river, after leaving Victoria N'yanza, Clement VI. Innocent VII. sent him to Rome as cardinalenters the A. N. at its northern extremity. The lake was legate, and Urban V., whose dominions he had recovered for known to Speke and Grant as the Little Luta Nzige, and was him, appointed him legate at Bologna. He died at Viterbo in first visited by Sir Samuel White Baker (q. v.) in I864. I367. A. left behind him a work on the constitution of the Albertus Magnus, See ALBRECHT OF BOLLSTXDT. Church of Rome, whicli was not published till 1473. Albo'x, a town in the S. of Spain, province of Almeria, forkAlbi, an old city of France, capital of the dep. of'Tari. merly part of Granada, 42 miles N.E. of the seaport of Almeria, It stands on a height above the river Tarn, and has a fine on the river A., a small tributary of the Almanzora. It has Gothic cathedral, and a public library of 12,000 volumes. A. manufactures of blankets, linens, hempen articles, and corn and gave name to the Albigenses, and suffered severely during their oilmills. Pop. 7430 persecution. The manufactures are chiefly table-linen, cotton and woollen goods, and leather; and a considerable trade is Al'brecht, last Grand-Master of the Teutonic Order, and carried on in fruit and wine. Pop. (1872) 13,698. first Duke of Prussia, was born in 1490. In 1511 he was chosen Grand-Master of the Teutonic Order, which held dominion over Albigen'ses, a common name applied to various religious that part of present Prussia which borders on the Baltic, and sects that sprang into existence in the S. of France daring which alone bore the name of Prussia at that time. He refused to the 12th c. in opposition to the Romish Church. Albigeois, take the oath of feudal allegiance claimed by Sigismund, King of in Languedoc, was the district where they were most numer- Poland, as due from the Teutonic Order, and became involved ous; hence their name. The murder of a papal legate, in war with that monarch in I520. In I525, by the advice of hated by the people for his cruelties, afforded a pretext to Pope Luther, whose cause he had espoused, he arranged a peace at Innocent III. for a crusade against the A. in 12o09. This expe- Cracow, in accordance with which the duchy of Prussia was dition was in reality, however, meant to deprive of his lands a secured to him and his descendants as a fief of Poland, the rights noted tolerant of the' heretics,' Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse. of the order being thus laid aside. A. spent the remainder The papal forces took Beziers, and it is said massacred 40,000 of of his life lm attending to the welfare of his duchy. In 1543 he tho inhabitants. The war of persecution thus fiercely begun founded the since famous University of K6nigsberg, but his raged in the territories of Raymond and his allies for many later years were troubled and unhappy, owing to the bitter disyears. After the death of hundreds of thousands on both sides, putes, political and ecclesiastical, of the age. He died in 1568. ALB THE GZL OBE ENC YCLOPzE7I~A. ALB Albrecht, Archbishop of Magdeburg, Elector of Mainz, and volumes. His knowledge of chemistry and mechanics is woncardinal of the Church, better known as A. of Brandenburg, the derful for the time in which he lived. He is generally regarded younger son of Johann of Brandenburg, surnamed Cicero Ger- rather as a diligent student than an original thinker, but there is mnzanic, was born in I489, became Archbishop of Magdeburg in an able vindication of his genius in the Nouvelle Biograo hie I513; and Elector of Mainz in 15I4. He has a place in history Griedrale, which merits consideration. mainly because he was the man that appointed the monk Tetzel Albue'ra, a small village in the province of Estremadura, in 1516 to C preach the sale of indulgences,' and thereby preci Spain, celebrated as the scene of a battle, i6th May 8i 1, bepirated the Reformation. But he also deserves to be reincm. pitated the Reformation. But he also deserves to be remem tween the French under Marshal Soult, and the Anglo-Spanish bexed, though not admired, as the first German prince who army under General Beresford. The result was a brilliant vicadmitted the Jesuits into his dominions. All through life A. was tory for the allies; but on both sides the loss was severe.'dreadfully short of money' (Carlyle's Hist. ofI).ederick /the Great, vol. i. b. iii. ch. iv.) It was this which compelled him at an Al'bumn, among the Romans, was the name originally given early date to employ Tetzel, and late in life (I541) he found to a tablet of some white' (Lat. a/bus) material on which himself driven to grant religious liberty to his subjects in order was written anything of a public nature; e.g. (according to to get his debts, which amounted to half a million florins, paid. Cicero), the Anna/es Maximi of the College of Pontiffs; also A. died at Aschaffenburg in 1545. the edicts of praetors, the rules relating to actions and interdicts. By.and-by it came to signify a list of the members of any public Albrecht I., Duke of Austria, and afterwards Emperor of body. Tacitus speaks of an album senaloriumn, and Suetonius Germany, born in 1248, was the son of Rudolph of Hapsburg, of an albuzmjudicum. This was also its meaning in the middle the founder of the Austrian imperial dynasty. On the death of ages, when we read of albums of saints, soldiers, gymnasia, and. his father he seized upon the insignia of empire without consult- universities. It is now popularly used both in France, Gering the Diet, but afterwards considered it prudent to take the many, and England to denote collections of poetry, engravings, oath of allegiance to Adolphus of Nassau, chosen emperor by the autographs, plants, &c., done up into the form of a book. electors. In I298, however, he defeated and slew Adolphus, lbuma'za, properly bumashar jaar Ibn-owho had become very unpopular, and was crowned emperor in hammed, an Arabian astronomer, born at Balkh A. 805 — his stead. Pope Boniface VIII., who at first refused to acknow- 86. He destined himself for the law, but late in life coledge A. as emperor, was afterwards induced to enter into ami- std hma n t a tie jdi o cable relations with him, by the successful boldness of his resistance menced to study mathematics, and to practise judicial astroto the papal authority. A. was also engaged in war with Holland, logy. Herbelot calls him le /rine des as/ronores de son oftetemp~s. He died 885. His two best works are K~hiz'abu/-./l~uHungary, and Bohemia, but had no success. The revolt of thede/is. He died 885. His two best works are KNitabiont h dahhd ila zlhhami. n-.Voj~um {'1Book of the Introduction to the Forest Cantons in Switzerland is the most memorable incident Science of the Stars'), translated into Latin and printed at in hs cree. Whle n hs mrch o cushthe oreter heScience of the Stars'), translated into Latin and printed at in his career. While on his march to crush the Foresters he Augsburg, 1489; Venice, 15o6: and Ki/abu/-Kironatfi Ahkami. was assassinated in 1308 by his nephew, Duke John of Swabia, ( Bo Cncn n ieco har n.JVqjum (' Book of Conjunction on the Science of the Stars'), whose possessions he had usurped. His daughter Agnes, Queen translated into Latin, Augsburg, 1489; Venice, 515. A list of of Hungar7, exacted a most dreadful vengeance for his death. tasae noLtn usug 49 eie 55 ito of Hungary, exacted a most dreadful vengeance for his death. fifty of his works is preserved in the library of the Escurial. Albrecht, Archduke of Austria, born in 1559, was a son lbuen is a highl complex chemical substance, havng of the Emperor Maximilian II. Devoting himself at first t6 the Alueisahgycopxcemiclstaehvi Church, he was made a cardinal (I 577), and Archbishop of Toledo he formula C2isH2isNsiS3O6R (Liebig), familiarly known under (1584). He was appointed governor of Portugal (594-96), and A bthe form of white of egg, of which I2 per cent. consists of pure (I584). He was appointed governor of Portugal (I594-96), and A tas xssi h eu ftebod ntejieo Isabella, A. It also exists in the serum of the blood, in the juice of of the Netherlands (596). Two yearslater he married muscle, in brain, in pancreas, in the amniotic fluid, and generally daughter of Philip II. of Spain, receiving the Netherlands as in all the fluids and solids of the body. It is present in the solid her dowry. After several campaigns against the Dutchhe made her dowry. After several campaigns against the Dutch he made excrements of man and of other animals, but it is not present in a truce with them in 1609, and died at Brussels in 1621. healthy urine. A. is coagulated by heat, and the solid condition Albrecht the Bear, founder of the Markgrafdom of Bran- has the same chemical composition as that in the fluid state. In denburg, and one of the ablest German princes of his time, was the fluid state the A. is united with alkali, forming an albuminate of an alkali, such as soda or potash. Nearly all ais the son of Otho, Count of Ballenstidt and Aschersleben, and was inate of an alkali, such as soda or potash. Nearly all acids, born in the year io6.t In 1125 Lothar 11L conferred on him but more especially nitric acid, precipitate A. from its solutions. in regard for his steady loyalty the district of Lausitz, to be held The following varieties of A. are known to chemists: (i) Paral. as a flef of the German empire. In I134 he was made Mark- bumin, found in dropsical fluids, and differing from ordinary graf of Northern Saxony, which he extended by conquering A. in not being completely precipitated by boiling; (2) metalsome of the lands of Prebislav, ing of the Wends; and in 42 umin, found also in dropsical fluid, resembling generally paralhe obtained the government of Swabia. Up to this point the bumin, but further characterised by giving no precipitate with he obtained the government of Swabia, Up to this point the great aim of A.'s ambition was to get possession of the dukedom hydrochloric acid or ferrocyanide of potassium and acetic acid. of Saxony, to which he had the best claim. As he could not, The following albuminates are recognised: Albuminate of () however, succeed in making it good, he now renewed his old barium, (2) copper, (3) lead, (4) mercury, (5) potassium, (6) struggle with his Wendish neighbours, wrested from them sodium, (7) silver, and (8) zinc. the Middle Mark and the New Mark, and so founded the state A. forms a very important constituent of food. It is the of Brandenburg. In his last Wendish war {1157) he almost of Brandenburg. In his last Wendish war (i5) he almost pabulum in the blood fm which t b the different animal tissues extirpated that unfortunate people, and then brought colonists e formed. At one time supposed to be the chief agent in from the Rhine, both Dutch and Flemings, to fill theirplaces on force-production in the body, it is now regarded as contributing the Elbe, the Havel, and, the Spree. After a pilgrimage to more to make up for the tear and wear of the tissues-force Palestine, from which he returned in 1159, the remainder of his being produced principally by the oxidation of hydrocarbonalife was spent in thoroughly Germanising his new possessions. ceous substances, as fat, starch, and sugar. At the same time He died at Ballenst.dt in 11 70; See Heinemann's A. der Bsir there can be no doubt that a certain proportion of A. introduced (Darmst. 1864). as food is concerned in force-production, and it is held by most physiological chemists that at least a part of it may split up in Albrecht, Count of Bollstidt, better known as Albertus the body into a nitrogenous portion and a non-nitrogenous Magnus, born at Lauingen, in Swabia, in 1193 or 1205. He residue. The nitrogenous portion is partly used for the repair studied at Padua, joined the Dominicans (I222), taught in Ratis- of the tissues, and is partly excreted in the form of urea, uric ban, Strasburg, and Cologne, and then removed to Paris (1245) acid, &c. The non-nitrogenous residue, consisting of carbon, with his pupil Thomas Aquinas. Here, though forbidden by the hydrogen, and oxygen, by oxidation, produces force, or it may Church, he expounded Aristotle. In 1260 he became Bishop of become temporarily stored up in the body as. fat. Whether Ratisbon, but soon resigned his see, and retired to a convent at these views be correct or not, there can be no doubt that A., Cologne, where he died in 1280. A.'s influence during his either animal or vegetable, forms an important part of every life was immense, and all kinds of honours, scholastic and eccle. diet. In certain diseases of the kidneys A. escapes into the siastical, were conferred upon him, His works, consisting to a urine. The consequence is great debility from impoverishment laige extent of commentaries on Aristotle, fill 21 large folio of the blood. 48,,,,-,,,,, A:LB THirE GLOBE ENCYCLOP.-EDIA. ALC Albumen, in plants, is generally known as the perisperm. on a hill overlooking the Guadaira. It derives its name from a It is the matter interposed between the skin of the seed and the Moorish fortress, the ruins of which are still very fine. A. is a embryo, or, in other words, the substance deposited in the cells favourite summer residence on account of- its healthiness. Its of the nucleus during the growth of the seed. A seed having chief industrial prosperity is the manufacture of bread for the A. separate from the embryo is said to be albuminous or Seville. It has no fewer than 200 flour-mills and 50o bakeries. perispermic, while one having the A. incorporated with the A. also supplies Seville with water, which is conveyed to the embryo, as in the pea, is said to be exalbumninous or aperi- city by means of underground canals or tunnels. Pop. 7000. spfermic. Alcala' de Hq'enar'es (' the castle of the river'), a town in Albumenu'ria is the appearance of albumen in the urine. New Castile, Spain, situated on the river Henares, 22 miles It is a symptom, not a disease in itself. See KIDNEY, DISEASES N.W. of Madrid. Pop. 5300. It was built by the Moors in OF. I083, near the site of the Roman Comzlutzhr, and became famAlbu'nol, a town in the S. of Spain, province of Granada, 41 ous as the seat of the university founded by Cardinal Ximenes in miles S.E. of Granada, and about 3 miles from the Mediter- the I6th c. Here was edited and printed the celebrated'Comranean. Its port is La Rabitai. The neighbourhood produces plutensian Polyglot,' a splendid Bible in Hebrew, Greek, and abundantly grapes, figs, and almonds, and the inhabitants find Latin, the original of which is still preserved in the library. A. their chief employment in preparing wines, brandy, and raisins. is supposed to be the birthplace of Cervantes. Pop. 6764. Alcala' la Real' ('the castle of the king'), a town of AndaAlbuquer'que, a town of Estremadura, Spain, 24 miles N. lusia, Spain, on the frontiers of Granada, about 26 miles N.'V. of Badajos, with a castle, which is the original seat of the Dukes of the city of that name. It is built on a conical hill, and is of A.; has some cotton and woollen manufactures, and is situ- nearly 3000 feet above the sea-level. A. got its name when ated in a district of country rich in corn, wine, oil, and fruits. taken from the Moors in 1340 by Alfonso XI., King of Portugal. Pop. 7500. It has some slight trade in wine and wool, but country work Albuquerque, Alfonso de, styled the Great, a Portuguese employs most of the inhabitants. Pop. II,520. admiral, and viceroy of the Indies, the greatest of the conquesta- Alcal'de (Arabic, el-cadi, the judge), a term introduced by dores that contributed to establish the Portuguese empire in the the Moors into Spain, where it signifies any magisterial or East, belonged to the first order of Portuguese nobility, and judicialoffice. was born at Alhandra, near Lisbon (others say at Melinda, in Africa), in 1452 or I453. The greater part of his life was spent Al'camo, a town in the N.W. of Sicily, province of Trapani, at court and in learned studies, mathematical and physical, but on the highroad between Palermo and Trapani, and about 3 he had also in slight affairs of war given proof of high courage miles from the Gulf of Castellamare. The district is very fruit. and sagacity. In 1503 he sailed with a fleet to India, and built ful, yet A. is not thriving, though it contains some fine churches. a fort at Cochin, which was considered the foundation of the Pop. 19,520. Old A., which stood on a hill above the present Portuguese supremacy in India. In 15o6 he was in command town, is said to have been built by the Arabs in 827. in the Arabian Seas, and took the then flourishing town and island of Ormuz (q. v.), which he was soon after compelled to Alcf Jn, part of Odi Andalusia, 22 miles S. of Jaen, on evacuate. He sailed for Malabar in I508, was appointed general a feeder of the Gu adalquiver. It lies in a valles.W. of Jaen, on and commander-in-chief in India, took the wealthy town of Goa hills, has an old castle, and carries on various industries, as in I io, captured the island of Malacca with immense booty, hills, has an old castle, and carries on various industries, as in 1510, captured the island of Malacca with immense booty, veaving, rope-making. Pop. 6242. and returned to Cochin in 15I2. His next enterprise was his siege of Aden (q. v.), which he failed to capture; and his last Alcafii'z, a town of Spain, province of Teruel, part of Aragon, acquisition was Ormuz, which the Portuguese continued to hold on the river Guadaloupe, 63 miles S.E. of Saragossa. It is well down to i622. Superseded in command by an ungrateful mon- built, has some handsome squares, and a splendid church noted arch, he died December 1515. His letter, written ten days for its fine paintings and tombs. A. has silk, woollen, and linen before his death to the Portuguese king, recounting his services, manufactures, with corn and oil mills, and a trade in grain and and recommending his son to the royal protection, is a model of cattle. Pop. 6400. loyalty and self-respect. It was first published in its integrity in Al tara (abic, the bridge), an old town in Estrema1842 by M. da Fonseca. A. was buried at Goa, where around can tara (A his grave for years the Moors and Indians were wont to assemble dura, built by the Moors. Pop. about 4000. Its most notable to implore from the dead viceroy protection against the rapacity building is the bridge built for Trajan I05 A..; but it is and cruelties of his successors. He was intrepid, unscrupulous, meanwhile a ruin. It has six arches, and is 670 feet long and and cruelties of his successors. He was intrepid, unscrupulous, and ambitious; but his viceroyalty was marked by a rough justice 210 high. and a generous liberality which endeared his memory alike to Alcantara, The Order of (originally of St Julian), takes its his own soldiery and to the Indian subjects of the Portuguese name from the town of A., where it has its seat. It dates as empire. See Commenntarios do Grande Alfonso de A.:(Lisb. a military confraternity from I156, but in II97 Celestine III. I576, 1774). made it a religious order of knighthood to animate it with Albur'num, the name applied to the outer or sap wood of increased zeal against the Moors. In 1495 Alexander VI. an exogenous tree. Being the younger wood, and therefore not vested the grand- mastership in the Spanish crown. The choked up by sedimentary deposits, it is permeable to the fluids knights, who are Benedictines, have since I540 been freed from or sap of the plant. the vow of celibacy. Candidates must prove a nobility of four Al'ca. See AUK. generations. The costume is green; the crest a pear-tree. Alcae'us, of Mitylene, among the greatest of the Greek lyric Alcara'z, a town of Spain, province of Albacete, formerly poets, began to flourish about 61I B.C. His party, which was part of Murcia, lies not far from the source of the Guadarthat of the nobles, being defeated in the civil war, he was mena, an affluent of the Guadalquiver. It has considerable exiled, and, unable to regain his country, he travelled in various industrial activity in weaving and iron-working.. It received its lands, but the date or place of his death is unknown. He wrote name from the Arabs, and was the scene of a great victory won in the /Eolic dialect, and is said to have invented the Alcaic by Alfonso I. of Aragon over eleven Moorish generals in x I23. metre. Only fragments of his odes are extant, but the imitations a town of Spain, province of of Horace enable us to estimate their character. While some Alcatzar de San Juan', a town of Spai, province of extof Horacl te enable uligts to estimate their character. While factions Ciudad Real (New Castile), 49 miles N.E. of Ciudad Real, on of his state deligs of love and wine, othe most reent the factions the Madrid and Alicante Railway. The name A. is Arabic, and of his state and his own misfortunes. The most recent editions The place has manufactures of are Matthia-, 4cayi Mitylenari Relqu, (Leipz. 1827), and Bergk, signifies the castle or fortress. The place has manufactures of Poare LyrMatthic, Aeei MGr ylenci Rei ( Leipz. 827), and Bergk,. saltpetre, powder, chocolate, silks, and woollens. Pop. 7540. Poefee Lyrici Grarci (Leipz. I843). Alcala' de Guadai'ra ('the castle of the Guadaira'), and the Alee'do. See KINGFISHER. Hieni:z5a (' place of many springs') of the Greeks and Cartha- Alchemilla, a- genus of plants belonging tolthe natural order ginians, is a town of Andalusia, Spain, 7 miles S.E. of Seville, Rosaceh. See LADY'S MANTLE. 7 fniu. efAnnri!n pi-I.Q' 49 ALO TiHE GLOBE ENCYCLOPzEDIA. ALO Alchemy, a word of Arabic origin (Al chemie), used to Chalcedon and Byzantium. He returned to Athens B.c. 407, designate the art which had for its main object -the transmuting and was received with great enthusiasm. His property was of the baser metals, such as lead and copper, into gold and sil- restored, and he was appointed commander-in-chief. In s. c. ver. The origin of the art is somewhat obscure. The oldest 406, however, by the defeat of his lieutenant Antiochus at alchemist of note of whom there is any record was the half- Notium, he was once more disgraced. He lived in exile in mythical Hermes Trismegistus (q. v.) of Egypt. He is said to Thrace, till, fearing Sparta, he fled to Pharnabazus, the satrap have written many treatises, and is spoken of as the founder of of Phrygia, who, at the instigation of the Thirty Tyrants, ordered A., which has been called after him the Hermetic art. At his his assassination. His house was surrounded and set on fire, and death the secret results of his life-labour, engraven on emerald, in attempting to escape A. fell pierced with arrows B.c. 404. were buried with him, but long afterwards they were exhumed Alcra (anc baticula), a walled town of Spain, province by Alexander the Great, and found to be so obscurely written of Valencia, on an island in the river Xucar, about 20 Miles as to be unintelligible. as to be unintelligible. ~~~of Valencia, on an island ill the river Xucar, about 20 miles In the ufirst centuries of Christianity the study of A. wa S.W. of Valencia, and a principal station on the Valencian RailIn he irs cetures f Crisianty he tud ofA. asway. It has earthenware and silk manufactures, and a large limited to the East, and was principally cultivated in Alexan- way. It has earthenware and sil manufactures, and a large dria. It was taken up by the Arabs during the famous Abba- trade in agricultural produce. In the times of the oors A. side califates, and perhaps the most notable product of the a clled Algecira ('the island') Pop.,3. Arabian school of A. is the Summit of Perfeclion by Gebir Ale'man, the Spartan lyric poet, by birth a Lydian of Sardis, (q. v.), belonging to the 8th c., which is, indeed, the first book and a slave, flourished about 631 B.c. He wrote in the Doric written on the subject of chemistry proper. In the ioth c. A. was dialect, and is said to have invented erotic poetry. Only a few brought to Spain by the Arabs, and soon spread over Europe. fragments, of no great excellence, have come down to us. In Germany it found many eager votaries, and a kind of science or system of A. was gradually developed. It taught Alo Dog, a variety or raceof dogs existing wild in Mexico principally three things: first, that there was a 2hilosophers and Peru, and distinguished by the large drooping ears and small stone, the great elixir or red tincture, which could convert sub- head. The A. was tamed in these countries before America phrshead. The A. was tamed in these countries before America stances into gold; second, another stone, the small elixir, or was discovered. In all probability the variety took origin from white tincture, which could convert substances into silver; and the escape into a wild state of a domestic breed of dogs. third, that the philosopher's stone was at the same time a won- Al'cohol is a liquid substance containing the elements carbon, derful drug, which could restore youth to the aged, and give hydrogen, and oxygen. Although not occurring in nature, it is health and long life to the sick, always obtained from bodies of vegetable origin-namely, from The leading alchemists were not quite agreed as to the physi- the different kinds of sugar and starch. If these substances, cal properties and appearance bf the stone, but that did not deter mixed with a large proportion of water, are allowed to ferment their followers from seeking for a treasure whose virtues were with yeast, they are at first converted into grape sugar, and then so great. Thousands spent their fortunes and wasted their lives in this body becomes decomposed into A. and carbonic acid. This the vain search for the elixir, while a few declared they had found change is expressed by the equationit, and publicly manufactured their false gold and silver for a cre- 2 co dulous world. They were called Acdiets. Kings and princes C6H206 (C2H6) were among their number, and even coined their yellow alloy, Grape sugar. Alcohol. Carbonic acid. and caused it to be received as gold. The Emperor Rudolph II., in the beginning of the I7th c., is said to have manufactured A dilute solution of A. is thus obtained, and from it the A. is upwards of 8o cwt. of gold and 6o cwt. of silver. The power of partially separated by distillation, as it boils at a much lower continuing life, too, was said to have been discovered by some temperature than water, and therefore distils over first. Owing, adepts, who had wealth and honours showered upon them as however, to the strong attraction of A. for water, the separation the price of their secrets, of the two can never be completed by distillation; the strongest Though ignorance and superstition were the soil in which A. rectified spirits of wine (as it is called) that can be prepared by grew rankest, and fraud and quackery too often the instrument this means containing about 9 per cent. of water. To obtain of its propagation, yet many cultivated it honestly and with pure pure A., rectified spirit must be left in contact with quicklime motives; and though they did not succeed in obtaining the for sometime; the quicklime combines with the water contained wished-for treasures, yet they made many valuable discoveries, in the spirit to form slaked lime, whilst the A. is not attacked, such as the manufacture of porcelain (Dresden china), and and may be distilled off. The A. thus prepared is called absolute accumulated a vast multitude of facts which find a place in A., but still contains I-2 per cent. of water. This may be modern chemistry, a science which bears the same relation to removed by repeated rectification with metallic sodium. Pure alchemy that astronomy does to astrology. A. is a colourless, limpid liquid of burning taste and characteristic odour. It readily ignites, and burns with a bluish flame, Alcibi'ades was born at Athens' B.c. 450. His father, forming carbonic acid and water. It boils at 780 C., and has Cleinias, fell at Coronea, and Pericles became his guardian. the specific gravity o0809 at o~ C. It has a strong attraction for Connected with the noblest Athenian families, possessed of a large water, as already mentioned; so strong, indeed, that if the two fortune, which his marriage with Hipparete greatly increased, be mixed, considerable rise of temperature takes place, and the and endowed with remarkable personal beauty, he entered on mixture is observed to contract. A. is lighter than water public life under the most favourable auspices. His inflexible (sp. gr. o0809), and has never been frozen (hence its use as a fluid will, restless energy, persuasive eloquence, and brilliant talents, for thermometers to measure low degrees of temperature). A however, were marred by his inordinate vanity, audacious characteristic physiological property of A. is the intoxicating violence, and unscrupulous ambition. He was through life the effect it produces when swallowed. Fermented Liquors (q. v.) slave of passions, the deep-seated power of which his friend contain A. in quantities varying from about 7 to 50 per cent., Socrates weakened, but was unable to subdue. On the death and owe their stimulating properties to its presence. A. is of Cleon, A. and Nicias became, in the Assembly, the rival largely employed in the arts as a solvent of resins, fats, &c., but advocates of conquest and peace. In B.C. 421 A. opposed owing to the heavy duty levied on pure A., a mixture of it and Sparta, and effected an alliance with Argos, Elis, and Mantinea. wood-spirit, called methylated spirit, is employed for all ordinary In B.C. 415 he was the leading promoter of the memorable purposes. No duty being levied on methylated spirit (as it canSicilian expedition. He was sent out as one of the generals, but not be rendered potable), it is of course much cheaper than pure was soon recalled to Athens to stand his trial in connection A. Proof-spirit, largely employed in pharmacy in the preparation with the mutilation of the Hermes busts. He escaped at Thurii, of tinctures, is a mixture of 49'5 per cent. of pure A., and 50'5 and went to Sparta, where he acted openly as the enemy of water. Athens. Having fled to Tissaphernes, he became once more Alcohol, Physiological and2MedicinalAlction of. This substance the enemy of Sparta. He made overtures to the friends of acts principally on the nervous system. In small doses it stimuoligarchy at Athens, but when the Four Hundred were; assembled, lates, in medium doses it perverts, and in large doses it destroys, he was not recalled. The soldiers at Samos then appointed him function. It acts not only on the nerve centres, more especially a general, and he remained abroad till he had gained the vic- on the cerebral hemispheres-that part of the brain connected tories of* Cynossema, Abydos, and Cyzicus, and had taken with the manifestation of the mental faculties —but also on the 4'o 4 * AL THiE GLOBE ENCYCIOPzEDIA. ALO nerves, both sensory and motor. Through the nervous system of water, it is said to be mon-atomic, di-atomic, tri-atomic, tetralso it affects the quantity and quality of the various secretions atom*i, &c. Thus ethyl alcohol, C2Hs(OH), and methyl alcohol, and excretions. When A. is taken internally, modern research CH(0OH), are monatomic; ethenealcohol, C2H4(OH)2, diatomic; has shown that a portion of it is eliminated unchanged by the propenyl alcohol, or glycerine, C3H5l(OH)3, triatomic; mannite, or kidneys, skin, and bowels, while the remainder is consumed by manna, C6H8(OH)6, hexatomic. Besides the above classification oxidation, like any other non-nitrogenous alimentary principle. of these bodies according to their atomicily, they are further After excessive drinking A. may be found in the various tissues, divided into /nrimary, secondary, and tertiary A. A primary and in serum effused into the shut cavities of the body, such alcohol, when submitted to the action of oxidising agents, loses as the ventricles of the brain. Apart from any effect due to two atoms of hydrogen and forms an aldehyde, the aldehyde in oxidation, alcoholic liquids exert an influence on special func- its turn readily taking up an atom of oxygen to form an acid. tions. For example, in moderate quantity, the activity of the A secondary alcohol also loses two atoms of hydrogen in the first circulation is increased; the heart beats more rapidly; the pulse stage of its oxidation; the body, however, which results is not an is fuller and more frequent; the small vessels of the skin become aldehyde, but a ketone, a substance which, on further oxidation, filled with blood; there is a very slight increase in the average splits up into two acids. A tertiary alcohol absorbs oxygen at temperature of the body; the urinary secretion is increased, the once without forming an intermediate compound, and splits into appetite stimulated, and the functions of the nervous system, various acids. The A. are prepared by various processes, and including the mental faculties, are exhilarated. Dr Parkes, of many of them occur ready formed in nature, or are produced by Netley, has shown that A. does not affect the amount of nitro- simple processes from natural substances. The most important gen eliminated daily. It does not enable the body to do more and general method of preparation consists in treating the ether or work on less food, but by stimulating a weak heart it may corresponding hydrocarbon salt with alkalies. In this manner enable more work to be done. In other words, it elicits force glycerine is prepared from the different kinds of fat, which are without supplying it. The experience of all men accus- the stearic, oleic, palmitic, or margaric ether of the hydrocarbon tomed to severe muscular exertion is that they can work better radical glyceryl or propenyl. The alkali removes the acid radiwithout A. than with it. Taken daily, even in small quantity, cal from the ether to form an alkaline salt (in the case of the fats A. exerts a slow prejudicial effect on the system; taken im- these salts are called soaps), whilst the hydrocarbon radical takes moderately, nothing, as life assurance authorities know, leads tup the hydroxyl from the alkali. Thussooner to premature disease and death. Strong alcoholic CaH,(CH8~500)3 + 3 KHO 3 KC1sH302 + C3H5(0H3) beverages act injuriously on the stomach, liver, and nervous 5. -. 5.. 2.., —- --—' system. The various alcoholic beverages owe their chief pro- Caustic Stearate of perties to A., but they differ in their effects generally, according Stearine. potash. potassium. to the associated constituents that may happen to be present. The See under WHISKY, RUM, WINE, &c. As medicinal sub- process by which an alcohol is obtained from an ether by stances, alcoholic fluids may often be of great service. Small treatment with alkalies is called on this account sapoiJfcation. doses are useful in some cases as stimulants to digestion and Primary A. may be obtained by treating the corresponding secretion; and larger doses, in cases of extreme prostration from aldehyde with nascent hydrogen, and secondary A. in the same the effects of fever or exhaustive disease, may save life by keep- manner from the corresponding ketone. Thusing up the action of a flagging heart until the body recovers CH3 - COH + H2 CH= - CHO-CH from the exhaustion. At one time many diseases were treated _ - —------- -- by an excessive use of stimulants; now it is not so. Such Acetic aldehyde. Hydrogen. Ethyl alcohol. remedies are used with caution, and therefore with greater (CH3)2=CO + H2 = (CH3)2 - CHOH success. _ — ------- Alcoholism. In a large dose alcohol destroys life, and may Dimethyl ketone, Secondary propyl thus be regarded as an active poison. In smaller doses, fre- acetone. alcohol. quently repeated, it acts prejudicially on all the important Besides these general methods of preparation, there are also organs, more especially on the stomach, liver, kidneys, and special processes by which certain A. are obtained. Methyl nervous system, and it may produce various kinds of nervous alcohol, CHs(OH), is obtained in large quantity by the dry disdisease which are included under the general term A. Those tillation of wood. Ethyl alcohol, C2H5(OH), by the fermentation directly referable to alcohol are, Delirium tremens, Mania e of sugar. potu, and Dipsomania. See under these heads. CH1206 = 2 C2H5(OH) + 2 CO2 Alcohols. The A. form a large and important group Grape sugar. Ethyl alcohol. Carbonic acid. of compounds, containing the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and resemble in their chemical properties common The process of fermentation also gives rise to other A., such as alcohol or spirit of wine. In their chemical relations they are the butyl alcohol, C4H9(OH), and amyl alcohol, CBHI1(OH), analogous to the hydrates of the metals, and are indeed regarded though in smaller quantity. Grape sugar, cane sugar, starch, as the hydrates of hydrocarbon radicals, or substances derived and woody fibre are substances closely allied to the A., and from water by the partial replacement of its hydrogen by hydro- exist ready formed in the tissues of plants. A., when treated carbon radicals. Thus- with acids, become converted into ethers, and water is produced C2H5(OH) H(OH) K(OH) } at the same time. This may be considered as the most characteristic reaction of the group, and is entirely analogous to the ~ B~Ethyl alcohol, or WCaustic potash, or action of an acid on a metallic hydrate. ThusEthyl alcohol, or Water. Caustic potash, or spirits of wine. hydrate of potassium. C25(OH) + HCe = C2HCe + H20 H/OH- -0 C2iH4 OH H( OH) CaHOH | Ethyl alcohol. Hydrochloric Chloride of Water. C'"'(oH) H OH 1 CaOH Ethyl alcohol. a cid. ethyl. Ethene alcohol, Slaked lime, or K(OH) + HCe = KCe + H20 or glycol. hydrate of calcium. Hydrate of potas] C53JIH5(~OH) (OI Hydrate ofpots Hydrochloric Chloride of Water. Cal5 OH H OH a siumaci. poass.OH/ H OH (caustic potash). ----------- " _-The chlorides, bromides, and iodides of phosphorus act upon Propenyl alcohol, or the A. in a similar manner, giving rise to the chloride, bromide, glycerine. or iodide of the hydrocarbon radical. According as the alcohol contains one, two, three, four, &c., quan- Alco'ra, a town of Spain, province of Valencia, 43 miles tities of hydroxyl (that is to say, the group OH); in other words, N.N.E. of Valencia, has manufactures of earthenware and brandy, according asit is derived from one, two, three, four, &c., molecules and a good trade in fruits. Pop. 560o9. ALO TZI-H GLOBE ENCYCLOPJ2DIA. ALC Alcorno'co or Alcornoque Bark is the bark of several the A. stagnorum-is usually found adhering to the leaves of species of Byrsonima, a genus of plants native of tropical Ame. aquatic plants. It presents the appearance of a dark-green mass!rica. The cork-oak bark is the A. of Spain. of jelly-like consistence, -from amid the substance of which hundreds of little polypides, the head of each surmounted by a Alco've (Spanish, alcoba, from the Arabic, el-kauf, the tent), crown of tentacles, may be seen protruding. The polypides are a kind of recess in a chamber where a couch or bed may be said to number about b6oo on each square inch of the mass. placed, at one time very common in France, but now disused. The tentacles are fringed by minute vibratile filaments termed Alcoy', a walled town in the province of Alicante, Spain, cilia, and their functions are those of drawing particles of food picturesquely situated on a height at an angle formed by the towards the mouth, and of probably assisting in the breathing of confluence of two streams. It has numerous cloth and paper the animals. A perfect digestive system exists. No heart, manufactories. Of the 200,000 reams of paper produced here however, is developed. Each little member of the colony can annually, I8o,oo0 are used for making papelitos or cigarettes. produce ordinary eggs, from which a primitive polypide is dePop. 21,900. veloped, and this gives rise by budding to the compound mass. Other eggs in bodies, termed statoblasts or winter ova, are also Alcudi'a, MIsanuel de Godoy, Duke of, a Spanish adven- found. These latter remain within the body of the organism turer, born at Badajos in I767, entered the body-guard of during the winter, and on being liberated in spring give origin Charles IV. of Spain, and, owing to his address and musical to embryos, which by budding develop the compound forms. ability, became a court favourite and attained wealth and titles, rising to the rank of generalissimo of the Spanish forces in Alcyonid'ium, a genus of animals included in the class 1804. He fell with the Bourbons before the power of Napo. PyZOa of the sub-kingdom Mollsca. These animals have no leon; but he continued to enjoy the favour of Charles IV. and relations with the Alcyonium (q. v.) or' dead man's finger' his queen, and was their chief adviser in their exile at Bayonne. polype, which belongs to a much lower group of the animal After the revolution of 1830 he was dependent for a time upon world (Ccelenterata). These widely-different forms were, and the charity of Louis Philippe; but in 1847 his fortune and titles still are, often confused. The Alcyonidia belong to the lifuznwere restored to him, and he was allowed to return to Spain. dibulate section of the class Polyzoa (q. v.), which section inHle died at Paris, 7th October 185i. A. was a conspicuous eludes those forms possessing tentacles arranged in a circular figure in his time, but has left no mark on the history of his manner round the mouth. country. See Mmzoires de A. (Par. 1836.) Alcyo'nium, a genus of polypes or Coelenterate animals Al'cuin, or Alewin, the most cultivated, energetic, and forming the typejof the order Alcyonaria, and popularly known influential scholar of the 8th c., belonged to a noble English under the names of-'dead man's fingers' and'cow's paps.' family, and was born at York in 735. He received his educa These names have been applied to this organism from the retion under A.elbert, then head of the monastery school at York, semblance it presents in outward appearance to lobate, fleshy, or annd when his teacher became archbishop in 766 A.D., A. took finger-shaped masses, each of which masses consists of a colony his place. On a journey to Rome in 781, to obtain the palliun of several hundred polypes, united to form a composite organism. for Aelbert's successor, A. made the acquaintance of Charle- common species is the A. ditacitum, frequently dredged magne at Parma, and was persuaded by him to settle in France. on our coasts, and which is attached in its normal state to From 782 to 796 he resided at the imperial court, and lived in mussel-shells, stones, and other objects. On looking at the the closest intimacy with the great monarch, who successively fleshy mass when in the living state, its surface is seen to be bestowed on him the abbeys of Ferrieres, St Loup, St lossa, studded over with little star-shaped polypes, the appearance of and St Mcartin. The palace became a sort of school or academy, which can be more satisfactorily investigated by aid of a handof which A. was the head, while Charlemagne, Eginhard and his lens. Each individual polyplepossesses eight fringed tentacles family, with many of the principal courtiers, were the pupils. surrounding the mouth-the little organisms bearing a resemEach was known by some antique name: Charlemagne was blance to the sea-anemones, which familiar animals ideed conDavid; A., Flaccus; Angilbert, the Chancellor, omer, &c. stitute the type of the class in which the Alcyonaria are in. This was the origin of those royal or palatine schools whose cluded. The polypes possess the power of retracting themfame rivalled that of the monastic or episcopal seminaries. The selves within the common body-substance of the organism, to influence of A. was felt over the whole of France. A great which the term cenosarc has been applied. This process of reeducational revival took place. New schools were founded and traction is effected by invagination of the polypes-a process educational revival took place. New schools were founded and old ones were enlarged and improved. After his retirement imitated by pushing in the finger of a glove upon itself. Exterto the Abbey of St Martin at Tours (796), he established there nally, the ccenosarc is of leathery or coriaceous consistence, and a great library, while the school, mainly by his own efforts, be- within this a softer tissue is contained, through which a system came the resort of all the studious youth among the Franks. of canals is distributed, these canals being simply internal pro. A. died 19th May 804. His writings are numerous, and com- longations of the bodies of the little polypes. Through the prise theology (exegetical, dogmatic, and polemical), ecclesiasti. canal-systems the various members of the colony are brought cal history and poetry, mathematics, rhetoric, and a large mass into communication with each other; and a continual circulaof correspondence with popes, bishops, and monarchs. They tion and interchange of nutritive fluids takes place through the were first collected and published by Andre Duchesne of Tours, tubes, the growth and nourishment of the entire colony being under the title Alcihini Abbatis Opera, qua Lactenus reperiri thus provided for. The ccenosarc is strengthened by spicules or notueruent, ortnia (Par. 1617). A better and fuller edition is crystal-like bodies of lime scattered throughout its substance. that of Froben, prince-abbot of St Emmeran (2 vols. Ratis- These calcareous spicules are of cruciform shape, and represent bon, 1777). See also Lorenz, A.'s Leben (Halle, I829), transl. the coral secretion of the organism; which secretion, although of into Eng. (Lond. I837); Guizot, Histoire de la Civilisation, vol. rudimentary nature, is yet of essentially similar type to the ii. (Par. 840); Duperron, Quelques aperFus sur Alcwzin (Valogne, more perfect corallum of other forms. The order Alcyonaria, 8o50); and Kanlich, Geschichte der Sc/holastischen Philosophie indeed, includes the red coral of commerce, and other familiar (Prag. i863). kinds. The internal structure of each polype is essentially that of the sea-anemone. The mouth, surrounded by its tentacles, Alcyonel'la. This animal is included in the class Polyzoa leads into a stomach-sac, which is incomplete inferiorly, and is (q. v.) It is therefore one of the JLollusca, and has no relations continued into the canal system which permeates the entire mass. with the Alcyoniun (q. v.), one of the Coelenterate animals, with The stomach is connected to the walls of the body by vertical which, however, in name it is apt to be confused. These animals partitions or vmesenteries, which number four, or some multiple form compound masses, including large numbers of animals, of that number. The entire compound mass or organism is and are found in fresh-water ponds or streams. As in most formed by a process of continuous germination or budding. One fresh-water Polyzoa, the tentacles surrounding the mouth of single and primitive polype, produced from an egg, first attaches each little animal-or polypide, as it is termed-are arranged itself, and gives rise by budding to the compound mass. The in a crescentic or horse-shoe fashion. Hence A. belongs to the individual polypes of the mass-or zo'ids, as they are termeddivision lippocrepia or Phylactolzmata of the Polyzoiin class. possess each the power of developing eggs, the reproductive The tentacles are very numerous, numbering sixty or more. organs being situated on the surface of the mesenteries. A The entire mass of an A. —of which the common species is secQond species of A. is the A. povulum, popularly known as S 52 + - ALD TAle GLOBE ENCYCLOPADIA. ALD'Neptune's cap,' and found in the seas of Sumatra and Sin- moistened with water and allowed to ferment. Cinnamnic aZdegapore. The genera Alcyonidizum and Alcyonella are entirely hyde, C8H7 - COH, is the principal constituent of oil of cinnadifferent animals from the A., and belong to the Molluscan mon or cassia. Cuminic aldehZyde, C9H11- COH, occurs in oil sub-kingdom of animals, being included in the class Polyzoa of of cumin and in that of the water-hemlock. Salicy/ic aldehde that division. See ALCYONIDIUM and ALcYONELLA. C6H50 - COH, in the flowers of the meadow-sweet. Angelic. ~~~aldehyde, C4H7 - COH, in oil of chamomile. Aldeb'aran, the Arabic name of the most brilliant star in aldelyde, C4H7 - COB, in oil of chamomile. Besides the action of oxidising and reducing agents on the the Hyades, a group of five in the head of Taurus. It nearly A they possess other properties in common. All of them forms a straight line with the three bright stars in the belt o of soda, and also Orion. ~~~~~~~~~~~~form crystalline compounds with bisulphite of soda, and also Orion. with ammonia-reactions which supply the chemist with a Al'dehyde, or Acetic Aldehyde, is a substance prepared means of detecting and purifying an aldehyde. Chlorine and by the partial oxidation of common alcohol or spirits of wine, bromine replace an atom of hydrogen in the A., and form and differs in composition from the latter in containing two the chloride or bromide of the corresponding acid radical. atoms less hydrogen, whence its name (al-cohol, dehyd-rogena- CH-CO + C, = C6H.-COC1 + HCl tum). It is also related to acetic acid, the latter containing an CH -CO = atom of oxygen more than the A., or an atom of oxygen in place _Benzoic Clr. eo Hyo of the two atoms of hydrogen in alcohol. Cli oef Chlorine. Bcf HydroCH3- CH2OH CH5- COH CH3- COOH - aldehyde. Benzoyl. chloric acid. CH3 - CH20H CH3 - COH: CH3 - COO,__ ~ ------ J- A —-_ —--- The alkali metals evolve hydrogen when heated with an aldeAlcohol. Aldehyde. Acetic acid. hyde, and form a kind of salt. A. is best obtained by heating a mixture of bichromate of potash, 2(CH3-COH) + K2 = 2(CH3-COK) + H2 alcohol, and dilute sulphuric acid in a retort connected with a _ _ —- % A_, -- good condensing apparatus; a somewhat violent action takes Acet-aldehyde. Potassium. Potassium-aldehyde. Hydrogen. place, and the A, being a very volatile substance distils over. In this process the bichromate of potash gives part of its oxygen Al'der, the common name for Alnus, a genus of trees beto the alcohol, which is thus converted into A. longing to the natural order Betulacea. The common A. (A. A. is a colourless, mobile liquid of penetrating odour, lighter glutinosa) is the only species indigenous to Britain, and attains, than water (sp. gr.'805), and soluble in all proportions in water, in favourable situations, a height from 40 to 60 feet. Its wood alcohol, and ether. It boils at 2I2 C., andis readilyinflam- when first cut is white, butbecomes of a bright orange-redcolour mable. It decomposes by long boiling, and indeed suffers on exposure. Although soft and light, it is very durable under change if kept for some time in sealed tubes, becoming converted water. Its branches are much used for charcoal in the manufacunder the latter conditions into polymeric substances called ture of gunpowder. The bark contains tannin and dye, and is paraldehyde and mnetaldehyde. The chemical properties of A. frequently used by fishermen to stain their nets. A. is the badge are similar to those of others of its class, and are described in of the clan Chisholm. Berry-bearing A., Black A., Red A., art. ALDEHYDES. and White A. are popular names given to plants belonging A. is employed in the manufacture of certain Aniline Colours to totally different natural orders. (q. v.), and is one of the ingredients of sweet spirits of nitre. Alderman (originally Ealdorman, i.e., older or elder man), Aldehydes are substances which resemble in their reactions the title of a civil magistrate, or of the assessor of the principal common or acet aldehyde. The two distinctive characteristics of civil magistrates in an English or Irish municipality. For a these bodies are-first, that they readily take up an atom of notice of the special functions of those anciently invested with oxygen, and pass into the corresponding acid; second, that they the title A. of all England, or of the King's A., see ANGLOcombine with nascent hydrogen to form the corresponding SAXONS. alcohol. If' R' designate any monatomic hydrocarbon radical, Al'derney (Fr. Aurigny, Lat. Aurinia), one of the Channel the relations in composition between the alcohols, A., and acids Islands (q. v.), lies about 7 miles from the coast of Normandy may be represented as follows: - and 60 from England, in N. lat. 490 45', W. long. 2' 13'. It is R-CH20OH R-COH R-COOH separated from Cape La Hogue by the Race of A., a dangerous E~s t _ ~-~ channel in coarse weather. The island is about 4 miles long, Alcohol. -Aldehyde. Acid. I in breadth, and has a circuit of i2 miles. The coast to the In the case of acet-aldehyde the radical is methyl, CH3; the S.E. is wild and precipitous, but slopes gently towards the N., corresponding alcohol, common alcohol, or spirit of wine, and where has been constructed an extensive breakwater and harthe acid, acetic. Thus- bour of refuge. The climate of A. is healthy, and the soil CH3-CH20H CH3-COOH CH3-COOH inland is rich and well cultivated. The island is famous for its _ R A breed of cattle. The inhabitants are of French origin, but Common alcohol, English is the language generally spoken. The'town,' so spirit of wine Acet-aldehyde. Acetic acid. called, occupies the centre of the island, and contains a church sii wine. There are two general processes by which these substances may supposed to have been built in the 12th c., which some time be obtained. The one consists in oxidising the corresponding ago was replaced for purposes of worship by a building in alcohol (usually by heating it with sulphuric acid and bichro- the early English style. A. is a dependency of Guernsey, under mate of potash). Thus - the British government; and the civil power is exercised by mate o potash. R-COHThusa judge appointed by the crown, and six jurats elected by ~R-.CH20H + 0 R —COH 2- + H2 the people. It has a court of justice, and a local legislature VAlcohol. Oxygen. Aldehyde Water composed of the judge, jurats, and'twelve' popular representaAlcohol. Oxygen. Aldehyde. Water. tives (hence called douzainiers), who, however, have only a Tile other in submitting a mixture of formiate of potassium or deliberative power. Pop. (1871) 2738. sodium, and the potassium or sodium salt of the corresponding acid, to dry distillation, when the aldehyde and carbonate of derho Camp, originally (85) formed on a wide potassium or sodium result. heath on the frontiers of Surrey, Hants, and Berks, to afford R- COOK + H-COOK = R-COHi + K2CO facilities for manoeuvring our regiments in brigades. The lessons _ _ K2CO3, _of the Franco-Prussian war of I87o-7I proved that immense Potassium.Carbo strides had been made in military science in Germany. The Potassiumaltofcor- Formiate Caro- wonderful improvements in field artillery, resulting in greatly' responding of potas- Aldehyde. nate of increased range and precision, and the introduction of breecharesponding sium. potas- loading rifles in line regiments overturned at once the formerlyacid~~. ~S~~i~~sum. existing theory and practice of military drill. It became evident Some A. occur in nature, or are produced from natural sub- that the famous'square,' as presenting an admirable compact, stances by simple processes. Bensoic aldehyde, or oil of bitter target for artillery playing from a great distance, was a formaalmonds, CH5 - COH, is produced when crushed almonds are tion that must never again be had recourse to in warfare. It * - S3 ^ ALD TZHE GLOBE ENCYCL OPEDIA. ~ALE further appeared that, as an arm of the service, cavalry was now cian, and an architect. His treatise on logic (Artis Logicce rendered almost useless, except for the performance of special Comjpendium) still maintains its ground at Oxford; his musical and occasional duties, acting as scouts, reconnoitring, out- compositions comprise specimens both sacred and secular. flanking field artillery, and attacking the battery at a sudden Among the latter are, Hark, the Bonny Christ Church Bells, and dash, and in the pursuit of a retreating force. But the'charge,' A Smoking Catch. His architectural skill is attested by Peckin the old sense of the movement at least, must, it was clear, be water Quadrangle, Christ Church, Trinity College Chapel, and given up. A line of infantry armed with breechloaders could the Church of All Saints. He also wrote several tracts on the empty the saddles of any number of cavalry before a collision real presence. could take place; and even in the event of the'charge' being'di Ulii, a naturalit, born at Bologna, delivered, the bayonet must be held invincible. The means by tldro1'd5 aplissi, anaturalist, born Bologna, Isto Sep which victory in the field is now achieved having changed com tember 1522, appeared first as an author in a treatise on the pletely within the last few years, important changes had to be statuary of the ancients (I556), but subsequently devoted himself introduced in military drill, Chief among these is the infantry to the study of botany. In 1560 he succeeded to the chair of' advance in loose order,' a movement intended to have the natural history, and formed a valuable collection of specimens for advantages, with others in addition, of the Prussian'swarm.' a work which he had projected on that science, and of which For the necessary evolutions (see MILITARY DRILL) great space thirteen volumes were published, six under his own direction, is required, and the camp at A. affords unusual facilities for and seven under that of his colleagues after his death in I607. practising them. A. is- divided into the N. and S. Camp by Many of his specimens are still to be found in the Public Museum the Basingstoke Canal. The troops are housed in excellent of Bologna. The Botanical Garden of that city also owes its barracks, while a town is springing up in the neighbourhood.establishment to A. The opinion, sanctioned by Bayle, that The extent of ground used for military exercises is 4144 acres, he died in utter poverty, the result of expenditure on pursuits and the camp can accommodate 20,000 men. The number of connected with his favourite science, is proved by Fantuzzi, from troops encamped here on January I, 1874, was I0,60I, with an examination of the archives of Bologna, to be groundless. 2I98 horses and 48 guns. On the contrary, he appears to have been treated by the Senate with the greatest liberality. Though chargeable with being Al'dine Editions, so called from the name of the printer, sometimes unnecessarily minute in unimportant details, all his Aldo Manuzio (q. v.), of Venice, were wont to be much sought writings are marked by fulness of knowledge and the most after by book-collectors. Some of them are editiones principes reverent spirit. A complete list of his works is given in the (first editions) of Greek and Roman classics, others give collated Nouvelle Biographie Generale. See Fantuzzi's Memorie della texts of Italian authors, while all are beautifully and correctly Vitna d' Ulissi Aldrovandi (Bologna, I774). printed. Aldo Manuzio, an enthusiast in typography, had nine Ad'stone, or Alston Moor, a market town in Cumber. different kinds of Greek types made, and fourteen of Roman, land, lies near the confluence of the Neut and S. Tyne, in a e land, lies near the confluence of the Neut and S. Tyne, in a and was the first to use italics in his 8vo Virgl (r5ol). oie hilly district, 29 miles S.E. of Carlisle. The chief manufactures likewise introduced the custom of having fine-paper copies in are thread and flannel. The once highly-productive lead mines addition to those on ordinary paper. The Epistole Grecae (1499) in the vicinity are now comparatively exhausted. Pop. (x871) furnished the earliest instance of this. He died in 15I5. His 2627. son Paolo (died I597) was also an enthusiast, but more with respect to the Latin than the Greek classics. During the century Ale, a fermented liquor prepared from the pale dried malt that the A. press continued in operation it printed 908 separate of grain, usually barley. The word, which is the modern form works. The mark is an anchor round which a dolphin twines, of the Anglo-Saxon eale, is probably from the Danish dl, malt and the motto is Sudavitetalsit. About 1502 counterfeit Aldines liquor. It is now used indiscriminately with beer, but this term began to be issued at Lyon and Florence. Renouard, a Paris may include both porter and A. In England the name A. is bookseller (who died in 1853), formed averycomplete collection mostly restricted to the pale, highly-hopped varieties of the of genuine Aldines, of which he has given a catalogue in his beverage originally prepared for export, while in Scotland it is Annales de j'imprimerie des Alde, ou Histoire des trois Manuce chiefly applied to the sweet and alcoholic liquors, which are et de lezrss Editions (Paris, 1803; 3d ed. 1834). The name A. known in the market as Scotch ales. See BEER and BREWING. was given by Pickering to a beautifully-printed edition of the British poets, and has been retained in the revised issue by Bell Al'eman, deateo, the author of La itday ZHechos del Picaro & Daldy (Lond. I870). Guzman de Alfarache (The zie> anzd Adventures of Guzman de Alflarache), was born at Seville in I55o, and served with honour Aldobrandi'ni, a distinguished Tuscan family, settled at as one of the comptrollers of finance under Philip II. of Florence in the 12th c. During the middle ages it was parti- Spain. Retiring from office, he betook himself to literature. cularly known for its attachment to the Guelph party, and fur- His great work (published in I599), the hero of which is a nished the Church in later times with a succession of ecclesiastical scamp and rogue who goes through various scenes and situations, dignitaries. The most eminent of its members were-SILVESTRO is a caustic and humorous satire on the idle, dissolute manners A. (born 1499, died 1558), a politician and jurisconsult, one of of his age, and is written in the choicest Castilian. It was whose sons was Pope Clement VIII.; GIOVANNI A. (born about translated into all the principal languages of Europe previously 1525, died 1573), a son of Silvestro, a cardinal of the Church, to the author's death, the date of which is unknown, but which and a writer on jurisprudence; TOMASO A. (born I540, died took place in Mexico. The best edition is that by Aribau in the early in the 17th c.), also a son of Silvestro, a fine scholar, whose Biblioteca de Autores Espafgoles, t. iii. (Mad. i846). Three edi. translation of the Lives of the PhilosopAers, by Diogenes Laertius, tions of an English translation by Mabbe, Magdalen College, was published after his death by his nephew, Pietro A., Arch- Oxon., appeared in I622-23, i630, and 1634 respectively, bishop of Ravenna, himself an accomplished writer; CINZIOPASSERO A., died about the beginning of the 17th c., the son of a Aleman'ni (lit., all-men), the name borneby a military sister of Pope Clement VIII., became a cardinal in 1593, and was league of German tribes, of which the Teneteri and Usipi were a great friend of Tasso, who dedicated to him the Gerusalemme the most important. They made their earliest appearance in Liberata; PIETRO, brother of Cinzio-Passero, also rose to be a the beginning of the 3d c. in the valley of Main, and soon cardinal, and as papal legate in France, settled the differences after began to threaten Gaul. The first Roman that inflicted on between Henry IV. and the Duke of Savoy; another brother, them serious defeat was Maximinus, who in 236 A.D. drove FRANcEsco A. (born 1546, died I6ioI), embraced the military them back over the Rhine, which they had already crossed. In profession, and distinguished himselfin fighting against the Turks a second invasion of Gaul they were again defeated by Posthuin Hungary; SILVESTRO, son of Francesco, obtained the dignity mius, who pursued them into Germany, and strongly fortified of cardinal in his fourteenth year. The family became extinct in the Roman frontier along the Main and the Upper Danube. 68i by the death of Octavia, daughter of GIOVANNI GEORGIO Part of Posthumius's defences remain to this day. After the A., Prince of Rossano. death of the Emperor Probus (282) the Burgundians, pressing from the N.E., forced them inside the Roman fortifications, Al'drich, Henry, D.D. (born in I647, died in 17Io), was when they settled in the region between Mainz and Lake Coneducated at Westminster School and Christ's Church, Oxford. stance, but in the 4th c. they had spread as far W. as the He was a man of varied accomplishments-a logician, a musi- Vosges Mountains, and as far S. as the Swiss Alps. Julian ------------------— * ALE THE GLOBE E VCYCZ eOPBD [A. ALE signally chastised them in 357 A.D., but it was not till the time Turkey, on the small river Koik or Nahr.el-Haleb, between the of Clovis that they were finally subdued (496), and compelled to Orontes and the Euphrates. The name A. is an Italian form of acknowledge the sovereignty of the Franks. In the course of the Arabic HaZeb, which is in turn a corruption of the original the 5th c. the league of the A. began to be called Suavi or A. Greek name Chalybon or Chaleb. Under the Romans the place and Swabians. Under the Franks the Alemannic territory was was known as Bercea, but on its conquest by the Arabs in 638, it formed into a duchy, the eastern part of which has specially borne resumed its ancient designation. The town is partly surrounded the name of Swabia since the time of the Emperor Henry IV. by a wall built by the Seljuk Turks, who made A. their Syrian The proximity of the A. to the kingdom of the Franks accounts capital (998-I I I 7). Girt with plantations of pistachio-nut-trees, for the name of Allemands and Allemagne which Frenchmen use above which rise countless cupolas and minarets, A. is one of the to denote Germans and Germany. most beautiful of Eastern cities. It was partly destroyed by an Alemnbert, Jean le RElond d', a celebrated mathematician earthquake in I822, but has since been rebuilt. A. has a large trade in silks, skins, cotton, tobacco, wine, and oil. It is a and philosopher of the was the illegitimate sc., was orn Paris on tha Madame de6th station of the Indo-European telegraph, and its ports are IskanNovember I177. He was the illegitimate son of a Madame de deroon and Latakia. Pop. (Almnach de Go/ha, 1875) 70,000. Tencin, by whom he was abandoned on his birth on the steps of the church of St Jean-le-Rond, where he was found by a police- Ale'sia, a town of ancient Gaul, near the site of which stands man, who intrusted him to the wife of a glazier named Rousseau. Alise, 24 miles N.W. of Dijon. In B.c. 52, 80,000 Gauls shut Subsequently his father, a M. Destouches-Canon, a provin- themselves up in A. under Vercingetorix; but after a vigorous recial commissaire d'artillerie, made him an allowance of 1200 sistance the place was obliged to surrender to Caesar, who made francs a year. Entering the College Mazarin at the age of Vercingetorix prisoner. The Normans destroyed A.in 864. twelve, he soon began to show high mathematical talent; but at the conclusion of his college course, with a view to self-support, Ale'sius, Alexander, whose family name was Alane, one he tried to study first law and then medicine. The effort, how- of the earliest Scottish reformers, and a fine theological scholar, ever, was vain, and ultimately he devoted himself absolutely to was born at Edinburgh in I500, studied under Joannes Major at science. In I739 he published his Mmzgoh-e sur Ze Calcul inld- St Andrews, and was for some time a canon of the Augustinian gral; in I74I he was admitted a member of the Academy of priory there. Converted to Protestantism by Patrick Hamilton, Sciences; in 1743 appeared his Traite de Dynamique, and in whose martyrdom he witnessed, A. soon drew upon himself the I746 his Theorie Gene'rale des Vents, which gained the prize of hatred of the monks by the aggressive style of his preaching, the Academy of Berlin. This was followed by many other learned and found it advisable, about I530, to escape to the Continent. and scientific works, which so raised their author's fame that After wandering about in various countries, he settled at Witin 1752 Frederick II. of Prussia offered him the presidency of tenberg in 153I, and became very intimate with Melancthon, the Academy of Berlin. A., however, could not be induced who held his talents and judgment in great respect. In I535 he to leave France, and when Catherine II. of Russia, ten years passed over to England, carrying with him a copy of Melancafterwards, also invited him on munificent terms to superintend thon's Loci Communlzes as a present for the English king. He the education of her son, he again refused. As editor of the was well received, and was permitted to lecture on theology and -mathematical section of the famous French Enc),closMdie he has Hebrew at Cambridge University. The persecuting statute an enduring place in the history of literature. A. was never known as the'Six Articles' forced him in I539 to return to married, but a strong attachment existed between him and a Germany. In I540 he became a professor of theology in the Mademoiselle Espinasse, whose death was a deep affliction to University of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and in 1543 was transferred him. He died 29th October I783. A.'s literary works were to that of Leipzig, where he spent the rest of his life. His collected and published first by Bastien in 1805, and afterwards death took place 17th March I565. Although almost forgotten in a more complete form by Bossange (Paris, I82I, 5 vols. 8vo), now, he was highly honoured in his own age, and really deserves but his scientific works have not been collected. Condorcet's remembrance. Bishop Bale dedicated to him and Knox that Aloge contains an eloquent and acute estimate of his philosophi- part of his biographical work which celebrates the'illustrious' cal and literary merits. worthies of Scotland. His writings are numerous, but are Alemn'bic. A kind of still used by the alchemists. See confined to the departments of exegetical and polemical theology. DISTILLATION. Alessan'dria, the chief town of a province of the same Alemnte'jo (beyond the Tagus), the largest province of Por- name in N. Italy, situated near the confluence of the Bormida tugal, stretches across the entire breadth of the country, and is and Tanaro. It was founded in I 68 by the Lombard RepubI50 miles from N. to S.; area 9982 sq. miles. It is diversified, ad designed as a fortress to defend the passage of the by mountains, valleys, and plains, and is watered by the Tagus, Bormida and Tanaro against Frederick I. It was originally by mountains, valleys, and plains, and is watered by the Tagu called Casarea, and received its present name in honour of Guadiana, and Saado. Dense forests cover the mountains of the called Casarea, and received its present name in honour of N.; at their base is found in abundance wheat, rice, maize, the ceded to the French, who held it for fourteen years. During the viner citron, and pomegranate; but the plainshyn the S. are ceded to the French, who held it for fourteen years. During the vine, citron, and pomegranate; but the plains in the S. are Lombardo-Venetian rebellion, 1848-49, A. formed the head. sterile and marshy tracts nearly destitute of vegetation. Goats, quarters of the Piedmontese. It is now one of the strongest sheep, and swine are reared in large numbers; also asses, mules, fortresses i n Europe. Apart fom the garrison, it has (1872) andhornedcattle. Therearefewmanufactures~andevenagri- fortresses in Europe. Apart from the garrison, it has (i872) culture is very backward. The chief towns are Evora, the capital, 57,079 inhabitants, with considerable trade in linen, woollen, and Elvas, Portalegre, Beja, Estremoz, and Mertola. Pop. (I87I) 331,34I. Alessandria dells REocca, a town in the Sicilian pro. vince of Girgenti. The commune of which it forms part has a Alengon, on the Sarthe, chief town of the department of population of 5214. Orne, France, 75 miles S.W. of Rouen, and 92 miles W. S.W. of Paris. There are manufactures of woollen and linen fabrics, Alet'ris, a genus of N. American plants belonging to the hosiery, and lace. Two industries have much declined-the order Hacmodoraceac. A. farinosa, which is a perennial plant production of A. point-lace, and the cutting of quartz-crystals about 3 feet high, is called the colic root or star-grass. It in imitation of diamonds. Pop. (1872) I3,434. is a very intense bitter, and has been used both as a tonic and Dukes of A. The first duke was Pierre, son of Louis IX., a stomachic. died without issue in I283, when the title passed to the house of Valois, in the person of Charles, who fell at Crecy, i346. Aleu'rites, a genus of Euphorbiaceous plants containing only The fourth duke, Charles, commanded the French vanguard at one species, A. triloba, or the candleberry-tree. It grows to a Pavia (I525), when his flight occasioned the disastrous over- height of about 30 feet, and is cultivated in almost all tropical throw of the French. Various members of the royal family of countries for the sake of its fruit, which contains two seeds re. France have held the duchy, the last being Louis XVIII. The sembling walnuts. The kernels, when dried, are stuck on a present duke (I875) is Ferdinand Philippe, son of the Duke of reed, and used as candles by the Polynesian islanders. When Nremours, born I2th July I844. pressed, they yield a quantity of pure oil, which is used as a drying oil for paint. It has been imported into Britain, but not to Alep'po, the capital of a vilayet of the same name, Asiatic any extent. The cake, after the oil has been expressed, is s%? -- - < —--------— t ALE THiE GLOBE ENCYCL OPEDIA. ALE employed as a food for cattle. The roots of the tree yield a of the army into Carmania. A. pursued his voyage to the dye, which is used by the Sandwich Islanders. mouth of the Indus, whence he despatched Nearchus with the Aleu'tian Islands, or the Catherine Archipelago, a fleet along the Persian Gulf, while he himself led the rest of the chain of about So islands in the N. ~Pacific, lying between troops through the desert of Gedrosia, where they suffered the peninsula of Alaska in America and Kamchatka in Asia. severe privations. The three detachments of the army were They form an arc, lying in 55~ N. lat., and are about 6oo miles united in Carmania, whence they advanced to Susa in two divilong. Behring's Island, Unalaska, Umnak, and Unimack are the sions, commanded respectively by A. and Hepestion. Here he married Statira, the eldest daughter of Darius, and, during a largest. The W. islands belong to the United States (see he married Statira, the eldest daughter of Darius, and, during a ALASKA), the E. to Russia. They are all rocky and volcanic, period of repose, strove to amalgamate his Greek and Persian several volcanoes being still active. Vegetation is scanty, and subjects. At Opis he quelled a serious mutiny of his Macedo consists of bushes, lichen, mosses, and grasses. Birds, foxes, dogs, nian veterans, and here, too, his favourite Hephlestion died. and reindeer are numerous. The inhabitants, of Kamchatkan For a year before his death he resided at Babylon, revolving origin, were converted to Christianity by Russian priests. They many new schemes. He was suddenly attacked by fever, and number about Ioooo, and trade in fur and fish. after an illness of eleven days, died B.c. 323. A.'s character was disfigured by intemperance, pride, and passion; but his Alexan'der the Great, son of Philip of Macedon, and great career of conquest materially aided the advance of science Olympias of Epirus, through whom he traced his descent from and of civilisation. He first opened up the resources of the Achilles, was born at Pella, B.c. 356. His education was most East to the enterprise and cupidity of Europe; the spread of the thorough, and was specially distinguished by the remarkable Greek tongue ensured the more rapid diffusion of Christianity; influence exercised over him by the philosopher Aristotle. He and the kingdoms into which his immense empire was broken was his father's pupil in the art of war, and his first military dis- up on his death, enjoyed for centuries the benefits of settled tinction was achieved at Chaeroneia, B.C. 338. The murder of government. The chief ancient authorities for A.'s life are Philip, B.c. 336, called A. to the throne under circumstances Arrian, Quintus Curtius, and Plutarch. The opposite views of well fitted to test his powers to the utmost. He put to death his character are well stated in the last volume of Grote's Greece, Attalus, who aspired to the throne. He marched S., and and in the second series of Freeman's Essays. was appointed by the submissive Greeks his father's successor as the champion of Greece against Persia. He promptly Alexander Severus, the cousin and adopted son of the returned N., crossed the Haemus, and advanced as far as the Roman emperor Elagabalus, wasborn A.D. 205 or208. Previous Danube, subduing the various barbarous nations. Meanwhile to his adoption his name was Bassianus. Refusing to share in the Thebans, deceived by a rumour of his death, revolted; but the brutal amusements of the emperor, he sought the society of' the great. Emathian conqueror,' descending by rapid marches, the learned. He became a favourite of the people and of the took fearful vengeance upon them, and thus struck terror into soldiers. By the latter, after their assassination of Elagabalus, the rest of Greece. Thebes was wholly destroyed, with the A. was made emperor A.D. 222, the choice being ratified by the exception of the house of Pindar, most of the inhabitants slain, senate and the people. Among his chief counsellors were the and the rest sold as slaves. A. now threw all his energies illustrious lawyers Ulpian and Paullus; but he appears to have into the expedition against Persia, and crossed the Hellespont, been largely guided by his mother Julia Mammaea, a superior B.C. 334, with an army of 35,00o men. The first campaign, in woman, to whom he was mainly indebted for an excellent which he was opposed by the able Memnon, was distinguished education. His first military expedition, which was against by the battle of the Granicus, and the capture of Halicarnassus; Artaxerxes, King of Persia, was successful. During his second, and at its close occurred the famous cutting of the Gordian which was against the Germans on the Rhine, he quarrelled 1knot. In B.C. 333 he met Darius, who had collected nearly with the unruly Praetorian guards, and was assassinated by 6oo,ooo men, on the plain of Issus, and defeated him with great them A.D. 235. A. was.a man of fine and just character, and slaughter. A. now turned aside to subdue Phocenicia, where the of singular purity of life. only opposition was offered by Tyre, which resisted his attacks Alexander is the name given to eight popes, of whom the for seven months, and which he punished fearfully for its obsti- 2d (1061-73) was notable for his piety and zeal for the reformanate defence by putting to death 8oo000, and selling into slavery tion of clerical abuses; the 3d (I 59-8I for his great struggle 30,00ooo Tyrians. Gaza followed the example, and shared the with the German emperor Frederick I., and the 7th (I655-67) fate, of Tyre. A. next marched into Egypt, where he was wel- his scholarship and love of literature. But the most widely comed by a people weary of the Persian yoke. In B.C. 331 he known of the whole is A. 6th, probably the worst pope, and one founded and named after himself the city of Alexandria, forming. as of Spanish o, the wise project of making it, from its conspicuous advantages, was bornt Vencia in 1431. H oper name was Rodriguez the point of union of Europe, Asia, and Africa. After visiting w..po the point of Juion of Europe, Asia, and Africa. After visiting Lenzuolo, to which he afterwards added Borgia, the name of his the temple of Jupiter Ammon, A. returned to Asia to encounter mother. He was elected Pope in 1492, having been made a caronce more the hosts of Darius. A great battle was fought, B.Ch dinal by his uncle Calixtus III. At the time of his election he 331, in the plains of Guagamela, A. completely defeating the had four children by his mistress Vanozsa; the most famous, or Persians, and pursuing them for 50 miles to Arbela, after infamous, of whom were Cresar, made a cardinal, and Lucretia. which the battle is commonly named. A. was now master of Hostile at first to the house of Aragon, then reigning in Naples, Asia, and assumed the position and manners of an Eastern des- A nevertheless received its head, Charles VIII., with honour pot; but unhappily his success was followed by a marked dete- i Rome, promising to assist him, and giving him his son the rioration of character, which was early manifested in the burn- in Rome, promsng to a ssist his foreign and internal policy ing of Persepolis. He pursued Darius into Media, and through ing of Persepolis. He pursued Darius into Media, and through was one of unparalleled perfidy, cruelty, and greed. Bent on the deserts of Parthia; but the Persian king was murdered by the destruction of the great families of Colonna, Orsini, and Bessus, satrap of Bactria, B.C. 330, and, by A.'s commands, was others, and on the acquisition of their estates, he effected his buried in the royal tomb at Persepolis. A. now determined to purpose by intrigue, poison, and assassination. He made himdestroy Bessus, who had assumed the title of King of Persia, purpose by intrigue, poison, and assassination. H e made hi8t and he succeeded in his design, B.c. 329, after having pursued self mast503, of the Romagna by the same means. A. died poison him across the Oxus into Sogdiana, whence subsequently A. August 503, hang it is said, accidentay swallowed poison advanced beyond the Jaxartes. Before this, A. had put down intended for his guest the Cardinal of Corneto. It was under the revolt of his satrap Satibarzanes, and by putting to death his pontificate that Savonarola was burned in Florence forheresy. A minute account of the horrible details of this pontificate is to Parmenio, his faithful general, had again stained his name. In be found in Burchards Scimen istri Arcne et Anedota B.c. 327 he married Roxana, subdued Sogdiana, and commenced de Vita Aiexandri VI. (Hann. 1697), and in Tomasis eita de his great invasion of India. A. entered the Punjab, defeated Cesare Bo exand See also Masse's697 and in Tomasi's Alexandre Porus, a native king, on the Hydaspes, subdued the Cathoei, Vlt d CeSaar Borgia (Paris, re30). and was preparing to cross the Hyphasis, when his exhausted troops refused to advance further. Most reluctantly he led Alexander I., King of Scots, son of Malcolm Ceannmor, them back to the Hydaspes, where a fleet had been prepared, succeeded his brother Edgar in I Io7, and reigned seventeen years. in which they sailed down the Hydaspes, and the Asecines, at During his reign Cumbria, embracing the south-western prowhose confluence with the Indus he sent Craterus with a third vinces of Scotland, was governed by David, the younger brother 56 ALjE THE GLOBE ENCYCZOP DIA. ALE of the king; and while the integrity of the kingdom was thus rewarded literary and scientific merit. He abolished many maintained on the S., it was also vigorously asserted in the barbarous usages of Russian law, and brought the legal system N., where the descendants of Macbeth had fomented an in- of the country more into harmony than it had been with Eurosurrection. The Maarmors of Ross and Merne were pursued to pean civilisation. He extended the trade and promoted the their strongholds beyond the Moray Firth, and punished with a manufactures of the empire by wise and liberal alterations of severity that (according to Wyntown) won for the monarch the its commercial laws, by extension and improvement of roads surname of the'Fierce.' A. died 27th April II24. Like all and other means of carriage, and by opening commercial purthe children of St Margaret, he was distinguished by his respect suits to all ranks of his subjects, and by advantageous treaties for the Church and the interests of culture. He established the regarding trade with foreign powers. bishopric of St Andrews,-though it was not till 1128 that the In April I805, A. made a treaty of alliance with England first bishop was consecrated,-laboured hard for the endowment and Austria against France. This league, known in history and Catholic revival of the Scots Church, and founded the as the Third Coalition, soon resulted in war, but the capitulation monastery of St Columba on the island of Inchcolm. of Ulm, and the frightful disaster of Austerlitz, paralysed the Alexander II. King of Scots orn in 97, succeeded his allies. In the coalition between England and Prussia against Alexander I,.T(n i n 1214. The contest with Englaned fors France which followed this war, A. formed an alliance with fther, William the Lion, in I24. Tie contest with Engand for Prussia, but again before he reached the field he found his ally the possession of the Northumbrian and Anglo-Cumbrian pro- crushed by Napoleon. He joined his force to the remnant of the vinces which he had inherited from his father, was continued Prussian army which escaped from the field of Jena, but the deeither by arms or negotiation throughout the whole of his reignyla ad Friedlad. i 807 compelled the allies to make In I222 a joint commission was instituted by the two countries to with Bonaparte the humiliating treaty of Tilsit. By this treaty A define their respective monarchies, and in I237 an agreement was bound himself to join France against England. In I808, in made whereby A. received certain manors in Cumberland and deference to the same authority, Russia declared war against Northumberland, not in sovereignty, butin feudalproperty; and Sweden, and took possession of Swedish Finland. The comfinally, in I244, the menacing armies of both countries were mercial suffering entailed on Russia by the war with England again upon the Border, to be peacefully dispersed, however, after made its continuance intolerable to the former power; an ofer the ratification of the treaty of Newcastle,''in which,' says of an offensive and defensive alliance from England and Sweden Burton,' no reference seems to have been made to homage on was accepted, and war once more declared by A. against France. the part of the King of England, or to possessions south of the The events which followed are perhaps the most momentous in Border on the part of the King of Scotland, but each engaged the history of modern Europe. Russia brought into the field an not to abet the enemies of the other, and not to make war on army of goo,ooo men. Napoleon left France to invade Russia the territories of the other without just provocation.' A. died with an army of half a million. A. swore that he would make in I249 In Kerrera, an islet in Oban Bay, whither he had gone no treaty while the French were in Russia.'Should St Petersto assert his supremacy over the Lord of Argyle and the Isles. burg be taken,' he said,'I will retire to Siberia.' During the He was twice married, first to a sister of Henry III. of England, war A. showed the greatest courage, and, on the downfall of his by whom he had no issue, and secondly to a French lady of terrible foe, he behaved to France with a magnanimity which the noble house of Coucy. caused him to be received with enthusiasm when the allies took Alexander III., son of the preceding, was crowned King possession of Paris in I814. In 18r5 he visited England along of Scotland I3th July I249, and was married on Christmas-day with the King of Prussia. From England he crossed to Hol1251, when scarce ten years of age, to Princess Margaret of land, and on 24th July 8I15 he re-entered his own capital, in England, daughter of Henry III. The only event that disturbed which he was welcomed with enthusiasm. In March iSI he the prosperous and peaceful character of his reign, viz., the opened the first Polish Diet at Warsaw. He then visited Mosinvasion of Scotland by Haco, King of Norway, took place cow, Odessa, and the Crimea. He revisited the Crimea in the in 1263. Driven ashore at Largs, the invaders were signally autumn of 1825, for the benefit of his own health and of that of defeated and compelled to retreat to their fleet, already disabled, the empress, but was seized by a fever at Taganrog, where he and soon afterwards to be annihilated by tempests on the N.W. died Ist December I825. See Webster's Travels in the Crimea, coasts. In I266 the successor of Haco ceded the Isle of Man qtmrkey, and Egjpt. See also Mde. de Choiseul-Gouffier's and the Western Isles to the Scottish king, and in 1281 the Miznoires Historiques sur l'Emntpeeur Alexandre et la Cour de la friendship of the two countries was cemented by the marriage of Russie (Paris, I829); Voigt's Alexander I. (Zerbst. I830); SonnMargaret, the only daughter of A., to Eric of Norway. A.'s tag, AlexalnderJ in Paris (Riga, I8I4). prosperous reign closed in ominous gloom. His daughter Mar. Alexander II., Emperor of Russia, son of the Emperor garet, the Queen of Norway, died in I283, leaving an infant Nicholas, and nephew of Alexander I., was born 29th April daughter,'the Maid of Norway' (q. v.); his only son, Alex. I88. He has, not less than Alexander I., devoted himself to ander, died a few months afterwards; and he himself, while furthering the resources of his Fiding in the dak along a cliffneaver ainghorn, on the coast of empire. He has had the wisdom and the courage to take a step March 1286. No greater calamity could have befallen wthe which forms an epoch in the history of Russian civilisation. 1/rch 1286. No greater calamity could have befallen the By ukase of 3d March i86i, the serfs-about 23,000,000, it is nation. Wise, valiant, and politic; honoured by his nobles, believed-were declared to be free. fe has shown practically and loved by his commons, A. was rapidly developing a civilised a.strong desire to purify te legal administration of the country, industry in the country. But the anarchy that followed in the a strong desire to purify the legal administration of the country, industry in the country. But the anarchy that followed in the having on various occasions rebuked andpunished functionaries struggle of selfish ambitions was at least partially redeemed by found guilty of corruption. He has been a liberal patron of the patriotism of Wallace and the policy ofBruce. rfound guilty of corruption. He has been a liberal patron of the ptriotism of allace nd the policy of Bruce. science and literature; especially is the literature of Finland Alexander I., Emperor of All the Russias, was the son of indebted to his patronage, he having founded a chair for the the Emperor Paul and of Maria, daughter of Prince Eugene of cultivation of the language and literature of that province. The Wurtemburg, and was born Dec. 23, I 777. His education foreign policy of A. II. has been conciliating, but firm and was directed by his grandmother, the IEmpress Catharine II. astute. In the N., during the life of his father, his policy Catharine was succeeded in 1796 by her son Paul, whose mad conciliated the Finns, and weakened their love of independence. reign was ended by assassination on 24th March I8oI. For As emperor, he has conciliated the Poles by measures lenient the first quarter of the Igth c. the history of the reign of A. but firm in their expressed resolution to maintain the integrity is the history of Europe. At his accession Russia was at ofthe empire. Availing himselfofthe position of Russia durwar with England. This war was ended by a treaty signed ing the Franco-German war of I87o, he has nullified the results at St Petersburgn, I7th June I8oI. The distraction o ign of the Russian defeat in the war of 1854-55 with England and relations, however, never seems to have prevented A. from France. In Asia his policy has caused some jealousy to be felt energetic endeavours to develop the internal resources of his by the former country, especially in the war of 1873 against the vast empire, and to improve the social condition of its people. Khan of Khiva. A. was married in I841 to the Princess Maria, He founded or remodelled seven universities; he founded daughter of the Grand Duke of Darmstadt. more than 2000 schools, and over 200 gymnasia. He devoted Alexander Nevski, born at Vladimir A.D. I219, was the large sums to the printing of useful works, and liberally son of the Grand Duke Jaroslav of Novgorod. He and his ib 8 -8 57. ALE THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPADIA. ALE brother Alexander bravely but unsuccessfully, in the absence of Pierre de la Mfaisont, La Noce Viilageoise, Mde. Ziritza a 7assy, their father, resisted the attack of the Mongols. He became Mede. Kiritza en Province, &c. —excited great enthusiasm. CornGrand Duke on the death of his father in 1247; remaining, promised by the Moldavian revolutionary movement of 1848, he however, a vassal of the Mongols, or Tartars, to the end of his withdrew for some months to Paris, where he pled hard through life. He, however, successfully defended his western frontier the press for the independence of the principalities. After his reagainst the Teutonic knights, the Danes, and the Swedes, and turn he published a fine collection of Rouman ballads (Ballades received the surname of Nevski for a great victory over the latter Populai-es de la ZRozrntazie, I852-53), which he had begun to on the Neva in I246. A. was canonised by the people on his compose ten years earlier, and which gave another great impetus death in I263. Peter the Great honoured his memory by build- to the national feeling. The death of his father in I855 having ing a splendid convent on the spot where he won his great battle. put him in possession of the family estate, he at once liberated all his serfs, an example that was soon largely followed, and Alexander of Hales (Lat. A. Halensis), a great theologian paved the way for the universal emancipation decree of Prince of the middle ages, surnamed Doctor irrefragnabilis, flourished in Gregory Ghika. His patriotic song The Houtr of Unzion (1856) the first half of the I3th c., but the date of his birth is not known. materially assisted in diminishing the reciprocal jealousy of the He was of English origin, but completed his academic studies at Moldavians and Wallachians in bringing about the union of the the schools in Paris, where he settled as a lecturer on philosophy principalities. In 1857 appeared Le Collier Litteraire, a misceland theology, and had already attained celebrity when, in 1222, laneous collection of pieces in prose and verse. he suddenly entered the order of the Minorite Friars. This event has been surrounded by writers of the I5th and later cen- Alexan'dria (Iskanderieh), a celebrated city and seaport of turies with fabulous circumstances, but in reality we are totally Egypt, is situated on the Mediterranean coast, about I4 miles ignorant of the causes that led to his decision. His subsequent W. of the Canopic mouth of the Nile. life might lead us to suppose that he was naturally predisposed The modern city is built upon a peninsula (the ancient isle of to studious labour and solitude. At any rate, having once en- Pharos) and the isthmus connecting it with the mainland. It is tered, he never left his convent walls, but gave himself up unre- the great commercial emporium of Egypt, is an important station servedly to the service of the Church in the realm of theological on the overland route to India, and is connected by railway literature. He died 27th August 1245. with Cairo and the Suez Canal. A. carries on a very extensive A.'s famous, and, in truth, his only authentic work,is the Summza trade, exporting corn, cotton, wool, gum, rice, &c., and importing Universa Theologic, composed at the request of Pope Innocent cotton, woollen, and silk goods, hardware, timber, coal, and IV., and after undergoing the ordeal of an examination by drugs. Pop. (1870) 238,888, comprising Arabs, Turks, Jews, seventy doctors of divinity, ordered to be used, by his successor Copts, and many Europeans. Alexander IV., in all the schools of Christendom. It is divided The ancient city, which was of great size and magnificence, into four parts. Thefirst treats of the divine attributes and of was founded by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C., and built the Trinity, and contains a development of the doctrine of Petrus upon the mainland. Under the Ptolemies it advanced rapidly, Lombardus relative to the Word, the procession of the Holy and became the centre of commerce, science, and art. The Spirit, the foreknowledge, omnipotence, and will of God. The Romans obtained possession of it about 30 B.C., after which it second treats of the creation, of the various kinds of creatures, gradually declined. Towards the close of the 3c c. it became a angelic, spiritual, material, of the nature of a rational soul, of chief seat of Christian theology. It was captured by the Arabs the first estate and fall of Adam, of physical and moral evil, of in 638 A.D., and by the Turks in 868 A.D. The discovery of a sin, of the means of cultivating and extending the virtues of reli. passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope in 1497 gave the gion. In this last connection come out some of those opinions last blow to its trade, and in I778 it had only 5000 inhabitants. that entitle us to consider A. as the great Ultramontane thinker Under Mehemet Ali, who saw its naval and commercial imof the middle ages. He would grant no toleration to infidels or portance, it began to i'evive, and it is now making great strides heretics, and is of opinion that they ought to be deprived of their in wealth, importance, and population. worldly goods; he would free subjects from their oaths of fidelity In its palmiest days A. is estimated to have contained about to a sovereign who is disobedient to the laws of the Church. 600,0oo inhabitants. Among its principal buildings were the The third is chiefly concerned with the Incarnation, and the Museum, the Serapeion, or temple of Serapis, the palaces of questions that arise out of it. When discussing the spiritual the Ptolemies, the Theatre, &c. Its famous library (see ALEXpower that is lodged in the Church, he claims for it-that is, for ANDRIAN LIBRARY) contained, some say, 700,0co volumes. The the Pope-the supreme authority in the world. It judges kings chief remains of the ancient city are the cisterns, catacombs, and other temporal rulers, but is itself judged of God alone. Pompey's Pillar, and the obelisks called Cleopatra's Needles. Thefourth part is devoted to the sacraments of the Church, and Alexandria, a town in Dumbartonshire, situated on Leven the author repeatedly finds opportunities to affirm the supremacy Water, near Loch Lomond, 3" miles N. of Dumbarton. It has and infallibility of the Pope. Such being the character and aim extensive cotton-printing works, and is a station on the Dumof the work, it is not wonderful that it should have excited papal bartonshire Railway. In the neighbourhood is Bonhill, the admiration, and become a perpetual text-book in the schools and residence of the Smolletts. Pop. (1871) 4650. colleges of the Roman communion. A. still shares with Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, and Duns Scotus the control and direc- Alexandria, a port of Virginia, U. S., on the navigable river tion of Catholic thought, and his ideas govern at this moment Potomac, about IOO miles from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay, the policy of the Vatican. The principal editions of the Summetaand 7 miles below the city of Washington. It occupies a central are those of Nuremberg (1482), Basel (1502), Venice (I576), position, and is connected by railway with Richmond, Pittsburg, and Cologne (I622). The other writings attributed to A. do not and Baltimore. A. is accessible to ships of the line. The most require mention. important manufacture is cotton, and there is also a flourishing trade in corn, maize, and tobacco. Pop. (I870o) I3,57o. Alexanders, sometimes written Alisanders, is the common name for ~Szyr~niuzn Oltsatrm, one of the Uzbedlifertz. It, was t Alexan'drian Age. Ptolemy Soter, on ascending the formerly grown as a pot-herb in oBritain, where it is now throne of Egypt, was ambitious that his kingdom should succeed naturalied in many places. The plant has aromatic and pun- to the intellectual fame of Greece, and gathered round him the gent qualities, in many plaes. uiTh e plant has aromatic and pun- sages of the world, with the view of making his capital the seat gent qualities, and the fruit is carminative. of a great school of literature, philosophy, and science. He Alexandri, Vasilio, a Rouman poet and patriot, born at commenced the Library and his son founded the Museum, whose Jassy in 182I, educated at Paris, where he took the degree of porticos and lecture-rooms were thronged by the men of letters Bachelor of Letters, and on his return to Moldavia in 1839, be- whom the king maintained. The intellectual centre thus created came a leader of the'Young Roumanian Party,' which sought continued in activity for about a thousand years; this period to revolutionise the country by the introduction of Western, falling into two divisions, the first extending from 323 to 30 B.C., and particularly French ideas, and which at the same time was and the second from 30 B.c. to 640 A.D. During the first strongly animated with a national sentiment, and a desire to be period the energies of the A. school were devoted to poetry, critirid of the rude dominance of Turkey. In I844 certain pieces cism, and science. The poetry (with the exception of the Idylls which he composed for the Jassy theatres, some in French and of Theocritus) was the poetry of a court atmosphere and an others in Rouman-Georges de Sadagour-a, 7assy en Carnival, La artificial age. The most noted poets were Callimachus, 58. 4 ALnE THE GZLOBiE FNCYCLOP DI1A. ALP Lycophron, Theocritus, and Apollonius Rhodius. To the at Sklovo. Peace was effected by the intervention of Austria, arduous and invaluable labours of the critics, of whom the most Poland, for money, ceding to Russia the provinces of Smolensk, distinguished were Zenodotus, Aristophanes of Byzantium, Kiev, and the Ukraine (I667). In a subsequent war with Aristarchus of Samothrace, and Alexander of AEtolia, we owe Sweden A. was unfortunate, but he made peace without loss of the comparatively complete state in which the texts of the territory. He died January 29, I676. A.'s rule was liberal and greatest Greek books have come down to us. The physical and civilising. He anticipated the policy of his son Peter the Great, mathematical school was founded by Euclid, and under Eratos- by bringing workmen from Holland and England; he opened thenes, Hipparchus, and Archimedes greatly advanced the up relations with China, and built a fleet on the Caspian Sea. sciences of geometry, astronomy, geography, and mechanics. The philosophical fermentation which marked the second period alexei, Petro'vitch, eldest son of Peter the Great, was born of the A. A. resulted from the contact of Greek philosophy at Moscow in 695. Of a disposition as resolute as his father, with the Sacred Scriptures. On the one hand, the Jews (ofhe lacked his father's largeness of social and political views, whom Philo was the most distinguished) developed a system by consequently they came into collision regarding the reforms prowhich their religious ideas were logically set in the principles of posed by the emperor. This resulted in A.'s exclusion from the Greek thought; on the other, the Alexandrians strove to recon- throne, in his throng off his allegiance and flying to Naples. cile the dogmas of the new religion with their own philosophy. anduced by false promises to return, he was thrown into prison The former movement was named Neo-Platonism, the latter Gnosticism. A. himself was found dead in prison. He is reasonably supposed to have been assassinated. By his wife, Charlotte, Princess of Alexandrian Codex, an important manuscript text of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, he left a son, who succeeded to the Holy Scriptures, probably executed in the first half of the 5th c. throne as I'eter II. The writing is continuous, in uncial characters of very elegant and clear form, without accents or breathings except in the beginninnig Alexius Comne'nus, a sovereign of the Byzantine empire, of Genesis. The Old Testament portion is simply the text of the was born at Constantinople A.D. 1048. His father was John ComnSeptuagint, but the New Testament text is specially valuable nenus, brother of the Emperor Isaac. Raised to the throne by the for the exegesis of the epistles. It was sent to England in i628, soldiers (Io8I), he displayed a military genius and a capacity for as a present to Charles I., by the Patriarch of Constantinople, ruling under circumstances of surpassing difficulty, which showed who affirmed that it came from Egypt, and is now in the British that they had chosen wisely. Already had the Turks established Museum. their sway from Persia to the Hellespont. On the N. the empire Aleandrian Library,'the first sch institution which the was menaced by hordes of barbarians from beyond the Danube. On Alexandrian Library, I the first such institution which the the W. it was assailed by the daring valour of the Normans, under world had ever seen,' was originated by Ptolemy Soter (at the the W. It was assailed by the daring valour of the Normans, under world had ever seen,' was originated by Ptolemy Soter (at the Robert Guiscard; while on their way to Palestine the wild warsuggestion, it is said, of Demetrius Phalereus), organised by Phila- riors of the first crusade on teir way to Palestine the gates of delphus, and increased by their successors, particularly by Euer- Constantinople. Through these complex dangers A. steered getes, who by unscrupulous stratagems enriched it with most his vessel with a bold and skilful hand. The inherent weakness valuable Greek MSS. It was situated partlyin the Brucheium, or valquable reek MSS It was situated partly in the vBrucheium, or of the Byzantine empire made the preservation of its integrity royal quarter, and partly in the vast temple of Serapis, of whose impossible; but to A. belongsthe merit of having delayed its 400 columns Pompey's Pillar now alone remains. The library destruction. He died in III8. His daughter Anna has written contained 400,000 volumes, or, according to another authority, his biography in a spirit of filial piety. 700,000 volumes. The most remarkable addition to its number was the Pergamos Library, of 200,000 volumes, presented by Alfie'ri, Vittorio, Count, an illustrious Italian poet, born at Antony to Cleopatra, which repaired the total loss of the old Asti, Piedmont, 7th January I 749. After varied travel he settled library of the Ptolemies during Cesar's Alexandrian war. The at Turin in 1775, and applied himself assiduously to remedy the library was included in the general destruction of the Serapeum defects of his education. In 177.7 he met at Florence the by Theophilus in 39I A.D.; and its remains, of the extent of Countess of Albany (q. v.), to whom, after the death of her which it is impossible to form a just estimate, were finally de- husband, it is said, he was privately married. A. was in Paris stroyed by order of Omar in 640 A.D. during the excesses that accompanied the Revolution, and though an ardent lover of freedom, contracted an intense Alexan'drine Verse is a rhyming measure of twelve sylla- hatred to the ferocious anars who led the movement, which bles, first used in the Romzance of AZexancer (circa 1155), and hatred to the ferocious anarchs who led the movement, which bles, first used in that poem or from Alexander of Paris, one found vent in his Miogallo (1790-98). He commenced to learn so called either from that poem or from Alexander of Paris, one Greek in 1797, at the age of forty-eight, and by rigorous of its four authors. Drayton's Polyolbion is the only English Greek in I797, at the age of forty-eight, and by rigorous of its four authors. Drayton's Polyolbion is the only English and methodical study soon became familiar with the Greek poem written wholly in this measure; but the line has been and methodical study soon became familiar with the Greek poets. He finally settled at Florence, where he died 8th Octofrequently used to complete the stanza, as in the Faery Queen of ber 1803, and was buried in the church of Santa Croce, between Spenser, or to form the last line of a triplet or passage, the con- the tombs of Michael Angelo and Macchiavelli. A beautiful tinuous impulse of which may by its use at once find expression the work of Canova, was raised over his tomb by and attain repose- monument, the work of Canova, was raised over his tomb by and attain repose — the Countess of Albany. A. effected a revolution in the The varying smooth; but Dryden taught to join dramatic literature of Italy, and may be said to have created its The loung Inajestic march, and energy divine.' classic tragedy. He published 2I tragedies and 6 comedies, besides Abel, partly a tragedy and partly an opera, and desigAlexandrovk', the capital of a district in the government of nated by himself'tramelogedia.' His works have often a poliVladimir, Russia, on the line of a railway between Moscow and tical aim. His language has been blamed as harsh, his verse as Jardoslav. The czar, Ivan II., Vasilievitch, had a summer wanting in ease, and his characters as devoid of fancy. But he palace at A., and established here the first printing-press in inspired the Italian mind with a nobility of thought to which it Russia. It has considerable manufactures in woollens, iron, and had long been a stranger. After his death the Countess of pebble. Pop. (I867) 58Io. There are several places of the Albany had a collected edition of his works published at Pisa in same name in Russia, of which the largest is a town on the 35 vols. 4to, 1805-15, of which 13 vols. contain his posthumous Dnieper, 48 miles below Ekaterinoslav, with a considerable works, and which also includes an autobiography (Vita di Vitexport trade. Pop. (867) 460. torio A4fieri scritta da es.o). There are numerous translations Alexei Xichail'ovitch, second Russian czar of the house of his writings into French. See also Vie de Victor A4fieri, ecrite of Romanov, was born in I630. He succeeded his father, par lui-menme, et traduie, par M**** (Paris, I809 and I840), and Michael Feodorovitch, in I645. Certain evil counsellors Teza's Vita Giornali, Letterede A. (Flor. I86I.) by whom the youthful czar was surrounded occasioned an insurrection shortly after his succession. It was suppressed, fon'sine, a town in the province of Ravenna, N. Italy, about 4 miles N.W. of Ravenna. It lies in a low, fertile plain but his chancellor, Plessow, lost his life in it. Troubles also about 4 miles.W. of Ravenna. It lies in a low, fertile plain arose from the claims of two impostors named Ankudinow and which stretches to the Adriatic. Pop. ofcommune, 6741Demetrius. These being supported by Poland, a war conse- Alfon'so I. (H'enriquez), King of Portugal, was the son of quently arose between the two countries. In this the Russians Henry of Burgundy, Count of Portugal, and was born in I o, twere successful, the Polish commander Radzoil being defeated or, according to others, in I094. Ascending the throne in II28, ALF T'HE GL OBE ENCYCL O./lJDIA. ALF he turned his arms against the Moors, and in 1139 defeated five assumed the government, and everywhere received an enthusi. of their kings at Ourique (since called Cabeja de Reis,'heads of astic welcome from the people. The new ministry contains a kings'), and assumed the title of King of Portugal, which the strong liberal and anti-Ultramontane element. King A. dePope confirmed in 145. He took Lisbon in II47, Alcazarde- dlares himself'a good Spaniard, a good Catholic, and a good Sal and Evora in II58, and Santarem in II7i, annihilating the liberal,' but events have yet to show the character of the new Moorish garrison. He defeated Yusuf-ben-Jakub at the same constitutional monarchy. place inII84. A. instituted the orders of Avis and St Michael, and established the law of succession, &c. He died at Coimbra Al'ford, Henry, D.D., a meritorious poet and a fine biblical in 1185. scholar, was born in London in i8io. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where in I83I he published Poems and lfono I., ing of Portugal, second king of the house Poetical Fragments. This was followed in 1835 by The School of of Braganza, was born in I643, and ascended the throne as a Het nd oter Pes. Ct n e Gee Poets appeared the Heart and other P>oems. ChaesoneGee]>esaprd minor in i656, but the government remained in the hands of his i 8. The first volume of the ee sent his greatest mother, Louisa de Guzman, a woman of great judgment, till work, and a credit to English scholarship, was published in 1662, when he was induced to remove her from office. So scan- 1844, and the whole as completed in iS6i. He was the atho dalos, owevr, erehis ebacheiestha ini667liewas1844, and the whole was completed in iS6i. H-e was the author dalous, however, were his debaucheries, that in I667 he was of A Pl2ea for tke Queen's 2Englisk, and of several volumes of serforced by his wife Marie d'Aumale, and his brother Don Pedro, mons. At first vicar in Leicestershire, he was removed to to adicte.He iedin 683at inta. urig hs rignthemons. At first a vicar in Leicestershire, he was removed to to abdicate. He died in 1683 at Cintra. During his reign the London in 1853, and appointed Dean of Canterbury in 1857. war between Spain and Portugal, which had lasted for twenty- He died January 12, 187a. See La/e, Letters, DC.o of HenY He died January I2, I871. See Life, Letters, &'c., of ffeni;y six years, was terminated by a treaty which secured the indepen- Afor.. (Lod 873.) dence of the latter country. Alfonso III., surnamed El Magno,'the Great,' King of Al'fred the Great, youngest son of,Ethelwulf, and grandLeon, Asturias, and Galicia, was born in 848, and succeeded his son of Ecgberht, King of the West Saxons, born at Wantage, father, Ordoflo I., in 866. Having slain Count Froila, who had Berkshire, in 849, succeeded his brother -thelred I. on the seized the throne, he fought and frequently defeated the Moors. throne at the age of twenty-two. Within six years of his Hie repeopled Burgos, and added to his domains from Portugal accession the Danes had completely overrun his kingdom, and and Old Castile. His son Garcias rebelling, he imprisoned him; A., unable to make further resistance, was compelled to take but his wife and nobles conspiring, he abdicated in Garcias' refuge in the forests. As soon, however, as his people had favour. He died at Zamora in 912. There is attributed to this recovered sufficient spirit to renew hostilities, he built a fort in king a Latin chronicle, treating of the history of Spain from its the marshes of Somersetshire, the site of which is still known as invasion by the Moors to the time of Ordolo. Athelney (the'prince's isle'), and to this his followers repaired. Hence he made numerous successful sallies, and finally, in 878, Alfonso V., the Magnanimous, King of Aragon, Naples, at Ethandun, he completely routed the Danes, and their king, and Sicily, was born in 1385, and succeeded his father in 1416. Guthrun, with thirty of his followers, submitted to baptism. A By an agreement made with Queen Joanna he claimed Naples Witenagemot was then held at Wedgemore, when a treaty was at her death (I435), but was attacked by the Italian States and drawn up by which the Danes acknowledged themselves to be taken prisoner by the Genoese, who defeated his fleet. Being sent vassals of A.., and received E. Anglia, and parts of Essex and to Milan, the duke befriended him, and he was enabled to conquer Mercia. At a later period the Danes of Northumbria, who Naples. He died in I458. were not Guthrun's men, also submitted to A. Thus the whole Alfonso X., surnamed El Sabio, or'the Wise,' also the of the E. coast of England, for a considerable distance inland, Astronomer-King of Leon and Castile, was born in 1226, and continued in their possession, and was long known as the Dane. succeeded his father, Ferdinand III., in 1252; After fruitless lagk, or the region under Danish law and rule. A. now conand expensive efforts to secure his election to the throne of the structed a fleet, to keep alive the old seafaring spirit of the German empire, he turned his attention to the Moors. These he English race; set himself to repair the ravages of war by rebuild. totally defeated in I263, taking from them Xeres, Medina-Sidonia, ig cities and encouragingagriculture and the arts; established San-Lucar, and apart of Algarve. His second son, Sancho, de- or remodelled many useful institutions, and had a code of dooms, throned him in 1282, and after a vain attempt to reinstate himself, or laws, compiled, for which he compelled respect by a rigid A. died at Seville in I284. A. was the most learned prince of his administration of justice. He gave liberally to the poor and to day, and was the author of some poems, a work on chemistry, the Church, founded monasteries, and encouraged learned men, one on philosophy, &c. He finished the code of laws commenced English and foreign, to instruct his people. Taught in his youth by his father, called leyos de las Partidas, and caused to be con- by a wise and affectionate motser (Osburga) to love the scanty structed, at a cost of 40,000 ducats, the famous Alphonsine literature of his native tongue, he subsequently, through his Astronomical Tables, of which the most recent edition is that of friend and biographer, Asser (q. v.), learned Latin sufficiently the Madrid Academy of Sciences (1807). His poetical writings well to be able to translate into English several valuable works, have been published by Sancho in his C'olleccion de Poesias Cas- of which the most important are the De Consolatione Pkilosopkue have been published by Sancho in his Colecine phesas as tellanas Anteriores al Siglo XV. (Mad. 1779-90.) of Boethius, the Resula Pastoralis of Gregory the Great, the Historia Mundi of Orosius, and an anthology from the Soliloquies Alfonso XII., King of Spain, was born at Madrid, Novem. of St Augustine. Some of these, more particularly the works of her 28, I857. He is the only son of five children of the deposed Boethius and Orosius, are freely handled, and in some parts Queen Isabella II. and Don Francisco de Assisi Maria Fer- largely increased by original matter from the pen of A. himself. nando, Infant or Prince of Spain, and King Consort after his He was also in all probability the instigator and first patron of marriage in October I846. Queen Isabella, who was driven that famous chronicle commonly called the Anglo-Saxon Chronfrom Spain by the revolution of September x868, renounced all icle, which covers, and more than covers, the whole period of claim to thethrone in favour of her son, while residing at Pau, pure English history. Asser attributes to him an original work, June 1870. The political education of the young king has been an Enchiridion,.or Manual, fragments of which are preserved in carefully directed by Seilor Canovas del Castino, and he has William of Malmesbury. In other ways he was a zealous and studied in France, Austria, and in England, where he passed two unwearied civiliser. His seamen explored the Baltic in the inteyears at the Military Staff College at Sandhurst under the name rests of geographical science as well as of trade; he sent embassies of the Marquis of Covadonga. While he was being thus suit- to Rome, to Jerusalem, and even, it is said, to India; order ably educated, the Bourbon partisans in Spain were unremitting was wisely maintained at home, while his domestic relations with in their efforts to bring about a restoration. Since I868 many his God-fearing wife Elswitha were singularly tender and true. forms of government had been discredited or dissolved, and the The tranquillity of his Ikingdom was disturbed in 893 by a formidnation was wearied, depressed, and terrified by the continuance able invasion of the Danes led by HIesten, but the English of the Carlist war. The dictatorship of Marshal Serrano, while on every occasion proved their superiority, and the invaders provoking widespread discontent with the Republic, gradually were forced to retire. A. died 27th October go9, the pureststrengthened the cause of A., who, at Madrid on the 31st Decem- souled, the most sincere, and the most unselfish monarch that ber 1874, was proclaimed King of Spain' without conflict and ever ruled in England. See Asser's Vita Alfredi, and Reinhold without bloodshed.' He landed at Barcelona in January 1875, Pauli's work, translated by Thorpe (Bohn, Lond. I857). ~~~~ ~ ~~~ —-L -------— _- ___ —~^-.. ______.._.__ __I __~;: __ ______;~~_;__ Q ALF THE GLOBE /ENCYCLOPAD1A. ALAl'freton (A.S. A4fredingtune,' King Alfred's town'), a defined A. as the science of pure time, in contradistinction to market town in Derbyshire, I2 miles N.N.E. of Derby. It is geometry, which he regards as the science of pure space. a station on the Erewash Valley Railway, and has considerable Until the time of Descartes, A. was merely a kind of arithiron-works, potteries, and stocking-weaving. Pop. (I87I) 3680. metic, with letters substituted for numbers, and having the same Alga marina, a commercial name for Grass Wrack (q. v.) ignifications for +, -, x,., I/, as arithmetic. All the mathematicians before this epoch were engaged upon methods Al'gee-the Sea-weed family-a large and important natural of solving equations of the first, second, third, and fourth degrees. order of cryptogamic cellular plants, embracing 283 genera and See EQUATIONS. Descartes, however, applied A. to geometry, upwards of 2000 species. They occur principally in salt and thus representing curves by equations; and he regarded 4- and fresh water, and exhibit a great variety of forms. The order - as merely the inverse of each other, x and + as the reciprohas been divided into the following sub-orders: I. Melano- cals of each other. Reasoning from the interpretation of + and spermea, sea-weeds of an olive-green or olive-brown colour. 2. - as steps, and x and - as operations of )rotation, Sir William Rlhodospermee, those of a rose-red, purple, or red-brown colour. R. Hamilton was led to the conception of that powerful calculus 3. CkZorospermee, those of a grass-green colour. The plants of Quaternions (q. v.) By such symbolical interpretation, negative the order are found in all parts of the world. The lowest forms, and imaginary quantities receive definite significations. See such as the diatomes, are microscopic, and closely approach the IMAGINARY QUANTITIES. A. was introduced into Italy in lowest forms of animal life, while the higher forms attain a large 1202 through the medium of the Arabs, who seem to have re. size, one species of the Pacific measuring from 500 to I500 feet ceived it from the Hindus. It made rapid progress in the hands in length. Sargasszum baccf/erkum7 is the gulf-weed which is of such men as Tartaglia, Cardan, Ferrari; and at a later date, found floating in great quantities in the oceans on each side of in the Western countries, Stifelius, Recorde, Vieta, Girard, Desthe equator; it forms the 2Mfer de Sargasse of mariners. Protoc- cartes, and others, brought it to something like its present state cus nivalis is the red snow of Arctic regions. The colour of the of perfection. The algebraical geometry of Descartes gave the Red Sea is owing to the abundance of a species of sea-weed. science a great impulse, and such men as Fermat, Newton, Chondclus c-ispus is called Carrageen or Irish-moss. Kelp is Moivre, Taylor, Euler, Lagrange, Fourier, De Morgan, Hamilobtained by burning sea-weeds, and iodine is also procured ton, &c., have contributed much to its extension and power. from them. R/hodymenia patmata is eaten raw under the name The different subjects treated of in text-books of simple A., of of Dulse, and Laminaria digitatat as Tangle. The edible swallows' which Colenso's, Kelland's, and Todhunter's may be cited as nests of the East are formed by a species of Galidium. Nostoe among the best, will be found under their respective headings, edile is much used in China as an ingredient in soup. such as Equations, Evolution, Involution, Permutations, Pro, Algar'di, Alessandro, an Italian sculptor, born at Bologna babilities, Surds, &c. in I598, studied under Caracci, and finally settled in Rome, Algebra'ic is applied to expressions or equations consisting where he was first employed by Cardinal Ludovici to restore of a finite number of terms, and involving only the common opeancient statues. Among his original works are a Magdalene rations of simple algebra. Such quantities as sin. x, log. x, ax, and a St John for the church of St Sylvester; a bronze &c., which are expressible only by infinite series, are distinstatue of Pope Innocent X.; and, above all, a colossal bas- guished as transcendental. relief representing Pope Leo forbidding Attila to enter Rome. A This last is his chef-d'ceevre, and one of the greatest works of the kind ever executed. A. died at Rome in I654. His most Algeci'ras, a town in the province of Cadiz, Spain, situated serious fault as a sculptor is a desire to produce by heavy masses on the W. side of the Bay of Algeciras, directly opposite Gibof marble effects that are only possible in painting. raltar, from which it is distant 5 miles across the bay and Io by the coast. It was the port by which the Moors entered Aldgarorbai or Aolgarobillda, the name under which a he i.Spain in 7I, and was only retaken from them by Alfonso XI. ported. The latteds or fruit of is ulcommois and Ceatoni la are im- ( 344), after a siege of twenty months. The town is picturesque ported. The latter is commonly nown as Carob ( v) but dilapidated, and possesses only to an insignificant extent its Algarobil'la, the seeds and husks of Prosopispallida, a once important trade in corn and brandy. Pop. I4,230. tanning material imported from Chili. I Alge'ria (Fr. Algerie), a country on the N. coast of Africa, Algaroth. Powder of A. is the oxychloride of antimony, bounded N. by the Mediterranean, E. by Tunis, W. by Morocco, SbOCl. and S. by the desert of Sahara. It has a breadth varying from Ioo00 to 300 miles, and extends from 20 8' W. long, to 8~ 32' E. Algarot'ti, Francesco, Count, an Italian poet and lit- long. It was subject to the Turkish empire till 1830, when it terateur, born at Venice in I712. In 1747 he became the chai- became a French possession. The area is about I73,000 sq. berlain of Frederick II. of Prussia, who had previously made miles; pop. (I872) 2,4I4,2I8, of whom 2, I23,045 are Mohamhim a count. He had also a patron in Augustus III. of Poland. medans. A. is part of the fertile fringe that skirts the vast He died at Pisa, March 3, I764. His Saggi so:pra le belle Arti barren plateau of N. Africa. It is divided into the provinces of ('Essays on the Fine Arts') evince taste, and his letters are not Algiers, Oran, and Constantine, and rises from the coast in without cleverness and ingenuity. In Carlyle's Friedrich (vol. three great terraces. The first, and by far the most fertile, is iii. p. 39) there is a very lively and piquant sketch of A. Fried- that hemmed in by the Atlas Mountains, which run parallel to rich's sister considers him'one of the first beaux.esiyrits of this age,' the coast-line; beyond lies the'date-country,' with its vast but to Carlyle himself he is not'supremely beautiful,' though sebkhas, or heathy plains, stretching to the base of another'full of elegant logic,' of' speculations on the great world and mountain chain; and in the extreme S. is the edge of the vast the little, on nature, art, papistry, anti-papistry, and the opera,' desert of Sahara. The productive strip along the coast, a region which he takes up' in an earnest manner, as capable of being a of rich valleys and smiling plains, is known as the Tell, and was school of virtue and the moral sublime.' formerly one of the granaries of Rome. Here the climate is temAlgar'v6, the smallest province of Portugal, lies at its pered by the sea-breeze; but inland the heat is very great, and southern extremity, stretching from the Spanish frontier to the the simoon, or hot wind, frequently sweeps down from the interior. Atlantic Ocean. It is a wild, mountainous territory, little fitted The chief towns are Algiers, Bona, Constantine, and Ilemzen. for cultivation, but its plains and valleys are prolific of the finest The only river of note is the Shelif, about 230 miles long. There fruits of the S. A range of mountains, of an average height are large forests of oak, cedar, pine, and pistachio-nut trees; the of 4000 feet, forms the northern boundary, terminating in an southern oases are famed for their dates; and in the Tell cereals abrupt precipice at Cape St Vincent. The chief town is Faro and olives flourish, and roses are cultivated for the manufacture (POP. 8500). The principal occupation is fishing, and the inha. of perfume. The country is rich in iron, lead, copper, and manbitants are reputed the best sailors in Portugal. Area, 2730 ganese. In the mountains lions, panthers, and leopards are sq. miles; pop. (I87I) I88,422. found; serpents and venomous insects also abound, and the locust is a great enemy to cultivation. The once famous breed Al'gebra (Arab. Al gebr wal mokdbula, supplementing and of Numidian horses is now almost extinct; the other domestic equalising) is now the most potent arm of mathematical analysis. animals are the ox, sheep, goat, and camel. The inhabitants of Sir W. R. Hamilton, the prince of modern mathematicians, has A. are chiefly Kabyles and Arabs, but besides Europeans there * _ _ _ _ _ _ 6 I AL- TY1PS GLOAS FNC YCZI OPA 1D9. ALG are also Moors, Negroes, and Jews. There are four languages was the restless emir identified with the national cause. But spoken-Berber, Arabic, Turkish, and the Negro dialects of year after year the war continued intermittingly, and the descendSudan. Berber is the speech of the aboriginal Kabyles, but ants of the old Numidians have been rather exterminated than Arabic characters alone are used in literature. Little Turkish subdued. In I865 the Emperor Napoleon visited A., and issued is now spoken since the rule of the Turk has been superseded a proclamation, in which he tried in vain to propitiate the Arabs. by that of the Frank. Two years later a severe famine accomplished what had so long The kingdom in early times was divided between the Moors, baffled French tact and generalship: the Arabs withdrew, all or Mauri, who occupied the west, and the Numidians, who in- warfare was at an end, and the country was left undisturbed till habited the eastern portion. Its prosperity was greatly advanced I870. In the following year the greater part of the forces was by the Romans, who founded several flourishing cities along the withdrawn for the Franco-Prussian war, and the Arabs, seizing coast; but about the year 440 it was overrun and devastated the chance, again revolted, but were quelled by General Durieu. by the Vandals. Meanwhile Christianity had established itself The insurgents were sentenced to pay an indemnity of.r,440,ooo, in Africa, and continued to be the religion of the country till the and a portion of their land was conferred on the immigrants sweep of Arab conquest in the 7th c. instantaneously and com- from Alsace-Lorraine, who had refused to become German pletely effaced it, substituting in its place a Mohammedan faith, subjects. which has ever since prevailed. The Zeiri, an Arabian prince, The French loss since the occupation of A. is estimated at built the city of Algiers in 935, and firmly established the new do- 50,000ooo men, and the total expenditure at 20o,ooo00,000. In minion. The dynasty of Zeiri was succeeded in II48 by that of I872 the revenue of A. was fI,246,559; expenditure, ~I,529,884. the Almohades (q. v.), which ruled till I269, when the land fell Besides other benefits, the French have conferred a blessing on into the hands of numerous petty chiefs. The Moors and Jews, A. by the'boring' of artesian wells in the parched oases of Sadriven out of Spain by Ferdinand the Catholic in I492, crossed hara. The Arabs, who in vast numbers visited the first of these over to A., and were followed by an expedition under Cardinal wells, regarded the work as a miracle, and the priests solemnly Ximenes, which took Algiers in I509. The city was rescued by pronounced it the' Fountain of Peace.' A railway now conthe help of Horuk or Harude Barbarossa, a formidable Turkisli nects the city of Constantine with the sea, and a telegraph cable pirate, who afterwards treacherously murdered the reigning emir, was laid in I870 between Bona and Marseilles. In I874 the and prepared the way for the Turkish dominion by proclaiming construction of another railway, greatly needed by the increasing himself Sultan of Algiers. The new ruler was attacked by another trade and traffic' of the province, was begun in Oran.. The total Spanish force, suffered several defeats, and was finally captured exports of A. in I870 amounted to ~4,978,250; imports to and beheaded in I518. Instantly his brother was chosen succes- /6,907,628. The chiefexports are esparto grass, wool, cereals, sor, and with the assistance of a Turkish army the Spaniards were oil, tobacco, wine, and perfumes. Alpha fibre, or esparto grass, repelled, but the land was henceforth under Ottoman allegiance, for making paper, was exported to Great Britain alone in 1873 and the sultan was represented by a formidable body of janis- to the value of /2I8,715. The iron and copper mines employ saries. The cruel despotism of the Turkish soldiery put an end (I875) over 3500 workers; and one of the largest copper mines to order and industry, and in its lawless state A. became the was sold in I874 to an English company. The French language home of pirates and freebooters from the Levant. For three is now taught in Mohammedan schools, and the colonists, guarded centuries Algerine corsairs swept the seas, extorted black-mail, and watchful after their terrible experience, are at last no longer and defied the powers of Christendom. In vain Spanish, French, looked on as a race of inexorable tyrants. As civilisation gains English, and Dutch fleets assailed and punished the inveterate ground, and education spreads, the defiant attitude of the Arabs nation of desperadoes; nothing seemed capable of curbing their must gradually disappear; trade and industry will then enjoy wild and rapacious spirit. During the French Revolution the full scope fdr development, and A. will doubtless prove to France constant presence of strong fleets in the Mediterranean put a stop a fresh, vigorous, and wealthy accession. See official Exb lonato their piratical exploits, but matters were soon again on the old lion Scientifitque d'A. (I844, 31 vols.), and Statisique Gendrale de footing. In I8I5 the Americans defeated the Algerine fleet near l'A., Annees I867 d I872 (1875). Carthagena, and in the following year England forced the dey to recognise an international law abolishing at one blow piracy and Alghe'ro, or Alghe'ri, a fortified seaport on the W. Christian slavery. But no sooner was A. thus bound over to Christian slavery. But no sooner was A. thus bound over to coast of the island of Sardinia. During the Spanish possession keep the peace than her corsairs again burst forth, venturing as of Sardinia, A. was a favourite residence of Charles V. It is a far N. as the German Ocean. An incident happened at this busy town, with a considerable trade, chiefly in wine, tobacco, period, however, which led to the overthrow of the Moslem anchovies, skins, and coral. Pop. 8419. power. In I827 Hussein, the reigning dey, struck the French Algie'rs (Fr. A4fer, Sp. Arge), the capital of Algeria, on consul during a public audience. A squadron was despatched the Mediterranean, situated on the face of a hill which rises under General Bourmont to resent this insult, and in I83O, after abruptly from the sea. The town was founded about 935 by a tedious blockade, Algiers capitulated to France. The French Zeiri, an Arab prince, who named it Al-4ezira, i.e., the island. took possession of the town, captured the fleet, and seized the It was long the capital of the Turkish deys, and was finally captreasury, which contained over /2,ooo,ooo in money. The dey tured by the French in 1830. A. is the residence of the goverwas allowed to retire to the Balearic Isles, and the Turkish janis- nor-general, the seat of the supreme courts of the colony, and the saries were mostly removed to AsiaMinor. Beyond the precincts see of a Catholic bishop, with a cathedral, a naval arsenal, a of Algiers, however, the country was still unsubdued, and in the college, several schools, a museum, a theatre, and beautiful public remote fastnesses the Kabyles and Bedouins, transported with gardens. It has also a fort and a capital haven. A. is rapidly fierce hatred and religious zeal, were already arising in rebellion. indeed becoming a French city in character and appearance. After the conquest of Algiers, the French made no effort to The lower half of the town has been almost rebuilt, and is laid conciliate the peculiarities of the native character, and the out in boulevards, colonnaded streets, and handsome squares. soldiers were allowed to behave with extreme licence. Even The Moorish town, or Arab quarter, occupies the upper part of the mosques and burying-places were often desecrated in de- the slope, and contains many mosques, sanctuaries of saints, and structive levity. Such conduct roused the Marabouts (q. v.), sacred tombs. The houses are massive and flat roofed, and are who went through the country preaching a jad, or' holy built in the form of a hollow square, with galleries running round war,' against this new form of military despotism. The in- the interior, each house usually accommodating many families. fuliated tribes flocked to the standard of Abd-el-Kader (q. v.), The narrow tortuous streets, often not more than six feet wide, who proved an able and impetuous leader. The French were are only traversed by foot-passengers and donkeys.'The trade now forced into a sanguinary war, waged with varying success of the port for I873 in British vessels alone amounted in exports for many years, by which their territory was finally extended to to/6I29,700; in imports to Ir40, 220. Pop. (I872) 48,908. its present limits. After the most terrible defeats, the dauntless Kabyles again and again broke into insurrectioni, resisting all Algo'a Bay, an inlet about 20 miles broad, near the eastern attempts to establish permanent authority. They literally ignored limit of Cape Colony, S. Africa. It affords good anchorage, and being beaten, and carried on the struggle in a series of fierce is memorable as the landing-place (I820) of the first band of' skirmishes, by which the French saw all their schemes of coloni- British colonists. It receives the rivers Ewir, Sunday, and the sation frustrated. The subjugation of A. only began to seem Baasher, at whose mouth is Port Elizabeth (q. v.), the flourishpossible on the capture of Abd-el-Kader in I847, so completely ing emporium of the eastern province of the colony. 62 ALG THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPzEDIA. ALI Algon'quins, an aboriginal race of N. America, once ex. probable that the Prophet meant to name A. as his successor, but tending over all the northern part of the United States, and dying without an expression of his will, three califs obtained the embracing the famous tribes of the Delawares, the Creeks, the honour of the califate before him. This was mainly owing to the Ottawas, and the Pottawattomies, but now numbering only 200 enmity that had sprung up between A. and Ayesha, the last and warriors included in the tribe of the Chippewas. the favourite wife of Mohammed. At length, in 655, he was Alguacil, or Alguazil (from the Arabic el-wazil, tihe Iproclaimed calif, but his election was challenged by the party Al'guacl, or Alguazil (fhrom the Arabic eI-waziI,~ the of Ayesha, and to enforce his authority it was necessary for him power), an inferior officer of justice in Spain corresponding to to appeal to the arbitration of the sword. In short, a civil war the English bailiff or constable. broke out, but at the battle of the Camel he completely crushed Alha'gi, an Arabic name given to a genus of plants belong- his enemies. But a far more formidable opposition soon arose, ing to the natural order Legtminosre, found principally in South- headed by Moawiyah, governor of Syria, and by Amru, the conern Asia and Western Africa. In Persia and Bokhara a sub- queror of Egypt. A. drew his support from Irak and Persia. stance is procured from certain species called Manna (q. v.) Fierce and bloody battles ensued, in which A. was generally successful; but at last it was resolved to terminate the strife by Alha'ma (Roman, Astigia 7uliensis), a town of Andalusia, a treaty of peace, and to endeavour to discover from the Koran Spain, 25 miles S.W. of Granada. It is picturesquely perched which of the two was the rightful calif. By a scandalous trick on a cliff overhanging a deep ravine, through which rushes the A. was set aside, but his partisans refused to ratify what they Marchan, while above towers the Tejada to a height of 80oo considered an iniquitous decision, and the struggle would feet. Its recovery from the Moors in 1482 led to the conquest doubtless have burst out anew had not A. been assassinated in of Granada, of which it was the land-key. The hot baths of A. the mosque at Cufa, 23d January 66I, by some fanatical Arabs are still frequented, and many interesting Roman and Moorish who wished to recover their old independence, and who had remains are yet to be seen. Pop. 7400. The name A. means sworn to put Moawiyah and Amru to death also. A. was not in Arabic,'the bath.' There are many other towns of the same only a brilliant warrior, but a man of poetic genius. The best name in Spain. The largest of these, noted for its warm mineral edition of his' sentences' is that of Fleischer, Ali's hztndert waters, lies 17 miles S.W. of Murcia. Pop. 5200. Spriiche Atrabisch und Persisch laralz/rasirt (Leipz. I837). Alham'bra (Arabic, KAal-'at al hamra, the red castle), the Ali, better known as Ali Pasha, an Albanian chief, surname given to the remains of the palace of the Moorish kings of named Arslan,'the Lion,' was born in I74I at Tepelen. Granada. It is enclosed by a wall flanked with towers, dating After the death of his father, who had been robbed of the probably from IOI9, while the palace was begun by Ibnu-l- greater portion of his possessions by the neighbouring chiefs, ahmar in 1248. It is the finest existing specimen of Moorish his mother-a woman cruel, vindictive, and unscrupuloussecured the succession for A., then fourteen years of age. In his youth he was subjected to the hardships incident to a life of predatory warfare; but becoming accidentally possessed of wealth, he raised a body of troops, by whose aid he recovered' go |] S |Tepelen. He now commenced to intrigue at the Porte, and was secretly commissioned to kill Selim Pasha of Delvino, re~'c — "':-'~I ~ceiving in return the lieutenancy to the Pasha of Derwend. Instead of repressing the klep/tis (robbers), he shared in their booty; and being deposed by the Porte, he regained its favour by well-timed bribery. In the Turkish war of 1787 against the Austrians and Russians he distinguished himself highly, and was appointed to a pashalic in Thessaly. He cleared the roads of robbers, and usurping the pashalic of Janina, he was confirmed in it by the Porte for the vigour with which he had extinguished anarchy and restored order. He attacked and subdued the Suliotes, but with circumstances of unspeakable cruelty. He was now made governor of Rumili, where his rule was just, if not beneficent. In o 8o7 he allied himself with Napoleon, hoping through his influence to obtain Alhambra. Parga, a hope not realised till ten years later, by the favour of architectural art. The walls of the Cout of theLions are covered England. His power being now securely established, and his with arabesques, and 128 columns of white marble support the dominions largely extended, he caused the commanders of the arches of the corridors. The winter palace was removed to Greek militia, of whose aid he had hitherto availed himself, to make room for that of Charles V., which was never finished. be assassinated. His extortions became intolerable, and the See ABENCERRAGES. sultan, in 1820, ordered his deposition. Being compelled to abandon Janina, he surrendered on the condition that his life Alhaurin' el Gran'd6, a town of Granada, Spain, 17 miles and property should be spared; but he was beheaded, 5th FebW. of Malaga. It lies in a valley renowned for fertility, and is ruary 1822. He was a man of singular ability, and, though a favourite retreat of the Malaga merchants. There are marble crafty and cruel, tolerant of religious differences. The -part he quarries and lead and antimony mines in the vicinity. Pop. was enabled to play gives us a singularly clear idea of the moral 55 i4. and political condition of the Ottoman empire at the close of the Ali, the fourth calif of the Arabs, was born at Mecca A.D. d beginning of the t c. 602. His father, Abu-Taleb, was the uncle of Mohammed, and A'lia, a town in Sicily, 30 miles S.E. of Palermo. It lies A. was the first convert that his cousin made. His enthusiastic picturesquely on the brow of a bill near the mountain stream allegiance to his kinsman, as well as his many brilliant personal Fiume Torto. Pop. 5425 gifts, gave him the first position after the Prophet himself in the liakoo, an Indian tree, the leaves new religion of Islam. If we are to accept what is told of him Aliakoo, an Indian tree, Mencylon tinctorium the leaves of in the Eastern chronicles, never did knight of the Round Table which are used for dyeing yellow. or paladin of Charlemagne display more chivalrous devotion or Alibi, elsewhere. In criminal prosecutions the term is used invincible courage. He was with Mohammed in his solitary to denote the defence of the accused when be tries to show that retreats, and in all his early dangers from the hatred of the he could not have committed the offence charged against him, Koreish. Pronounced the bravest of the brave after the battle because, at the time stated in the indictment, he was not at the of Bedr, he received in marriage Fatima, the daughter of the alleged place of committal; that is, he was' elsewhere.' If Prophet. He was foremost in the assaults on Medina and proved, the defence is in some cases conclusive in favour of the Khaibar, and indeed on every occasion covered himself with accused; but, as offering much temptation to give false evidence, glory. Mohammed returned the affection of his ardent cousin, the plea of A. requires the closest scrutiny from judge and jury.'You are to me,' he once said,'as Aaron was to Moses.' It is When a witness speaks pointedly as to time, he should be 63 ALI THE GLOBE ENCYCL OP ADI. ALI severely examined as to his reasons for having noted and re- within the two latter cavities. The first part consists of the membered it so exactly. There are many crimes ia which aRe- organs of mastication, insalivation, and deglutition, and include gation of place of committing is immaterial, such as forgery. the mouth, with its appendages, the teeth and salivary glands, In these, proof of A. is of no effect. the pharynx, and cesophagus, or gullet. The next portion in. ~Alic~an'lte, the capital "6of-L;<*maritime province of the same eludes the part more especially connected with digestion, absorpAlican'te, the capital"76f;"'amaritime province of the same tion, and defecation, and includes the stomach and intestines, name, Spain, lies in a bay of the Mediterranean, 85 miles S. of small and drefecat The digestive tube is lined thrinoughout by Valencia. It is a large seaport with strong fortifications, andsmall and great. The digestive tue is lined throughout y Valencia. Ied isby a largstle seafeet wiabove the sea. The exports and mucous membrane, which is supported by layers of fibrous and is overlooked by a castle 400 feet aove the sea. The exports muscular tissue. The length of the A. C. varies in different are chiefly cotton and linenf fabrics, soda, ropes, corn, oil, silk, animals. It is shorter in carnivorous and omnivorous than in and the dark.ncoloured A. wine (viFnho tino). The Moors herbivorous animals. A special description of the various parts besieged A. in I331, and the French in I7o9.' It was bomhbesieed A.b i the FatglnisrgentsOch ober in I It7, was thom will be found under the headings Mouth, Pharynx, CEsophagus, barded by the Cartagenan insurgents October I, I873, but the Intestine, SmallandLarge. old citadel and forts were much too strong for the ironclads of the Intransigentes, which retired crippled and exhausted after an Al'imony is, in English law, a term denoting the allowaction of two days. Pop. (I870) 3I,500. ance which may be sued for or given to a married woman on separation from her husband. See ALIMENT. Alica'ta, or Licata, a seaport on the S. coast of Sicily, 26 separation from her husband. See ALIMENT. miles S.E. of Girgenti, at the mouth of the river Salsa. It is Al'iquot Part is a number which is contained in another terraced on a hill rising abruptly from the sea, and is overhung number an exact number of times without remainder. Thus, 5, by a grand old fortress. It is supposed to occupy the site of the 31, 21, &c., are A. parts of Io, being contained in this last ancient Phiiticas (built 280 B.C.), to which the captive inhabi- number two, three, and four times respectively. tants of Gela were transferred. Several famous battles of the Alisma'ce, a small order of monocotyledonous aquatic Cartlaginians, Sicilians, and Romans were fougltj in the town plants embracing 5 genera and its vicinity. Large vessels cannot come within a mile of and about 60 species. The the harbour; but there is considerable trade in fruit, sulphur, water plantain (Alisnziaplansoda, and wines. Pop. 14,338. tago) is an ornamental plant v Alien. The citizen of one state resident in another is an A., by the margins of rivers and unless naturalised. Children of a British subject born out of lakes in Britain. Species of the British dominions are nevertheless held to be subjects of the Alisma and Sagittazra (arrowBritish crown, unless the father is under the penalties of high head) have a fleshy rhizome treason or felony; or is in the service of a foreign state at war which is eatable. Several with Great Britain. It does not affect this privilege that the Brazilianspecies of Sgittaria mother of the child so born is a foreigner; but the child must be are very astringent, and from birth legitimate. their pressed juice has The influx of foreigners int6 England conseqient to th employed in the prepaFrench Revolution, led to the passing of several Acts of Parlia- tio of ink. ment, known as the Alien Acts. The object of these was to Al'ison, Rev. Archicheck and regulate the foreign influx. This is now done under bald, author of the Essays -lo& the Peace Alien Act of I836. ont Taste, was born at EdinThe general rule is that an A., not being an enemy, may, burgh in I757, studied at except in the case of British ships, acquire a right to personal Glasgow and Oxford, and Alisma plantago. property in Great Britain. But in Scotland he cannot acquire having taken orders, was apor succeed to real property (heritage). These disabilities may pointed vicar of Kenley, in Shropshire. Leaving England in be removed by Act of Naturalisation, by Letters of Denisation, I8oo, A. accepted the senior charge in an Episcopal chapel in or by naturalisation by certificate from a secretary of state. An Edinburgh, and died there in 1839. The Essays on the NVature Act of Naturalisation is an Act of Parliament conferring to con- and Principles of Taste (I790, 2d ed. I8II) uphold the'associasiderable extent on the foreigner the privileges of a natural-born tion' theory of -Esthetics (q. v.), and are elegantly written. It subject. The Act cannot be got until the applicant has resided was the appearance of the second edition that called forth for seven years in Great Britain. Jeffrey's celebrated critique in the Edifnburgh Review. Letters of Denisation are letters-patent issued- by the crown, conferring to some extent the privileges of a-3ritish subject. Alison, Sir Archibald, Bart., historian of modern Europe, Naturalisation by certificate is by Act 7 and 8 Vict. c. 66. was the.sn of the preceding, and was born at Kenley, ShropIt chiefly confers privileges on aliens switih;'ea-gard to succeeding shire, in I792. After studying with distinction at Edinburgh to, devising, or purchasing real or personal estate in Great University, he joined the Scotch bar in I8I4. In this year, Britain. An alien is not by any of these forms of naturalisation when the allied sovereigns met at Paris, A. visited the French protected by the British crown against obligations incurred to capital, beheld Talma playing'before a pitful of kings,' and his native country previous to naturalisation. Thus, a natural. conceived the great idea of writing an account of the events ised Frenchman returning to France, and being there held liable which led to this brilliant and singular congress of monarchs. to military service, will not be freed from the obligation on the In the realisation of this idea, which took the form of The ground of his being a British subject. A British subject resident Modern History of Ezurope fr-d?) 1789 to the Restorationz of the in a-foreign state may, according to our law, divest himself of Bourbons in I8I5 (Io vols., I839-42), and a continuation entitled his nationality, and become a subject of that state. But resi- The History of Europefroor 2he Fall of Zaypoleon to the Accession dence abroad does not of itself cause loss of British nationality. of Louis NapoTeon (9 vols., I859), the remainder of his life may be Align'rment, in military language, means the arrangement said to have been occupied. He qualified himself rigorously for of tlOe' in lin' or of tents of a camp on a rectilinear plan his task, and visited the scenes of the principal battles he describes. of troops'in line,' or of tents of a camp on a rectilinear plan. His work, which has a world-wide popularity, and has been transAlimelnt, or, according to some writers, Alimony, is a lated into Arabic and Hindustani, as well as into most of the term of Scotch law, signifying all that is required to maintain European languages, is useful, readable, tlidotgh not vivid, and life, or its pecuniary equivalent. Those who are unable to sup- in the main trustworthy, though often inaccurate in detail. To port themselves are, in certain circumstances and in respect of none of his minor works does any living interest attach itself. certain- relationships, entitled judicially to enforce a claim for A. A. died May i867. As no superfluity is included, an alimentary allowance is not Alison, William Pulteney, M.D., brother of the his. torian, born in I 790, studied at the University of Edinburgh, and Alimen'tary Canal is a tube commencing at the mouth and took his medical degree in I8S I. He was the author of several terminating at the anus. Its upper end is in relation to the base works in sociology and medicine, and was professor of the pracof the skull, the succeeding portions traverse the neck, thorax, tice of medicine in Edinburgh University from I832 to I85-5. abdomen, and pelvis, but by far the greater part is contained His principal works are-Outzlizes of Physiology and Patology 64 Es: ALI THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP7DZIA. ALL (I 833), and Dissertation on the Reclamationr of Waste Lands, Al'kanet, name given to different species of bovaginaceous in which he advocates the utilisation of the labour of paupers plants belonging to the genera Antclusa and Alkanna. A. tincand criminals. A. died September 1859. toria, a native of Southern Europe, and cultivated in France and Al'iwal, a village in the N.W. of India, on the Sutlej, near Germany, is the source of A. -root or Alkanna-root, from which Ludianal Itl was the scene of a brilliant victory of the British is obtained a valuable reddish-brown dye. It is used in giving a under Sir Harry Smith (28th January I846), over a Sikh force crimson colour to perfumery, oils, pomades, salves, soaps, &c. ~~of superior numn~bers. ~It is also employed in dyeing wood in imitation of rosewood, and for colouring spurious port wine. Anchusa semjervirens, Alk, a gum-resin obtained from Pistacia Terebinthus, a tree of Everlasting A., is a naturalised plant in Britain. A. offcinalis, Southern Europe, Northern Africa, and Asia. Common A., has been used as an emollient. Imports of A. to Al'kahest. See ALCHEMY. Britain are from Io to I2 tons annually. Alk'alies. Originally the word alkali was used to denote that part of the ashes of plants soluble in water. Later its Alkal'na (see ALKANET), also applied to a colouring-matter meaning became greatly extended, all substances which effer- called H enna (q. v.), prepared from Lawsoria aba, a dwarf vesced when treated with an acid being called A. At the present day the name of alkali is restricted to a few substances possess- Alkmaar', a town of N. Holland, stands on the Helder ing closely analogous properties. The only important A. are Canal,2milesN.N.WofAmsteldamby railway. Ithas a fine Canal, 25 miles N.N. W. of Amsterdam by railway. It has a fine potash, soda, and ammonia, or, as they-were previously called, Gothic town-house. In 799 the Duke of York surrendered his the vegetable, mineral, and volatile alkali. The chief characters army at A. after being twice defeated by the French. It exports of the. are as follows: They are without exception soluble,oooooo lbs. of cheese annually-probably more than any other in water. They neutralise acids, forming salts. The carbonates town in the world. There are considerable manufactures of of the metals which they contain are soluble. They exert a sail-cloth and parchment. Henry of A., a famous Dutch poet peculiar action on vegetable colouring-matters. Tincture of Pop. (I870) 11,427. of the I5th c., was born here. Pop. (1870) I,427. litmus, which has been reddened by acids, is restored to its original blue colour. Purple cabbage infusion and blue vegetable Alla Ereve, a musical term, havingits origin in the fact that colours generally are coloured green, and yellow turmericed dark the breve, the longest note in old music, was twice as long as brown. They exert a corrosive action on organised bodies, the longest note at present used, and signifying that each note is have a peculiar soapy taste, and precipitate most metals (as to be played or sung as if it were only half its written length. hydrates) from solutions of their salts. With the exception of ammonia, the A. may be regarded as Al'lah (Ar. a? and i/ah, the worthy of adoration), the Arabic a compound of water with the oxide of a metal; Potash, for name of God, now in use in all countries to which the religion of example, as oxide of the metal potassium and water, K201H20; Mohammed has spread. The Prophet's conceptions of the charSoda as a compound of oxide of sodium and water, Na201H20. acter of A. are essentially Judaic, and rise high above the preChemists of the present day, however, take a different-view of vailing grossness of Oriental fancy, but they also express his the constitution of these bodies, regarding them as derived fromX antagonism to the Christian mystery of the Trinity, and are, so water by the replacement of an atom of hydrogen by an atom of to speak, a dogmatic declaration of monotheism:'There is no metal. Thus- God, but the God (Allah). This only true, great, and highest HOH KOH NaOH God has existence of himself is eternal, not begotten and begets N__b Yab ronot, is sufficient of himself, fills the universe with his infinity, is Water. Potash. Soda. the centre in which all things unite, visible and invisible lord of With respect to the alkali Ammonia, its solution behaves in some the material and spiritual worlds, creator and ruler, almighty, allrespects like the hydrate of a metal. Nevertheless the hydrate wise, all-good, merciful, and whose decrees are irrevocable.' has never been isolated. The A. are used in the arts and in medicin~e. See POTASH, SODA, aid AMMONIA. 8Alla'habad (' city of God'), an ancient and renowned city nmedicine. See POTASH, SOnA, and AMMoNIA. of Hindustan, capital of the province of A., is situated at the Alkalim'etry is the name of the process for determining free confluence of the Ganges and Jumna, about 500 miles W. N. W. alkali in a solution. The process is that of acidimetry reversed. of Calcutta, and 75 W. of Benares. It is regarded, from its A standard solution of acid is made, and from the quantity of situation, with pious veneration by the Hindus, who annually it which is needed to neutralise a measured quantity of the visit it in great numbers for the purpose of ablution in the sacred alkaline solution, the quantity of alkali is readily calculated. streams on which it stands. The native part of the city is geneSee ACIDIMETR~. rally mean and unattractive, though there are some ancient Alk'aloids are a group of organic compounds containing monuments of great beauty. The European quarter is greatly carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen as invariable constituents, a superior. A. possesses barracks for the European, and cantonfew only contain, in addition, oxygen and sulphur. Some are ments for the native, troops, in connection with which are prepared artificially, and do not occur in nature; others exist numerous fine villas and bungalows. The chief buildings ready formed in the tissues and organs of plants and animals; are the fort, built by the Sultan Akbar in I583, at the junca few of the latter have also been prepared artificially. Their tion of the rivers, the Great Mosque, and the Sultan Khosru's properties are closely allied to those of the alkalies. They Caravanserai. The situation of A. makes it of great commercial neutralise acids,, forming well-marked salts. They often show importance, and it is the seat of an extensive trade in cotton. It an alkaline reaction, that is to say, colour turmeric brown, and is a station on the Grand Trunk Road and East Indian Railway. restore the blue colour to reddened litmus. Many of them are Pop. (187I) I05,926. By treaty in A. in I765, Bengal, &c., was invaluable as medicines, and some are largely employed in the ceded to the English. It became memorable during the mutiny arts as colouring-matters. Subjoined is a list of some of the more of I857 as the scene of a massacre of English officers by native important members of this group of bodies. See Watt's Dic- troops. The insurrection was promptly suppressed by Colonel tionary of CGemistry. Neil, who marched from Benares. Name. Formula. Source. - The province of A., one of the N.W. Provinces of British Aconitine C30H47NO7 AconitunZ Nape/Zus. India, is bounded N. by Oude and Agra, E. by Behar, S. by Aniline C6H7N Benzol. Gundwana, W. by Malwa, is about 270 miles in length and Atropine C17H23NO3 Atropa Belladonna. I20 in breadth, and has an area of I3,574 sq. miles. Pop. (I87I) Brucine C25H2N1I04 Stfcznzos nsux vomica, S. 5,466, II6. It is watered by the Ganges, Jumna, and Goomtee, C H261O 4 ~ignatii, S. columbrina. and is one of the most productive and populous districts in India. Caffeine or Theine CsHlON402 Tea, coffee, &c. Among its products are cotton, indigo, sugar, opium, coffee, Chinchonine C5oH24N20 Chinchona bark. grain, and fruits. Morphine C17H19NO3 Opium Narcotine C22H21NO7 i Allamanr'da, a genus of handsome climbing shrubs, natives Nicotine C5H7N Tobacco. of S. America, and belonging to the natural order A]5ocynacea. Quinine C20H4N2O02 Chinchona bark. They are prized in gardens for their gorgeous profusion of rich Strychnine C21H12N202 Stycintzos nux vomica, &c. golden flowers. The best known species are A. Aubletii, A. 9 65 + 4 * ALL THEtE CL OBE ENC YCL OP/EDZA. ALL Schottii, and A. nerizjfolia. An infusion of the leaves of A. cath- ltation, which gives a higher and more spiritual significance artica is used as a remedy for colic. than appears in the letter, was once popular. Its use was of Allan, Bridge of, a picturesque village in Perthshire, on great antiquity, though generally associated with the Alexanthe Allan, 3 miles N.W. of Stirling. Its sheltered position and drian and Jewish schools. Philo-Judnus among the Jews, and Origen among Christian writers, were much addicted to A., mineral (saline) wells have made it a great resort of invalids, for Origen asserting Christian writers, w h o understood them literally I whose accommodation there are good lodgings and cafotal Origen asserting that to those who understood them literally whose accommodation there are good lodgings and capital the Scriptures were of little use. Ihotels. Pop. (I871) 3055. capitalthe Scriptures were of little use. hotels. Pop. (I870) 3055..Alle'gro (Ital. lively), a musical term indicating that the piece IAllan, David, sometimes styled the Scottish Hogarth, was of music so marked is to be played in somewhat quick time, and born at Alloa in I744. In 1755 he was sent to the academy of in a spirited and lively manner. In a composition of several the Foulises at Glasgow to learn to be a painter, and in I764 he movements each is commonly distinguished by the time which went to Rome. Here in I773 he gained the gold medal of the is marked upon it; in this way A. is often used as a substanAcademy of St Luke for an historical composition, the'Origin of tive, as the A. of a symphony, &c. Painting,' which was engraved by Cunego, and is A.'s best pic. ture. In I777 he visited London as a portrait-painter, and in Al'len, Bog of, a morass of vast extent in the centre of Ire1786 was made master of the Art Academy at Edinburgh, land, covering part of King's County and Kildare. It is bounded where he died in 1796. His most popular designs are his illus- by the Shannon on the W., and comes within 17 miles of Dublin trations of Ramsay's Gentle Shepherd. on the E., having an area of about 240,ooo English acres. All attempts to reclaim the bog have failed, the depth of peat found Allan, Sir William, historical painter, born at Edinburgh in it being 25 feet. The rivers Barrow and Boyne rise in this in x782, entered the School of Design, where Wilkie was his swamp, which is also traversed by the Royal and Grand Canals. fellow-student, and afterwards studied at the Royal Academy. Dissatisfied with his success in London, he went to St Peters- Allen, John, M.D., a political and historical writer, born burg, and remained there nearly ten years, making occasional I77o, at Redford, near Edinburgh. He graduated in Edinburgh journeys to the Crimea, &c., where he gathered materials for after University, and soon after became known as a zealous advocate use. Returning to Edinbulgh in I8I4, he exhibited his' Circas- of parliamentary reform. In I805, on his returning from a tour sian Captives,' which fixed his reputation as an artist, though his in France and Spain, he settled in London, where he continued works did not at first command a ready sale. A disease of the to reside with his friends, Lord and Lady Holland, till his deatlh, eyes compelled him to desist from painting for a time, during April 3, 1843. His principal works are the Rise and Growzot which he visited the S. of Europe and Asia Minor, and on of the ]Royal Prerogative in England (I830), and A Yindication his return he painted his'Slave-market at Constantinople.' In of the Inde;tendence of Scotland. He also wrote numerous articles I826 he was elected A.R.A., and became R.A. in I835. In in the Edinbuiz-l Review, chiefly on foreign politics. x838 he was chosen president of the Scottish Academy, and Allentown, a town of Pennsylvania, U. S., on the W. bank succeeded Wilkie as her Majesty's Limner for Scotland in I84I, of the Lehigh river, 50 miles N. of Philadelphia, is the centre of dwhen he was knighted. He died 2d February i85o. The a district rich in iron ore and anthracite. It has numerous ironfidelity, skilful composition, and vigour of his works merit the works, and is connected with the capital by a canal and railway. highest praise. His illustrations of Scottish history are well Pop. (l870) I3,884, chiefly Germans. Alleyn, Edward, actor, was born 1566, and died I626. Allan'tois is a bag or sac found in the embryo. It arises He is noted as the friend of Shakespeare, but still more as the fromt the termination of the alimentary canal, which, at this generous founder of Dulwich College (q. v.), the building of early period of development, is shut, and it subsequently becomes which was commenced in I613, and its charter granted in I619. differentiated into the bladder, the urachus (a tube passing from His wife and he lived there on his own foundation. By his will the bladder to the umbilicus), and into a bag situated outside the he endowed twenty almshouses in London. See Payne Collier's abdomen. In batrachians, such as frog and toad, the A. Memnoirs of Edwar-d Alleyn (Lond. I841), also the Alleyn Papers never extends beyond the abdominal cavity; in scaly reptiles, (I843) and in certain mammals, it surrounds the body of the foetus, lining the outer covering of the'ovum called the chorion; in Allia, a rivulet falling into the Tiber, ii miles N. of Rome, most mammalia the extra-abdominal portion is small, and unit- supposed to be identical with what is now known as the Scola ing.with a portion of the chorion, forms the organ known as the del CazsaZe. placenta, by which the fcetus is connected with the mother. The Allia'ceous Plants, those having the smell of garlic, such function of the extra-abdominal portion of the A. is to nourish as species of Allizun (q. v.), and plants allied to them. the early foetus, and also to act as a respiratory membrane. Allia'ria, a genus of Cruciferous plants having a garlic odour. Allegha'nies. See APPALACHIANS. A. o.fcinalis, called garlic-mustard, sauce-alone, and Jack-byAllegha'ny, a river of N. America, rises in Pennsylvania, the-hedge, is a common biennial hedge-bank plant in many about 5 miles from Lake Erie, with which it is connected by a parts of Britain. Some authors have placed it in the genus canal. It joins the Monongahela at Pittsburg, and forms the Erysimum, and others in Sisymbri-ium. It is occasionally used as a Ohio, next to the Missouri, the largest affluent of the Mississippi. pot-herb, and seems worthy of cultivation for its nutritious qualiThe A. is navigable for 200 miles above Pittsburg, and is part ties. Its powdered seeds have been employed to provoke sneezing. of perhaps the longest steamboat channel in the world, stretch- Allice, or Common Shad, a species of shad-the common ing from Lake Erie to the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about shad (Clupea alosa)-which fish is included. in the Clupeidce or 2400 miles. Herring family. See SHAD. dAlle'giance is the fidelity due by every natural-born and Al'lier, a department in the heart of France, sloping from the naturalised subject to the crown. Temporary A. is also due to highland region of Auverge N. to the Loire. Area, 2830 sq. the crown by foreigners resident in the kingdom.'True A. to miles; pop. (1872) 390,812. It formed part of the old province the sovereign' is sworn to by all who take the Oath of Abjura- of Bourbonnais. The soil varies in quality, but is generally fertile, and though agriculture is not scientific, the cereal produce Al'legory, a figure of speech which represents trains of thought is considerable. Cattle-breeding is an important industry, and by visible images, and which may be described as a continued both red and white wines are grown. The numerous streams, metaphor. It was popular, especially in the East, from an early all of which flow into the Loire, are stocked with fish. The period, and the 8oth Psalm, containing the comparison of Israel mineral wealth of A. is great, especially in iron, coal, marble, to a vine, is a famous and well-sustained example. Spenser's granite, and chalk, and there is also some manufacturing activity. Faesy Queene, Thomson's Castle of Indolence, Swift's Tale of The mineral springs of Vichy are celebrated. Capital, Moulins. a 7ltb, Addison's Vision of Mirza, and particularly Bunyan's Allier, a river of France, from which the department takes its Pilgrim's Progress, are well-known allegories. A. may be name, rises at an elevation of 4380 feet in the mountains of exhibited in the fine arts, or on the stage, with as much effect Lozere, a western spur of the Cevennes, flows in a northerly as in language. In religious literature, Allegorical Interprei direction through Haute-Loire, Puy-de-Dolme, and Allier, pass66 ~-~ —------ ---------— * ALL TEt GLOBE ENC YCLOPIEDIA. ALL I ing the towns of Brionde, Issoire, and Moulins, and falls into the the sparrows of the spirit, and the soweet swallows of salvation.' Loire a little below Nevers after a course of more than 200 When Alexander Scott addresses Queen Mary of Scotlandthus:miles, for nearly two-thirds of which it is navigable.' Fresh, fulgent, flourist, fragrant flower formose,' &c., Alliga'tion is a rule in arithmetic which treats of the solu- A. degenerates into a painful blemish, but when used with skill tion of questions, such as these: Given the prices per pound and and an ear for melody it has an exquisite effect. Coleridge furthe quantities of the ingredients of any mixture, what is the price nishes a faultless specimenper pound of that mixture? In what proportion must the'The fair breeze blew, the whitefoamfIew, ingredients (the prices of which are known) be mixed in order to Thefurrowfollowed free. produce a known mixture? Any good treatise on arithmetic So naturally do men employ A., that it has affected many color algebra will give the methods for the solution of such. loquialisms in all languages, e.g., through thick and thin, house and home, house and hall, &c., and it often gives the chief point Allga'tor, or Caimarn. This reptile forms a genus of the to witty and satiric writings-as when it was said of Cardinal order Crocodilia, and presents differences both in structure and Wolseydistribution from the more familiar crocodiles. The head is Begot by butchers, but by bishops bred, short and flattened, the teeth number from thirty-six to forty- Hod high his haughty honoul holds his head.' four in each jaw, and the fourth (or canine) tooth of the lower Al'lium, a genus of bulbous plants belonging to the natural order jaw is received into a distinct pit or cavity in the palatal surface Liliacece, and remarkable for their pungent odour. The species are of the upper jaw, and is therein concealed when the mouth is numerous, very few of them closed. The upper jaw, in old specimens, may be quite per- ornamental, but several are forated by these lower teeth. The hind limbs are not fringed as cultivated as esculents, such in the crocodiles, and the feet are only imperfectly webbed. as the Chive (A,. Scharnzo- The alligators are more terrestrial in habits than the crocodiles. 5rnasum), the Garlic (,A. Sa- They are chiefly nocturnal animals, inhabiting muddy swamps, tivunm), the Leek (A. Porand lying concealed during the day. The food consists mainly rzum), the Onion (A. Cepa), of fishes, but also includes higher animal fare. The eggs are the Rocambole (A. Scoro odoprasum), and the Shallot (A. ascalonicum). There are nine species indigenous to Britain. A. ursinumzInd, Ramsons, or broad-leaved / a Garlic, is common in most woods, and occasionally in damp pastures. When eaten by cows, it gives a Alligator, or Cainan. strong garlic odour and -- deposited in the mud or sand, and are hatched by the sun's taste to their milk. A.`zi;heat, although the females are said to hover about the spot and vineale, Crow-garlic, also a to jealously guard the welfare of their progeny. In length, alliga- common British species, Allbum ursinum. tors vary from 3 to nearly 20 feet, and several distinct species acts in the same way. are known. They chiefly inhabit the tropical regions of America, Al'loa, a seaport, Clackmannanshire, Scotland, on the N. but occur in both divisions of that continent. The A. Missssi- bank of the Forth, 7 miles below Stirling. It is an old town, pensis is the most familiar form, this species inhabiting the but of late years has been greatly improved. It is a station on Southern States of the Union. The Caiman found in Guiana (A. a branch of the Stirling and Dunfermline Railway, and is conpfalebrosuzs), and the Spectacled A. (A. sclervops), so named fronl nected with the Scottish Central by a steamboat ferry across the the osseous rings surrounding the eyes, are also familiar to Forth. A. has a good hlarbour, a dry and wet dock, and the naturalists. These animals take the place in America of the total shipping registered at the port in I874 amounted to 5527 crocodiles of the Old World; although species of crocodiles also tons. There are extensive manufactures of whisky, ale, glass, occur in the New World. The flesh is eaten by the Indians woollens, pottery, and machinery, and near it large coal-pits. and negroes, and an oil is extracted from the fat of some species. The chief exports are coal, ale, and glass; imports, flax, linseed, In the Eocene deposits of England A. fossil remains occur. wool, and iron. A. House, the ancient seat of the Earls of Mar, Alligator Apple, a W. Indian fruit, the produce of in the vicinity of A., was burned in I8oo; the tower, 89feet high,`Anona paslzstris. It has narcotic principles, and is not eaten. built in the I3th c., is still standing. Pop. (I87I) 9362. See CUSTARD APPLE. Allocu'tion, properly any formal address, but originally Alligator Pear, a highly-esteemed W. Indian fruit. See applied to the address of a general to his troops. It is now AVOCADO PEAR. generally restricted to the addresses made by the Pope to the Alligator Wood, timber imported from Cuba, obtained College of Cardinals on matters of ecclesiastical or political Allgator Wood, a timber imported from Cuba, obtained importalce. These are in reality official utterances. importance. These are in reality official utterances. from a species of Guarea. Allo'diulm, or Allodial Tenure, is a term used in contraAllitera'tion, in composition, is the recurrence of the same Adistinction toda, or Allodial Tenure he r ight to all personal letter at the beginning of successive words. Its nature and is odal In England, with regard to real property, property is allodial. In England, with regard to real property, function are accurately described in a familiar verse of Pope's, the fundamental legal maxim is, according to Blackstone, that hich is also a felicitous illustration's of the thing-d.''the king is the universal lord and original proprietor of all the'Apt lliteration's rtful aid.' lands in his kingdom; and that no man doth, or can, possess Among the Teutonic nations A., and not rhyme, was the distinc- any part of it but what has, mediately or immediately, been tive feature of verse. English verse down to the Norman derived as a gift from him, to be held upon feudal services.' In Conquest was exclusively alliterative, and even after English had England, therefore, allodial tenure does not exist. This univerassumed a somewhat modern form A. still maintained its place. sality of feudal tenure was recognised in England shortly after The author of Piers Plowman, who was a contemporary of the Norman Conquest, when all the principal landholders subChaucer, uses it. So long as it was the characteristic mode of mitted to the yoke of military tenure. The military services to English versification the rule was that two words of the first be rendered by the proprietors have long ago fallen into desuehemistich of a verse should begin with the same letter, and one tude, and the legal tenure has become a fiction; yet a chain of of the second, and that these words should be emphatic. After titles, if complete, is always found to have its last link in the the triumph of rhyme A. became a mere adornment, and was paramount superiority of the crown. See FEUDAL SYSTEM. used capriciously, according to the taste or want of taste of the The only allodial tenures of real property in Great Britain are lwriter. In Spenser's Faery Queeze it is superabundant, and in the Udal rights in Orkney and Shetland, which formerly besome of the prose writers of the same century it is employed longed to Denmark, in which country, though. feudality is the with ludicrous elaboration; e.g.,'The chickens of the church, I general rule of tenure, it is not universal. ALL THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP/iEDI4. AILL A'lopathy. See HOMCEOPATHY. With regard to the chemical nature of A., it becomes a question ZAllot'mlent of L.and. This is an Englishawexpression. whether they should be classed amongst the mixtures or corn-.This is an English law expression. pounds, for they partake of the properties of both. It seems It signifies a grant of a portion of land too small to be worth probable that soe A.e reof lly chemical compoudIt seems a formal conveyance. Under the General Enclosure Act, it is prothers at some A. are really chemical compounds, whilst allowed to be made to any one in actual possession * but the others are merely sortdioizs of metals in these. Subjoined is a list allowed to be made to any one in actual possession; but the of the more important A., with their percentage composition grant does not injure a title previously existing. Commissioners of the more important A, with their percentage composition are appointed to make these allotments. The system was not BrGun-monze Copper 95 T in 5 much used till the year I830, when a great deal of agricultural G-metal Copper oTin distress prevailed in England. It is said to have acted benefi- Bell-metal Copper 78 Tin cially; to have diminished crime in agricultural districts, and to Speculum-metal Copper 66 Till 34 have improved the character of the peasantry. Brass Copper 64 Zinc 36 Aluminum bronze Copper 90go Aluminum Io Al'lotropy is a term used in chemistry to designate the pro- Hard solder Brass 66 Zinc 34 perty possessed by certain substances of existing in two or more German silver Copper 5I Zinc 30-6, Nickel I8'4 distinct states, the chemical and physical properties of the same Britannia metal Brass 25 Tin25,Anltimony25, Bismuth 25 substance differing in each of the states in which it exists. Pewter Tin 80o Lead 20 Phosphorus is an excellent example of an allotropic element. Plumber's solder Tin 66 Lead 44 Common phosphorus is a colourless or slightly yellow, semi- or Tin.50 Lead 50 transparent solid, at ordinary temperatures, much resembling Type-metal Tin 25 Lead 50, Antimony 25 wax in consistence and appearance. Its specific gravity is Fusible-metal Tin 25 Lead 25, Bismuth 50 I'826. It fuses at 44~ C., and boils at 29o0' C. It has a powerful All-Saints' Bay, a magnificent natural harbour in the proaffinity for oxygen; so great, indeed, that in warm weather vince of Bahia, Brazil. It is 37 miles long, 27 broad, and conphosphorus often ignites if exposed to the air, from the heat phosphorus often ignites if exposed to the air, from the beat tains several islands. The town of Bahia (q. v.) lies just within developed by its rapid oxidation. It is luminous in the dark, the entrance. perhaps from the same cause. It is very readily inflammable, igniting at a temperature of 60~o C. It is soluble to a consider. All-Saints'-Da, or Hallowmas, a festival of the Church able extent in bisulphide of carbon, and also in many oils, of Rome in honour of all saints who have not a separate day resins, and essences. It is one of the most active irritant poisons assigned them in the calendar. It was instituted in 835 by known. If this variety of phosphorus be heated in an inactive Gregory IV., and fixed to be held on November ist, probably atmosphere, such as nitrogen or carbonic acid, to a temperature because that was the date of the celebration of one of the four of 2500 C., every one ofits properties become modified or altered. great.festivals of the northern pagans. The preceding night, It now presents the appearance of a dark red or chocolate called the Eve or Vigil of A., was even more than the day coloured, perfectly opaque, odourless mass. Its specific gravity distinguished by popular usages, such as the kindling of has increased to 2'I. It ceases to emit light in a dark room, bonfires, bell-ringings, &c. does not ignite by friction, nor till heated to a temperature above All-Souls' College, Oxford, founded in 1437 by Henry 2700 C. It has lost its.power of dissolving in those substances Chichele, Archbishop of Canterbury, for a warden, forty fellows, which dissolve ordinary phosphorus, and fuses first at a tempera- two chaplains, and clerks. A professorship of'International ture of 250-270' C. Being insoluble, it does not act as a poison. Law and Diplomacy,' and another of' Modern History,' have The causes of A. are not understood. been endowed with the revenues of ten suppressed fellowships. Al'loway SKirk, a small ecclesiastical ruin on the Doon, The remaining thirty are open. The college holds the patronage near Ayr, the scene of the diablerie described so inimitably in of nineteen benefices of the yearly value ofZ7925. In 1875 it Burns's Tant o' Shanter. The cottage where Burns was born is had 115 on its books. in the vicinity of A. K. All-Souls'-Day, a festival of the Church of Rome, instituted Alloy, or Allay, in law, denotes the inferior metals mixed in 993, or 998, by Odilo, Abbot of Clugny, and celebrated on in the gold and silver of our coinage. It is used to pay the ex- the 2d of November. Its object is, by supplication and almspense of coinage, and to make the gold or silver more fusible. giving, to relieve souls in purgatory; and the occasion of its The A. in gold coin is silver and copper; in silver coin it is institution is said to have been the report to Odilo that a hermit copper alone. The standard of gold is 22 carats pure, and 2 of in Sicily had often heard the devils complaining of the number A. in the pound troy. The standard for silver is II oz. 2 dwt. of souls released from suffering by the prayers and almsdeeds of pure, to I8 dwt. of copper A. The pound of standard gold is the pious. In the W. of England it was customary to bake a coined into the value of 441 guineas. A poundweight of standard soul-cake on All-Souls'-Day, and for neighbours to share it with silver is coined into 62 shillings. one another. There children still go sou/ling, which consists in singing certain verses, and importuning for small gifts. Alloys are made by fusing together different metals in various proportions. The physical properties of an alloy differ as a rule All'spice, the name given to the dried berries of Euvery considerably from those of the metals of which it is com- genza pirenta and E. acris posed, and it is owing to this fact that A. are of so much impor- of the W. Indies, from their tance in the arts and manufactures, for comparatively few metals having the combined flavour possess properties which fit them for use in the pure state. Gold of cinnamon, nutmeg, and and silver, for instance, are not sufficiently hard to be used for cloves. Called also Jamaica coins; if employed for this purpose in the pure state, they would Pepper and Pimento (q. v.) Carolina A. is the bark of rapidly wear away from the constant attrition to which they are Carolna A. is the bar k of subjected. They are therefore alloyed with a small quantity of Csczuyansdss gorida s, which copper, which has the effect of producing comparatively hard and resisting metals well suited for purposes of currency. Although Allston, Washington, the properties of individual metals may be well known, it is painter and poet, was born not possible to foresee the properties of the A. which may be in I779 at Charleston, S. formed by fusing them together. It is known, however, that Carolina. Though originally brittle metals form brittle A., and that the alloy of a brittle astudentofmedicine, heultiwith a malleable metal is also brittle; further, that the fusing- mately devoted himself to point of an alloy is always below the mean of its ingredients; art, studying first in the Royal fusible metal is a familiar and striking example of this. Academy, London, and afterThe properties of an alloy depend not alone on the metals of wards at Rome, where he which it is composed, but also on the proportions in which was intimate with Thorwald- Allspice these are present thus, tin forms A. with copper, which, as they sen. In I8 I he again visited increase in percentage of the former metal, are known respec- England, and carried off the 200oo-guinea prize of the British tively as bronze, gun-metal, bell-metal, and speculum-metal. Institution for his Dead Ma~n raised by Elisha's Bones. He 4 —---- - - --- ---- ---— ~ Al. ALL THE GL OBE ENC YCLOAP.EDIA. AL1\V was elected an A.R.A. in I819. He excelled as a colourist, and sordid greed. The first three years (1525-28) had been being in this respect a successful imitator of Rembrandt. His spent in the discovery of the way to Peru, after which they poem, Sylj5s of the Season (London, I813), was much admired. returned to Panama, and Pizarro proceeded to Europe to obtain A. died 8th July I843,. at Cambridge Port, Mass. from Charles V. the necessary authority for what remained to All'viob. This is a legal term signifying the land gained e done. In I53I the adventurers, empowered by royal sancfrlth'vioe. Thisnis a legal term signifying the land gained tion forthe work of rapine, set sail from Panama a second time, from the sea. By English law this belongs to the owner of the Pizarro first, and A. soon after. The latter only arrived when soil on which the A. takes place, provided it does so gradually, as the capture of Atahualpa (q. v.) had been achieved, but he it commonly does, by the slow accumulation of sand and earth is partly responsible for the unjust seence whic condemned drifed shoe b th waes.A sdde an cosidrabe ginis partly responsible for the unjust sentence which condemned drifted ashore by the waves. A sudden and considerable gain, the Inca to death. By the letters-patent of Charles V., dated however, to the shore from the sea is held to belong to the Toledo, 26th July I528, A. was made governor of all the land S. crown, unless it has given a charter to a subject cum littor-eToe, 6hJl158A.wsmdgvrorfalteladS crown, unless it has given a charter to a subject cu ltore of Peru. This meant that he must undertake the conquest of maris, in which case the A. belongs to the grantee. In Scotch Chili, which he did with less than 60 men, and would probably law the A. in both events belongs to the owner of the adjacent have carried out his enterprise successfully had he not, after shore. Where a river in Scotland dividing two properties two months' stay in the new region, been summoned back to insensibly changes its course, it is still held to be the boundary; Peru by the startling news of an Indian revolt, the massacre of but if the change be sudden and material, it will no longer be ma Spaniards, and the beleaguerment of the brothers of Pizarro held to be so, the l~~~~~ ~~awalwneqialaleao.Altvosinny Spaniards, and the beleaguerment of the brothers of Pizarro held to be so, the law allowing ecuitable alteration. A2lluvio is in the city of Cuzco. A. defeated the Peruvians with great the Scotch. law-termu for the gradual change, Aiul~sio for the dthe Scotch law-term for the gradual change, Avusio for the slaughter, and compelled them to raise the siege; but when the sudden. brothers of Pizarro, between whom and himself enmity existed, Allu'vium (Lat. ad to, and luerre, to wash), a term origin- refused him admission into the city, he forced an entrance by ally applied to ante-Deluge deposits, but now given to deposits night, captured his adversaries, and proclaimed himself master of sand, mud, gravel, &c., which are washed down by a stream, of Cuzco. A force sent against him by Pizarro was completely and which form the banks and lowlands about its mouth. routed, but in a second engagement in the plain of Cuzco, 26th April 1538, the troops of A. were almost annihilated, and A. Allygu!rh, an important fort, the military headquarters of a himself was made prisoner, and shortly after strangled. His district of the same name in India, situated about midway be- son, also called Diego d'A., a youth of great bodily vigour, tween Agra and Delhi, being 74 miles S. of the latter by rail. prowess, and military skill, formed a party to revenge his father's It occupies a strong position in the midst of a morass, and death, and on the 26th June I54I succeeded in assassinating commands the road from Agra to Meerut. It was taken by the Pizarro. He caused himself immediately to be proclaimed British in 1803. During the mutiny (1857) it was held by the Governor of Peru, and obtained a partial recognition; but on insurgents for a considerable time, almost severing the con- the i6th September 1542 his partisans were utterly crushed by munication between the S.E. and N.W. A. lies a little N. of the royal army in the plain of Chupas, and A., captured on the the town of Coel (q. v.) field, wasimmediately beheaded. See Herrera's H-istoria general AI'ma, a small river in the Crimea, rises near the Tchadir de los Hechos de los Castellanos en las Islas y Terr)a fi-me del mar Dagh, flows westward, and enters the Black Sea midway be- Oceano (Mad. 160I-12), Zarate's His/oria del Descuvrimiento y tWeen Sebastopol and Eupatoria. It is celebrated in connection Conqgista del Peru (Antw. 1555), and Prescott's Conquest of with the battle in which the Russian forces, under Prince PeMc (1847). Menschikoff, were driven from a strong position, and totally Almali', or Elmaley, a prosperous town in the vilayet of routed by the allied armies of England and France, commanded IKonia, Asiatic Turkey, on the Myra, 25 miles from its mouth, by Lord Raglan and Marshal St Arnaud, 2oth September and 40 S.W. of Adalia, surrounded by the lofty Massanghis 1854. Mountains. It contains a large bazaar, and a market much Almack's, a suite of assembly. rooms in King Street, visited by European merchants. The thrifty and industrious St James's, London, built in 1765 by one M'Call, and much inhabitants are chiefly employed in the factories, mills, dyepatronised by ladies of rank. They are now known as Willis's worls, and tanneries of the town. Pop. 11,ooo. Rooms. The name A. is said to be an inversion of M'Call. Al'ma Xa'ter (Lat.'nourishing mother'), a university, in re. A.lma'da, a town in the province of Estremadura, Portugal, lation to its students. Alma was applied by the Latin poets to such goddesses and natural objects as were beneficent to men. 2 miles S. of Lisbon, near the mouth of the Tagus. It is noted such goddesses and natural objects as were benefeent to men. for its figs, and near it is the Adissa gold mine. Pop. 5500. Alnanac, derived from the Arabic article al, and mana/, Almacden' del Azoque (Arab.'the mine of quicksilver'), to count, is, in the modern acceptance of the term, an ana town in La Mancha, Spain, situated in a glen of the Sierra nual publication containing important and interesting informaMorena, on the railway between Ciudad Real and Badajoz. It tion on a great variety of topics, political, religious, commercial, is the Cisapona Celobrix of the Romans, and possesses the richest agricultural, astronomical, social, &c. The origin of almanacs quicksilver mines in the world. Managed by the firm of Roths- goes back to the times of the Alexandrian Greeks, but there is child, these mines yield 2,000,000 lbs. of metal annually. Pop. no record of the date of their introduction into Europe. Probably 7400. they were in use from an early age in connection with astrology; but the earliest mention of them belongs to the 12th c., hWhen thlmageest the Arabic name of the greaw work of Ptolemy we meet with the name of Solomon Jarchus, who published one ~~the astronomer (q. v.) ~in 1150. Purbach published one from I450-6I, and his pupil Ablmag'ro, a town in New Castile, Spain, 13 miles E.S.E. Regiomontanus brought out the first printed A. in 1475; but of Ciudad Real. It possesses a beautiful church of the I6th c. by far the most wonderful A.-maker of the middle ages was and is an important agricultural town, with considerable manu. Nostradamus (q. v.) factures, chiefly in lace, soap, pottery, and brandy. Pop. 86oo. In the I6th c. IIHenry III. of France prohibited the printing of almanacs containing political predictions, prophecies being, at Almagro, Diego d', a Spanish adventurer, who took part that time, their great feature, Nostradamus particularly shining with Pizarro (q. v.) in the conquest of Peru, was born (according in the prophetical department. The Almanac/h L ieeois, first to Herrera) in 1475, at Aldea del Rey. At an early age he emi- published in 1636, and still flourishing, is perhaps the most grated to the New World to push his fortunes, and by one means lively and ingenious of these venerable quackeries. In England, or another had acquired, in the course of years, considerable until the present century, all almanacs were full of this progwealth. In 1525, at the age of fifty, he joined Pizarro in his nosticating stuff. They were almost all published by the famous expedition from Panama, which resulted in the conquest Stationers' Company, which, though deprived in 1775 of the and subjugation of the vast empire of the Incas by a handful of monopoly for the publication of such periodicals, which had daring and unscrupulous cavaliers. The story of the perils and been granted it by James I., managed to buy up most of the hardships they endured while feeling their way S. along un- other similar publications. The first A. bereft wholly of astroknown shores, and among hostile savages, invests with a halo of logical rubbish was the Brilish A., published in 1828 by the romance careers that otherwise display mere criminal ambition Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; and so marked * -— i-~~-~ -~-~~-~- 69 ALM THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPTDIA. ATLM was its success, that the Stationers' Company brought out a rival. the Count of Abrantes, and first won reputation as a soldier and similar periodical, viz., the Englishman's A. The heavy fighting for Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain against the Moors. stamp - duty of I5d. the copy imposed upon almanacs in Britain Appointed Viceroy of the Indies by Emmanuel I. of Portugal was abolished in I834. in 1505, he sailed for Asia, deposing by the way the King of Oliver and Boyd's New Edinburgh A., which now consists of Quiloa, on the Mozambique coast, and installing another in his 80o pages, was originally called the Edinburgh A., and was place. Along the W. coast of India he effectively asserted the first published in I683 as a rival to the Prognostications pub- Portuguese supremacy, and, carrying out the aim of his expedilished at Aberdeen in the beginning of the I7th c. Similar in tion-to extinguish the commerce of Egypt and Venice in the nature, but even more extensive than Oliver and Boyd's, is East —he destroyed the Egyptian fleet near Diu, in Cambay. Thom's irish A. During his administration the Portuguese discovered the MalAmong other important national almanacs, we may mention dives, Ceylon, and Madagascar. After violent altercation with the French Almanach m/e'-ial, the Belgian Royal A., the Albuquerque (q. v.), who was sent out to supersede him, and Prussian Royal A., and the American A. The Almanach de whose authority he at first refused to recognise, A. resigned the Gotha has more of a cosmopolitan character, containing some viceroyalty, and set out on his return to Europe, November information about almost every country. I508, but was killed by an arrow-wound in a miserable encounThe NauticalA., first projected by Maskelyne, the astronomer- ter with natives in the Bay of Saldanha, March I, I5Io. A. royal, and published by the government in I767, is the most was brave and disinterested, The court of Spain went into important and useful astronomical publication in Britain, and is public mourning when the news of his death reached Europe. now published three or four years in advance. Similar, and equally excellent, are the French Connaissance des Temps, and Almeri'a (Arab.'the conspicuous'), a seaport and capital the Berlin Ephemeris. of a province of the same name in Andalusia, Spain, on the The name A. is also applied to antiquated carved calendars, Bay of Almeria. It is the ancient Murgis, or'great port,' of used by the Scandinavian nations, in which certain days, such as Eastern traffic, and in the time of the Moors was the most flourfeast-days and saints' days, were represented by symbols. ishing city in the kingdom, next to Granada. It is now, howevel, a place of little importance, but it still retains part of its Alman'sa, a town of Murcia, Spain, lies 43 miles E. of once prosperous trade in wine, cochineal, lead, red silk, and Albacete, on the Madrid and Alicante Railway. Pop. 7300. It grapes. In the vicinity are numerous hot springs and extensive is gradually improving, and has manufactures of brandy, leather, lead mines. Pop. 29,426. soap, linen, hempen, and cotton fabrics. The battle of A. (April 25, I707), in which the English and Spanish allied troops were Almodo'var del Campo, a town in La Mancha, Spain, 22 defeated by a superior force of the French, was one of the most miles S.W. of Ciudad Real. It stands on a spur of the Sierra important of the succession wars of Spain. Morena, at the base of which flows the Vega. Agriculture is the chief employment. Pop. 5620. Alman'sur (Abu-Jafar-Abdallah-ben-Mohammed, surnamed al-Mansir, i.e.,'whom God helps'), born about 712, was the Almo'hades, an Arabic word, importing'Unitarians,' assecond calif of the house of the Abbasides (q. v.), and reigned from sumed by a dynasty that ruled in Africa and Spain in the 12th 754, when he succeeded his brother, till his death, October I8, and I3th centuries, to assert the superior orthodoxy of their wor775, during a pilgrimage to Mecca. He rid himself of his rivals ship. Their founder, Mohammed Ibn-Toumert, born in the to the throne by the most cruel and treacherous means. His Atlas, came forward at first as a religious reformer, and led energies were severely taxed to crush successive revolts in vari- a very ascetic life. His influence becoming formidable, Ali, ous provinces of his empire; but his main efforts were directed King of Morocco, proceeded to check it; but by the assistance against the Mussulman sectaries, whom he hoped to crush by of the Arabs and Berbers, Mohammed made himself master of imprisoning their leaders. Popular odium was excited against Morocco, Fez, and Tunis. The A. subsequently conquered him, and he found himself besieged in his own palace. When portions of Spain and Portugal. Abd-ul-Mumen, formerly the relieved; he withdrew to the banks of the Tigris, where, in 762, lieutenant, became the successor of Mohammed. The dynasty on the site of the ancient Seleucia and Ctesiphon, he founded was splendid and powerful till their great defeat by the SpanBagdad. Two rival califs proclaimed themselves, the one at iards at. Tolosa in 1212. Their power in Spain was finally subMedina and the other at Bassora, but they were crushed by Isa- verted in 1257, and in Africa twelve years later. ben-Mousa, the general and cousin of A. The leading features Alm'ond. The A.-tree (Amygdalus communis) belongs of A.'s character were ingratitude, intolerance, and avarice. to the natural order R e, and the suborder Ambdalel The latter characteristic, however, enabled him to leave in the to the natural order treasury at his death a sum equivalent to/28,ooo,ooo sterling. It was originally a native of Barbary and Morocco, but by But he was a friend to letters, and had translations made of the ong cultivation it has become distributed over almost all the Greek and Latin authors into Arabic, or some other of the lan- warmer temperate countries of the Old World. There are two guages spoken in his dominions. Plato, Herodotus, Homer, varieties of the tree-viz., dulcis, yielding the sweet A., and and Xenophon were translated into Syriac; medical and botani- amara, yielding the bitter A. The chief kinds of sweet A. are cal works into Persian; Euclid from the Syriac, and the fables the Valencia, the Italian, and the Jordan; the latter come from of Bidpai from the Persian, into Arabic. The translator of the Malaga. They are often sold with their brittle endocarps latter work was, for a departure from orthodoxy, ordered by A. adhering, under the name of shell almonds. The seeds are used to be burnt alive. medicinally as well as for dessert, but are very indigestible. About 500 tons are annually consumed in Britain. Bitter Alm'as, the name of a number of towns in Hungary, the almonds are imported from Mogadore. They are principally chief of which is in Zombor, Woiwodina, i6 miles W. of Maria used for the expression of the fixed and distillation of the essenT'heresienstadt. It has a population of 7938, nearly all Roman tial oil contained in them. They are also employed for flavouring Catholics. purposes, but ought to be used with great caution, as they possess ~Almazo'ra, a town in Valencia, Spain, 4 miles S. of Cas- a poisonous principle similar in its effects to prussic acid. About tellon de la Plana. It lies in a fertile plain, miles from the 300 tons are imported into Britain annually. The essential oil mouth of the Mijares, and manufactures p lain, 3 miles from the of almonds is a virulent poison. This oil does not exist naturally mouth of the Mijares, and manufactures paper and linen and in the A, but is formed by the chemical agency of water on woollen fabrics. Pop. 5150. some of its constituents. Almei'da, a strong fortress in the province of Beira, Portugal, near the Spanish frontier. It was taken by Spain in I762, Almonds, Essential Oil of. In bitter almonds there is but subsequently surrendered. The French, under Mnarshal present a crystallisable body named amygdalin, which is not Massena, captured it (I8Io) from the B3ritish; but it was recov-found in the sweet varieties. The infuence of amygdalin on ered in the following year by Wellington, and restored to Portu- another constituent of almonds, emulsin, causes the formation of gal. Pop. 450. the essential oil of A. To develop the essential oil, for it is not present in the natural condition of the kernel, the cake of bitter Almeida, Don Francisco d', Portuguese Viceroy of the A. from which the fixed oil has been extracted is macerated Indies in the beginning of- the 6th c., was the seventh son of in water and submitted to distillation, when the essential oil 70 ALM THE- GLOBE ENVC YCLOPkL'DIA. ALP forms and comes over. The essential oil consists of a hydride Al'oe, a Latinised form of an Arabic name, given to a genus of benzoyl mixed with hydrocyanic acid, benzoic acid, and one of succulent plants belonging to the or two other substances. It occurs in commerce as a golden- natural order LiliaceC. The species yellow limpid liquid, with an agreeable odour, an acrid, bitter are abundant in all warm countries, taste, and highly poisonous qualities, on account of the hydro- and are very tenacious of life. The cyanic acid it contains. The kernels of various stone fruits, as well most important product of the plants as the leaves of the laurel, Pruznus lauroceriasus, yield the essen- is the drug called Aloes (q. v.) The tial oil. It is largely used by perfumers for scenting soap, the juice of A. was formerly used in flavour of Noyau is owing to it, and it is used in the preparation embalming dead bodies. Fibre is of puddings, &c. Under the name of essence of mirbane, a also obtained from several species. chemical preparation, nitrobenzol, having the flavour of essential American A. belongs to a different oil of A., is frequently substituted for the genuine oil, especially genus and order of plants. See in perfuming soap. AGAVE. Almonds, Fixed Oil of. Both sweet and bitter A. contain Aloe Fibre, or Pita Flax. a proportion of fixed oil in their composition, the sweet variety See AGAVE. / having about 54 and bitter A. containing 28 per cent. The oil is precisely the same in both varieties, and may be extracted by Aloes, or Bitter Aloes, tbe pressure. Almond oil contains only a small proportion of the inspissated juice from the leaves of solid constituent margarin, and therefore remains fluid to a very various species of aloe, used in med i; low temperature-25~ C. It is a soft yellow oil, with a bland, cine as a powerful purgative. The nutty flavour when fresh, but quickly becomes rancid. - It is ubstance has a dark resinous lustre,.. used in pharmacy chiefly for the preparation of ointments, and and a disagreeable, exceedinglybitter generally it is available as a substitute for olive oil. taste. The finest A. come fiom Aloe. the island of Socotra; and from Bar. Alm'oner, the name given at first to a member of a religious badoes, in the W. Indies, another variety, classified as hepatic order, and afterwards to an ecclesiastic attached to the court of or dark, according to the colour, is received. The other coma sovereign, prince, or nobleman, and whose duty is the distribu- mercial source of A. is Cape Colony, but its produce is chiefly tion of alms. In England the Lord. Hlio7 A. dispenses the used in veterinary practice. Messrs T. and H. Smith, of Edin. bounties of the sovereign, and is always a high dignitary of the burgh, have introduced into pharmacy a body termed aloin, Church. extracted from A., having similar properties, but possessing the advantages of a definite chemical compound. Almo'ra, the chief town of the British district of Kumaon, India, 87 miles N. of Bareilly, and I55 N.E. of Delhi. It Aloes Wood, or Lign Aloes, called also Eagle Wood, or stands on a mountain ridge 5337 feet above the sea, near the Agallochum, is Auilzaria Agalloc/zunm, a tree of tropical Asia, source of the Kosila, a tributary of the Ramgunga. It is a belonging to the natural order Afzuiariacea. It is believed to military station, and has prospered greatly since it came into be the aloes referred to in the Bible. The wood contains a resin British possession. Pop. (I872) 6I5s. and an essential oil, which is separated and used as a perfume. The Orientals burn the resin in their temples for the sake of its Almor'avides, or MlXorabethun, an Arab dynasty in Africa fragrance, and it is also used medicinally. HI-erodotus states that and Spain in the IIth and I2th centuries A.D. The name, which it once sold for more than its weight in gold. means'the champions of religion,' was applied to a sect of Mohammedan proselytes originally founded by Abdallah-ben- Alope'cia is partial or general baldness. It is more common Yassim, who, descending from the western slopes of the Atlas in the male than in the female sex. Occasionally there is conunder Abubekr, conquered Fez and Morocco, and crossing into genital absence of hair. Baldness in most cases is indicative of Spain, under Yussef-ben-Taxfin, subdued it to the Tagus on the loss of vital power, the hair follicles participating in the general W. and to the Ebro on the E. But the Almohades (q. v.) soon weakness of the nutritive functions; but sometimes it is the deprived them of their rapidly-acquired possessions 1both in direct result of disease, such as syphilis. When the baldness is Africa and Spain, and destroyed their great empire in II48. The circumscribed into distinct patches, it is called A. area. If terms Afaravedi (q. v.) and Marablzts (q. v.) still keep their rule the hair follicles have been absorbed or destroyed, baldness is in remembrance. incurable. Al'mug or Algum Tree. The plant referred to under these Alopecu'rus, a genus of grasses. See FOXTAIL. names in. the Old Testament (I Kings x. and 2 Chron. ix.) is Alo'ra, a town in the province of Malaga, Spain, 18 miles supposed to be Santalunm albuziu, the sandalwood of India. The N.W. of Malaga, on the Guadalherce. It has a ruined Gothic wood, which is fragrant, was brought from Ophir (probably castle, and lies in a district where oil and capital wine are prosome part of India) by Hiram, and was used to form pillars for duced. The chief employments are agriculture and the making the temple and for the king's house, as well as for harps and of soap and sulphate of soda. Pop. 8370. psalteries. It is employed in China for incense. Alost, or Aalst (' to the east'), a walled town of Belgium, Almun.ecar' (Arab.' the gorge'), a seaport in Andalusia, on the Dender, a tributary of the Scheldt, I6 miles W.N.W. Spain, 31 miles S. of Granada. It lies in a rich valley, which, of Brussels by rail. It is the old capital of E. Flanders, and under Moorish cultivation, yielded cotton and sugar. These has some beautiful buildings. The unfinished church of St products have been lately revived, and sugar-refining is one of Martin is a magnificent structure, and contains a celebrated the chief industries. Pop. 5000. picture by Rubens,' St Roch beseeching our Saviour to stay the Plague of A.' A. is the birthplace of Thierry Martens, acZ.'us, a genus of trees belogig to the who here (1475) set up the first printing-press in Belgium. It is an active centre of trade, and has extensive iron and copper Aln'wick, the county town of Northumberland, near the foundries, distilleries, breweries, cotton-mills, print-works, and mouth of the Alne, on the highroad between Newcastle and bleach-fields. Pop. I9,700. Berwick-on-Tweed, 34 miles from the former, and 30 from Aloy'sia, a genus of plants in the order Verbeeace, to the latter. It is said to have been founded by the Romans, which the lemon-scented verbena (A. citriodora) of gardens but its origin is really unknown. In the middle ages it was belongs. The plant, although a native of Chili, thrives well in strongly fortified to resist the frequent attacks of the Scots, and the open air in Ireland anthe S. of England. vestiges of its walls and gates still remain. The modern town has a handsome corn exchange and town-hall, but its trade is Alp, Alb, a mountain chain between the Neckar and the unimportant. It is the election town for the N. division of the Danube, otherwise called the Rauhe or Swabian Alp, 60o miles county, and a station on the North-Eastern Railway. At the N. long and I2 broad, with an average height of fully 2000 feet, is entrance to the town stands A. Castle, the magnificent baronial a plateau, with several intersecting valleys, and belongs almost residence of the Dukes of Northumberland. Pop. (1871) 62z8. wholly to Wiirtemberg. The system is calcareous, and abounds *i i, 7' ALP THE- GLOBE ENCYC LO~AD A. ALP in remarkable cavities. Wine and:.uit are produced in con- The capital is Nice (q. v.) The A. was formed by the union of siderable quantities in the valley., but the plateau is barren. a portion of the department of Var with Nice, formerly a part Alpadca (Azuckeia Paco). The A., or paco, of Peru, forms of Sardinia, ceded to France in I86o by the treaty of Zurich. a species or variety of Llama (q. v.), which genus represents the Area, i680 sq. miles; pop. (1872) I99,037. Eastern camels in the New World. _By some authorities the A. is re- Al'phabet is a term applied to the collection of symbols garded as a distinct species, and which are used to express the various sounds that occur in a is named as above; by others it is language. It is derived from alfipa, beta, the names of the two accounted a mere variety along with first letters in the Greek language, and there:o're corresponds the vicugna (A. vicunia) and the exactly to our A B C. guanaco (A. guanzaco). The A. is There can scarcely be a doubt that pictures were first employed m" ss/ w "p/ of smaller size than the llama, and to indicate words; that these pictures became more and more although never employed as a beast indistinct in the lapse ot time, but still remained symbols of of burden, is yet largely bred and words;and that it was only at a later stage that the sounds of domesticated in Peru for the sake words were analysed into their simplest forms, and separate Alpaca. of its long silky wool, large quan- symbols employed for each. Indeed, at the present day some titles of which are imported into languages have symbols only for words. In Chinese this is the this and other countries for the manufacture of various fabrics. case, and in that language there are upwards of 50,000 different In size it resembles a large sheep, the neck being more elongated, symbols. A fourth of these is obsolete, and a half of the rehowever, its eyes larger, and its movements more lithe and active. mainder rarely occur, or are mere variations and antiquated The colour is in general a yellowish brown, but it varies to grey forms. There are 204 signs employed to indicate the pronunor even white, or may exhibit a hue almost approaching black. ciation of the words to which they are attached, called keys or Its habitat is in the mountainous tracts of Peru and Chili, but it root-signs. The hieroglyphics of Egypt were also originally occurs both to the N. of these limits and southwards to Patagonia. pictorial and indicated words. The alpacas are gregarious in habits, and in a wild state are timid The symbols of our A. are derived from -the Phcenician. and wary. Attempts to naturalise the A. in Britain, and Europe Some scholars think that the Phoenician. A. itself was derived from generally, have not been successful, chiefly on account of the the Egyptian hieroglyphics by a process of decay or loss. Subwant of sufficient enterprise. As in all the llamas, no humps exist, stantially the same symbols as the Phoenician are used in and the toes are completely separated. The A. wool is chiefly Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, Latin, Coptic, Gothic, German, manufactured at Bradford in Yorkshire. In I863 Peru furnished English, and several other languages. The names of the letters 2,772,836 lbs., whilst New Granada exported 622,889 lbs., and show that they were originally pictures. In the case of the first, other S. American countries 6857 lbs. for instance, an ox would be represented, but it is possible that Alp A~rsllan ('brave lion' ), whose proper name was Moham. only such portions of the ox would be given as would be neces. med Lhaz-ed-Din-AbruChuja, was the second Seljukide sultan, sary to identify it. The symbol would indicate the sound of the and was born in Turkestan about I028 or 1030. He ascended word denoting the animal, then possibly only the first syllable the throne of Khorassan in 1053, on the death of his father Daoud, of the word, and finally only the first letter. and ten years later succeeded his uncle, Togrul Beg, the first of Each A., and indeed each letter, has a history of its own. the Sejukide sultans. The military force belonging to his great We leave the fuller account of the letters to the articles on each letter. Here we hav-e to notice that the A. varied dominion he employed first (Io64)in suppressing a revolt in Azer on eacht different periods ine hanumber and symbolic force of tvaried bijan, where he defeated the rebel chief Kutulinish near the city at different periods in the number and symbolic force of the of Rei; he then (Io65) followed on a c6urse of victory and con- letters. Th us there can belong to a lat te riod. We know quest into Transoxiana. He next (ro67-68) proceeded against Hebrew letters now sed belong to a late period. We know the Greeks, by whom the Turks had been several times driven that the Greel A. has lost some letters and gained others. ~~~~~~~back beyond the Eu ~tate the re eiganmA, for instance, disappeared. In the earlier back beyond the Euphrates. A fierce battle was fought between the towns of Van and Erzeroum in August 107I. The Greek inscriptions H is the rough breathing, and the long vowels Greeks were defeated, and their gallant emperor, Romanus IV Eta and Omega do not occur. In fact, tradition stated that the surnamed Diogenes, taken prisoner. The ransom he paid Greeks derived only sixteen letters from the Phoenicians, and was equivalent to,~I,ooo,ooo sterling, with an annual tribute of that letters were added in at least two subsequent periods. wI6qo,ooo. A. was assassinated I5th December 1072 bay Jussuf Though this tradition is not strictly accurate, since it is quite Cothuol, commander of the fortress of Berzem, in Turkestan. apparent that more than sixteen letters were derived from the ulpeo, Banses ('Lower Alps') afrontier department in Turs the Phoenicians, it is correct in regard to the additions. In the Alpes, Basses (Lower Alps'), a frontier department in the Latin A. the letter C represented the two sounds of k and hard S.E. of France, formerly part of Provence, with the Hautes A. on g at the time of the Decemvirs, and it is possible that the two the N. and the A.,Maritimes in the S. E. Fruit grows abundantly sounds were so uttered as not to be ealy distiguishable. In in the S., and the wines are celebrated, but in the N. the surface the were so uttered as not to be cearly distinguislable. In is nearly barren. The chief town is Digne (pop. 3720), which e process of time IK passed out of use, occurring only in a few is nearly barren. The chief town is Digne (pop. 3720), which, words. C was employed for the k sound, and a new symbol, like Greoulx, has hot springs. The B. A. produces lead and g, was it roduced to express the har sound, and a new symbol green marble, and is watered by the Durance. Area, 2680 s was introduced to express the hard ~. This new symbol green map.le, and is watered. bytheD ce Are,2 s t appears in a Latin inscription dating shortly after 290 B.c. Atthe time of Cicero there were twenty-one letters in the Latin Alpes, Hautes ('Upper Alps'), a frontier department of A. The letters z and y were regarded as foreign, and used only France, occupies the S.E. part of Dauphine. It is the highest in transferring Greek words into Latin. department in France, and is traversed by the Cottian Alps, The names given to the letters by the Phoenicians were not which, in Mount Pelvoux, reach an altitude of I4,000 feet. The representatives of the sounds. The Greek names were borrowed soil is wretched, and the climate severe for France. Unless in from the Phoenician. The practical Romans seem to have been some southern valleys, it yields only potatoes, rye, oats, and the first to name the letters from the sounds. The vowels they barley. It is rich, however, in lead, copper, iron, and anthracite. called by their powers, as we do, a, e, i, a, u. Tof 1 m, n, r, The chief town is Gap (q. v.) Area, 2136 sq. miles; pop. s, x, they prefixed the sound of e, and called them ef, el, enm, en, (I872) I18,898. e, es, ex. The last was also called ix. The vowel e was added Alpes-Maritimes, a department in the extreme S.E. of to c, g, fi, b, t, d, thus giving them the names ce, ge, e, be, te, France, separated from Italy by the mountain range of the same de. k and h were named ka and ha, and f, q2. We have name. In the mountainous country to the N. immense flocks increased the number of the letters by making two letters and herds are reared,. and especially a celebrated breed of goats. of i, i and j, and two of u, iu and v, and we have added In the fertile southerly valleys flourish the vine and olive, w. If we examine the A. by the light of its history, and also oranges, lemons, and figs, while tobacco is success- it seems probable that the order of the letters in the A. fully cultivated. Many of the inhabitants, along the shores was based on a classification of sounds. The first letter was a of the Mediterranean, are engaged in the tunny, anchovy, and breathing, and still is in Hebrew, but a vowel in Latin and sardine fisheries. The silk-worm is extensively reared, and Greek. Then come in Hebrew and Greek the three mzedic' b, g, there is considerable manufacture of perfumes and bijouterie. d, and we have seen that the c of the Latins originally stood for 72 ALP THE GLOBE ENCYCLO~EDIA. ALP the g. Then came another breathing in Hebrew, formed into adventurous goat fails to reach, and thrown over precipices to be the vowel e in Greek and Latin. Then followed the three picked up below. The milk of the cows is converted into cheese. aspirates in the same order as the nmedire f, It, t,. The f, or Huts at various stages exist for the cattle-tenders, whose start in Digamma, disappeared from the Greek, the,t became the spring and return in autumn are signalised by popular festivals. symbol for the long e, and another symbol, X, was used for ch. In Latin the g- was inserted, as mentioned above, and the t~z Alpine Plants. This appellation is generally given to those was not adopted. In Hebrew and Greek a sibilant was intro-whcocu ertesw-i.Tislnvaesmhindf was not adopted. In Hebrew and Greekr a sibilant was intro- plants found at a considerable elevation on mountains, or those which occur near thle snow-line. This ling varies much in difduced into the group. Then comes another breathing in Hebrew, cou a the lieOn the mountaind and the vowel i in Greek and Latin. This is followed by the feent countries, according to the latitude. n te tin liquids 1, mi, n. The I seems to be of later introduction in all er the equator many plants are met with at an elevation of the three languages; a sibilant appears in Hebrew and Greek. 2,000 to 15,000 feet above the level of the sea, which have a Then comes another breathing in Hebrew, represented by the resemblance to those met with on the Swiss and German Alps vowel o in Greek and Latin. And this was followed by the about 6oo0 or 7000 feet, as well as those on the low hills of Lapthree telues in the same order as the aspirates andedi p, land, and those found on the sea-shore in Siberia. The zone of three thenues i the sete rerasetn the aprtsoand hasdise dIA. P. in Central Europe ranges from 4500 to 9500 feet above In the Gree the letter representing the sound has disp- the sea, and is characterised by dwarf rhododendrons, such as peared. It had the name of Koy a, and is found in early inscrip~~~Pp, ~~~~~R. hitsuhtue the rose of the Alps, blue gentians, saxifi'ages, &c. tions. It talkes the form of q in Latin. The insertion of the zU, the rose of the Alps, blue gentians, saxifrges, c. liquid r and the sibilant s may have been later. Some points of On the Scottish mountains this zone is from 2500 to 4000 feet. this explanation may be open to question, but enough is abso- Its flora is marked by such plants as the drooping bulbous lutely certain to show that the invention of our A. followed. a saxifrage (S. cernua), a species only found on Ben Lawers, in principle. Britain, the rock whitlow-grass (Drama rupestris), the alpine No language that exists has an A. that accurately expresses forget-me-not (iyosotis alpestris), the alpine speedwell (Veronica all the sounds contained in it. Various efforts have been made apina), the trailing azalea (A. procumbens), the alpine genin modern times to attain this result, and Mr Bell has been tian (G. nivalis), the alpine sedge (Carex frziidc), discovered remarkably successful in his'Visible Speech.' But this object as new to Britain in 1574, and the round-leaved Woodsia (I. as new to Britain in 1874, and the round-leaved Woodsia (W/P. vill be found discussed under PHONETICS. peh'Bthiobcthyperborea). Many A. P. are much restricted in their distribution, and some are even confined to a single locality, such as Alphei'us, the modern Ruf~a, the largest river of the Pelo- fypericum coris, a species of St John's wort, found on the ponnesus, rises in the S.E. of Arcadia, afid after flowing through Wiggis mountain in Switzerland, and Salix Saderi, a dwarf Elis, past the famous scene of the Olympic games, falls into the willow on a mountain at the head of Glen Callater, in Scotland, Ionian Sea. As it disappears several times in the limestone where it was discovered in I874. mountains of the country which gives it birth, it gave rise to a Alpin'ia, a genus of plants belonging to the Ginger family. beautiful myth, which has been immortalised by the muse of See GALANGALE. Shelley. A. the river-god, becoming enamoured of the nymph Arethusa, pursued her from Greece to Sicily without inter- Alp'nach, a village in the canton of Unterwalden, Switzer. mingling his waters; and as at Ortygia (Syracuse) a copious land, on a bay. of Lake Lucerne called Lake A., near the base fresh-water spring entered the sea close to where another spring of Mount Pilatus. It was notable for the' slide,' 25oo00 feet long, bubbled up under the salt water, these were fabled to be A. and by which, in former times, timber was conveyed from the hill-top. Arethusa. Pop. i6oo. Al'pine Clubs are societies intended to promote, by means Alps (Celtic, aib or alp, a craggy height, probably connected of travel and field-work, a scientific investigation of the reat with Lat. aib, albus, white, see ALBANy), the greatest mounEuropean mountain system. The first of these clubs was that tain system of Europe, resting upon a basis of go90,oo sq. miles. founded in London in 1858, and which has issued several in- They extend from the valley of the Rhone in France on the W., teresting and important works, the chief of which are-Peaks, to the plains of Hungary on the E.; on the N. they include a Passes, and Glacier-s (3 vols., Lond. 1859-62); the Alpine Guide large part of Switzerland and the upper regions of the Danube, and on the S. are bounded by Italy and the Adriatic Sea. They (3 vols., I863-67); and the,dlfine youmrnn, published since vol.rch 863-. ah neendthe-Albineatoonnaof publishedesince stretch from the 6' to the 2o' E. long., and while in some parts March863.Theidpndnubiainsotouching 43' N. lat, lie principally between the parallels of 46' being professedly due in part to the influence of the club, may and 48' N. lat. The length of the main chain is about 692 miles, alsobe ererefrre to asG~aier ~f~zeA~p (160) an Hot~s and 480 N. lat. The length of the main chain is about 692 miles, also be here referred to, as Glaciers of tte Alps (i86o), and flours the breadth varies greatly. of Exercise in 1/ic Alps (1871), by Professor Tyndall; the Play- Ditisioes.-The A., bott in ancient and modern times, have grounds of Eurotpe (87i), by Leslie Stephen; and Scrambles i he tIte Alps (1871), by Edward Whymper. The English Alpine been divided into numerous ranges bearing distinct names. The Club was followed by the establishment of similar societies in foliowing is a convenient classification, embracing at least all following is a convenient classification, embracing at least all Austria (1862), Italy (1863), Switzerland (1863), and in Germany the most important divisions I. The West A., including(Munich, 1869). i. The Maritime A., between France and Italy, fiom the Medi. terranean to about 440 50' N. lat.; 2. the Cottian A., to the Alpine Farming. The mode of farming pursued in the N. of the Maritime A.; 3. the Graian A., between Piedmont and wilder regions of the Alps shows that the peasants are not only Savoy. II. The Middle A.-i. The Pennine A., between Lon. very industrious, but by no means devoid of practical know- bardy and the Rhone Valley; 2. the Lepontine or Helvetian A., ledge. Doubtless it is intuitive, but no better mode could be pro- in the S. of Switzerland; 3. the Rhoetian A., in the Grisons and posed or practised by the most skilled farmers in Europe. the Tyrol; 4. the Bernese A., in Switzerland, between the Except in the valleys of the Alps arable husbandry is impossible, Rhone and the Aar, N. of and parallel to the Pennine range. so that pasturage and haymaking are the only sources of profit III. The East A.-s. The Noric A., in Salzburg and Styria, open to those who depend upon the soil for sustenance. At the Austria; 2. the Carnic A., between Austria (the Tyrol and lower levels of the mountainous range, above the flat country, the Carinthia) and Italy (Venetia); 3. the Julian A., extending land is broken up by the plough in order to make hay, which is from Carinthia, through Carniola, to the Adriatic Sea. to serve for the winter fodder of cattle. These are pastured in Elevation.-The Middle A. are the most elevated, reaching in summer in a rotative way, which is veryjudicious. Summer begins their highest summit, Mont Blanc, in the Pennine range, which in May, when the cattle are placed upon the lowest of the three is also the highest summit in Europe, a height of 15,783 feet. stages forming alpine pasture-grounds. They crop the herbage up- In the same range are Monte Rosa, 15,200; the Matterhorn or wards, through the Middle Alps to the Upper Alps, where they Mont Cervin, 14,780 feet, &c. In the Lepontine A. the St finish about the end of July, and they are thus always kept in a Gothard is about 12,00ooo feet in height. In the Bernese A. progressive state. Then the animals, having cropped this higher Finsteraarhorn is 4,00ooo feet, and Jungfrau 13,700. In their grass, are marched down the hill again, eating as they come, and lowest passes the Middle A. have an elevation of about 6ooo after about twenty weeks' absence arrive at the place of starting, feet. The West A. vary from 4000 feet in the lowest pass to when the hay, top-dressed by their own manures, is ready for 13,500 feet. Aiguille de Chambeyron, 11,155 feet, and Grand them. This has been gathered in the interval of their moun. Rioburent, 14,1 65, in the Maritime A.; Monte Viso, 12,6oo00 feet, tainous feeding. iHay has been cut on ledges which even the in the Cottian A.; Mont Isdran, I3,372 feet, and Mont Cenis, 1 0__ _ 7 ~ *4 —-------- 4- u ALP THIE GLOBE ENVCYCLOPt D~A. ALS I,460 feet, in the Graian A., are among the chief summits in this Pennine and the S. side of the Bernese A.; and the Var, which range. The East A. attain the height of 12,000 feet in Gross- is the principal stream of the Maritime A. Glockner, in the Noric A. Mont Terglu, in the Julian A., General Fealtures.-The A., in their general outline, form a is 9370 feet. They possess passes as low as 3500 feet. grand sweep round the N. of Italy, one end of the curve being in Passes. —There are in the A. at least sixty passes which can be the valley of the Rhone, the other lying in the kingdom of Huncrossed by carriages. Three railways, including that through gary. Lakes border both the northern and southern bases of the the'famous Mont Cenis Tunnel, cross them, and others are in mountains, and valleys of great variety of form open out in all process of construction. The chief passes are those of Mont directions. Alpine scenery is wonderfully grand and diversified. Genevre, over the Cottian A.; Mont Cenis, Mont Iseran, and Snow-covered peaks, icy glaciers, sheer precipices, and moun. the Little St Bernard, over the Graian A., all forming lines of tain torrents lend the element of grandeur to the picture, while communication between the S.E. of France and Piedmont; the the softer side is supplied by the glassy surfaces of the lakes and Great St Bernard, over the Pennine A.; the Simplon, between the beautiful tints of the alpine flora. Some of the glaciers the Pennine and Lepontine A., both connecting the valley of the are of immense size; the Mer-de-Glace, on the northern slope Rhone with the N. of Italy; and the St Gothard, over the of Mont Blanc, is I2 miles long, 5 miles wide, and from 80 to Lepontine A., in the line of route from Lucerne to Lake Mag- I8o feet thick. The summits of the A. generally taper away in giore; the Spliigen, the Brenner Pass, and the Wormser Joch the form of a peak, which, in the loftiest mountains, is covered or Orteles Pass, in the Rhoetian A., by which intercourse is with perpetual snow. The mountains of chalk formation are kept up between Lombardy and the S. W. of Austria. The distinguished by their rounded summits. roads across the East A. are much lower and more numerous, and do not require special mention. They connect Venice with lpuJarras (a Spanish corruption of an ic wod meanthe whole S.W. of Austria. ing'grass'), the name of a range of mountains and the surround- Geology.-The oldest rock formations of the A. are generally ing legion in the S.E. of Spain. The range runs W. and E. primary crystalline. The central ranges are in a great measure parallel to the Sierra Nevada, from Motril to the river Almeria. composed of the crystalline rocks, gneiss, mica-slate, talcose- The district extends fiom the Mediterranean on the S. to the slate, and others of a similar kind. The gneiss often contains Sierra Nevada on the N. The N. slope is remarkable for its large crystals of felspar or albite, and among the many minerals splendid pasturage, hut the S. part is precipitous and barren, enclosed in the mica-slate garnets are most abundant. In the with the exception of the valleys near the sea, which enjoy a Eastern A. there are vast deposits of grauwacke and. clay-slate tropical climate, and are very populous. The highest peaks above the primary formations. An enormous mass of calcareous have an elevation of 7000 feet. Lead, antimony, and silver are matter, intermixed with argillaceous schists and sandstones, rests obtained. The inhabitants, who still retain traces of a semisometimes on one, sometimes on another, of the strata alreadyMoorish origin, are chiefly shepherds and vine-growers. mentioned. The Julian A. consist chiefly of the Jurassic and Al'sace-Lorraine (Ger. Elsass-.Lot/ringen), a German prochalk groups. vince lying between Baden and the Vosges in the S., and between Milnerals. —Gold and silver are found in the Tyrol, Salzburg, F~rencs Lorraine and the river Saar in the N. It is fertile and and Carinthia; silver also in Styria, Illyria. Carinthia, Illyria, well watered, has large manufactures of machinery, leather, and Carniola yield large quantities of iron. Copper is found both sugar, paper, tobacco, and beer, and is rich in iron, lead, and in the French and Austrian A. The Bleiberg of Carinthia pro- other metals. It is divided into the districts of Upper Alsace, duces some of the best lead in Europe. The quicksilver of Lower Alsace, and Lorraine, with a total area of 5603 sq. miles, Idria, in Carniola, and the rock-crystal of St Gothard are world- and a pop. (December I, I871) of 1,549,738, of whom about renowned. Anthracite coal is also found, in the greatest quantity, I,350,000 are German-speaking. Lorraine is separated by the in the Austrian A.; and salt is generally plentiful, especially Vosges from the N. of Alsace, and lies to the N.W. of it. The at Hall in the Tyrol, and Hallein in Salzburg. chief towns are Strasburg, Colmai, Miihlhausen, Metz, and The vegetalion of the A. differs considerably from that of the Hagenau. Alsace belonged to Germany till 1648, when plains beneath, and on the range itself great variety is caused by part of it was ceded to France; the rest was seized (i681) by the climatic effects of the different elevations. The vine, chest- Louis XIV. German Lorraine, so-called, is only that part of nut, oak, spruce fir, beech, pine, maize, &c., all grow vigorously Lorraine (q. v.) lying between Metz and the Vosges, where the at the foot of the A. The vine and maize disappear, however, German language has always been spoken. A. was the first at an elevation of about 2000 feet. The chestnut survives for part of France occupied by the Germans in the Frafico-Prussian Iooo feet higher. At a height of 4000 feet the beech and oak war, and was permanently ceded to the German empire by the cannot maintain themselves. At 600ooo feet the spruce fir is the treaty concluded at Frankfort-on-the-Main, May Io, 1871. It only tree remaining, and it is only found higher on the S. side was placed under military government till January I, I874, of the system. Between 6ooo feet and the snow-line (8000-g90oo when it came under the immediate jurisdiction of the empire, feet) is the region of mountain pasturage, where the Alpine returning fifteen members to the German parliament. Its annexaFarming (q. v.) is carried on. The beauty and abundance on the tion was generally resented by the inhabitants, of whom some A. of the flora peculiar to elevations near the line of perpetual 45,000 withdrew from the territory, declining to become German snow is sufficiently indicated by the name Alpine Plants subjects. Of these, 4200 emigrated to Algeria, where they re(q. v.), applied to this form of vegetation in any part of the ceived from the French government a grant of Ioo,ooo hectares world. of the best land. See Schmidt, Elsass unt LZothringenZ:.bachAnimals.-The ibex or bouquetin, white hare, the wild goats weis swie diese Provibaen (felz de2/tschen EReiche verloren giJngen (rare), and chamois inhabit the highest regions of the A., the (3d ed., 1871); and Auerbach, Wiea'er nnser (i87I). last sometimes descending to the woods, which also contain bears, marmots, and moles. Wolves, foxes, lynxes, and wild Al'sen (the Ger. form of the Dan. Als), an island formerly cats are abundant still lower down. Cows and goats are the belonging to Denmark, now included in the Prussian province most numerous among domestic animals, and in summer are of Slesvig-Holstein, lies in the Little Belt, lat. 54' 46' N. long., driven up to the mountain pastures already alluded to. The 9~ 52' E. It is nearly 20 miles long and I2 broad, with an area dogs of St Bernard (q. v.), kept for seeking travellers lost in the of 121 sq. miles, and is richly wooded, abounding in fruit-trees. snow, deserve mention. Among the birds are the limmergeyer, The chief town is Sonderburg (q. v.) Pop. of A. (December 1, or great vulture of the A., eagles, and other birds of prey, while I871) 23,500. partridges and bustards are found below the snow-line, quails Alsoph'ila, a genus of ferns, many of the species of which and partridges in the lower regions. The lakes of the A. con- form magnificent trees. They are all natives of tropical countain grebes, palimpedes, and trout, though in a few there are no tries and islands. In Norfolk Island A. excelsa grows to 70 or fish. Insects are abundant as high as vegetation extends. 8o feet high, with large palm-like fronds. Water Systemz. —The five principal rivers whose basins make up the water system of the A. are the Rhine and the Danube, Al'ster, a river of Holstein, with a course of about 30 miles, which either directly, or through their affluents, drain the Ber- at whose confluence with the Elbe is situated ambug (q v) nese, Rh-etian, and Eastern A.; the Po, which flows out of the Alsto'nia, a genus of plants named in honour of Alston, at Western A., and drains the whole plain of Lombardy; the one time professor of botany in the University of Edinburgh. Rhone, which receives the waters from the N. side of the They belong to the order Ap1ocyzacew, and are all natives of ALS THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP EDIA. ALT tropical countries. A. sc/oliaris, or Pali-mara, is a large Indian mrunion-table, and does so to this day wherever the term is emtree with bitter milky juice. Its bark is also intensely hitter, ployed. A variety of expressions are used by the Fathers to and is used as an astringent in bowel complaints. Its wood i3 indicate the solemnity and sanctity of the place on which whitish, even-grained, and easily worked, and used for furniture, were laid the emblems of the mystery of the Divine Sacrifice. boxes, &c. It is called the mystical and tremendous table, the mystical Alstrme'ria, a genus of plants of the order AmaszyliZidace, table, the holy table, &c. Up to the close of the 2d c. it natives of S. America. Their leaves are remarkably twisted, so was nothing more than a simple table, at which the Agape or that what should be the upper surface becomes the lower. Many the Eucharist was shared, and on which the offerings of the handsome species are grown in gardens. A. aurea, A. ftos congregation were placed. The recognition of Christianity as lartini (the Stp Martin's flower of Chili), A. izest, and A. the state religion by Constantine in the 4th c. enabled the psitAaczria are very showy plants. The farinaceous tubers of Church to import more pomp and ceremony into public worship, A. salsila, of the VT. Indies, as well as those of A. oructa and and henceforth altars were no longer used as supper-tables, but A. pallida of Chili, are used as food. consecrated and set apart for eucharistic purposes, or for receivla'i in Turkish, Kin-Shan in Chinese-ie.,'gold moun-ing and hallowing the offerings of devotion. Alta'i in Turkish, Kin-Shan in Chinese —i.e.,'gold mountains'-is the name given to an important range in the E. Alt'dorfer, Albrecht, painter and engraver, born at Altdorf, of Asia, separating the Russian and Chinese empires, and in Bavaria, 1488, died at Ratisbon in I538. He was probably a the most northern of the four parallel'chains that form the pupil of Albert Diirer, to whom several of his works have been skeleton of the central plateau. It runs in an E. and W. direc- erroneously attributed. Alexander's battle of Arbela, now at tion between 84~ and Ioo~ E. long., and in about 50' N. lat. Munich, ishis masterpiece. It has not been engraved, thenumber The range is intersected by wide valleys, through which nume- and minuteness of the figures presenting exceptional difficulties. rous rivers flow. The highest peak attains the height of about As an engraver on wood he is inferior to Diirer alone; but his 12,800 feet, far above the snow-line. The climate of the A. is works on copper and pewter are by no means of equal excellence. less severe than might be inferred from its position, and compa- Alte'a, a seaport of Valencia, Spain, 25 miles N.E. of Aliratively little snow falls in winter. The A. is very rich in mine- cante. It stands on an elevation at the mouth of the Alga, and rals, including gold, silver, lead, and marble. The most valu- manufactures linen fabrics, soap, and ropes. Pop. 5502. able silver mines in the Russian empire are in this range of Alt'en, Karl August, Count von, a distinguished Hianomountains. The annual yield of gold since 1853 has been about veran soldier, born at Burgwedel, 20th October I164. After 5o,ooo lbs. There are large forests of cedars, firs, larches, &c. acting with credit at the siege of Valenciennes and at IondStags, hares, wolves, wild sheep, and bears abound. Jasper, red schooten, and obtaining the rank of first lieutenant, he came to porphyry, and granite enter largely into its geological formation. E ngland, where in 1803 he was appointed to the command of Altanmu'ra, a town in the province of Bari, S. Italy, and the first light battalion in the German Legion. Among other capital of a division of the same name. It lies in a rich country services he covered Moore's retreat at Corunna (I8o09). He disat the base of the Apennines, producing abundantly oil and tinguished himself greatly in the Peninsular war, and in I812 he Nwine, and has a fine cathedral. It is reckoned one of the most commanded 30,000 men near Madrid. At Waterloo he contriIbeautiful towns of Apulia. Near A. stood the ancient Lztpazia. buted much to obtain the victory, and was, on his return to Pop. of commune, I7, I98. Hanover, appointed War-Minister and Minister of Foreign Al'tar (Lat. allare, from alluts, high), a raised or elevated Affairs. -le died at Botzen, in the Tyrol, April 20, 840. place on which offerings to a Divine Power were laid. It was Al'tena, a town in the government of Arnsberg, Westa conspicuous and necessary feature both of the Jewish and phalia, 40 miles N.E. of Cologne. It lies in the picturesque valley heathen systems of worship. The first A. of which we read in of the Lenne, and is overlooked by a famous old castle. A. is the Bible is that erected by Noah on leaving the ark, but altars noted for its extensive manufacture of small articles of hardware. are frequently mentioned in the incidents of patriarchal life. Pop. 7I50. After the giving of the law, the Israelites were commanded to make an A. of earth; and in the later history of the people we about 24 miles S. of Leipzig, on the Saxo-Bavarian Railway. It find that it became customary to build them in high places, a has considerable manufactures in hosiery, brushes, and cigars, and practice, however, condemned by the Mosaic law, probably as an extensive book trade. The old castle of A., which stands on a precipitous rock, is celebrated as the scene of the notable event in German history known as the Prinzenraub (q. v.) Pop. (1872) 19,966. Al'tengard, or Alten, a seaport in the province of Finmarken, Norway, stands near the mouth of the Alten, 88 miles S.W. of the North Cape. It has considerable trade in fish, skins, oil, and copper. The climate is mild for so high a latitude, but there is little cultivation. An annual fair held at A. in November is largely attended by Lapps, Swedes, and Finns. Pop. about Iooo. Alten-Otting, or Altotting, a village in Upper Bavaria, pleasantly situated near the river Inn. The church of St Rup. recht, built on the site of a heathen temple in 696, possesses a wonder-working image known as the Black,ir-in, which attracts crowds of Roman Catholic pilgrims from Bohemia, Swabia, and Austria. In another chapel, called Tilly's or Peter's Chapel, the great soldier has found a resting-place. Pop. (1872) 2664. -Altar. Al'teratives, a term used in therapeutics to denote certain remedies which are supposed to have the property of altering the associated with the Syriain idolatries. The only lawful, autho- physiological condition of tissues, organs, or secretions. It is a rised, and permanent altars among the Israelites were the two vague term, clouding ignorance. As examples of A. may be belonging both to the tabernacle and the temple, the A. of mentioned mercury, arsenic, and iodine. burnt-offering, and the A. of incense, descriptions of which are Alt given with great minuteness in different parts of the Pentateuch. Alter'nate, in botany means where leaves or buds are placed As regards shape, Jewish altars followed the Oriental type, and on opposite sides of the axis on a different level, or where the were either square or round, like those of the Assyrians, Baby- parts of the flower A. with each other. lonians, Persians, &c., while Greek and Roman altars were Alternate Angles, in geometry, are the interior angles mostly round. The word, but not the thing, passed into the formed on the opposite sides of a straight line, when it intersects language of the Christian Church. It there denoted the corm- two other straight lines. ~~ —-----------. —-~ —,. S S ALT T-RE GLOBE ENCYCLZOPg.S.FDIA. ALUT Alterna'tion of Generations, or Metagenesis. A term Slesvig-Holstein, stands on the right bank of the Elbe, and is formerly used in zoology, emanating from Steenstrup, and em- now in reality a vast suburb of Hamburg. It has a healthy ployed to express the idea of the progeny of one animal differing situation, and is a favourite resort of pleasure-seekers, containing materially from the parent, and that the young of this second gene- numerous theatres, music-halls, gardens, and cafes. Its rich ration came in turn to resemble the original parent stock. One trade, forming part of that of Hamburg, extends to all parts of generation alternzated in this way with another, or, to use Camisso's the world; it has also extensive tobacco-manufactories, cottonexpression,'the young did not resemble the parents, but the mills, sugar-refineries, glass-works, and distilleries. It is congrandparents.' Thus, from a fixed, tree-like zoophyte, a creature nected by rail with Kiel, Rendsburg, and Gliickstadt, and as a like the free-swimming medusa, or jellyfish, may be seen to be free port enjoys many privileges. It has attained its present imdeveloped and detached. This progeny does not in the least portance only of late years, and is still rapidly increasing. Under resemble the parent zoophyte. And from the eggs of this the care of the late H. C. Schumacher, the observatory of A. medusa, a zoophyte is again produced-the zoophytic generation acquired a wide reputation. Pop. (I872) 74, I02. alternating with the medusa generation. Or, as in the case of the Saleadrz, belonging to the Tunicate mollusca, a solitary salpa Altoo'na, a city in Pennsylvania, U. S., at the base of the gives rise by budding to long connected chains of individuals; Alleghanies, 244 miles W. of Philadelphia. It was founded in whilst the chain-salpoe produce only single and solitary forms. I849, and has extensive machine-worIks in connection with the The employment of the above term, and the ideas involved Central Railway. Pop. (1870) Io,6Io. in it, sprang from the fact that naturalists formerly and erroneously regarded. the alternating forms as distinct and sysecifc RsAl'torf, the chie f town in the Swiss canton of Uri, lies on the animals. The zoophyte was thus considered as representingmiles S. of the LaGe o f the Four Foest Catons, at the a distinct animal, and the mutually-reproducing jellyfish as foot of the Grunberg, on the St Gothardroad. It has the oldest Capuchin monastery in Switzerland, and is notable as the scene another and specifically separate being. But closer study of these Capuchin monastey in Switzeland, and is notable as the scene phenomena has shown that such is not the case. Only one of the shooting of the apple in the legends of Tell. Almost animal form is engaged in the process-that is, the zoophyte, to completely destroyed by fire in I799, it has since been rebuilt in cite this case as an example. The jellyfish, or medusa, is not a a modern style. Pop. (I870) 2724. second or separate animal, but, merely a peculiarly-developed, Alto-Rilie'vo (Ital. in high relief) denotes the degree of reproductive member, or zodid, of the zoophyte colony; and the projection of a sculptured figure or ornament from the surface or whole process merely exemplifies a complicated series of reproduc- background to which tive phenomena, involving a single animal. Similarly, the chain- it is attached. The salpa may be regarded as the single animal form; the separate ched. Te - - and single salpae being merely modified zo6ids derived from the radations in relief in sculpture are ex-.. parent stock. The term A. of G. should therefore be discarded as pressed by alto, erroneous, since no'generations' of animals, as implied by the ezzeo, and basso term, are involved. The process is merely one in which tine iieo*. When the reprodctionz by means of eggs —as produced by the medusa or oject projects more chain-salpa-alternzates with another process of rerouction by than one-half of its budding-, as seen in the growth of the zoophyte, or in the budding thickness above the of the single salpa. slab on which it is Althme'a, a genus of plants belonging to the Mallow family formed, or stands (Malvacece). The common marsh-mallow (A. oficinalis, q. v.) out in full relief is found in England and throughout Europe. The roots are used Without being enin pectoral complaints under the name of gnzimauve; they form tirely detached, the Alto-Rilievo. an agreeable demulcent. A. rosea, of China, is the origin of the term alto-riievo is common garden Hollyhock (q. v.); its leaves yield a blue colour- employed; a slight projection is designated basso-rilievo (low ing-matter. Hrelief); and relief to the extent of one-half, mezzo or deni 1rilievo (middle or half relief). The reliefs executed by the early civilised Al'titude, in astronomy, is the angle of elevation of a nations of antiquity may for the most part be classed as bdssiheavenly body above the horizon, and is measured by means of -i/iezvi, and are remarkable more for colossal proportions than for a telescope attached to a graduated vertical circle, which rotates dignity of expression or graceful form. Sculptured slabs from upon a similar horizontal circle, so as to allow the pointing of Nineveh, Babylon, and Persepolis, as well as those of more recent the telescope in any direction. The observed A. must be cor- times, amply attest the correctness of defining bas-reliefs as'sculp. rected for Parallax (q. v.), for Refraction (q. v.), and in certain tured painting,' from the capability of disposing of groups of cases for the dip of the horizon. figures, and exhibiting minor adjuncts, as in a painting. Afezzirilievi, also from the above localities, are now in the British Al'to, the lowest class of voice among women and boys, Museum, and display considerable boldness and freedom of exits compass lying between the G or F below middle C, and the ecution. To the Greek nation must be accorded the honour of upper F in the treble staff. A high A. voice has a compass bringing sculpture to its highest perfection, and that nation had almost identical with that of a mezzo-soprano, but its quality is but reached the zenith of its splendour when Phidias and his quite distinct. disciples executed the reliefs which adorned the metopes of the Parthenon at Athens. These alti-rilievi,-the finest extant-are Alt-O'fen, a town in Hungary, on the Danube 2 miles preserved in the British Museum. Simrlicity, symmetrical proabove Ofen or Buda, of which it is almost a suburb. It is said portion, fulness of life and spirited action, combine to make to be the Roman ricambria or Aquineum, and contains many these reliefs unrivalled and unapproachable models for all time. monuments of antiquity. Pop. 6,ooo. The importation into this country of the'Elgin marbles,' of Al'ton, an old market town in Hampshire, England, 17 miles which the metopes of the Parthenon formed a part, afforded N.E. of Winchester. It lies on the Wey, in the heart of a rich means of studying antique models, and gave an impetus to the hop-growing country, and is celebrated for its ale. The church modern school of sculpture. The labours of its chief exponents, of A. contains a fresco painting of Henry VI., in whose reign it Thorwaldsen, Flaxman, Canova, and others, indicate the proper was built, and is surmounted by an old Norman tower. Pop. path of study, and have given to works in relief their true and (I871) 4092. simple character. Alton, a flourishing town and port of entry in Illinois, U. S., Al'trincham, a market town in Cheshire, England, near the on the Mississippi, 3 miles above its confluence with the Mis- Mersey, 8 miles S.W. of Manchester. Its healthy situation souri. It is connected by railway with St Louis and Chicago, on Bowden Downs makes it a great resort of invalids. Pop. and lies in the centre of a fertile country, rich in coal and lime- (187I) 8478. stone. A. has a Roman Catholic cathedral. Pop. (1870) 8665. Alum is a crystalline compound containing the metals alum' Al'tona, the most important city in the German province of inum and potassium together with sulphuric acid and water. <~S~~ ~P.... 4 ALU THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPEDIA. ALU A. is prepared in this country from a bituminous shale containing Silicate of A. is the basis of clay soils, most rocks, and iron pyrites, FeS2, interspersed throughout its mass, found in many minerals. The fe/spars, which are the most important the Lower Coal Measures, and technically called alum ore. The aluminiferous minerals, contain, in addition to silicate of alumichief deposits of this mineral in Great Britain occur at Whitby in num, silicate of potassium or sodium. Many rocks, such as granite, Yorkshire, and near Glasgow. In preparing A. from the ore, gneiss, basalt, porphyry, trap, &c., contain this mineral. By the latter is first roasted-that is, heated in contact with air. By the combined action of air and water on such rocks, they bethis roasting the iron pyrites is oxidised to sulphate of iron, come gradually disintegrated, or weath7ered, as it is called, and FeSO4, and sulphuric anhydride, SO3, which combines with crumble down. This change is owing to the felspar which they the alumina contained in the ore to form sulphate of aluminum, contain splitting up into soluble salts of potash and insoluble A1(SO4)3. The roasted mass is treated with water to dissolve silicate of A. In this manner the different varieties of soil out the two sulphates, and the solution obtained by this means have been formed. evaporated to a suitable consistency, and mixed with chloride of potassium. A. and chloride of iron result, the former of A6eum'ime, or A mlu nnoium, is a white metal, and one of which, being less soluble than the latter, is readily separated the 63 elements. Its compounds occurring in nture are cumeby crystallisation. A. is a colourless crystalline substance of us and plentiful, and indeed are among the principal constivery astringent acid taste; its solution reddens litmus. It is tuents ofrocs and soils. A. was first isolated by the German largely employed by dyers as a mnordant. See MOR~DAN'r and oreofAwihptsim A.asnwbceanmor largely employed by dyers as a mordam'nt. See MORDANT and chemist Wdhler, who obtained it as a grey powder by heating -DYEING. It is also used in preparing pigments called Zlaes. lorie of A. with potassium. A. has now become an imporA. is used in medicine, and has been employed as an anti. tant article of industry, andis manufactured in large quantities septic. It is sometimes used to adulterate flour intended for both in this country and in France. It is prepared commermaking bread, as it appears to give the bread a firm consistency cially from a mineral called bauxite, from which a double and white colour. Burnt A., or calcined A., is A. from which chloride of A. and sodium is first obtained. On strongly heating the water has been driven off by heat. The chemical formula this double chloride with metallic sodium, and some substance to act as a flux-asually the mineral ciyol'te-metallic A. is for A. is A12(S04)3,K1SO4,24H20. It is, therefore, a double to act as a x- lly the mineral cyoite-metallic A. is sulphate of aluminum and potassium. There is a large group formed, whilst chloride of sodium (common salt) is produced of compounds having similar properties and composition, and as a by-product. A. is a white metal, with a slight tinge of known in chemistry as the a/unzs. These contain, in place of blue, and takes a high and lasting polish. This latter prothe potassium in ordinary A., other metals of the potassium perty, with the great lightness of the metal (sp gr 25), group, such as sodium, or lithium, and even ammonium (NH4), renders it valuable for the manufacture of many mathematical or, in place of the aluminum, another metal of the iron group and optical. instruments, where lightness and durability are and. optical. instruments, where lightness and durability are (to which aluminum belongs), such as iron itself, chromium, essential. A. is highly sonorous-a bar of it, when struck with (to which aluminum belongs), such as iron itself, chromium, c., or both the potassium and aluminum replaced by metals of a hammer, emitting a clear ringing sound. It is malleable and their respective groups, thus:ductile, but becomes somewhat brittle when hammered and rolled. It melts at a temperature between the fusing-points AmmOrdinary A............A(S04)3,1 S0242 of zinc and silver. It may be used to take castings, as it does Ammonoias A....A.(.. 04).3,(N.HFe),S 024H[0' not contract much in solidifying. It may be alloyed with most ~Iron potash A.. Fe2,(S04)s,K2S04,24H20 metals, but does not amalgamate with mercury. Its alloys Chrome potash A.....Cr2(SOS4)3,DKS04,24H20 with copper are important. A. bronze, largely used in the iron ammonium A....Fe2(S04)3,(NH4)2,S5042$4H20 manufacture of cheap jewellery, &c., is composed of copper and Alum 1Bagh ('Garden of the Lady Alum, or Beauty of the about 9 per cent. of A. A. is not attacked by cold sulphuric Soul'), originally a palace belonging to the royal family of Oude, or nitric acid, but readily dissolves in hydrochloric acid, and about 4 miles from Lucknow, converted into a fort by the rebels in boiling solutions of caustic potash or soda, evolving hydrogen during the Indian mutiny. It was taken in September I857 by in doing so. tile English, while advancing on Lucknow, and in November of Its most important compounds are the following:; the same year, when their forces were withdrawn from all the Oxide of A. or alumina.............A1203 other parts of Oude, it was garrisoned with 3500 men under Sir Double sulphate of potassium James Outram. On the I2th January 1858 the A. B. was and A. or alum A.S 0, S 04.4 attacked by 30,000 sepoys, and on the 21st February by 20,000; Double chloride of A. and sobut the little garrison, cut off from all assistance, maintained a Double chloride of A. and so-m AC12NaC dium.......... heroic defence till relieved by Sir Colin Campbell in March of Double fluoride of A. and sothe same year. Double fluoride of A. and so-ium AiF, 6NaF dium.............................. Alum'iina is the oxide of aluminum, and is the only com- Various silicates of A. pound which oxygen forms with that metal. It occurs largely The atomic weight of A. is 27'4; its chemical symbol, Al. in nature, and, in combination with silicic acid, is the principal constituent of the different varieties of clay soils and many A.lum Root, the name given in America to the roots of rocks. In the pure crystallised condition A. is met with as Geranizum mraculatum, which are very astringent. A tincture is corundum; coloured with small quantities of metallic oxides, as prepared from them which is used in cases of ulceration of the the sapphire, ruby, and topaz, and in a less pure state as emery; throat. A. R. is also applied to the root of Ilzeuchera americana, combined with water, as the mineral diaspore. A. may be belonging to the Saxifrage family, which is likewise astringent, obtained artificially by strongly heating ammonia alum; com. and is used as a styptic, and as an escharotic in cancer. bined with water, by precipitating a solution of common alum Alunno, Nicolo, an Italian painter, known as Niccolo of (potash alum) by a solution of ammonia. The A. obtained ino, iwichtn hseldbu16 Heas t Folign%, in which town he settled about I46o. He was the by either of these methods is, however, amorphous, and not forerunner of the Umtrian schooled produced a large numcrysallne. rysallied. ha ben obaind byDevlleforerunner of the Umnbrian school, and produced a large numcrystalline. Crysteallise A. has been obtained by Deville bher of pictures, remarkable rather for finish, truth, and exalted by heating fluoride of aluminum in a charcoal crucible in which sentiment than for great originality. His chief works aye'The is pace a sallcupe cotainng oracc ahydrde.Thesentiment than for great originality. His chief works are' The is placed a small cupel containing boracic anhydride. The Nativity,' in the church of Foligno;'Piety,' in the cathedral of oxygen and fluorine change places, gaseous fluoride of boron and i' in the o n' n the chr Assisi;.' The Agony in the Garden,' now in the Louvre; and crystallised A. resulting. A. is largely used as a mordant sc;As i'e gi several pieces at Perugia. when precipitated on the fibres of cloth, &c., along with a colouring-matter, it adheres closely to both of these, and thus fixes the Al'ured, or Alred, of Beverley, an English historian of colour on the fabric. When precipitated in presence of certain Henry I.'s time. His A4nnals (A/hredi Beverlacensis Annales, colouring-matters, it attaches itself to these, and forms pigments sive Historia de Gestis Riegum Britannie, Libri IX.), published called lakes. at Oxford in 17i6 by Hearne, from the only known manuscript, A. possesses both basic and acid properties; it unites with brings British history from the mythical Brutus down to the year strong acids to form salts of aluminum, and with strong bases 1I28. Bale and other critics consider his work in its earlier (potash and soda) to form compounds called aluminates. It is parts a compilation from Geoffrey of Monmouth's Deforationes insoluble in water. A. may be fused before the oxyhydrogen Ga/fredi. A. died in 1128 or 1129 at Beverley, where he had blowpipe to a clear glass. been canon of the church of St John. *7 ALV THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPsE@DIA. AMA Al'va, a village of Stirlingshire, Scotland, 3 miles N. of Prim offered him the Spanish crown, and on the I6th November Alloa. It is romantically situated among the Ochil Hills, in a I870 the Cortes finally elected him King Amadeus I. of Spain detached part of the county within the confines of Clackmannan- by a majority of seventy votes. A short and stormy reign, shire. Silver was formerly found in a neighbouring glen. The marked by moderation, manliness, and honesty, ended in his abdiinhabitants are chiefly employed in the manufacture of shawls cating on the i ith February I873. Although working hard for and tweeds. Pop. (I87I) 4096. the good of the country which had made him king, he.never Alvarado, a town of Vera Cruz, Mexico, at the mouth of a succeeded in gaining popular sympathy, and an attempt was Alvarado, a town of Vera Cruz, Mexico, at the mouth of a even made on his life at Madrid July I9 I872 river of the same name. It lies near a large lagoon, and is very even made on his life at Madrid, July i unhealthy. Vessels over 12 or I3 feet draught cannot enter the Am'adis, a name common to several heroes of the romantic harbour for a bar fronting the river. Pop. 6ooo. poetry of the middle ages, the most famous of whom was A. of Gaul, the others being represented as his descendants. Whether Alvara'do, Pedro de, the chief lieutenant and most trust- the Gaul of the romances meant Wales, or what is now called worthy comrade of Cortez (q. v.) in the wonderful expedition France, has heen keenly debated; but that i s the latter which bad for its aim and its result the conquest of Mexico, country seems to be well established for the father of A was born at Badajos towards the end of the 15th c. Engag~ed was Perion, a mythical king of Gaul, who summons a council in a preliminary expedition on the shores of the Spanish main Permon, a mythical ing of Gau, who summons a council of the magnates of his kingdom, and among these we find in I5I8, A. in the following year joined Cortez in his project for re. seizing Mexico, and took a conspicuous part in all the chief in-.. T o ~~~.nl~~~~~~~~~.A....... a. of A. was Elisena, a princess of Bretagne, and he was a lovecidents of that bold undertaking. His massacre of the Mexican child, an accident so common in romantic poetry that it carries child, an accident so common in romantic poetry that it carries nobles, his conduct of the retreat from Montezuma, and in the no stigma with it. From the device on his shield he was final conquest of the imperial city, are among the most striking known as the Lion Knight, and from his complexion as Belteneepisodes of this extraordinary chapter of history. He after- The chivalric romances were in bros, the Darkly Beautiful. Tle chivalric romances were in wards subjugated several of the maritime provinces in the ex-general tedious, stilted, and unnatural. That of A. of Gaul treme S. of N. America, was appointed governor of Guate- on the contrary, displays undoubted genius and a fine creative mala by Charles V. in I533, and headed an adventurous expedi- powel, and excels in the delineation of chalacter. It was a tion into Quito, which, however, he abandoned on receiving a X tioninto Quito, which, however, he abandoned on receiving a vXXfavourite with Cervantes, whose inimitable caricature of its large sum of money from the conquerors of Peru. He met his weaker successors banished them into merited obscurity. It death through accident in I541, while chastising the rebel Indians still as admirers and has not only fnished materials for te still has admirers, and has not only furnished materials for the of Xalisco. A. was one of the most intrepid of that able and drama of Spain and Portugal, but for modern epics-the A. unscrupulous band of Spanish adventurers who wrested so much do Gnzlc of Creuz' de Lesser (Paris, 1813), and the A. of territory, treasure, andpowerfromthe dynastiesofthe NewWorld. Gal of William Stewart ose (Lond. 1803). To those who GaS' of William Stewart' Rose (Lond. I803). To those who See Prescott's Conquest of zexico (1843), and of Peru (1847). have no access to the original, nor leisure to read it in extenso if Alvarez, Don Jos6, sculptor, born at Priego, Cordova, 23d they had, the extracts by De Lubert and Count Tressan will April 1768. In youth lie laboured as a stone-mason, but at an furnish an adequate idea of its style and scope. early age he distinguished himself as a modeller in the Academy Different nations have claimed the credit of its origin. Lopez of Granada, which procured for him the patronage of the Bishop de Vega assigned the authorship to a Portuguese lady; the Comte of Cordova. Charles IV. granted him a pension to enable him de Tressan held that it was composed in French in the reign of to prosecute his studies at Paris and Rome. His works were Philip Augustus; and the Spaniards have atleast this credit, that much admired by Napoleon, who commissioned him to design the earliest extant impression is in their language, having been bassi-treievi for the Quirinal Palace; and he was the friend printed at Seville in I526. But the romance, which in Spanish both of Canova and Thorwaldsen. He was a member of the contains fourteen books, fiurnishes no internal evidence of a partiInstitute of France; of the Academy of St Luke of Rome; and cular nationality. It is in this respect perfectly colourless. The from 1825 principal sculptor to the King of Spain. He was preponderance of evidence, however, tends to fix the composition known among his fellow-artists as' the Greek,' from the vigour of it on Vasco de Lobeira, a Portuguese officer; who died in I403, and purity of his designs. He died at Madrid, Nov. 26, 1827. or, according to Sismondi, in I325. The first four books were therefore probably written in Portuguese, and, equally with the Alve'olus, the term applied to the bony sockets or pits in Homeric poems, convey the impression of having been the growth which the teeth of mammals are lodged. Amongst lower verte- of an individual mind. The Spanish translation of these was the brates, the teeth are fastened either by ligament or by bony work of Garcia Ordohiez de Montalvo, who added the fifth book, union to the surface of the bones upon which they are borne; or containing the exploits of Esplandian, the son of A., and an they maybe implanted in ridges, but not in distinct sockets. The excrescence and deadweight on the original. The remaining nine crocodiles and alligators form the only animals, in addition to the books contain the exploits and adventures of eleven heroes, mostly mammalia, in which the teeth spring from alveoli. Greek, by five independent authors. The French translators, Alwur, the capital of all Indian Rajpoot state of the same working from Spanish originals, but frequently interpolating name, 94 miles N.W. of Agra. It is poorly built on a rising matter of their own, have increased the number of books to ground 1200 feet above the surrounding country, and 2Iooabove twenty-four. Translations have also been made into Italian, the sea. Its chief building is the palace of the Rao Rajah. Pop. English, German, and Dutch. The early bools narrating spe3000. The state of A. was baikrupt iln 1870, and is now under cially the exploits of A. were translated by Southey, who has control of the governor-general, yielding the rajah a revenue of faithfully reproduced the events and manners of the orginal. aboutI8o,ooo. The natives, Mewrattis, are a savage race. Anm'adou, the name given to a soft, leathery, cellular subArea, 3000 sq. miles; pop. (I872) 778,596. stance, obtained from several species of Po/yporuls, a genus of Amade'us (' Love-God'), the name of several members of the fungi which are found growing on trees. A. is used for tinder, house of Savoy, the first of whom of any note was A. V. (X249- but is principally valued as an excellent styptic in surgery. P. 1323), who became a prince of the empire. The Savoy in fosentarius and P. ignoiarius are the two species from which A. London was built by his brother. His son, A. VI., died in is chiefly derived. I383, became vicegerent of a large portion of N. Italy. In 1416 Amal'ekites, a tribe of Edomite Arabs occupying the disSavoy was created into a duchy under A. VIII., who, two trict between Palestine and Egypt, and the first to oppose the years later, was chosen ruler of Piedmont, the native dynasty Israelites after the passage of the Red Sea (Exod. xvii. 7-i6). having died out. In 1439 he became Pope as Felix V., but Saul, and afterwards David, nearly exterminated them (I Sam. nine years after he resigned this dignity. xv. 2-9; I Sam. xxvii. 8-xxx.); and the'remnant' was finally Amadeus, Ferdinand lMaria, the second son of Victor extirpated by the Simeonites (I Chron. iv. 43). Emmanuel II. of Italy, was born May 30, 1845. Entering the Amal'fi, a seaport in the province of Salerno, S. Italy, situated army with the title of Duke of Aosta, he met with some distinc- on a steep declivity overlooking the Gulf of Salerno, 24 miles tion, and in I869 he was also appointed a vice-admiral. In S.E. of Naples. It is the seat of an archbishop, and was forI867 he married Maria, daughter of Prince Charlo Emmanuelle merly a flourishing centre of trade, and had at one time probably dal Pozzo della Cisterna. After the revolution of T868, Marshal more than 50o,oo inhabitants. A. claims to have been founded 4 78 * 4 AMA THfi GL OBE ENVC YCL OPSD iIA. AMA tinder Constantine the Great, and was a republic in the middle dition, but has a fine church of the I6th c. in the Flamboyant ages. It took part in the crusades, founded the maritime laws of style. The bridge here was defended by the Portuguese against Italy ( TabulzAlza/6lkitana), and was the birthplace of Masaniello, the French (I8o09) for several days. Pop. 5500. and Flavio Gioja, inventor of the compass. It has greatly de: Amaranthacec and Amaranthus, an order and clined, but still possesses some trade. The valuable MS. of the genus of plants. The order Pandects (q. v.) was found here. Pop. (I87I) 4200. embraces 500 species. The Amalgama'tion is often resorted to in extracting gold and genus embraces several showy silver from their ores, but before this process can be employed garden plants. The best the metals must be in the free state. The ore containing the free known is A. caudzalzs, or lovemetals is crushed and agitated with mercury; a fluid amalgam lies-bleeding, with its droopresults, containing the gold and silver. This is subjected to ing inflorescence of crimson pressure in bags of chamois leather, when much of the mercury flowers. It is the Queuze de is forced out through its pores, and an almost solid amalgam, Rensard of the French. A. y-. rich in the noble metals, remains. On distilling this, the mercury pocAondzlriacus and A. speciosus passes off in vapour, and the gold and silver remain. are called prince's feather. Amalgams of gold and silver are also used for gilding and Some species of A., such as A. plating articles of metal. The surface of the article is first care- BEitumz and A. oleraceus, have fully cleaned, then dipped into the amalgam; a portion of this been used as pot-herbs. Celosia adheres to it, and on heating the article thus amalgamated the cristata, the cockscomb, and mercury is driven off and the gold or silver remains. An amalgam Govlzhrenza,Zobosa, the globe of tin and mercury is used for silvering mirrors. amarantine, belongto theorder. The plants are principally Amal'gains are produced by fusing mercury (quicksilver) mucilaginous and demulcent. Amaranthus caudatus. with other metals. From the fact that in many cases heat is given out when such a mixture is made, and that the product Amarapu'ra ('the city of immortality'), now a city of frequently crystallises-the crystals having a composition such the past, was, twenty-five years ago, the capital of the naas can be expressed by a chemical formula-A. are regarded by tive state of Burmah, situated on the left bank of the Irrawady, chemists as true compounds. Sodium, for instance, if dropped about 9 miles N.E. of the moie ancient capital Ava (q. v.) into mercury which has been previously heated, unites with it When the present king came to the throne, orders were given so energetically that sparks are thrown out in all directions, and that on a certain day A. was to be deserted, and its inhabitants the resulting amalgam, if it contain sufficient sodium, crystallises to remove to Mandalay (q. v.), which is now the capital, and on cooling. A crystalline compound of silver and mercury occurs which lies 9 miles further up the river, on a plain nearer the foot of native, and contains the two metals in atomic proportion (Io8 the hills. In a temple midway between A. and Mandalay there parts of silver to 2oo of mercury); its formula is therefore AgHg. is a colossal image of Gaudama, carried away by the Burmese A ma'alia, Anna, LDuchess of Saxe-WATeimar, born 24th Oct. awhen they conquered the kingdom of Aracan, and still guarded I739, was a daughter of Karl Duke of Brunswick Wolfenbiittel by the descendants of Aracanese captives. A. was founded During the second half of the I8th c. she was the cenltre anl in I783, destroyed first by fire in I8IO, again partly by an earthquake in r839, and finally deserted in i852-53. Nothing remains soul of the court of Weimar, which in more than one respect re-quake in 839 and finally deserted in 852-53. Nothing remains seombled that of Ferrara, where Ariosto and Tasso lived. On of the old city but a few rows of beautiful trees and some ruined the death of her husband, Ernst August Konstantin, whom she pagodas. lost (I758) two years after her marriage, she devoted herself to Amara-Sinha, a famous Hindu grammarian and poet, genethe upbringing of her only son, Karl August (q. v.), the noble rally supposed to have flourished B.c. 56, though Colebrooke and true-hearted patron of German literature. Wisely and places him as late as the end of the 5th c. In religion he was a thriftily she administered the revenues of the state, and always Buddhist, and all his writings, except the Amtzara-lios/a ('Treashowed herself inspired with a generous zeal for the education sury of A.'), perished during the fierce persecution of the Buddhists and intellectual culture of her subjects. Her love of literature by the Brahmans. This work is often quoted under the name of was unfeigned. In I775 she selected Wieland as tutor for her the Trikandna, i.e., the 7T'iap/ite, because it is divided into three son, and drew to her court numbers of the most splendid geniuses books. It is a Sanlskrit vocabulary, containing about Io,ooo in Germany, among whom may be mentioned Goethe, Herder, words relating to the moral qualities of men, philosophy, the fine and Schiller. She died Ioth April I807, broken-hearted by the arts, the peculiarities of grammar, &c. The substantives are ardisaster and shame of Jena. ranged in one or more lines of eighteen syllables each, and form | Amande de Terre, or hEa~rth Almonds, the French name a sort of measure called vaktra or s'Zoka. It is a great authority for the farinaceotus tubers of Cypezus esc~uenzt/s. See CYPERUS. amongst native grammarians. The Sanskrit text was printed at Calcutta in I83I, of which a French translation appeared in I839. Amani'ta, a genus of mushroom-shaped fungi. Twelve species are found in Britain, some Ama'ri, Michele, an Italian historian, born at Palermo, 7th of which are edible, while others July. I86. His love for an English lady induced him to study are highly poisonous. A. zzns- English, which resulted in I832 in the publication of a translation carlia, the fly-mushroom, common of anarmion. In I837 he was transferred from Palermo to in birch and beech woods, espe- Naples, where he prosecuted his studies in history, and in I842 cially in Scotland, belongs to the published his principal work, La Gzuerra del Ve speo Siciliano latter class, and has derived its (' The War of the Sicilian Vespers'), translated into German by vulgar name from a fly-poison Schr/der, and into English by the Earl of Ellesmere. He then having been prepared from it. It applied himself to the preparation of a history of the Mussulman is very ornamental, having a bril- occupation of Sicily (S/oria dei d zMusulzmanzi di Sicilia, Flor. liant scarlet cap studded over with I853). After the revolution of I848, he held several important white or yellowish warts. When public positions. He thereafter resided in Paris, but returned to partaken of, it produces a peculiar Italy, and was made Minister of Foreign Affairs under the dictakind of intoxication. The effects torship of Garibaldi (I859), and Minister of Public Instruction are first great cheerfulness, and in I863. Hewasan accomplished scholarinArabic and modern afterwards giddiness and drunken- Greek. A. died Ist September I870. ness, with an entire loss of con- Amaryllidacea and Amaryllis, an order and genus sciousness. In Siberia it is much of Monocotyledonous plants, natives of temperate and warm Amanita. indulged in. Czar Alexis is said countries. The order embraces 350 species, many of which to have lost his life by eating it. are ornamental garden plants. The roots of Haanzantlus toxiAmara'nt6, a town in the province of Minho, Portugal, on carius and the flowers of the coimmon daffodil (Narcissus the Tamega, 32 miles N. E. of Oporto. It is in a decaying con- pseudo.nazci/szss) are said to be poisonous. The American aloe a~B 79 c~hurches of Rome still fur- and tried to engender aversion by affected severities as a judge. churches of Rome still furiF 51p1 jish specimens of the A. It was in vain that he even brought harlots to his house, in the hope aInl England the rood -loft that such an outrage upon decency would enable him to escape this unwelcome honour. The people cried out with mad enthuThe A. had many other | siasm, ~.We take thy sin upon our heads.? At last he had to i names, as the bema, lecto- |yield, was baptized, and eight days after, though merely a cateriurm, pulpitum, analogium, chumen, was consecrated to the see of Milan. =: = fl k tribuna, &c'. Though the choice both of Arians and Athanasians, A. did not hesitate for a moment in regard to the creed he should adopt. -,. Am'boise(anc. Ambacia), By the strength and tenderness of his imagination, by the humia town in theldepartment of lity and ardour of his faith, he was irresistibly drawn towards the Indre-et-Loire, France, lies sublime dogma of the Trinity. He was not a great thinkerAmbo. on the left bank of the Loire, subtle speculations had no charm for him-but he had a strong 15 miles E. of Tours by rail- sense of the mystery of the Godhead, and drew a practical inspiway. It is situated in a rich wine district known as'the Garden ration from the sentiment of reverence which this mystery awoke of France,' and possesses an old Gothic castle, restored by Louis in his soul. The power of A. lay in his life and work, not in his Philippe, in which have resided several kings of France. The writings. All through his career we recognise tlie devout Chris11 8i +d _ — __________ lAMB TITHE GL OBEL EATCYCL OPEDIA. AME tian and the heroic Churchman. No man was more trusted in by means of which water is admitted to the interior of the body, the Roman empire. From the borders of Mauretania to the and through dilating the tubular feet, is made subservient to the confines of Thrace, men came to seek his help and protection. locomotion or movements of the animals. In the confusions that followed the death of Valentinian I., he Am'bulance (a French word, from the Latin ambulare, to saved Italy from the horrors of war by the personal influence he walk or march) is a name applied to a movable field hospital, exercised upon the rebel general Maximus. When the dearth in which wounded or that afflicted Italy in 383 tempted the Roman senate, in which sick soldiers are carthe elements of Paganism were still to be found, to demand a ried from the scene recognition of the ancient religion, the impassioned eloquence of of conflict. The first A. frustrated the policy of cowardice and fear. The enmity of A. train was organised the Empress Justina, widow of Valentinian, who leaned to the by Baron Percy, a Arian party, occasioned the fiercest tumults in Milan. The life celebrated French surof the archbishop was in the greatest danger; but his courage geon under the Fist 6 a~~~~~eon under the First saved him from martyrdom, and the imperial court finally quailed Napoleon. Somewhat Ibefore the opposition of theinvincible priest. When Theodosius later, iaron Larrey appeared in Italy in answer to the appeals of A., and destroyed introduced great inthe party of Maximus, he had still to learn that there was one provements in this inman in the empire mightier than himself. The massacre of the portant department, Thessalonians was a crime for which neither senate, nor magis- and his methods have trate, nor philosopher dared to upbraid him; but when he pre- been adopted in varisented himself for admission to the communion-table at the ous European armies. church of Milan, A. sternly ordered him to withdraw untilhe At the Crimea, the had made public confession of his sin. The emperor felt him- British A. corps was self constraired to obey. The return of Theodosius soon after very inefficient, not- Ambulance Cart to the East again left Italy a prey to political and social disorder; withstanding the recent improvements of Drs Guthrie and Smith, and a Frankish chief, ArbQgastus, for a moment made himself who devised a cart and waggon respectively During this war master of the peninsula. He and a certain Eugenius, a rhe- the French used what they called cacolets, each consisting of two torician, to whom he contemptuously assigned the imperial stretchers, hung one on each side of a mule's or pony's packauthority, did all they could to resuscitate Paganism; but their saddle. These, which in many circumstances were far more triumph was short-lived. Theodosius swiftly returned, and anni- convenient than waggons, were latterly adopted by the English. hilated their army near Aquila. Paganism was now finally pro- mbulance orps, now inclded in the Army ospital Amnbulance Cor1ps, now included in the Army Hospital scribed. Some say, though the best criticism is against the belief, Corps, was organised by te War authorities during he Crmean Crps, was organised by the War authorities during the Crimean that it was in honour of this great victory that A. composed the war and consisted of a body of men set apart for ambulance famous Te Deuntn still isunw n almost all the chudches of Christenmen set apart for ambulance famous T e still sung in almost all the churches of Christen duties. Towards the close of the war, however, it was superseded dom. He died at Milan in 397, not long after Theodosius, to by the Land Transport Cops (q. v.) whom he was deeply attached, and who in turn loved A. for his courage and fidelity. The best edition of A.'s writings, which are mbuscde, or mbush (te former derived from te 6 z:, It~~~~~~~~~Alaim'boscade, conrae.imus (l odmast he former deine wromth chiefly expositions of Scripture, with treatises, from a religious talian iosct, concealed in a wood), means the lyin in wait point of view, qn Virginity, Widowhood, the Sacraments, Peni- of a party for the purpose of attacking an enemy unaware of its tence,., is that of the Benedictines (Pais, 2 vols. 66-90). presence, and, before the introduction of firearms, was a very A. is also known to us in connection with church music, whicl frequent manceuvre. hlie was the first to place upon anything like a popular basis. He Amelan'chier, the Sardinian name for the medlar, and adopted some of the simpler parts of the Greek musical system, applied by botanists to a genus of plants belonging to the order and used only the four of their'diatonic modes' (since called Ztosacerz. The common A. (A. vzdulgaris) is a small tree cultiAmbrosian modes) which correspond to the scales beginning upon vated in Britain. A. botryapiint is the American grape-pear D, E, F, and G upon the pianoforte, using the white notes only. or June-berry. The fruit of several species is edible. Ambro'sia, in Greek and Roman mythology, was the name Ame'lia (anc. Ameria), a town of Umbria, Central Italy, lies given to the food of the gqds, and was supposed to have the picturesquely about 7 miles N. from tlhe confluence of the Nera power of conferring in-mortality on all who ate of it. Hence (anc. Nar) and Tiber. It is one of the oldest towns of Italy, probably its name, which is compounded of a, privative, and and the remains of its ancient walls prove it to have been a place bs, mortal. The ots,, however, part of the root, and is seen of strength, but its name is not mentioned in history before the in the form mlvtos. Comp. Lat. mzors, death, and mzori, to die; time of Cicero. A. is a bishop's see. Pop. 7024. Sans. mIli, to die. The Sanskrit a-mnrita, or elixir of immor- A'men, Hebrew,'firm, faithful; but also an adverb equivatality, expresses the same idea. A. was represented as sweeter lent to'yea,''verily,''so let it be,' and used both by Jews and than honey, and of a most fragrant pdour. Christians in their forms of worship. The early Christians Ambro'sian Chant, choral music introduced by St Am- responded A. at the close of the prayer offered by the presbyter. brose, Bishop of Milan, into the Western Church in the 4t c., The early practice of sho.ting A. at tle celebration of the Lord's but superseded in the 6th c. by the Gregorian Chant. It was Supper by each recipient of the elements gave so much scandal, sung antiphonally. The A. C. is still occasionally sung in the that it was discontinued after the 6th c. A. was pronounced in Cathedral of Milan. the Greek Church after the name of each person of the Trinity. -Ambro'sian Library, Milan, founded by Cardinal Arch. rAmend'ment, a judicial and parliamentary term. As the bishop F. Borromeo in 1602, opened in 1609, and named after St former, it denotes a method of correcting errors in civil and Ambrose (q. v.) The printed books number 149,00ooo vols., and the criminal actions, which has lately been much improved in England MSS. Sooo8000. Two loctores Bibiiot.env Avzbrosianm make the and in Scotland. treasures of the library accessible to visitors. The Palimpsests, In Parliament, an A. is an alteration proposed in the draft and Petrarch's copy of'Virgil,' containing an autograph account of any bill, or in the terms of any motion. No member, except of his first meeting with Laura, are among its greatest rarities. when the House is in committee, is allowed to speak more than Ambry, or Aumbry, a recess in the wall of a church, or a once on the same question; but he may speak again on an A. wooden cupboard near the altar, for keeping the sacred vessels, The original motion, if seconded, is always put first from the oils, books, &c., and used in the service of the mass. In Scot. chair, thus''That the words proposed to be left out stand land the word is still used to denote any recess containing the part of the question;' if this be carried, the main question is necessaries of housekeeping. It is probably a corruption of next put, and of course agreed to. But if the question as above almonry (Old Eng. aimerie), and must originally, therefore, have be negatived, the motion is put with the omission of the words been applied to a place where alms were kept for distribution, which it refers to, so that the A. separately is not voted upon. Ambulac'ral System (Lat. anzbula-e, to walk), the name Amenorrhoe'a is tihe absence of the monthly menstrual disgiven to a peculiar system of vessels or tubes ramifying within charge from females. There are two kinds: (i) that in which the bodies of Echinozoal animals (star-fishes, sea-urchins, &c.), the menses have never appeared; and (2) that in which the 82 ~~G —-- ------------- --------------- -------— ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.^ AMEI THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPEH-DIA. AME menses, after continuing for some time, have ceased. The first Margairita to the mouths of the Orinoco. The success of the class of cases are due to congenital malformation, or to the habits great discoverer soon attracted in his wake a host of enterprising of the individual, or to errors in the digestive process. Luxurious adventurers, among the first of these being Alonzo de Hojeda, and indolent women are specially prone to this affection. In one of whose officers, Amerigo Vespucci (q. v.), has had the some of these cases there may be a vicarious discharge of blood honour accidentally assigned him of giving name to A. For from another organ, such as the lungs, or bowels, or skin. The many years the exploration of the New World was briskly pursecond class of cases may be caused by cold caught during men- sued, other European nations besides Spain freely taking part in struation, wetting of the feet, bodily or mental shock, mental the glorious work of discovery. In I498, Sebastian Cabot, a depression, fever, or severe bodily injury. The treatment varies Venetian in the service of England, visited Newfoundland; in according to the cause. If due to congenital defects, nothing can I500 the Portuguese Gaspar Cortereal touched at Labrador, and be done. If it be the effect of debility, tonics, more especially sailed along the coast nearly to Hudson's Bay; and in 1513 those containing iron, are useful. If the menstrual discharge has Vasco Nufiez de Balbao crossed the Isthmus of Panama and been suddenly arrested, warm hip or foot baths often do good. beheld the Pacific or Southern Ocean. In South A., again, Frequently, in cases of A., purgatives containing aloes are ser- the Spanish navigator Pinzon (I500-I4) explored the coast to viceable. It is an affection requiring medical advice. 40~ S. lat.; a Portuguese fleet under Cabral in I500 accidentally discovered Brazil a few months later than Pinzon; Solis entered Amen'tia, a variety of insanity identical with the conditions the La Plat in 55 ee he was slain y the natives; and the La Plata in I5 I5, where he was slain by the natives; and termed dementia and idiocy. It is characterised negatively by agellan discovered the strait earing his name in 15, and the absence of all intelligence, emotions, orwill. See INSANITY. for the first time circumnavigated the globe. The route round Amentif'erwe, a large and important natural order of Dicoty- Cape Horn was only discovered in I6IO by Schouten, a Dutch ledonous trees and shrubs, which have unisexual flowers, and navigator, and it was not till 185I that Maclure's expedition bear the male flowers in catkins or anzestla. The order has been proved the existence of a N.W. passage. On the discovery of divided into the following sub-orders: I. Salicinece, the willow A. it was found to be inhabited by a vast numnber of peoples, and poplar tribe, natives of temperate and cold regions; 2. differing in character, physical appearance, and language. Some AMyricea, the sweet gale and candleberry myrtle tribe, natives of these races had reached an advanced stage of civilisation, as both of temperate and tropical countries; 3. Coasuzarinec, the is sufficiently attested by the architectural remains scattered over beef-wood tribe, found in Australia; 4. Bezilinen, the birch and Mexico, Peru, and the Mississippi Valley, but none possessed a alder tribe, natives of temperate regions; 5. Balsaziflzw the written language, and all history was therefore veiled in the obliquid amber tribe, balsarmic trees found in warm and tropical scurity of tradition. See AZTECS, and INDIANS, AMERICAN. countries; 6. Paltanea, the plane-tree tribe, natives chiefly of The work of colonisalion was begun by Spain with vigour and temperate regions; 7. Cuzpui/ifere, the oak, hazel, and beech enterprise, but in a spirit of tyranny and aggression. Little or tribe, natives both of temperate and warm countries. Authors no resistance could be made by the inhabitants against armed frequently treat these sub-orders as separate orders. bodies of Europeans, and at every point of contact they were either massacred or forced to retire. With 6o00 men Cortez Amer'ica, next to Asia, the largest of the four continental (q.v.) conquered Mexico, and Pizarro (q. v.), with even a divisions of the world. Alone of these continents it stretches smaller force, destroyed the empire of Peru; and here, in the throughout four zones, and its shores are washed by the Northern, two most populous countries of A., the number of inhabitants the Atlantic, the Southern, and the Pacific Oceans. Its extreme sensibly diminished at the approach of the invader. The almost length cannot be accurately fixed, but from Cape Barrow in the N. entire depopulation of natives in the Antilles creating, as it did, to Cape Horn in the S. it is fully gooo miles, or I30~ of latitude, a universal demand for field labourers, was the immediate cause and its greatest breadth, from Cape St Roque in Brazil to Cape which led to the establishment of the African slave trade. The Parma in Peru, is 3250 miles, or 460 of longitude. Including Portuguese meantime were pursuing a somewhat similar policy the islands, the total area is estimated at I5,783,372 sq. miles, on a portion of the basins of the Amazon and the Parana to and the population at 84,312, o087. Perhaps the most remark- which they gave the name of Brazil. For some time the Portuguese able characteristic in the physical aspect of A. is its immensity; and Spanish were the sole European colonists, the empire of the nature is here seen, whether in mountain, river, cataract, lake, latter embracing one-half of both Americas. Thle first French or forest, on the grandest scale. This vast territory consists colonies were those of Canada (q.v.) in I6oS, and the earliest strictly of two peninsulas and an isthmus, which are named English settlement was that of Virginia in I607. See UNITED respectively North, Central, and South A. After recounting STATES. The whole of A. is now under European rule, with the history of A.'s discovery and colonisation, the subject will the exception of the aboriginal state of Araucania, included in be considered separately under these three heads. Chili, and the African republic of Hayti, the oldest of the Spanish The discovery of A., as commonly understood, means its dis- colonies. covery by Columbus. It must not be forgotten, however, that NORTH AMERICA extends from the Gulf of Mexico, in nearly the primitive races are possibly to be regarded as immigrants, 30~ N. lat., to the Arctic Ocean, having a length of about 4000 and at any rate that, long before the time of Columbus, Euro- miles, and an extreme breadth of 3100 miles. Its shape, when peans had certainly found their way hither. As early as Iooo A.D. we exclude Mexico, is almost square, but in the S.E. the peninthe Scandinavians, having previously colonised Iceland and sula of Florida projects from the mainland, and in the N. W. the Greenland, penetrated as far S. as the State of Massachusetts, and regular outline is broken by the territory of Alaska. The westin I 17o a Welsh prince, Madoc, is said to have landed on the coast ern coast is little indented, the only marked irregularity being of Virginia. But these visits (and that of Madoc is more than the long narrow peninsula of Old California. The eastern coastdoubtful) neither led to permanent settlements nor to a wide- line, however, consists of an almost continuous series of bays, spread knowledge of the existence of a continent in the W. gulfs, and inlets, which become larger and more frequent toward Toward the end of the I5th c., however, the great commercial the N., where Davis' Strait and Baffin's Bay separate the mainimportance of a sea-passage to the E. Indies beginning to be land from Greenland, and Hudson's Strait leads to the immense keenly felt in Europe, gave rise to an ardent spirit of discovery, bay of the same name occupying the centre of British A. North and Columbus (q. v.), perhaps the most intrepid and enterprising A. is remarkable for its two great mountain ranges, its chain of of discoverers, announced his grand scheme of reaching India by immense lakes, its extensive river systems, and its vast plateaux a westward route, thereby showing indisputably his belief in the and low plains. rotundity of the earth. Under the patronage of Ferdinand and The two mnoulztain systems of North A. are the Rocky MounIsabella of Spain, he set sail on Friday, 3d August 1492, and tains and the Alleghanies or Appalachians, both of which are on the I2th of October following landed on one of the Bahamas, described in separate articles. The Rocky Mountains extend, probably Watling's Island, which he named San Salvador. This in a triple chain, from the plateau of Mexico to the Arctic Sea, was followed in due course by the discovery of Cuba, HIayti or a length of about 4600 miles. The main or easterly range forms Hispaniola, Jamaica, and others of the Antilles; and these islands, the boundary of the Mississippi Valley, and is in many parts being regarded as part of India, received the appellation of W. volcanic. The range that stretches into the Californian peninsula Indies, a name by which they soon became permanently known. forms the coast-line as far N. as Vancouver's Island, and at some Columbus, on three subsequent visits, also explored the coast of distance from the coast-range runs an intermediate chain, interCentral A. southward from Honduras, and that of South A. from rupted by occasional gaps. Near the 4oth parallel of N. latitude 83 A - A —-~ AME THE GL OBE ENC YC OOEDIA. AME the Rocky Mountains are crossed by a transverse chain, which at respective heads. The most important are-(I) the W. Indian each point of intersection towers into a height of Io,ooo feet. Islands, embracing the Greater and Lesser Antilles and the BaOn either side of these snowy mountains lie the great gold-fields hamas, stretching in a great curve from the coast of Venezuela of California and Oregon, formed chiefly of the gravels descending towards the peninsula of Florida, and forming a dividing line from the mountain-sides. There are no recent volcanic cones S. between the Atlantic Ocean proper and the Gulf of Mexico and of Oregon, but northward the mountains are frequently volcanic. Caribbean Sea; (2) the Bermudas, about 6oo miles off the coast The coast-range terminates in the N. in a peak called St of Carolina; (3) the islands at the mouth of the St Lawrence, Elias, nearly Is8,ooo feet high, and in the neighbourhood of Mount namely, Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, Cape Breton, Fairweather some I6,ooo feet high. The Alleghanies are also and Anticosta; (4) Cumberland, Cockburn, Southampton, and a triple chain, but of much lower altitude, running nearly paral- Melville Islands; Prince Albert Land, Banks' Land, and many lel with the E. coast almost firom Maine to Alabama. They are others.of the vast Arctic archipelago. Greenland is also geneintersected at various places by the passage of the rivers, and rally regarded as a westerly member of the latter group. The have a mean altitude of 2500 feet. only large islands on the W. coast are the Aleutians, forming an The chief river systems are the Mississippi, the St Lawrence, archipelago in themselves, Queen Charlotte and Vancouver's and the Mackenzie. The first of these, the great'Father of Islands. Waters,' collecting the streams of the Missouri, the Ohio, the Ar- The zoology is varied and peculiar, and among the more notable kansas, and the Red River, has a drainage area of some i,250,000 species may be mentioned the polar, black, and grisly bears, the sq. miles, and a total length of about 4000 miles. Next to moose, red, Virginian, and other deer, the puma, lynx, glutton, the Amazon, it is the largest stream in the world, and, ex- wolf, American fox, badger, otter, racoon, opossum, beaver, tending for most part in temperate latitudes, it far excels the ermine, bison,'and prairie dog. Of birds, the white-headed and larger river in its commercial importance, affording unrivalled other eagles, vultures, mocking and humming birds, passengerfacilities for internal communication. Together with its numer- pigeons, &c. The alligator, tortoise, rattlesnake, black snake, ous tributaries, it drains the great central plains of A. as far N. and siren are prominent among the reptiles. The domestic anias the low plateau which stretches across the country near the mals of Europe have been introduced successfully, and there is Canadian lakes, forming the watershed between the streams abundance of all kinds of fish. flowing to the Arctic Ocean and those entering the Atlantic or The geology of North A. has been much more fully investithe Gulf of Mexico. Beyond this same dividing range the chief gated than that of the southern half of the continent, for the river is the Mackenzie, which has a course of 1770 miles, and obvious reason that in the northern part the extension of flows into the Arctic Ocean. The drainage of this part of the civilisation and scientific influences has proceeded at a much country to the N. and W. is completed by many little-known greater rate than in South A. The Laurentian rocks attain a large but important rivers, all of which enter Hudson's Bay, after development along the line of the St Lawrence river, from which flowing through numerous large lakes on their course. The they derive their name. These rocks, once sedimentary, are now third great river system is the St Lawrence, with its chain of crystalline and metamorphosed, and they contain the famous immense lakes. It flows E. and enters the Atlantic after a Eozo'nz Canadense, or'dawn of life animalcule.' The Camlbrian course of about 2000 miles, having a drainage area estimated at rocks of A. lie unconformably on the Laurentian gneiss, and 400,000 sq. miles. The Atlantic slope is drained by numberless are termed Hurfonian beds by Sir W. Logan. These are sandrivers that take their rise in the Alleghanies, and which, though stones, corresponding to the British Cambrian beds, and contain small in comparison with thile Mississippi or the St Lawrence, are no fossils. The Lower Silurian rocks of North A. spread over invaluable for industrial or navigable purposes. The only irn- Canada and the United States. These formations contain numeportant rivers that empty themselves into the Pacific are the rous fossils of Grap/holites, Bracloiooda, Ce alopoda, &c. The Colorado, the Sacramento, the Oregon, and the Fraser, all of Upper Silurian rocks are well developed. In the Mississippi a which rise in the great western plateau. Carboniferous series lies directly on the Silurian. The CarbonzferThe lakes of North A. are larger and more numerous than ozus system in North A. is also well developed. The jurassic or those of any other country in the world. The principal are the Oolitic rocks are represented, according to Sir C. Lyell, by sands five great lakes linked together by the St Lawrence, and these and clays, with beds of coal and numerous plant fossils. Professor have a total area of 120,000 sq. miles, which alone is almost WV. B. Rogers says the Richmond-Virginian coal-field, of great half the-aggregate fiesh-water surface of the globe. Lake Supe- value, belongs to the Oolitic period. The Cre/aceous or chalk rior is the largest of these, having an area of 42,000 sq. miles, rocks are represented in New Jersey by sandy and clay beds, conand a mean depth of about go900 feet. It is 596 feet above the taining chalk fossils. Dr H-lector says that sandstones, clays, and Atlantic, and 460 miles in length. The longest of the lakes, shales occupy the centre of Canada, E. of the Rocky Mountains. however, is Michigan, which has a length of 480 miles, an area of The evidences of the Glacial Period or Ice Alge are best seen in 32,000 sq. miles, and a mean depth of Iooo feet, being 578 feet North A., where a southward movement of polar ice nmust have above the Atlantic. Lake Huron has anl area of 27,500 sq. taken place. Glacial deposits occur as far S. as lat. 39~. miles, and a depth of Iooo feet. Erie and Ontario are far The political divisions, areas, and populations of North A. inferior both in depth and dimension. A chain of great lakes according to the Almzanac de Gotha for I875, are as follows: also runs through B itish North A. in a N.W. direction, from the neighllbourhood of Lake Superior to the lower reaches of the Governmen reai Population. Capitals. Governments. Square Miles.PouaonCpils Mackenzie river, of which the most notable are Winnipeg, Win- Square Miles. nipegos, Deer Lake, Wollaston, Athabasca, Great Slave Lake, and Great Bear Lake. The western plateau contains Great United States 3603,84 33,925,598 Washington. Salt Lake. Danish America (Greenland) 34,032 9,825 Lichtenfels. ~~~~~~~~The ~talxnc o~lisar sdstntFrench Possessions. 8i 4,750 St Pierre. The plateaux and lozv jlains are as distinctive a feature in the British North Americaphysical geography of North A. as its great lakes or river a. The Dominion of Canadasystems. The great central plain stretches firom the Gulf of Canada East, or Quebec 293,355 1,191,5P6 Quebec. Canada West, or Ontario 107,780 i,62o, 85I Toronto. Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, is watered by all the principal CaNada Wea, or Ontario 207,780,6o H oronto. Nova Scotia. 21,731 387,8oo Halifax. rivers, and has an area of over 4,000,000 sq. miles. This vast New Brunswick 27,322 285,594 Fredericton, expanse is only interrupted by the plateau near the Canadian Manitoba. 3,923 1,963 Frt Garry. lakes, towards which the land slopes gradually from N. and S., British Columbia 23,000 42,000 Ne, minterst and the elevation ranges from 700 to 1500 feet. It is extremely Hudson's Bay Terrifertile, even in the Canadian portion, where the climate is most tory, or Rupert'sLand } 2,934,040 85,000 York Factory. rigorous. In the S. the plains have the advantage of a sub- Prince Edward Island. 2,r73 94,022 Charlotte Town. 2. Newfoundland. 40,200 446,536 St John's. tropical climate, and are widely cultivated and richly produc. 3. Bermudas 24 25,309 Hamilton. tive. Here, also, occur the savannahs or prairies of the Missis-. sippi, partly alluvial, and partly heathy pine-barrens. To the Total 7,i91,545 42,820,763 E., again, a wide belt of rich plains extends between the Alleghanies and the Atlantic coast-line. CENTRAL AMERICA, in which we include Mexico, forms the Thie islands which may be considered as belonging to North connecting-link between the two greater divisions of the contiA. are extremely numerous, and will be described under their nent. It is 2500 miles long, and has in the N. an extreme 84 AMI THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPkEDIA, AME breadth of 750 miles, but gradually narrows towards the isthmus The great mounloilz c/aoin is the Andes (q. v.), which extends of Panama, where it is only 40 miles across. The coast-line to from the isthmus of Panama, in a triple range, as far as Bolivia, the W. is almost unbroken, but that on the E. contains many and afterwards in a single range to the extremity of the land at small bays, and is of a somewhat zigzag shape. The great Tierra del Fuego. It is almost entirely volcanic, and ranging tableland of Mexico, along with the volcanic mountain chain of close to the western coast, it exercises a remarkable effect on the Guatemala, connects the Rocky Mountains with the Andes. In climate. The prevailing winds being easterly as far S. nearly as Central A., besides mountain chains and tablelands, there is a Valparaiso, the vapours with which they are still loaded after considerable river system, but few great lakes, passing over the continent are arrested by the mountain heights, The labielfanz of by far the greatest magnitude is that of and the rain being thus all but completely diverted into the Mexico, which begins at the narrow isthmus of Tehuantepec drainage of the eastern slope, the narrow strip on the western and stretches into North A., having a breadth at the city of side is converted into a sandy desert. Brazil is partly intersected Mexico of some 400 miles, and an elevation of 7500 feet above by an intricate and extensive mountain system. the sea. On all sides it rises abruptly, and its summit is por- As to river syslems, the most gigantic is the Amazon (q. v.), tioned off into four separate plains by an irregular range of hills with a drainage area of over 2,000,000 sq. miles. It rises at about Iooo feet high. The city of Mexico is built on one of a great elevation in Upper Peru, receives at least twenty splendid these hills, at a point where a line of active volcanoes extends rivers, and after a course of 4000 miles it enters the Atlantic across the country. The tableland of Guatemala, continued from without delta, discolouring the ocean for a distance of over 400 Tehuantepec to the isthmus of Panama, is the next in import- miles from land. Only inferior to the former is the Rio de la ance, and is of volcanic formation. The climate of these table- Plata, or Parana, which rises in Brazil, and has a course of 2150 lands is extremely healthy, though that of the coast is humid and miles. Its chief tributaries are the Uruguay, the Salado, the Paramalarious. guay, and the Pilcomayo, and it flows into the Atlantic after The great mnounzainz c/zais are the Sierra Potosi, the most watering the N.W. of La Plata. It is subject to inundations, occaeasterly range; the Sierra Sonora, towards the W. coast; and the sionally overflowing whole provinces many thousand square miles central chain'Sierra Madre, which forms the watershed of the in extent. Next in importance is the Orinoco, lying towards the country, and in which lie tile principal gold and silver mines. N. of the continent. It rises in the Andes, flows through an exSee CORDILLERAS. Popocatepetl is the loftiest peak in tensive region of impenetrable forest, is connected by a natural Mexico, being some i8,ooo feet above the sea, and is an active canal with the Amazon, and enters the Atlantic in the extreme W. volcano in an almost constant state of eruption. The Mexican of Venezuela. It drains an area of 300,oo000 sq. miles, and is i500o silver mines occur where the tableland unites with the mountain miles long, iooo of which are navigable. There are many other chain. Between the isthmus of Tehuantepec and that of Panama large rivers flowing into the Atlantic and the Caribbean Sea, there are nearly forty volcanic mountains, with heights ranging some of which exhibit the peculiar phenomenon of anaslomzofrom 300oo0 to I3,000 feet above the sea. sis or interlacing; but on the entire W. side of the Andes The river systens are numerous, but are necessarily limited, the only river worth mentioning is the Guayaquil of Ecuador. from the narrowness of the territory through which they flow. Titicaca is the only lake of great dimensions, and is 115 miles The only important river is the Rio del Norte, which, after a long, from 30 to 60 broad, and at least 83,000 feet above the sea. course of 2000 miles, including its windclings, enters the Gulf of The tablelands in the northern part of South A., and between Mexico at about 25a N. latitude. Its total drainage area is esti- the parallel ridges, are of great elevation. Many are 12,00ooo feet mated at 250,000 sq. miles. There are many small lakes on above the sea, and are well-cultivated regions, containing large the tableland at various elevations. The largest is Lake Nica- cities and numerous villages. The tableland of Titicaca, in the ragua, which is Ioo miles long and 50 broad, and has an area of Bolivian Andes, has an area of i5o, ooo sq. miles, and is populous 4400 sq. miles. and productive, being also a great mining centre. Some of The zoology of Central A. includes the puma, wolf, jaguar, these plains were inhabited by civilised peoples long before the wild boar, black tiger, tiger-cat, ocelot, opossum, racoon, tapir, Spanish invasion. In the basins of the Amazon and the Orinoco, peccary, sloth, armadillo, and monkey. and in parts of Patagonia and Buenos Ayres, occur many low The areas and population of the various countries in the fol- plains. See PAMPAS, LLANOS, and SILVAS. lowing table are from the Almanac/z de Gotia for I875: The zoology of South A. is extensive and peculiar, embracing a fourth of all the known mammals, among which, however, are GensesArea in Ppli, almost none of the wild animals so abundant in Afirica and Governments. A rea ~inol... Capitals. Ni-nms square Miles. PPl Capitals. Asia. The most powerful of the carnivora is the jaguar, whichl _____- — ~-____ ——'- _ __ is indeed the only formidable beast of prey in the whole contiMexico. 741,820 9, I34,128 Mexico. nent. Of the other animals may be mentioned the great tapir, San Salvador 7,337 6oo00,ooo San Salvador. peccaries, sloths, antreaters, armadilloes; the llama, the chinNicaragua.... 5,]o,.5 o ooMnga Nicaras-ua 58, I70 250,000 MRanagua. chilla, and the monkey. Many of the species are peculiar to Honduras...47, 1o8 351, 700 Comayagua. C RaGuatemala. 4q,792 I,194,00ooo Guatemala. South A., and are not found elsewhere. Among birds the most Costa Rica. 21,502 185, 0oo0 San Jose. notable are various parrots, humming-birds, flaniingoes, toucans, "Total 912 I - 8 and aracaris. Chief among the reptiles are alligators and rattle11a ~729 I,714,827I snakes. In South American geology the Cretaceous or Chalk rocks, like SOUTH AMERICA is triangular in shape, and its vertex lies the Oolitic beds, canll be traced from Columbia to Tierra del southward, like the corresponding continent of Africa in.the Old Fuego. The Eocene rocks of the Kainozoic Period are also well World. Its greatest length is 4700 miles, its greatest breadth represented. The iRecent Period gives us the remains of animals 3150, and its total area 7,ooo000,500 sq. miles. It has a coast-line belonging to orders of mammals which occupy that region in the of 15,800oo miles, and on the side of the Caribbean Sea and the present day, with the addition, that the fossil species present Atlantic there are many bays and excellent harbours, but on the the characters of existing species greatly intensified. Thus the Pacific side the seaboard is almost unbroken. The continent is gigantic extinct ploths (?) mylodon and megatherium, the extinct marked by great plains or terraces at various elevations, between armadillo-like elyptodon, the extinct llama maranchenia, (?) &c., the great chain of the Andes on the W. and the lower mountains are all represented by less typical existing species. of Brazil on the E., and is watered by the most magnificent The botany or vegetable kingdom in South A. has a magniriver systems in the world. ficent development, patrticularly in the vast tropical territory E. The chief islaznds of South A. are the Galapagos, W. of Ecua. of the Andes, the basins of the Amazon, the Orinoco, and their dor; Chincha Island, W. of Peru; Juan Fernandez, W. ofChili; tributaries, where the genera'and species are more abundant, the Chilbe and Wellington, W. of Patagonia; Tierra del Fuego, S. forests larger, and the forms more gigantic than anywhere in the of Patagonia; Falkland Isles, E. of Patagonia; and Curaqao, N. Old World. Besides its palms, it has dye-woods of all sorts, cedar, of Venezuela. The Antilles have already been mentioned in mahogany, ebony, &c.; farther S. are the araucarias of Chili, and connection with North A., but they belong nearly as much to the beech forests of Patagonia. North A. has also a superb flora, South A., and are indeed supposed at one time to have linked including the pines and beeches of the Dominion of Canada; the the two continents together, converting the Caribbean Sea and poplars, pines, oaks, beeches, maples, and hazels of the United Gulf of Mexico into landlocked seas or vast lakes. States; and the dye-woods, rosewood, and ebony of Mexico. *_ __ __ 8S AME THE GLOBE ENVCYCLOP~DIA. AMH From the Almanac/z de Gotha for 1875 we take the follow- taphorical Americanisms, having their origin io humorous stories, ing statistics - date for the most part friom the Western States: thus'to acknowledge the corn' means to confess, to own a fault; to' cave in,' Area in to collapse, as thie earth sometimes does when' caves' are dug Governments. Popularetilsopun. Capitals. Governments Square Miles. Populaion. Capitals beneath it. To' pull up stakes' means to pack up and be off;......._ -~~ -~ - to'fizzle out,' to be quenched; to' fix one's flint,' to settle or Brazil... 3,288,II3 o,96,238 Rio de Janeiro. do for;'big-bugs' are people of consequence;'all-standing' Venezuela..,.403,275:r,784,1x94 Caracas.' Venezuela B 85425 1,784,94 Caracasgtw. means without preparation; to'hurry up the cakes' is to be Guiana, Briti~h -. 85,425 193,49I Georgetown. Guiana, Duch,3 52,05 Paramaribo. active. Among Americanisms may be classed the curious Guiana, French. 46,881 24,897 Cayenne. Anglo-German patois in use (of necessity) by German settlers, United States of Colombia 320, 747 2,910,329 Bogota. which is so admirably exemplified in the Balacds of lanszs BreitEcuador.248,385 1,3o8, o82 ~ecuadr. - - 1,3085,308o2 Quito mann (see LELAND); but the extraordinary orthography of Bolivia 536 200 2,000,000ooo Chuquisaca. Artemus Ward, and of Josh Billings, Mark Twain, and others, Argentine Republic.,619,955,877,49o Buenos Ayres. can no more be termed a distinctive A. than the Cockney spelling Uruguay.. 83,859 450,000 Monte Video. of Sam Weller in the Pickwzic/ Fqpe's can be termed an AngliParaguay.. 56,734 221,079 Asunoion.p ba Chili. 132,645 2, 003,346 Santiago. cism. Patagonia 364,864 5, 000oo Patagonesmeri'go espucci, navigator nd discoverer whose CrisFalkland Islands 4e 74' 8o3 Port Louis.-_ 4,74r [___.8o ~ tian name has been given to America, was born at Florence, of Total - 7,748,342 [25,527,054 a good family, 9th Mlarch I45i. At an early age hlie showed a liking for the physical sciences, and in I486 hlie was enAmerica, British, a name strictly applicable only to the gaged as a factor in a Florentine commercial house in Seville. entire Transatlantic possessions of Britain in North, Central, and While thus employed, the passion for discovery, which, after South A., but generally used as an equivalent for British North the great achievement of Columbus, seems to have inflamed A., comprising the whole of the Dominion of Canada, together all navigators, seized A. He made four voyages to the New with the still unincorporated colony of Newfoundland. Although World in the capacity of naval astronomer, the first and second inferior in population, B. A. is equal in area to the American in 1499-8500, in expeditions under the auspices of Spain; and Republic, and greatly superior to any other of the western go- the third and fourth in 8501-4, in the service of Portugal. In vernments. This vast extent of territory yields the utmost variety I508 he obtained the appointment of pilot-major under the of material products, and embraces many of the most valuable Spanish government. His principal duty in this office, which commercial and military positions in the New World. For a com- he retained till his death, was to examine persons seelking plete list of the British possessions in A., see the tables in the licences as pilots in the use of the astrolabe and quadrant, and preceding article; and for descriptions of the different states, in the practice as well as the theory of their business. He died see separate articles under their respective heads. at Seville, 22d February 1512. In Germany a confused account merica, ussian. See UNEB STATES, of A.'s voyages was written by one Waldseemtiller, who was utterly unknown to Vespucci, and who proposed that the new America, Spanish, the name applied to Porto Rico and region should be called Amnerici terra. The name passed into Cuba (q. v.), now all that remains of the Spanish territories, geographical charts, and so established itself. But Humboldt which at one time embraced the entire continent. has clearly shown (Cosmos, Bohn's transl., vol. ii. pp. 676-8I) Americanismr (comp. Scotticism), a term, phrase, or f orm that A., who was a man of high character, and greatly esteemed of expression, the use of which is peculiar to America. Formerly by Columbus, was absolutely flee from blame in this matter. each division of the Union had its own distinguishing forms Am'ersfoort, ai old town of Utrecht, in the Netherlands, of expression —those of the Western States having their origin situated on the navigable river Eem, which enters the Zuiderzee. usually in character stories, and in the application of the It has a beautiful church, with a tower 300 feet high, and carries habits of animals to human devices under specified conditions; on an important trade in grain, and a considerable manufacture of those of the New England and maritime States serving to illus- cottons, woollens, leather, soap, and beer. In the vicinity are trate the contingencies, expedients, triumphs, and vicissitudes of several tobacco plantations. A railway connects it with Utrecht commercial life, &c. In our own time, however, so rapid and and Zwolle. A. is mentioned in documents as far back as too6, ready is railway communication over the American continent, but first obtained a town charter in I259. It is the birthplace that now true humour may be said to have no locality, and the of the famous statesman Oldenbarnevelt. Pop. (1869) 83,298, aphorism which springs up this month in California may be of whom nearly one-half are Catholics. found flourishing next month in New York. Dr M. Shele de Vere, whose work (The Englis/ of t/e New /Vorld, Scribner, Ametabol'ic Insects. This name, signifying'without 8873) is the best and latest on the subject, states that'the change,' is applied to indicate collectively the three lowest orders largest part of so-called Americanisrls are nothing more than of insects, distinguished familiarly by their undergoing no M/etagood old English words which, for one reason or another, have nmoi2p/osis (q. v.) These forms accordingly come from the egg become obsolete or provincial in England; while they have in much the same state as that in which they pass their adult retained their full power and citizenship in the United States. life, the young insect not differing from the perfect being save in Thus all the provincialities of the northern and western counties size. They may moult frequently during their consequent inof England have been naturalised in the New England States.' crease in size, but the absence of a defined series of changes, But the true A. is a manifestation of the humour of the country such as is seen in the bIutterfly, beetle, &c., constitutes a marked concreted in the form of a term or phrase, most commonly by difference between these and higher insects. The A. I. are the action of political excitement and commercial vicissitude. the Ala/lop/aga (bird. lice), 7/ysansaa (spring-tails), ApteraFor the mass of Americanisms in common use the reader is (lice). referred to Bartlett's Dictionaiy of Americanisms (New York, 1848), and to the Engl-Zish Lanouage in.it America, Cam/bride Amethyst, a variety of quartz or rock-crystal, of a fine Essys88 Ind Dro~ deh~ Vere'swork, alread named tie mostpurple or bluish-violet colour, extensively used for cutting as a ~ssays (I855). In Dr de Vere's work, already named, the most recnt Ameicanis ma y befoun.The abis ole raoon gem for personal ornament. The colour of A. is supposed to be recent Americanisms may be found. The habits of the racoon and opossum have givef I rise to many specimens. From the due to the presence of a minute proportion of manganese in its well-known habit of these of taking refuge in a gum-tree when omposition. The finest A. cones from India, Ceylon, Siberia, pursued, a'gum-game' is now the favourite word for any sy and Brazil; but qualities suitable for jewellery are also found in attept to'gaet ou of a dfiuty; a'triee' od coon isl sed t Austria, Saxony, France, and Spain, and a vein of good colour attempt to get out of a difficulty; a'tree'd coon' is used to exists at K~erry Head, in Ireland. A variety of the sapphire, of describe a man who has had recourse to his last expedient; and a prple coloar, is H nown Inder the name of Oriental A. to'bark up the wrong tree,' as the sportsman's dog occasionally does, means to go on the wrong track, or pursue an unconclusive Am'herst, a village in the division of Tenasserim, British line of argument. Many Americanisms are simply vulgarisms, Burmah, situated at the mouth of the Saluen, on the Gulf of ridiculous from their extravagance: thus we hear of a'lady rub- Martaban. It was designed, when founded in I826, as the combing her gums,' i.e., wipingher goloshes,'on the door-mat.' Me- mercial capital of Tenasserim, then newly acquired, and named 86 ~ —---------------— ~ —----— ~~ AMH THE GLOBE ENVCYCLOPfDI4A. AMM in honour of the governor-general of India, but has turned out Julian against the Persians, and subsequently served under Vaa failure, and is now of no commercial importance except as a lentinian Valens, Gratian, and Theodosius, who ascended the pilot station and occasional port of call for vessels bound to the throne in 379. His last years, however, were spent at Rome in Burmah ports. Moulmein (q. v.), the seat of government of literary leisure. A.'s work, entitled Reruzm Gestarzm Libri the Tenasserim provinces, has always been, and continues to be, XXX., is reckoned a sequel to Tacitus, whose style he unsucthe principal place of traffic. Pop. Iooo. cessfully imitates; but the first thirteen books, embracing Roman on a history from 9I A.D., when Tacitus stops, to 352 A.D., are lost. mherst, a town in Hampshire, assachusetts, U The remaining eighteen, however, from 352 to 378, in spite of tributary of the Connecticut, 82 miles W. of Boston. It has a considerable and increasing trade. Pop. (I 870) 4035. A4. Col- certain /acunZZ or gaps, are invaluable as the records of events of lere, one of the most flourishing colleges in America, is situatedor wasmaily an eyewitness. His geographical, lear Aate and as founded *n I82Id It has fifteen. professors, archaeological, and ethnological digressions possess the greatest near A., antd was founded in I82I. It has fifteen professors, interest, as, for instance, his chapters on the Saracens, the Huns, and possesses a large library, a museum, and an astronomical the Germans, Sc.. and on Egypt Persia Pontus, and Thrace. The question has been much discussed whether A. was a pagan Anm'iens, capital of the department of Somme, and of the for- or Christian, but it remains undecided. The best edition of his mer province of Picardy, France, is situated on the river Somme, history is that by Wagner and Erfurdt (3 vols., Leipz. I808). in the midst of a richly-cultivated plain. It is a junction for numerous railways, and has considerable manufacturing activity, Am mon, or Amun, a god of Egypt, holding the highest rank and whose name signifies the unrevealed. The Greeks identified especially in textile fabrics. Its grandest building is the cath whose e sigifies the u him with Zeus, and the Romans with Jupiter; hence his city, dral, a magnificent specimen of Gothic architecture, built I220- hi m Nith Zeus, and the Romans with Jupiter; hence his city, 88 by Robert de Luzarche, Thomas de Cormlon, and his son 0o-Am mon (Nah. iii. 8),istranslated into GreekbyDiospolis. Renault. It is the birthplace of Peter the Hermit, but is best His peculiar residence was Thebes, but his worship spread to knowvln firom the Peace of A., signed here March 27, I8Q2, be- Greece and Rome, and his temples were numerous and splendid. tween England, France, Spaill, and Holland. In the war of He is confounded with two other deities, the sun-god Ra, and I870 it was taken by General Manteuffel. A. is a very old city. Kneph. It was known to the Romans under the name of Sazarnbriva, Ammon, Christoph Friedrich von, a learned German and was the capital of the Am4biani in Gallia Belgica in Caesar's theologian, born at Baireuth, January I6, I766, died at Dresden, time. After many vicissitudes, it was finally brought under the May 2I, I85Q, is best known by his'work on the Fort7binlzngsdes authority of the French crown by Louis XI. in I477. Pop. Christenth/ilzs zr Welt'reli,-ion (' Development of Christianity (1872) 54,499. as a Universal Religion,' 4 vols., Leipz. I833-40), in which he Amiot or Amyot, Joseph, a French Jesuit missionary in seeks to show that the highest outcome of theology is to reconChilna, born at Toulon in 1718, sailed for the East in 1750, and cile the gradual development of the Christian doctrines of faith hdieda n at Pekin in 1794. He as the first to make known, in an- with the continual progress of science. Of his other works the died at Pekin in I794. He was the first to make known, in anything like an exact and scholarly manner, the literature and his- chief are Entwarf giner nein 3 ibliscien 7IzeoIogie (' Scheme of a tory of the Chinese, and later sinologues have liberally availed pure Biblical Theology,' 3 vols., (;tt. I80I-2); WissenScizafthicher Enzt'wurzcder C~/hr~sI[: Sitenleh;-e ('A Scientific Scheme of themselves of his labours. His most important works are his translation of part of the Chinese classics on military art (Art Mqiifitoiroe des CJiinois, &rc., Paris, 1772);* Alebree Hjistor~iee dess Sittenle/zre (' Handbook of Christian Ethics,' 3 vols., Leipz. I823, Prioncipoauzx Traits de ic Vie de Confuciuzs (Paris, 1787); Diction- 2d ed. 38); Leben _7esu (' Life of Jesus,' 2 vols., Leipz. 1842noire s Tcrtore-Mcslz'sch/eoz Frontis (Paris, 1789);* and A/pzabet 44); and Die Wah/re znd EaIscize Ort/zodoxie (' The True and the rt (807). Numerous ssays, teatises, & of False Orthodox,' Leipz. I 849). His second son, Friedrich August 7'artare-Affanzn/schou (i8o7). Numerous essays, treatises, &c., of A. are to be found scattered through the sixteen volumes of Mdmoihres conce-srZant /'Hisloire, les Sciences, les Arts, et les Usages subjects i Germany. des C/zinois (Paris, I776-I8I4). Ammonme'mia is poisoning of the blood by the accumulation ~Am'leth, or Ilamleth, Prince of Jiitland, the original of of carbonate of ammonia, resulting from the decomposition of urea in cases of suppression of the functions of the kidney. See Shakespeare's Hamlet, assigned to the 2d c. B.C., but now generally regarded as a purely mythical personage. Saxo-Grammaticus says he was the son of Horvendill and Gerutha; and that Ammo'nia is a gaseous compound of nitrogen and hydrogen. after his father's assassination by his uncle Fengo, who then Solution of A. has probably been known from the earliest ages, married Gerutha, he feigned madness to secure his own safety. but it is first mentioned by the alchemist Raymond Lully in the His stabbing a spy found hiding among some straw, and his I3th c., who obtained it by distilling urine. The solution was reproaching his mother till she promised to aid him in avenging called by him Mlercgrius ves /d sri;izs aniazolis. Basil Valentine, his father's death, and many other incidents, are reproduced in in the ISth c., prepared solution of A. from sal-ammoniac, but Shakespeare's play. Tradition still points out the tomb of A., retained Lully's name for it. Bergmuann (1782) first called it A., and the spot where his father was assassinated. either from A., a Cyrenaic territory, or from Ammon, a title of Am'lwch, a townl of Anglesey, N. Wales, 2Q miles JN.E. of Jupiter. A. occurs in nature combined with acids. Air conHolyhead. It lies on the N. coast of the island, and near it are tains very small quantities of calronate of A.; drining-water the rich copper mines of the Parys Mountain. There are several vey frequently nitrate or nitrite of A.; and free or uncombined smelting-furnaces, and alum and vitriol workls. A. has large A. is always evolved fiom decomposing animal matters. A. is harbour, and is the terminus of the Chester and Holyhead Rail- now prepared from coal-tar, which contains considerable quantitles. The tar is washed with dilute hydrochloric acid, which way. Along with Beaumaris, Holyhead, and Llangefni it returns one nember to Parliament. Pop. (1871) 2968. combines with the A. to form chloride of ammonium (sal-ammoone member to Parliament. Pop. (i87!) 2968. niac), a very soluble salt, whilst the tar remains undissolved. The Ammana'ti, Bartolome'o, a Florentine sculptor and solution is siphoned off from the tar, evaporated to a sufficient architect, born 15I, died 1592. He decorated the Capitol with extent, and allowed to cool, when the sal-ammoniac separates in sculptures for Pope Julius III., was employed as architect by crystals. A. is prepared from sal-ammoniac by heating the Cosmo de Medici, and completed the famous Pitti Palace. An latter with slaked lime; chloride of calcium remains in the ardent admirer of Michael Angelo, his architectural works evince retort, whilst A. escapes as a gas. In manufactories this operamagnificence of conception. His bronzes are admired for their tion is carried out in iron vessels. delicacy. A. is a colourless gas, lighter than air (sp. gr.'59 rel. to air), Ammergau. See OBER-AMMERGAU. and of suffocating, characteristic smell. It is exceedingly soluble in water, I volume of that liquid dissolving 670 volumes of the Ammia'nus Xarcelli'nus, a Roman historian of the 4th c., gas at ordinary temperature. Strong solution of A. is known in and the last Roman writer who composed a secular history in pharmacy as liquzo- aomzonioe. The characters of the solution Latin. According to Libanius, he was born at Antioch in Syria are those of a true alkali (see ALKALI); it has a soapy, caustic about 320 A. D. The greater part of the life of A. was passed in taste, corrodes organic tissues, restores the blue colour to litmus military service. He took part in the unfortunate expedition of reddened by an acid, and combines with acids to form important _ _____ 87 AMM THEE GLOBE XNCYCLOPEDIA. AMO and well-marked salts. It precipitates many metals from solu- Alexandria, whence the appellation of Saccas, i.e., sack-carrier. tions of their salts, as hydrates (hydrated oxides), and for this He was born of Christian parents, but is said to have apostareason is a valuable reagent in chemical analysis. tised, though this is denied both by Eusebius and Jerome. His Solution of A. is used in medicine both externally and inter- system was eclectic, and attempted to lharmonise the tenets of the nally. Hartshorn and oil is a kind of soap prepared by mixing various schools, especially those of Plato and Aristotle. Lonliguor acm1o10ziie with olive oil. ginus, Herennius, Origen, and Plotinus were his most distinA. (gas) is composed of 14 parts by weight of nitrogen to 3 guished pupils. He died A.D. 243, leaving no written exposition parts of hydrogen, and is represented by the formula NH3. of his system. The salts of A. are numerous, and in many cases important. Ammoph'ila, a genus of grasses. A. arzzndinscea, or ~ Sulphate of A. is largely used as a manure. Carbonate of A., is called mrrem sea-reed or matrass, and Psamma areenaria, is called marrei, sea-reed, or mat-grass, and or common smelling-salts, is a valuable medicine; its solution is is extensively planted both in England and in Holland to bind known as sal-volatile. Nitrate of A. is resolved by heat into sandbants, and prevent the sand beig blown inland t' laughing-gas' and water. Chloride of ammonium, besides being the chief source of A. itself, is eaten by the peasants of Ammurni'tion, the general name given to explosive subRussia instead of common salt. The salts of A. resemble very stances and projectiles used with cannon, rifles, and fowlingclosely the corresponding salts of potassium, and are regarded by pieces, and comprising gunpowder and its modern substitutes chemists as compounds in which the group NH4 (ammonium) gun-cotton, gun-felt, and wood-powder, shot, shell, caps, wads, plays the part of a metal. This group, however, is only known bullets, &c., either apart or combined in a.cartridge. In warfare in combination. A. forms one of the most important parts of the equipment of an A.rnmonli'acurn, a, drug obtained from Doreeta n t. army, whether for offence or defence, while the usefulness to mankind in general as an aid in the destruction of the more all Umbelliferous plant, native of Persia. When the stem is dangerous animals, and in procuring game for food, can hardly be punctured, the milky juice exudes in tears, and becomes yellowish exaggerated. The A. for the ritish army, navy, and reserve on exposure, forming the gutm-resin, like Asafcetida (q. v.) The forces is made up chiefly in the Royal Laboratory at Woolwich, A. is also obtained from n erinl tisz ofzanac, another Umbelliferous where immense quantities of all kinds required for military purplant, found in the northern parts of Africa. poses are kept in store, and distributed to the various stations Am'monites, a race descended from Ben-ammi, the son of and depots occupied by our troops at home and abroad as Lot, occupying the desert district to the E. of Gad. They waged occasion requires. The different kinds of A. in use will be deincessant warfare against the Israelites, and were defeated suc- scribed under their proper heads, cessively by Jephthah, Saul, David, Uzziah, and Jotham, and, Amne'sia is a peculiar condition met with in persons suffering after the captivity, by Judas Maccabaeus, after whose time they from certain kinds of brain disease, in which the person has disappear from history, and were probably merged in the general entirely forgotten the meanings f words. He cannot think entirel forgotten the meanings of words. He cannot think body of Syro-Arabians. According to Josephus, Antiochus the intelligibI in words. He may repeat wprds after another withGreat destroyed the walls of Rabbah, their capitai (B.C. 198). y meaning to them. Alo out attaching any meaning to them. Along with this condition Their chief deity was Milcom, or Moloch. I vZ Their chief deity was Mic, or Moloc. the mental powers are usually considerably impaired. A. is not Ammonites, a family of extinct Tetrabranchiate, or'four- to be confounded with aphasia. See APHASIA. gilled' cuttlefishes, or Cephalopoda, Amnesty (Gr. atmnestia, forgetfulness, i.e., of wrong done) i-epresented in a fossil state by their is a political term denoting an act of pardon or oblivion for many-chambered shells. They form offences committed against the state. Sometimes an A. ex-'X t the type of the faimily Amlmonitidre, cludes from its operation particular individuals, who are then nautilus-in possessing the sepss, or the case of William Wallace in Scotland, and of the English h' iI partitions between the chambers of'regicides' at the restoration of Charles II. the shell, of a folded or complex nattre. The ssitncie, or tube pass- Am'nion is one of the embryonal sacs developed from the in through the s~~epta, and bringinge external germinal layer of the embryo of a vertebrate animal, and Ill-, throaugh the septa, and briEngling the chambers into communication, ultilately enclosing it. SeeEMBRYO. It containsafluidcalled pierced the septa op their external liquor amnii, in wlich the embryo floats, consisting of water holdor dorsal aspects. The A. form fossils ing in solution about 3 per cent. of solid matter, composed chiefly pre-emtinently characteristic of the of urea, uric acid, allantoin, chloride of sodium, and stlphate and Mesozoic rocks, but they first appear phosphate of lime. The A. surrounds not only the embryo of the Ammonites (Cerattes). in the Lower Silurianin formationls mammal, but also that of birds and reptiles. Amphibians and (Barroites), and in the Upper Silurian fish, however, which are developed in water, have no A. For a rocks also (Goaialites). They became extinct at the close of the description of the relations and functions of the A., see EMBRYO. Cretaceous or Chalk Peiod. Bacuites, hamites, scaphites, turri- Amrnol', or Amul, a town in the province of Mazanderan, lites, &c., aie genera included in this family. Persia, on the H-eraz, I2 miles from its mouth on the Caspian. Ammo'nium, an oasis in the Libyan Desert, 6 miles long It is partly decayed, but still has considerable trade. The only and 3 broad, has a place in histoly as the site of a temple dedi notable building is the mausoleum of Mir Btrzuk, a king of A. cated to Amuno or Amnmol, the Egyptian Jupiter, and famous for who died in 3378. A bridge of twelve arches spans the Heraz. its oracle, to which pilgrrims resorted from all palts of lEthiopia Near A. much rice and cotton are produced, and there are here and Egypt. When Alexanaer the Great visited the spot in the native cannoll-foundries. Pop. 35,000 or 40,oo000, but greatly course of his coaquest of igypt, the priests saluted him as the less in summer, when many of the inhabitants retire to the son of the god. The ruins of the temple, which was not large, Elburz Mountains. A. was founded in 793 by Harun al still exist, and prove its Egyptian order and character, but Greek Rashid. influences (from Cyrene) affected the worship at an early Amo'mum, a genus of plants belonging to the order Zingaiperiod. There are nunerous springs and fountains in A., one of beracece. They are natives of warm countries, and are highly which, called the'Fountain of the Sun,' is sonewhat tepid, and aromatic. Cardamoms and Grains of Paradise Spice (q. v.) are at night is distinctly warmer than the surrounding atmosplere. yielded by several species of A, In tle time of Herodotus the inhabitants- were partly Egyptian Amoor', or Amur (believed to be a corruption of eanz, and partly WEthiopian. The soil was and is extremely fertile, the name given to it by the natives near its mouth), a great river producing dates in vast quantities, pomegranates, and other of North-Eastern Asia, and politically interesting as in part fluilts, whichs are exported by caravans to Egypt andthe ports of marking the line of the Russian advance in the East. Its remotest the Mediterranean. A. is still governed by its own sheikhs, who ead-water, the Kerlon (knoe wn in its lower course as the Argoun), pay tribute to the Khedive of Egypt. rises in the Kentei Klhan, or Great Kinogan of the Chinese, and Ammo'nius Saccas, who founded the Neoplatonic School, flows 970 miles N.E. to its junction with the Shilka at Ust aflourished in the 3d c. A.d. In his youth ihe was a porter at Strelka Here the At proper begins, and from this poinet its 88 An the t o Hd t inhabitantswp AMO TH-E GLOBE ENCYCL OPi/EDIA. AMP lower reaches are measured. The A. flows E. and S.E., re- In i814 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences, and ceiving from the N. the Dzeya, 540 miles, and the Bereya, 703 in 1824 Professor of Physics in the College de France. He miles, and the Sungari from the S., 992 miles from Ust died at Marseille, June Io, I836. His researches in electroStrelka. It then flows N.E., receiving the Usuri, to its em- dynamics paved the way for the experiments of Faraday, and bouchure in the Gulf of Tartary, between the seas of Japan his contributions to natural science were numerous and valuable. and Okhotsk. Length of A. below Ust Strelka, 1890 miles; It would be impossible in our limits to give a list of his essays, total length from source of Kerlon, 2860 miles. It is navigable memoirs, demonstrations, &c. Perhaps the most important are his by steamboat for 2200 miles, is the highway of considerable Recueil d'Observations E/ectro-Dynamiques (Paris, 1822), and his trade, and in its lower course flows through cultivable, well- Th/eorie des P/]e'zom~nes?Electro-Dynaminques (Paris, I830). A,'s wooded lands. It drains an area of 766,o000oo sq. miles. By character was a singularly beautiful one. He united a passion the treaty of Pekin (ist January 1861) the course of the A. was for science with an ardour of religious faith, rare in any country, recognised as forming the boundary between the Russian and and particularly in France. A most interesting account of his Chinese empires from Ust Strelka to the confluence of the Usuri, life and labours appeared in the Revi.e des Dezux Irondes (Feba distance of 1179 miles. See Collins' Exjploraniolz of the A. ruary 15, I837) from the pens of MM. Sainte-Beuve and Littr. River (New York, 1858), and Ravenstein's Rsussians on the Ampbre, Jean Jacq-ues Antoine, son of the preceding, * ~~~~ A. (Luo~nd. i86i.) was born at Lyon, I2th August Is8oo. Educated at Paris under Amoor Territories. The ukase of 31st December I858 the eye of his father, he devoted himself zealously to the study provides that the A.'F. shall be divided into the'Province of of the literatures of Germany and England, and in 183o be. the Amoor,' with an area of I64,000ooo sq. miles, and the'Mari- came a lecturer on literature at Marseille. In 1833 he succeeded time Province of Eastern Siberia, embracing the N. portion of Andrieux in the College de France, and in I847 was elected Sakhalin, several maritime districts, together with Kamchatka a member of the French Academy. In addition to his purely and the Kurile Islands, area 744,715 sq. miles. Total pop. literary works, among which maybe mentioned De le Littratlure (I867) 22,297, chiefly Tungus. Principal port, Vladivostock, in Franzasise dans ses -Iapiorts avec les Litt/raotsres _&)rangeres au communication with Europe by China submarine cable in 1872. ifoyen Age (Paris, 1833), Histoire Litt/raire de hi France avant le This port was a station of observation of the transit of Venus, douzzieme Sile (Paris, 1839), and Sztr la Formation de la Langueze December 1874. See Schrenck's Reisen und Forsc/hun6en inz Fran~aise (Paris, 1841), he published in the Revue des Deux Anmoor, 1858-67 (4 vols. I869), and Atkinson's Travels in th/e ifon/es, in 1844, a well-written series of articles on his travels Region of /the Anoor (Lond. i868). in Egypt and Nubia. On his return from his travels he devoted himself to the study of hieroglyphics, and acquired much Am'orites ('highlanders'), a powerful Canaanitish nation, facility in deciphering them. He died at Pau, March 27, 1864. who perhaps originally occupied the hilly regions of Judah and Ephraim; at least they are found there on their first mention in Anmphib'ia (Gr. amn/i, both; bias, life), a class of VerteScripture. Afterwards they may have extended themselves to brate animals (represented by frogs, toads, newts, sirens, &c.), the pasture-lands of the Trans-Jordanic plateau. At any rate, it and distinguished by the fact of its members always possessing was here that the Israelites first encountered and vanquished them, gills in early life, and lungs in adult life, whefher the gills persist when ruled over by Sihon, King of Heshbon, and Og, King of or not. The skin is for the most part destitute of scales, or Bashan. Their lands were divided among Gad, Reuben, and other form of exoskeleton. The heart is three-chambered, and Manasseh. Those dwelling W. of the Jordan offered a fierce the circulation of imperfect nature. The skull is joined to the and obstinate resistance to Joshua, and were never wholly extir- spine by two articular processes or'condyles,' No fin-rays are patedl. ever developed. See BATRACHIA. Amoro'so, in music, tenderly, affectionately. Amphicoelia (Gr. anmy/i, both; koilos, hollow), a name applied to those vertebrae or segments of the spine of Vertebrate Amor'pha, a genus of Leguminous shrubs, natives of N. animals which are of bi-concave shape-that is, hollowed at America. The species are very ornamental. A. fJieticosa is either end. In fishes this conformation is well seen. When two common in gardens. A kind of Indigo (q. v.) is prepared from such vertebrae are articulated together, a cup-like cavity is formed its young branches. by the approximation of the hollowed ends, and this form of Amorphophal'lus, a genus of Araceous plants. See ARUM. joint gives great mobility to the spine, as required for the movements of the tail of fishes in swimming. In fishes, the cup-like A'mos, a Hebrew prophet, flourished about Soo800 B. c. He was cavity thus formed is filled with a gelatinous fluid, a'universal,' a herdsman of Tekoa, near Bethlehem, which accounts for his fre-' water,' or' ball-and-socket' joint being thus formed. In certain quent allusions to rural pursuits and natural objects. The first amphibians and reptiles, amphicoelous vertebrae are also found. six chapters of his prophetical writings denounce the idolatry of This name is also applied to indicate an extinct group of crocoIsrael; the remaining three contain visions of its overthrow and diles in which the vertebre were of this description. Teleosaufinal restoration. The style is clear and vigorous, and the canoni- rzts is an example of this latter group. city of the book is not disputed. city of the book i not dispited. Amphic'tyonic Council, a celebrated council of ancient Amoy', a fortified city and seaport in the province of Fukien, Greece. Its origin is obscure, but the common legend was that China, built on an island of the same name, which lies in a it received its name from Amphictyon, son of Deucalion and small bay at the mouth of the Kiu-long-Kiang, opposite For- Pyrrha. Originally it assembled at Delphi, but latterly also at mesa, 320 miles N.E. of Canton, and 135 S.W. of Foochowv. It a village called Anthela, near Thermopylae. It was composed of is divided by a hilly ridge into an outer and inner town, each representatives of twelve tribes, or, according to Aschines, of having a capital harbour. For upwards of a thousand years it eleven; these were the Thessalians, Boeotiaas, Derians, Ionians, has been an important trading-place, and it was one of the five Perrhbians, Magnetes, Locrians, G1tnans, Phthiots, Malians, seaports opened up by the treaty with Britain concluded at Nan- and Phocians. Demosthenes, again, excludes the Thessalians, kin in I841. It was captured and plundered in I853 by the and some other authorities include the Dolepians. The objects Tae-ping rebels. The town is described by Mr Fortune as per- of the council were to protect the temples, and to promote the haps the dirtiest in the world. The chief imports are cotton- worship of Ceres and of the Delphic Apollo, and to determine twist, British long cloths, rice, beans, and peas; exports-tea, and arrange points of international law. The influence of the sugar, paper, grass-cloths, and gold-leaf. The value of the im- council appears to have been highly beneficial, by giving a ports, which are almost entirely English, was (1873) ~Z,443,847. national unity to the various tribes of which the Greek nation Pop. (Overland Chzia Mail, June 8, 1872) 350,000. was composed. It seems also to have had a humanising effect in softening the lawless and aggressive spirit of the Greeks Armp're, Andr6 MIarie, a French naturalist and mathema- towards those not of the Greek name. The council survived tician, born at Lyon, January 20, 1775. After giving for some the independence of Greece. So late as the battle of Actium, time private instructions in mathematics at Lyon, he repaired we find Augustus claiming a place in it for his new city of to Paris in 1805, and soon distinguished himself by his success as Nicepolis, and representatives continued to be sent at least a teacher in L'Ecole Polytechnique. His first publication was as late as the age of the Antenines. It is even probable that his 6Consid/dratio;zs stir le T/horie Maathtitatique du'ezs (1802). the A. C. continued to drag out a meaningless existence till 4 12 89 4 4 AMP THE GIOBE ENC YCY O.PAEDI. AMR the overthrow of Paganism. See Tittmann, Ubes den Esund der The unguent with which the kings of France were anointed at Amzphiktyonen (Berl. 1812). their coronation was contained in the A..Reemensis, believed to Amphip'olis, an ancient city of Macedonia, situated on the have been conveyed from heaven by a dove. It was shattered in left bank of the Strymon, just below its egress from Lake Kerkine the great revolution of 1789. (now Takino), and about three miles from its mouth. It was Ampullae are dilatations seen in the membranous portions of founded by a Thracian colony, and formed an emporium for the the semicircular canals in the internal ear. See EAR. woods of Kerkine and the gold mines of Mount Pangoeus. It Amputa'tion is the removal or separation of a part of the received its name from being nearly surrounded by the Strymon body. The term is usually applied to the removal of a limb. (Gr. amp/hi, around, and polis, a city). After repeated efforts A. A. may be performed by one of four methods, viz.-(I) the cirwas taken, 437 B.C,, by the Athenians, from whom it was cular method; (2) the oval method; (3) by flaps of various wrested, 424 B.c., by the Spartan Brasidas. The treaty of An- shapes and sizes; and (4) by making flaps i the skin and a cirtalcidas restored it to Athens, but it was again captured by Philip cular cut through the muscles. The most important a.re-(I.) of Macedon. The Romans made it the capital of Macedonia. The circular method. The skin and fat are divided by a circular It is now a mere village, occupied mainly by Turks, and bears sweep of the knife, and dissected upwards a certain distance the name iln Greek of JVeokhr-io, in Turkish 7enzi-Zeui,'New varying according to circumstances. The muscles are then cut Town.' by another circular movement of the knife, the bone is laid bare, Amphithe'atre, a building used by the Romans for their and sawn through as high up as possible. By this method abungladiatorial contests and other spectacles. In early times it was dant covering is obtained for the bone or bones, but the cicatrix made of timber; but is liable to be puckered. (2.) The oval method is simply a modi-.-. —-. — _~ ~ accidents arising from fication of that just described, but the sweep of the knife is oval fire and instability, instead of being circular. (3.) Flap A. This consists of mak=_____ amphitheatres were ing one or more flaps for covering the bone. There are three - afterwards usually varieties: (a.) The doable -flap A., in which two flaps of._.... ____-=___ __ made of brick or equal size are made by transfixing with the knife the skin and = stone. They were muscles, and then cutting from within outwards. (b.) The irectoften very costly and angularflafp, first devised by Mr Teale of Leeds, in which a long magnificent; the Co- rectangular flap is cut from that side of the limb where the parts losseum of Rome, are generally devoid of large blood-vessels and nerves, while the still in excellent pre- short flap is made from the textures on the other side of the limb, servation, being capa- the length and breadth of the longer flap being equal to half ble of holding over the circumference of the limb at the point of A., and the 85,000 people. It short flap one-fourth of the length of the long one. (c.) By one was finished in the long flap, employed in such places as the shoulder or hip, where reign of Titus, who only one flap can be made. Teale's method of the rectangular celebrated its dedica- flap is said to have the advantages of securing a good covering for Amphitheatre. tion by the slaughter the end of the bone, a dependent opening for suppurative disof 5000 wild beasts. charges which may form during healing, and a cicatrix free from It is 620 feet long by 513 broad. The amphitheatres of Verona pressure. Dangeers of A. The primary danger is hbemorand of Nismes in Languedoc are also noteworthy. Both are in rhage during the operation. This is arrested as far as possible good preservation. In England; those of Dorchester, Silchester, by the Tourniquet (q.v.), or by manual compression by the fingers and Cirencester may interest the antiquary. of assistants on the principal blood-vessel. After A. in unhealthy Amphitri'te, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Nereus subjects, union of the flaps may not take place by what is called and Doris, or, as others say, of Oceanus and Tethys, was the wife the'first intention,' but there may be profuse suppuration. of Poseidon, and goddess of the Mediterranean, though repre- Sometimes, in bad hygienic conditions, erysipelas, with sloughsented by later poets as the goddess of the ocean in general. ing of the textures of the stump, may set in. The end of the She is sometimes figured in ancient art seated on a triton, and limb, after removal of a portion, is called the stump. It should having a trident in her hand. fbe formed of tissue able to bear compression, so as to admit of the use of an artificial limb. Moiortality after A. This will be Amphiai'ma, a genus of Amphibian vertebrata included in seen from the following table, from Erichsen's Scienzce and Art of the order Urodela (' tailed'), and distinguished by the perennial Surgely, vol. i. 35. It is compiled from various British, Contior persistent nature of the gills-or at least of the gill apertures nental, and American sources, and gives the results of over 9000 -with which in early life, like all other amphibians, they are cases:provided. The A. is exclusively found in N. America, and lives SEAT. Cases. Deaths. Per cent. in the mud of shallow rivers. The limbs are of small size. The Shoulder-joint,. 1. II7 58 49'5 eyes are small; eyelids being absent. These forms may attain Arm, I3I9 375 28'4 a considerable size, the A. tridaclylum frequently averaging Forearm.. I059 109 I0'2 three feet in length. Hip-joint,... < 46 19 41'3 Am'phora (Gr. amp/hi, on both sides; phero, to carry), a large Thigh,. 3477 1224 35'2 pitcher-shaped vessel, used by the Greeks and Romans, with a Leg, 30o6 985 327 narrow neck and two handles, and tapering below for insertion This table clearly shows an increase in the mortality as the into a stand. It was also a measure for liquids, the Greek A. operation approaches the trunk. It is also found that age, being nine and the Roman six English gallons. general health, and the hygienic conditions in which the patient | Amplifica'tionj in rhetoric, is the enhancing of an idea or is placed, and also the seat of the A., whether the operation is ~ statement by presenting it with numerous accessories, and an done for disease or injury, and the time of the operation after the accumulation of details to make a stronger impression. xag-duration of the disease or the occurrence of the injury, materially accumulation of details to make a stronger impression. Irxaff. affect the result of the operation. geraton is a vicious mode of A. Amritsir' (' city of immortality'), a flourishing city and capiAm'plitude, in astronomy, is the distance of the point at tal of a district of the same name in the Punjab, 44 miles N. E. which a heavenly body rises or sets from the E. or W. point of Lahore, on the Scinde, Punjab, and Delhi Railway. It is the of the horizon. It also indicates the distance, angular or other- sacred capital of the Sikhs, and its pool of immortality is held in wise, between the extreme positions assumed by an oscillating or greatest reverence. The multitude of pilgrims visiting A. early vibrating body. made it a centre of commerce, and it is now one of the richest Ampul'la, a bottle, usually of glass or earthenware, narrow cities in Northern India. It has a prosperous trade in shawls and at the mouth, and swelling in the middle, used by the Romans to Cashmere saffron, and considerable manufactures of cotton and hold liquids, especially the oil with which they anointed their silk goods. Pop. (X868) I35,813. The government district of bodies after bathing. This was the A. olearia. Numerous spe- A. has an area of I556 sq. miles; pop. (I868) 832,750. It cimens are to be found in collections of antiquities. was acquired by the British in 1848.,. 90 a AMS THE GLOBE ENC YC~IOPE'DIA. AiY Ams'ler, Samuel, famous as an engraver of the works of mother of Constantine the Great. See Kopp's Paleeogra/Zia Thorwaldsen and Raphael, and some time Professor of Engraving Critica (Manh. I829), and Ewele, Ober Amizuetle (Mainz, 1827). at the Academy of Arts, Munich, was born at Schinznach in Switzerland, I7th December 1 79I, and died at Munich, I8th May Ainurath or lMurad, the name of four Ottoman emperors SwI849. tzerland, c7thi De cember a 79, e ravind s at Munich, bay at least two of whom have obtained a place in history. A. I., 1849. His chief works are engravings of a'Magdalen,' by son of Orkan, was born in 326, succeeded his fther in 6 Carlo Dolce; of'Alexander's Triumphal Procession,' by Thor- son o ran, was orn in 32, succeee is aer 30 walfdsen; of the' Burial of Christ,''Holy Family,' and'Ma- and in the same year carried the Turkish arms into Europe, and donna di Casa Tempi,' by Raphael; and of Overbeck's famous commenced those deadly and incessant attacks on the heart of' Triumph of Religion in the Arts.' the Greek empire which only ended with the fall of Constantinople. In his first campaign A. captured Adrianople, which Am'sterdam (the dam of the Amstel), the capital of the henceforth became his European capital; and in the course of a Netherlands, and chief city in the province of Holland, stands reign of nineteen years made himself master of Bulgaria, Servia, on the S. bank of the Ij or Y, an arm of the Zuiderzee, where and all Macedonia as far as the borders of Albania. He died in the Amstel flows into it. The city, which is almost entirely 1389, on the battle-field of Kossova, stabbed by the dagger of a built upon piles, is in the form of a crescent, and is divided wounded Servian. A. was a great warrior, a man of indomitby the river and canals into 90 small islands. With its abun- able will, and fanatically loyal to the religion of Mohammed; dant spires, tall masts of ships, and brick-built houses, with but like most fanatics, he did not love science, and scholars their gables towards the streets, A. has a striking and picturesque received no favour at his court. appearance. The two principal canals are the Heerengracht and the Keizer'sgracht. There are about 300 bridges, one of Amu n I404, succeeded his father, Mohammed which, the Hoge Sluis, is about 6oo00 feet long, and has 35 arches, I., in 1422, and ruled for nearly thirty years. His whole career is I I of which are passable by large ships. New'dams' have also a laborious, but on the whole successful, struggle to establish and recently been constructed, forming basins with room for nearly extend the power of the Turk in Europe. In the beginning of Iooo000 ships. The palace, formerly the Stadhuis (town hall), is a his reign the Greek emperor Emmanuel sought to embarrass magnificent pile, remarkable for its coronation hall, above I00 him by restoring to freedom Mustapha, son of Bajazet, who was feet long, lined with white marble. Among ecclesiastical edifices the legitimate inheritor of the throne. But the attempt of the the most noteworthy is the Niieuzoe Kler1- (New Church), founded latter ended disastrously, and Constantinople itself was nearly in 1408, in which are the tombs of Admiral de Ruyter and the stormed by the victorious A. The suppression of an insurrection poet Vondel. A. also possesses an Exchange (finished in 1845), in Asia Minor, the conclusion of a treaty of peace with the an Academy of Arts and Sciences, three museums (the last, the Emperor Joannes, successor of Emmanuel, by which A. obtained /MusezlnL Feodor, dating from I866), several theatres, numerous a great number of cities on the shores of the Black Sea and on the charitable institutions, &c. It is the headquarters of the Nether- river Strymon, the conquest of Thessalonica (1429) in Macelands Trading Company, a corporation whose monopoly expired donia, and of Janina (1431) in Albania, were the chief incidents at the end of 1874, of the West India Company, and other coin- in the first ten years of his reign. Then followed the conflict mercial associations. The manufactures of A. are very impor- between A. and the Prince of Servia, fomented by the King of tant, and include the making of stuffs, damasks, and velvets, Hungary, which ended in the conquest of the Servian princicotton-spinning, sugar-refining, the cutting of precious stones, plity; but the appearance on the scene of the famous Hungaran, printing, type-founding, the making of plate, &c. John Hunyades, soon changed the aspect of affairs. The OttoThe pop. of A. in 1874 was 285,944, of whom the majority man forces were driven from Belgrade, routed at Hermanstadt, are Dutch Calvinists, the remainder being Roman Catholics at Vasag (1442), at Nissa (1443), at Yalowaz (I444), and A. was Lutherans, Jews, Baptists, &c.' forced to conclude a peace. War, however, soon broke out In the 12th c. A. was merely a fishing-village. It was walled afresh, and the defeat and death of the Hungarian king Vladisand fortified in I482. It afterwards became the most important laus, who had invaded Bulgaria, showed that A. had lost none of his military skill. This success was followed by the reduction of commercial town in the Netherlands, and in 1622 had 00,000his mlitary skill. This success was followed by the reduction of inhabitants. Its commerce in 1653 had been greatly reduced by Peloponnesus, the invasion of Albania-where the heroic Scanthe war with England, but it again rose into prosperity in the derberg for a time resisted and repelled the Ottoman arms-and I8th c., and down to the period of the French Revolution it con- by the renewal of the war with Hunyades, who was utterly tinued to be one of the first marts in Europe for the products routed in the great battle of Kossova (I7th-Igth October I448). of the East and the West. The union of Holland with France in A. died gth February I45I. His reign was brilliant both in arts I8io, however, destroyed its foreign trade; but after the fall of and arms. Poetry, theology, and jurisprudence had distinguished Napoleon its prosperity began to revive, and it now is one of representatives; and the sultan himself inspired his enemies the first seats of commercial industry and enterprise. A. is also with respect and his subjects with love. the central point of the Dutch line of fortification. The city Amurnath', a remarkable cave in the N.E. of Cashmere, itself can be made inaccessible by sluices, which lay the neigh- about 500 yards long, 30 high, and Ioo00 wide. The Hindus, bourhood under water, and it is at the same time strongly de- who visit it in great numbers, regard it as the home of the god fended by numerous forts. Siva. It contains myriads of doves, which, flying out and in, are Am'ulet (probably from the Arabic hanzalet, a pendant), supposed to convey to the god the prayers of the pilgrim. an image, figure, or mysterious inscription upon a stone, Amyc'1o, an ancient Laconian town, on the right bank of metal, or otherma- the Eurotas, about 2- miles S. of Sparta, was famous in the terial, and carried heroic age as the abode of Tyndarus and Leda, and the birthabout as a preserva- place of Castor and Pollux, who are hence called the Amzycazan tive against illness, brothers. A. is mentioned by Homer, and it continued to be an enchantments, and independent Achaean town long after the subjugation of the rest...-.....similcharm s have al-Such of the Peloponnesus by the Dorians, but was conquered by charms have al- the Spartans shortly before the first Messenian war, after which ways been popular it sank into a village, memorable only for the annual celebration'in the East; and of the Hyacinthia, and for the temple and colossal statue of...........even in the West Apollo. The Italian A., on the Campanian coast, was founded at the present day, by colonists from the Laconian A. Amulet. medical preparations are regarded Amyg'dal1e are what are known as the tonsils. They are by many as preventives of any bodily malady. The Emperor two glands which occupy the recesses between the anterior and Caracalla, about A. D. 216, prohibited the use of them among the posterior pillars of the fauces on each side of the throat. They Romans, who made them of gems of various kinds. Necklaces consist of a series of small follicles lined by epithelium, and have and other ornaments, evidently intended as charms, are found thick walls enclosing little capsules or shut sacs, which are filled among Druidical remains. Among well-known kinds of amulets with a greyish-white substance containing numerous free nuclei may be mentioned the early Christian Ichthus (q. v.), the Arabian and cells. The function of these bodies is unknown. SomeTalisman (q. v.), and the perforated coins of St Helena, the times they become hypertrophied by repeated inflammations in 9I r.~~..d~ — AMY THE G OBE E1VCYCL OP/,ED A. ANA young individuals of a strumous constitution. They may then Am'yot, or Amiot, Jacques, a French scholar and mall of be removed without any injurious consequences. The tonsils letters, was born at Melun, 30th October I513, studied at the are also liable to acute inflammation, causing tonsilitis or quinsy. College de France, where he was noted alike for his poverty and There is then swelling, pain, difficulty in swallowing and in arti- his learning; afterwards became Professor of Latin and Greek culation. The inflammation may terminate either in resolution in the same institution, was made Abbd of Bellozane by Francis or in suppuration. The abscess formed by suppuration may open I., Bishop of Auxerre in the reign of Charles IX., and died 6th without interference, or it may be necessary to open it by an February I593. A. is deservedly celebrated for his translations incision. During the early stages of the affection poultices and from the classics, of which incomparably the most important is hot fomentations are required, while salines, such as the acetate his version of Plutarch. Others are Sept Livres des Histaires de of ammonia, combined with sulphate of magnesia and spirit of Diodaore Siciien (Paris, I554), Histoire,Et/zioiq/ue d'Heliodorus nitric ether, may be given to diminish feverishness. (Paris, I545), and Amnours Pastorales de DaZphnis et Chzloe (Paris, I559). Amygdal'em and Amygdalus, the order and genus to which many cultivated fruit-trees belong, such as the almond (A. Amyridac'ee, an order of Dicotyledonous trees and shrubs communzis), the peach and nectarine (A,4. /ersica), the cherry found in tropical countries. They abound in a resinous juice, (PZrmnus ceraslus), the plum (P. cozmmunis), and the apricot (P. which, from its fragrance, is of great importance. Several kinds armentzaca). Some authors treat A. as a sub-order of Riosaceae of Frankincense, Myrrh, Elemi, Bdellium, Tacamahac, and Balm (q. v.) The plants possess hydrocyanic acid in their leaves and of Gilead (q. v.), besides various other balsams and resins, are seeds. obtained from plants in the order. A. embraces 27 genera and Amyg'daline is a crystalline compound contained in hitter upwards of 50 species, but very little is yet known of many of almonds, and belongs to the group of bodies called gluzcosides- them. substances which readily take up water and split into glucose or Ana, added to the names of persons, denotes a collection of grape sugar, together with other products. To extract A. from their memorable sayings, as Scaligerana. There are many such bitter almonds, they are first crushed and submitted to pressure works, as Walpoliatzna, _o/hnsoniana, &c. Such titles originated in between hot iron plates. By this means,the oil contained in France. A. is often used alone as a noun, and means anzecdotes. the kernel (almond oil) is got rid of, and a solid cake remains. On digesting this cake with hot alcohol, the A. is dissolved.Anabap'tists, a name that has a distinct historical applicaout, and may be obtained by evaporating the alcoholic extract. tion, but which literally denotes those who'baptize again,' i.e., A. is interesting on account of the curious decomposition which who reject infant baptism as unscriptural, and require all new it suffers when dissolved in water and mixed with a small adherents coming from other denominations to submit to the rite quantity of a substance called emulsine or synaptase, a body a second time. In Britain and the United States, the designaoccurring along with it in the almonds. When such a mixture tion applied to such Christians is Baptists (q. v.), who repudiate, is allowed to remain for some time at a moderately warm tem- however, all connection with the A. of the Continent. perature, the A. is wholly converted into oil of bitter almonds One of the least happy effects of the German Reformation was (benzoic aldehyde), hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, and glucose (grape to kindle visionary and fantastic ideas in weak minds. A notable sugar). The emulsine acts simply as a ferment. The change instance of this was Thomas Mtinzer (q. v.), who may be conwhich takes place may be represented as follows:- sidered the originator of the Anabaptist sect-at least in Germany. C25H27N0O11 + 2H20 = C7H60 + HCN -+ 2Cr6H1s06 At first an orthodox preacher of the Reformation, he began N-y- 01 ~ about 1520 to plunge into a wild and irrational mysticism. His Amygdaline. Water. Oil of bitter Prussic Grape opinions gained for a time a footing in Switzerland, where, howalmonds. acid. sugar. ever, the disorderly fanaticism of his followers was such that the Reformers were forced to persecute the new sect. Zwingli took Amyg'daloid (Gr. anzygdalus, an almond) is the name no part in the severities inflicted on the A., but it would scarcely applied to rocks, always of volcanic origin, which contain oval- be possible to blame him if hlie had. Men who despise human shaped spaces filled up with some crystalline mineral, such as law when it conflicts with their own inward excitement, which agate, chalcedony, calcspar. These spaces seem to have been they call the'Spirit of God,' who consider themselves bound to formed by bubbles of gas when the rock was in a molten immediately substitute the'kingdom of God' for the existing condition. state of society, who believe in a community of goods, &c., are bAm'yl is the name of a compound radical or group of elements in reality rebels against civil order, and cannot be dealt with as which can be transferred from one compound to another, and mere speculative theorists. That the Swiss A. were fanatics of has the formla CH. It only exists in compounds, sch as this sort is not disputed. Had they contented themselves with A. alcohol (the principal conlyst ituent of fusel oil), CH(Osuch as); declaring that'it was of no more avail to baptize a child than to acetate of A oil (t ofhjargonelle pear), C5Ho (C2i02); nitrite ofH) baptize a cat,' no one could approve of their punishment any A., C5Hc1t(Nof.l &fc. When attempts are made to isolate n it, o more than he could admire their language, but they went far like others of its class, it becomes doubled, and forms a body beyond eccentricities of doctrine or diction, and were prepared, laled di-amyl or decane, ibC omsdH ule'. ados by in the frenzy of an unintelligible faith, to turn the world upside down. Ziirich and St Gall were the chief scenes of their temporary Am'yloid Degeneration. The tissues of the body are success (1522-26). But it was in Germany that the Anabaptist liable to undergo various degenerations, the chief of which are movement excited the greatest sensation, and caused the direst the fatty, the calcareous, and the A. This kind of degeneration mischiefs. Mtinzer's language in his wanderings through the presents two varieties: (I.) In the brain, prostate gland, and other country, after he abandoned the cause of Luther, inflamed the organs, small bodies are found presenting a striking resemblance peasantry, who had been in a political ferment for years past. to starch corpuscles giving a distinct blue colour with iodine. Four or five insurrections had already broken out since the These bodies are called cortlora amylacea. In these cases the beginning of the i6th c. The Reformation itself had increased starchy or A. matter lies between the elements of the tissues, but in the agitation, and now Mijnzer threw gunpowder on the burning the next variety (2) the tissues themselves become changed into A. coals, and the explosion forthwith took place. The'Peasant matter. This latter form is seen chiefly in the smaller arteries, War' (q. v.) is part of German history. It is only necessary here the middle coats of which become thickened and translucent. to state that the violence of the A. precipitated it in the S.W. With iodine this kind of A. D. gives a yellowish-red colour, of Germany, while in Thuringia it was personally carried on but the cautious addition of dilute sulphuric acid after the under the leadership of Miinzer himself. The atrocities that iodine produces a blue tint. A. matter is nearly related to marked both the beginning and the end of the insurrection were albumen. Its presence in the body produces symptoms varying something horrible; nor did they cease with the capture and exeaccording to the organ attacked. In some cases it is the liver, cution (I525) of the archrebel and heretic. Crushed in Saxony in others the kidneys; in a third class it is the vessels which are and Franconia, it spread through Westphalia, Holstein, the involved. It is an incurable condition. Life may be prolonged, Netherlands. Itinerant preachers everywhere kept alive the but by no known resources of the medical art can the A. matter flame of fanaticism in ignorant breasts. We may note particualready formed be removed, nor can the formation of more be larly Melchior Hoffman, a furrier by trade, who appeared in Kiel prevented. in 1527, and in Emden in 1528. He made a bishop out of a.A 92 ANA THEE GLOBE ENC YCL OPZEDIA4. ANA Haarlem baker named John Matthiesen, whose disciples estab. Anach'aris, an aquatic plant called A. canadensis, belonging lished themselves in Miinster, and by the help of violent partisans, to the natural order Hydroobtained the control of the city, which soon after became a charidaccew. Although a rendezvous for all the turbulent and sanguinary chiefs of the new native of America, it is movement-the burghers Knipperdolling and Krechting; the now common in many parts Leyden tailor, Bockhold; Kippenbrock, the Amsterdam book- of Britain. It was detected binder; and Matthiesen himself. When Matthiesen was slain for the first time in Ireland during the siege of the city by the Bishop of MIinster, Bockhold in I836, and in Scotland and Knipperdolling became the front or head of the anarchy. in 1842. How it was inThe churches were destroyed, Miinster was transformed into a troduced is not known. It'New Sion,' or'New Jerusalem;' Bockhold became its is of remarkably rapid'king' (I534), and the prophecy began to be fulfilled that the growth, and has interfered'saints' shall govern the earth. The result was a moral de- much with navigation in lirium that passed into a fierce licentiousness, which was only some rivers and canals, ended by the capture of the city (I535) and the execution of such as in the Cam and, the leaders. Trent, and the canal near But the A. were not exterminated. With the fall of Miinster Edinburgh. Its stems are and the disappearance of the half-crazed fanatics who had brought very brittle, and when disgrace and disaster on the sect, a new era began. Some of broken into pieces, each Bockhold's disciples abandoned, or perhaps never entertained piece takes root, and bethe mystical monstrosities of their master, and in Holland and comes independent. The the Low Countries of Germany communities of A. were gradually plant is dioecioris, and only established who had nothing in common with the wild followers the male form has been ob- Anatharis. of Miinzer, The man who was most instrumental in bringing served in Britain. Waterabout this wholesome change was Menno Simons (see MENNO), fowl, especially swans, are fond of it as food. who sought to build his system on a basis of Scripture, and who may be considered the founder of the Continental Baptists. His Anachar'sis, a philosophic Scythian who flourished in the principles are set forth in his Fundamentbuche von dem rechten 6th c. B.c. Love of travel brought him to Athens, where he Chrisilichen Glauben (' Principles of the True Christian Faith,' arrived, it is said, just when Solon was giving the city a new 1556); and the Taufgesinnle (Dut, Doopsgezinden), or Baptist code. With the great legislator he became very intimate, though communities of Germany and the Netherlands at the present he does not appear to have been much impressed with his pracday, regard Menno's book as authoritative on points of doc- tical ability as a statesman. The fame of his visit lasted down trine and worship. For an account of the history, opinions, to later ages, and Diogenes Laertius, Plutarch, Athenaeus, and and present condition of the sect, see the general article Lucian have preserved many of the subtle sayings attributed to BAPTISTS, him. He is said to have been killed on his return, from a fear that he might attempt to introduce the Greek mysteries into An'abas, a genus of fishes included in the order Teleostei, Scythia. The nine letters attributed to him are not authentic. allied to the mullets, and forming the type of the family Ana- The book known as Voyage dsu yeune Anaciharsis en GC-ce, batidez. The most celebrated species of written by Jean Jacques Barthelemy, though deformed by anathis genus is the'Climbing Perch of chronisms, exhibits scholarship and taste. It has been translated India' (A. scanzdens), which derives its into English, and has attained well-merited popularity. Withname from its habits of leaving the water, out doubt, it gave Becker the idea of both his Gallus and his and of moving about on land; whilst it Charicles. I has also, but without verification, been supposed to climb trees. It possesses a Anach'ronismn (Gr. aina, upwards, and chlronos, time), literally peculiar arrangement of the head-bones an error in chronology, by which an event is spoken of as taking Anabas scandens, for retaining a supply of water to moisten place earlier than it did; but the distinctive peculiarity of an A. the gills. does not consist in a mere error of date, but in the transference of particulars from an age to which they belong to another in Anab'asis (Gr.'ascent'-i. e., from a lower country to a which they could have no place, so that in reality the event or higher). Two Greek works have this title: (I) The A. of circumstance is not only spoken of as taking place earlier than Xenophon, a narrative of the expedition of the younger Cyrus it did, but earlier than it could have done. Thus Chaucer, in against his brother Artaxerxes, and of the retreat of the his AKniz'ges Tale, represents Theseus, the Greek hero of antiio,ooo Greeks from the plain of Mesopotamia through the quity, as a mediaeval duke, who conquers the Amazons by his highlands of Armenia to the shores of the Black Sea; and'chevalrye,' whose courtiers keep the'May,' who holds'tourna(2) the A. of Arrian, narrating the campaigns of Alexander ments,' who invokes the saints of a church which was not yet the Great. in existence, and whose knights have'Prussian' shields, and other Wondrous impossibilities in the way of armour. The whole An'ableps (Gr. anablepA,5 to look upwards). This group of literature of the middle ages swarms with anachronisms, the fishes belongs to the order Teleoslei, and forms a nearly-allied product partly of grotesque ignorance and partly of tasteless division to the well-known Cyprinid or carps. The represen- indifference. tative species is the A. letroa hialtnus, or'four-eyed loach,' of the rivers and fresh waters of Guiana. It derives its popular Anae'reon, a Greek lyric poet, a native of Teos, born about name from the peculiar appearance of the eyes, the cornea and 560 B.C., and when still a youth emigrated with his family to iris of each being divided into four portions by cross-bands of the Abdera, on the coast of Thrace. Thence he removed to Samos, conjunctiva or outer membrane of the eye. where he enjoyed the patronage of Polycrates. In 521 B.C. ho went to Athens, and there met with Simonides. He died B.C. Anacardia'cee, an order of Dicotyledonous trees and shrubs, 475, on a voyage from Abdera to his native isle, at the age of natives of tropical countries. Between 300 and 400 species are eighty-five, having been choked by a grape-stone. His poems, included in the order. Many of them abound in a resinous, graceful and melodious, celebrate love and wine, but only a few or milky, poisonous juice, used as varnishes, &c., such as black of the lyrics bearing his name are genuine. Moore's English Japan lacquer, Mastiche or Mastic, Sylhet, Martaban, and translation is well known. The best French translations are Chian turpentine. Their fruit, however, is often edible, as those by Madame Dacier et Longpierre, by MM. Gail, andby De the Mango, Hog-Plums, and Cashew-Apple (q. v.) Rizus, Saint Victor et Veissier-Descombes. There are excellent ediincluding the different species of Sumach (q. v.), belongs to tions of A. by Brunck (Strasb. 1786), Fischer (Leipz. I793), the order. Boissonade (Paris, I823), and Biergk (Leipz. 1834). Anacar'diunm, a genus of plants belonging to the order Anza- Anac'ylus, a genus of plants of the natural order Composil/e. cardiacece. See CASHEW-NUT. See PELLITORY OF SPAIN. ANA THE GLOBE ENXCYCILOPEXDIA. ANA An'adyom'ene ('emerging'), a name of Aphrodite, best ployed as an anaesthetic by Morton, a dentist in Boston, in known in connection with the painting of Apelles, in which the I846, to prevent pain during the extraction of a tooth. In the goddess is represented rising from the sea, and wringing her hair same year it was used in dentistry in England, and was first with her hands. The picture, for which Phryne is said to have employed by Liston, an eminent surgeon in Edinburgh, in a case sat, belonged to the Coans, from whom Augustus bought it for of amputation. In I8473 on the suggestion of Waldie, a chemist the remission of Ioo talents of taxes. in Liverpool, Dr J. Y. Simpson, afterwards Sir J. Y. Simpson, Ane'smia is a condition of the body eharacterised by defi- Bart., investigated the action of chloroform (CHC13), and found ciency of certain contituents of the bcod. ht to be an efficient aesof thetic. e quicly introduced it into puscles, instead of being in the proportion of I30 to every IOOo obstetrical plactice, and, chiefly owing to his powerful advocacy parts, as in health, are reduced to 70 to 50 parts; the albumin- soon came into general use in Europe and the colonies as an ous matter in the blood is also diminished. The blood may be asthetic in surgical operations. Eter, however has always said to be in a watery condition. The person has a pale, sallow been employed in Amerca, and is asserted to be less dangerous countenance, with blanched lips and gums. There is great dis- than chloroform Since that date numerous substances have turbance of the general health-indigestion, flatulence, constipa- been tested as anresthetics, but none have been found so safe or tion, languor, and debility. The thyroid gland in front of the expeditious as ether or chloroform. It cannot be asserted that larynx is often enlarged, a condition usually associated with either of these is perfectly safe. Death has occurred during the prominence of the eyeballs. Not unfrequently there is cedema, inhalation of both, but as chloroform tends to weaken the action or swelling of the ankles and legs. This condition is treated of the heart, it is credited with a larger mortality than ether. At most successfully by the administration of salts of iron, nourish- the same time, taking into account the enormous number of cases ing food, and fresh air. A. sometimes occurs as a symptom of occurring daily throughout the world in which either ether or chloother diseases. Any disease which affects the formation of roform is employed, thepercentage of deathsisso extremely small othealthy blood will produce which afcshfominfas to reduce the risk of inhalation of ether or chloroform from the hands of an experienced person to a minimum. During the Ansesthe'sia. By this term is meant total or partial loss of last few years attempts have been made to revive the old pracsensibility, or power of feeling. When any part of the body is tice of producing local A. by applications of melting ice or touched, certain nerves are affected which are called sensory substances which rapidly evaporate, such as a spray of ether. nerves. These nerves convey impressions to the brain, where These methods, however, have not come into general use, bethere is the consciousness of the impression or sensation. Sensi- cause they may be followed by severe inflammation or even bility, therefore, depends on the anatomical and physiological sloughing of the part, For a description of the various anaesintegrity of the sensory nerves and of the brain. If the function thetic substances see CHLOROFORM, ETHER, INDIAN HEMP, of either be interfered with, there must be disturbance of sensi- METHYLENE, OPIUM, &c. bility. (I.) 7hie Nerve. If the sensory nerve be subjected to excessive irritation, there is a feeling of pain. If, on the other nagal'lis, a genus of small plants of the order P.imidace. hand, we lower the sensibility of the sensory nerve artificially, See PIMPERNEL. impressions may not be felt which in ordinary circumstances Anag'ni (anc. Aznagnia), a town in Latium, Central Italy, might be acutely painful. When a sensory nerve is divided, overlooks the valley of the Sacco, 37 miles E.S.E. of Rome. It there is no feeling in the part which it supplies. (2.) T/'e is the residence of many noble families; but it cannot now be Brain. This organ receives the influence transmitted by the styled'the wealthy,' as it was in the days of Virgil. In ancient sensory nerves and consciousness of the impression is the result. times it was the capital of the Hernicans, became a flourishing The impression, however, is not perceived by the mind as being municipal town under the Roman empire, was made the see of in the brain, but is always referred to the extremity of the sensory a bishop as early as 487 A.D., and continued to be a city of imnerve. For example, the prick of a pin in the toe is referred to portance throughout the middle ages. It was the birthplace of that part, although the changes immediately antecedent to Popes Innocent III., Gregory IX., Alexander IV., and also of consciousness occur in the brain. It will now be evident that Boniface VIII., who here (I303) suffered a brutal attack from if the functions of that part of the brain in which consciousness Schiarra Colonna, an emissary of Philippe IV. of France, from occurs be interfered with, sensibility must be likewise affected. the effects of which he died in a few weeks. The chief building of If unduly excitable, impressions will be felt as painful which are A. is the cathedral, which contains beautiful frescoes and mosaicusually not so, while, on the other hand, the sensibility of the work of the I3th c. Pop. 6200. brain may be so lowered, or even destroyed, as to cause diminished consciousness, or total unconsciousness. It will now be An'agram (Gr. alza, backwards, and gramma, a writing) seen that A. may depend on paralysis of the sensory nerves, or originally and literally denoted a simple reversal of the letters on some condition of the brain which renders it incapable of per- of a word or words, as in the German teben = nebel; i.e., life is ceiving external impressions. Accordingly we find that A. may but a cloud or vapour; but has long been applied also to any be local or general. It is local when the sensory nerve supplying rearrangement of such letters as may secure a new meaning; the part is cut across, or when the sensibility of the nerve is e.gf., Pilate's question, Quid est veritas? (' What is truth?') sugdestroyed by extreme cold, or by the actions of certain drugs. gested to the pious anagrammatist of the middle ages Est vir.It is general when the brain is affected by disease, or is under gdi adest (' It is the man who stands before you'); again, the the influence of such substances as chloroform or ether, which French phrase Revolution Franfaise yields, when the letters are have the property of suspending for a time the functions of the properly transposed, Un Corse la finira (' A Corsican will end brain. During profound sleep, when part of the brain is inactive, it'), referring to Bonaparte, with the significant addition of veto and in the paroxysms of the insane, when the mind is preoccu- (I forbid). pied by its own wild imaginations, there is a degree of A. which Anahua, an Aztec word meaning near the wter is the prevents the individual from perceiving impressions in other name of the ancient states that formed the nucleus of what is circumstances painful. A. may be the result of disease, or it name of the a s th e Mexican empire, and, th oug h f irst applied may be artificially produced. In both cases it may be general only to the lofty Mexican plateau, in which are to be found a or local, complete or partial. From early times men have searched for drugs which could considerable number of lakes, it afterwards was employed to deremove or prevent pain, more especially in surgical opera- signate a wider area, spreading southward between the Pacific remove or prevent pain, more especially in surgical opera- and Atlantic. See Prescott's Yistory of the Conyuestof Mexico, tions. Indian hemp, opium, mandragora, and essences of herbs vol. i. chap. See Prescott's i.story of te Conquest of Mexico, believed to be sleep-producing have been employed. A. has also been effected by pressure on the nerves, and by pressure on An'akim, a race of giants occupying the district about the neck, so as to cause obstruction to the circulation of blood in Kirjath-arba, in the S. of Palestine, at the time of the invasion the brain. In I8oo Sir Humphry Davy suggested the tse of of Canaan by the Israelites. The name is probably derived protoxide of nitrogen, or laughing-gas (N.O). In I828 Hick- from Anakj the founder of the race, which seems to have been man used carbonic acid (CO), and between the years 1822 and divided into three tribes named after the sons of Anak-Ahiman, I834 various American physicians demonstrated the anesthetic Sesai, and Talmai. The Israelites under Joshua exterminated properties of sulphuric ether (C2H5 ). Ether was first em- them all but a small remnant, who found a refuge among the 2Hs / KPhilistines. 4 94 +~~~~~~ ANA THE GLOBE ENVCYCLOP/1DIA. ANA Anakolu'thon (wanting sequence), a grammatical term de- stance or substances. To give an example of these methods: if noting the absence of logical sequence in a sentence, the con- a solid compound of lead be heated on charcoal before the blowstruction of the latter part not corresponding with that of the pipe, metallic lead is produced, and may be easily recognised by former. its softness, and the black streak it leaves when rubbed on paper. If a salt of lead dissolved in water be mixed with a solution of al ad. These are follies or ouches in the vicinity chromate of potash, a beautiful yellow and highly characteristic of the anus, which secrete a fluid or semi-solid matter, having compound, called chromate of lead, or chrome yellow, is prectpiusually a powerful and disagreeable odour peculiar to different toten as a powder. Sulphuric acid mixed with the lead solution species of animals. They are to be regarded as modifications of causes a white precipitate of sulphate of lead; caustic potass the sebaceous glands of the skain. See SKIN. A. G. are most solution also causes a white precipitate; and solution of ammonia abundant in rodents and carnivorae Nearly related in structure throws down a white precipitate, which disappears o adding to A. G. are those found in certain animals in the neighbourhood more of the ammonia. Any solution which behaved with the of the genital organs, The beaver, for example, has glands in as described; might be safely said to contain the above reagents as described' might be safely said to contain the this region which secrete the castoreum of commerce. Musk is metal lead. There is another kind of qualitative A., called derived from similar glands in the musk deer. The secretion in these cases is most powerful during the exercise of the sexual spectroscopic., hich duringthe last few years has been of immense service to science, and by means of which not only functions. Other animals, such as the skunk, polecat, and have seeral ew elements been discovered, but even the combadger, have glands near the tail which secrete a most offensivears, and other heavenly bodies, has been position of the Sun, Mars, and other heavenly bodies, has been matter which they eject when excitdd, and which they use to investigated. It depends on certain properties of light which it would be impossible to discuss here, but will be fould described An'alogue, a term applied to any organ, structure, or part in in art. SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. a living being which corresponds in zse or functionz with another In quantitative A. the chemist seeks to separate the difpart, independently of similarity or dissimilarity in structure. ferent elements contained in a given weight of the compound he Analogy means identity in function, and is used in contradis- is investigating, and to obtain them either isolated or in some tinction to homology, which implies identity in structure. The known form of combination such that he can determine their wing of a bat, bird, and butterfly are thus analogous. amount. Anal'ogy, or the similarity of relations, originally referred to Anal'ysis, in mathematics, was originally a method of solv' the determinate relations of mathematics, e.g, A. between the ing geometrical questions by assuming, in the first place, that ratio of a number to its multiple and the ratio of the sum of which was to be proved, and then reasoning backwards, as it several numbers to the sum of their equi multiples. Latterly A. were, until something was reached which was already known was applied to inference based on simiilar though indeterminate It was therefore opposed to synthesis, which reasons directly relations, e.g., A. between mother and child and Great Britain and from the known to the unknown. her colonies. A. is now popularly applied to inference from one Modern mathematicians, however, regardit as algebra in its widest sense. It represents knowe quantities by symbols, such case to another which it resembles generally. Metaphor and illustration are A. in germ, but are often reasoned from as if as letters, and from the relations which these bear to one ancomplete, e.g., Toplady infers the human will is not free, because other deduces by further investigation other and required relaChristians are spoken of as'stones builded up.' In logic A. is tions. Under A. may be grouped such subjects as series (finite a probable inference where our knowledge of the compared cases, and infinite), curves, differential and integral calculus, calculus especially of their fundamental differences, is imperfect, the dependence of one property on another not being known, e.g., Anam. See COCHIN-CHINA, the Anamese empire. inferences as to whether certain planets are inhabited, the conp ditions of life being possibly different from those on earth. Andmir'ta, a genus of tropical plants in the order ZeJLis2perFormal logic says a general conclusion, followed by a particular macet. See COCCULUS INDICUS. application, is involved in A., and gives three forms of syllogism,, a genus of tropical plants belonging to the order varying with the number of ascertained resemblances. A. has Broelie See PINE APPLE. also been expressed as a rule of three, the inference being the fourth term. False A. is common in political discussion, eg., Anaphrodis'iaos are medicines generally believed to have A. between heart or brain and metropolis, which begs all the the power of repressing the sexual feelings. Nauseants, such as questions of local government. In comparative biology A. means tartar emetic and ipecacuanha; purgatives, such as jalap, calomel, similarity or identity of function, similar functions being often and elaterium, large doses of camphor, hemlock, and tobacco, performed by unlike organs. A. is also applied to the interpre- have properties of this kind. See APHRODISIACS. tation of Scripture, statutes, and other documents, on the assump- Aap'nograph h tion (true of infallible books) that the meaning is throughout. This is an instrument invented by two consistent, and expressed in a similar manner. Great interest has French physicians, Berjeon und Kastus, for registering the attached to particular analogies, e.g., utler's A. between the amount of air drawn into the lungs in inspiration and expelled in moral contradictions of Nature and those of Revelation; Paley's expiration. The principle of the instrument is that the current A. between telescope lenses and the humours of the eye, the of air moves a vertical valve made of aluminum, to the edge of binference itl the latter being that the eye was constructed by t which a light, vertical lever is attached, which, follows accu~~~~~~~~Intelligel~ce. ~rately the movements of the valve. The end of the lever carries a pen which registers its movements on a slip of paper passed Anal'ysis (chemical) has for its object the breaking up of a underneath it by means of clockwork. The paper is divided compound substance into its constituent elements (or into other into squares of a size arbitrarily chosen, but representing so much and more simple compounds of these) with a view to the deter- air. The curve thus produced not only represents the amount mination of its composition. A. is employed to solve two kinds of air in expiration and inspiration, as might be determined by of problems of constant occurrence to the chemist: (I) to a spirometer (see SPIROMETER), but it also indicates graphically discover of what elementary bodies a compound substance is the force of the respiratory movements. formed; (2) to determine the quantities of these contained An'archy (Gr. a, privative, and arche, government), the name in voo parts of the substance. The first of these problems is given to that state of matters in a country where no government isolved by the aid Tof deaitermive A., the second by that of exists or exercises any authority, and opposing factions struggle qicantitatizve A. To determine the qualitative composition for supremacy. It is of necessity a transition state, and often of a substance, it is submitted to certain tests: if in the solid for supremacy. It i of necessity a transition state, and often state, its behaviour when heated before the blowpipe often leads S pan ish republics of S. America, it has prolonged itself far beto the discovery of at least one of its constituents; if in a state yond its usual duration, and seems as if it wo sld become the of solution, application of liquid tests is resorted to. These con- chronic condition of society. sist of acids, alkalies, or salts, usually dissolved in water, which, when added to the solution to be examined, may occasion cer- Anarrhichas. See WOLF-FISI, tain phenomena or reactionzs characteristic of some known sub- Anas, See DUCK, 4' 95 * *4 ANA THE GLOBE ENVCYCYLOPEDIA. ANA Anasar'ca. This term is the name given to the condition in Anastat'ica, a genus of Cruciferous plants. See ROSE OF which there is infiltration of watery or serous fluid in the meshes JERICHO. of the connective tissue throughout the body. It may be due to various causes, such as disease of the heart, or of the lungs, or of the liver, or of the kidneys, or of the lymphatics. It fre- anastomose or inosculate. If an artery be taced for a short el here, from premature distance, it is found to divide into branches. These branches quently follows scarlet fever-in cases where, from premature exposure to cold, the kidneys have become affected. The prim- again subdivide, or give off other branches, and so on until ary cause in all cases is obstruction to the free circulation of the blood, and A. is therefore regarded by physicians not as a dis- cpila, a hair). Sometimes A. may occur in large arteries, as those of the hand, or foot, or brain; but they are more frequent ease, but as a physical sign of disease in some important organ. those of the hand, or foot, o brain; but they are more frequen The remedial measures are directed to removing, if possible, the cause of the obstruction, and to draining off the superabundant currents of blood, and thus promotes an equable distribution of that fluid. A knowledge of A. in the larger vessels is essential fluid from the textures by acting on the bowels with purgatives to the surgeon, because when he finds it necessary to apply a which cause watery stools, such as cream of tartar and jalap the surgeon, because when he finds it necessary to apply a and n thse kidneys with diuretics, such. as infusion of bar oomt ligature to an artery supplying a limb, so as to arrest the flow of and on the kidneys with diuretics, such as infusion of broom, b along with acetat of potash or sweet spirits of nitre.blood through an aneurismnal tumour (see ANEURISM), he expects the circulation in the limb to be carried on by collateral branches, Anasta'sius I., Emperor of the East, surnamed'the Silent' which anastomose above and below the point of ligature. He was bolrn at Dyrrachium in 430 A. D. Of the earlier part of his has therefore to apply the ligature at a point where great branches life we know almost nothing. After the death of Zeno he was proclaimed emperor by the Senate, and was crowned IIth April Anath'ema (Gr. something'set up' or'apart'), a votive 49I, at the age of sixty-one. He owed his elevation to the widow offering, applied also to a sacrifice; and as animals set apart for of his predecessor, whom he accordingly married. In the sacrifice must suffer death, A. came to signify something doomed eye of the Church he was undoubtedly a great heretic. He had to eternal perdition. It is the strongest form of ecclesiastical embraced the errors of Eutychius and the Manichaeans, and used curse, the person under A. having no further hope, as the ban is his imperial authority to protect and encourage dissentients from final. A sentence s serious can be pronounced only by a counthe Catholic creed. The result was a rebellion of the orthodox cil, a pope, or ith the oncurrece of te provincial bishops party headed by Vitalian, who ravaged a great part of the empire, and ultimately forced A. to abandon his patronage of heresy. Yet A. was not without good qualities. If not ortho- Anato'lia (Gr. AznatoYe, the East; Turkish, Anad'oli), the dox, he was at least humane, and he did the state good service by modern name of the peninsula of Asia Minor, and of a prosuppressing the contests in the amphitheatre between men and vince of Asiatic Turkey. The total length is about 700 miles, wild beasts, by his extinction of the sale of offices, by his fortifi- the greatest breadth 400 miles, the area about 20o8,000 sq. cation of Constantinople, by restoring the lighthouse at Alex, miles. It is bounded N. by the Black Sea, E. by Armenia andria, and by useful works in various parts of the empire. He and Mesopotamia, S. by the Levant, and W. by the Archidied 8th July 518, at the great age of eighty-eight. pelago. The general appearance of the surface is that of a high plateau, supported on the N. and S. by mountain ranges parallel Anastasius I., elected Pope in 398 A.D., reconciled the to the coasts. On the W., between the sea and the elevated churches of Antioch and Rome, after a seventeen years' schism. interior, many fertile valleys open out on the Archipelago. The Two epistles bearing his name are evidently spurious: the one, tableland contains numerous salt-water lakes, and is drained addressed to Nerenianus, of little mark; and the other instruct- by rivers, the largest of which flow into the Black Sea and ing the German bishops, among other things, to prevent the the aEgean. The W. coast is famed for its genial climate and Manichaeans, who had been banished from Rome, from entering luxuriant vegetation. The N. coast has also a fine, but more Germany. The first, however, was obviously written after the humid, climate, and possesses immense forests of beech, oak, ash, death of A., and the other earlier than his accession to the ponti- elm, &c. The interior has hot summers and cold winters; the ficate, and therefore would have been without authority. Some S. coast is very warm. Among the vegetable productions are of the doctrines of Origen he pronounced heretical, for which he the olive, mulberry, tobacco, rice, numerous fruits, &c. The received the praise of Jerome. Councils sat at Carthage, Con- barren interior affords pasturage for large flocks of sheep and stantinople, Ephesus, and Toledo during his pontificate, though goats. Copper, lead, rock alum, and marble figure prominently A. himself played no important part in any of them. He died among the minerals. The inhabitants are mainly Osmanli Turks, I4th December 401 A.D. Other three popes took this name, nomadic Turkomans and Kurds, Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. none of whom, however, merit notice. Total pop. is given in the official census (A.lmansach de Gotha, I8S75)-as 6,753,337. Anastasius I., elevated to the patriarchate of Constanti- A. is divided into nine vilayets or provinces: i. Asiatic Connople, 730 A.D., by the Emperor Leo, on the faith that he should stantinople; 2. Brusa; 3. Aidin; 4. Kastamum; 5. Angora; aid in the work of iconoclasm, or image-breaking. The Emperor 6. Konia; 7. Adana; S. Trebizond; 9. Sivas, Constantine Copronymus, whose displeasure he had incurred by following the party of Artabazus, put out his eyes in 743, and, Anat'omy is the science which treats of the form and strucby way of disgrace, marched him into the hippodrome mounted ture of living beings. It is primarily divided into vegetable A., on an ass, with his head to the tail, but, singular to say, did not or the structure of the organs and tissues of plants; and animal venture to depose him. He died in 753. A., or the structure of the organs and tissues of animals. The A. of animals, again, is further subdivided into comparative A., Anastasius, St, the apostle of the Hungarians, was a na- that branch of the science in which the bodies of various animals tive of France, and was born in 954. His original name was are dissected and compared, so as to educe general laws regardAstric, and it was under this name that he entered the Benedic- ing their affinities with each other; and descriptive A., which tine monastery of St Boniface at Rouen. A. accompanied St studies minutely the situation, form, and relations of organs Adalbert to Bohemia, and when the bishop was forced to leave in a particular species of animal. Descriptive A. may be by the hostility of the people, he withdrew along with him. again subdivided into as many departments as there are speSoon after he found an asylum at the court of Stephen, the first cies in the animal kingdom. Thus we have human A., or Christian prince of Hungary, who in the year IOOO placed him anthropotomy; and horse A., or hippotomy. Various other at the head of the. Abbey of St Martin, and made him Bishop of terms are used by anatomists, such as morphology, or the invesColceza, from which time he dropped the name Astric, and took tigation of the laws of form and structure; physiological A., that of A. Stephen sent him to Rome to obtain from the Pope in which the structure of an organ is considered with rethe title of King (he was hitherto only Duke) of Hungary. He ference to its function; embryology, or the gradual developbrought back not only a royal crown for his master, but also a ment of structure in the embryo; general A., or histology, which double cross, the symbol of saintly or apostolic merit. The treats of the minute structure of the organs and tissues of the whole of A.'s long life was devoted to the propagation of the body, which can only be revealed by the nlicroscope; and Christian religion. He died IO44. finally, pathological A., in which the form and structure of dis96 ANA THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPAEDIA. ANA eased parts are described. Comparative A. is of the highest im- of the carotid artery or of pneumo-gastric nerves in the neck proportance to a knowledge of the science which treats of the laws duced insensibility and loss of voice. of life, or biology; it is the foundation of the science of physio- About the year I30 the celebrated anatomist Galen was Iogy, which investigates and describes the functions of tissues, born. He contributed much towards advancing A., not only by organs, and of the body as a whole: and the department of his own works, but by collecting all the knowledge acquired by human A. is intimately related to the art of healing in the three previous writers. He first divided the vertebrae into cervical, great departments, medicine, surgery, and obstetrics. dorsal, and lumbar, and generally improved on the osteological In a work like the present it is impossible to find space for descriptions of his predecessors. He attempted to dissect and even a general account of comparative or human A., but short describe the muscles; and it is remarkable that many of the descriptions of the various tissues and organs will be found under names given by Galen to muscles.seventeen centuries ago are still their several names, e.g., Atlas, Aorta, Duodenum, Lung, Liver, retained. He made the important step in physiology of demonBrain, Spleen, &c. In the same manner, a general account of strating that the arteries contained blood, not air, as had been the A. of various species of animals mvill be found under the name hitherto supposed. He was also the first who asserted thlat the of the species, e.g., Crustacea (Crabs), Insecta (Insects), HIorse, brain is the organ of the mind, and that the spinal marrow was Dog, Pig, &c. connected with motion. His description of the brain was singularly precise, while he added much to an accurate knowAnat'omy, History of. From the earliest times men must ledge of the pleural cavities, lungs, pericardium, heart, and the have had opportunities of inspecting the framework, organs, and abdominal and generative organs. cavities of the body when they slaughtered animals for food or For Iooo years from the time of Galen A. made no advances. for sacrifice, but centuries passed before exact anatomical This is to be attributed to two.causes: (I) To the disruption of knowledge was regarded as being important. The art of the Roman empire, and the consequent abandonment of scientific embalming, practised by many ancient nations, did not require culture by the degenerate Romans themselves, while the barmore than a very superficial acquaintance with the great barous nations were still too uncivilised to devote attention to cavities of the body. The first Hippocrates, who flourished such subjects; and (2) to the religious prejudices and scruples between the years 460-377 B.C., makes many allusions to ana- of the Arabian physicians, who were for a time the guardians of tomical details in his medical and surgical works, which show medicine. The Koran forbade its disciples to touch a corpse, that he knew something of the bones forming the skeleton, but far less to dissect a body. little regarding the soft parts. At this period no -distinction was About the beginning of the I3th.c. Italy again became the drawn between artery and vein, or tendon and nerve. The home of science. The University of Bologna encouraged medimany distinguished disciples of the Hippocratic school had cine and surgery, and soon the science of A. was assiduously singularly confused notions of the A. of even so large an cultivated. In 1.315, Mondino, a professor of A. in Bologna, organ as the heart, proving that the art of dissection was not dissected two female subjects, and gave public demonstrations practised to any great extent. A. continued in this embry- of the parts. About I480, Achilleni, a disciple of Mondino, onic condition for many years; and the few facts known were among other less important discoveries, described the malleus derived from observations made on the bodies of the lower and incus, two small bones in the middle ear, and demonstrated animals. that the ankle was formed of seven bones. Many-other celebrated Aristotle (4th c. -B.c.) was the first who cultivated A. in a sys. anatomists were connected with the school of Bologna, notably tematicmanner. There canbelittle doubt he dissected the bodies Berenger, who dissected above ioo human bodies. Each of of many animals, compared the different organs and -structnres, these added facts to the science. and thus laid the foundation of the science of comparative A. and During the I6th c. A. was cultivated in France, but chiefly the classification of animal forms. The anatomical works of the by dissections of the lower animals. About 1514 a young philosopher of Stagira consist of fourteen books-namely, ten on Fleming arose, named Andrew Vesalius, who left his mark on A. the History of Animals, and four on the Parts of Animals. He was professor of A. in the universities of Padua, Bologna, Aristotle corrected many of the errors of previous writers. He and Pisa successively, and he was the first to write a compreshowed that two great vessels arise from the base of the heart. hensive treatise on human A. He was followed by Eustachius, One of these lie termed the aorta, which he traced into the ab- who described the tube leading from the middle ear to the dominal cavity, carefully describing most of its branches. He throat which still bears his name, the muscles which move the noticed also the difference between the thickness of the coats.of small bones of-the middle ear, and the A. of the teeth. He also artery and vein. He still confounded nerves with tendons, and published a volume of Anatlomnzical En6ravinhgs, which for many maintained that the nerves originated in the heart. Finding the years was the only atlas of A. veins filled with blood after death, he concluded that these The Italian school at this period also furnished Fallopius-who vessels carriedthat fluid throughout the body. Hie appears to was professor at Pisa in 1548, and at Padua in 155I-Varolius, have known also about the general arrangements -of the organs Aldrovandus, and Coiter. All of these contributed information in the abdominal cavity, which assisted in rearing the superstructure of A. Most of Previous to 285 B. c. all anatomical knowledge was derived their discoveries were of minute relations or arrangements, and from dissections of animals. In this year, however, two they also corrected manyerrors of their predecessors. physicians of Alexandria, named Herophilus and Erasistratus, About this time (1530) Fabricius of Acquapendente made first dissected the human body, and they may be regarded as the the discovery of valves in the veins of the extremities, which was founders ofbhuman A. Time has not transmitted to us any-of to have an important influence on the demonstration of the cirtheir works, but reference is made to them by Galen and others culation of the blood some years afterwards. Hitherto it had who flourished many years afterwards. These ancient physicians been supposed that the arteries conveyed to the body a kind of dissected the membranes and sinuses of the bra-in, and the air or spirit, while the veins distributed the blood. It was also junction of various of the latter in the occiput is still known as held that the blood of the right side ofthe heart mixed somehow the Torcular Herophili. They made the important step of de- with that of the left, -or with the spirit which was stored up monstrating that many of the nerves issued from the brain, showed there. A Spaniard, Michael Servetus, first showed that the the lacteal vessels in the mesentery (without, however, knowing septum between the two sides of the heart was impervious, and their function), described the valves guarding the auriculo-ventri- he maintained that the blood must -pass through the lungs before cular orifices of the heart, and generally gave precision to many it can go from the right to the left cavities. This man, who held anatomical details. For nearly 300 years the discoveries of many views at that time deemed unorthodox, was publicly burned, Herophilus and Erasistratus constituted the sum of anatomical along with his works, at Geneva in 1553, a martyr to the bigotry knowledge; but about the year 50 B.c.:a great anatomist and and intolerance of the time. surgeon arose named Celsus. He devoted his attention chiefly We now come to the great discovery of the circulation of the to osteology, and described the bones, along with their foramina blood. In I619, William Hervey, an Englishman, demonstrated and articulations, with great care. the true course of the circulation. Combining the anatomical During the reign of Trajan, a Greek physician, Ruffus, made knowledge -of Eabricius of Acquapendente, whose pupil he was, the important division of nerves into sensory and motor, and it with the information obtained by a well-contrived series of appears he was the first who performed physiological experi- experiments, he demonstrated that the blood passes out from the mentation on the living animal. He showed that compression heart by the arteries, and returns to it by the veins. For many 13 Fo 4 --------— ~ —__ —~ —------- - ------- 4 ANA THE GLOBE ENC YCIOPEDJIA. ANB years he had no actual demonstration of the capillaries or inter- removed till forty-eight hours after death, nor till twenty-four mediate vessels between the terminations of the arteries and hours after notice to the inspector or to some neighbouring beginnings of the veins, but he lived to see them by means of medical man. A certificate of the cause of death must be given the simple microscope. It is impossible to over-estimate the by the medical attendant, or by a medical man called in after value of this discovery, which affects every department of medi- death. Anatomists are not to receive a body without a certifical and surgical practice. cate; which is to be entered in a book, to be produced to the In 1622, Asellius, professor of A. at Pavia, discovered the inspector when required. Provisions are made for decent interphysiology of the lymphatic system. The lacteals filled with ment of the body. Persons infringing the statute are liable to chyle after digestion were first seen in a dog in I622, and in I627 three months' imprisonment, or to a fine not exceeding ~50. they were seen in the body of a felon who had taken a hearty The Act is generally believed to have worked well, and to have meal before execution. In I647, Pecquet demonstrated the fulfilled its purpose. course of the chyle into the blood. The distinction between lacteals and lymphatics, and the discovery of terminations of the Anaxag'oras, a very eminent philosopher of the Ionic latter in the venous system, were made by Jolyffe, an English school, was born at Clazomen in Iona, B.. 500. Bon to anatomist, and Rudbeck, a Swede. wealth, he was able to give his time wholly to study. When Since this period the efforts of anatomists have been directed twenty years old, he went to Athens, where among his pupils were Pericles, Euripides, and Socrates. Accounts differ sometowards the more minute study of textures and the structure of were Pericles, Euripides, and Socrates. Accounts drove hiomeorgans. These efforts were much assisted by the use of the what as to the nature of the persecution which drove him from simple microscope, which was first directed to the tissues of Athens. It seems, however, to have been superstitions. He animals by Malpighi. He first saw the blood corpuscles and was condemned to death, but by the eloquence of Pericles the the capillaries, and he investigated the minute structure of many sentence was commuted into banishment for life. He retired to tissues. Certain bodies in the spleen and kidneys still bear his Lampsacus, on the Hellespont, where he died aged seventytwo. No entire work of A.'s has come down to us, but from The progress of A. was much assisted by the art of injection the fragmentary evidence we have respecting his philosophy, it of vessels and ducts. Ruysch, professor of A. in the University appears that while much of its details was absurd and extravaof Amsterdam in i665, carried this art nearer perfection than gant, it was in the main that of a man of subtle intellect. He any of his predecessors, and by this method he investigated the held that all matter existed riginally as atoms, and that these vascular arrangements in almost every part of the body. From atoms, infinitely numerous, had existed fiom eternity that the that date A. made rapid advances, and each great master added visible universe was the result of the aggregation of these atoms, that date A. made rapid advances, and each great master added his quota of facts. Space will not allow us to enter upon details, which aggregation is, by the agency of the'Nous'-a selfwhich are given with great fulness in the Encycklohpdia potent and all-pervading spiritual being-'the most pure and Britannica, vol. i. art. Anatomyy. subtle essence of all that is.' A.'s fragments have been collected and published by Schaubach.(Leipz. I827), and by Schorn In recent times, the chief advances have been in the knowledge of the minute structure of the tissues. This has been pro- (Bonn, I829). moted in two ways: (I) By the use of the compound achro- Anaximan'der, the friend, pupil, and successor of Thales, matic microscope; and (2) by employing chemical and physical the founder of the Ionian school of philosophy, born at Miletus methods of so hardening, cutting, staining, and mounting the B.c. 6Io, died B.C. 547. He is chiefly noted as a mathevarious tissues:as to render their structure clear and distinct when matician, and is said to have been the inventor of maps, and placed under the microscope. also to have been the inventor of the gnomon, a style or Human descriptive A. may now be considered as almost com- column for observing altitudes, or at least to have been the first pleted. It is not probable that any new organ, muscle, or who applied the gnomon to determine the obliquity of the eclipnerve has escaped detection, or that there are many errors in tic. Absurd as many of his philosophic and astronomical the descriptions of anatomical writers. There is still much to theories may seem to us, he seems, nevertheless, to have had be done, on the other hand, in the field of minute structure, and glimmerings of light on questions which have engaged the attenevery month adds to our stores of knowledge. Embryological A. tion of many of the best intellects of our own time. He did not is also rapidly advancing, but is far from approaching comple- believe in creation or in generation, in the correct sense of the tion. Comparative A. is a boundless subject, and will no doubt word. He believed that the infinite atoms, or primary matter, continuously advance -through many centuries. It is now drew together and shaped themselves in virtue of an innate power. correctly regarded as the basis of scientific zoological classifica- See Ritter's Geschic/hte der Ionisc/. Philosophiie (Berl. I821), and tion. Schleiermacher's ber die Leh/re des A. (Berl. I8II.) The preceding sketch of the history of A. clearly shows the important relation the science bears to physiology, and through Anaxim'.enes, an Ionian philosopher, and friend of Thales it to pathology and the practice of the arts of medicine and and Anaximander, was born at Miletus, and flourished in the surgery. A. is the foundation on which the whole superstructure 6th c. B..C. The aim of all his speculation was to find a satisis reared, and it is important to bear in mind that every anatomi- factory theory of the origin of the universe on the basis of cal fact has a physiological significance, and consequently a materialism. This he considered himself to have attained in the bearing on the detection and treatment of disease. This is the doctrine that air was the primordial, eternally-existing element, reason why anatomical knowledge is correctly regarded as the from which by compression all things are formed, even the basis of medical studies. See PHYSIOLOGY, MEDICINE, SUR- human soul. In the system of A. there is no necessity for a GERY, HISTO.IES OF, Creator. Anaximenes of Lampsacus, pupil of Zoilus and Diogenes ~Anat~omy (in Law). Until the year 1832 there were'no the cynic, is said to have been one of the teachers of Alexander sufficient legal means of procuring dead bodies for anatomical the Great and to have accompanied him on his expedition to the dissection. This defect led to the horrible trade of the resur-t G rectionist, an d to mu r ribld e e of the resu- East. A. wrote three histories-one of Philip of Macedonia, rectioniste, and to murder for the valuse of the victim's body. another of Alexander the Great, and a third of Greece from.the The system culminated in the notorious case of Burke, who was dawn of the mythic period down to the age of Epaminondas. tried and convicted of murder, mainly on the evidence of his Only a few fragments of these works are now extant which is associate Hare, before the Court of Justiciary in Edinburgh in the less to be regretted, as they did not bear a high reputation the less to be regretted, as they did not bear a high reputation I828. in antiquity. The Act 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 75, empowers the Home Secretary for Great Britain, and the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Ax'bury, a disease in turnips, known also as' finger-and-toe,' to grant licences to practise A. to any duly qualified medical on account of its presence producing excrescences somewhat repractitioner or student of A., on written application by him sembling these two features in the human system. The origin of countersigned by two justices of the peace, and certified by A. is not settled among vegetable physiologists. It is maintained them. Inspectors are appointed by the Act to inspect schools by some that the cause of the malady, which renders utterly of A., and to make quarterly returns of bodies removed for dis- worthless the bulbs, is an insect; on the other hand, it is consection. A relative may object to dissection, even though the tended that a taint in the seed is the cause of the insect's appeardeceased had expressed a wish for it. No body is allowed to be ance in the warts. It is certain that in all roots affected with A. 98 4. X ANO THE GIOBE ENC YCYOPLDPIA. ANO an insect is found in one of the twisted and abnormal growths forms of anchors, but perhaps the greatest novelty was that infrom the main body. A. eats out the life of the turnip, making troduced by Porter, and improved by Trotman. The greatest it worthless for feeding. A hundred years ago A. was more peculiarity of Porter's patent consists in having the arms pivoted prevalent than it now is. Still in recent times it has proved on the shank, and not fixed immovably; and there is also a provery disastrous to farmers, and no specific has been found out to jecting portion on the convex part of each arm called the toggie. prevent its ravages. The disease affects the turnip generally The exposed arm, therefore, lies along the upper side of the between the interval of singling and hoeing. Its presence is shank, and thus there is less danger of'fouling' by the cable indicated by a flaccidity and yellowness of the leaves. It is pecu- becoming entangled on this arm while the vessel is swinging in a liar that it does not run along the drills, but displays itself in tideway. Trotman's improvements consist chiefly in making the patches here and there over the field, the driest knolls being the flukes of a more convenient shape, and other similar matters of chief scenes of its havoc. Clay lands are less liable to be detail. Formerly, in the manufacture of anchors, a circle of affected than light, porous soils. The principal insects found smiths formed round the heated metal, and dealt blows in in the warts are the winter turnip-gnat (Tric.Focera hiemalis) succession with most ponderous sledge-hammers; but now the and rove-beetles- Oxyte/us scu/ptzuratus chiefly. Liming and powerful steam-hammers invented by Nasmyth have aided the liberal manuring are recommended to avert its dangers, but operations in a wonderful degree. neither of these operations can be relied upon as an infallible preventive. An'chorage, though sometimes applied to a ship's suite of anchors, or to anchor-ground, is properly a due levied upon the Anca'ster, a town of Catamarca, in the Argentine Republic, captain of a ship for permission to anchor in particular anchorS. America, lies in a mountainous region 23 miles N.E. of Cata- grounds. As a rule, this is not required of a ship driven into marca. Pop. (I863) 8000. port through stress of weather. Ance'lot, Jacques - Arskne - Francois - Polycarpe, a An'chor-ground is a. portion of the bed of the sea or of a French dramatic author, born at Havre, 9gth February I794, was river suitable for anchoring in. A good A. obviously depends employed in the naval department of the government service till upon the depth and the nature of the bottom, which, if rocky, the revolution of I830. From his youth, however, he had a would be liable to break the flukes. passion for poetic literature, and was incessantly versifying; but the first of his works that saw the light was Louis IX. (I8I9), a An'chorites, a class of Christian, hermits who began to tragedy so successful that it ran for fifty nights. Less success- appear in the 3d c. The Ascetics (q. v.) at first thought it suffiful was the Maire du Palais, performed in I823, His Fiesfue, cient, in. order to attain to a higher standard of holiness, to an adaptation of one of Schiller's pieces, was produced in 1824; withdraw from. worldly business and amusements, to practise Masrie de Brabant, an epic poem, in 1825; Six -Mois en Rzusse in fasting and celibacy, and otherwise mortify the flesh. This, I827, a melange of prose and verse; and Elizabeth d'Angfleerre however, did not long satisfy those who aspired to the highest in I829. A pension of 2000 francs, bestowed by the king in degree of holiness; they must withdraw from mankind altoI8I9, was lost at the revolution of July, and although he set gether. A. (Gr. azachoretes, from anachzoreo, to withdraw), himself courageously to support his family by his literary indus — then, were those who retired from the haunts of men altogether, try, it is certain that not a few of his later works aimed at to escape the contamination of the world, and to devote thempopularity by exhibiting a doubtful morality. Among the scores selves to contemplation; some also, no doubt, being driven to of dramas, comedies, vaudevilles, produced between I830 and this course by persecution. As distinguished from other classes 1840, may be mentioned Madame du Barry, Leontine, Le EFavori, of monks, A. were those who had no fixed place of abode, but Le Regent, Madame dez Chdtelet, La Comtesse d'JEgimont, Hereuse passed the night, without any shelter, wherever they happened to comme une Princesse, L'Espion. In I84I: he was chosen by the be overtaken by the darkness. Many went without proper French Academy to succeed Bonald. His Epitres Familibres, clothing, wore iron chains and rings on their body, and even published soon after, are remarkable for brilliant satire, epigram- maintained painful postures, e.g., standing on the top of a pillar matic point, and graceful simplicity of style. His last work. (see STYLITES) for years. When several inhabited the same wilwas his La Rue-Quincdmpoix. A. died at Paris, 7th Septem- derness not far from, each other, they were collectively called a ber I854. Laura. A. never were numerous in Europe, probably owing to An'chor is an implement by which ships are temporarily the more rigorous climate, and they disappeared altogether retained in a particular spot. Before the introduction, of iron anchors by the Greeks, the ancients used stones or crooked An'chovy (Engraztlis Encrasicolus), a genus of fishes inpieces of wood fastened to weights for this purpose; and at cluded in the Clupeida or Herring family, and which occurs the present day such rude instruments are found among the abundantly in the English Channel, on the French coasts, and in Chinese, and even among our own fishermen. the Mediterranean. The fishing extends throughout May, June, The A., as employed by most civilised and and July-that period being the spawning season. This fish European nationsj, consists of the following averages four or five inches in length. The head is pointed, parts: The shank, the vertical and supporting the lower jaw being of short conformation. The scales are of beam of the A.; the rinzg, at the upper large size. It is chiefly used for making condiments; the visextremity of the shank; the stock, the trans- cera being simply removed, and the fishes preserved and preverse bar just below the ring;. the arms, at pared in various ways. the lower extremity of the shank, and branching out nearly at right angles to the stock; Anchovy Pear, the name given, to a slender, tall tree the palmz or fluke, the flattish portion at the (Grias caulifora), a native of Jamaica1 belonging to the order end of each arm, the sharp extremity of which Barringtoniacece. Its fruits, which are russet-brown drupes, are is called the peak or bill; and the crown, the used for pickles, and resemble the mango in taste. It is cultilowest part of the A., at the very extremity of. vated in hothouses in Britain, principally for its fine foliage. the shank. The most stable and natural position of an Anuchu'sa, a genus. of rough-foliaged Boraginaceous plants. Anchor. A. is evidently when the stock lies along the See ALKANET. ground, and therefore the arms nearly perpen.. Anchylo'sis See ANKYLOSIS. dicular to it. As it is desired that the one arm should be forced into the ground by the pressure of the A. itself, the Ancil'lon, a French family of Metz, who took up their resiposition of the flukes must be such as to form the angle most dence in Prussia after the Edict of Nantes was revoked, and favourable for this purpose. several of whom attained to eminence.-David A., son of a As a rule, British ships-of-war carry four anchors-the'best distinguished Protestant lawyer, was born at Metz, I7th March bower,' the'small bower,' the'sheet,' and the "spare'- I6I7, and after being compelled to withdraw from his country, though sometimes they are provided with two smaller ones- became French Reformed pastor successively at Frankfort, the'stream' and the'kedge.' Hainau, and Berlin, where he died 3d September i692. He Within late years there have been many improvements in the was the author of several theological works.-Charles, his sor, 99 a d0> *> * ANO THE GLOBE REVCYCL OPADUJA. AND born at Metz, July 28, I659, died at Berlin, July 5, 1715, wrote a E. by Murcia, on the S. by the Mediterranean and the Atlanconsiderable number of politico-religious works, of which may tic, and on the W. by Portugal. Area, 27,200 sq. miles. Pop. be mentioned L'Irrdvocabilited de Z'Pdit de Nantes (1690), and (i870) 3,264,640. The surface of A. is very mountainous, with Histoire de 1'Lctaebissement des Franfais Rfbgi'sj dans Zes Ptats de the exception of the basin of the Guadalquivir. The mountain Brandenbourg (Berl. I69o). —Louis Fr6ddric, grandson of the range called the Sierra Morena runs along its N. portion, and latter, was pastor of the French congregation at Berlin, where the Sierra Nevada borders the coast from the E. boundary to he died in I8I4.-Jean Pierre Fr6deric, his son, may be Gibraltar. The Guadalquivir flows between these ranges into considered rather a Prussian than a Frenchman, and attained the Atlantic. A. was formerly famous as the'granary' and distinction entirely in the Prussian service, though he commenced'garden' of Spain; and though at present agriculture is very his career as the pastor of a French community. He was tutor backward, it is still one of the most fertile districts in the kingto the Crown-Prince of Prussia, and rose, through the confidence dom. The banks of the Guadalquivir are luxuriantly producboth of the king and the people, to high offices of state, finally tive. Maize, wheat, olives, oranges, citron, sugar-cane, figs, succeeding Count von Bernstorff(I83x) as Minister of Foreign batatas, cactus, aloe, &c., grow vigorously, and wine and oil are Affairs. He died April' 9,. 1837. His various writings, written abundantly produced. It is also well supplied with minerals. both in French and German, bear on statesmanship, and recom- Its horses and mules are of superior excellence, and the Sierra mend that progressive. legislation that prevents collisions be- Morena produces wild cattle for the bull-fights at Madrid. The tween governments and the popular will, and which was the dis- climate of the S. is the hottest in Europe, but N. of the Sierra tinguishing feature of his own policy. Though thrice married, Nevada it is more temperate. The principal towns of A. are he had no children,. and in him. an honourable family became Cadiz, Seville, Cordova, jaen, Granada, and Malaga. extinct. The name A. has been derived from an Arabic word signifying'the region of evening,' like the Hesperia of the Greels Anco'na, a fortified seaport and capital of a province of the (see Gibbon, chap. li.), but more probably it was originally same name, Italy, stands on a headland of the Adriatic coast, Vandalilia,'the land of the Vandals,' who, after wasting Gaul, i miles N. of Loreto. It has a beautiful situation, is the see of' poured through the passes of the Pyrenees, and settled here a bishop, and retains a considerable share of the commerce for early in the 5th c. The inhabitants may be considered a mixed which in former times it was famed. It is said to have been race. At least the original Celtic element must have been greatly founded by Syracusan refugees, driven hither (about 380 B.c.) changed. by the successive infusion of Carthaginian, Roman, by the tyranny of the elder Dionysius. It is meanly constructed,. Goth, Vandal, and Moorish blood. The modern Andalusians but contains several fine buildings. The Cathedral of St Cyriac, are among the most lively and imaginative people in Spain, and built in the loth c., has the oldest cupola in Italy. A. was an not deficient in industry when they have any motive for exertion. important Roman naval station, and possesses an ancient mole The patois or speech of the people is a dialect of Spanish coloured 2000 feet long, on which stands one of the grandest triumphal with Arabic. terms. arches in the world, erected by the Emperor Trajan. The town A. is the Tarshish of the. Bible, and was called Boetica by the was taken by the French in 1797, but afterwards (I8o2) restored Romans. Under first the Arabs, and afterwards the Moors, who to the Papal see. In I832. the French. again, took possession of founded splendid kingdoms here, arts and sciences, chivalry and its citadel, which they held till the Austrians evacuated the commerce, greatly flourished. The four great Moorish capitals Papal territories in I837. Ten. years later it took part in the were Seville, Cordova, Jaen, and Granada. Seville and Cordova revolt of the Roman States, was bombarded and occupied by long retained their pre-eminence in literature and the fine arts. the Austrian troops, surrendered to the Piedmontese in I86o, and has since become part of the Italian kingdom. In ancient An'damans, a small group of islands in the Bay of Bengal, times A. was celebrated for its purple dye. Its trade is now aecvrdwt es oet n prey-naie yarc times A. was celebrated for its purple dye. Its trade is now forming the western extremity of the Indian Archipelago. They principally in the bands of Jews, and the chief exports are principally in the hands of Jews, and the chief exports are are covered with dense forests, and sparsely inhabited by a race woollen and silk goods, oils, cordage, bacon, and fruits. Pop. of savages. An attempt by the British to colonise the A. ('793) (i872) 45,741, of whom some iooo are Jews. was abandoned on account of the climate; and on the suppression of the Indian mutiny they were occupied as a penal settleAn'cre, Baron de Lussigny, Marshal d', originally ment. During a visit of inspection to the prison of Port Blair Concino Concini, son of a Florentine senator, went to France in I872, Lord Mayo (q. v.), Governor-General of India, was in I6oo with Maria de MAedici,. wife of Henry IV., and in con- assassinated by one of the convicts. junction with his wife, Eleonora Dori, surnamed Galiga'i, the queen's fezme-de-chanmbre, promoted discord between. the royal'going ") a musical term, denoting a slow, pair. After Henry's death he became leading favourite of the gentle movement. Andantino is a little less slow than A. queen-regent, and was made a marshal and prime minister in I613. Andennes', a town in the province of Namur, Belgium, 2 Becoming obnoxious to the court and to the populace, he was, miles S. of the Meuse. It is noted for the manufacture of paper, assassinated in the Louvre before midday of April 24th, i61.7, porcelain, and more especially of tobacco-pipes. Near A. are Louis XIII. being privy to the plot. His exhumed body, after marble quarries, pipeclay beds, and lead, iron, and coal mines. being suspended by the feet to a gibbet, was. burned before Pop. 6458; the statue of Henry IV. His wife was subsequently burned as a witch, and her son, a boy of twelve, deprived of his vast pro- An'derab, or Inderab, a town in, the new Afghan province perty, was expelled from France. of Turkestan, on the river A., to the N.. of the Hindu Kush Mountains. It lies in the midst of orchards and vineyards, Aneus Marcius, according to the Roman legend, was~fourth and is an important station for the commerce with India. Pop. king of Rome, and grandson of Numa Pompilius, like whom he 6500oo. cultivated peace, and was devoted to the service of the gods. He reduced several Latin towns, and settled the inhabitants on An'dernach, a town in the district of Coblenz, Rhenish the Aventine. In the opinion.of Niebiihr, these formed the Prussia, situated where the Rhine flows through a beautiful originalnlebs, while Mommsen thinks they merely swelled the defile, nearly 20 miles above Bonn. It is a town of high numbers of a pre.existing lebs. He founded a colony at Ostia, antiquity, having arisen on the site of a Roman camp (Antunbuilt a fortress on the Janiculum, dug the'Ditch' of the Quirites, nacunm), and was a residence of the Merovingian kings. It is and built the first prison at Rome. His death is assigned to the quaintly built, contains a fine church of the I3th c., and is still year 614 B.C. surrounded by ancient ramparts. Its trade is unimportant; but the millstones of A., quarried in the vicinity, are widely celeAnda, a genus of Euphorbiaceous plants. The seeds of A. brated, as is also its trass or cement, made of pulverised volcanic brasihiensis are known in Brazil as PzFrga dos Paulistas, and are tufa, and which is durable in water. Pop. (1871) 4479. used with the same effect as castor oil. An'dersen, Hans Christian, Danish poet, dramatist, noAndalu'sia, or Andalucia, a large district in the S. of velist, and themost popular of all story-writers for children, born Spain, comprising the two former provinces of Andalusia proper at Odense in Fiinen Island, April 2, 18o5, was the son of a shoeand Granada, and the eight modernprovinces of HIuelva, Seville, maker, but showing poetical talent at an early age, he was recomCadiz, Cordova, Malaga, Jaen, Granada, and' Almerin. It is mended. tothe patronage. of the king, and educated by the state. bounded on the N. by Estremadura and New Castile, on the In 1830-3 i he published two volumes of poems, and the romances Ioo AND THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPA-EhDIA. AND Agnes andthe Mermhan and the Im2rovisatore were the fruit of his steep slope, the ridge being from 20 to 8o miles distant from the tour through Southern Europe in I833-34. Of his novels and Pacific; while towards the E. they descend by gradual stages into dramas, Only d Fiddler and The Mulatto are respectively the best; the broad and fertile plains of Venezuela, Brazil, and La Plata. but he struck his richest vein in his Picture-book without Pictures They constitute the great watershed of the S. American rivers; (I840), a charming volume of fanciful sketches. Subsequently he and when there is a double or triple chain, the western one is the produced an almost endless series of tales, &c., which continue to true and only watershed, and accordingly the more eastern please the old and delight the young of all nations, and of which ridges are intersected by numerous deep, narrow gorges, through may be named A Poet's Day-Dreams, containing the exquisite which the mountain torrents flow in their eastward career to the story of The Flax, and the beautiful autobiographic sketch, Under Atlantic. the Wzillow-Tree; The Ice-Maiden.; The Danish Fairy Legends, In giving a more detailed account of the characters of this embracing the famous Ugly Duckling, The Will-o'-the- Wisps are gigantic range, we shall adopt the ordinary division and nomenin Town, and the Dream of Little Suk. His Story of mzy 4if,. a clature, referring each portion to the particular country in which fascinating autobiography, was finished in i846. A. has had many it occurs. The figures are taken from Von Kloeden's Handbuch translators, and as many publishers in England. One of the best der Erdkzunde (Berl. I873). editions of the collected tales is that translated by Wehnert, and The Patagonian A., from lat. 560 S. to lat. 420 S., consist of published by Bell & Daldy, London, 1869, A. died August 4, a single range of moderate elevation, the highest peaks, Yanteles, 1875. A posthumous volume of his writings is announced (I875), Minchinadom, and Corcobado, being respectively 8199, 7792, containing unpublished verses sent to him by Wordsworth, Leigh and 7511' feet high. Though only as much S. of the equator as Hunt, Mrs Browning, and others, and letters received from vari- Central Europe is N., the snow-line is just 3000 feet above the ous literary men during the last fifteen years of his life. sea-level, and glaciers abound in the precipitous clefts of the coast. An'derson, James, LL.D., a writer on agricultural and The Chilian A., from lat. 420 S. to lat. 240' S., contain many miscellaneous subjects, was born at Hermiston, in the county lofty and- volcanic mountains, among others, Aconcagna (22,422 of Midlothian, in I739. Succeeding his father, who was a feet), Tupungata (20,338 feet), and the curious, truncated, conefarmer, in the management of the farm at a very early age, he shaped El Descabezado (13,821- feet), on the summit of which soon manifested a superior intellect, and introduced many im- is a plain 6. miles in diameter. The snow-line rises from 8ooo provements in agricultural instruments. In 1783 he removed to to io,ono feet above the sea-level. Edinburgh for the education of his family, and soon showed no The Peruvian A., from lat. 240 S. to lat. 60 S., consist in the inconsiderable talent in literary work. His first production, a S. of two chains, which are known as the E. and W. Cordilleras series of essays on plantirng, appeared while he was still engaged in of Bolivia, and which enclose the magnificent plateau of Titicaca, farm business, in Ruddiman's Weekly Magazine for 177I. Among at a height of 12,290o feet. Immediately to. the N. of this, in his later writings may be mentionedAn Account of the Present Peru, we have, on a plain whose elevation is 8300 feet, the State of the Hebrides and */estern, Coast of Scotland; being the mountain group of Cuzco, which is said to be thrice as large as Substance of a Report to. the Lords of the Treasury (I785); a all Switzerland. Between the ioth and Ith parallels, the ranges tract on Fisheries (I-784);, and the article Monsoon for. the Ency. meet and form the tableland of Pasco, which is situated at a clopadia Britannica. He also published a weekly magazine height of II,ooo-feet; and a little farther to the N. the chain called the Bee (I79I7-94) in Edinburgh:; and later, at London, divides into three, which again unite in the knot of Lona, conducted Recreations in Agriculture (I799-I8o02). The most about 5~'S. lat. The snow-line-rises from 15,o0o to i8,ooofeet; valuable papers in the latter were by himself;. and they are evi- and accordingly the higher peaks-Sahama (22,763 feet), dently the production of one whose talents and originality must Gualatieri (21,946 feet); Chuquibamba (2I,00ooo feet), llimani place him among the foremost of the founders and developers (21,550 feet), Pomarape (21,688 feet), Sorata (20,733 feet), and of the true science of political economy. A. died at London in Arequipa (I9,704 feet)-are covered with perpetual snow. 1808. The A. of Ecuador, from lat. 6~ S. to lat. 20 N., a lofty Anderson, John, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy and volcanic portion of the chain, consist for the most part of Iin Glasgow University, was born in I726 in the parish of two parallel ranges, uniting at various spots, anad forming the IRoseneath, Dumbartonshire. As an- author, he is best known tablelands of Assuay, Quito, and Los Pastos, the frrst at an eleby his stitutes ofysics, published in 1786. As a professor vation of 15,520 feet. Of the lofty peaks in this portion of the and lecturer, his success and popularity were very great, not only range may be mentioned Chimborazo (21,068 feet), Cotopaxi in the university, but also in connection with his Antitoga class, (18,811 feet), Antisana (19,282 feet), Cayambe (9,535 feet), all which met twice a week for the benefit of artisans and mechanics. of which are above the snow-line which here rises to a height of which are above the snow-line., which here rises to a height A. died at Glasgow, January 13, 1796, and bequeathed all that he f T6oooo feet. possessed for the founding of- an educational institute in Glasgow The A. of e Uite Stes of olob, formerly N for the use of the uncademical classes. Granada, from 20 to 8S N. lat., separate beyond the city of f nesna Uies~~orina ithendsed tof the madema classes Andersonian University; originally intended to be made up of Almaguer into-two chains, the eastern one of which again divides into two known as the Central, and Eastern Cordilleras of New four colleges, was, however, from the inadequacy of' the funds, into two known as the Central and Eastern Cordilleas of Ne opened in 1796 with only a single course of' lectures on natural Ganda, which contain between them several tablelands, the philosophy and chemistry by Dr Thomas Garnett. The success pincip one being tht of Santa F d Bogota. The Pic d was great; and since then the university has been greatly en- Tolima (IS.- 129 feet) is stated to be- the only mountain in New larged, there being now seventeen professors. The funds have Granada which is capped with- perpetual snow. been considerably increased by donations from private individuals, The geological character of the A. is very little known, t.> ~~~~~~~~~~The geological character of the A. is very little known, both in Glasgow and- elsedbwhere. The chapir of munsici was especially as regards the paleontological section and the Terendowed in Gsgow by William Ewing of Glasgow; and in s187 tiary formations, which were not recognised. as of any great imendonaino.o~was givn i86by WrilreliamEin ofGlsow; and general1 a donationof ~5000 was given by Mr Feeland for the generl portance in the time of Humboldt, to whom we are chiefly purpose" ws gfteuivenrsity. relnd f8or IL-hes Younerao purposes of the university. In180indebted for most of the knowledge we have on thissubj:ect. Of Kelly,~ ~ ~ I pr 0,Saesen t d Uou5ogfo teestalsmn. of acaro I~~~elly, pre~~~~~~~~~setdtIo50fr h sabihe o ar Srtified rockts, gneiss is found scattered through the gSreater technical chemistry.. n on part of the range, often associated with granite and mica-slate, and containing large quantities of garnet. Next to porphyry, An'des, the great mountain range of' S. America, extends mica-slate is of the most frequent occurrence, containing in some in an unbroken chain from the small river Atrato. in thie N., places beds of granular limestone, which is sometimes of so fine near the Isthmus of Panama, to Patagonia in the S., and is even a texture as to resemble the finest Carrara marble. Clay-slate traceable in the islands forming the Fuegian Archipelago, as far occurs in considerable quantity in the Secondary formations of as the rocks of Diego Ramirez, about 60 miles to the S.W. Santa Fed de Bogota and Peru. Quartz and gypsum are also of Cape Horn, Like the Rocky Mountains in N. America, plentiful. Red sandstone is found in vast quantity, attaining a the A. run close along the W. coast, so that the rivers flowing thickness of 5000 feet near Quito; and it crops up over the into the Pacific are necessarily very short and rapid. The greater part of the llanos of Venezuela, being, however, covered length of this chain, without making allowance for the windings, by beds of limestone and gypsum towards the E. Of Tertiary is about 45oo00 English miles, while the breadth varies between formations and Secondary formations- later thaa the magnesian 40 and 350 mi-les. Towards the W.. the A. generally present a - limestone nothing definite is as yet known.. O-f. the unstratified IOI* AND THE GIOBE ENC YC'LOP.JI9A. AND rocks, there are granite, porphyry, trachyte, and rocks of vol- Andkhuy, a town of Afghanistan, on the river Jihun, 70 canic origin. Granite is never found at great heights, but miles W. of Balkh. It was taken from Bokhara in 1840 by constitutes the basis of the whole S. American continent. Por- Mohammed Khan, who left it in ruins. It rapidly recovered, phyry is of most frequent occurrence, and gives to the mountains however, and in I863 contained nearly 2000 houses, and 3000 a variegated appearance. Trachyte is a hard rock, consisting of kibitkas or tents. Pop. some I5,000, chiefly Turkomans. A. separate crystals of glassy felspar, usually with a mixture of was once capital of a khanate of the same name. hornblende and mica, imbedded in granular layers of glassy felspar, and occurs through Chili, Peru, and the United States Andor'ra (Fr. AndorrEe), a small state, situated in a rugged of Colombia. valley in Catalonia, Spain, having the French department of The whole chain, and especially in Ecuador, is extremely Ariege on the N. It is enclosed on all sides by mountains, except where the,Balira issues to join the Segre. It is about 20 volcanic; but the different volcanoes do not show any great except where theBalira issues to join the Segre. It is about 20 miles by 24 at its greatest width, with an area of I54 sq. miles. activity, due, it has been supposed, to their immense height. miles by at its reatest width, with an area of The most dreaded of the S. Americano volcanoes is Cotopaxi, The pop. has been estimated at from 4000 to Iz,ooo. Cap. near Quito, which has been known to send, its flames to a Andorra; pop. 2000. It was declared a neutral territory about height of 3000 feet above the crater, and to emit such a dense 790 by Charlemagne, for services rendered to him against the cloud of ashes and cinders as to render the use of lanterns Spanish Arabs. The government is vested in a council of twentynecessary in some of the contiguous villages in broad daylight.- four members, who elect a syndic, in whom the executive centres. Closely connected with,, and often. accompanying volcanic erup- Two vigiers, or judges, are appointed, the one by France, and tions, are earthquakes,. which are more frequent and destructive the other by the Bishop of Urgel, whose jurisdiction dates from in the A. than in any other portion of the globe. Cities and 8I9A.D. Of these viuiers,theformermust beanativeofFrance, villages have been destroyed in an hour, terrible ravines have and with them is associated a civil judge, elected alternately by been brou-ght: into existence, and~ curious natural bridges have France and by the bishop. The resources of the district, agribeen formed spanning precipitous gorges, all through and by the cultural and mineral, are great, but are not developed. Cattleagency of earthquakes. rearing is the chief occupation of the inhabitants. There is, Minerals and metals are found in great quantity-the topaz, however, a. small export trade in wood, charcoal, iron ore, wool, amethyst, ruby, and. most of the other gems. Gold and silver and cheese; but the imports are confined to the strict necessaries are obtained in Chili, Peru,. and the United States of Colom- of life, for the Andorrans are determined foes of luxury, and are bia mercury in Quito platinum, in the United States of Co- even opposed to all change, their manners and customs having lombia; copper chiefly in Chili, but also in Peru,. where it. is remained unaltered since the time of Charlemagne. called anat, which is-supposed to be the derivation- of the name Ando'ver, a market town of Hampshire, situated on the A.; and tin in Chili. river Anton, i.3 miles N.W. of Winchester, and a station oli the The A. act as much as a watershed to the clouds as to the South-Western, Railway. The original form of the name was rivers, since the air at the summits of the peaks is so rare as to Andeafaranr ('the passage or ferry across the Ande'), but it was be almost incapable of containing water.-vapour, at least in any not a place of note before the Norman Conquest. A. received perceptible quantity. Also, as- the- wind is usually eastern iln its first charter from, King John. It has a handsome town hall, the tropics, and western in the temperate zones, it follows that and a church in. the Early English style. The chief occupations the western side of the chain, from the equator to about the 3oth are malting, tanning, and the traffic in timber with Southampton. parallel, will be drier than the eastern side, and vice versa for The Weyhill fair, held near A., grew out of a Michaelmlas revel latitudes below the 30th parallel. This must obviously produce to, be one of the most important fairs in England. It begins a decided difference- between the climates of two places, on the Ioth October, and lasts a week. Pop. (I87I) 550I. same degree of latitude, but on opposite sides of the range. Another consideration which determines the climate of any An'dover, a township of Massachusetts, on the Merrimac locality, besides its. latitude and its position on the leeward or river, 21 miles N. of Boston.. It was incorporated in 1646, and windward side of the chain, is its elevation above the level of the is famous as an educational centre. The Phillips Academy sea. Thus Quito, though situated almost exactly on the equato- of A. was founded r778, and has a revenue of I2,000oo; rial line, has a most agreeably temperate climate; and such is the there are also, besides many schools, a celebrated theological case with many cities and villages, plateaux and valleys, in some- seminary for the Congregational body, and the Abbott Female what similar circumstances. Thus it is that on the slopes of the Academy. A..possesses considerable flannel, linen, and shoeequatorial A. the beauties of nature are displayed in their great- thread manufactures. Pop. (I870) 4873. est profusion-the variegated and lively tints of the foliaceous An'dral, Gabriel, a distinguished French physician and shrubs peculiar to the tropical and sub-tropical regions contrast- medical writer, was born November 6, I797, at Paris, where he ing finely with the more sombre hues- of the flora characteristic became professor of pathology in 1830, and in I839 succeeded of the teniperate and alpine zones. Broussais in the chair of pathology and therapeutics. Three While travelling through the A., one is not so much struck years later he became a member of the Institute; and, after a with the lofty grandeur of the individual peakts-wv~hich, whzen brilliant career, both as a- physician and a lecturer, he died at viewed from the plain at their base, do not appear in nearly the Paris, February 5, 185i. His principal works are Clinique Medisame gigantic proportions that Mont Blanc does from the Vale cale (1-824-27, 2d ed. I840, 5 vols.); Precis d'Anatomiepatholoof Chamouni-as with the valleys and passes,. flanked in many gique (3 vols.,.829); Cours de Pat/zologie interne (1836, 2d ed. cases by precipitous walls rising to a height of 4000 or 5oo000 feet. 1848); Notes et Additions an Traite de l'Auscultation Mediate de The passes are very characteristic, usually following the course Laenec (1-837); besides several papers before the Academy, espeof the mountain torrents.; or, if that is impracticable, surmount- cially a series of researches Sur les Modifications de Proportions ing them by bridges, or cutting a path along the shoulder of the de quelues Principes de Sanz (I842). overhanging height. Their elevation is also a: noticeable character, the pass of Antarangra, in Peru, being I:6,I99 feet An'dre, Major John, an officer in the British service during high, and thus higher than Mont Blanc by 389 feet. For par- the American War of Independence, who met the fate of a spy ticular and detailed' information, the reader is referred to Hum- on being taken while engaged in the questionable work of such boldt's Persona NVarrative; Temple's Travels inz Various Parts a functionary, was born in London 1751I, and entered the army of Peru-; Pbppig's Reise in. Peru, Chili, und auzf dem Azazonen I771. Joining the-British forces in America, he was employed St-rom; and Mrs Somerville's Physical Geography. to treat with the- unfaithful American general Arnold for the surrender of the fortress of West Point, with the magazine of the Andi'ra, a genus- of plants belonging to, the- order Legunzi- American: army. A., in- disguise, had had an interview with the nos&e, natives of tropical America except A. inzermzis, which is traitor Arnold; within the American lines, from which he was the cabbage-tree or cabbage-bark tree of the W. Indies, the returning when he was arrested, and the plans of West Point bark of which is anthelmintic. and- the papers referring to its proposed betrayal being found And'iron,. or Handiron, a kind of fire-dog, often richly upon his person, he was condemned to death as a spy, and ornamented, in use in mediaeval times for burning wood, and hanged accordingly at Tappan, in New York State, 2d February still to be seen at the open hearths of some old mansion- I780. houses. An'drecm, Johann Valentin, a German Protestant divine 4 02..A.._3 AND IWE GLOBE ENCYCLEOPEDA. AND and philosopher, born near Tiibingen, I7th April 1586, and died one of the ecclesiastical commissioners at the conference at June 27, 1654, at Stuttgart, where he was court chaplain. The Hampton Court, and he assisted in translating the first twelve main tendency of the theology, science, and philosophy of the books of the authorised version of the Old Testament. In 1605 age was scholastic, and this he set himself strenuously to oppose. he was promoted to the see of Chichester, translated to that of His wit and husour were not less remarkable thanl his learn- Ely in 1609, and made a privy councillor. In i6I7 he attended ing. He has been credited by some with having restored at the king to Scotland, to aid him in his attempts to induce the least, if not founded, the order of the Rosicrucians, and this Scotch to substitute Episcopacy for Presbytery.; next year he opinion seems to derive some support from his own confession was translated from Ely to Winchester, where he died 27th that he was the author of the C(zynmisce Hochzeit Chrisliani Rosen- March 1625. Singularly meek as a man, as a Churchman he kreuzz (16i6). He was, however, an uncompromising assailant *had exalted views of ecclesiastical authority, though he abjured of anything approaching mysticism, and of.nothing more than of the Roman Catholic claim for the independence of ecclesiastical Rosicrucianism itself. Herder has been his chief expounder. His assemblies of the civil power, and wrote two replies to Cardinal best known works are his ZMenzppius s. Satyricorunm Dialogorum -Bellarmin in defence of his views. Centugria, (i6IA) Uythologiea Chr^istianaf (i6i9), and Geistlichze enlurzweil (i6i7g). See Hossbachisl (69), A. andein Zei ter (igc/se Andrews, St, an ancient Scottish city, on St A. bay, N. I-zweil (5659). See Hlossbach, A. un/i ei Zeilal/te~~r (Ig). coast of Fife. According to Fordun (book ii. ch. 46; 47), it Andreae'a, a genus of dark-foliaged, split-fruited mosses, owes its origin to the Abbot Regulus, a Greek saint, who in the named in honour of Andrea, a Hanoverian naturalist. There 4th c. was ordered by the angel of the Lord to carry the relics are nine species found on rocks in Britain. of the apostle into the N. W. corner of the'earth,' and in conAndre'ossy, Antoine Franois, -Comte d', the great- sequence, after shipwreck on the coast, landed in the N. of Fife grandson of Frangois Andreossy, who assisted Riquet in con. at a place then called Mucross, or'Swine's Wood,' afterwards structing the canal of Languedoc, was born at Castelnaudary, Kilrymont,-and finally St A. in honour of the saint. At an early March 6, 1761. He entered the -army in 1781,. and after the period the see-of a' Scoto-Irish' bishop, and the establishment, French Revolution broke out, he rose rapidly, serving with great in the time of Alexander I., of a priory of -Canons Regular, of distinction under Napoleon as -an artillery officer and military which the last prior was Regent Moray, gave increased imporengineer. In I799 he was appointed Minister of War, and.after tance.to St A. as an ecclesiastical centre. The cathedral, begun the treaty of Amiens he was ambassador at London, and sub- -in -II62, and consecrated in 1318, was in I559 wrecked by a sequently at Vienna and Constantinople. In 1814 he communi- mob. Of the first cathedral, completed in II44, there still cated some valuable memoirs to the Institute at Paris on the remains a square tower Io8 feet high. The university, founded subject of hydrostatics. A. was also possessed of considerable in 14II by Bishop Wardlaw, consists of three colleges-St Salliterary talent, and wrote, among other works, L'Histoire Gene'- vator (I456), St Leonard's (I5I2),-and St Mary's, a theological rale du Canal dnu Midi (Paris, 800oo); -Caozmioae -sur le -Ti1eien ela institution founded by Cardinal Beaton (I 537). The castle, assoRednitz, &ac. (I802); Voyage de l'Embouchsure de la Mer Xoire ciated inseparably with the fate of Beaton, has -long been a ruin. (i8i8), with atlas; llfemnoire sur et qeli concerne les Marche/s Ouv- St A. may be regarded as the cradle of the Scottish Reformaroard (Paris, 1826); and Menzoiresur l es Depressions de la Surface tion, and here occurred the martyrdom of Patrick Hamilton du Globe(Paris, i826). A. diedat Montauban, Sept. Io, I828. (I528) and of George Wishart (1546). The modern town is An'drew, a disciple and afterwards apostle of Christ, was, celebrated for its educational institutions, the..chief of which is like his brother Simon Peter, a Galilean fisherman. Little is Madras College, founded by Dr A. Bell, and is a favourite seamentioned of him, and of his apostolic labours nothing. Euse- bathing and golfing place. St A. is a royal and parliamentary bius assigns Scythia, Jerome -Greece, and Nicephorus Thrace, burgh, and unites with Easter and Wester Anstruther, Crail, as the scene of his labours. He is said to have suffered martyr- -Cupar, Kilrenny, and Pittenweem in sending a member to Parliadom at Patras in Achaia on a cum deczussata (X). For a notice ment. Pop. -of parl. burgh in 1871, 63I6. of the Acta Andrea, see APOCRYPHA.. An'dria, a town ill the province -of Bari, S. Italy, so called Andrew, St, or The Thistle, a Scottish order of knight- from a number of caverns (antra) in its vicinity. It was besieged hood, named after the patron saint of Scotland, was founded by and burned in I799 by the troops of the Parthenopean republic - James V. in 1540, andconsisted originally (q. v.) The grand Cathedral of A. was founded in Io046. The of the sovereign and twelve knights. On chief trade is in.almonds, for which the plain of A. is famed. - the death of James in I542 the order was Pop. (1872) 34,030discontinued, but was renewed by James An'drieux, Franpois Guillaume Jean Stanislas, a II. of Great Britain in I687, when eight French dramatist, born at Strasbourg, 6th May I759. He was knlights received the order. Queen Anne originally an advocate, and held several high state appointments, increased the number to twelve in I 703; but was removed from office (I80o2) by Bonaparte, and obliged and George IV. addedfour.more -in 5827.. to adopt literature as a profession. In -I8I4 hle became a proThe decorations worn by the knights fessor in the College de France, and was subsequently appointed.consist of a -collar of sixteen thistles inter- perpetual.secretary to the Academy, in which capacity he greatly - laced with sprigs of rue, a gold medal, and assisted in the production of the famous Dictioznnaire. He proa star, worn on the left shoulder, consist- duced numerous dramas, full of grace and spirit, the best of a~~x ~ ing of a St A.'s cross of silver, in the which are Alolilre avec ses AnZis, Le Vielux Fnat, and the tragedy centre of which is a thistle surrounded by of Brutus. A. died in Paris, joth May I833. His (Euvres 44 the motto'Nemo me impune lacessit, -C/oisies were published in 1862. X tand raysof ailver. The knights have the Androg'ynous (Gr. and', a man; gune, a woman), a term l etters K.T. placed after their names. For applied to those organisms which unite in themselves male and St- An' detail s, see Hist/oy of-I/e Orders of Knz Si t- female organs of reproduction. This designation is thus synoSt Andrew's Cross. /ood of I/e Bri/ish Em;lire, by Sir N. H. nymous with hermna/phzrodite and monacious. Nicolas. Androm'ache, daughter of E/tion, Kling of Cilician Thebes, Andrew, St, The Russian Order of, founded by Peter and wife of Hector, by whom she had a son, Scamandrius. She the Great in i698, and-confined to persons of -the highest ranks, is unquestionably the finest female creation in the Iliad. The has for its badge a cross of enamelled blue, with, among others, parting between her and Hector, in the 6th book, is portrayed the Russian motto meaning'For Religion and Loyalty' in- with an exquisitely simple pathos. -On the fall -of Troy she fell scribed upon it. to the lot of Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, to whom she bore An'drews, Lancelot, an English prelate, and.a theologian three sons. She afterwards became the wife of Helenus, the of great erudition, born in London in 1555, and educated at Pem- brother of Hector, and had a son to him, named Cestrinus. broke Hall, Cambridge, of which foundation he became a fellow Racine, in his Andromaquae, represents her as faithful even to I576. Secretary Walsingham gave him several pieces of prefer- the memory of Hector, thus ignoring the post-Homeric legend. ment, and in I589 he was elevated to the mastership of his col- Androm'eda, daughter -of Cepheus and Cassiopeia, King lege. Queen Elizabeth made him one of her chaplains in ordi- and Queen of Ethiopia. The latter having boasted that A. nary, and Dean of Westminster; and King James appointed him excelled the Nereids in beauty, these prevailed on Neptune to I03 *~~~: —------— _-~-~ -b AND TH-IE GIOBE E~NCYCL OPADIA. ANE inundate the country, and to send a dreadful sea-monster to Spain, lies on the Guadalquivir, at the foot of the Sierra Morena. destroy men and cattle. When the oracle of Ammon declared It is unhealthily situated, the inhabitants are chiefly employed in that the wrath of the monster could be appeased only by the agriculture, and the town is famed for its delf-ware. The consacrifice of A., Cepheus chained her to a rock, where she was vention of Baylen was signed at A., and also the decree of the found by Perseus, who slew the monster, unchained A., and Duc d'Angouleme in 1823, when he assumed for the French made her his wife. Minerva placed her among the stars; hence authority over Spain. Pop. I2,650. Milton's phrase in iI Penseroso, the'starr'd Ethiop queen.' Anega'da, an island of coral formation, girt with dangerous Androm'eda, a genus of plants belonging to the Heath order reefs, lies furthest N. of the Lesser Antilles, about I9~ N. lat., (Ericacee), and containing many species which are trees and and between 64~ and 65~ W. long. It is known as'the drowned shrubs. A. polifolia is the only species native in Britain. It island,' from its flat, desert appearance.'Its sparse population is grows in bogs, and possesses acrid, narcotic properties which chiefly supported bynumerous wrecks -which occur on the coast. prove fatal to sheep, as A. Mariana of the United States, and It belongs to England. Area, 13 sq. miles; pop. about 200. A. ovaNzfolia of Nepal, are to sheep and goats. The leaves of Anemom'eter.(Gr. aneimos, the wind, and me/ton, a measure) A. fastigiala are used as tea in some parts of India. is an instrument intended to measure the force or velocity of the Androni'cus. Three Byzantine emperors were so named.- wind, and is very important in the science of meteorology. It A. I., the Byzantine Alcibiades, and the last of the Comneni maybe constructed who governed the Eastern Roman empire, was born in I IIo, and either to measure was famous for his manly beauty, the vigour of his body, his the force or pres- i dauntless spirit, and his dissolute conduct. The story of his sure of the wind chequered career, as told by Gibbon, reads like a wild romance, upon a surface of but is strictly true. In his youth, while following the retreat of given area, or to the Byzantine army through Asia Minor, after the death of the give the velocity Emperor Joannes, he was made prisoner by the Seljukide Turks. of aerial currents On his release he went to Constantinople,'where,' says-Gibbon, directly. To the'his virtues and his vices recommended him to the favour of his former type becousin; he shared the perils and pleasures of Manuel; and while longs Lind's A., the emperor lived in public incest with his niece Theodora, the which shows the affections of her sister Eudocia were seduced and enjoyed by A, pressure of the Manuel gave him the command of Cilicia, where A. first dis- wind by the differplayed his disposition to treadhery, by entering into a correspond- ence of level of the _ _ ence with the King of Hungary and the Emperor of Germany. two surfaces of a He was in consequence arrested, and imprisoned at Constanti- liquid placed in Anemometer. nople for twelve years. His escape is a succession of marvels; a siphon - shaped but at length he reached Kiev, the residence of Jaroslav, Grand tube, which has one of its'legs (which point upwards) bent horiDuke of Russia, whom he induced to unite with the Emperor zontally, so as to permit the wind to enter. The mouth of the Manuel in the invasion of Hungary, and distinguished himself at tube is kept pointing in the direction of the wind by means of a the siege of Zemlin. After several seductions,he fled with Theo- vane. The instrument invented by Osler measures the force by dora, widow of Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, first to Damascus, its effect upon a brass plate of given area. When the plate is and finally settled among the Turks in Asia Minor. Theodora pressed back, a pencil, in the observing-room below it, is pushed and her two children having been carried captive to Constan- forward to a proportional amount by means of a combination of tinople, A. implored and obtained the mercy of the emperor, springs. This pencil impresses a mark upon a sheet of paper, but was ordered:to Oenoe, in Pontus. In I1I82, after the death which is slowly moved along with uniform velocity by means of of Manuel, he was summoned by the Patriarch and patricians clockwork, so that the force of the wind at any time is repreof Constantinople to become first guardian and then colleague sented by the ordinate of that part of the curve traced by the to the young Emperor Alexius. IHis administration of the pro- pencil, which corresponds to that particular time. Another vinces was wise and vigorous; but repeated instances of cruelty pencil in connection with the vane records the direction of the towards his personal enemies stirred the crowd against him, and wind; and a third pencil, connected with a rain-gauge, registers he was, at the age of seventy-three, put to death with dreadful the quantity of rain which has fallen. tortures, September I2, II85. —A. II., eldest son of Michael The anemometers of Whewell, Robinson, Casella, and GorPaleologus, born 1260; ascended the throne 1283; dri.ven from don measure the velocity of the wind directly bymeans of fans or it in r328 by his grandson, A. III., who died in.134I. hemispherical cups, fixed in such a manner upon horizontal rods Andronicus of Rhodes, a Peripatetic philosopher,.at the that the rate of rotation round a central vertical axis is proporhead of that school in Rome abou Peripateti. None of his writ- tional to the velocity.'Upon the axis is:an endless screw, which head of that school in Rome about B.C. 58. None of his writings have been preserved; but to him we owe the preservation of many of Aristotle's works. Anemone, a genus of plants of the order Ranunculacece, or An1dronicus ~Cyrrhestes, so called from Cyrrha in Syria, Buttercup family. There are numerous species, chiefly found in his birthplace, built at Athens the octagonal marble' Tower of temperate climates. Many the Winds,' so named from its entablature representing the of them are grown in gardens winds in bas-relief. The buailding probably belongs to'the period for their handsome flowers. after Alexander the Great. By cultivation their stamens Androp'ogon, an extensive genus of grasses. See LEMON- areoftenchangedinto petals. GRAS Ss. A. nemorosa is the common wood A. *or wild-flower of An'dros, the most northerly island of the Cyclades, in the Britain; A. Jupsatilla, the Greek Archipelago, separated by Doro Channel, 6 miles broad, pasque-flower, found in Engfrom the island of Euboea (mod. Negropont). It is 21 miles long land. A. anncide has and 8 broad, and is mountainous, but very fertile, producing silk, yellow flowers, while those of wine, lemons, oranges, and pomegranates. Pop. about I6,ooo. A..Apnnina are blue; both The chief town, A. (pop. 5000), lies on the E. coast, and exports -are naturalised in sone parts V'enetian Dandolo, whose successors kept possession of it till hortensis, star A.; and A. I566, when they were forced to surrender it to the Turks. See coronaria, poppyA., are com- Anemone nemorosa Hopfs Gescizichte der Inset A. Afnd i/hrer Beherrschcer in dest Zeit- monly cultivated. A. heparauVme von I207-I577 (Vien. I855)- tica, or Hep5atica riloba of some authors, is one of the most ornaAndu'jar, a town in the province of Jaen, in Andalusia, mental early spring plants on rockwork, and in flower borders. I04 ~~ —--------------------— ~-4 ANE THE GLOBE ENCYCIOPEDIA. ANG Anem'one, Sea, the name applied to the members of the tiveness, has the advantage of being extremely handy for travelfamily Actzniade, a group which forms the typical example of the ling purposes, since it is usually fitted in a small cylindrical box class Actinozoa of the Coelenterate sub-kingdom or type of animals. about five inches in diameter and two inches in depth. Before The name was doubtless first applied to these animals from a use, however, it should always be.compared with a mercurial fancied resemblance they presented in their expanded state to cer- barometer, and set by means of a screw at the back. tain groups of flowers; this idea being strengthened, no doubt, by the brilliancy of the hues and colours these forms present. They of an artery, producin A. is a dilatation of one or bag, in which a clot fors. Such are very familiar inhabitants of all our rock pools, and are specially artery, producing a sac or bg, in which a clot forms. Such well adapted for an aquarium life. The body of each consists a tumour may interfere with the functions of neighbouring of a cylinder of soft flesh, with double walls. This body is organs by pressure on important nerves or blood-vessels, and attached by its lower extremity to the rocks, whilst the upper and there is also the danger of hemorrhage from rupture of the wall free extremity bears the central mouth, surrounded by numerousof the sac. In the event of hemorrhage into a cavity of the arms or tentacles. These structures in the A. are present il body, such as the thorax or abdomen, death may suddenly take multiples of five or six, and are of simple tubular conformatin. place. If, on the other hand, the A. ruptures externally, the They are hollow processes, perforated at their tips, and com- individual may quickly bleed to death, or become exhausted by municate internally mwith the body-cavity. The mouth leadsinto repeated haemorrhages. An aneurismal tumour is recognised by a stomach sac, which, as in all Actinozoa, is of incomplete the distinct pulsation it gives with each stroke of the heart, and nature, in that it is open inferiorly, and communicates freely by a peculiar blowing sound heard when the ear is placed over it. below, with the general cavity of the body. The stomach is Three forms of A. are usually described: (I) True A., in which retained in position by a series of vertical partitions which ex- all the coats of the artery dilate, atd unite in forming the walls tend between the stomach and body-walls, these partitions re- of the sac; (2) False A., in which the inner and middle coats of ceiving the name of mesenteries. Like the tentacles, they exist the artery are alone ruptured, and the wall of the sac is formed in multiples of five or six. When one of these animals is touched ty the outer coat and adjacent tissues; and (3) Mixed A., in or irritated, it discharges the water contained in the interior of which the three coats having first dilated, the inner and middle the body through the mouth and tips of the tentacles, and by ones subsequen rupture from distension. When the blood retracting the latter within the body, converts the formerly ex- between the middle and external coats, the A. is some panded and flower-like structure into a conical mass of coloured times said to be dissecting. flesh. From this retracted state it again evolves itself after a Aneurismal tumours are usually caused by a sudden strain period of rest. As in all other Colenterate animals, the tissues rupturing the inner coat, which has been previously weakened of sea-anemones are provided with little stinging cells, known by degenerative changes. Hence they are more common in men as tzread-celes, cnice, or nedmitocysts. By aid of these cells, the than in women, and amongst those whose occupation exposes prey upon which these animals feed, and which consists of crabs them to severe and sudden muscular exertion while the body is and other crustaceans, shellfish and other small animals of the in a cramped position. Grooms, sailors, miners, hammermen sea-shore, is paralysed, or otherwise rendered helpless to struggle at the forge, are specially liable to the disease. against its fate. These thread-cells may produce a stinging sen- The treatment of A. is both medical and surgical. The sation if brought in contact with the soft mucous membrane of the medicl treatment is rest, remedies to lessen the force of the human body, although they are apparently too feeble to pierce the heart's impulse, and to favour complete solidification of the clot ordinary skin. Although generally rooted, theanmespss w thnhe an e aurismal sac. The remedy most relied on for the ordinary skin. Although generally rooted, the anemones possess the power of moving about in a slow manner, through movements latter purpose is iodide of potassium, given in doses of from five of the foot-like disc by which they are attached to rocks. The to thirty grains three times a day. The surgical treatment consists young are produced from eggs, and sometimes may be seen to of ligaturing the vessel above or below the A., compression by escape in a fully-formed condition, but of small size, from the instruments, flexion of the limb, digital compression of the parent A.'s mouth. These animals may be cut or divided in tumour, arrest of the flow of blood by acupressure, coagulation various ways, with the result of artificially propagating them. f blood within the sac by galvano puncture, or by the injection Very many genera and species are known, - and they are very of coagulating fluids. Regarding details as to these methods of generally distributed throughout the seas of the world. The treatment, reference may be made to surgicalworks, such as Actinia mzesenibryant/emnun is the most common species of all. Erichsen's Surgery, vol. i. p. 31. The genera Sagartia, Bunodes, also include familiar forms. Mr Angeiol'ogy is that part of anatomy which treats of the Gosse's beautifully-illustrated work, Actinologia Britannica, or structure and distribution of blood-vessels. the History of Britzis Sea-Aneazones, will form a trustworthy guide to a further knowledge of these interesting forms. Angel, a gold coin formerly in use in England, and rangAn'eroid Barometer (Gr. a, privative; neros, moist), in- ing in value from 6s. d. to IOs. It derived its name from vented by M. Vidi of Paris, consists essentially of a cylindricalbox, having on its obverse side a figure of the archangel Michael about 3 inches diameter, in which a vacuum has been made, and piercing the dragon. Angels were first coined in the 15th c., and whose outer surface continued to be coined till the period of the Commonwealth. is corrugated so as. Angel-Fish, or Eonk-Fish (Squatina angelus), a genus of __ to multiply' the fishes included in the Shark order (Elasmobranchzii), and forming 0 - - Lpoints on which the type of the family SquatinidT. It gains its popular name the atmospheric from the expanded pectoral or ventral fins, which give to the piessure is exerted. body a hooded or winged appearance. The average length is This box is pre- five feet or more. It occurs around the British coasts, and in vented from alto- European seas generally. The head is broad and rounded. / gether collapsing No anal fin exists, and two spiracles or breathing-pores exist on the by having its upper top of the head. The skin is covered with small placoid scales., surface connected An allied species, S. aculata, occUrs in the Mediterranean. by a rod to a lever Aiagel'ica, a genus of Umbelliferous plants, natives princiof the second kind, pally of temperate regions. Some of the species were formerly which is kept in regarded as possessing angelic virtues, hence the name. They position by means were used as a remedy against poison, plague, infection, witchAneroid Barometer. of a strong metallic craft, and enchantment. They are not now regarded for their A, vacuum box; B, metallic spring; C, lever; E, chain; spring. If the at- virtues. A2. sylvestris is a common species in Britain, found in F, arbour;G, spiral spring; H, index; J, adjusting screw. mospheric pressure damp woods, and even high on the mountains, and forms a change, the dimensions of the box, and therefore the position of picturesque feature to the landscape. The garden A. belongs to the lever, are proportionately effected, and by a mechanical comn- a different genus. See ARCHANGELICnA. bination of levers and axles, this motion is transmitted, as one of rotation, to a hand moving in front of a dial, as in the com- Angelica-Tree, the English name for Araia spinosa, somemon wheel barometer. times also called toothache-tree. See ARALIA. The A. B., besides being possessed of a great degree of sensi- Angelo, Michael. See BUONAROTTI. 14 505t ANG TR.E GZOBE ENVCYCLOPZ-EDIA. ANG Angels (Gr. messengers), in the theology of Scripture, a race panied by extreme anxiety and a foreboding of impending death. of spiritual creatures higher than men, who exist for the service The pain usually shoots towards the left shoulder. It lasts for of God in heaven and on earth. As they are only casually in- only a few minutes. Several attacks may occur, and at last the troduced in Jewish and Christian history, we cannot venture to individual dies during a seizure. The affection is symptomatic form any complete theory of their nature and work. There is of fatty disease of the wall of the heart, or of disease of the coats nothing in their recorded appearances requiring us to believe of the cardiac blood-vessels. Little can be done during the that there is any essential difference between their nature and attack, except to apply warm poultices over the heart, and give that of human beings; but there is a popular notion that they internally diffusible stimulants, such as ammonia, ether, wine, constitute a distinct order of creatures, and that they possess and brandy. The inhalation of a few drops of nitrite of amyl attributes which will always separate them from men even in often gives great relief. the spiritual world. The work which contains the most complete (though imaginative) exposition of the angelic system is Angioleucitis. This is a disease consisting of inflammathe lierarchia Calestis, ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite tion of the lymphatic vessels. The neighbouring lymphatic (q. v. ), a composition probably belonging to the 6th c. Diony-glands are usually also involved. A. is seen in the case of puncsius divides this hierarchy into nine orders: thrones, cherubim, derived firom decay ing animal matter in abscesses and carseraphim,. Gregdominations,virtues, poers, principalities, archangelser, ived from decaying animal matter; in abscesses and carand A. proper. Gregory the Great, and the Church generally, buncles occurring in unhealthy persons, from absorption of fretid adopted his classification. Traces of such distinctions are pus; and in erysipelatous inflammations. The symptoms are visible in the writings of St Paul (Rom. viii. 38; Eph. i. 2I, &c.), intense pain along the lymphatics, which are felt as hard cords and are undoubtedly part of that rabbinical lore in which he under the skin, inflamed and painful glands, shivering, sickness, was well trained, and which he did not feel called upon to re- fever, debility, and mental depression. The inflammation may ject when it did not conflict with his Christian faith. Canonical terminate in suppuration, or it may gradually disappear. In Scripture mentions only two A. by name, Michael and Gabriel; some cases, blood-poisoning may occur to such an extent as to but in the Apocrypha we meet with Uriel, and in the writings cause death. The remedies are rest, application of hot fomenof the Talmudists with Miany more. tations or poultices to the part, nutritious food easily assimiAs Scripture is silent regarding the origin of A., there has lated, such as beef-tea or soups, the moderate use of alcoholic been nothing to check the licence of speculation, and early stimulants to combat depression, and stimulant tonics, such as Christian literature is full of notions that rest on nothing. Some, carbonate of ammonia along with Cinchona bark, given every as Gregory the Great, imagined that A. existed before the three or four hours, in doses proportionate to age and the state material universe, others that they had been created on some of the patient. one of the six days-Augustine, e.gf., supposed on the first. Angiosper'mous, a term used in botany to those DicotyleTertullian, Tatian, and indeed most of the Fathers, conceived donous plants having their seeds in a seed-vessel, while Gymnothem as possessing refined and ethereal bodies, a view subse- spermous is applied to those having seeds produced without a quently endorsed by the Church at the second synod of Nice seed-vessel, as in pine-trees and cycads. (787). The idea of guardianl A., which is still a half-belief An'gle (Lat. angldus, a corner) is the measure of the openin all Christian countries, was undoubtedly adopted by the Jews ing between lines or planes which meet. Suppose one of two from their heathen neighbours-probably from the Greeks. No lines, originally coincident, to rotate uniformly like a hand of trace of it occurs in the old Hebrew Scriptures. Philo reduced it a watch, the other being fixed. At the end of a quarter of a to a system. At an early date it passed over into the Christian revolution the A. made by the two lines is a rigol A. An acute Church. It is plainly stated in the Shepherd of Hernmas, who A. is less, and an obtuse A. greater, than a right A. A dihedral assigns to man a good and a bad angel. Clemens Alexandrinus affirmed that cities and provinces were placed under the protec- tween those lines in the planes which are perpendiclar to the tion of A., which is certainly a reproduction of the Hellenic line of intersection. A so A. is formed by three or sore myth of a geyzizus loci, or of the Latin myth of the Lares publici. non-coplanar lines meeting at a point. This doctrine naturally led to the worship and invocation of A., which appears to have been in partial operation as early as the Angle Berries. Unseemly and painful excrescences, like middle of the 4th c., for it was condemned about that period by warts, upon cattle, chiefly developing themselves upon cows, and the Council of Laodicea. St Ambrose distinctly recommended in the belly, groin, and teats. The easiest and surest way of their invocation, Augustine, Theodoret, Gregory the Great, removing them is to tie a piece of waxed silk thread round them, and others opposed it, but the practice of dedicating churches and tighten the thread every day until the tumour decays and to A., which was favoured by bishops and emperors, confirmed falls off. In their early stages, applications of nitrate of silver, the people in their belief that A. heard and answered prayer, alum, or zinc sulphate in solution, will remove them. and in spite of repeated explanations and qualifications, it may be considered part of the religious convictions of the Greek and Angler-Fish, or Fishing-Frog (ois iscaorus). This Romanl communtions to the present hour. Teleostean fish is included in the Acanthopterous division of that order, and in the family Lophiidc[. It is frequently cast up on Ang'ermnanlanld (pron. Ongermanland), a former division our shores after storms, and is sometimes called the'sea-devil,' of N. Sweden, now chiefly comprised by the Lin of Wester- or' granny-fish.' It attracts attention by the enormous size of norrland (q. v.) the head, and wide opening of the mouth, which is amply furof nished with teeth. The head is broad and flat, the eyes being Angers (anc. Andecavumn), the capital of the department of placed on its upper surface. The body is short, and the tail Maine-et-Loire, France, situated on the navigable river Mayenne,. T x6fi miles S.W. of Paris. It is the see of a bishop, and possesses loped, the ventrals being situated belov them. The scales are a grand cathedral of the 9th c. in the Romaln basilica style. It small, and sparsely scattered over the body. The gill-aperture was the seat o)f a university founded I246, which has recently wias tene seat of a university, founded 1246, which has recently is placed behind the pectoral fins, and is of small size, the gillgiven place to a superior academy. *Lord Chathanm and the chamber itself being large. The front of the head bears two Duke of Wellington studied for some time at A., and it was the elongated filaments, which are said to be of use to the fish in elongated filaments, which are said to be of use to the fish in birthplace of David, the sculptor. The chief employments are capturing its prey. It thus buries itself in the mud, and by moving,ail —nakig, cotton-spinning, and stocking-weaving; tkere is'.'these filaments about, attracts the attention of smaller fishes, besides a'considerable trade in corn, wine, brandy, hemp, and which unsuspectingly approach the concealed enemy, and are thus honey. There are extensive slate quarries in the vicinity. Pop.s. From this practice, its name of A. has been derived. (1872) 51,525. Anghla'ri (amnc. Castraum Azngulare), a town in the province An'gles (Lat. Angli), according to Ptolemy, were a German of Arezzo, in Tuscany, N. Italy, near the Soarsh, a branch of the trbe of the Suevic family who originally occupied part of the Tiber. The Florentines gained avictory over theilanesehere country on the E. side of the middle course of the Elbe. in I440h. POpr nf~toimnue gaine Tacitus classes them, along with other and obscurer German Pop. of commune, 6941 -tribes, as worshippers of -lertha, or Mother Earth. That at a Angina pectoris is the name given to a severe paroxysmal, later period they pushed their way northward to the corner in suffocative pain in the chest, in the region of the heart, accorn- Slesvig which still bears the name of Angeln, is possible, but 106 4 *a?'?~~~~~~ *ANU- THE GLOBE E0NCYCL OPtDIA.J ANG has no decisive evidence in its favour. Some adventurers may A4ngle. This work bears to be Enzprented at Westmnestre by have done this, but it is probable that the flats of N. Germany Wyn/kin de WIorde. The Comlele Agler of Izaak Walton was were the chief abode of the tribe at the time of their invasion published in I653. of Britain. Dr Latham does not believe that any real difference In Scotland the salmon and the trout are, as a general rule, existed between A. and Saxons, and there is much to be said the only river-fish which give amusement to the angler, while in favour of such a view. He thinks that while the Romans, pike, perch, and trout usually abound in the lakes. The rivers Gauls, Franks, and Britons spoke of the invaders as Saxons, of the midland counties and S. of England again produce a much these knew themselves under the name of A. If this theory were greater variety of fish for the exercise of the angler's art. They adopted, it would satisfactorily account for the present name have roach, chub, dace, gudgeon, tench, pike, and grayling. of the country, England, i.e., Engla-Zand, land of the A., The last has of recent years been successfully introduced into the though the extent of British territory conquered and peopled by Clyde in Scotland, in which country, we believe, all the abovethis particular tribe, viz., the whole of the island from the mentioned fish are to be found, but they are not common. The Thames to the Firth of Forth, is itself a sufficient explanation eel is common in both countries, but in Scotland detested both of the circumstance. by the angler and the cook. Of British fish, the salmon, the Anglesea, HPenry William Paget, Earl of Uxbridge and trout, the grayling, and the pike afford the best sport to the Marquis of A., a distinguished cavalry officer, born I7th MRay angler. To them, therefore, we limit the scope of this article, I1768. He was educated at Oxford, and at an early age held an reserving for future articles any remarks we may have to make on the habits and mode of capturing the others. important command in Flanders. He afterwards served in Spain, o the habits and mode of captring t theanlrs. No other fish affords such sport to the angler as the Salmon and during the retreat to Corunna, under General Moore, his ser- N he fsaf h sprth ngr the a The vices were of great value; but it was at Waterloo that he gained (. v hen'clean'-that is, freshly run fom the sea. chief lure employed is what we call an artificial fy, which his highest distinction. There he commanded the British cavalry, chief lure employed is what we call an artificial y, which and lost a leg. On his retu he was created aquis of A. In is, however, certainly neither like a fly nor any other object in 1828 he was made OLordieutenanth of Ireland, an office to which nature. Why the fish seizes it is therefore inexplicable. Some 2he was apponted a second time in 1t31; but in consequhnce of anglers suppose that it does so from irritation; and certain it is he was appointed a second time in I831I; but in consequence of a the coercive measures forced upon him by the agitation of that, unlike the trout, the salmon may be induced to seize the fly by perseveringly playing it before his eyes. There can be no O'Connell, he became exceedingly unpopular; He founded the by persevenly playing it before his eyes. There can be no Irish Board of Education. In 1846 he was appointed MIaster- doubt, either, of the curious fact that certain colours and combinaGeneralof the Odnance and madIe a field-marshal. A. died tions of colours are more effective than others, and that the salmon Aprl te Ordancanmaeafied-mrshl.. of one river differ in taste for these firom the salmon of another, 29th April I154. even though both are freshly run from the sea. The salmonAnglesey, or Anglesea, an island and county of N. Wales, fisher, therefore, will do well always to consult the local tacklein the Irish Sea, separated by the Menai Strait (q. v.) from the maers and uthorities in arranging his pocket-book for a day's makers and authorities in arranging his pocket-book for a day's mainland, with which it has communication by means of the sport. The salmon-rod should be powerful, the tackle strong Menai Suspension Bridge and the Britannia Tubular Bridge and secre. Hooks and lines should be examined and tested and secure. Hooks and lines should be examined and tested (q. v.) It is somewhat triangular in shape, the surface is flat before being used. The points to be studied in A. are, the castand bare, and agriculture has only of late years received much ing and working of the line and fly, the character of the water attention. The climate is milder than that of the mainland, but in which the fish lie and will rise to the fly, how to act when the in autumn is frequently misty' and unhealthy. A. is the only fish rises, and how to manage him when hooked. See CASTING. county of Wales that is not mountainous. It is about 20 miles The two former points can only be successfully studied under long, 17 broad, and So in circumference. Area, I93,453 acres; practical instruction by the river. POP. (1871) 5I,040. In I872 there were 33,750 acres under corn, When a fish rises, you must not strike simultaneously, beand II,i64 under green crops. The rearing of cattle is a chief causeyou may probably see the fish before he has seized the occupation, and on an average about 5oo000 are exported yearly. fly If therefore, the angler cannot control his nerve, he had There are no important manufactures. A. is chiefly formed of better not watch the spot where his fly is, lest he be flurried, and mica schist, with occasional limestone ranges, the other rocks so jerk the fly out of the aim of the fish. ou mustwait till you so jerk the fly out of the aim of the fish. You must wait till you being granite, various marbles, coal, and serpentine. Its lead feel the fish, and then simply raise the rod. A violent jerk is and copper mines, opened in 1768, were the richest in the king- worse than useless, as by it you may pull the hook out of the dom till I8oo, but have since declined. The chief towns are mouth of the fish, or very likely break the line. On hooking Amlwch, Beaumaris, and Holyhead (q. v.), which, with the vil- him do not for a moment suppose that he is surely yours; the lage of Llangefni (pop. 1222), return one member to Parlia- battle has but begun. His tactics are various. He may fly ment, the county returning another. A., called by the Britons down the river like an arrow, and exhaust your line; it may Mhon, a'separate' district (comp. the Gr. mon-os,'alone'), a then happen that a deep pool, tree, or other hindrance prevents name modified by the Romans into Mona, was the last strong- you from following dowi. The enthusiastic angler who can hold of the Druids, still containing many dolmens, and other sim will probably do so sooner than be defeted. Or he interesting Celtic remains. It was conquered by the Roman game of the fish may be to make for some sharp-edged stone or geneal uetniu Palins i 61.D. byAgrcol in76,andgame of the fish may be to make for some sharp-edged stone or general Suetonius Paulinus in 6I AD., by Agricola in 76, and rock and there cut the line. again by Egbert in the 9th c., who gave it its present name A., o hooking a fish, the angler must throw the point of his rod On hooking a fish, the angler must throw the point of his rod i.e.,'the Englishman's Isle;' but the native princes succeeded in over his shoulder, and, in technical language,'show the butt' to recovering their land, making Aberffraw the seat of government. the foe. If possible, keep up with him. If he leaps or plnges, In the reign of Edward I., however, it was finally brought under.I osbe epu ihhm fh ep rpugs In the reign of Edward I., however, it was finally brought unde trying to break the line with a stroke of his tail, slacken instantly, English rule.trI ~~~~~~~English rule. ~butrecover without delay. Keep very cool and vigilant. Never An'glican or Anglo - Catholic Church is a term the be violent, but keep a moderate pressure on the fish when he application of which varies. It is sometimes used to denote ex- tries to recruit his strength after a run. elusively the Reformed Church of England; at other times, it is While from its greater strength and activity the salmon affords applied to that portion of the Church which has existed in the superior sport to that given by the Trout (q, v.), the latter, island ever since the introduction and establishment of Christian- as his character has developed in our streams, is an immeasurably ity. It is occasionally restricted to the Church of England at more cunning fish. Consequently, for his capture, much more home, though it properly embraces her Indian and colonial science and dexterity are required. We limit this remark, howbranches; and it is even extended, but with less accuracy, to ever, to the river-trout; for the lake-trout, though as a general those communions which follow her doctrine, discipline, and rule superior in size and quality to those of the river, are infinitely worship, though not legally associated or connected with her, less wary; nor does continued fishing seem to increase their For a sketch of her history, and an outline of her doctrine, see wariness as it unquestionably does very rapidly increase that of ENGLAND, CHURCH OF. our river-trouts. The most celebrated lake-trout in Scotland, Angling is the art of capturing fish by means of a rod, line, and probably in Great Britain, is that of Loch Leven in Kinross. and hook, the hook being dressed or baited for the purpose. It is almost as red in the flesh as a salmon, and beautifully formed. The literature of the art is in England as old as the I5th c. Those caught average a pound in weight; but theyare frequently In 1496, Dame Juliana Barnes, prioress of the nunnery of Lope- taken from one and a half to three pounds weight. They are well, wrote a tract entitled T'he Treatyse of F:,ss/iihze woilt an taken with a large artificial fly, in deep, clear water, and the I07 AN G THE GL OBE EVC YCL OyEDIA. ANG novice may chance to bring home a better filled creel than the Angloma'nia is a noticeable predilection for English habits veteran in the A. art. No such result is possible in the streams and institutions among foreigners. Instances of A. were the of the S. of Scotland, at least when their waters are clear, avidity with which translations of all kinds of English books when the greatest skill is required for the capture of the trout. were read during the I8th c. in Germany, and the rule of EngIf the artificial fly is the lure used, it must be small and very lish'fashions' in France on the eve of the great Revolution, lightly dressed; but even with these requisites, in clear, deep when the free institutions of England excited the enthusiastic water, where the trout has time to inspect the lure before reach- admiration of the friends of liberty. ing it, it will hardly deceive him. The water for the fly-angler must be ruffled on the surface, and should not be more than Anglo-Saxon Language and Literature.'Angloeighteen inches deep. The angler must know almost to an inch Saxon' is the term commonly, though not correctly, employed to where the trout will be lying for the purpose of feeding, which denote the language which Englishmen spoke and wrote before the will, as a general rule, be where he will get most food with least Norman Conquest. This language is simply the first historic form trouble. He will lie where a bush overhangs the stream, in a of English, and those who used it neither called nor supposed it run of water under the bank; under the shelter of a boulder, or anything else. But the lapse of time wrought so many changes in the smooth water by the edge of the rough. To the required in its form, that when it ceased to be immediately intelligible, science, the accomplished fly-fisher must add dexterity to drop men came to regard it as a sort of foreign tongue, and gave it the lure lightly and naturally before the mouth of the fish, whose the misleading name it still retains. It seems necessary, thereinstinct, if he be feeding, will then lead him instantly to seize fore, to consider the earliest form of English under this headthe supposed insect. But instantly also will he discover the ing, though it is important always to remember what A. really deception, and before the unpractised angler has either seen or is. The Low German tribes, who in the 5th and 6th centuries felt the trout, he will try to eject the hook, and will probably invaded and occupied the greater part of S. Britain, must, of succeed in doing so. In the perfect fly-fisher the eyesight has course, have brought with them from the mainland of Europe been trained to detect the trout in the act of seizing the fly; a their own form of Teutonic speech, with dialectic peculiarities slight twitch of the wrist then almost surely hooks him. What corresponding to the geographical divergences of the invaders. is technically called the rise of the trout is the first intimation These peculiarities would doubtless establish themselves in which the ordinary angler gets of his presence. This is the Britain, or at any rate would become the source of new disbreak on the surface of the water caused by the trout turning to tinctions there. Historical criticism favours this view, for in the go down again after taking a fly; and before making this turn, earliest times we can trace the presence of two, if not more, if the fly is artificial, the fish will have tried to eject it. If he dialects of English in use even for literary purposes. It would has succeeded, it is plain that the strike is too late; on the other be interesting to know what was the exact form of English at hand, if the trout has hooked himself, it is unnecessary, and if the date of the first invasions; but not a vestige of literature surdone too strongly, the hook may be pulled out of the mouth of vives that was committed to writing for more than two hundred the trout, or the line broken. years after the legendary dates of Hengst and Horsa. The comWhatever be the lure used by the trout-angler in much and position of Beowulf (q. v.) may go back to the first half of the skilfully fished streams, infinite care must be taken to elude the 5th c., but for us it only exists in a MS. of the 7th or 8th. We trout's eye, which is wonderfully keen and vigilant. Next to the are, therefore, unable to show that the English of the 5th or 6th artificial fly, worm is the lure most used in trout-fishing. For c. was precisely the same as any Continental dialect of Low its success in clear water, the same knowledge of the haunts and German spoken between the Rhine and the Baltic. In fact, habits of the trout is required as in fly-fishing. The same train- there are such differences between the oldest recorded forms of ing of eyesight is not, however, necessary. Bait being a reality, English and of the other Low German dialects, that one is the trout, unless alarmed, will not reject it after seizing it as it tempted to believe that all, or nearly all, who spoke the special does an artificial fly. It runs off with it to its lair, causing the dialects of the English invaders must have emigrated to Britain. line as it does so to twitter. A gentle strike or pull downwards The nearest approach to the oldest English is seen in the old should then be given. Saxon of Rhenish Prussia and Westphalia, and still more in the The Grayling (q. v.) is to be angled for in the same way old Frisian of Holland. Dr Latham, in his work on the English and with much the same tackle as the trout. It is, however, Language, furnishes ample evidence of this. Of the different less wary than the trout, and is in condition at a different season. dialects of English presumably used in our island at this period, Great care must be taken after hooking a grayling, as the flesh of the two most notable were the AngZlian of Northumbria and the the mouth is very soft, and the hook therefore comes easily out. Saxon of Wessex, of which the former is probably the more The Pike (q. v.), which is to be found only in still, deep ancient in form, as it stands nearer to Frisian and Norse. It water, may be taken with a variety of lures. The spoon and was certainly the first that was put to literary use; but the ravages swivel is often effective, but we prefer a small trout to anything of the Danes in the N. and E., and the rise of the kingdom of else. The angler should never strike in pike-fishing with bait. Wessex under N/lfred and his successors, gradually made the Time must be given for the fish to swallow the bait, which will' Saxon' of the S. the classic or standard dialect of English for take several minutes. Till the process is completed, the line must the whole country, and such it remained till the tremendous be held slack, as any resistance will scare the fish.. The pike- disaster of Hastings destroyed its supremacy, when all the hooks must be attached to wire, dialects of the vernacular rapidly sank into an equality of degraIn other branches of the art of A., the tacddle should be of the dation and contempt. best, and in trout-fishing of the finest. But the angler should When we speak, then, of A. or English, before the Norman have nothing showy either in his tackle or equipment. Nor in Conquest, we substantially mean the dialect of Wessex, for it is trout-fishing should lie embarrass himself with a multitude and mainly, though not exclusively, in that dialect that the earliest variety of flies. Gaudy flies are of no avail in trout-fishing, at English literature has come down to us. It differs from later least in the rivers of the N. The black spidei- is an unfailing forms of English, not merely by the possession of a large number fly all the year round. The red and dun spider are excellent, as is of words which have now ceased to be used, but still more by the also a woodcock wing with a hare's ear. We should consider possession of a system of inflections which changesthe aspects of ourselves amply equipped for a day's fishing with three or four, words that might otherwise have been not quite unfamiliar, and or at most, six of each of these. We give no directions for dress- by material differences in orthography. Vestiges of the old graming, because no one can learn to dress from a book. The fly-rod matical structure are abundant in the English of the middle ages, should be light, and not above ten or eleven feet long. The rod and even yet survive e.f., the plural form enz in childrenz and oxenz; for bait should be sixteen feet long. The reel should be brass, also, transposed, in kine, swine, eyne (Sc. een), &c., which is the and of plain construction. We earnestly dissuade all anglers an of the ist declension; the s and es, which is the as of the 3d, from using a complex reel. The plain one never goes wrong, and the so-called irregulars, feet, mzen, teeth, mice, lice, geese, the complex never fails to do so, and we have seen many a day's which have similar, though not identical, forms in the English of sport ruined in consequence. Hair and silk mixed make a good the 9th and ioth centuries. Our comparative and superlative reel-line. It should be dried after use. The reader is referred degrees, our declension of pronouns, have not greatly changed; to The Practical Angler, by W. C. Stewart; Hints to Anglers, and the adjectival lic may still be recognised in the modern ly. by Adam Dryden; Book on Anglifng, by F. Francis; and An- But though it would be easy to show that we still liberally use ~-ler's Companion, by Thomas Stoddart. the prefixes and suffixes of nouns that were in use before the I, o8 lro-8~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ANG THE GLOBE ENC YCLOPiEDIA4. ANG Norman Conquest, and have only modified rather than abandoned that it is ahbsurd for us to call a nation Anglo-Saxon that called other distinctive forms, yet so much has gone, and so much has itself,Englisc (English), only using the rare term Anglo-Saxon changed, that it requires a special study to master the language to denote the two tribes of Angles and Saxons. There is so much of Allfred. The best grammars on the subject are Rask's Agnel- truth in this contention, that were it not for the force of usage, tiksisk Sjrogoere (Stockh. I817; translated by B. Thorpe, 1865); the probability is that the name Anglo-Saxon, which is of comKoch's Historische Grammatik der Englische Sprache (1863-69); paratively recent origin, would not survive a decade. Mdtzner's Englische Grammatik (1860-65); and March's Corn- History.-The story of the first appearance of the Jutish warfarative Grammar ofhe tAnlo-Saxon Language (s87o). riors in Britain has manifestly reached us in a somewhat legendThe oldest extant fragment of English literature is unquestion- ary guise; but as it rests on the venerable authority of Bede ably the Runic verses from Cadmon's poem on the Crucifixion, (8th c.), and of the Chronicle (9th c. et seq.), and as we have which are found on the stone cross in Ruthwell churchyard, set nothing definite to put in its place, we must, in the main, accept it. up about 680o A.D. The form, of course, is Anglian or Northum- According to this story (Hist. Eccd. lib. i. c. xiv. and xv.), Vorbrian, and it may here be noted that the earliest English litera- tigern, King of the Britons, unable to oppose an effectual resistture belongs to the N., and not to the S. No earlier name than ance to the savage inroads of the Picts, who made havoc of the Cadmon's is to be found. Bede and Alcuin were also Northum- southern half of the island after the withdrawal of the Romans brians. The former, indeed, wrote mostly in Latin, though we (4Io A.D.), sent for help over seas to Germany. Hengst and know that he was engaged on a translation of St John's Gospel Horsa arrived with an armed force in 449, and soon drove back at his death; while the latter carried away his learning and the barbarians; but, charmed with the fertility and beauty of the energy to benefit a foreign people. Other specimens of English land, they resolved to possess it, and having told their kinsfolk which have come down to us from the Northumbrian region, are a and neighbours in N. Germany how easy it would be to conquer second fragment of Cadmon (737), a Psalter (800o), the Rushwzorth the country, shiploads of eager warriors-Angles, Saxons, and Gospels (go900), and the Lindisfarne Gospels (970). By far the Jutes-were soon carried across to Britain.* The records of their greatest part, however, of the pre-Norman literature of England exploits are extremely meagre. In spite of the annalistic prehas reached us only in the Wessex dialect, no matter in what cision of the Chronicle, anything like a continuous narrative is part of the island or in what dialect it may have been originally impossible. We gather that invasions from Germany continued produced. Some poems in this dialect are even older (in the to take place for nearly a century, and that finally, in spite of opinion of the best critics) than the first invasions of Britain; desperate spurts of heroism on the part of theBritish, and gleams e.g., Beowulf(q. v.), a genuine Norse epic, with a certain Homeric of unavailing triumph (of which the legend of King Arthur presimplicity and breadth of portraiture; the Traveller's Song, and serves the splendid memory), the whole country E. of the Penthe Battle of Finsburgh. The introduction of Christianity almost nine and Devonian ranges passed into the hands of the newsuppressed this fierce heathen literature, which drew its highest comers. Their distribution in this region was as follows: The inspiration from the fury of battle, but its place was taken by a Saxon and Jutish peoples occupied the districts S. of the Thames literature of nobler origin and a more beneficent spirit. Cadmon as far W. as Devon or Cornwall, while the Angles (whose early (q. v.), Who belongs to the 7th c., is, as we have said, the earliest supremacy is undoubted) obtained possession of the remainder, name in English literature, strictly so called, and his metrical fi'om the Thames to the Firth of Forth, and from the Severn to paraphrases of Scripture show the new tendency of the national the North Sea. Altogether, seven states are reckoned, which are genius under the benign infiuence of the gospel. Very few, commonly spoken of as the Heltarchy (q. v.), viz., Kent, Sussex, however, of the English religious poets who flourished before the Essex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. Three Norman Conquest are known by name: only a fatherless brood of these in succession came markedly to the front, first Northumof pious verses, hymns, psalms, allegories, tales, and translations bria, in the time of Eadwoine (mod. Edwin, 617-633); then of Scripture have survived, of which the most notable, perhaps, Mercia, in the time of Offa (757-796); and lastly Wessex, from are the 7Yudith, the Phenix, Andreas, Salomon and Saturn, a the days of Ecgbriht or Ecgberht (mod. Egbert, 802-838), who poem on Death, and an Address by the Departed Soul to the Body, was the first prince that really deserved the name Bretwalda the various pieces now generally ascribed to a'younger' Cad- ('wielder of Britain'), because he brought all the English states mon, as the Christ and Salon, Christ's Descent into Hell, 7he under his power. He conquered all the Saxons and Jutes, and Day of6udgmenl, &c., most of which, besides many others, can became liege-lord of the East Angles, Mercians, and Northumbe found in the Exeter or Vercelli MS. Particular poems brians, whose kings were compelled to become his'men' or have been published by Fox (Lond. 1830), Thorpe (Lond. 1832),'vassals.' The supremacy of the Wessex dynasty continued, Bouterwek (Elberf. I847), Grimm (Cassel, 1840), and the whole except during the Danish interregnum (IOI7-42), down to the body of poetry belonging to this period of English history has period of the Norman Conquest; but the first of this line who been collected and published by Grein in his Bibliothek der was the sole ruler of England was NEthelstan (925-940) (see Angels'tchsischen Poesie (Giitt. 1857-58). See also Thorpe's ATHELSTANE), ever after whom the country continued to be a Analecta Anglo-Saxonica, Turner's History of the Anglo-Saxons monarchy. (7th ed. 1852), and Kington-Oliphant's Sources of Standard Laws, Constitution, &'c.-Each state of the Heptarchy had English (Lond. 1873). doubtless its special laws and customs brought over from GerWhile the oldest poetic literature of England is remarkable in many, or developed in Britain. Ethelbert reduced to writing point of style for its obscurity, harsh inversions, incessant ellipses, the traditionary legal usages of the Kentish Jutes; Ina, King of and ambitious metaphors, the contemporary prose, on the other Wessex, Offa, King of Mercia, and other sovereigns, fi-om time hand, is distinguished for its straightforwardness and simplicity to time published their'dooms' or judgments; but sElfred was of structure. A student finds it rather hard to read Cadmon, but the first who was in a position to legislate for the whole, or at very easy to read /l;fred. The chief prose works are the Civil least the greater part, of the English nation. A great reformer, and Ecclesiastical lsitsiutes of the English lingsfrom the time of he was essentially conservative, and in his new code or collection,Ethelbert to that of Canute; 2Elfred's T7ranslations (with addi- of dooms he mainly contented himself with reproducing in an tions) from Orosius, Bede, Boethius, and Gregory the Great; amended form the work of his predecessors, adding few statutes the Ch/ronicle; the Homilies of A~Elfric (q. v.) and his version of of his own, because, as he modestly put it, he did not know how part of the Bible; and the Durham version of the Gospels. See those who came after him might like them. Turner's hlistory of the Anglo-Saxons, and Thorpe's Ana/ecta Speaking generally, it may be said that the various English (as above); also Marsh's Origin and Histo;y of the English states were from the first a group of united monarchies, and, Language, and of the arly iteratureit embodies (1862). after their consolidation into one, this character continued to mark them as strongly as before. The Cyng ('king') was, no Anglo-Saxons, the name commonly given to the various doubt, descended from Woden, and therefore of divine origin, tribes of Low Germans who from the middle of the 5th c. began but he was not absolute. He was guided by a kind of parliato establish themselves in parts of Britain. The accuracy of the ment called the Wfitena-gemo'l ('meeting of the wits' or'wise'), term is disputed by recent historical writers, who maintain that which he had the power to summon, but not to dismiss. All it is misleading, inasmuch as it suggests what is unquestionably a false notion, viz., that the so-called A. were something else than. In Words and Places, by the Rev. Isaac Taylor, there isa curiously English, whereas they were in reality English pure and simple interesting chapter on the Aegte-Saxons, in which he seeks to show that numerous other German tribes or families besides those mentioned in the without any foreign admixture at all, and who further maintain text must have taken part in the conquest and colonisation of Britain. 0O9 ANG THE GL OBE ENVC YCY OLEDIA. ANG freemen had the right to attend. So long as England was cut zeal the northern English were also converted to Christianity. up into numerous small states, it might be possible for a consider- Nothing in Bede is so beautiful as the story of this conversion. able number of freemen to take part in the proceedings; but after Under Penda, King of the Mercians, a heathen reaction took England became a monarchy the thing was impracticable, and place which for a while threatened the very existence of Roman the Witenagem ot would only be attended by the great nobles Christianity. But help came from an unexpected quarter. and prelates. The powers of this assembly were very consider- Oswald, the successor of Eadwine, had in his youth found a able. It elected the king, and, with his consent, it made laws refuge in the Scoto-Irish monastery of Iona, and when he or treaties, and appointed or removed the officers of state. had recovered Northumbria, and restored its greatness, it was The office of king was always elective. If a deceased king's Celtic monks from this lonely isle that kindled anew the flame son was too young to succeed his father, or otherwise unfit, the of religion in his dominions. The labours of Aidan (q. v.) Witan would pass him over, and choose an older or an abler and his disciples of Lindisfarne have been generously recorded kinsman. Thus _Elfred succeeded /Ethelred, though lEthelred by Bede, but the most glorious triumphs were those of the left a son behind him. The aristocracy was composed of (I) Northumbrian Cuthbert (q. v.) Gradually heathenism died the cethelingas ('princes'), the members of the royal family, or away under the ceaseless propagandism of Celtic and Roman those related to them by blood or marriage; (2) the ecaldormen missionaries. A conflict arose between the two, trivial in (' eldermen' or' senators'), governors of shires, or even of subor- itself, but involving the question of the supremacy of Rome or dinate states, sometimes called, with reference to their military Iona. It was decided (664), in a synod held at the Abbey of functions, heretogan ('army leaders'), and latterly, owing to Whitby, in favour of the former. The Irish monks withdrew Danish influences, eor/as ('earls,' Dan. jarl), with whom may from Lindisfarne, and the Church in England was built up under be classed the great prelates of the Church —bishops and abbots; Roman supervision. It owes its distinct organisation as an (3) thegnas (from thegnian, to serve), a class of lesser nobles or ecclesiastical institution mainly to the Greek monk Theodore of landholders, like the vassal gentry of the feudal ages. All Tarsus (668-69o), but it was perhaps first effectually brought landholders were under an obligation to serve in the fyrd, or into harmony with Rome by the policy of St Dunstan (q. v.) in militia (from taran, to go on march; literally, therefore, the body the ioth c. Even to the last,.however, it retained something of that may be summoned to'go' upon an expedition), and to national independence, and at the Norman Conquest it was found repair fortresses and bridges. The common body of freemen necessary to put foreign prelates at its head. See Kemble's were called ceorlas (' churls,' Lowl. Sc. carles; Ger. kerlen), Saxons in England (2 vols. 1849), Lappenberg's Geschichltevon and it was in contradistinction to this name that the term eorlas England (Hamb. 1834-37), Freeman's History of the NVorman ('earls') was applied to the better-born freemen. Another Conquest (I867-75), his Old English Hzistory (Lond. 3d ed. element in the population, though not in the state, was the I875), and J. R. Green's Short History of the English PeojOle thravlas ('thralls'), or theowas ('slaves'), who were naturally (Loud. I875). most numerous along the Welsh border. In the greatest mat- Angola, a country or territory in Lower Guinea, subject to ters the king and the nobles acted for the nation, but in smaller Portugal, bounded on the S. by the river Coanza, and on the N. matters the people governed themselves pretty thoroughly. Thus by the Danda. It is naturally divided into three regions: (r) each'shire' had its local parliament (Scirgemdl), over which A flat stretch of coast generally barren, except along the banks the ealdorman presided like the modern lord-lieutenant of a of rivers, where, however, there is a fulness of tropical produccounty, but he could decide or carry nothing without the con- tions, sugar-cane, coffee, palm oil, manioc, banana, &c.; (2) a currence of the thanes and the representatives of townships. hilly plateau, about 2500 feet above the sea, remarkable for its With him were latterly associated the Scirgerefa (sheriff) and immense forests; (3) an eastern region, at first higher than the bishop. Again, the'shire' was subdivided into hundredu ('hun- second, but gradually sloping to the broad Quango Valley, where dreds'), each of which had its subordinate court, and the' hun- the soil is as fertile as the bottoms of the Mississippi, but lies dreds' were in turn subdivided into ltothunga ('tithings'), so fallow, as the Portuguese, instead of developing the natural called because they must contain ten freemen, heads of families, wealth of the country, devote themselves to trading in wax and who were responsible for each other and for the wellbeing of ivory. A great variety of wild animals abound in the interior, the district. This still lingers among us under the name of the which is almost unexplored. The country is rich in copper, iron,'parish vestry.' and silver. The Portuguese discovered A. in 1486, and have ARelsion.-When the English first came to Britain, they were held it ever since, except from I641-48, when the Dutch were heathens, and continued such for x50 years. The fierce struggles masters of the capital and part of the colony. The colonists are going on between them and the Britons in every part of the still few in number, and confined in isolated forts and settlements island put missionary operations on the part of their defeated named feiras or fairs. The entire population is estimated at and embittered adversaries out of the question; and indeed, if 240,00oo 0, of whom 238,oo000 are negroes, belonging to the great one may judge from Gildas, British Christianity itself was not in Bunda race, and marked by considerable culture. Many can a very healthy condition at the time. Woden (Dan. Odin) and both read and write, thanks to the Jesuit missionaries, who have Thunder (Dan. Thor), incarnations of valour and strength and long been at work here. The capital is Sao Paulo de Loando violence, were the gods most deeply reverenced by the invaders. (q. v.) The name A. is often applied to the entire W. Afi-ican Their worship was set up in the conquered isle; it rooted itself coast from Cape Lopez to Sao Felipe de Benguela. See Lopes deeply amidst the storms of strife, and became a patriotism as de Lima, Ensaias sobre a Statistica das Possesses Portuguezas na well as a faith. The memory of the heathen deities is still pre- Africa Occidental e Oriental, &c. (Lish. 1844); Tams, Die Forserved in the names of the days of the week, and other traces of tug. Besitzungen in Westafriha (HIamb. 1845); Valdez, Six Years the old religion still lurk in the words we use and the customs of a Traveller's Life in Western Africa (2 vols. Lond. i86u). we follow. But in the year 597 a Roman abbot, Augustine, with a band of forty monks, landed in the isle of Thanet, at the Agon, a kind of spear in use among the Angles, Frans, very place where Hengst and Horsa had landed a century and ad other Tetonic peoples, either for thrusting o hurling. The a half before. Pope Gregory had sent them to preach the gos- shaft was made of wood, but was almost wholly covered with pel to the new race that peopled the country, and, if possible, iron. At the head were two barbs. to build up anew, under holier auspices, the fabric of Roman Ango'ra (ane. Ancyra), the capital of a Turlkish vilayet of authority. Circumstances favoured the attempt. The King of'the same name in Asia Minor, pleasantly situated on the river Kent, into whose territories they came, had married a Christian Enguri, 220 miles E.S.E. of Constantinople. It was founded, princess, Bercta, daughter of the Frankish King of Paris, who according to tradition, by Midas, the son of Gordius, and after was permitted to practise the rites of her religion in her new the irruption of the Gauls into Asia Minor, it became the cjlief home. Gregory counted rightly enough on her influence. town of the Tectosages about B.C. 277, and subsequently the Hardly a year had passed when her husband Athelberht capital of the Roman province of Galatia Prima. Occupying a accepted the new faith, and was baptized. His thanes rapidly position favourable for commerce, it early became the emporium followed his example. But iFthelberht was at this moment the for the Eastern trade. The Christian Churches of Galatia held most powerful ruler in England. IHe was Bretwalda. The other three councils at A. in the 4th c., and it was the scene of a kings acknowledged him as their'over lord.' His daughter fierce battle between the Turks and Tartars (I402), in which the Athelburh married Eadwine, the great King of Northumbria, Sultan Bajazet was defeated and taken prisoner by Timfir. The and carried with her Paulinus, a follower of Augustine. By his chief monument of antiquity is the white marble temple of IiO 110 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ --- ANG THiE GLOBE ENCYCL OPUD9IA. ANH Augustus, containing the famous Monumentunt Ancyranzum, re- mar, who died about 12I8. Itis daughter Isabella, widow of cording the deeds of the emperor. This valuable inscription John, King of England, married Hugues X. Comte de Marche. was discovered by Busbecq, I553, and the latest copy of it is After the death of Hugues XIII. (1303), the counties of A. and contained in Hamilton's Researches in Asia Minor. A. is the Marche were united to the crown of France by Philippe le Bel. chief residence of the Armenian Catholics in Asia Minor. One Louis, Duc d'Orleans, who died in I407, second son of Charles of the chief employments is the preparation of Oriental morocco V. of France, received the county of A. as an appanage. His leather from the skin of the celebrated A. breed of goats. Pop. grandson Charles, who died in I496, was the father of Frangois (7ournzal Officiel de la Re2ub. Franfaise, 1874) 38,I38, chiefly I., who was Comte d'A. before his accession to the throne in Turks and Armenians. 1515. He immediately raised the county into a duchy, and gave it to his mother, Louise of Savoy. The title of Duc d'A. ngora Goat (Cpra Angorensis), a variety of goat inhait- has been since borne by Charles, third son of Fran9ois I.; by ing Asiatic Turkey in the districts around Angora and Beibazar. Charles IX.; by Charles of Valois, natural son of Charles IX.; The body-colour is milky white, the short legs being black. by Louis Emmanuel, son of Charles of Valois; and by Louis The horns are spiral, and are spread outwards and backwards. Antoine, eldest son of Charles X. The hair is long and silky, and is disposed in spiral ringlets or curls. It was first imported into European markets under Angouleme, Louis Antoine de Bourbon, Due d', and the name of Mohair. In Turkey the finest robes are made from afterwards Dauphin of France, was the eldest son of the Comte this material. Smyrna forms the chief place of export for the d'Artois, subsequently Charles X. of France, and was born at unspun hair, and a large quantity is also imported from Constan- Versailles, 6th August 1775. When the Revolution broke out tinople. It is chiefly employed in the manufacture of trimmings, he retired to Italy, where he devoted himself to military studies. braid, shawls, &c. Bradford and Norwich are the chief seats In I 792 he received the command of a body of French emigrants of this manufacture. The import in I864 amounted to 4,737,330 in Germany, but his campaign proved a failure, and he withlbs., valued at 4650, I91. The goatherds are very careful of drew into private life till the allies entered France in I814. The their flocks, and frequently comb and dress the fleeces, time was spent at Holyrood, on the Continent, and latterly in England. On the recall of Louis XVIII. he was appointed Angor'now, the most important town in Bornu, Central lieutenant-general of the kingdom, but from want of military Africa, near the shore of Lake Tchad, 20 miles S. from the capi- experience, and perhaps capacity, found himself unable to tal, Kuka. It lies in a fertile plain, and is liable to inundation. cope with the Bonapartist movements that followed the return It has a great weekly market, and is the centre of an extensive of Napoleon, and was obliged to surrender himself a prisoner trade in slaves, cotton, amber, coral, and metals. Pop. about I5th April 1815, but soon regained his liberty. In the Spanish 30, oo000. war of I821 he was nominal commander. In July 1 830 he signed an abdication of his claims to the French throne in favour of the in th e republic of Ver-portezuela, S. America, lies on te Orioco, Duc de Bordeaux, his nephew, and again accompanied his father in the republic of Venezuela, S. America, lies on the Orinoco, into exile. After a year or more spent at Holyrood he went to nearly 240 miles from its mouths. It is built at a place where Austrie ad died at yrz, 3d June sp thw the immense river narrows to a width of 3134 feet, whence its name, signifying a strait. This strait marks the limit at which Angoulgne, Marie-Therese-Charlotte, Duchesse d', the Orinoco is affected by the ebb and flow of the tides. The daughter of Louis XVI., born I9th December 1778. After town, which is meanly constructed, stands only I9i feet above long imprisonment she was exchanged for some French prisoners the sea-level, and the quays are often inundated; but the climate held by the Austrians, and lived at Vienna. On the Ioth June is comparatively cool, tempered as it is by the steady trade- I799, she was married, at Mittau, in Courland, to the Duc winds. The most important exports are cacao, indigo, cotton, d'Angouleme, her cousin, whom she much surpassed in vigour tobacco, sugar, A. bark, hides, and cattle. Shoals and cur- and quickness of intellect. Napoleon pronounced her' the only rents on the river make A. rather difficult of access for sailing man in her family.' She died Ig9th October I851. vessels, but its. position is in many respects highly favourable to commerce. A. was founded in 1764, and at filrst was called Aln'gra, the capital of the Azores, lies on the island of TerSacn Tozmos de la Nzevas Gzuayadaz. In InI9 the congress met ceira, and has a good harbour. It is strongly fortified, exports here which declared tVenezuela part of the great republic of Co- wine, flax, and grain, and is the seat of the Bishop of the Azores. lombia-a lofty conception of Bolivar's, in whose honour A. was The Portuguese governor-general resides at A., and the town called Ciudad Bolivar. Before the war of independence A. was contains a military college and arsenal. Pop. 12,000. prosperous, and though it suffered much in the struggle, it An'gri, a town in the province of Salerno, S. Italy, I7 miles rapidly recovered after peace had been restored; but of late N.W. of Salerno. It lies amid vineyards and cotton plantayears its progress has been greatly retarded by civil disturbances. tions. Pop. 6921. Pop. 7000ooo. Anguilla. See EEL. Angostura Bark. This bark, which is used as a tonic and febrifuge, is obtained from Galipea officinalis, a tree found in A.nguilla, or Little Snake, one of the most northerly of Guiana, and belonging to the natural order Rntacew. G. Cusparia the Leeward Islands, about 60 miles N.W. of St Christopher, also yields a variety of A. B. It is not much used in Britain, with an area of 35 miles, and a pop. (I871) of 2773, chiefly A false, poisonous A. B., that of Strychnos Nux vomica (q. v.), blacks. It belongs to England, is under the governor of St was at one time substituted for the genuine bark, which occasioned Christopher, and is governed locally by a stipendiary magistrate. serious accidents, and led some of the Continental governments It exports some cotton, tobacco, and sugar. to prohibit its use. ngui. See BLIND-WOR Angoulemre, capital of the department of the Charente, An'halt, a state of the German empire, formerly an indeFrance, on the Charente. Pop. (I872) 22, Io9. It has manu- pendent principality, lies on the Elbe, Mulde, and Saale, almost factures of paper, earthenware, and linen and woollen fabrics, a surrounded by Prussian Saxony. Its surface is level and fertile. college, and a natural history museum. Wine and saffron are There are manufactures of woollen, hardware, &c., but the inhaproducts of the district. A. is the old Iculisma of Aquitaine, bitants, who are generally Protestants, find their chief employand has been the seat of a bishop since 379. Chlodwig took it ment in agriculture, producing wheat, tobacco, wine, flax, and from the West Goths in 507, and laid the foundations of a cathe- hops. There are mines of iron, copper, and lead. Area, 88o dral. Soon after it became important, and during the whole of sq. miles; pop. (I87I) 203,354. A. dates as an independent the middle ages played an important, indeed a foremost, part in principality from the I3th c. Formerly divided into four duchies, French history. Marguerite of Navarre, authoress of the too it consisted from 1793 to 1853 of three, A. Kothen, A. Bernburg, notable Heptaimeronz, was born in the ancient castle of A., a and A. Dessau. In I853, A. Dessau and A. Kithen were united fragment of which is still standing. under the title of A. Dessau-Kithen; and in 1863 the two, A. me the titular name of more than one great historic Bernburg and A. Dessau-KIthen, were also united, and now Angouldme, the titular name of more than one great historic form the sovereign duchy of A. The capital is Dessau. family of France. The first Comte d'A. is said to have been one Turpion (839-863), whose last male descendant was Ad- Anhydron$ is a term used in chemistry to express without III:p ---------- ANI THE GLOBE ENC YCL OPEDI.4. ANI waler. A. bodies may be those which contain no water as an (NH3)2H2SOi' NH2(C6H-I5) ~-2H2SO4 impurity, or those which are not combined with water. Thus _ —----- A. alcohol is pure or dry alcohol, free from admixture with Sulphate of water, whereas A. sulphuric acid, or sulphuric anhydride, SO3, is ammonia. Sulphate ofaniline. quite a different body from hydrated sulphuric acid or oil of vit- (NH3)H2C2O NH2(C6H5) 2H2C204 riol, H2S)4 or H201SO3, which contains the former body com- ( - w _r-. — " bined with water. Oxalate of Oxalmoniate oOxalate of aniline. An'iline is a liquid substance containing carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Itself of little interest except to the chemist, A. Aniline Colours. The aniline or'gas colours' have now has nevertheless of late years become of immense commercial almost superseded other dyes, on account of their wonderful brilliimportance on account of the numerous and beautiful dyes ancy, diversity of colour and shade, and the ease with which they which have been prepared from it. See ANILINE COLOURS. A. are fixed on the fabric. They are the origin of an enormous induswas first obtained by distilling indigo with caustic potash, and try both in this country and on the Continent -an industry still on derives its name from this circumstance, the Portuguese for indigo the increase-and are not only remarkable from an industrial being ani/. It is now, however, solely prepared from benzine or standpoint, but equally on account of the beautiful researches benzol, a liquid composed of carbon and hydrogen, occurring in into their nature and composition which have been made by some considerable quantities in gas-tar, and separable from that sub- of the most eminent chemists of the day. Originating from a stance by Fractional Distillation (q. v.) See BENZOL. The substance long regarded simply as a chemical curiosity, and withbenzol is first treated with nitric acid, when nitro-benzol, or out practical use or importance, they furnish an admirable illusessence of mirbane, results. tration of the value of abstract inquiry, and of the services of CGH6 + HNO3 - CHi5(NOs) + -1 O modern chemistry. A_ ~__.,..__ It had been known to chemists for some time that aniline, Nitric Nitro- when treated with chloride of lime (bleaching powder), gave Benzol. acid. ol Water. rise to a beautiful violet colour, but this fact was not turned to practical account till the year I856, when W. H. Perkin sucThe nitro-benzol is then treated with iron-filings and acetic ceeded in extracting and purifying the colour thus produced, and acid, and is converted by this process into A. The chemical found that it was capable of easy fixation on silken and woollen change which the nitro-benzol suffers consists in a reduction fabrics. This was the first aniline colour prepared, and was or loss of oxygen by that body, and the partial replacement of patented by its discoverer under the name of mauveine or aniline the oxygen thus removed by hydrogen. violet. Two years later Hofmann succeeded in isolating the base of a red colour, which he called irosaniline; and a process for its C6Hi5(NO2) + 3H2 CsH5(NH.) +- 2H20 commercial manufacture was shortly afterwards discovered by Verguin. By acting on rosaniline with the iodides of ethyl Nitro- Hydroi Aniline, Water. and methyl, Hofmann also succeeded in obtaining beautiful benzol. gen. violet colours (Hofimann violets) and a green dye (iodine green). The A. is purified by distillation, A, is a colourless liquid Since then, blue, black, yellow, brown, and grey dyes have been when quite pure, of an oily consistence, and slightly heavier than prepared from aniline, and at the present time almost every water (sp. gr. I'02). It boils at I82' C. It may be subjected colour in the rainbow can be produced from this one substance. to intense cold without freezing. It possesses a peculiar and The more important of the aniline dyes, with their mode of characteristic odour, of a somewhat ammoniacal character. manufacture, are as follows:Exposed to the air, A. rapidly darkens in colour, and is even- Aniline Violets-ffauveine, Anileie, Rosolan, Violine or Tyratually converted into resinous products. It produces a yellow line. This colour is prepared on the large scale by treating stain when dropped on wood; but its most characteristic re- sulphate of aniline with a cold dilute solution of bichromate of action is the violet colour produced when it is mixed, even in potash, and allowing the mixture to remain for about a day unminute quantity, with a solution of chloride of lime. A. is disturbed. The colour separates as a black precipitate, which is poisonous, and its vapour, if inhaled, is said to produce a kind washed with water, then treated with naphtha to remove resinous of intoxication which is exceedingly dangerous. It is inflam- by-products, and dissolved for the dyer's use in spirits of wine, mable, soluble in all proportions in alcohol and ether, but only methylated, or pyroxylic spirit, Aniline violet appeals to be to a small extent inwater. In its chemical characters A. is closely the sulphate of a base called mauveine, having the formula related to ammonia, and belongs to the group of bodies called C27H24N4. antines, substances derived from ammonia by the partial replace- Aniline Red-Rosaniine, Fuchsine, Azaleine, Solferine, aoment of part, or the whole, of their hydrogen by hydro-carbon Magenta-is produced by the action of oxidising agents on impure radicals. In the case of A. the radicalis called'Phenyle,' C6H5, commercial aniline, which contains in addition to aniline, and in consequence A. is natmed by chemists Phenyl-amine. toluidine, a substance very similar to aniline in properties, and, in fact, homologous with it. The presence of toluidine is essenH CBH5 tial to the production of rosaniline, pure aniline producing by H N H N itself no red dye. A. R. is now almost solely prepared by H H the action of arsenic acid on commercial aniline (though corrosive ~ ——,w —-—' sublimate, chloride of tin, nitric acid, chloride of carbon, and Ammonia. Phenylamine other bodies have been employed instead). The two subor aniline. stances are heated together for from four to ten hours, after which A. combines with acids to form salts analogous to the am- the resulting mass is boiled with very dilute hydrochloric acid, monium compounds, and these for the greater part are solid and to the solution thus obtained soda is added in slight excess. crystalline substances, almost without exception colourless, The This occasions the precipitation of the red colour, whilst the byrelation in composition between the salts, of A. and ammonia products and impurities remain in solution. The precipitate is will be best understood by an inspection of their respective washed with water, and, dissolved in acetic or hydrochloric formulae. acid, forms the roseine of commerce. A. R. consists either of the acetate or hydrochlorate of the colourless base rosaniline, N-HHC -_,, v( _____ C0Hl903, which combines with most acids to form coloured Hydrochlorate salts. These salts, when viewed by reflected light, have a green of ammonia Hydrochlorate metallic lustre, like the wings of the rose-beetle, but by trans(sal-ammoniac). of aniline. mitted light they are red. Treated with nascent hydrogen, rosaniline takes up two atoms of that element to form another NH3HNO3 NH5(C6H5)HNO3 colourless base, called leukaniline, C20H2lN3. -.... r.... Aniline Bliues. By treating rosaniline with the iodides of Nitrate Nitrate of aniline. methyl and ethyl, three atoms of hydrogen are replaced by the ammonia. hydrocarbon radicals (methyl or ethyl), and beautiful violet II2 4?. - -)4 ANI THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPDIA. ANI colours are produced. Trinet/zhyl rosaniline, C.20H6(CH3)3N3, find the elementary matter of both animals and plants to conand triethyl rosaniline, or rather the hydrochlorate or acetate sist of protoplasm. of these bases, are known in commerce as Hiofmann's violets. The nature and mode of assiJzilatino the food constitutes the By treating rosaniline with aniline, one, two, or three atoms of sole means whereby we are enabled clearly or satisfactorily to hydrogen may be replaced in the former substance by the radical separate animals firom plants. The food of plants consists phenyl (CrH5), and blue dyes are produced. Salts of mono- chiefly of inorganic matter. Animals require organic material phenyl rosaniline, C20H1s(CoH5)N3, are known as violet imperial for their food, and animals are therefore dependent either rouane; of diphenyl rosaniline, C20H17(CCH5)2N3, as violet iun- directly or indirectly upon plants for their support. Plants conterial bleu; and of triphenyl rosaniline, C0H16(COHI5)3N3, as vert their inorganic food (consisting of gases, minerals, water, bleu de. Lyons and bleu de Paris. &c.) into organic products —such as starch, gum, sugar, &c.; Aniline Greenz. Iodine Green is prepared by the further action whilst animals convert their organic food into products of inorof iodide of methyl (CHI31) on trimethyl rosaniline, and has the ganic kind. Animals require oxygfen gas for their support; formula C2.0I16(CH3)3N3(CH3I)2. plants similarly require carbonic acid. Animals receive their Aldehyde Greenz is prepared by treating sulphate of rosaniline food within the body, and assimilate it within the internal parts with aldehyde and bisulphite of soda. Little is known of its and tissues. Plants, on the contrary, digest their food in the composition. outer surfaces or tissues of their bodies-such as the leaves, Anzline Grey is obtained by treating mauveine with aldehyde root, &c.; and only after being there elaborated is the product and sulphuric acid, of digestion, or sap, sent to circulate through the tissues. The Aniline Brownz is obtained by treating acetate of rosaniline presence of a nervous system is not a characteristic of animals. with hydrochlorate of the same base, Not only do many animals of comparatively high organisation A2nilinte Black is obtainedby heating together chlorate of want a nervous system, but plants appear in some instances to potash, aniline, hydrochloric acid, chloride of copper, sal- possess analogous means for the exhibition of irritability. See ammoniac, acetic acid, and starch paste. The colour first also ZOOLOGY, and articles relating to A. and plant life, appears after exposure of the fabric dyed with it to light. It Animal Chemistry, the department of chemical science dknimal Ohemistry, the department of chemical science is almost indelible. devoted to the analysis of animal tissues, and to the investigation Aniline Yellows. Salts of a base called clrysaniitne, C25H17N3 of the chemical actions involved in the life processes and vital -which differs from rosaniline in containing two atoms less functions of animals. The elementary tissues of animals, or the hydrogen-are employed as yellow dyes. This base occurs protoplasm of which their bodies, like those of plants, are comamong the resinous by-products of the manufacture of rosani- posed, consist of the four essential elements-carbon, hydrogen, line, and is extracted from these matters by subjecting them to a oxygen, and niton. It may be safely assumed that these elejet of steam, when it is dissolved out, The picrate is usually ments are present wherever living tisse exist; and to these employed by the dyer. ~~~~~ments are present wherever living tissuei exist; and to these Tear umo otrIeemployed bby the dyer. may be added the very general presence, in small and. minute There are numerous other dyes employed in commerce, but of sulphur and phosphor s. Silicon, fluorine, the above are the most important. It should be remarked that quantities, chlorine, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, and, the A. C. are fixed at once on silk and woollen materials with- more sodium, potassium, alcium, magnesium, iron, and, moerarely, lead, copper, aluminum, and manganese, are the out the uase of a mordant, a simple immersion in their solutionsmoereleacprluimad annseaete out the use of a mordant, a simple immersion in their solltions chief accidental elements found in the analysis of animal tissues. being sufficient. Vegetable tissues do not so readily taln e up It is characteristic of animals and plants that their elements these colours, a previous dressing with size being necessary. rarely if ever exist free or uncombined. On the contrary, their rarely if ever exist free or uncombined. On the contrary, their Animal and Animal Kingdom. The exact definition elements generally combine in high proportions to form intricate and limitation of the A. world is a matter of extreme difficulty, and complex compounds. The compounds of animal bodies are since many of the Prolophyta, or lower plants, very closely divisible into the nitrogentous or azotised, and thenonz-nitrogenozs approach, in appearance and structural details, the Protozoa, or or non-azotised. The former (sometimes called gelatinzolus and lower animals. The higher groups of the A. and plant series albulminous compounds) are represented by the gelatin of the are distinctly separable; but even in the case of these higher bones, cartilages, and soft tissues generally of the body; by the forms many striking points of similarity may be found. Ani- chondein of cartilage; by albumziznous matters or piroteids; by the mals and plants collectively constitute the organic series of natu- fibrin of blood, lymph, and chyle; by the caseinz of milk; by ral olbjects. Minerals, and objects destitute of life, on the other the syntonin and mzyosin of muscles; by the hoat-y matter, or hand, constitute the inzorgantic series. The possession of life, keratin, of nails, hoofs, and hair; by the mnucus of membranes; therefore, at once divides natural objects into these two great by thepefsiz and ab/minous fejrmets; and by the colouringgroups. Pormz alone will not separate animals fi-om plants. matters of the blood, bile, and other fluids. The nonz-azotised or Some animals (e.g., flustrme or sea-mats, zoophytes, &c.) are non-nitro-enzous compounds are represented by fatty or oily subessentially plant-like in all the details of outward conformation, stances, containing aoleiz, stearin, and paluzatin; by the cholesand in many respects of functional activity also. Between the terin of bile, blood, and nervous tissue; by the lactic andformic lower plants and animals mere form affords no guide whatever. acids; by animal glucose; by sugar of milk, &c. The inor.anic Power of motio will not enable us to distinguish between ani- compounds of animals include water-which fornis about twomals and plants, since many animals (e.g., sponges, oysters, thirds by weight of the human body-phosphorus, sulphur, silica, corals, zoophytes, sea-mats, &c.) are in their adult state rooted chlorine, and the other elements already enumerated. The proand fixed, whilst many of the lower plants move freely about, cesses of digestion, &c., it must also be remembered, include and some higher plants possess powers of movement in their chemzical as well as purely vital aspects. See DIGESTION, &C. parts and branches (e.g., sensitive plant, moving plant, &c.) Respiration, or breathing, thus also involves chemical consideraThe c/hemical compositionz of animals and plants exhibits so tions, in the interchange of oxygen and carbonic acid gases, many points of similarity and identity, that on this third head whilst the excretions, or waste-matters of the body, have equally no exact differences are apparent. Chlorophyll, the green a chemical history of much interest. colouring-matter of plants, is found in many A. tissues (e.g., AnimalFlower. SeeAcTINIA and ANEMONE. infusoria, hydroe, &c.) Cellulose, a characteristic vegetable pro- Animal Functions, the term applied to the function of innerduct nearly allied to starch, is found in the tissues of sea-squirtsvi oranclddi the or n ft eo se -molluscous animals. Glycogen, or A. starch, is found in the vion, or that included in the operations of the nervous system. aThios ortate included in cothe pead~ttions tofa ofi nqervussytzem. liver and placenta of mummalia. And besides these examples liver and placenta of mammalia. And besides these examples Thisfna is usedi contra con o that of veeaior of an interchange of chemical products between animals and aicfnis. These latter consist of the functions of tiplants, we also find that no one chemical product or element tio and epoduction, and are so named because they are cocan be said to be thoroughly characteristic of one or other king- mon to both plants and animals; whereas the functions of the dom 2 Nit~rogen is more abundantly, but by no means exclu- nervous system are supposed, in an ordinary sense, to be peculiar sively, found in animals; and carbon bears a similar relation to to, and to be possessed by, animals only. plants. The bodies of both are made up of protoplasm, a sub- Animal HIeat is the heat produced by the various chemical stance composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, and physical processes occurring in the living body. The chief The intimiate or mzicroscopic structure of animals and plants, also, of these are the union of oxygen with the blood in the lungs fails to distinguish between these groups. The tissues of both (see RESPIRATION), the formation of carbonic acid in the capilare either cellular, fibrous, or molecular-or beyond the latter we laries, the oxidation of hydrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus in the A 15 "I3 4 +p ANI THfE GL OBE ENC YCL OP-EDIA. ANI tissues, and the formation of various chemical products during and actions, which has been attributed to the influence of a parthe action of the muscles and nerves. Modern research indicates ticular. principle similar to that at one time believed to reside in that no physiological processes occur without the production or a magnet. It was supposed to be transmitted from one person absorption of heat. The. temperature of the body varies in dif- to another through the medium of the nervous system, and some ferent species of animals. As a general rule, the greater the went so far as to speak of a magnetic fluid or emanation which activity of the animal the higher is the temperature of its body. existed in large quantity in certain individuals, and which they The following are the temperatures, in degrees Fahrenheit, of a could impart to others by an effort of will. The existence of few well-known animals: Man, 98'40; the ox, 990; the sheep, any fluid or emanation has never been demonstrated, and the 0oo0; the horse, 97~; the dog, 99'3~; the cat, 98.60; the bat, phenomena attributed to its influence may be readily accounted 10o2; the gull, 0oo0; the common hen,'102'990; the pigeon, for by well-known psychological processes. Io60; the falcon, 1070; the chaffinch, Io70. It willbe seen that In some circumstances, the mind becomes wholly occupied the temperature of birds is higher than that of mammals, with with one idea or train of thought, to the exclusion of all other the exception of the bats, which have a higher temperature. The considerations. This idea may be so powerful as to prompt to temperature of cold-blooded animals, such as toads, frogs, and voluntary acts. If this state occur during sleep, it is termed serpents, is not more than a few degrees above that of the me- dreaming if movements do not occur, and somnambulism if the dium in which they live. Warm-blooded animals, on the other impulse be so strong as to cause the individual to speak or to hand, maintain a remarkably constant temperature, which rarely get oiut of bed and walk about. But similar conditions somevaries within the limits of one or two degrees without indicating times exist during waking hours, and are known as the states of disease. This occurs although the temperature of the medium reverie and abstraction. In these conditions the order of the in which the warm-blooded being lives may vary through a very thoughts and feelings are not regulated by the will, and are wide range. For example, the temperature of man, amidst the determined either by previous ideational states or by new imsnows and ice of the Arctic regions and under a tropical sun, is pressions on the senses. If determined by previous ideational found to be invariably in health from 98' to 990 Fahrenheit. These states, the individual is oblivious to external sensory impresfacts show that the body has the power of maintaining its tempe- sions; if by new sensory impressions, the individual may be rature uniform, a condition essential to the health of Warm-blooded readilj prompted to acts by the suggestions of another. Both animals.'This equalisation of temperature is regrdated chiefly by of these conditions mnay occur naturally, and are manifested to the functions of the skin. When exposed to a high temperature, a greater or less extent by persons who are, in common lanabove 98', the sweat-glands of the skin secrete a fluid which, by guage, called absent-minded. But it is remarkable that they its evaporation, produces a cooling effect. The higher the tern- may also, in certain persons, be excited artificially. When this perature in an atmosphere not saturated with aqueous vapour, occurs, we have the phenomena attributed to A. M., mesmerism, the greater the amount of perspiration converted into vapour, and electro-biology, all terms used to express false theories. These facts explain how it is that warm-blooded animals are able See ELECTRO-BIOLOGY, MESMERISM. When a person is in this to live in a temperature much above blood-heat, provided the condition, suggestions whispered into his ear by others are at once atmosphere be dry, as in an oven. Cases are on record in which followed by corresponding acts. In like manner, suggestions may men were able to endure a temperature of from 200' to 220' be conveyed by the other senses. Persons so affected are for Fahrenheit for a short time. On the other hand, such a tempe- the time entirely under the will of the operator, and so intense rature would be unendurable, and would quickly destroy life, if in some cases is the abstraction, that even painful impressions the atmosphere were saturated with aqueous vapour. In these on the skin are not felt, To this condition the late Mr Braid of circumstances there would be no evaporation, and the body would Manchester gave the name of mtono-ideism or hypnolism, and he become superheated. proposed to introduce it into medical practice in cases of sleepThe temperature of the body is also, no doubt, iegnla'ted to A lessness, and even to produce anesthesia, or painlessness, during considerable extent by the equable distribution of Warm blood sargica1 operations, or as a relief to suffering in painful malathrough the body. This is effected by the action of a special dies. It has been found, however, that the cases are comparasystem ofnervestermed the sympathetic system, whichgovern the tively few in number that can be benefited in this way. It is size of the arteries. See SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM OF NERVES. well the public should know that the phenomena of A. M. are A. H. has in recent times been studied by the physician and purely physiological, and not to be accounted for by any occult surgeon with reference to the diagnosis and prognosis of disease. principles of fluids or forces. For details regarding these conThe thermometer is now of equal value with the stethoscope. It ditions, see P;inciles of Mental Piyszbloloy, by William Carhas been found by careffll observation that even a slight perma- penter, M.D., &c., chaps. xiv. —xvi. (Lond, I874.) nent increase in the temperature of the body indicates a morbid condition; and if a rise of from 2' to 5' persists, the patient is re- Animal'Culm. This name has been popularly applied to garded as being in a very dangerous condition. The explanation indicate all animal forms of small or microscopic size, which' of this is, that morbid changes Which may elude not only the are generally found inhabiting water. Zoologically, however, it sensations of the patient, but also all the powers of observation is important to clearly distinguish between various groups and and diagnosis of the physician, ave at once detected by the ther- kinds of small animal organisms. Thus the Infusoria (q. v.) mometer. The use of the instrument enables the physician to form animalcules of a low type of organisation, and are included watch the progress of the case. With obscure chest symptoms a among the Protozoa. These exist in immense numbers in fluids permanent rise of 2' or 3~ may indicate pulmonary disease. In or infusions of decaying animal or vegetable matter, and are befever the temperature may rise towards night and abate towards lieved to be therein propagated from their germs or ova, which, morning, while a rise towards morning would be a sign of grave borne in immense numbers by the atmosphere, fall into such omen. It is the practice now, in all well-regulated hospitals, fluids, and there develop into animalcules. These, again, are and in private life, to have a chart or table by the bedside of the to be carefully distinguished from the lot/fie'a (q. v.), or wheelpatient, in which the temperature of the patient is recorded four animalcules, which inhabit the waters of pools, &c. The' wheeltimes daily. In fevers, with acceleration of the pulse and re- animalcules' are of much higher organisation than the preceding spiration, in active consumption, in pyrmia, or poisoning of the forms, and are included in the sub-kingdom Ecinzozoa or Aznnublood by putrid infection, and in acute inflammatory diseases, oidCa. They were, in the early days of microscopic inquiry, temperatures of Io4', Io6~, and even 0Io' have been noted. On classified with the Infusoria, until better microscopes and higher the other hand, in asthma, in which the blood is imperfectly powers showed their superior structure. Included in a heterooxygenated in the lungs, the temperature is below 98'4'. In the geneous manner with the Infusoria, Rotifera, and other small stage of collapse in Asiatic cholera, the heat of the body may fall organisms, under the name of'animalcules,' many Protophyta, as low as 8o' or 67', that is, 15' to 28' below the normal tempe- or lower plants, many Alyr, &c., were formerly arranged. But rature. The approach of death is usually indicated by a fall of the more careful pursuit of microscopic inquiry has separated temperature, with evaporation of profuse perspiration. It is out these varied forms, and allocated them to their proper diviremarkable that in some cases of cholera and yellow fever the sions in the animal and plant worlds. The term'animalcule' temperature after death undergoes an actual elevation. can only now be used in a general sense, and as such is never employed in zoology, unless the special kind of animalcule or Animal Mlagnetism is a term applied to describe the in- organism be also designated. We thus speak of Infusorian fluence one person may exert over another, controlling his ideas animalcules or of Rotziferous animalcules, &c. The Infusoria 154 + 4 ANI THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPM~DIA. ANK are found in a fossil state, and exist in certain formations, along changes% it was finally annexed to the French crown (I474) by with the remains of Diatoimacew, Foralmini/erc, &c. Louis XI. The honorary title Duke of A. was long maintained in the royal family; the last who bore it was the grandson of.A.nimals, Cruelty to. Iii England and in Scotland, injury Animals, Cruelty to. in Egland and in Scotland, injury Louis XIV., afterwards Philip V. of Spain. See Kitchin's Hisdone to an animal, being the property of any one, has alWays,y ne (Clar. Pr. Ser. 873). 9 W toy~~~~~~~lay of/France (Clar. Pr. Ser. I 873). been held as an offence against the law; but until our own time the injury has been punishable by law solely as an offence Ank'arstr6m, John Jaco?, born in I765, was the son of a against the right of property.. It is now recognised that a cer- Swedish gentleman who had served with distinction in the army. tain class of animals are entitled to be legally protected from He was first a coirt page, and afterwards a captain in the king's needless pain for their own sake; and in so protecting them, body-guard. Haying beea accused of treaso.i, he was, discharged we believe that we are improving the morality, and consequently in I78. for want 9f proof; but he harboiured a grndge against his the happiness, of mankind. By 12 and 13 Vict. c. 92, the ovqr- soveresgn for harsh treatment dealt him during his trial, and driving or ill-treatment of any'domnestic animal' renders the eagerly entered into the designs of that portion of the Swedish offender liable in a fine of /5. A curious question recently nobility who were discontented with Gustavuss 1I. for his arose under this clause of the Act. The keeper of a enagerie attempts to restrict their privileges. The assassination was was proved to be systematically ill-treating a hyena, and the planned as early as I79o, and was effected by A. on the:5th of point was, could a hyena be regarded as a'domestic animal'? March I792. He was beheaded on th0 29th of April, after hayotherwise, it was not protected by the Act. It was contended ing been publicly flogged for three days it successionb and never that though hyenas in general were not domestic, this one, as showed apy con trition for his crime. the inmate of a caravan, was so. The point was not decided. A'lam, a town in the province of Pomeraia, Pussia, 44 a ~~~~ ~Ank'lam, a town in the province of Pomerania, Pr-ussia, 44 The Act makes a variety of other humane provisions against ies NV. of tettin, on the Peene, 4 miles oits nut It miles N.W. of Stettin, on the Peene, 4iles from its mouth, It baiting animals, and causing them to fight, and for their slaughter is connected byr railway on the one side vith Stettin, on the and conveyance. ~~~~~~~and conveyance. ~other with Stralsund and Greifswald. A. is a ~onsiderable port; Animals, Worship of, a species of idolatry common shipbuilding is an important industry;'there are also breweries, among some of even the most polished nations of antiquity, and factories, soap-works, and tanneries. A., which is a very old still practised by barbarous tribes. It owes its origin to the town, was a'member of the Hanseatic League fr9m 1319 to mystery which surrounds a form of life differing from the human, 1638. During the wars of the I7th and I8th centuries it was to the natural reverence men have for power:, and to a desire to repeatedly destroyed, and at tlte end of the Seven' Years' War penetrate the future, a knowledge of which some animl1s were (1762) it was disniantled. With the rest of Swedish Pomeraoia, supposed capable somehow of communicating. The gods were it finally came into, the possession of Prussia in i8i5., Pop. frequently symbolirsed by animals, and the doctrine of the Metem- (1872) 11,440. psychosis (q. v.) aided in generating and strengthening the idea n e The A. is part of te lower extrety, inluding tD.!~~~~~An'le,. The A. is part of the lower extremity, incqluding of animal-worship. Peoples diverging widelyin race, locality, the lower part of the leg an the upper pat of the foot. It elyin ace loali then oer part of the le1adle upper- p r of ft~e foot. It and culture agreed in holding kindred notions on this subject. ontais a oint, termed the A-jit T bones ntering contains a tjoint, termed the A.- oint. Thq bones entering The instance of animal-worship of which we have the fullest t formation arethe lower endof the tibia and fiula, and into its~ formation are'the low&r end'of the tibia and fibula, and details is that of the worship of the bull Apis by the ancient the astragalus. These hones are firmly united by powerful ligaEgyptians. Apiswas the emblem of the soul of Osiris, origin- mets. The movements at the Aoint are thse of flexion ments.'The movements at the A.-jointz'are those of flexion ally a sun-god; and the golden calf of the Israelites was simply and extension. A small amount of lateral motion is also allowed a memory of Egypt. ~~a mn~emory of Egypt.~ ~in the condition of complete extension, but thqre is, none in Anima Mlundi ('the soul of the world'), a name. given lby flexion. some nciet phiosopers to a supposed intellig'ent' immaterial some ancient philosophers to aI suppsed intelligent, inmaterial Anrxle, Surgery of. In disease of the. bones or s-oft tissues force, which was the source of all forms of life. In later times, of the foot, it my be necessary to amputate at the ankle-joint, of the'foot) it may be necessary to amputate at the ankle-joint, the d crin mred into Pantheism.'' ~the doctrine me ge6 iato Panthpism. an operation first executed by Syme. In this operation the An'ime, a kind of resin obtained from the W. Indian locust- bones of the leg are disarticulated from the astragalus, and a soft tree (Nymzenma. (Counrba-i'), which is used as varnish. The name covering for the stump is taken fiom the heel. A modification A., however, is also applied to similar resins obtained from dif; of this operation was introduced by a Russian surgeon, Pirogoff, ferent sources. in whiqh the posterior part of the bone of the heel (os calcis) is A~~nion. See ~AN~~o~~DEI~ ~left in the flap. Artion. See ANODEmP Dislocation of the ankle frequently occurs, and is almost invaAn'ise, an annual plant, called by botanists Pimrjfinel[a riably connected with fracture of the lower end of the fibula or An1isam, belonging to the order Ubzbel/iZfer~. It is cultivated ofthe internal malleolus, the lower process of the tibia. The in many parts of Europe for its fruit, which is used as a condi- foot may be pushed to either side, forwards or backwards, but ment, and in the preparation of certain kinds of liqueurs untder the most common displacement is outwards. The dislocation is the name of A.-seed. It contains a volatile oil. The plant in easily put right byteaction into the proper posrtion, and the all its parts is aromatic. In - taly a beverage is used called after-appication of leg-splints with lateral foot-pieces. ComA.-water, flavoured with A.-oil. The word Anetehum, which has, pound dislocations of the ankle-joint are very serious, and in been translated A. in the New Testament (Matt. xxiii. 23), many cases portions of bone have to be remnoyed before the parts appears to be the plant known as Dill (q. v.) Star A. is the can be brought into proper positipn. fSuit of a small tre, belnging to te natural order Mgnoliacea. Fractures may pass through the bones forming the ankle-joint, See ILLCIUM. exciting inflammation. Wounds of the ankle-joint are usually Anjou, a former province of France, with an area of 3o080 attended by great constitutional disturbance. sq. miles, now forms the department of Maine-et-Loire, and part Lastly, the ankle-joint may be weak from a relaxed state of of Sarthe, Mayenne, and I'ndre-et-Loire. Its anciert inhabi- the ligaments. In these cases elastic: ankle, supports, bandages, tants were the Celtic Anareoavi. On the break up of Charle- or even pasteboard supports may be required. magne's dream of a HolyRoman Empire, it became a sovereign k'ob the capital of the kingdom of Sha, Abyssinia, t, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ank'obar, the capital of the~ kinigdom of Shoo, Abyssinia, county, under Ingelger, in the 9th c. In io6o it passed to the near the river Habesh, on a tableland 8i98 feet above the sea. powerful house of Gatinais. One of this family, Godfrey, Count It is chiefly coposed of uts, the ly stone building in the It is chiefly composed of huts, the 9nl); stone building in the of A., married Matilda, daughter of Henry I. of England, and town being the royal palace. The court resides here during founded the line of the Plantiigenet~s. His soon, Henry ti., re- I.. tamed A.as posesn of the Eng lish crow; htt,e part of each year on account of the agreeable climate. A. is forrained A. as a possession of the English crown; but it was taken was taen tified with a wooden palisade. The adjacent country is densely from King John (I204) by Philip Augustus of France. St Louis wooded. Popabot woded. Pop.. about io, ooo. gave it to his brother Charles, who was the founder. of the. elder.wo house of A., which gave kings to Naples, Sicily, and Hungary. Ankylo'sis is what is commonly known as stiffjoint. It is In 1328 it was annexed to the French crown by Philip VI.; but the result of inflammation which has destroyed the cartilaginous in 1356 King John gave it to his second son Louis, who thus surfaces of the bones or the ligaments connecting the bones tobecame the founder of the younger house of A. Meanwhile it gether. Nature effects repair by causing the parts to become had been raised from a county to a duchy. After several other cemented together, and also produces more or less complete JI15 ANN THITE GLOBE ENC YCL OP/EDIA, ANN consolidation of the parts around the articulation. It is of two stein, Mzmoires (Lyon, I772), and Schtschebalskij, Wstsuplenie kinds: the incomplete, in which the capsules or fibrous bands na Prestol Inip. An y (Mosk. I859). connecting the bones are thickened or shortened, but not to such according to tradition the wife of St Joachim an extent as to produce absolute immobility; and the complete, a nd the mo the r of the Virgin Mary, is firs t mentioned in the in which the osseaus surfaces become fused together by direct writings of St Epiphanius (4th c.); Yet already in the 8th c. she bony union, so as to, render the joint completely immovable. was invoked throughout the whole Church, and she still claims Surgeons do not usually interfere with ankylosed joints, but in ad in the Catholic (6th July) and in the Greek (th Decemsome cases the fibrous bands may be divided and the connections ber) calendars. The legend of St A. states that her body was forcibly separated. In some cases, amputation may have to be forcibly separated. n some cases, aputation may have to e brought from Palestine to Constantinople in 71o, and since then resorted to where the ankylosed joint is inconveniently fixed, many churches boast to have relics of her person. In her honour tsafpts to put it in a better poson and causes a y was founded a religious brotherhood early in the middle ages, of the limb, which was revived under Jesuit influences after the Reformation, and still exists. Ann, or Annat, in Scotland, is the right of a minister's executors to one-half the stipend beyond what is due to the estate An'naberg, a town of Zwickau, Saxony, on the Sehm, I8 of the deceased minister: it is divided equally between the miles S. of Chemnitz by rail. It lies I800oo feet above the sea, widow and children, for whose support it is provided. The- and near it are silver, tin, cobalt, and iron mines. A. is famed minister therefore cannot assign it away by deed or bankruptcy. for its lace and silk ribbons. In the neighbourhood are fine The feu-duties on which the price of a glebe may be invested saline springs. Pop. (1872) II,693. form part of A. Annals, the records of one or more years arranged chrono. logically, a term derived from the Annales Poltzfiicum, drawn up Anna Carlov'na, Regent of Russia (I740-4I}, bornin 1718, at Rome by the Pontilfx Maximus, and the subsequent A. of and was the daughter of Karl Leopold, Duke of Mecklenburg, Fabius Pictor. The A, of Tacitus is the first work to which the and of Katharina, sister of Anna Ivanovna (q. v.), Empress of term is applied in precisely the modern sense. There is a valuRussia. The latter had named asher successor Ivan, son of A., able work in the English tongue, commonly called the Angloto please her favourite Biron (q. v.), whose object was to secure the Saxon Chronicle, which is strictly annalistic, though not so called. regency, This he did, but in a few weeks hewas overthrown. A. then proclaimed herself regent, but she proved quite unfit for Annam'aboe, a small seaport on the Gold Coast, Africa, IO the position. A conspiracy was formed in I741 for raising Eliza- miles E. of Cape Coast Castle. The Ashantees attacked it beth, daughter of Peter the Great and of Catharine, to the throne. (807), and killed two-thirds of the inhabitants. It is protected It succeeded; and A. and her husband, Anton Ulric, Duke of by a British fort, and the gold trade, the only industry of the Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, whom she had married in I739, were ce, is on the icrese. Pop. about 5000. condemned to imprisonment for life in Cholmogory, a town on An'nan, a seaport town and royal burgh in Dumfriesshire, an island in the Dwina. Here she died, I8th March I746. Her on the river A., about a mile from its entrance into Solway Firth. husband died in 1780, having been thirty-nine years in prison. It is a place of great antiquity, and was the residence of the Bruce family. The town is well built; its environs are studded Anna Comne'na, daughter of the Byzantine emperor with villas; and the river, here spanned by a bridge, is celeAlexius I., was born Ist December I083. A brilliant education brated for salmon-fishing. The chief industries are cottonin eloquence, poetry, philosophy, and mathematics secured her weaving, tanning, and bacon-curing. A. is a station on the a reputation probably beyond her merits, but to her passion Glasgow and South-Western Railway, and has regular commufor literature she added a passion for political power. Aided by nication by steamers with Liverpool and Whitehaven. It was her mother, the Empress Irene, she endeavoured to induce the birthplace of the famous preacher Edward Irving. Along Alexins to disinherit Calo-Jo.annes, his eldest surviving son. with Dumfries, Lochmaben, Sanquhar, and Kirkcudbright, A. Failing in this, she formed a conspiracy against the life of her returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1I871) 463I. brother, in which her husband Nicephorus Bryennias refused to Annap'ois, a port of entry, and capital of Maryland, U. S., join. She again failed. Her brother treated her with great on the Severn, about 2 miles above its entrance into Chesapeake magnanimity. He spared her life, and though he deprived her Bay. It was founded in 1649 under the name of Providence, of her property, he soon afterwards restored it to her. Hence. bt was afterwards called in onour of Queen Anne. It but was afterwards called A., in honour of Queen Anne. It forthe sher countented herself with supremacy over twhen bx Sits contains several handsome public buildings, and is the seat of of the imperial court. In 1137 her husband died, when she re- St John's College, founded in 1787 and of the U. S. Naval tired into a convent. Her Alexiad, a biography of her father, Academy, established 845 It s connected by railwy with Academy, established I845. It is connected by railway with written in Greek (Anng Comnene Alexiados, Libri XIX.), Baltimore and Washington. Pop, (1870) 7363. was finished in I I48, and she died the same year. While it pro. fesses infinite regard for truth, and to proceed on careful inquiry, Annap'olis, a small seaport of Nova Scotia, lies in a the style, which is affected, and the perpetual eulogy of Alexius, fruitful region of the same name on the Bay of Fundy. It was hardly sustain these assertions. Nor does the character of A. C, founded as Port Royal by the French in I604, and is therefore lead us to expect from her truth and impartiality. Yet the work the oldest European settlement on the mainland of N. America. is one of the most interesting in the whole series of the Byzantine In 1713, along with the rest of the province, it passed into the historians, and is indispensable to a full conception of the first hands of the English, when it was called A. in honour of Queen crusade. Anne. A. was the capital till I750, when the seat of government was removed to Halifax. Since then it has declined. Anna Ivanov'na, Empress of Russia, born 25th January Pop. (I870) about 500. I693, was the second daughter of Ivan, the elder half-brother of Peter the Great. In I7Io she married Frederick William, second Ann Arbor, a town of Michigan, U.S., on the Huron river, Duke of Courland, but became a widow in the following year. and a station on the Michigan Central Railway, 38 miles W. of On the death of Peter II., I9th January I730, the throne of Detroit. It has a flourishing trade in agricultural produce, and Russia was offered to her by the supreme council, conditionally implements, but is chiefly notable as the seat of the State Union her acceptance of seven articles, which changed the despotism versity, founded in i837, and which has attained a high reputaof Russia into a limited monarchy. A. accepted these articles, tion. Pop. (I870) 7363. but shortly after so doing she convoked the senate in her palace, An'nates, or First-Fruits. The fruits of a benefice during and declared her promises null, as having been fraudulently ob- the first year of occupancy were for many centuries claimed by tained, and proclaimed herself' Autocrat of all the Russians.' the Pope on presenting to bishoprics and abbacies, and latterly For some time her policy was humane and peaceful, but having also from the inferior clergy. In England protests were frefallen under the influence of her paramour Biron-an avaricious quently made, and in the reign of Edward III. the Pope offered and cruel man-it became quite the reverse. The cruelty and to compound for an annual tax of one-twentieth. By the Statute bloodshed attributed to Biron almost exceeds belief. A. died of Recusants (25 Hen. VIII. c. 20, and confirming Act), the 28th October J 740, leaving the throne to her grand-nephew Ivan right to A., and also to tenths (an annual tax exacted from all under the regency of Biron (q. v.) See ANNA CARLOVNA. Man- livings by the Pope), was vested in the king and his successors, II6 ANN TIHE GL OBE E1VCYC1 OP/EDDIA. ANN the Pope having been deprived of his right to present by Bull. Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip II. of Spain, was A valuation of all benefices was also made by Henry. By 2 and born i6oi, and married to Louis XIII. of France in 1615. 3 Anne, c. i i, both A. and tenths were vested in the governors Cardinal Richelieu, who cherished a deadly hatred against of the Bounty of Queen Anne for the augmentation of the main- Austria, by representing that A. conveyed state intelligence to tenance of the poorer clergy. The collection of this fund was her native country, made the marriage an unhappy one. On the reformed by i Vict. c. 20. The annual income from A. and death of Louis in I643, A. became regent, and chose for her tenthsisbetween/I,000,oooand,/J6,ooo; but from a parliamentary minister Cardinal Mazarin, by whose skilful management, and grant fund, amounting to above a million, invested savings, and vigorous suppression of the war of the Fronde, Louis XIV. sums received in trust from private benefactors, the governors mounted a firmly-established throne. She died 2oth January are able to pay more than CIoo,ooo per annzum to the clergy. i666. A.'s temper was cold, her disposition grave, and her skill Benefices under Z5o per annum in value are exempted from A.; in the choice of instruments unerring. and where the estates of holders of dignities, prebends, and Anneal'ing is the process by which the brittleness of glass is offices are vested in the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, one- lessened after it has been manufactured. The same process is twentieth of the annual value is paid in lieu of A. and tenths. also applied to certain metals after they are melted and suddenly The overors ugmnt i Sum of 200of cpita, no byalso applied to certain metals after they are melted and suddenly aThe governors augment in sums of r200 of capital, not by cooled, or when they have been submitted to a heavy blow or annual payments. Augmented curacies are declared perpetual. long-continued hammering. The tempering of steel is also 9 ~~~~~~~~~long-continued hammering. The tempering of steel is also A private contributor to the augmentation often becomes patron. essentially a process of A. The process consists in inducing a The governors have advanced large sums for the endowment of Thegovernos haveadvancedlarge sumsfor endowmentfvery gradual cooling, and to effect this in the case of glass, the new churches in populous places on the security of the property material has first to be raised to a high temperature. The sheets vested in the Ecclesiastical Commissioners under the Cathedral of glass or glass vessels to be annealed are placed in the A. oven, Acts, and in loans under Gilbert's Acts. In Ireland, A., for- or lier, which is a long chamber highly heated at the one end. merly payable to a Board of First-Fruits, and applied to augment They are gradually moved forward from the hot towards the cooler stipends and repair churches, were in the shape of an annual tax end and go allowed to cool in a gradual, uniform manner. A protransferred in i833 to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners. Under o a o co a raul n mane po cess for the A. of glass has recently been made public by M. de Mr Gladstone's Act, the Commissioners of Irish Church Tem- Bastie, by which it is affirmed that the material acquires a remarkporalities have recovered considerable sums advanced for erect- able toughness without injury to its transparency. It consists able toughness without injury to its transparency. It consists ing glebe-houses. in heating the glass to redness and cooling it in oil, and by this Annat'to, another name for the red colouring-matter called means, it is said, the breaking-strain is three or four times Anotto (q. v.) what it would have been if the glass had been annealed by the ordinary process. A. has to be resorted to in the process of Anneo, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, was born 6th February 1664. She was the second daughter of James, Duke wire-drawing, stamping of medals and coins, and boiler-plate of York, afterwards James II., and of Anne Hyde, daughter ofas rolling; and iron castings softened by A. are called malleable cast iron. The effect of A. depends on the fact that the moleLord Chancellor Clarendon. In i684 she was married to Prince cs rn h feto.dpnso h atta h oe Lord Chancellor Clarendon. In 1684 she was married to Prince cules composing a solid body, which has been highly heated or George of Denmark. She bore seventeen children to Prince me d alo d o c sue o igly d o molten, and allowed to cool suddenly or irregularly, do not George, but only one, the Duke of Gloucester, survived infancy, assume their most stable position in relation to each other. If and he died in 1700 in his 12th year. On the duke's death, the rate of cooling be slow, however, the molecules so dispose Parliament passed the Act known as the Act of Settlement (q. v.) themselves that te body, when restored to its original temperaUnde itA. uccede to he hroe,,on he dathof illam.themselves that the body, when restored to its original temperaUnder it A. succeeded to the throne, on the death of William III., on 8th March 1702, she having, with her father's permis- ture, is capable of resisting the maximum strain without fracture. III., on 8th March I7o2z, she having, with her father's permission, been educated in the principles ocf the Church of England. An'necy, a town in the department of Haute Savoie, France, To these principles she was ever steadfast. Even her father's has a beautiful situation on the Lake of A., 2I miles S. of offer, after his accession, to prefer her in the succession to her Geneva. It belonged during the middle ages to the Counts of -elder sister Mary, on condition of her joining the Church of Geneva till the extinction of that family, when it was united to Rome, did not cause her to waver. Nevertheless, the char- Savoy. With the rest of Savoy, it was transferred to France in acter of A. was essentially weak, while few English sovereigns I86o. Near it is Old A. (Annecy-le- Vieux), now a mere village, have been placed in circumstances in which firmness was more from which in the 12th c. it was distinguished by the name required. When the Prince of Orange landed, natural affection 7ovum Annesium. The chief buildings are the ruined chateau led her to join her father, whose favourite daughter she was; of the old Counts of Geneva, and the cathedral where are prebut Lord and Lady Churchill decided otherwise for her. Dur- served the remains of St Francis de Sales. A. has considerable ing the War of Succession (q. v.), waged by England, the Empire, manufactures of linen, cotton yarn, glass, and sulphuric acid, and Holland against France and Spain, A. and her court were and its bleach-fields date from I65o. In the vicinity are three under the rule of the celebrated Sarah Jennings, Duchess of remarkable'ice-caves' or subterranean glaciares of large dimenMarlborough, and of the still more famous Duke of Marl- sions. Pop. (I872) 9097. Lake A. is 9 miles long and 2 broad, borough. The duke's splendid victories dazzled the nation, and is overshadowed by magnificent hills. long blind to the fact that they were barren so far as England was concerned, and bought at an enormous price. A much Anelida, the representative class of the Anailh-cyooda or more important achievement in the reign of A. than the victory lower annulose animals, represented by the four orders of true of Blenheim, though comparatively littlenoA thogtfate Worms. This group corresponds to one division of the Linnean time, was the capture, during the same year 704), by Sir George class Vermes. The body is elongated, and consists of a series of time, was the capture, during the same year (I 704), by Sir Georgesoiersgmnsaagdalgalnitialxs.N Rook, of the fortress of Gibraltar, Tired of the Marl- atcltdlmseita niscs cbttebge neie Rook, of the fortress of Gibraltar. Tired of the Marl- somites, or segments arranged along a longitudinal axis. No boroughs, A. took refuge in a new favourite, a Mrs Masham, aepoie ihbite rsteatce otesdso h boroughs, A. took refuge in a new favourite, a Mrs Mi~asham, articulated limbs exist as in insects, &c., but the higher annelides whom the Duchess of Marlborough had herself brought into the are provided with bristles or set attached to the sides of the queen's household. Mrs Masham, coalescing with Henry St lcmto.Tebodi e rgens nclu.Adsic queen's household. Mrs Ma~sham, coalescing with Henry St body-joints, andby means of which the body is supported during John, Lord Bolingbroke, and other Tory leaders, effected a locomotion. Thebloodis redorgreenishin colour. A distinct loooin headlmg. systrem of vreselish ( uo-incolorA dsys-c change of government in 1r7o. The policy of the new ministry, head may be wanting. A system of vessels (pseudo-hrmal sysin1 which the queen concurred, was to secure the succession to tem) exists, which circulates fluid throughout the body, and is in which the queen concurred, was to secure the succession to her brother; but the design was frustrated by the internal dii- connected with the breathing processes in these forms. The first sension of the Cabinet, its inability to act in harmony with Mrs order, Suc/oric or Hirudinea, is represented by the leeches, &c. Masham, and by the feeling of the nation. A. died Ist August The second order, Orsoc Teta or Teriora, includes the earthI714, the last of the Stuart family that occupied the throne of worms and river-worms. The third order, or Tubicola, inGreat Britain. She was succeeded by the Elector of Hanover cludes the Ser5ul', lrebellce, &c., which make tubes to proas George I. If not a great queen, A. seems to have been an tect their bodies; and the Errantia, forming the fourth order, amiable woman. Her reign has been made illustrious by the are represented by lobworms, aphrodites or sea-mice, and other many great men in science and literature who lived under it. marine forms. The last two orders breathe by gills, and are Pope, Swift, Addison, are only foremost of the numerous'wits termed Branchiate annelides. of Queen Anne's time,' whose exquisite gifts have led some to Annonay (anc. Annoneumn), a town in the department of regard it as the Augustan age of English literature. Ardche, France, 37 miles S. of Lyon. It lies picturesquely at I 17 4. * —----- ANN THE GLOBE ENArCYCL OPDIA. ANN the confluence of the rivers Deaume and Cance. First men- 0o, I9S. 23d. Nineteen shillings and twopence three farthings tioned about the close of the first crusade. It soon after became would therefore, as nearly as may be, be the value of the first the capital of a marquisate, and was, as early as the I4th c., noted year's A. were B certain to live; but as he is not, we must refer for its parchment manufacture, which, after the invention of print- to tables to ascertain the fraction expressing the probability that ing, was changed to paper. It has still extensive paper-mills, B, aged 20, will live for one year. Referring to articles cited which produce 300,oo000 reams yearly. Its other manufactures above, and assuming the probability to be, as it nearly is (cerare chiefly silk, cotton twist, kidgskins, and woollens. Much silk tainty being expressed by unity),'986, we have'o'9615 x'986 is produced in the vicinity. The two famous inventors Mont- =-o'948o0 =/o, i8s. iid. as the value of the first year's A. golfier were born here. Pop. (1872) 15,052. This process being repeated for every year until by the tables age 20 is extinct, and the whole results being added, we shall An'nual, applied in botany to those plants which flower have the value required. Having got the value of an A. of'I, and fruit the same year they are raised from seed, and then die. the value of an A. of any number of pounds can of course be - Many very showy annuals are cultivated in our gardens, easily found. He who has provision to make for others, or who, Annual Register, a yearly record of public events, first from other causes, desires to be thrifty, will find a little study of an A. table well bestowed. It shows to what immense pecupublished in I759, and continued down to the present time. It niary results little savings must in time attain. Thus, in thirty niary results little savings must in time attain.Thsintry was projected by Robert Dodsley, the bookseller, and for many years, annually saved, with interest at 5 per cent., will years,;6r annually saved, with interest at 5 per cent., will years Edmund Burke was one of the chief contributors. Indices amount to66 438-consequentlyo a year for the same period amount to /-66'438 —consequently /o. a year for the same period to the work have appeared at various times, and the whole forms will be66438 will be,,,664'38. a valuable historical repository. Similar publications had preceded the A. R., of which the principal were Boyer's Political Annuity, in English law, is a yearly payment of a certain State of Europe (I7II-39), the H1istorical Register (II6-38), sum of money for life, or a term of yeais. If payable out of and Edward Cave's Gentlemans Magazine, begun in,7.3 i. The lands, it is properly called a rent-charge; but if both the person Edinzburgh A. R. (1808-27), a rival work, numbered Sir and estate are made liable, then it is called an A. Under Io Waiter Scott and Southey among its contributors. In Paris the Geo. IV. c. 24, and other statutes, the Commissioners for the Anunaire Historiue (1818-49) was superseded by the present Reduction of the National Debt may grant life annuities payable Anunire des Deux Mondes. There is an American A.4. R. out of the Consolidated Fund, either on one or two lives, or on published at New York. the continuance of two joint lives, and other kinds of annuities, immediate or deferred, or for a. term of years. Annuities granted Annuals were a series of expensive and luxurious gift-books under the Acts are proportioned to the duration of human life, for Christmas, New Year, and birthdays, which appeared in con- as ascertained by tables of observation approved of by the Treasiderable number during the first half of this century. The sury. The purchase is to be made either by the transfer of not Literary Souvenir, the Keepsake, the Book of Beauty, the Forget- less than/Ioo stock, or by the advance of money, or by the me-not, were the most successful. The last of them, the Keep- payment of any sum yearly not less than,/xoQ. Annuities will sake, expired in 1856, but since then the name. has been revived not be granted in any case where the Commissioners decline. in Beeton's Christmas Annual, which fo- twelve years has had In Scotland, as in England, an A. may be charged on real great popularity. It is the property of Messrs Ward and Lock, estate by deed, called a bond of A. Mr Beeton being now simply editor. Mr Beeton being now simply editor. An'nulet (Lat. anulus, a ring), in architecture, is a small Annu'ity. A certain sum of money paid to any one yearly, or ornamental fillet encircling a column, &c. The name was more at the end of a fixed period, is, in the wide sense -of the word, an A. particularly applied by the ancient architects to the band that Usually, however, when we talk of an A., we mean to denote girt the capitals of Doric pillars. an income which is not derived from the possession of capital. Annuloi'da, the term applied to the sub-kingdom Echinozoa, Thus, if a man invests in his own name/0Iooo at 5 per cent., we one ot the primary divisions of the animal world. This group should say this gave him an income of/,5o a year. If, however, is represented by star-fishes, sea-urchins, sea-cucumbers, tapehe give his /ooo to another, on condition that he is to receive worms, and other entozoa, and by wheel-animalcules or rotifera. ~G70 or /8o for so many years, or for life, we then speak, of the'It corresponds in part to the Radiate division of Cuvier, the return so derived as an A. Annuities are of many kinds. They members of which division are now distributed among the may be perpetual, descending to heirs; they may be for life, or s ub-kingdoms Ccelenteratne, A., and Annulosa. The A. posfor a limited number of years. Then there are deferred annuities, sess a radial symmetry, a perfect digestive system; a nervous that is, of which the payment does not begin until a stated period system exists in all, and a heart and vascular system in most; after the payment of the consideration; there are su.rvivo.,ship whilst in all a peculiar system of vessels ramifies through their annuities, such as an A. payable to B on death of C, or an A. bodies-the latter being termed the ayuiferous, water-vascular,; payable to B or C on death of the first; or contingent, as pay- or sometimes the ambulacral system. able to B provided he survive C. The variety in the nature of annuities is almost endless; and Annulo'sa. See ARTICULATA. so, consequently, is the nature of the calculations regarding so, consequently, is the nature of the calculAn'nuluq Ovalis, a circular ridge seen on the right side of them. These are often very co'mplex; but there are Iw min them. These are often very complex; but there re two main the septum between the auricles of the heart. It surrounds a elements in them all-the val ue of money, and the expectation depression called fossa ovalis; but in fcetal life this is pervious, of life. See ACTUARY; LIFE, EXPECTATION OF; LIFE'MEAN of life. See ATURY; LIFE, EXPECTATION OF; LIF MEAN so as to permit the passage of blood from the right to the left DURATION OF; and MORTALITY, LAWS OF. By the'value auricle. See FgTAL CIRCULATION. of money,' we mean the rate of interest which it produces money being spoken of, commercially, as cheap or deal; accord- A nnunciation, Orders of the. In honour of the A. of ing as the current rate falls below or rises above the mean rate. the Virgin Mary, one secular order of knights and two religious But for A. calculations it is not the current but the prospective orders of nuns have been formed. I. The Order of Iznights of rate that is to be considered; and experience has sho'vn that the the A., instituted in 1360 by Amadeus VI. of Savoy, and only safe way to estimate this is on the data of the past. This in 1720 declared the supreme order, in the kingdom. The is in Great Britain held to be, on real security, 4 per cent., or a knights must have previously receiyed the badges of St Maurice fraction above it. Assuming it at 4 per cent., we shall give an and St Lazarus, and be of distinguished rank. The king is grandexample of the mode of calculating the value of a simple, single, master, under whom are a chancellor, secretary, almoner, and life A., this method being the basis of other and much more treasurer. The decoration is a gold medal, with a representa. compendious methods of skilled actuaries. It is required to know tion of the A., the collar composed of alternate love-knots the value of an A. of /, to be paid to B., aged 20. It being and roses. On the roses are engraved the letters F.E.R.T., understood that all annuities are payable at the end of one year the interpretation of which, according to some, is Fortitudo g'us from the date at which they are granted, it is plain that /i paid Rhodum lenuit, in reference to the brave defence of that island for the year's A. would be too much; that is, the value on Ist by the Duke of Savoy; according to others, Frappes, entres, January 1874, of/iZ, payable to B on ist January 1875, is not i, rompes touns. Since i68o the knights have worn on their breasts but the sum which, with interest at 4 per cent., will, in one a star or sun with streaming rays, in the midst of which there is year, amount to /i. This sum is 0o'9615 (see INTEREST), or a representation of the A. 2. Of the Order of Nuns of the A. 1I8S ANN THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPkEDIA. ANQ one belongs to France and the other to Italy. The fbr'nch and 300 species in the order. Their properties are generally order was founded at Bourges in I50I, by Joanna of Valois, aromatic and fragrant; some- are bitter and tonic, and others after her separation from Louis XII., for noble maidens of un- yield edible fruits.4 A. reticzuata yields the Custard-Apple (q. v.), blemished fame, and was placed by the Pope, in I5I7, under the A. squamosa the Sweetsop (q. v.), and A. muricata the soursop ecclesiastical direction of the Franciscans. It was destroyed at of the W. Indies. A well-known Peruvian fruit called Cherithe Revolution, but still possesses houses at Boulogne and Ville- moyer (q. v.) is the produce of A. cherimotia. Ethiopian pepper neuve. The Italian order was founded at Genoa in I694, by is the fruit of Xylopia aromatica, a plant belonging to the order, Maria Vittoria Fornari, in conjunction with a rich friend, Vin- as does also X. gab'ra, the bitterwood of the W. Indies, and centina I omellini. In its palmiest days it counted fifty houses, Duguetia quitarensis, the lancewood of coachmakers. mostly in Italy, but some in France and Germany also. It still exists, and has its chief house at Rome. Its surname of the tnonymous (Gr. nameless), applied to any book or writing'heavenly' arose from the sky-blue dress which the nuns wear, to which the author has not affixed his name. To one bearing and which makes them popularly spoken of in Rome as the an assumed name the title applied is Pseudonymoss. There is a 2'urc/rine, i.e., the'Violet Flowers.' French dictionary of A. and Pseudonymous works by Barbier (Paris, I822-1825), but a similar work in English is still a desideAn'nus Deliberan'di was, in Scotland, the year allowed by ratum. Political writing is, in Britain, usually A.; but of late law to an heir to make up his mind whether or not he would enter it has become common for the writers of periodical criticism to and represent his ancestor; entry involving responsibility for the adhibit their names to their articles. debts of his ancestor. Under statutes of the present reign, however, proceedings may be taken against an heir-apparent to aoplothe'rium, an extinct genus of Ungulate or Hoofed attach the heritable estate of his ancestor six months after the qudmupeds, connecting the ruminants and swine, the fossil ancestor's death. See BENEFICIUM INVENTARII. remains of which are found in the Lower Tertiary rocks. The A. commune, from the Eocene Tertiary formations, is a familiar Ano'bium. See BORER and DEATH-WATCH. form. The body was slender, the tail being elongated. The An'ode, the name given by Faraday to the negative electrode, feet had each two hoofs, and rudimentary hoofs were occasionthe positive being called in contradistinction cathode. The sub- ally developed. The dental formula showed six incisors, two stance given off during Electrolysis (q. v.) at the A. is termed the canines, eight premolars, and six molars in each jaw. There was no break or interval between the molar and canine teeth. anion, and the other product of the electrolytic action the The A. forms the type of a special family included in the Omnivorous section of the Artiodactyle Ungulata. Other genera An'odon, a genus of Lamellibranchiate mollusca, included in included in this family are the Xipodvon, also from the Upper the family Unionid&e, or that of the fresh-water mussels, in which Eocene formations; Dic/obune from the Middle Eocene; and the shell is generally equivalve, the outer ligament of large size, Chalicother-iumn of the Miocene rocks, &c. and the foot also of large size and of compressed shape. Of the Anoplu'ra, an order of lower or Apterous (wingless) insects anodons, or'pond mussels,' as they are popularly called, ex- represented by the various kinds of lice. See LousE. Cuvier amples occur in the rivers and lakes of Siberia, N. America, and called them rsi, from their parasitic habits. Europe. Many species are known, the'swan mussel' (Anodonta cygnea) being a familiar form. Other species comprise the A. Anos'mia, insensibility to odours, or loss' of smell. This aczguzata, A. ensiformis, A. anserina, A. magnifica, &c. condition may be congenital or acquired. When congenital, it is due to some defect in the olfactory apparatus which cannot Ano'dynes, substances which, when applied externally or be remedied. When acquired, it is caused by repeated inflamintroduced into the body, relieve pain. When applied exter- mations of the mucous lining of the upper chambers of the nose nally, they act by diminishing the sensibility of the nerves of the which contains the terminal apparatus of smell. Severe catarrhs, part, which, during pain, is excited to a greater degree than inflammations, the excessive use of snuff, the application of normal. This is the effect produced by liniments of opium or irritant vapours, such as ammonia, may cause A.; and it has belladonna, or aconite. But as all sensory impressions which also been observed in some cases of brain disease. give rise to feelings of pain are conveyed to the brain, it is evident that if we diminish the sensibility of that organ by remedies Anot'to, or Arnotto, a fine red-colouring substance, obwhich act specially on it, we may relieve pain. Accordingly we tained from the pulp surrounding the seeds of the tropical tree find that all substances which lower the sensibility of the brain Bix oredtana. It is extensively employed in giving a tinge to are A. See AN!ESTHESIA. cheese, and has become an article of considerable mercantile importance, in the form of cakes and of fluid, in all the dairy Anointing. See CHRISM, CORONATION, EXTREME UNC- districts of the United Kingdom. TION, Anou'ra, an order of the class Amonhibia, including the Anomalis'tic Year is the time of revolution of a planet or frogs, toads, and their allies, in which the tails, with which the satellite from either apse to the same again. Owing to the con- tadpoles or larvae are provided, disappear on the animals attaintinual though slight variation in the position of the apse, this ing maturity; thus leaving them in an'anourous' or'tailless' year, in the case of the earth, is twenty-five minutes longer than condition. They are also destitute of gills in adult life, although, the tropical year. like all other amphibia, they possess these structures in the early Anomr'aly (Gr. anomalia, irregularity) of a planet at any period of their existence; and they thus breathe exclusively by instant is the inclination of the line joining the perihelion apse lungs in their mature state. Two pairs of limbs are invariably and the focus to the radius vector at that instant. The problem present. No scales are developed. Teeth are developed in a of finding the true A. is one of considerable difficulty, and is few instances only, and are then of small size. Three families known as Kepler's Problem, from the circumstance of its having are included i this order. Te first is that of the fogs been first proposed by Kepler. (Ranidw); the second includes the toads (Bslfonidce); whilst the third is that of the Pisidw, which is represented by the Surinam Anomu'ra, a section of the Decapodous order of Crustaceans, toads and their allies. which order is represented by the familiar crabs, lobsters, shrimps, &c. The A. are represented by the'hermit,' or'soldier' crabs, An'quetil-Duperfron, Abraham Hyacinthe, an enthuand their allies, these forms being distinguished by the soft siastic, though far from accurate, Oriental scholar, born at Paris, nature of the abdomen, which is generally unprotected by a shell, 7tl December I73I. He studied theology for some time, but and which does not terminate in a tail-fin, such as that possessed soon selected the field of Oriental languages, and after acquiring by the lobsters. The sponge-crabs (Dromaia), the tree-crabs a fair acquaintance with Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian, he set (Bioguvs), crab-lobsters (PorcellaS), &c., are also familiar mem- out for India. Settling at Surat, among the Parsees or firebers of the Anomurous section. & worshippers, he became intimate with their edestours or priests, was initiated into the doctrines of Zoroaster, got possession of Anona and Anona'ceae, a genus and order of Dicotyledo- some of his books, and returned to Europe in 1762 with a valunous, Thalamifloral plants. They are trees or shrubs found able collection of one hundred MSS. His Zend-avesta, in 3 vols., chiefly in tropical countries. There are upwards of 30 genera appeared in I77I. It contained a translation of several of the 119 AN S THE GL OBE EVNCYC'L L OPiDIA. ANT sacred books of the Parsees, and attracted much attention from Sweden were no less successful, and, covered with the glory of its introducing Europeans to authentic records of an ancient and his conversions, he returned to Bremen, where he died, February interesting theology. Among his other works are Legislatioln 3, 865. The biography of A. has been written by St Rembert in Orientale, I778; L'Inde en Rapport avec L'Euro Ie, I790; and Mabillon's History of the Benedictines, and in Langenbeck's Oupne/e'hat, 1804, consisting of extracts from the Vedas. He Scriptores Rerumn Danicarum Medii ".vi. See also Kruse's died at Paris, I7th January 5805. ~Lebensbeschreibung A.'s (Hann. 1824), and Klippel's LebensAn'selm, St, one of the earliest and greatest metaphysical beschreibung des Hel. A. (Brem. 1845.) theologians of the middle ages, was a native of Italy, and was Anson, George, Lord, Admiral, born of a good family at born at Aosta, in Piedmont, in 10o33. After a dissipated youth, Shugborough Manor, Staffordshire, in 1697, served as volunteer he was drawn by the fame of Lanfrane (q. v.) to the monastery in the Ruby in 1712, and as second lieutenant in Sir George Byng's of Bec in Normandy, and in Io6o became a monk of the order expedition (i718) to Sicily (which crushed the ambition of the of St Benedict. Three years later he was chosen prior, and in King of Spain in the Mediterranean), and was promoted conm10o78 abbot of Bec. His tenderness, humility, earnestness,'and mander in 1722. A. obtained the command of a fleet commisprudence in dealing with the sins and frailties of the brethren sioned to act against the Spaniards in the Pacific in 1739, and, proved the sincerity and the depth of his own repentance. In after an absence of nearly four years, during which time he per0Io93 he succeeded Lanfranc in the archbishopric of Canterbury, formed his celebrated Voyage Rfound the W-orld adding much to but hardly a year had elapsed when he came into collision with the geographical knowledge, and capturing a rich Spanish galleon, brutal and truculent William Rufus. The first cause of quarrel he returned to'receive the highest honours of his profession. was a refusal on the part of the prelate to give the king as much In 1747, after having captured six French men-of-war and four money as he wanted for his expedition to Normandy to seize the richly-laden East Indiamen, he was raised to the peerage. Prodominions of his brother Robert; the second was his opposition moted admiral, and placed at the head of the Admiralty in 1757, to the acknowledgment of the anti-pope Clement III., who had he died, 6th June 1762, at Moor Park, Herts. been recognised by almost all the English bishops. After a brief Anspach, or Ansbach (formerly Onolz ah), the capital of reconciliation, the hostility of Rufus broke out afresh, and A. Middle Franconia, Bavaria, at the confluence of the Holzhacb with difficulty obtained permission to leave the country in 1097. and Upper Rezat, 25 miles SW. of Niirnberg. It was formerly He went to Italy, and was received at Rome with the highest capital of the principlity of A., and still contains the deserted capital of the princijaiyfA.anstlcoanshederd consideration. On the death of Rufus he was recalled topatyoA.ansilcnanshederd consideratio. On the death of Ruus he was recalled to palace of the old Markgrafs of Brandenburg. Its chief mannEngland by Henry I.; but difficulties soon arose regarding the fatures are half-silen fabrics, cottn stuffs, tobacco, pottery, fctures are half-silken fabrics, cotton stuffs, tobacco, pottery, right of investiture, and in I 10o3 he once more left for the Con- playing-cards, whitelead, and cutlery. A. is the birthplace of tinent. By the friendly intervention of Adela, Countess of Blois, the poets Croneg, z, nd Count Platen, to the latter of whom he ws reoncled o Hery t th abey o Bec reumedhisthe poets Cronegk, U z, and Count Platen, to the latter of whom he was reconciled to Henry at the abbey of Bec, resumed his a monumet wag here erected in r859, Pop. (672) UP635a monument was here erected in 1859. Pop. (I872) 12,635. archiepiscopal seat in ioio6, and died some three years after, 1 1A., which owes its origin to a religious establishment of the 8th the 2IsSt of April 1og. A. is justly regarded as the Augustine c., passed in I288 to the Counts of Oettingen, and in 1331 to of the middle ages. He was superior to all his contemporaries the Burggrafs ofNirnbrg,'? ~~~~~~~~~~~the Burggrafs of Niirnberg'. in sagacity of mind and dialectical ability, and equal to the most The principality of A., originally part of the Rangau, and eminent in virtue and piety. Profoundly conscious of the peopled by a Slavic race, was given ini474, by Albrecht Achilles, necessity of a religious philosophy, he strove to vindicate before Elector of Brandenburg, to his second son Friedrich, the founder the bar of reason the great Christian ideas that pervade the of the Frankish line of the Markgrafs of Brandenburg, who were Augustinian theology. His most notable works are his Mono- again divided into the lines of Anspach and Baireuth. The last log'lure, sire Exemj lum Meditandi de -Ratione' Fidei, in which he o ~um, sive Exemplun tI~ed itandM de Rh~one FdlM, in which he arkgraf of Anspach-Baireuth sold his state to the King of seeks to systematically unfold the knowledge of God and of Prussia in 1791, who was compelled by Napoleon to surrender divine things on rational principles; his Proslogiumn, otherwise it to France in i8o6. It then went to Bavaria, to which it still entitled Fides querens Intellectum, in which he proposes to belongs. demonstrate the existence of God by the idea of divine perfec- Ant. Under this designation, popularly used, two distinct lion, the first instance in history of the famous -priori argument; kinds of insects are included. The first of these is represented his Cur Deus Homo and his Concordia Prtedestinalionis, which by our ordinary British ants, and made an epoch in Christian philosophy, and the influence of those familiar to the inhabitants those famiiliar to the inhabitants which is still powerful in the sphere of Christian thought. Besides these, he wrote numerous other treatises, which it is f temperate climates generally. unnecessary to specify. The principal editions of A.'s works are hese are Hymenopterous in(i) that by Picard (Paris, I6Io); (2) that by the Jesuit Raynault sects, and are included in that (Lyon, 1630), who divides the writings of A. into four classes- order along with the bees, wasps, and other and allied forms. The Didactica, Ascetica, Parenetica, and Notha; (3) that by Gerheron and other and allied forms. The (Paris, 1675), in which the previous editions are carefully revised, second kind of ants are the Ter- Ant (Formica rtfa), and some fresh epistolary material added. A.'s life was written mites or white ants of tropical Male and Female. and omefreh epstoarymatrialaddd..'slifewaswritenclimates, and these latter belong by his friend and secretary Eadmar, a monk of the Benedictine climates, and these latter belong order. See Lingard's History of England, Amphre's Histoire to the Nemoptera-an order of insects represented by the dragon~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~lt6'ir de la rtiance Hauru' Del hlsjh colamqe ordtterrle dee La Frane, Hiaurao's Lfe ula Philosophe Solastiqie, flies, may-flies, and similar forms. Like the ordinary and comFeraenk's nzsehn von lantorbery (Tab. c842), Haeh sse's Leben mon ants, the Termites exhibit a social life, and show many Fak(eipz. 1843), and Remusat's Saint Anselen dse'Cantober wonderful and interesting traits of instinct and habits; but in (Leiz'.~84), ad Rmust's Satint Anselme de Canllorbery (Leiz'. 843, an Reusats Sint nseine e Cntorerystructure and zoological position they differ from their more (Paris, 1854; 2d ed. i868). His character and work as a Church- structure and zoological position they differ from their more man and thinker are finely portrayed by J. R. King in his familiar neighbours. Sort History oft Enish Pole (Lod. 875). The familiar ants (Formicide) exist in communities, which consist of three kinds of individuals-males, females, and neuters, Anser. See DUCK and GooSE. the last being either sexless individuals, or undeveloped females. Ansgar (Lat. Anscharius or Ansgerius), surnamed the The neuters in some species are divided themselves into two Apostle of the N., was born in Picardy in 8oi, and educated at classes. The first of these includes the'workers,' on whom dethe monastery of Corbie, not far from Amiens, whence he passed volve all the duties connected with the formation of the nest, in 822 to Corvei, in Westphalia. His first missionary visit to with its repair, and with the care and upbringing of the young. the N. was in the train of Harold, the newly-converted King of The second class of neuters comprises the soldiers,' the sole Denmark; his second was to the court of Bi/rn, King of Sweden, office of which is to defend the colony, for which function they who gave him permission to preach the gospel in his dominions. are provided with large jaws or'mandibles.' The male and A.'s efforts were crowned with success. In 832, Pope Gregory female ants possess wings, the neuters being wingless. The IV. appointed him legate of the Holy See, and first Archbishop former two groups pair in autumn, after quitting the nest. The of Hamburg. On the destruction of this city by the Norsemen females are then impregnated, and lose their wings, and set in 845, A. took refuge in Bremen. In the reign of Eric he again about the task of founding fresh colonies from the eggs they devisited Denmark, and by his pious energy restored life and purity posit. The males die after impregnating the females. The to the feeble and disordered Church. His subsequent labours in' females are the larger of the three kinds of individuals, and in 120 s~ —---------- ---- ------- — + ANT THE GLOBE ENVC YCL Oki/tDIA. ANT some cases (as in the genera fyrmica, Altta, &c.) possess stings. of Asia Minor should submit to the lordship of Persia; (2) that Other species possess glands wherein a peculiar acid (formic all the other Greek cities, great and small, should be autonoacid), also found in nettles, is elaborated. This fluid possesses mous; (3) that war should be declared against any city which an acrid or irritating effect upon man and lower animals, and is should refuse to accept the conditions. Sparta was charged with employed doubtless as a means of defence by the A. The the miserable task of seeing the treaty observed. The afterneuters also possess stings, and these latter individuals are so history of A. is obscure; but Plutarch's story that he committed developed or formed, probably from a difference of food with suicide, in consequence of the indignation excited by his diswhich they are provided in their young or larval state. The honourable peace, has not obtained credit. Soon after, Epamilarvae that are to become males or females are thus fed on a food nondas destroyed the Spartan hegemony, and in a. generation different from that supplied to the neuter larvae. more Alexander the Great shattered in pieces'the Persian power. The remarkable instincts of ants have long formed topics of Antananarivo', the capital of Madagascar, lies in the centre interest to naturalists. Although modern zoology has seen the a ta avgcoierbe tae reason to doubt or' dispute much that has been alleged of these Z —, ob o;dsuemc ta a enalee fteeof the island, 7000 feet above the sea, having considerable trade, insects, yet their reputation has in no way suffered from the cur- and a pop. of So,ooo. It stands on a hill, which is crested by the tailment of some of the statements of earlier observers. Thus royal palace and he government buildings. Several churches certain ants (Ata p0rovidens, A. harbara, and A. seructor) are have been erected here by the London Missionary Society, one known actually to store up grain, as stated in Solomon's well- of which is a handsome granite structure. The climate is temknown admonition to the sluggard; whilst other kinds are ktnown admonition to the sluggard; whilst other kinds1~ are perate and healthy, but the town is occasionally Visited by terknoown to capture the young of different species, and to train uprilhalndtuersom.Gataeilpogssasbn rible hail and thunder storms. Great material progress has been k~nown to capture the young of dfermt species, ance. The chief seatheir captives as actual slaves, on whom the performance of the mde by the people under missionary guidance. The chief seamenial work of the hive devolves. Formica ruzfescens is thus a pot is Tamatave, on the F coast, distant mr miles. All the slave-making species; as also is F. sangzuinea. Most ants also roads about A. are wreted, and become mere wtcorses in C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~od abou. arew e hd ainy bc m m e e werorseason.'milk' the little Aphides or plant-lice —so common in our bushes the raiy season. and shrubs in the summer season —-for the sake of the sweet An'tar, or Antara, an Arab poet and warrior of the 6th c., liquid which the aphides secrete in a glandular structure situated whose poems had the honour of being suspended on the gate of in the abdomen. And by some naturalists, certain ants are the Caaba, and were therefore reckoned among the Moallakat alleged actually to keep the aphides within their nests, after the ('suspended'). We know nothing of the real A. except that fashion of' cows,' for the sake of this sweet secretion. he flourished shortly before Mohammed. His exploits formed The nests of ants are constructed in various ways and of vari- the groundwork of the romance named A., committed to ous materials. They are most commonly formed under the writing in the 8th c., and of which a much corrupted version has ground; the site of each being indicated by a little mound or been preserved. This was rendered into English vet-se by Terric hillock-the'ant-hillocks' of the peasantry. Internally, the Hamilton, secretary to the English embassy at Constantinople, nest is divided into compartments or chambers of various kinds under the title of An2tar, a Bedoueen; a ]Romance (Lond. 1820). and sizes, connected by galleries, and appropriated to distinct In this work A. is represented as the son of ari Arab sheik purposes, such as the storing of food, nurseries for the young, called Cheddad. Unfortunately his mother was a slave, and in &c. The red or horse A. of Britain (Formica tufa) makes the spite of his great talents he is long subjected to severe humilia: largest hillocks seen in this country. Other foreign species make tions by those who scorned him for the baseness of his origin. nests of variable materials and in different situations.. The Finally, however, he triumphs over all petty jealousies, is'mason A.' thus excavates the trunks of trees; whilst others acknowledged worthy to be a chief, and spreads both the terror utilise the tissues of plants as building materials. The most of his name and the fame of his verse throughout the whole of familiar genera of true ants are those included under the names Western Asia. The mo'al of the work is the victory of he'oic of brmzica, Atla, lyrmica, Polyergzus, Ponera, &c. Very many genius over the obstacles of circumstances. It is written in a species are included under these genera. lofty style, and gives us a splendid and interesting picture of The White Ants are described in the article Termites (q. v.) Bedouin life. Among Orientals, the romance of A. is almost as much admired as the A1rabianz ANihts, and there is not a storyacidS. This name is given in maeri eic to a teller who cannot recite some of its numerous episodes. number of substances which have the property of neutralising excessive acidity in the stomach, or in the blood, or in the urine. Antarc'tic. See ARCTIC. They are the alkalies and alkaline earths, and the carbonates and Antarctic Ocean (Gr. an/i, against; arc/os, the Great Bear, bicarbonates of these bases. Frequently they are given in prac- a constellation of the northern heavens; the ocean osie the tice along with the carbonate or sub-nitrate of bismuth, or with Arctic or north pole, the sea ound the south pole. The term is a biter vgetale hfusin. Th pricipa A. n us areArctic or'north pole'), the sea i-ound the south pole. The term is a bitter vegetable hifusmiaot. The principal A. in user are often confined in definition to the sea within the antarctic circle, magnesia, carbonate of magnesia, lime-water, the carbonates and but it is usually employed in a more extensive signification, as bicarbonates of soda and potash, and the carbonate and citrate comprising all the. sea S. of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific ~~~~~~~~of lithia.~~ ~Oceans. It is in this sense also called the Southern Ocean. Antre. See PILASTER. The A. 0. has not been so much explored as the Arctic Ocean. The highest S. latitude yet reached is 78' 4'. Names have been Antal'cidas, a Spartan politician and diplomatist. When, assigned to the following islands and tracts of land within its some years after the Peloponnesian War, Athens seemed likely bounds: Kerguelen's Land, New Georgia, New Si Shetland to re-establish hef: power, especially after the destruction of the Isles, New Orkney Isles, Sandwich Land, Enderby's Land, Lacedemonian fleet by the Athenian Conon, in the battle near Graham's Land, Adelie, Balleny, Sabrina, and Victoria Land, Cnidos, 394 B.c., Sparta' changed her foreign policy, From being the last possessing two mountains, Mt. Terror, Io,ooo feet, and obstinately Grecian, even to sectionalism, she resolved to sacri- Mt. Erebus, I2,400 feet in height, the latter being the only vollice the control of the sea, and the protectorate of the Greek cane known in the frigid zones. colonies in Asia Minor, for the sake of a Persian alliance which would secure to her again the hegemony or leadership of Hellas. Anta'res, a star of the first magnitude, marked a Scorplonis With this view A. was sent (392 n.c.) on an embassy to Tira- i the catalogues, may be seen from Greenwich at midnight in the begtinnig of July, situated about rei above the southern bazus, satrap of Sardis, and commander of the Persian forces in t Asia Minor, who secretly supplied him with money to equip a horizon. navy, till he should have received authority from Artaxerxes to Ant-Eater, the popular name of a genus of quadrupeds inassist him openly. The Persian monarch, however, superseded cluded in the Mammalian order Edenlata, and forming examples Tirabazus, and it was not till 388 B.C. that A., now made Spartan of the family Mjyr)mecophagidtv. These are the hairy or true antadmiral in the Asiatic waters, being sent out on a second eaters, occurring solely in S. America, and distinguished by the embassy to Tirabazus, who had been reinstated, succeeded in toothless condition of the jaws; by the greatly elongated tongue securing through him the goodwill of the king, who aided the covered with viscid saliva, by means of which the ants and Spartans to force Athens to such a peace as Persia, inspired by insects on which they feed are captured; by the hairy body; by Sparta,; might dictate. The result was the Peace of A. (387 the elongated tail; by the strong claws with which the feet are B.c.) Its three chief conditions were —(I) That the Greek cities provided; by the toes being concealed and united under the ^ 16 121 ANT TfHE GIOBE E2NCYCLOPMED A. ANT skin up to the claws; and by the palms and soles of the fore and mentioned, represents this group in America. The Saiga (q. v.) hind feet respectively being turned inwards so as to adapt the (Co/us Saiga), found in Poland, Russia, and in the European animals for hanging borders of Asia, is a form indigenous to both of these continents,'from the branches of the chamois being the only representative European form. The trees, like the allied Chiru (Pzant/ol/ops Hodgsonii) inhabits Thibet and the Himasloths. The snout is layas; this species possesses long annulated horns. The Chicara {-w- lX(prolonged, The sto- of India( Tetracerus quadricornis or A. Chikara) is remarkable for mach is gizzard-like the males possessingfour horns, two smaller horns being placed / F | Ad aft in its character. Small below the primary pair. The females of this species want horns. t1/.-. -', ~ K ~.. ~ — k Pears and eyes exist. The Nyl-ghau (q. v.) (Porlax ficta) of N. India is of ox-like The Myrmecophaga form, the males possessing horns curved in a lyre-shaped manner. ~" ~ joubalt, or great A. of The common or Indian A.,. tropical America, is or S&sin, is also a familiar Inthe best-known form. dian species.'The Gazelle The body is about (q. v.) (Gazella Dorcas) or A. 0a-,. -\-4 feet in length, of S. Asia and N. Africa are the tail measuring 2 small gracefully-formed anteAnt-Eater. feet. The fore-feet lopes, possessing small black have four, and the horns. It occurs in large hind-feet five claws. The Tamandua (M. Tanzandua) is of smaller flocks. They are readily do- - size, the snout being less elongated than in the former species. mesticated, and are of a gentle __ _ AA. didactyla is another form, which possesses but two toes. disposition. The Spring-bok Cyclotzurus is another genus included in this family, of which (q. v.) (Gazela or A. Euchore) one species, C. didactylus, possesses well-developed clavicles or the Bonte-bok (G. or A. Pycollar-bones. The scaly A. or pangolin of Africa and Asia az-ga, the Bles-bok (G. or A. is described under PANGOLIIN, the. porcupine A. of Australia albif-ons), the Kleene-bok (G. under ECHIDNA, and the Cape A. under ORYCTEROPUS. or A. perpusilla), Blauw-bok Indian Antelope.,A. leucophceus), and the RietAntece'dent (Lat. going before), in grammar, the noun bok (A. aundies) are allfailiarformsofS.Afica. Te preceding the relative, as'God who made the world,' where S. Af(ican Water-boa (c oba s elipsl God is the A.; in logic, that one of two propositions from which rymnus) is also a well God is other A.; ledimtac, th e firstof the two terms known species, and derives its name from its habit of frequenting the other is deduced; in mathematies, the first of the two terms streas. The lipspringers (q.. Oreotrs) inhabit mounof a ratio.'streams. The Klippspringers (q. v.) (Oreotragns) inhabit mounof a ratio. tainous districts of S. Africa. The Koodoo A. (Slrei6siceros Antedilu'vian literally denotes whatever existed before the Koodoo) of W. and S. Africa possesses horns twisted in a regular Flood, and is applied to the persons, conditions of society, reli- spiral manner, the males alone possessing these structures. The gious and other beliefs that distinguished the ages before Noah. Bush Antelopes (Cep2ha/o/opghus or A. sylvicultrix) and the Pigmy In geology, however, the A. period has no such limitation, but Antelopes (C. or A. iygmzea) are found in S. Africa; the latter denotes the period preceding the latest transformation of the species being the smallest of the A. family, and measuring only earth by the agency of water. about 8 or 9 inches in height at the shoulders. The Eland (q.v.) Anteflex'ion. See ANTEVERSION. (BoseaphAus oreas), like the nyl-ghau, resembles the ox in general form. It is the largest of the antelopes, and possesses a An'telope, a Ruminant animal included in the family Cavi-'dewlap.' The Addax (A. or Ozyx nasomacz/ata) inhabits N. cornia (' hollow-horned'), to which group also belong the sheep, Africa. The horns are elongated, and slightly twisted in a spiral oxen, and goats. The antelopes are essentially distinct from the manner. The Gnu (q. v.) (Catoblepas Gnu) resembles the nyldeer or Cervid-e, with which they are frequently confused in a ghau of India; a second species of this form (C. gorgon) also popular sense. Like those of occurring in S. Africa. These forms unite in themselves much all the Cavicoraia, the horns of of the form of the ox, horse, and A. Very many other species antelopes are persistent, and of antelopes are known in addition to those here mentioned. - are not shed annually as in Fuller details of each form are given under their respective deer, each horn consisting of a headings. I Al~'horn-core' or process of the |i - - { @ frontal bone, invested by a AAnten'nae, the zoological name for the jointed filamentous horn-sheath. In a single A. processes borne by the head-segments of insects, centipedes, &c., I alone-the Prong-buckl (HA/i- and crustaceans, and which are popularly named'feelers.' These Zocanpra Amerieona)-bis the organs chiefly subserve the sense of touch. Two pairs exist in horn-seta/ shed A or cast annu- higher crustaceans, and one pair in insects and myriapods. In hr ally. No incisors or canine Arachnida (spiders, scorpions, &c.), A., as such, are not deteeth exist in the upper jaw, teeth exist in te upper jaw, veloped, their place being supplied by the mandibles or large the six lower incisors and two jaws of these forms, some naturalists maintaining that the so. lower canincissng against Aiieeio. Mlower canines biting against called mandibles of the Arachnida are in reality only modithe hardened gums in the front of the upper jaw. Twelve molars fied A. exist in each jaw. The feet present the'cleft' character of Anteque'ra (the Roman Anticaria), a city in the province of Ruminants generally, and accessory or rudimentary hoofs are Malaga, Spain, 45 miles W. of Granada. It is picturesquely also developed. Horns are generally present in both sexes of situated and well built, but lies out of the route of travellers. antelopes. In form, these creatures are deer-like, and usually The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agricultural pursuits, possess slender legs. A'beard' or'dewlap' is seldom deve- and in the manufacture of baize, silk, flannels, cotton, and loped; and'inguinal pores,' or glandular structures situated in paper. A. was taken by the Arabs in 712, and was only rethe groin, together with'tear-pits' or'lachrymal sinuses' (sacs covered by Ferdinand in 1410. The French took it during the existing beneath the eyes), are very generally present in the ante- Peninsular war, and seized a splendid Moorish armoury belong. lopes. They are usually gregarious, and feed chiefly on grasses. ing to the town. Pop. 30,000. Africa forms the headquarters of the distribution of the antelopes, but they also occur in Europe, Asia, and N. America. Antever'sion. This is a term used in obstetrical surgery to In Africa these Ruminants take the place of the true deer or denote a displacement of the uterus, in which the fundus or upper Cervidoe, which, with the exception of one species, are not part of that organ is tilted forward, and the cervix or neck prorepresented as natives in that continent. The Chamois (q. v.) jected backwards. It usually occurs in the unimpregnated con(Rup/icapra tragus) of Europe is a familiar A., and in habits dition. Anteflexion is a bending forwards of the body of the resembles the Rocky Mountain sheep of America (Habplocerus uterus on the cervix. In A. the uterus is tilted forwards as a aniger), which latter, with the Prong - buck (q. v.) already whole; in anteflexion, the organ is bent on itself. Details reI22 } Ion~ ~ ~~~~ ANT THE GL OBE ENC YCL OPEDIA. ANT garding these conditions may be found in Churlchhill's Diseases of 2. Latin Anthologies. No Latin A. has come down to us W/omten. Fannin & Co. Dublin, I874. P. 384. from antiquity, nor is there any tradition of such having ever existed. In modern times, however, collections have been made Anthe'lia (Gr. anti, opposite; helios, the sun) are luminous. Anthe'lia (Gr. dnti, opposite; lios, the shun) aro e slumnot's by scholars out of the remains of the minor poets whose works coloured rings observed round the shadow of the spectatorns have been accidentally preserved. The first of these is the one head when the sun is at a low altitude and the shadow cast upon by Scalige at Leyde, in 73; nother at Paris, in 590; a a dense cloud or fog-bank, or even upon a field of corn or grass mo re extensive collection, at Am sterdam, by the younger Burmore extensive collection, at Amsterdam, by the younger Burbathed in dew. When viewed under very favourable circum- mann (X 759-73), of which Meyer published an improved edition stances there are four concentric rings, the inner three being3), of which eyer publedanimpoved edition usually coloured, while the outer and very much larger one is of lo 1835. a whitish light. Fraunhofer explains them as referable to the 3. Chinese Aithologies. The most ancient existing A. in the world is Chinese, the Shi-King (Book of Songs), a collection, same causes which produce double rainbows, viz., the single and by Confucius, of the best of the songs that were annually double reflections of a refracted ray in a small globule of water. sent to the emperor, as having become popular. t is one of the sent to the emperor, as having become popuiar. It is one of the Anthelminit'ics are agents which cause the destruction or canonical books of the Chinese. Of this a Latin version was expulsion of intestinal worms. At least six species of worms published at Stuttgart in I830, and a German one at Altona in infest the human intestinal canal-namely, (I) Tirichscep/halus I833. Two other collections, the one of poems of the time of dispar, or long thread-worm, found in the cccum and large in; the Liang dynasty (502-556 A.D.), the other of poems of the time testine; (2) Ascaris lumbricoides, or large round worm, found in of the Thang dynasty (6i8-914 A.D.), are also popular. the small intestine; (3) A. vermicularis, or small thread- 4. Arabic Anthologies. A collection, in ten books, of songs worm, found in the rectum; (L4) Tinvia soliu, or common tape- anterior to Mohammed; the Divan of the Hudhailites, and the worm, found in small intestines; (5) T. mnediocanellata, or hook- Ketb al-ghne(Book of Songs), with the commentary of Abulless tapeworm, found also -in sm.all intestines and (63 Bothrio- Faraj, have all a high reputation; but the best and fullest, and c~pe/znal s lotuzs, or broad tapeworm, found in the small intestines consisting in great part of the later Arabic poetry, is the collecof the Swiss and Russians. The principal A. are the ordinary tion of Taalebi, Yatinat aldhar (the Pearl of the World). Its purgatives which may remove the parasite; kousso, derived from value has been much enhanced by additions which have been a plant termed Bryera Anthelmintica; santonine, the crystalline made to it. principle found in Alrtemesia santonicunm; oil of turpentine, ob- 5. Persian Anthologies. These agree in plan with the Arabic, tained from various species of pines; and the oil of male-fern having biographical notices prefixed to selections, either in the obtained from the rhizome of Lastrza -Filx-mtas. Santonine is order of time or place, though frequently they are arranged acspecially adapted for the destruction of the round worms (I, 2 cording to the subject, of which the Medsha, al Shuara (a Coland 3), while oil of turpentine, kousso, and oil of male-fern are lectioi of Poets) is an instance. serviceable in cases of tapeworm. Of the other Asiatic anthologies it will suffice to mention-(I.) The Tartar, or East Turkish, and the Turkish, or West Turkish, An'them (Gr. antizphone, a hymn sung in alternate parts), a the substance of which is given in Hammer's IHistoey of West term applied in England since the Reformation to a species. of T7urish Poetry (Pesth, i836).. (2X), The In.dian-i.e., the Mochurch music adapted to passages from the Psalms or other parts hammedan-Indian-of which the most notable are the Gulzari of Scripture, and resembling the Motet (q. v,) It may be sung Ibrahim, containing specimens of 300. Hindustani poets, with by one or two voices, or it may be choral. biographical sketches; the Guldastai lishdt (Garland of PleaAn'themis, a genus of Composite plants to which the Cha.sure, alc. 1836); and the Gl'astai Ndzidn (Calc. 1845), of which the substance is contained in De Tassy's Histoire de la toomile (q. v.) belongs..itterature Hindui et Hindustani (Paris, 1839-47). (3.) The An'ther, the case containing the pollen of a plant. Siee Sanscrit. Sarngadhara's Peaddhati, close of the I4th c., is the STAMEN, only Sanscrit A. proper; but it is very rich, containing 6000 selections from the most celebrated epic, lyric, and dramatic Antherid'ia, the term applied by botanists to the male organs poets, arranged according to the subject. in Cryptogamous plants. In ferns they are produced in the Pro. The collections of modern European nations-English, Ger. thallus (q. v.), and contain bodies analogous to the spermatozoids man, French, &c.-are chiefly intended for popular didactic of animals. See PHYTOZOA. In mosses A. appear on the purposes, and do not require or merit special notice. fully-formed plants. The female organs of cryptogasms are called An'thony, St. See ANTONY, ST. Alrchze oiaza or Pistif[idia (q. v.) Arc onia or Pisillia (q v) Anthony's Fire, St, an erysipelatous disease of a peculiarly Anthol'ogy (Gr. a collection of flowers; Lat. fo-ilegium; pestilent character, derives its name from the circumstance that, comp. Fr. receueil, a culling or gathering), the name given to a when in.o89. it was making numerous victims over the greater collection of the' beauties' of literature, chiefly poetical, but portion of France, crowds of pilgrims repairing to the church of sometimes blended with prose. Asiatic and modern European La Motte St Didier,. in Dauphine, where the bones of St Antony anthologies are often made up largely of extracts from exten- are deposited, were through his intercession miraculously cured. sive works, but the Greek anthologies were strictly composed His help was soon implored over all France. The' Order of short epigrammatic pieces. We may briefly note the most of Canons Regular of St Anthony,' instituted in France in o90o, famous. to succour persons lsbouring under this malignant disease, conI. Greek Anthologies. That compiled by Meleager, the Syrian, tinned to exist till the year after the great Revolution. about B. c. 6o, was the first; but it has perished, along with the Anthoxan'thum, a genis of grasses. See VERNAL GRAss. anthologies of Philip of Thessalonica, who flourished under Trajan, Diogenianus of Heraclea, and Straton of Sardes, both An'thracite is a variety of coal distinguished by its great of whom lived in the time of the Antonines; and Agathias. Of lustre, hardness, and weight, and chiefly by the fact that when the two collections that have been preserved, that of Constan- burned it yields little flame or smoke, hence contains more cartine Cephalas dates from the Ioth c., and that of Maximus Pla- bon and less bituminous matter than other kinds of coal. A. is nudes from the I4th. The latter, printed at Florence in I494 found in some parts of Great Britain, in Devonshire, S. Wales, by John Lascaris, has gone through many editions, of which the and Ireland, but the largest deposits occur in Pennsylvania. A. latest, begun by Bosch in 1795, and finished by Lennep in 1822, was formerly regarded as almost useless, but is now extensively contains the Latin version of Grotius. In I6o6, Salmasius dis- employed in the iron manufacture, and for other purposes. covered in the Heidelberg Library a MS. of the A. of Cephalas, An'thrax, a term used in surgery for what is known as a which he collated carefully with Planudes, making exemplars of carbuncle. A carbuncle consists of severe inflammation of a the poems not found in the latter. This MS., after being trans- circumscribed portion of the skin and subjacent tissue, with inferred successively to Rome and Paris, was restored to Heidel- filtration of unhealthy adhesive matter called lymph. The berg only in I8i6. It was edited, with augmentations from swelling is hard, flat, oval, or circular in shape, dull red, acutely various sources, by Brunck at Strasburg in I776, and re-edited tender, or the seat of a throbbing pain. The skin ulcerates at by Jacob at Leipzig (1794-I8I4). These bright consummate various points, and matter or pus escapes along with shreds of flowers have long been the delight of scholars. dead connective tissue; this continues until all the dead tissue has 123 *.. —------- ANT THE GI OBE ENC YCI OPEDI. ANT been removed, when healthy action springs up, and the wounds unless got rid of, cause the goods to rot. This may be accomclose and cicatrise. During the acute stages of the disease there plished by long-continued washing, but more easily by dipping is great constitutional disturbance-high fever, extreme debility, the bleached material into a dilute solution of a substance which and mental depression. Occasionally, in aged people, death will combine with the chlorine to form an innocuous compound: may result from exhaustion. The treatment is rest, the fre- such a substance is called A. Formerly, sulphite of soda was quent application of linseed poultices, and free incision with the employed, but now the hyposulphite is generally used on account knife, so as to allow the dead, sloughing matter to come away of its greater cheapness uand superior'efficacy. With either of quickly. At the same time, the patient should be supported by these bodies the chlorine reacts, in presence of water, to form nutritious food, such as beef-tea, or beef-steak and porter; a a mixture of chloride of sodium (common salt) and sulphate of liberal allowance of port wine is required to support the strength; soda, neither of which are harmful to the bleached materials. and tonics, such as quinine, should be freely given. There is noeaning a power opposed to the Messiah ( disease in which low diet is more likely to be injurious A'tiChriSt, meaning a power opposed to the Messiah (Gr. anti, against, and Chzristos, Christ), has a history dating from the Anthropol'ogy (Gr.), the science of human nature, presents centuries immediately preceding the birth of Christ. The Jewish itself under two aspects I. Pzysical A., which treats of man notions about A., which in their full development are to be in his external relations, as, for instance, his relations to the rest gathered rather from the Apocryphal than the Canonical Old of the animal kingdom; whether he is a distinct creation, or, as Testament Scriptures, can only be understood in connection with Darwin in his OiefgZn of Sjecies and Descent o/f Man implies, a those they held about Satan (q. v.) From the time of the captivity development from a lower and simpler organism. In this view much of the Persian Dualism' had been adopted by them, though of the subject it touches upon and passes into Ethnology, Ethno- modified by their own conceptions of the Supreme Being. Like the graphy, Archaeology, Anatomy, Physiology, and IIistory, &c. 2. Persian Ahriman, the Jewish Satan was distinguished by hatred Psychical A., which discusses man's spiritual nature, his mental of mankind and hatred of God. He had a distinct kingdom, faculties, emotions, moral and religious feelings and aspirations, and waged continual war upon men. Still he dared not and thus is closely connected with Esthetics, Psychology, Theo- encounter God himself, but did not fear to resist his servants logy, &c, upon earth. Now, the Messiah was to be the Prince of God's servants, and was to appear in order to establish the kingdom of Anthropoor'phsm (Gr. anlos, a man, and norh God upon earth, which was almost entirely in the power of the form) is the application to God of attributes predicable properly devil and his angels, so that the'Prince of this World' would only of men, and springs from the difficulty human beings ex- defed his domiiions to the utmost against the Messiah This perience in conceiving of things spiritual otherwise than by at A. prevalent among the Jews at reference to things mnaterial. This, primarily a necessity, may the time of Christ. lead to error, and to our attributing to the Deity a form, parts, Regarding the A. referred to by St Paul, 2 Thess. ii. I-I2, SO and passions like our own.' In the 4th c. the Audnfoans, a many different opinions have prevailed, that it would be out of Syrian sect, assigned to God the ordinary human form. 1; and place to give any one of them dogmatically here. The epistles though this notion never prevailed anywhere, there has been place to give any one of them dogmatically here. The epistles much unprofitable speculation about analogous *otions. For be of St John, in which the namze occurs for the first time, merely much unprofitable speculation about anaogos notions. For spiritualise the popular notions about A., and call all who while Hobbes and Priestley invest God with a body, subtle, reject the gospel antichrists. The A. of the Apocalypse (the indeed, but still material, Hegel and Schleiermacher discard his objective personality for the subjective consciousness of him in Beast, Rev. x.) was the Roman empire, which, n its opposition to the Church, was then regarded as the embodiment of the human soul, which is really a negative form of A. Our heathenism ard ungodly power in the w more parascribing to God passions and affections results from our ticularly the Emperor Nero, who was referred to as the head ticularly the Emperor Nero, who was referred to as the head conception of him as a moral Governor; and while in one of the Beast whose deadly wound was healed (xiii. 3). There aspect this is natural, there is always a danger of the figurative aspect this is natural, there i always a danger of the figrative' arose soon after the death of Nero a belief that he was not really obscuring the itteral, dead, but had retired beyond the Euphrates, and would return Anthropomor'pho.is Apes, the name applied to the highest as A. The fact of the prevalence of this belief is clearly testified division at once of the Catarizine monkeys, and of the order Quad- by the historians of the time; and that this is the explanation of runlzana, including the gibbons (fylobales), the orangs (Simia), the figures of the Apocalypse is proved by the solution of the the chimpanzee and gorilla (Troglodytes). These forms are thus number of the Beast (xiii. I8), a riddle which has been unquesdenominated from their collectively exhibiting the nearest tionably solved only within the last forty years. Nepcv Kean-ap approach to the'man-like' or human type of structure. See in Hebrew characters is'Di 1J1~, and, according to the APES, MONKEYS, &C. Hebrew numerals, 5 (= 50) 1 (='206)+ + (= 6) + f (= 50) = 306; Anthropophagi. See CANNIBALS. (= ioo)+ D (=6o) + (=200)= 36o; total= 666.. But at last the Church, instead of being longer exposed Anthus and Anthide. See PIPIT. to persecution by the civil power, rose to the head of that power, and a proud and degenerate hierarchy was established. Anthyl'lis, a genus of Leguminous plants. See KIDNEY Then, strange to say, the language of Paul (2 Thess.) and the VETCH. figures of the Apocalypse began to be applied to the hierarchy Antia'ris, a genus of Artocarpaceous plants. See UPAS- itself by those who, from time to time, were opposed to the TREE. pretensions of the Bishop of Rome; and in the IIth c. the idea Antibes', a fortified seaport in the department of the Alpes- arose that A. was'the establishment and growing power of the popedom.' This opinion was held by the Waldenses, the Maritimes, France, stands at the point of a peninsula (La popedom.'?-his opinion was held by the Wallenses, the aritimope), France, stand miles S.at the point of Nice. a peninsula (La Albigenses, and the followers of Wiclif and Huss, and by the G.It was founded by time of the Reformation it had become very prevalent. Since the Greeks of Massilia (Marseille) under the name of Antipolis, time it has almost assumed the Reformation ipositione very prevalent. Sin the is still in the patois of the spot called Atntiboule, ranked as an Protestant Chrch; that is, except with tose who regard the Italian city under Augustus, and has numerous Roman remains, Italian city under Augustus, and has numerous Roman remains, fulfilment of the language in question as still future. According fragments of a theatre, aqueduct, inscriptions, &c. The parish to the an Catholic Church, A. is t stant Church; church occupies the site of a temple to Diana. In the 9th c. it Church, according to. the Greek Church, Mohammed. was utterly destroyed by the Saracen$, but was rebuilt in the Ioth, was fortified by Francis I. and Henry IV., stood a three Anti-Corn-Law League, an association founded at Man. months' siege during the Austrian War of Succession (I746-47), Chester, March 20oth, 1839, by members of the free-trade party, and in i8I5 shut its gates against Napoleon on his return fiom to obtain the repeal of the corn-laws. As early as I834 an Elba. It has been the seat of a bishop since the 6th c. A. has association had been founded in London for this purpose, but some trade in olives, fruits, salt fish, and oil; and it is famed for the centre and spring of the movement were in Manchester, the preparation of anchovies. Pop. (1872) 4502. where Mr Cobden, by his luminous exposures of the baneful influence of restriction on trade and manufactures, rapidly gained An'tichlbre. When chlorine or hypochlorous acid is em- numerous and powerful coadjutors. In I839 delegates were ployed to bleach linen, paper, &c., it is necessary to remove the sent from the manufacturing districts to impress their views on traces of chlorine which always adhere to the fibre, and which, the Legislature; and on February g9th, and again on March I24. * * ANT THtE GL OBE ENVC YCLOPkEDIA. ANT 12th, Mr Charles Villiers attempted, but without success, to devotion and womanly heroism. —2. The wife of Peleus, who move the House of Commons to inquire into the action of the hanged herself on receiving a false message that Peleus was corn-laws on the interests of trade. This defeat led to the betrothed to Sterope, daughter of Acastus.-3. The sister of formation of the League on the 2oth of the same month. To Priam, who boasted that her hair was more beautiful than that secure unity of action, the central office was established in Man- of Hera, and whose hair was therefore changed into snakes; but chester. It was to engage competent lecturers, obtain the co- the gods in pity changed her into a stork.-4. The second wife operation of the press, and establish and conduct a stamped of Ptolemy Lagus, the founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty, and circular for the purpose of keeping a constant correspondence the mother of Berenice, wife of Ptolemy Soter. with the local associations. Large funds were placed at its Antig'on-us, surnamed (accordingto Lucian) the'One-Eyed,' disposal. Gradually some of its most formidable opponents the son of Philip of Elymiotis, was born about B.c. 382, and was a were converted to its views, among them the prime minister, general of Alexander the Great. He received the Greater PhrySir Robert Peel; and the feeling of the country in its favour gia, Lycia, and Pamphylia, in the division of the provinces after being at last clearly pronounced, its success was inevitable. Alexander's death (B.c. 323). By the authority and help at first of This recognition by the country of the truth of one of the most Antipaterof Macedoniahe madea' successfulwaron Eumenes,ruler important and beneficial prin.iples of political economy, was of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia, whom he ultimately deposed owing in great measure to General Thompson's admirable and put to death (.c. 316). Seleucus of Syria was also obliged Calechisnz of the Cornz-Laws, in which the Principles of free- to seek refuge in Egypt. But his ambitious schemes excited trade were expounded with irresistible logic. Victory was alarm in the other generals of Alexander. A coalition was finally achieved in 1846, when Sir Robert Ped' carried a measure formed against him, consisting of Seleucus, Ptolemy, Cassander, in the House of Commons for the repeal of the Protective Duties and Lysimachus (B.c. 315),, and after a fierce and bloody struggle on Corn. carried on for years all over Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, and the Anticos'ti (a corruption of the native India4 name Natiscotli), Levant, A. was defeated and slain at Ipsus in Phrygia (B.c. 30I). an island included in the Dominion of Canada; lies at the mouth His son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, was deprived of his Asiatic of the St Lawrence, N. lat. 49' 24',' W. long. 630 39'. It has dominions; but in the civil confusions. and discords that marked an area of about 2000oo sq. miles, and at its S.W. point is a light- the time he managed to obtain the kingdom of Macedonia (B.c. house, the keepers of which are almost the sole inhabitants. 294), which, however, he lost before his death. There are no available harbours, and the interior is marshy and Autigonus Gona'tas, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, King mountainous. A. is chiefly important for its fisheries, and of Macedonia, and grandson of the preceding, is supposed y for seal and bear hunting. some to have received his surname from Gonnos or Gonni in Atidote, a substance which conteracts the physiologial Thessaly, presumably his, birthplace, and by others from a effects of a poison. Certain antidotes act by precipitating the Macedoiian word signifying an iron plate covering the knee. poison in an insoluble form, so as to prevent its absorption into His father died k.c, 283, but six years elapsed before he could Hti is fath.er' doiionsB.c Thoug twic sexpyasellped bfrore heicul the blood. For example, chalk-and-water is given in cases of obtain his father's dominions. Though twice expelled from his poisoning by oxalic acid, with the view of forming insoluble dominios, he finished his reign of forty-four years in comparatv ccdoyingio,. 239 hefiised hi eign f oty-fu'er ncmaa oxalate of lime. This is a chemical A. A second class of tie peace, dying. 239, aged eigty, antidotes act by becoming mechanically mixed with the poison- Antig'ua, a W. India island, the most important of the Leeous substance, so as to prevent its absorption. Thus, finely- ward Antilles, and the residence of the British governor-individed animal charcoal is much relied on as an A. in cases chief, lies in W. long, between 61' 44' and 61' 58', and in N. of poisoning by alkaloidal substances, such as strychnia. We lat.between I702'and 17' 13'. Its areais I17, 120 acres, of which have here a mzechanical A. It is evident that both of the fore- Ioo,ooo are cultivated. Pop. (:87): 34,344, showing a decrease, going groups of antidotes must be employed at an early stage since i86i, of 2oo00o. Being surrounded by islets, rocks, and of the case, while, the poison is in the stomach. Both are inap- shoals, access to A. is difficult; but the chief town, St John, plicable after the poison has been absorbed into the blood. We stands at the head of a large and safe, but shallow, bay. Enghave, however, a third class of antidotes which may act by neutra- lish Harbour is capable of containing the largest vessel. A. lising the physiological action of certain poisons, because theyexer- was discovered by Columbus in 1493, settled by the English in cise an exactly contrary action on the same parts of the nervous or 1632, and formed into a colony in i666. Of late years Chinese muscular systems as are affected by the poison. This is termed coolies (there were Ioo in 187i) have begun to compete with pihysiological antagonism. For instance, strychnia increases the the freed blacks in the labour market. Its products are sugar, reflex activity of the spinal cord, so that a slight external irrita- molasses, and rum. The total tonnage of vessels which entered tion of any part of the body will at once excite strong spasms or and cleared A. in I872 was 53,97I, of which 49,588 were convulsions; but hydrate of chloral has exactly the contrary British. The total value of imports (1872) was Z2oo,757; exeffect: consequently the. one substance is physiologically antago- ports, 128,237, of which the sugar was II9,o9I. nistic to the other. Another example of the same kind of action Atil'les, a term generally use to include all the W. Indies we have in the antagonism between atropi.a and Calabar bean, AniesatrmgealyaedoicuealthW.Iis we have in the antagonism between atropia and Calabar bean, except the Bahamas, and so designating a semicircular chain of and morphia and atropia. It is found, however, that this kind islands stretching from the Channel of Yucatan to the Gulf of of antidotal action is within narrow limits. In a particular Maracaybo. They lie in N. lat. between 23' 8' and Io' 30', and case, so much of the physiological A. may be necessary as to in W. long, between 84' 58'and 59' 20'. endanger life, not by the poison, but by the A. Still, physio- The GreaterA., Cuba, Jamaica, Hayti, and Porto Rico, lie on logical antagonism is now a well-established fact in science, the N and E., and have an area of about 70,000 sq. miles. The and in such a case as poisoning by strychnia, the only hope of in such a case as poisoning by strychnia, the only hope of Lesser A., to the W. and S., consist of a number of small islands, saving the individual would lie in giving large doses of hydrate with a joint area of 6500 s. miles. These are the Virgin with a joint area of 6500 sq. miles. These are the Virgin of chloral, so as to prevent the occurrence of convulsions. A list islands, Barbuda, Antigua, St Kitts Montserrat, Guadeloupe, of the various antidotes placed opposite the respective poisons Dominica, Martinique, St Lucia, St Vincent,13arbadoes, Grenada, will he found under POISON. Tobago, Trinidad, Margarita, Curagao, &c. The Lesser A. are Antig'one. Several persons of this name figure in Greek divided into two sections, the Windward and Leeward Islands antiquity.-I. The daughter of CEdipus, by his mother Jocaste, -terms, however, very variously used. In British phraseology, and sister to Eteocles, Polynices, and Ismene. When the the Windward Islands are those of the Lesser A. S. of 15' blind (Edipus went forth from Thebes, he was accompanied by N. lat.; the Leeward Islands those N. of that parallel. A., who tended him till his death at Colonus, after which she The A. were discovered by Columbus, and soon became of returned to Thebes. MeanwhilePolynices, havingbeen banished great importance in the trade between Europe and the New from Thebes by Eteocles, had collected a force, and marched World. The origin of the name, which was first applied to these against the city. The result was the death of the two brothers islands by Peter Martyr d'Anghiera in 1493, is uncertain. Some in single combat, the tyrant Creon forbidding the burial of their say that it was an application of the vague geographical tradition bodies. A. nevertheless buried the body of Polynices, and for of the middle ages that far to the westward of the Azores there her disobedience Creon condemned her to a cruel death. was an island called Antilla or Antilia; others again suppose Sophocles, in his (Edipus at Colonus, and Antig'one, has beauti- that the name is from the Latin ante, and denotes the islands fully embodied in the character of A. the Greek ideal of filial that lie in front of the mainland of America.,125 IANT THrE G-LOBE EXNCYC LOPEDfIA. ANT An.timony is a crystalline metal of white colour, with a slight and in the opening where the Orontes passes between Taurus shade of blue. One of its compounds (the sulphide) was pro- and Lebanon. Its harbour, Seleuceia, was open to the trade of bably known by the, ancients, but the metal itself was first pre- the W., and through the Syrian desert it was readily accessible pared by Basil Valentine in the Sth c. by caravans from the S. and E. The original city was built The principal ore of A. is the sulphide, called slibnite by mine- in the plain between the river and the hill, but three other sites ralogists. This occurs in various parts of the world-in Germany, were successively built upon and walled in, and the city was Hungary, France, America, and Great Britain, and in extensive hence called a Tetrapolis. The Seleucidae adorned the city beds in the island of Borneo. with the Palace, the Senate-House, and the Temple of Jupiter; The metal is obtained from stibnite as follows: The ore is and under the empire the Caesarium, and numerous baths, first separated from earthy impurities by fusion; it is then mixed aqueducts, and porticos, were constructed. The beautiful climate with a little charcoal to prevent caking, and roasted in the bed attracted wealthy Roman visitors to this splendid city, the of a reverberatory furnace. By this treatment most of the sul- frivolity and vice of whose inhabitants, however, rendered it the phur is burned off as sulphurous acid, whilst the oxide of the most debased even of the Greek cities of the E. The founding metal remains. This oxide is moistened with solution of com- of Constantinople deprived A. of its pre-eminence, but it rose mon washing soda (to convert any sulphide of A. into oxide), to, great distinction as a Christian city, ten councils having been mixed with charcoal, and heated in crucibles. The carbon of held in it between 252 and 380. The peace of the city, however, the charcoal combines with the oxygen of the oxide of A. to was frequently broken by internal factions; and the citizens form carbonic oxide gas, whilst metallic A. remains. A.,is some- were greatly addicted to ridicule, and to the invention of nicktimes extracted from stibnite by simply fusing it with iron. names. Some think that we have an instance of this in Acts Metallic A. is characterised by its extreme brittleness; when xi. 26:' And the disciples were called Ch/zis/ians first in struck with a hammer, it splits into fragments, and may be Antioch,' in which there may lurk a play on the word ChOristos readily reduced to powder. It may be obtained in crystals by by the suggestion of Chrestos, in the sense of'simpleton.' fusing it in a crucible, allowing it to cool till a crust forms on Whether or not, the propensity to scurrilous banter caused their the surface, piercing a hole through this crust, and pouring away ruin; for the Persians, who invaded Syria under Chosroes, A.D. the metal still remaining fluid: on breaking the crucible, beau- 538, took ample vengeance on the Antiochenes for their biting tiful crystals of the metal are found. A. melts at 450~ C., and jests by utterly destroying their city. A. was taken by the if heated in closed vessels, may be volatilised. Heated in the Saracens in the 7th c., recovered by the Greeks in the Ioth, and air, it burns with a white flame, and is converted into antimo- again taken by the Seljuks, A.D. I084. The Crusaders under nious oxide (or acid). It is not attacked by hydrochloric acid, Godfrey besieged and took it, A.D. IO98, and established a even though this be concentrated and heated to boiling. Nitric Christian principality of A., which lasted till 1268, when it was acid oxidises without dissolving it. A mixture of the two acids conquered by the Sultan of Egypt. From the Egyptian Mame(aqua regiq) dissolves it readily. A. takes fire when thrown lukes it passed into the hands of the Turks in I5 6. Since then into chlorine gas, chloride of A. resulting. A. is chiefly valuable it has rapidly declined, and the modern Antakieh is a poor on account of its alloys: when fused with most metals, it in- town, with a population (I872) estimated at I7,6oo.-There was creases their hardness in a marked manner. Type-metal is an another A. in Pisidia (Asia Minor), which is memorable as the alloy of lead and A., containing from 17 to 20 per cent. of the spot where circumstances first forced on Paul the conviction that latter. Britannia metal contains about 25 per cent. The che- his mission was mainly to the Gentiles (Acts xiii. 46). mical characters of A. resemble those of phosphorus and nitrogen; hence many chemlists regard it as a non-metallic element. Anti'ohus. Thirteen kings of this name reigned over The atomic weight of A. is 122, and its chemical symbol Sb Syria.-A. I. was the son of Seleucus Nicator and Apama, a (from stibiuml, Lat., A.) It forms many valuable and impor- Persian princess. On his father's murder, B.C. 280, A. succeeded tant compounds, used both in medicine and the arts. Of these him. From a victory over the Gallic horde that broke into may be mentioned antimonious chloride, SbCl3, called butter of Asia Minor, he was surnamed Soter; but in a second battle with A.; the oxides, antimonioLs acid, Sb203, and antimonic acid, them he was killed, B. C. 26I.-A. II. carried on a long war with Sb.05, the former being one of the ingredients of James' powder; Ptolemy Philadelphus, King of Egypt, whose daughter he subthe sulphide or stibnite, Sb2S3, the principal ore of the metal, sequently married.-A. III., surnamed the Great, made war on and largely used in firework-making; tartar emetic, or tartrate Ptolemy Philopator, but was defeated at Raphia, near Gaza, B.C. of oxide of A. and potash, C4H4OcK(SbO); and the oxychloride 217, on which peace was concluded. For seven years (B.C. 212of A., SbOC1, or powder of algaroth. 205) he persevered in an expedition against Parthia and Bactria, Antino'mianism (Gr. anti, against, and nomos, law), the which he was unable to subdue; but he established friendly reladoctrine that faith releases Christians from obligation to observe tions with them and with India. On the accession of Ptolemy the moral law. It seems to have manifested itself even in the Epiphanes, he renewed the Egyptian war, and defeated Scopas, infancy of the Church: apparent references to it occur in the near Paneas, B.C. I98. The conquered provinces, however, were apostolic epistles: the Gnostics were infected with it; and given as a dowry with his daughter on her marriage with it has been charged, though probably with much exaggeration, Ptolemy. A. now commenced his struggle with the Romans. against some of the heretics of the middle ages. The term, He sustained terrible defeats at Thermopyloe, B.C. I9I, and at the however, was first applied by Luther to the opinions of Johann foot of Mount Sipylus, near Magnesia, B.C. o90. To obtain money Agricola (q. v.), who in 1537 publicly maintained at Wittenberg to pay the heavy tribute imposed by the Romans, he plundered that justification by the gospel rendered the law unnecessary. a temple at Elymais, for which he was killed by the people Luther, with the aid of the Elector of Brandenburg, compelled B.C. I87.-A. IV., surnamed by himself gEjPiancs (the Illus Agricola to retract in 1540. Some English sectaries of the I7th trious'), and by his subjects Epimanes (the'Madman'), inflicted c. held antinomian opinions so extreme that in I648 Parliament cruelties on the Jews, which led to the heroic rising of the passed severe enactments against them. A. has sometimes been Maccabees, B.C. I68.-In the reign of A. XIII. Syria was re held from erroneous conceptions of Christian liberty; but wher- duced to a Roman province, B.C. 65.-Four kings of this name ever there is any enthusiasm in its adherents, it has generally reignedoverCommagene, a smallcountrybetweentheEuphates passed into practical licentiousness. See ANABAPTISTS. and Mount Taurus. A. I. was unsuccessfully attacked by M. Antony, B. c. 38. A. IV. received his kingdom from Caligula, Antin'dus, a youth of Bithynium, beloved for his beauty by A.D. 38, and, after a chequered career, was deprived of it by Hadrian, whose page he was, and whom he accompanied in all Vespasian, A.D. 72, when Commagene was reduced to a province. his journeys. He was either drowned in the Nile, or threw him- -A. of Ascalon, an eclectic philosopher of some note, under self into the river from disgust at his mode of life, 122 A. D. whom Cicero, who frequently speaks of him in the highest terms, Medals were struck and temples erected in his honour, and studied when at Athens. Hadrian rebuilt Besa, in the Thebais, naming it Antinoipolis, after his favourite, whom he also ordered to be enrolled among the gods. Antipm'dobaptist, lit. one who is opposed to the baptism of children. It is the correct designation of that sect of ChrisAan'tioch, the capital of the Greco-Syriac kings, was the most tians commonly called Baptists (q. v.) famous of the sixteen Asiatic cities founded by Seleucus Nicator, and named after his father. It was situated 20 miles from the Antip'aros, the ancient Oliaros, one of the Cyclades, famed sea, in the angle formed by the coasts of Syria and Asia Minor, for its stalactitic cavern, So feet high, and fully 300 both in 126 *p — ~ __~-=~ —-— ___q ANT TSE GI OBE ENCYCL OPASDIA. ANT length and breadth. It has been described by several modern and always associated with much distress. If such remedies as travellers, as Tournefort, Leake, Fiedler, &c. A. is 7 miles aconite, sulphate of quinine, spirit of nitric ether, or acetate of long, 3 broad, and has 400 inhabitants, who support themselves ammonia, be frequently given in small doses, the temperature chiefly by fishing, though corn and wine are produced in small may be lowered, and the skin, instead of being dry and hot, quantities. The only village is Kastron. The existence of the becomes moist and cool. Such remedies, therefore, are largely grotto was first announced to the modern world in I673 by M. de used in medical practice, although the rationale of their action Nointel, French ambassador at the Porte; but in I8o6, Colonel is not understood. Leake discovered in A. a Hellenic inscription containing the Antiphon, Attic orator, son of Sophilus the Sophist, horn names of ancient visitors to the cavern, thus proving that it was at Rhamnus in Attica, B.C. 480. Living when the meretricious not unknown to antiquity, though no mention is made of it not unknown to antiquity, though no mention is made of it fame of Gorgias was at its height, A. resolved to avoid mere in any extant Greek or Roman writer. The stalactitic incrusin any extant Greek or Roman writer. The stalactitic incrus- tricks of rhetoric, and to produce conviction by solid arguments. tations are of dazzling beauty. He opened a school, in which he laid down sound laws for the Antip'ater, a name borne in ancient times by many who regulation of public oratory, and in which Thucydides was a were eminent in war, politics, literature, and science. The best pupil. He did not himself practise oratory, but wrote speeches known and most distinguished was A., a favourite general of for others, in which he introduced his own political views, Philip of Macedon. Along with Parmenion he attempted, but and thus did much for the overthrow of democracy at Athens without effect, to dissuade Alexander from his Asiatic expedition (B.C. 41 ), and the introduction of the oligarchy of the Four till he had settled the succession to the throne by marriage. Ap- Hundred. In answer to a charge of treason, for having attempted pointed regent of Macedonia during the absence of Alexander, he to negotiate peace with Sparta, he made a splendid but unavailsuppressed the rebellion in Thrace, and concluded successfully ing defence, and was condemned to death, nor were his remains the war with Sparta. But Olympias, Alexander's mother, disliked allowed burial in Attic soil. Fifteen of sixty orations composed A., and in order to avoid the perils of dissension, Alexander by him are extant; three written for others, and twelve as speciordered A. to come into Asia with fresh troops, while Craterus, mens for his pupils. The former are clear, true, natural, and who was leading the discharged veterans home, should assume vigorously expressed, qualities not found, at least to anything the regency. On the death of Alexander, however, he was re- like an equal degree, in the latter. The genuineness of the instated in his office. Being soon after engaged in war with a extant orations is generally admitted. confederacy of the Grecian states, he defeated their forces at Cranon, abolished democracy at Athens, and caused the chiefs Antiph'ony, a method of performing music (chiefly in reliof the popular party, including Demosthenes, to be put to gious observances) in use among the Hebrews and other Eastern death. Then followed a war with Perdiccas, on whose murder nations, in which two sets of voices sang alternately. It is inti(B.C. 32I) A. became supreme regent. But he died soon after; mately connected with the paralelisms characterstic of the antd though he had a son, Cassander, he left the regency to poetry of the same people. It was adopted by the early ChrisPolysperchon.-Another A., who has a place in history, was the tians; and in this country the traces of it still exist in the' Defather of Herod the Great. An Idumean noble, brought up cani' and' Canitoris' sides of the choir in the English Church. at the court of Alexander Jannaeus, he played a prudent part Antip'odes (from the Gr. anti, against, and pous, podos, a during the conquest of Palestine by Pompey, and was rewarded foot) is a term applied to the inhabitants of places diametrically after the establishment of Roman rule with a variety of honours. opposite, or, generally, to the places themselves. In the 8th c. Finally, in B.C. 47, A. was made procurator of Judea by Julius those who held the existence of such inhabited countries were Cmsar, but was poisoned four years later at the instigation of a excommunicated, the doctrine being considered contradictory man whose life he had twice saved. to the teaching of the Bible. From the definition, it follows Antip'athy may be defined as the injurious effect, or violent that the A. must be on the same great meridional circle, and disgust, produced on a person otherwise healthy by an object the one as much S. as the other is N. of the equator. A. Island, which does not generally so affect persons of similar organisa- to the S.E. of New Zealand, pretty accurately fulfils these relation. Effects possibly due to a diseased state of the organism tions with respect to London, for which reason it received its must be excluded. The power of habit also must be discounted. name. Various other minor relations also subsist between such Thus Fodere says the fishers of Martigues, who lived onfish, had places. Thus, the noon of any place must be the midnight of an A. to meat-broth. This might have been expected: it is its A.; the summer and autumn of the one corresponds with the often found difficult to resume the eating of pork after discon- winter and spring of the other. Also, the time of day of any tinuance, but the wholesome variety of modern diet makes this place is either twelve hours before or after that of its A., accordeffect rare. Effects sometimes assigned to A. have been traced ing as you regard the former as W. or E. of the latter. to actual poisons; as in diseased or putrefied meat, and An'tipope, a term applied to a pope not canonically chosen. the cheese and sausage poisons. Again, mental association, The first of whom history makes mention is Laurentius, who especially if operating during childhood, may produce powerful flourished at the close of the 4th c. The lofty theory of a A.; e.g., to the diet used during a painful illness, or to the food Holy Roman Empire'inspired the successors of Charlemagne which by surfeit caused a violent sickness, the mere sight tending Holy tr with the belief that it was their duty to remove unworthy bishops to reproduce the feeling. Pure emotion may produce a real A., from the See of St Peter. Thus Otho the Great, Emperor of as in the physical loathing of a murderer. Certain antipathies, d et t e Germany, in 962 deposed John XII. for licentiousness, amid put originally common to all men, may be got rid of; eg., the horror Leo VIII. in his place. Others, again, interfered for purely of contact with cold-blooded animals (intensified in some cases by political reasons. Thus, in the [th c., Conrad II. reinstated hereditary association of danger): the loathing sickness of the Benedict IX., who had been expelled by the Romans for his dissecting-room is also removed by practice. Similarly, habit shameless depravity, his substitute, Pope Sylvestre III., ruling modifies the effect of the narcotic poisons. It is, however, only three months. Benedict next sold the pontificate to undeniable that pork, shellfish, esculent mushrooms, red fish, Gregory VI.; but the three popes, all alie unworthy, were and eggs have frequently acted like poisons, causing sickness deposed by a council held at Sutri presided over by a Germ and fainting. A. belonging to the alimentary canal should, soveregn, and Clement II. was chosen in their stead, 6.an unless frequently repeated, be viewed with suspicion, as the state gn, and Clement II. was chosen in their stead, 1046. of the organs is never precisely known. There are tte The history of the popedom bristles with similar unseemly of the organs is never precisely: the sight of are antipathies scenes. On the death of Honorius III., France, imitating the.belonging to the special senses: the sight of a toad and the example of Germany, assisted Innocent H. against the partisans smelling of muskin have caused fainting and convulsions. Draw- example of Germany, assisted Innocent II. against the partisans of Anaclet; and even Sicily, ignoring the choice of the emperors, ing the finger across the pile of cloth or velvet often has the same of Anaclet; and even Sicily, ignoring the choice of the emperors, effect~ otth tnsfsometimes set up a pope of its own selection. The election of effect on the teeth as the noise of scissor-grinding. Urban VI., after the death of Gregory XI. in I378, produced a Antiphlogist'ics, a term used in zmateria mzedica to denote a schism, known in history as'the great schism of the West,' group of substances which diminish febrile action, and more which lasted fifty years; the French cardinals setting up an A., especially produce a fall of temperature. The normal tempera- Clement VII., between whom and Urban VI. the spiritual alleture of the human body is 98'4~ F. In fevers, and in surgical giance of Europe was divided-France, Austria, Spain, Savoy, affections accompanied by inflammation, there is a rise of tem- Genoa, and Scotland siding with the seceders. The last A. was perature-in some cases reaching Io6' F.-a sign of grave import, Clement VIII. The dogma of papal infallibility, supposed to I27 4' + ANT THE GIOBE ENCYCLC OP/iDZA. ANT be discredited by these proceedings, is, strictly speaking, not acid, solution of corrosive sublimate, white arsenic (arsenious involved by them, because points of doctrine are not at stake; acid), alum, chloride of zinc (Burnett's fluid), permanganate of but there can be no doubt that the ambitious intrigues of rival potash (Condy's fluid), salt brine, saltpetre, and many other pontiffs have brought the dogma into disrepute. metallic salts. An'tiquaries, Society of. Under this title there are socie- Antispasmod'ics are medicines which have the property of ties in many of the cities of Europe and of America, whose arresting or of diminishing spasmodic affections of the muscles. object is to cultivate the study of antiquities, and to preserve the The word also includes remedies which allay irritability of mind. relics of past ages. The earliest S. of A. known to have existed Spasm of muscles may occur in hysteria, in painful colic, in in England was instituted in I572. It petitioned Elizabeth for hooping-cough, in the breathlessness of asthma, in angin anna eca charter of incorporation: the MS. of the petition is in the toris, and in neuralgia. In such cases, spirit of ether, tincture Cottonian Collection. This society was dissolved by James I. of castor, spirit of chloroform, aromatic spirit of ammonia, oil of In 1707 another S. of A. was instituted in London. It was re- peppermint, carbonate of ammonia, asafoetida, tincture or infuconstructed in I717. Its minutes begin IstJanuary I718. In sion of valerian, bromide of potassium, may allay the severe 1750 it was incorporated by royal charter. It consists of a pre- symptoms. These are the chief A. sident, who is ex officio a trustee of the British Museum, a council Antis'thenes, founder of the sect of the Cynics, son of an of twenty-one, and several hundred fellows. It has published Athenian, was born in the latter part of the 5th c. B.C., surviveed many valuable works. The S. of A. of Scotland was founded the battle of Leuctra (.c. 37I), and died at Athens at the age of in 1780. Its valuable museum is kept at the expense of govern- seventy. He was a disciple first of Gorgias, and then of Socrates, ment, and now belongs to the nation. See ARCHEOLOGY. whose death he witnessed. He taught in the Cynosarges at Antique', a term applied to Greek and Roman works of art, Athens, whence, probably, the name of his sect, though some to distinguish them from the mediaeval and the modern. Greek affect to derive it from kunikos,'doggish,' in allusion either to sculpture passed through several phases, which have their the snarling ethics, or the filthy habits of his more extravagant counterparts in the Greek literature and life. The earliest followers. He wrote much, chiefly in the form of dialogue. statues are somewhat barbaric, formal, and wanting in flexi- The fragments of his writings that remain were collected by bility; then follow Titan-like forms, having their analogues in Winckelmann, and published in I842. His philosophical system, the grand creations of schylus;* next, like the characters of almost purely ethical, represents pleasure as an evil, and pain as the Sophoclean dramia, come the noblest ideals of humanity, as a blessing. The highest good, according to A., consists in virtue, the sculptures of Phidias and his contemporaries; and then the which again consists in action. His disciple Diogenes, more works of Praxiteles, no longer purely ideal, but, like the charac-famous as a cynic even than A. himself, remained with him till ters of Euripides, more in the realm of actual life. With the his death. rise of comedy, everyday fonrms were introduced. The Roman Antith'esis (Gr. anti, against; titlhmi, to place), a figure antiques are not ideal, but real, representing actual life, and of rhetoric which consists in the explicit statement of the conthus in keeping with the character of the conquerors and admin- trast implied in the meaning of any term or description. It istrators of the world. derives its force from a principle of the human mind-viz., that Antiaquities. See ARCHsOLOGrV. we are vividly affected only by change of impression, whether as Antirrhi'num, a genus of plants belonging to the natural regards knowledge or feeling. order Scrophul'ariacew. See SNAPDRAGON. Antitrinita'rian, the name given to one who rejects the doctrine of the Trinity for philosophical reasons. If the obAn&tiscorbu'tics are remedies which act beneficially in the jection is based on theology, the objector is called a Unitarian. treatment of scurvy, or scorbutus. This disease is believed to be caused by the blood containing an inadequate amount of iAn'titype (Gr. anti, answering to, and typos, figure), the corpotash salts, and the virtue of A. is owing to the quantity relative of some other type; thus, the paschal lamb is the type of potash salts they contain. The chief A. are lemon or lime- or figure of which Christ is the A. juice, oranges, salads, water-cresses, potatoes, greens, onions, An'tiun, an ancient city of Latium, 38 miles S.S.E. of Rome, radishes, carrots, pickles, common sorrel, dandelion, &c. Acid now Porto d'Anzo. It passed into the hands of the Volscians tartrate of potash, malate or citrate of potash, also belong to shortly after the expulsion of the kings from Rome, and was a the same class. See ScuRVY. troublesome enemy of Rome till subdued (338 B.C.) The wealthy Antisep'tics are employed to prevent or arrest putrefaction. Romans resorted to A., where they built splendid villas, among Modern research has shown that all putrefactive changes are the ruins of which were discovered the Apollo Belvedere, and caused by the development of minute organisms called Bacteria, the Borghlese or Fighting Gladiator. Caligula and Nero were whose germs have been deposited in the substances liable to born here, and there still exist the remains of two moles conputrescence, either from the air or by contact with other sub- structed by Nero, which made A. one of the finest of Italian stances containing them. In order to prevent putrefaction, it is ports. It was serviceable as late as 537 A.D. necessary to destroy these germs, or the mature bacteria, or, if Antlia (Lat. antlia, a pump), the name applied to the elonthey are not present already, to prevent their coming in contact gated tube or proboscis forming a chief organ in the mouth of with the substance to be preserved. Putrefaction may be arrested Lepidopterous insects (butterflies and moths), and by means of by simply heating the substances in which it has commenced to which they suck up the flower-juices on which they subsist. the temperature of boiling water, or by cooling them to the This organ is formed by the modification of the maxille or lesser freezing-point of the same liquid. Unless, however, the air be pair of jaws, seen in typical form in the biting or masticatory excluded after this treatment, or the substances maintained at mouths of other insects. one or other of the above temperatures, putrefaction will again commence, because new germs will be deposited from the air, At-Lion the name given to the young or larval stage of a and soon develop into bacteria. Meat is preserved by boiling Neuropterous insect (Myrmeeo forzicarinn) which in its perfect stage somewhat resembles the dragon-flies, belonging to the it in tin vessels, and, when all air has been displaced by steam, fet stage somewhat resembles the dragon-flies, belonging to the hermetically sealing them. Fish is often transported packed in same order of the insect class. It inhabits S. Europe chiefly. ice, and may be preserved for any length of time if maintained The larval form is about half an inch in length, possesses six at its temperature, and people accidentally buried in glaciers legs, and powerful mandibles or jaws. It excavates a pit in the have been found after the lapse of many years exhibiting no sign sand, in which it lies in wait for unwary insects which nay of decomposition. Heat, cold, and exclusion of air may be tumble into the trap; and it is said to assist their capture by called physical A., whereas substances which act as direct throwing up jets of sand at such as appear in danger of escaping, poisons on the bacteria may be termed chemical A., and and thus jerks them backwards into its trap. It sucks the juices it is in the latter sense that the word antiseptic is usually of the prey, and then throws out the bodies from its lair. The employed. A quantity of one of these bodies added to any sub- pit is often of considerable size, averaging 25 or 30 inches in diastance liable to putrefaction preserves it, or if putrefaction has meter, and from 15 to 20 in depth. already commenced, causes it to be arrested. The more im- Antommar'chi, Francesco, a celebrated physician, born portant A. are, spirit of wine more or less diluted, carbolic in Corsica towards the end of the I8th c. He was a professor I28 ANT THE GL OBE ENVC YC LOPEDZA. ANT of anatomy at the University of Florence, but is chiefly known by the ancient historians, but by the sculptures of the Antonine as the friend and attendant of Napoleon during the exile in St column, and by an extant letter of Aurelius himself. The latest Helena. As a token of attachment, the emperor bequeathed a attempt to vindicate the miraculous character of the incident is legacy of 1oo,ooo francs to his faithful countryman, who in 1823 that by Mr Newman in his essay prefixed to part of Fleury's published Les Dernierxs lioments de Napoleon (new ed. 1852), an Eccdesiaslical Histoy (Oxf. 1842). While the northern tribes, unpretentious work full of natural pathos. Some considerable as a consequence of this overthrow, hastened to submit, or time after his return to Paris he produced a cast of Napoleon's solicit protection, a new danger threatened from the East, the head, professing to have taken it after the death of the emperor. result of the intrigues of Faustina. A false report of the death Public opinion seems, however, to have thrown considerable of A. induced Cassius, the hero of the Parthian campaign, with doubt on the genuineness of the work. At last, worried by the whom Faustina was in treasonable communication. to rebel and bitter attacks of the press, A. emigrated to America, and died seize Asia Minor. A. was preparing to set out for the East when at San Antonio, Cuba, 3d April 1838. He published a continua- he heard of the assassination of Cassius. In an address to his tion of a large work on anatomy by his old master, Mascagni of soldiers he lamented that he had no longer an opportunity Florence (Pisa, 1823-26). of pardoning the traitor; and when the bloody head of Cassius was brought to him, he shrunk from it with horror, and Antonel'li, Giacomo, Cardinal, and secretary to Pope Pius refused to see the murderers. His first act on arriving in the IX., was born, 2d April I8o6, at Sonnino, on the Neapolitan East was to burn the papers of Cassius unread, that he might frontier. The son of a herdsman, though of an ancient family, calm the fears of those nobles who were implicated in the he was educated at the Grand Seminary of Rome, where he rebellion. His wife Faustina, who had accompanied him, died attracted the attention of the late Gregory XVI., who named at a village in the defiles of Mount Taurus, and A., though him trelato, and raised him to several distinguished offices. In conscious of her profligacy and treason, with inexplicable weak1846 he was made Cardinal-Deacon of St Agatha alla Suburra, ness was prodigal of honours to her memory. Returning to and gradually acquired an influence over Pins IX. almost amount- Italy by way of Athens, he celebrated his triumph, December 23, ing to domination. A. was a member of the committee which 176. Fresh outbreaks on the Danube called him once more gave to Italy the liberal constitution of I848, the chief articles to Germany, where success again attended his arms. But his of which were soon after violated. In September 1850 he was constitution was shattered by incessant toil and anxiety, and he made Secretary of State, and later President of the Council of died, March 17, I8o, either at Vindobona (Vienna) or at Sirmium.. Ministers, Prelect of the Sacred Apostolic Palaces, &c. Vir- At the early age of twelve, A. was an avowed Stoic. His intually Papal Prime Minister, he conducts diplomatic intercourse, structors in the doctrines of the Porch were Diognotus, Apolloand controls all transactions of an official nature. At various nius, and Junius Rusticus. That a nature so gentle should have times the Church has benefited by his energy, decision, and been drawn to a philosophy so austere is to be explained by the shrewdness. During the agitation following on the CEcumenical practical character of stoicism, and its uncompromising antaCouncil of 1870 he came prominently forward in defence of papal gonism to sensual indulgence, then the canker-worm of the interests. Roman empire. But his studies were not confined to philoborn in Sicil sophy: he was learned in morals and jurisprudence, in metaAtonello (of Messina), a celebrated painter, physics and mathematics, in music, poetry, and the fine arts. A early in the 15th c. He introduced into Italy the art of oil- nobler life can adly be found n the records of humanity. It aintn~y.whic hehad een augh byJohan va Eyc ofnobler life can hardly be found in the records of humanity. It painting, which he had been taught by Johann van Eyck of was believed that he had been sent by the gods to bless manFlanders. The probable date of his death is19. Several of Flanders. The probable date of his death is 493. Several of kind, and that his death, which was accepted as a public calahis pictures are in the collections of London, Berlin, Vienna, mity, was only a retn to the heaven whence he had come. and Palermo. ~~~~~~~~~mity, was only a return to the heaven whence he had come. His persecution of Christianity, than which no historical fact is Antoi'nus, Itinerary of. See ITINEAY more clearly established, is not only not inconsistent with the inherent nobility and purity of his character, but was a natural A/ntoni'nus, Mlarcus Aurelius,'the philosopher,' son outcome of it. The sincerity of his own belief made him intoleof Annius Verus and Domitia Calvilla, born at Rome, April 20, rant of a system which gave no quarter to the old faith, and 12I A.D., was, after his father's death, adopted by his grand- which from ignorance he believed to be not only a foul superstifather. In 138 both A. and Lucius C. Commodus were adopted tion, but whose followers he probably imagined to form a danby Antoninus Pius, and Faustina, daughter of Pius, was chosen gerous political association. The only work of A. that has come as the wife of A., though seven years elapsed before the marriage down to us is a commonplace-book or diary in Greek usually took place. In 14o, A. was appointed consul;- and on the called the Mfedi/ations, of which the edi/o Irines appeared in death of Pius in I6I, he succeeded to the throne, voluntarily I558. The latest recension is that of Koraes (Paris, 1816). Numesharing the government with Lucius, at the same time be- rous translations exist in most European languages. There is trothing to him his daughter Lucilla. A long-threatened war even one into Persian by Hammer (Vien. I83I). with Parthia breaking out in the year of their accession the command of the Roman forces was intrusted to Lucius, Antoninus, W~all of (.dntonhzi Fallum), a military defence who, however, proceeded no further than Antioch, where he constructed by Lollius Urbicus, imperial legate in Britain in the ommad oftheRoma fores ws itrused t Lucusconstructed by Lollius Urbicus, imperial legate in Britain in gove hiwself up to drunkenness and the most degrading plea- the reign of Antoninus Pius, to protect the southern districts from sures. Avidius Cassius, intrusted with the command, forced the fierce inroads of the Caledonians. It was executed about the the Parthians to sue for peace, and Lucius returning to Rome yer 14 A., extendedfrom Cariden or Kinniel on the Forth, in i66, was bonoured with an undeserved triumph. A forin ififi, was honoured with an undeserved triumph. A for- to Old Kirkpatrick or Dunglass Castle on the Clyde, a distance midable confederacy of the northern tribes now menaced Italy, of 27 miles, and consisted of a ditch 20 feet deep and 40 wide, while the general gloom was deepened by famine and pestilence facing the N., with a mound or rampart on the S. side, and within Rome itself. Both emperors set out to the war, after behind that again a military road. Forts, with watch-towers rites of unusual solemnity, and a profusion of expiatory sacrifices between, were erected at intervals along the line. Portions of In 168i the barbarians were forced to sue for peace, and in i69 the Roman structure, which at a later period was popularly In 68 he ararins er focedto ueforpeaeandin 69known asGrhmsDkaetiltcabe Lucius died, when the sole command of the war, which was now know as Graham's Dike, are still traceable. renewed, devolved on A. Though embarrassed by difficulties, he Antoni'nus Pius, Titus Aurelius Fulvius, a Roman prosecuted the war with such vigour that he nearly exterminated emperor, born A.D. 86, of a family firom Transalpine Gaul. He the Marcomanni. His victory over the Quadiin 174 was accom- was appointed consul in 120o, was adopted by Hadrian in 138, panied by circumstances believed to be supernatural, and which and the same year ascended the throne. The twenty-two years gave origin to eager'discussions among Christian historians upon of his reign, otherwise nearly a historic blank, constituted a con. the miracle of the Thundering Legion. Dion Cassius states that tinuous period of tranquil prosperity. Internal tumult and the cloudless sky suddenly darkening, much rain fell, of which foreign aggression were promptly crushed, but there was no war the Romans, dying of thirst in the summer heat, were availing of conqiest. An insurrection in the N. of Britain was rethemselves, when they were suddenly attacked by the barbarians. pressed, and a wall-the Wall of Antonine-built between the Their position was critical, but they were rescued from it by the Forth and the Clyde, as a defence against the inroads of the descent on their assailants of a fierce storm of fire and hail. Caledonians. A. was a patron of literature, a wise lawgiver, Thai, some singular circumstance intervened is attested not only and a thoughtful sanitary reformer. The title Pius was bestowed 17 129 ANT THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPVDAI. ANT on hiln probably for his vindication of the memory of Hadrian at the age of I05. Of all the saints in the Romish Calendar, A. against a resolution of the senate. He died 7th March I6I. is the most popular. His festival is on I7th January. See the Acta Sanctorum of the Bollandists, and the Life of St A. by Anto'nius, Marcus, the triumvir, better known to English Athanasius, translated into Latin by Evagrius. readers as Mark Antony, was born 83 B.C., of an old patrician family, and related by his mother to Julius Caesar. After a Antraigues', Emmanuel-Louis-Henri de Launay, dissolute youth, he fled from his creditors to Greece, B.C. 58, Comte d', a talented but unscrupulous statesman, born about and thence to Syria, where he commanded the cavalry under 1755, at Ville-Neuve-de-Berg, Vivarais, in the French departthe Proconsul A. Gabinius. After serving with Ciesar in ment of Ardeche. The Abbe Maury was his teacher, and his Gaul, he repaired to Rome (B.c. 50) in the interest of the first literary essay (i788) contained a bold attack on the prevaillatter, and was chosen a tribune of the people. When the ing governments of Europe, and helped to hasten the French war broke out between Caesar and Pompey, A. commanded Revolution. When elected deputy for his native town, I789, Caesar's left wing at Pharsalia, and during the latter's absence in he suddenly became a strong Conservative, opposed the union Africa, was intrusted with the government of Italy, when he of the three estates, and upheld the royal veto as essential to made himself notorious by his debaucheries. In 44 B.C. he right government. He quitted France, I790, and was engaged was chosen consul; and when Caesar was assassinated, A. excited in diplomacy for several years at Vienna, St Petersburg, and such a storm of popular indignation against the conspirators, that Dresden. While in Russia, he joined the Greek Church, and they were forced to escape from Rome. After a quarrel with was a pensioner of the Czar. Many letters and pamphlets were Octavianus, he repaired to a consultation with him and Lepidus, thrown off meanwhile on current subjects, most of which show at which the three (hence the name'triumvirs,' strictly Triu'mviri him as a Bourbon partisan. On the 22d July I8I2, A. and his RYeipublica Constitflen&) agreed to share the empire between them- wife were murdered, near London, by an Italian servant named selves, as a first step to which they put to death all whose power Lorenzo, who had revealed his correspondence to the agents of and patriotism were dangerous to their pretensions, and among the French emperor in London, and who dreaded the discovery them the orator Cicero. After a campaign in Macedonia in con- of his perfidy. A.'s pamphlets are numerous, and were once junction with Octavianus, in which they defeated the forces of interesting. Brutus and Cassius, A. repaired to Asia to settle his dispute with Cleopatra, by whose beauty he was at once captivated, and Antrim, a county in the. of Ieland, bounded on the he gave himself up to a life of luxurious idleness. A second divi-N. and E. by the sea, on the W. by the county of Londonderry sion of the empire was arranged at Brundusium, the East falling and Lough Neagh, and on the S. by the county of Down. Area, to A., who married Octavia, sister of Octavianus; but he soon 164 sq. miles. The E. coast is hilly, with ranges stretching after resumed his voluptuous courses with Cleopatra, which into the interior, which slopes towards the S.W. The surface roused the ire of the Romans, and widened the breach between is chiefly composed of basaltic trap, the basalt sometimes assumhim and his brother-in-law. Octavianus declared war against ing strange and picturesque forms, as in the case of the wellCleopatra, whose forces, with those of A., were totally de- known Giant's Causeway on the N. coast. Rathlin or Rachra feated at Actium (q. v.), 31 B.C. The infatuation of A. brought Island (where Bruce lay hid one winter) and the Sherries him once more t-o E~gypt., where he renewed his career of de- ('rocks') lie off the same coast. The principal rivers are the bauchery; but his pleasures were interrupted by the arrival of Bann, the Lagan, Bush, and Main. Peat-bogs are large and Octavianus at Alexandria. Bestirring himself, he gained a tri- numerous. Coal, salt, and iron are found. Oats are the chief fling advantage in a charge with his cavalry; but his star had crop of 254,85I acres under crop in I872, 86,322 were under oats. There are manufactures of linen, cotton, woollen goods, paled before that of his rival, and hope abandoned him. A falseen, cotton, woollen goods, report had reached him as to the death of Cleopatra, when, fall- &c., and considerable fisheries are carried on. The chief ing on his sword, he died, 30 B.C., at the age of fifty-three. towns are A., Belfast, Carrickfergus, and Lisburn. A. returns six members to Parliament-two for the county, and four for Antonius, or;Antony of Padua, or of Portugal, St, boroughs. The population in I871 was 404,015, more than was born at Lisbon, August 15, II95; studied at Coilnbra, and half of whom were Presbyterians, the descendants of Scotch and entered the order of St Francis, who was still living. Possessed English colonists. by a desire for martyrdom, he embarked for Africa, but contrary winds drove him on the coast of Italy, here he gave himself Antrum, a term used in anatomy to denote a space or cavity. windsup to theology and preaching at Montpeliy, wher, Toulouse, a ndhimself The most important is the A. of Highmore in the superior maxilup to theology and preaching at Montpelier, Toulouse, and Padua, where he died I3th June 123I, and where a chu rch communicates with the nose. This space is bearing his name contains his monument. His sermons (Sernmzones Domzinicales, Adventus, Quadragesimaesi s, &c.) are Ant-Thrushes, or Ant-Catchers, a group of Insessorial written in the style of his age, when it was customary to sacrifice or Perching birds, included in the Deutirostral section of the the literal sense of Scripture to mystical subtleties. The most order, and forming the types of a sub-family (Formicarine), which complete edition is that by Azzoguidi (Bologna, I757). in turn is included in the Tsurdidie or Thrush family. The bill is Anton Ulric. See AN-NA CARLO'VNA. strong, somewhat straight, but generally hooked at the tip. The tarsi are long, and covered with large scales. The wings are AntonySt, sometimes ofTheb ncalled The Great, and some- short, and the flight is in consequence of limited nature. The times bAntoYny of Thebes, born about 251 A.D., at Koma, in genus Pit/a, the members of which are found in S.E. Asia and Upper Egypt, was the father of monachism. His parents gave the E. Archipelago, represent these forms-P. Bengalensis and P. him a very religious, but not a very intellectual, education. All Neple.sis being familiar forms Br eryx is another genus through life he could speak only the Coptic language, and was of these birds, B. on being found in Java. The S. Ameignorant of all the literature and philosophy of Greece. About the~ ag o nobdenetowhtheblivd obearican species are also numerous, the Erallaria rex being the best the age of twenty, in obedience to what he believed to be a known of these forms. divine injunction, he sold his possessions, the price of which he gave to the poor, and retired to the wilderness to lead an Antwerp (Fr. Anveyrs), the chief commercial city in Belascetic life. Not satisfied with even this severe discipline, at gium, capital of a province of the same name, is situated on the age of thirty-five he separated himself further from the haunts the river Scheldt. It is also the Belgian military headquarters, of men, and passed twenty years in the most profound seclusion and one of the most strongly fortified towns of Europe, being in an ancient ruin. In 305 he founded the monastery of FaYoum, defended by a recently-built wall, a new and an old citadel, near Memphis, in answer to the prayers of a multitude of an- numerous ditches, and a line of detached forts. There is an chorites who wished to live under his guidance, but visited intricate system of basins, docks, wharfs, and quays; but the Alexandria in 31 I, during the persecution of the Christians under harbour, though capable of accommodating some 4000 vessels, Maximian, hoping for martyrdom, but in vain. He now sought is deficient in size, and much of the trade has of late years been a deeper solitude near the Red Sea, but having been discovered transferred to other ports. In I873 the remarkably small number by his disciples, he returned with them. Again leaving them, of only thirty-three vessels belonged to A. For some time (I875) he sought the valley of the Nile, but in 355 repaired to Alex- a scheme has been on foot to establish a new commercial town andria during the Arian controversy. Feeling the approach of on the left bank of the Scheldt, where unlimited additions might death, he returned to the wilderness, and there died, 356 A.D., be made to the harbour, and to connect it with A. by a bridge. 130 ANU THiEE GLOBE ENC YCL OPA9Z~A. AOR The principal building in A. is the Cathedral, erected in the blood-vessels of the A. and lower part of the rectum, which I4th c., a splendid Gothic structure, with a tower 380 feet high, may or may not give rise to bleeding when the bowels are moved. and containing several of Rubens' finest pictures. There are They are of two kinds, internal, or within the A., and external, also a Museum, an Academy of Sciences, an Academy of Paint- or round the orifice. The former always bleed, the latter freing and Sculpture, a Naval Arsenal, Zoological Gardens, a quently do so. A sedentary life, intemperance in food and Medical School, and the oldest Exchange in Europe. The drink, the habitual use of drastic purgatives, hard exercise on chief exports are woollen yarn, flax, sugar, paper, hides, and horseback, and the existence of other diseases in the pelvis, are petroleum. Imports-cotton, silk, oil, and iron; There are the chief predisposing and exciting causes of the disease. In important manufactures of thread, silk, sugar, tobacco, and addition to the constant irritation caused by their presence, the printer's ink; besides which there is extensive shipbuilding. system soon suffers from the repeated bleedings, and the inPop. (1870) I26,663, mostly Flemish. A. is mentioned as early dividual becomes anaemic. The treatment is constitutional as the 8th c.; flourished during the middle ages; but attained and local: constitutional-a mild, nutritious diet, the use of its greatest prosperity in the I6th c., when it had more than purgatives, such as electuary of senna, castor oil, or sulphur, 200,000 inhabitants. The rise of the Dutch Republic and the twice or thrice a week, so as gently to open the bowels, and enterprise of the Amsterdamers subsequently deprived it of its general tonic treatment: local-sponging with cold water night superiority. It has sustained numerous sieges, the last in 1832,. and morning, the use of an astringent injection (ten drops of when France and England forced Holland to surrender it to tincture of the perchloride of iron to an ounce of water), or the Belgium. use of an astringent ointment, such as compound ointment of Anu'bis, an Egyptian deity, the sixth of the twelve deities galls. These measures are merely palliative. To effect a cure, who formed the second order, and whose duties lay among the surgical interference is required. This consists essentially in elements of nature, was the son of Osiris and Nephthys, a sister applying a ligature round the hrmorrhoid, and then cutting it off. Sometimes, for external piles, the application of a ligature on monuments with the head of a jackal or dog, and long, pointed is not necessary. ears. Like Hermles, he wasthe'shade-conductor,' and in Hades 6. Proapsns ani is a protrusion of the mucous membrane assisted Horus to weigh judicially the lives of the departed. The through the anal orifice. It frequently occurs in feeble children. Romans invested A. with the insignia of H-ermes, iln addition to The palliative treatment is to return the bowel as gently as poshis own. The proper sacrifice to A. was a white-and-yellow Sible, and afterwards to retain it in its place by wearing a belt cock. with a pad and elastic support. Sometimes, though rarely, a Anupshuhur', a town in the division of Meerut, N.W. surgical operation is necessary. Provinces, India, on the Ganges, 73 miles E. of Delhi. It is An'ville, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d', perhaps the built chiefly of mud and coarse bricks, but has an increasing greatest of French geographers, was born at Paris in I697. He trade in cotton, cocoa-nuts, pulse, tobacco, and saltpetre. Pop. was particularly versed in ancient and classical geography, and he devoted his whole life to this his favourite science. His first (i87I) Io,644. production was a map of ancient Greece, published when he was Anus, or Vent, the terminal orifice of the alimentary canal of only fifteen. His map of Italy, for which he was especially animal forms, in which the intestine opens. Occasionally, as in famed, was published in I743. Altogether, he published Io4 some of the Brachiopodous mollusca, a perfect digestive system maps on ancient, and IO6 on modern, geography. A. died in may exist without any anal opening being discernible, the intes- 1782. His valuable collection was bought by Louis XVI. for tine ending caecally, or like a pocket. In the ztnicata or Sea- the Royal Library in I779. But his geographical treatises are Squirts (q. v.), the intestine ends in a special sac or atrium. In no less admirable for their time, full of erudition, and of curious, birds, reptiles, and amphibia, in some fishes, and in certain lower exact, and searching criticism. The works of A., announced by mammalia, the intestine terminates in a chamber or cloaca, comn- M. de Manne in I8o6, were to be in 6 vols., with maps drawr mon to the efferent ducts of the urinary, generative, and diges- up from the designs of A. himself; but the death of M. de tive systems. The anal opening is that by which the effete or Manne in I832 arrested the publication at the second volume. excrementitious products of digestion are expelled from the body. Anwa'ri, a celebrated Persian poet of the 12th c., born in In higher forms it is provided with special (sphincter) muscles for its closure, and is also in many forms provided with glandular atTus. The of K horassan and educated at the Mansur College appendages. See ANAL GLANDS. - at Tus. The story of his sudden rise to fame is highly romantic. A grand procession of the Seljukide sultan, Sanjar, at Tus, so Anus, Diseases of. The A. is the lower termination of the dazzled the young poet that he passed the night in writing a alimentary canal. It is a dilatable opening, lined internally by poem descriptive of the pageant. Next morning the poem was mucous membrane, and externally by the skin. The skin, which presented to the sultan, who was so pleased with the production is thrown into folds during the closure of the orifice, is covered that he placed its author among his courtiers. A. had now by sensitive papillae, and contains small sebaceous or oily glands. ample time to cultivate his art, and he wrote many beautiful loveThe diseases to which it is liable are numerous. They are as songs (ghazels), and several striking but lavishly ornate panefollows:- gyrics, besides elegies and satires or kasidas. He also addicted I. Ulcer andfissure of the A. These are both distressing himself to the study of astrology. He died at Balkh in I200 or affections, giving rise to great pain during defoecation. -The 120I, whither he had been forced to withdraw owing to the treatment is the application of nitrate of silver tothe fissure, and failure of one of his astrological predictions. the use of a suppository containing morphia or belladonna. In Aonlaganj', a town in the British district of Bareilly, N.W. severe cases it becomes necessary to cut the affected mucous Provinces, India, 150 miles W. of Delhi. It has a large bazaar membrane, and part of the fibres of the sphincter muscle, so as and an increasing trade. Pop. (I871) 9947. to set the part at rest. 2. Spasmodic contraction of the spzhincter ani, often associated A'orist (or Gr. indefinite), a tense of the Greek verb which with fissure or ulcer of the A. Local sedatives are required. expresses an action undefined as to time. The use of this tense 3. Abscess in the neighbourhood of the A. is frequent. Its gives great nimation to narrative. important to prevent the pus burrowing into the bowel, and Aor'ta, the chief or main artery originating from the left therefore the practice is to open freely from the surface at an ventricle of the heart in mammals and birds, and which, through early stage. its branches, distributes the pure or arterial blood throughout the 4. Fistula in ano. When an abscess forms by the side of the body. In man, the A. arises from the upper and back part of A., it occasionally discharges its contents *into the bowel, con- the left ventricle. It then ascends forwards to the right, and tracts, and leaves a sinus, which is termed a fistula in ano. then curves backwards to the left, thus forming an arch known as There are usually two openings into the fistula, one by the side of the arch of the A. It turns over the left bronchus (or left main the A., and the other opening into the gut. The treatment con- division of the windpipe), and passes in an oblique manner from sists in laying the fistula open by cutting from it into the bowel. the breast-bone towards the spine. It then descends vertically The wound is then healed by granulations from the bottom, and in front of the spine on the left side, and at the level of the fourth the fistula is thus got rid of. lumbar vertebra divides into the two cozmmon iliac arteries, which, 5. He-emorrhoids, or Piles. These are small swellings of the together with their branches, supply the lower parts of the w' - - - t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ AOS THE GLOBE ENCYCI OPMDIA. APE body with blood. In birds the A. turns over the right instead 130 S. of Pesth. It has some trade in hemp, silk, woad, and of over the left bronchus, as in man. The arch of the A. gives madder, and much silk is produced in the neighbourhood. Pop. off the left common carotid artery, the left subclavian artery, the (I869) 9053, mostly German. innominate artery (which shortly divides into the right subclavian and right common carotid arteries), and the two coronary Ap'atite is the name of a mineral containing phosphate of arteries which supply the heart itself with blood. The entrance lime, Ca3P203 or 3CaO, P205, together with chloride and fluoride to the A. is guarded by three membranous flaps or valves, pre- of calcium. It is found in Great Britain, in the tin veins of St venting regurgitation of the blood into the left ventricle, and Michael's Mount, Cornwall, and in Devonshire; also in France, termed the semilunar valves of the A. In the foetus before birth, Germany, Norway, and America, and in large quantities in Spain. the pulmonary artery and A. communicate by means of the It is principally employed in the manufacture of superphosphate ductus arteriosus; this communication becoming obliterated soon of lime, CaO,II2H2O,P205, now used in large quantities as an after birth. The A. in the chest gives off the bronchial arteries artificial manure. For this purpose A. is ground to powder and supplying the lungs; the a-sophageal arteries supplying the gullet, treated with sulphuric acid. This acid precipitates two-thirds and the intercostals distributed to the walls of the chest. The of the lime present as phosphate, in the form of sulphate of lime abdominal A. gives off the two phrenic arteries, or those of the (gypsum), whilst soluble superphosphate remains. diaphragfm or'midriff;' the ccliac axis supplying the spleen, 3CaO,P205 + 2H20,SO3 =CaO,2H20,P205 + 2CaO,SO3 liver, and stomach; the szuperior mesenteric and inferior mesen-. teric arteries for the intestines; the renals and szura-renals for Phosphate of Sulphuric Superphosphate Sulphate the kidneys; the spermatic for the reproductive and urinary organs; and the lumbar arteri es for the walls of the abdomen in the region of the loins. The caudal artery is a small branch Ape, the name applied to the higher Quadrueman or monwhich is abortive in man, but is continued into the tail, in the keys, which are included in the sections Cynocephali (baboons lower animals. and mandrills) and AnthropomnorAos'ta (corruption of Augusta), the chief town of a district phi (gorillas, chimpanzees,gibbons, of the same name in the province of Turin, N. Italy, situated on and orangs). The tail in these the left bank of the Dora-baltea, near the base of Mount St Ber- forms is rudimentary or wanting. nard. It is neat and well built, and possesses a handsome town- MONEYS, QUADRUMANA, hall and a fine cathedral. A. was the ancient capital of the Salassi, a brave mountain race, who fiercely opposed Appius Ap'eldoorn, a small village, Claudius (I43 B.c.) when entering Gaul. The Romans under centre of a manufacturing district Augustus rebuilt the town, naming it Augusta Prnetoria, and it in the province of Gelderland, still abounds with many splendid architectural remains. A. is Netherlands, 17 miles N. of Arn- Mandrill Baboon. the birthplace of Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury; and St Ber- hem, and connected by means of a nard de Menthon, founder of the well-known hospice that bears canal with a branch of the Yssel. The district has forty-two his name, was for some time archdeacon here. It has consider- paper-factories, several copper-foundries, and many corn-mills, able trade in leather, cheese, and wine; and in the vicinity are and carries on, besides, an active transit trade. Near A. is the the extensive mines and noted baths of St Didier. Pop. (I870) Loo, a royal hunting-lodge. Pop. of the commune (I870), 5958. 12,66i; but of the village itself, only I853. Aoudad Sheep (Ammotragus tragelaphus), a species of Apel'es, the most famous painter of antiquity, flourished sheep, occupying an intermediate position between sheep and between 352 and 308 B.c. His father's name was Pythias, and goats, found in the mountainous parts of N. Africa, from Barbary though accounts vary as to his birthplace, the best accredited is to Abyssinia. It does not possess the lachrymal sinuses of the that which makes him a native of Colophon, in siaMinor. He sheep, but like the latter forms, it is provided with a gland placed studied first at Ephesus, then at Amphipolis, and last at Sicyon, between the hoofs. - The body-colour is reddish-brown, and the becoming thus acquainted with the excellences of the different front of the body is covered with a quantity of thick hair, whichlose friend ofAlexander the Great havgives to the fore parts a singular and massive appearance. It ing lived for some time at the court of his father Philip. He exists in small herds, and is of fierce disposition. The horns are thereafter visited Rhodes, Cos, Alexandria, and Ephesus. His of large size, and curved outwardly. Venus Anadyomene was the pride of ancient art. It repreApa'fi, Michael I., Prince of Transylvania, was born sented the goddess rising from the sea, the drops falling round in i632, of noble family. He fought with Prince George II. her like a transparent silver veil. Though he surpassed all his against the Poles in I656, but was captured by the Tartars under contemporaries in grace, he did not hesitate to attempt the Mohammed Girai. Shortly after his release he was created heroic, and his representation of Alexander wielding the thunderPrince of Transylvania (I66I) by the influence of Ali Pasha, the bolt greatly pleased Alexander himself. A. was an indefatigTurkish generalissimo under Sultan Mahmoud IV. Supported able student of his art; hence the origin of the famous proverb, by the Ottoman power, A. enjoyed a tranquil reign, and acquired Nuh dies sine a ('No day without its line'). He was just t fresh possessions. He threw off his allegiance to the Porte after the merits of his contemporaries, and i-eely acknowledged the its defeat at the siege of Vienna (I683), and was taken under epartments in which they excelled himself. He was amenable imperial protection. Grief at the death of his wife, Anna Bor- to criticism, and altered a shoe at the suggestion of a cobbler; nemitza (I688), is said to have brought on sufferings fiom which when the same crtic ascended to the leg, A. told him to he died in I69o, just as the Turks were on the point of entering tick to his last; hence the proverb, e sor sa creid Transylvania to punish him for his perfidy. His son, Michael In honour of this exquisite genius, the art of painting was called II., at once ascended the throne. The Turkish forces were for Ars Apeaz. a time successful, but all the places taken were finally regained by the help of the imperial troops. The young prince of Tran- Ap'ennines (Lat. Eons Apenninzus or Apeninus, probably sylvania, discouraged, probably, by his short and stormy reign connected with the Cymric Celtic Pe, a'head' or'hill;' was induced to part with his dominions to Austria for a pension mp. Pe-nine Range, Pin-ds, Pen-nigant, &c. The Gaelic of 12,ooo or I5,000 florins. He died childless at Vienna, Feb- Celtic is Ben, as Ben Lomond, Ben Ledi, &c.), a range of I ruary I 1713. - mountains stretching the entire length of Italy, between 37~ and 44~ 33' N. lat., and 7~ 40' and IS 20' E. long. It is a branch Ap'anage. This word occurs occasionally in Scotch law- of the great Alpine system, with which it is connected at the Col books, as signifying the assignment of crown lands and feudal de Tenda, in the province of Coni. Under the name of the rights to princes of the royal family. It has probably been Ligurian A. it partly encircles the Gulf of Genoa; it then conborrowed from the French law, in which it is a technical term. tinues E. beyond Florence, forming the watershed between the latter and the valley of the Po; thence, taking a southerly direcAp'athin, a town in the province of Bacs-Bodrog, Hungary, tion, it becomes the watershed of the peninsula, and terminates near the E. bank of the Danube, 15 miles S.W. of Zombor, and in the island of Sicily. The chain is divided by modern 41 I32 APE THE GLOBE ENACYCLOP~EDIA. APHI geographers into (I) North A., from the Maritime Alps at the A. into three classes, as follows: (I.) Those who can think, but Col de Tenda to the Pass of Borgo San Sepolcro, near the cannot speak or write; that is to say, the power of co-ordinatingr border of Tuscany; (2) Central A., from Arezzo to the river the idea with the muscular actions necessary for speaking or Pescara; (3) Soutlh A., from the valley of the Pescara to Cape writing is abolished-A. _proper. This is the most common class. Spartivento; and (4) Insular A., or Sicilian range. Towards (2.) Those who call think and wriite, but cannot speak-Apthezia. the Adriatic coast the A. are precipitous, but on the W. side In these cases the mind is unaffected, and there is usually no they slope gradually, reaching the rich Italian plains through a paralysis. (3.) Those who can thixnk and stpeak, but cannot write series of lower ranges known generally as the Sub-Apennines. -A`grathia. Such a person, when asked to write a sentence, In N. Italy the Ligurian A. are so close upon the Gulf of scrawls an unmeaning mass of letters, while he may be quite Genoa that they only send a few streams down to the coast; conscious of the defect. Such cases confuse the names of but on the N. side rise many large rivers which contribute to common objects, calling a spoon a fork, and so on. A. is a the Po, after flowing through the plains of Piedmont and symptom of cerebral disorder, and probably no treatment is likely Emilia. The main chain of the A. forms to the W. the basins to be beneficial. See INSANITY. of the Arno, Tiber, Garigliano, and Volturno; while on the E. Aphe'lion (Gr. ato, from; helios, the sun) is the most disside numerous mountain torrents rush down the steep ravines which open out on the Adriatic, but there are no basins of any tant point of a planet's or comet's orbit from the sun; the nearest breadth till we reach the province of Apulia. The average height point being called the peihelion. Formerly the Anomaly (q. v. ) of the entire A. is about feet ut in the highlands of was measured from the A.; but since the knowledge of comets of the entire A. is about 4ooo feet; but in the highlands of ruo it reaches 7000 feet, while i the N. it sinks to 35 has been so greatly extended, and as their aphelia are quite out Abruzzo it reaches 7000 feet, while in the N. it sinks to 3500. of sight, the anomaly is now taken from the perihelion. The Gran Sasso d'Italia (' Grand Rock of Italy'), in the province of Teramo, is the highest peak in the whole range, rising to a A'phis, the scientific name of the plant-lice belonging to height of about Io,ooo feet. Two of the great European volcanoes, the Hemiptorus order of insects, and included in the section Vesuvius and Etna (q. v.), belong to the chain, which, for the Homoptera. of that order. They are small insects, both sexes being most part, is continuous; but which in the S'. is crossed by many ordinarilywingless, or occasionallyprovidedwith fourmembranous rugged gorges and fertile valleys. The geological formation wings. The beak or rostrum springs from the under part of the varies greatly. While the Secondary Limestones of the Jura occur head or breast. The tarsi consist of two joints, and are promost frequently, there are the Tertiary beds of the Sub-A., vided with two claws. The body is pear-shaped, and at its transition clay-slate in abulldance, and the. recent lavas and hinder portion possesses a glandular structure, which secretes a scoriae of Vesuvius and Etna. The Roman and, Neapolitan A. sweet juice of which ants are extremely fond. See ANT. The are universally celebrated for their extensive quarries of the aphides live upon plants, congregating in immense numbers, and finest marble. None of the heights rise to the level of the snow- sucking the plant-juices, thus frequently causing a blight, and the line, but the lofty peaks of the Abruzzi and Lunigiana are death of the trees or shrubs. The rose-trees, hop-plants, turnip, covered with snow from October till May. In general the entire cabbage, bean, and many other plants are infested, each by a range presents a naked, dreary appearance, in great part due distinct species. The A. raose, of the rose-tree; the bean A. to the comparative scarcity of water; but at the Riviera of (A. fabc); the A. humzli of the hop; A. brassicc of the cabGenoa, the Gulf of Naples, and' wherever water is plentiful, bage and turnip; A. lanigera, or woolly A. of America-the the lower slopes of the mountains are clad in almost tropical American'blight' of apple-trees-are all familiar species of vegetation. Chestnuts,, oaks, and cornfields are often found at these insects. The hop crop, indeed, dates its yearly uncertainty, an elevation of 300 feet, while in the valleys beneath flourish failure, or success from the more or less destructive effects of myrtles, oranges, Indian figs, and gigantic agaves. these pests. The potato A. (A. vastator) is another familiar Apenra'de, the capital of a district of the same name in the form. Green is a common colour among plant-lice, the A. of Prussian province of Slesig-Holstein, lies in al inlet of the the bean being coloured black. The aphides exemplify in a rePrussian province of Slesvig-Holstein, lies in an inlet of the Little Belt. It has. a good harbour, considerable shipping, and markable manner the reproductive phenomena, known under the extensive fisheries. The Wends destroyed A. in I I48, and it name of Parthenogenesis (q. v.). Winged males and females are suffered severely in L848 on the insurrection of the duchies. thus produced in the autumn. These copulate, and produce eggs Thee are betiful environs and near A. stands the which lie dormant all winter, but develop into female forms only, There are beaiitiful environs,, and near A. stands the ancient These wingless females, or'fruitful vir. castle of Brundlund, built (141 I), on the site of a still more in the ensuing spring. Th ese wingless females, or'fruitful vir ancient structure, by Queen Margaret of Denmark. Pop. (I8I gins' as they are called, produce living young without the influence of the male, their offspring being invariably wingless, 5932. and as invariably female in sex. This second generation of Apet'alous, a term applied to flowers in which the petals or'fruitful virgins' similarly produce young viviparously, without corolla are absent, and also extended to flowers having neither access to the males, the young being as before wingless, and calyx nor corolla, although Achlamydeous (lit.'coverless') is females. As many as ten or eleven generations of a similar the proper term to apply in the latter case. kind will thus be produced; until, when the succeeding autumn Aphanip'tera, an order of Holometabolic ('complete comes round, males and females appear in, the last brood of the metamorphosis') insects, in which the wings are of rudimentary fruitful virgins,' and these males and females produce eggs flon nature, and exist in the form of scales or plates on the hinder which, in the succeeding spring, fertile virgins will again be thoracic segments. The mouth is suctorial in its nature. To produced. Parthesn esis thus means the development or production of new individuals from females which have had no this group the fleas (Pzulicid&) belong, and of this family the duction of new individuals from females which have had no common flea (Pulex irritans) is a familiar species. The Chigoe copulation with mles. (q. v.) (Pulexpenetrans) of S. America. and the W. Indian Islands Aphonia. This term means loss of voice, either complete or burrows beneath the skin of the feet, and causes troublesome and partial. Voice is produced by vibrations of two thin folds of painful sores. These insects live parasitically upon various painful sores. These insects live parasitically upon various membrane in the larynx termed the vocal cords. The larynx is animals. a structure composed of cartilages more or less movable on each Apha'sia is loss of speech dependent on disease of the brain. other by the action of muscles which are supplied with nerves. It is not simply loss. of voice, which may be caused by disease of Any disease affecting this mechanism causes more or less loss of the larynx; nor loss of the power of articulation, which may be voice. When the nervous supply is interfered with, A. is termed the result of disease of the mouth or lips; but it is loss of the functional; when the vocal cords are thickened by inflammation, power of expressing ideas by means of words. A. is sometimes or by tumours or warty growths, the disease is said to be organic. transitory, but in many instances of brain disease it becomes The diagnosis of the disease is made by means of the Laryngopermanent. It may be complete or partial; that is, there is an scope (q. v.), by the aid of which the cords can be examined. entire loss of words as connected with ideas, or only the loss of The treatment depends on the cause. If due to catarrh or cold, a few. Frequently A. is associated with hemiplegia, that is, as in common hoarseness, a mustard plaster to the throat may paralysis of one side of the body. Post-mortem examination has be beneficial; if due to tumours or growths onl the cords, these shown that in the great majority of cases of A. morbid changes must be removed; if caused by chronic inflammation and ulcerare found in the third left frontal convolution of the brain. Dr ation, the application, by means of a brush, of a strong solution Bastian, of University College, London, has grouped all cases of of nitrate of silver (40 grains to the ousce), is beneficial. In I33 APH THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPADIA. APO advanced cases of phthisis, patients lose their voice from tuber- and from his loquacity and boastfulness was called by Tiberius cular ulceration of the larynx. Such cases are hopeless. A'the cymbal of the world.' His works are now almost com.variety of A., known as dys/?lznia clericorumn, or clergyman's pletely lost. He wrote a work on the text of Homer which sore throat, is common amongst public speakers of all classes, attained considerable reputation and authority, and works on It is sometimes nervous, but usually is caused by congestion, Egypt, and against the Jews. This last work brought him under inflammation, or relaxation of the mucous membrane of the the notice of Josephus, who attributes his death to a disease larynx, produced by excessive use of the organ. Rest, change of the result of debauchery. From his book on Egypt, Aulus air, and the local application of nitrate of silver, is the best treat- Gellius has drawn his world-famous story of Andr'ochis and the ment in these cases. Lion. Ahph'orism (Gr. aJhorisnzmos, a definition), a short, pithy say-. Apis (Egypt. Ha/i, a name doubtless connected with Hflpi, ing, comprehending an important truth;.. as,'Delays breed re- the Egyptian name for the Nile), the bull of Memphis, an Egypmorse.' tian:god,.the symbol and:visible incarnation of Osiris (q. v.) Two Aphrodis'iacs are medicines which excite or increase the sanctuaries and a. large court were set apart for him in the temple sexual powers. Many substances said to have this effect have of Ptah, where he gave oracles, and received the homage of no specific action on the sexual organs, but merely excite the ima- his attendants. The new-born bull, that was really A., was gination. Such substances are musk, castoreum, ambergsthe discovered by certain marks: according to some, four; according allyl oils, obtained from Cruciferous plants, such as the onion, to others- (iEliani for example), as many as twenty-nine. All, leek, horse-radish, &c., and opium and Indianhemp. Cantha- however, agree as to the following signs: The animal must rides and turpentine occasionally excite the genital organs; but: be black,, have a white triangular spot on its forehead, a the only true sexual stimulants are, those which promote the white crescent-shaped spot on its right side, and a knot resenihealthy nutrition of the tissues, such as iron, quinine, phosphorus,. bling a beetle under its tongue. The days of his discovery and nux vomnica, and strychnine. See ANAPHRODISIACS. nux vomica, and strychnine. See AN~APllaornSsACS. birth. were festivals; the day of his death filled Egypt with woe. He was not: permitted to live longer than twenty-five Aphrodi'te, the Greek name of. the Goddess of Love, whom. years. When he reached this age, he was secretly put to death, the Romans called Venus, under which heading the origin and and buried in a sacred well. If he died earlier, he was solemnly development of the myth will be traced. The name A., also in buried in. the Temple of Serapis, His worship was certainly at poetry Aphrogeneia, is Greek, and means'foam-born,' because first connected with the sacred river, for tse A/is Aalalis, or the goddess was said to have sprung from the bright foam of the annual festival of the discovery of the god-calf, coincided with sea. Her festivals, named A/rvrodisia, included impure mysteries, the rising of the waters of the Nile. Later on A. was merely the main actors in which were prostitutes. the animal sacred to Osiris, who himself was called, according Aphrodite, a genus of worms belonging to~ the. order to Straboi'the bull of the under-world.' Still later he became Errantia of the Annelidan-class (see ANNELIDA), which genus in-'one and the same with Osiris himself;' and last of all, when cludes those forms popularly known as'sea-mice.' Theseworms it was sought to etherialise the nature-worship of the land, the possess somewhat oval bodies, the jointed back being covered with myth of A. was twisted to symbolise the astronomical and phya double row of overlapping scales or platess. termed elytra or sical systems of the Egyptians, sfuama%. Beneath these plates the gills are contained, and water Ap. See BEE. for the purpose of breathing is admitted and expelled by the elevation or depression of these plates. The upper part of the pium, a genusof Umbelliferous plants. See CELER. digestive system can be protruded like a proboscis, The head Aplacental Xammalia a name applied to the two lower is small, and pointed with eyes and tentacles. Thebristles or orders of mammals (Monotremata, represented by the ornithorsetse fringing the body are of large size, and exhibit the most hynchus and echidna; and Marsupialia, represented by the gorgeous iridescent hues and metallic lustre, rendering the sea- kangaroos, opossums, &c.) on account of the young of these mice objects of exceeding beauty. A4hrodifa his/ida is a familiar forms being unconnected w.ith themother before birth, by means species. of. a Placenta (q. v.) or "after-birth.' AllI mammalia, other than phth is the name given in medicine to the disease cald those included in the two above orders, possess such a vascular thrush. It consists of small, round, white specks or elevations coecti with the mother, and ae hence termed lacn scattered over the tongue and mucous membrane of the mouth. amls. The disease occurs specially in: infants, but occasionally it may Aplana'tic-Lens (Gr. a, without;./_iane, deviation) is a lens' be seen. in. old persons, when it is usually associated with a grave so constructed as to be quite free from spherical aberration. See disorder of the alimentary apparatus terminating in death. In A;BE.RRAT.ION. some forms of A.. minute filaments and spores of microscopic Aplysia, a, genus of Gasteropodous mollusca popularly fungi are found-the Z —ietothrix buccalis and Oidium albicans,_ fungi are found-the etix bucca and Oium abicans known as the'sea-hares,' and forming the type of the family The treatment consists of cleanliness,, and the application to the A/lysiadc. This family belongs to the 0ist/zobranchiate Gasterolining of the mouth of borax mixed with honey or glycerine. poda, or those in which the gills exist towards the rear of the Apia'cea, another name for the natural. order Umbelli~fer body. In. the A/lys-iades the animals. are slug-like; the shell (q. v.) being rudimentary, and concealed beneath the mantle. The ~A~~piary~~ See BE ~. ~tentacles are very la'ge, and are turned backwards like ears, whence the suggestion of the popular name of sea-hares. Apic'ius, Marcus Gabinus, a Roman' epicure who flourished These forms feed upon seaweeds, and are common around the under Tiberius. His inventive faculty in the culinary art was coasts of Britain. They emit a fluid, coloured purple or violet, exhaustless. Having squandered upwards ofZ8oo,ooo in minis- from the mantle, when they are irritated. This fluid was fortering to, his ruling passion, and fearing that, having only merly thought, but erroneously so, to be poisonous in its nature;,48o,ooo left, he should have to be content with common fare, the ancients using these forms in their spells. A. de/ilans, he hanged himself. Two other persons of this name are men- A. inca, &c., are familiar species. tioned in history, oneof whom lived in the time of Pompey, and Apnce'a is the name given to the sensation of want of the other in the time of Trajan. The Roman cookery-book D —e the other in the time of Trajan. The Roman cookery-btook beie breath. Its cause is probably due to the presence of an excess Arte Cbqinaia sen de Obsoniis et Condi~entis, though bearing of carbonic acid in the blood, which acts on the nervous centres the name of A., was not written by any of the three, but by -a governing respiration. Great difficulty in breathing in disease certain Cmlius, who judiciously prefixed. to his. composition the name of the greatest gourmand of antiquity. It was edited by is called dyspnoea, and if a patient can breathe only when the name of the greatest gourmand of antio~ity. It was edited by bd seet h odto stre rhpca L body is erect, the condition is termed orthopncea. Lister (Lond. I70 5), A lmeloveen, (Amst. 1:7o.9) and Bernhold (Ansb. I787-91). Apocalypse. See REVELATION OF ST JOHN. A'pion, a Greek grammarian who flourished in the first Apocalyp'tic Number. SeeANTICHRIST. half of the 1st c. A.D., was born at Oasis, in Libya, and Apocar'pous, a term applied in botany to fruits consisting studied at Alexandria under Apollonius, who inspired him with of a single carpel, as in the pea; or several carpels disunited, ai a love for Homer. He subsequently taught rhetoric at Rome, in the columbine. 134 APO THE GLOBE EiNCY CLOPAH11DA. APO A Poco a Poco (Ital.),'little by little,' a musical term. If the A. writings of the New Testament are not to be received as veracious records of literal facts, they are yet deeply Apoc'ryphal Scriptures, or the Apocrypha. I. The interesting and instructive. We see in these crude performances rname. The Gr. ajocryp/c means properly'hidden, secret,' then the natural growth of a vast religious romance, encircling, as'spurious.' The use of the word came first into vogue among with a magic halo, the lives and characters of men whose real the heretical sects of the early Christian Church, who applied it exploits had changed the face of the world, and stirred the to various hooks which they asserted were the productions of admiration and the awe of a converted empire. See Tiscertain holy personages, whose names they bore, and had been chendorf's.Proegomena to the A. literature of the New Testaobtained by means of a secret tradition. The name was retained iment (Leipz. I873), and Clark's Ante-.Nicene Cristian zLibrary, by ecclesiastical writers, partly with the sense given to it by the vol. xvi. (Edin. 1870.;) heretics themselves of secret and mysterious, but also with a scorn- pocya'ce, a natural order of Dicotyledonous corolliora YS ~~~~~~~.&Apocyna'cooe, a natural order of Dicotyledonous eorollifloral ful sense of spurious (i.e., not written by their alleged authors) plants, embracing abut genera and species, the most t, ~~plants, embracing about ioo genera and 6o0 species, the most and heretical. The modern meaning,'uncanonical,' dates pro- of which are natives of tropical countries. Some of the plantsin perly, as will appear, from the age of the Reformation. -the order yield edible fruits, others are used medicinally, while 2. Their hisloiy. The Hebrew Canon, which was strictly pre2. Teir isy. The Hebre Caon, which was strictly pre- many of them are very poisonous. One of the most deadly is served by the Jews in Palestine, was identical with that of our Tnnia veneaa, the seeds of which supply the famous urTanffhinia venelzala, the seeds of which supply the famous authorised version. But among the Greek-speaking Jews at Alex- Tanghin Poison (q. *v.) The oleander (N2erium oleander), andria and elsewhere, the limits of:the Canon had not been exactly common in the S. of Europe, is also poisonous in all its parts. fixed. In the Greek translation of the:LXX. several books of Death has resulted from eating its flowers. bernnan the Hebrew Canon received additions, several later books not niis is the Hya-hya or Cow-Tree (q. v.) of Demerara, the juice utilis is the Hya-hya or Cow-Tree (q. v.) of Demerara, the juice in the Hebrew Canon were translated, and others were written ofhich isused as milk. Uce elasica, /a a, an of which ismused as milk. Urceata elastica; V~aheagfumniygera, and in Greek. In the Christian Church,:fromignorance of Hebrew, others, eldCaoutchouc (q. v.) W ti tnctora ylds a dye Zn. ~~~~others, yield Caoutchouc (q. ~v.) aHO'iffhtia, tictoria yields a dye the LXX. came to be almost universally used, or, in the Western like indigo. Two species of Periwinkle (q. v.) ( Vinca mar and like indigo. Two species of Periwinktle (q.~ v.) ( Iyilzc major and Church, a Latin version made from it; and thus the practice i), found in ritain, are astringent and acrid. Aaana arose of using, as sacred and canonical, books which had no ainarica, and others, are emetic and cathartic. Apcynu calharlica, and others, are emetic and cathartic. AtiocynumJ place in the Hebrew Canon. Still, attempts were made to form eannabinum, called Canadian hemp, yields a strong fibre. more definite views about the Canon (q. v.) The Greek Church,at the Council of Laodicea (360 A.D.), decided to exclude the A. Ap'oda,'footless,'.a term applied in zoology to various altogether. In the West, one section of the Church wished the A. groups of animals to indicate the absence of the fore or hind included in the Canon, and at the Council of Carthage (397 A.D.) limbs, or their homologies. Thus certain cirripedes (barnacles, a decree was passed making some of them at least canonical &c.) among the Crustacea are termed A., from the absence of (Wisdom of Solomon, The Wisdom of Jesus, Tobit, Judith, and the cirri, which represent the limbs of other crustaceans. Certhe two Maccabees); while another section, headed by Jerome, tain fishes, (e.g., sand-eels, eels), in which the ventral fins are held them to be inferior to the other books, but de-serving to be absent, are termed A. The blind worms or Caciliado (Amread in churches for the edification of the people. The question phibia), in which feet are undeveloped, were formerly termed A. thus remained undecided for the whole Church till the Reformation. The Roman Catholic Church, by a decree of the Council A gee' (Gr. po, from, and ge,the earth) denotes generally 11the furthest distance of anytbeavenly body fi-om the earth; but of Trent, classed the A. along with the canonical books as all the furthest distance of yheavenly body from the earth; but deserving of equal authority, with the exception of the Prayer of is now restricted in its application to the distances of the sun and moon. The shortest distanceatof these bodies from the earth Manasses and the two books of Maccabees. The Protestant Churches unanimously adopted the pure Hebrew Canon; only, is called theere. Luther published the A. along with his Bible as books'whiclh are Apol'da, a town in:~the grand dluchy of Saxe-Weimar, not of like worth with Holy Scripture,,yet are good and usefuil! Germany, on the Werlitz, 8 miles'N.E. of Weimar. It is the to be read;' an example whicdh was followed by the Church of industrial centre of the grand duchy, has extensive stocking England. The Calvinistic'Churches have treated the matter manufactures (there are overi IOO looms), and is a station on the more strictly, and by them the A. S. havebeenaltogether ignored. Thuringian Railway. Pop. (I872)I10,5o7. The castle of A., The name A. is also given, but less accurately, to a class of together with a certain amount of landed property, was presented writings which arose out of the canonical literature of the New in I633 to the University-of Jena, in whose possession it still Testament, and which concern themselves mainly, though not remains. exclusively, with the history and doctrine:of the new religion. polli is, the Younger, son of. the Elder, a yter They are divisible into threeheads: (I) The A. Gospels; (2) the Aoiaws, hong o o e dr, a pr A. Acts of the Apostles; (3) the A. Revelations or Apocalypses. of Laodicea, was, according to Jerome and Rufous, Bishop of None of these have ever obtained canonical recognition, and Lodicea in the latter part of the 4th c. From him tie heresy it is impossible to speak positively regarding their age or their styled Apollinarianism takes its nme. e denied that Christ authors. Most of them exist only in mediaeval MSS.; but it is hd in hm o ar As this sepaed a denial of the pretty clear from internal evidence that they were composed at a by the divine Logos or Word. A s eeed deni f true human nature of Christ, it was repeatedly condemned-by very early date. Of the twenty-two A. Gospels, the most im- 3 veryant are The~rolevangelium of_7aynes, 7he Gosy~elof.Thomasthe Council of Alexandria in 362, by councils at Rome in 375 portant are T/hePro/evangeiurn oframes, The Gospel ofThomas, The Gospel of IMa;zy, The History of 7oseph the C'apen/es ~ and and in 378, and by the CEcumenical Council of Constantinople, The Acts of Pilate. Some of these may reach back to the 2d c.; 38I-but the heresy extended widely over Syria. After the at any rate, from the 4th c. down, allusions and references to death of A., between 382 and 392 A.D., hisfollowers formed two particular incidents recorded in them are numerous. Some sects, the Vitalians and the Polemeans; the latter of whom, critics think the A. Acts of the Apostles are, in their first form regarding the divine and human natures of Christ as blended of earlier origin than the A. Gospels. Origen and Tertullian into one substance, were styled synousiastoi. They were also )into one substance, were styled sypiousiastoi. They were also seems to have been familiar with books of this description, and accused of solria (flesh-worship), andof anpotia (manmention some of them by name, which may, or may not, how- worship), because they deemed the two natures so intimately ever, have been identical with what we now possess. Of the a blededtatin the spinriualisedbd was egitimael pohbjtect ofimer thirteen documents thus classified, the chief are,The Acts of Peter adoration. Apollinarianism was entirely prohibited by imperial and Paul The Acts of Barnabas, The Acts of Philip, TheAc/s command in 428 A.D. Of the numerous writings of A. there of Andv, The Ac/s of /zoms, The Matyrdo of Bao- only remain a paraphrase of the Psalms, in Greek hexameters, lomew, andr The Acts of 7on. Regarding the A. Revelations, first published at Paris in I552, and fragments-of a commentary it is still more difficult to pronounce an opinion. The M-SS. are o St Lue, printed by Agelo Ma in his ssici Atores characterised by extreme variety of readings, and the text is oc- (Roe, 1827). casionally very corrupt. The most important and interesting Ap1ollo, one of the great divinities.of the Greeks, was, are The Apocalypfise of Moses and -The Apocalypse of Esdras, according to Homer and Hesiod, the son of Zeus ('the Sky') the first of which belongs rather to'Old Testament literature; and Leto (' Shadow' or'Darkness'), though no birthplace is The Apocalypse ofPaul, T/ze Apocaljpse:.ofyohn,.and The As- noted, unless an epithet of Homer, the meaning of which is dissumbption of Mary. puted, maybe taken as implying that he was'born in Lycia.' 35 APO THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPiEDIA. APO Of the various beliefs of later times in reference to this point, an Arabic translation. The best edition of the Conic Sections is the most popular and generally received was that, with his sister that by Halley (Oxf. I7Io).-5. A. of Rhodes, born about B.C. Artemis, he was born in the island of Delos. Both Lycia and 235, instructed in his youth by Callimachus, though afterwards Delos, it may be noted, signify the'land of light.' Leto, it they cherished deep and mutual antipathy. The epic of A., Awas said, driven from land to land by the jealousy of Hera, at styled the Argonautica, a work of labour rather than of genius, last found shelter in Delos, where she brought forth A. and though not without many beautiful passages, which gracefully Artemis under a palm at the foot of Mount Cynthus. The youth imitate the simplicity and naturalness of Homer, had many A., fed with nectar and ambrosia by Themis, called at once for admirers among the Romans. The best edition is that of a lyre and bow, declaring that henceforth he would reveal to Wellauer (Leipz. I828, 2 vols. 8vo), with various readings men the will of Zeus. Powers apparently differing in kind are and short notes. ascribed to A., but they are really separate manifestations of one and the same power. For example, A. punishes the wicked, Apollonaus, -of Tyana, in Cappadocia, born four years as the god that bears the bow and arrows (hence, according to B.C., a Pythagorean philosopher, half mystic, half impostor, some, his name A.,'the destroyer,' though the solar mythists who pretended to supernatural powers, and was commonly reexplain it as meaning that the sun's rays, when powerful, can garded as a magician. He travelled in Asia Minor, disputing destroy the life of animals aind plants); consequently he is also upon divine rites, and twenty years later he consulted the Magi the helping god. Then lhe is the god of prophecy, song, and at Babylon on his road to India. In India he met with Jarchas, music, deriving his prophetic powers from Zeus, and coammui- the chief Brahmin, from whom he received such instruction in cating the prophetic gift to gods and men, while he cheers the things divine as induced him to claim miraculous powers and feast of the gods with his phorminx. Again, he is the protector a knowledge of futurity. After much travel, in the course of of flocks and herds; and finally, he founds cities and establishes which he mixed himself up with political movements, he was constitutions. On the view that A. and Helios, or the sun-god, tried for participating in an insurrection against Domitian, but are identical-and the later Greek poets made no distinction quitted. His last years were spent at Ephesus as a teacher of lbetwreen them-these different attributes are seen to be duly the doctrines of Pythagoras, and here he died at the age of nearly connected. Where the worship of A. originated has been much A ims notice principally fom the attempts made by discussed. Some are tof opinion that it was introduced fom Hierocles, in the 3d c., to set up his miracles as rivals to those Egypt. Otfried Miiller, on the other hand, thought that A. as of Christ-attempts reiewed in England by Bloult and Lord'the averter of evil' was a Doric divinity, having the oldest seats Herbert, and in France by Voltaire. The writings of A. were of his worship at Tempe and Delphi, and that his worship was numerous, and a list of them has been preserved; but the only not introduced into Attica till the Ionian immigration. But all authentic one that has come down to us is the Apoogy, preserved such conjectures are considerled idle by the new school of com. by Philostratus, who wrote his life about two centuries after A. was dead. parative mythologists, headed in England by Max MUiller and Cox, who trace back with surprising ingenuity most of the cir- Apollonius, of Tyre, the title of a Greek metrical romance, cumstantial details in the lives of the Greek deities to the of which the original has been lost, though numerous medineval misapprehension of the figurative language used by the older versions and adaptations exist in most of the European languages. Aryans in reference to solar phenomena. For a special appli- One of the very earliest was a version into the English of the cation of this new principle to the myth of A., see Cox's Manuasl IIth c. The adventures of A. himself, of his wife, and of his of My/tholoIy, pp. 48-55. The most famous oracles of A. in daughter, and of their happy reunion after apparently hopeless Hellenic lands were Delphi, where the Pythian games were held separation, are minutely described. There are no fewer than in his honour, Delos in the _A/gean, and Claros and Patara in three Latin versions, one of which is printed in the Gesta Asia Minor. The Romans introduced his worship as early as Ronanorunt. This subject is treated by Gower in his Confessio 430 B.c., but as they had no counterpart to this brilliant and Anzantis, and by Shakespeare in his Pericles, Prince of Tyre. variously-gifted divinity in their own mythic system, they were Three English stories, based on a French version of A. of T., forced to adopt his Greek name also. were published in I5Io, I576, and I607. The Spanish version, which dates from the 13th c., wras republished at Paris as late Apollo Belvedere', a famous statue found at ancient as I842. The Germans possess the story in various forms, the Antium. in I503, and placed by Pope Julius II. in the Belvedeire oldest reaching back to the I3th or I4th c. of the Vatican, whence its name. The figure is nude, over lifesize, and has long been regarded as the most beautiful type of Ap'ologue, a fable or story, intended to convey some useful manhaood in existence. The artist is unknown, but the reign of moral, differs from a parable, which must have an air of probaNero is fixed as the probable date of the work. bility, in employing brutes and inanimate objects as the interlocutors. /Esop's fables are excellent examples of the A. See the Apollodo'rus, an A'thenian painter, flourished about 408 B.c,, A. of Jotham, Judges ix. 7-I5. The A. has long been a improved colouring, and invented chiaroscuro, hence the epithet favourite vehicle of instruction for the young, and is a favourite of Skiagroiaphos (the' shader') applied to him.-A. of Damas- form of composition with Easterns. cus, architect, put to death I29 A.D., by Htadrian, for indiscreet Apol'ogy, iow used as synonymous with excuse, was oricriticism of a design sent him by the emperor.-A., a Greek.oetcs.y..o e.and grammarian, flourished about 140 B.C.ginally the title of a book defending certain opinions or doctrines, poet, mythographer n _.' as Tertullian's A.for the'Christians. Apologetic works were The Bibiiotheca alone of his numerous works is extant. It gives numerous in the early stages of Christianity; indeed, until a terse account of the Greek myths down to the heroic age. In 782-83eeuihaedi'tion'ofitatof hChristianity became the religion of the empire in the 4th c. 17second Ieyne ipublished Gatn editioarof it at Gaingen, of whi Certai eras have been marked by a greater eruption of the a second and improved edition appeared in 1803. apologetic spirit than others, e.g., that of the revival of learnApollo'nius.-I. A. Dyscolos ('ill-tempered'), of Alex- ing (I5th c.), when Christianity and Platonism seemed to be andria, the first who systemnatised grammar, and so called by in antagonism, and apologies were written defending revelation; Priscian the 2prince of grammnzarians, belonged to the 2d c., and the period following the Reformation in England, when, and to the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. Most of his freethinking having become fashionable, numerous apologies works are lost. The first edition of'those that have come down were published to prove the divine origin of Christianity. A to us was published at Venice in 1495, the latest and best is distinct branch of systematic theology is now named Apologetics. that of Bekker (Berl. 8I 7). His son, Alius Herodian, was as Among the ancient apologists were Justin Martyr, Origen, Augusfamous a grammarian as A. himself.-2. A., son of Archebulus, tine, &c. Among the modern, the Protestant-Grotius, Butler, author of a Homeric lexicon, still extant (of which a good Paley, Watson, &c.; and the Roman Catholic-Pascal, Bergier, edition was published by Bekker, Berl. I833), born at Alex- Chateaubriand, &c. The more recent apologists are Neander, andria, and lived in the time of Augustus.-3. A. Molon, Tholuck, &c., in reply to Strauss and others. taught rhetoric at Rhodes, lectured at Rome, and was the Aponeuro'sis is a term used in anatomy to designate the teacher of Cicero.-4. A. of Perga (240 B.C.), a mathemati- strong layers of fibrous or connective tissue which invest the cian, known to antiquity as the'Great Geometer,' was the muscles, and send septse or partitions between them. A. are author of numerous works, all of which are now lost, except a composed of white fibrous tissue mixed with a variable quantity treatise on C'onic Sections, part of which is in Greek, and part in of yellow elastic tissue. They serve as surfaces for the origin and I36 A —- K. A — APO TH~E GLOBE EIVC YCLIOPED9A. APO insertion of muscular fibres, and by special septze they con- may continue for several months, or, in rare cases, years; but, nect groups of muscles with the bones. They are found only in sooner or later, another attack occurs, which makes matters the limbs. worse, while a third almost invariably terminates life. Aponogeton, a genus of aquatic plants belonging to the order The treatment may be divided into (I) what is to be done to z1cazgizance., A. distachyoz, common at the Cape of Good Hope, prevent an attack in those predisposed to it; and (2) what and called there water'is to be done when an attack has occurred. The preventive Uintjies, is a very hand- treatment is a quiet life in every sense of the term, freedom from some, fragrant species. excitemernt or worry, mild diet, abstinence from alcoholic \,Iti frar pant in drinks of all kinds, sleep in a well-ventilated room on a matIt is a favourite plant in garden-ponds in Britain. tress with a high pillow, application of cold water to the When first introduced, head daily, and regulation of the bowels so that they never it was grown in hot- become constipated. Should an attack unfortunately occur, houses for many years, place the patient on his back in bed, with a high head, apply =.. a? _until the discovery was cloths dipped in cold water to the head, remove all tight parts.accidentally made that of the dress, more especially about the head or neck, and if the'~'-~~~ ~tit'11~: ~ -it could enduretheopen- power of swallowing be not lost, give two or three drops of.. -' = air temperature of this croton oil. Bleeding, as a rule, does no good, and should never _= —_:_-_- country. The spikes of be done except by a medical man. If the patient recover from,- fragrant flowers, and the the fit, great care must be taken to prevent the recurrence of -- - - flat oblong leaves, float another. Everything, either mental or physical, of an exciting \ on the surface of the nature must be avoided, and the diet must be nutritious and / iwater. Its foweringtops light. No wine should be taken. With care, a second or third =are said to be used as a attack may be warded off for a considerable time; without care, pickle, and as a substi- it will very speedily supervene in a worse form. Aponogeton distachyoin. tute for asparagus at the Apos'tate, a term originally applied to one who abandoned Cape, and that its root (cornim), which is about the size of a hen's his faith from any motive whatever, even from conviction-for egg, is roasted and eaten. instance, the Emperor Julian. In the early Church apostates Ap'ophthegm (Gr. apop/lhegma, an utterance), a senten- to heathenism were styled sacricati if they notified their change tious maxim, conveying an important truth. Proverbs are often of faith by offering sacrifices to the gods, and thuzrificali if they in the form of the A. Among others, Plutarch in ancient, and offered incense to them. It was a question seriously and even Bacon in modern times, have made interesting collections of passionately discussed what should be done with those called apophthegms. apsi (' fallen away') when the storm of persecution had blown Apoph~ys is aprominments.... elvaio utfrm heover, and they sought readmission to the Christian Church. Apoph'ysis is a prominent elevation jutting out from the Some thought that since they had in a moment of supreme trial surface of a bone. If such an elevation is slender, it is called a denied their Lord, they could never'be renewed again unto spine; if blunt, a tubercle; if broader at the base, a tuberosity. repentance,' and so ought not to be readmitted. In the Roman It is to be distinguished from an epiphysis, which is a promin- Catholic Church the A. was excommunicated, his property conence having a separate centre of ossification. fiscated, and even the extreme penalty of death was sometimes Ap'oplexy is a name in medicine employed to designate an inflicted. affection in which an individual suddenly falls down as if from a Apos'tle (Gr. aposlolos, one sent), a messenger generally, but blow, and in which there is for a time a complete loss of con- in the New Testament applied specially to the twelve disciples sciousness, of sensation, and of voluntary motion, along with more chosen by Christ,'whom also he named apostles; Simon Peter, or less of interference with the functions of circulation and re- Andrew, James and John, Philip and Bartholomew, Matthew spiration. There are three pathological conditions, to any of and Thomas, James the son of Alphbeus, Simon Zelotes, Judas which this affection may be due: (I) To hemorrhage into the the brother of James, and Judas Iscariot' (Luke vi. 13-16). To substance of the brain, the result of rupture of a blood-vessel; (2) these were subsequently added Matthias, chosen by lot in place to plugging up of one of the larger arteries of the brain by a clot of Judas Iscariot (Acts i. 26), and Saul of Tarsus, afterwards of blood, either formed at the spot (thrombosis), or carried to the termed Paul, miraculously chosen (Acts ix. 15). It was essential spot from some other quarter (embolism); and (3) to congestion to the office of an A. that he should have seen the Lord. This of a portion of the brain, or effusion of serous fluid causing pres- is laid down in Acts i. 21, 22, and confirmed by Paul (i Cor. ix. sure. Haemorrhage into the substance of the brain is the result I),' Am I not an A.? have I not seen yesus Christ our Lord?' of disease of the cerebral vessels. The clot may vary in size from The mission of the apostles was to preach the gospel; the that of a pin-head to a hen's egg. sphere of their labour, at first restricted to the Jews, was afterCertain persons are predisposed to apoplectic seizures. These wards extended to all nations. Episcopal Churches contend are-(I) Those whose ancestors have died of A.; (2) those who that the office of A. is perpetuated in bishops, while non-Epis live highly, follow sedentary habits, and have a peculiar con- copal Churches hold that the apostles having a strictly unique figuration of body, namely, protuberant belly, large head, short, work to do, for which they were accredited by the possession of thick neck, and florid complexion; (3) those who suffer from miraculous powers, had, and could have, no successors. disease of the heart, of the kidneys, or of the blood-vessels; (4) Apostles' Creed. See CREED. those who are intemperate. An apoplectic attack may last from two or three hours to as Apostol'ic, or Apostolical, pertaining to the apostles, a many days. The respiration is slow, difficult, and snoring; term very variously applied. A. Chzurch, and A. See, are titles there is frothy mucus about the mouth; the body is sometimes assumed by the Roman Catholic Church on account of its having covered with a cold, clammy sweat; the face is pale; eyes dull been founded by St Peter, whose successor the Bishop of Rome and glassy; pupils widely dilated; teeth clenched; power of claims to be. A. succession denotes both an unbroken transswallowing gone or impaired; bowels usually costive; urine mission of holy orders from the apostles through a succession passed involuntarily; absolute unconsciousness. These effects of bishops, and a ministry whose ordination gifts them with vary according to the severity of the attack. In many cases the A. powers and privileges. The questions have excited much coma may pass off leaving the patient wvell, or with impaired controversy between the Roman and Protestant Churches; and mind, or partial loss of power on one side of the body. In other in Protestant Churches between Episcopalians and Presbyterians. cases consciousness never returns, and death ends the scene. The A. chair is the chair of the Pope as the successor of Peter; The severity of the attack depends on the part of the brain the A. Counzcil is that held at Jerusalem (Acts xv.), date not affected. If bleeding take place in the substance of the Pons certainly fixed, to determine disputes raised at Antioch; the Varolii or Medzulla oblongata (see BRAIN), speedy death (within A. Vicar is the cardinal representing the Pope in extraordinary a few hours) is the result; but if it happens in the grey or white missions; and A. tradition is that which is asserted to have been matter of the cerebral hemispheres, there maybe partial recovery handed down from the apostles. A papal brief is styled A., and of consciousness, and of the power of voluntary motion. This so are the months January, March, May, July, September, and 13S I37 APO THE GLOBE ENC YCI OPH'D9A. APP November, because in these the vacant German benefices were Licences are granted by the Apothecaries' Society of London, appropriated by the Pope, in virtue of the Vienna Concordat of and by the Apothecaries' Hall of Ireland, on much the same 1448. The council charged with the superintendence of the conditions as are required by the other authorities granting pontifical revenues is also called the A. Chzamber. medical qualifications. The London Society and the Irish Hall Apostolic Canons and Constitutions, the titles of works each appoint a member of the General Council of Medical both ascribed to Clemens Romanus. Few scholars, if any how- Education and Registration. The privileges of both were exboth ascribed to Clemens Romanus. Few scholars, if any, how-.ressly preserved by the Medical Act of I858; but the Irish ever, now believe that they belong to a period so early as that pressly preserved by the Medical Act f 858; but the Irish to which Clemens Romanus is assigned, or that they are in any apothecaries do not seem to have established their rights as se.. i. hs -a on ts s t medical practitioners to quite the same extent that they have sense apostolical. Krabbe, in his Essay on this subject (New.. York, 1848), endeavours to show that of the eight books of the done n England. A provision of an Ac t under George III. Constitutiones, the first seven, containing rules for the Christian gives a monopoly to licentiates of the Irish Hall in the comrlife date from the close of the 3d c.,.and that the eigh, a pounding and selling of medicines; but the provision seems to ise de grh Xl cs obr g. ad va.h;)hhabe neutralised by those of other Acts relating to chemists and guide to the priests in performing the sacred offices, belongs to druggists. The English Hal has done what no other licensing the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 5th c. The Canones what no oter licensing medical corporation in the United Kingdom has done —it has was a later production. The first fifty, dating from the middle eda t i of the 5th c., were accepted by the Lati Church, while the granted a licence to a woman to practise medicine; henceforth, of the 5th c., were accepted by the Latin Church, while the however, this will be impossible, owing to a change in the byGreek Church adhered to the thirty-five canons promulgated at however, this will be impossible, owing to a change i the by the commencement of the 6th c. This produced contention be- laws. An Act of George III. provides for the efficient supervision of tween the Churches. Bunsen, in his Chrzstianily and Jnankind t(Lond. 1854). arrives at similar conclusions.. The anstitutiones apothecaries' shops, and imposes penalties for keeping any in an (Lond. I854), arrives at similar conclusions. The Constitutiones have been edited by Netzen (I853), and Lagarde, in Bunsen's unwholesome condition. Analecta Anlte-Nicana, vol. ii. (1854). The English translation In Scotland an A. is not a medical practitioner. He merely of oa n has. been reprinted with alterations i.Clark's Ante- sells medicines, corresponding to what in England is called of Whiston has been reprinted with alterations in Clarek' s e-and druggist. Nicene Library, vol. xviii. (I870). d Apothe'eia, the term applied in botany to the shield-like Apostolic Catholic Church, the name chosen by a reli- fructification of Lichens (q. v.) gious denomination popularly known as Irvingites (q. v.) Apostolic. Father, te C a wr AL1pothe'osis, a Greek word signifying precisely the same as Apostolic Fathers, those Christian writers who had per- the Lat. deiicatio, deification, or enrolling a mortal among sonal intercourse with the apostles. Of only three can this be the gods, was applied most commonly to the elevation of a rr a *r r- *-s *the gods, was applied most commonly to the elevation of a affirmed with anything like probability Clemens Romanus, deceased Roman emperor to divine honours-an act, however Polycarp, and Papias. Barnabas, Hermas, and Ignatius gnant to modern ideas, quite in harmony with the ancient sometimes ranked as A. F.; but there is no satisfactory proof Roman cultus. The ceremony (consecratio) consisted in the that Barnabas, the friend of Paul, wrote the epistle bearing his burning of the body, and at the same time letting loose an eagle name; that the Hermas of Rom. xvi. 14 wrote the Pastor; or to convey the soul to heaven. Of the medals strck on these that Ignatius wrote the letters attributed to him. Archbishop o ons, sixty separate examples have been preser Wake and Mr Chevallier have published translations of the A. F., but more accurate and valuable translations have been made by Appala'chians, sometimes called the Alleghanies, the general DIrs Donaldson, Roberts, and Crombie iln vol. i. o~f the Ante- name given to the mountain system which runs nearly parallel to Iicenze Library (Clark, Edin. I867). the Atlantic seaboard from the State of Maine to the borders of I Apos'trophe (Gr. a turning away), a figure of rhetoric in Alabama, a distance of about 1200 miles. It does not consist which the speaker turns away from his general musing or medi- of a single unbroken chain, but is made up of various parallel tation to address specifically the dead or absent, and even inani ridges, whh are known by different names. Beginning at the mate objects-e.g., (I)'Departed spirits of the mighty dead;' N., we have the White Hills of New Hampshire, of which (2) Ye stars, which are the poetry of Heaven.' A. has been a Moosehillock and Washington are respectively 4636 and 6634 2) favouite figure with the more impassioned poets and orators feet high; the Green Mountains in Vermont, reaching in Killingfavourite figure with the more impassioned poets and orators ton Peak an elevntion of 3924 feet; the Highlands on the E. of of all ages. In grammar, the comma marking the omission of ton Peak an elevation of 3924 feet; the Highlands on the E. of ofa letter ages. In gramma fo r, the calledomma min g the is of the Hudson, and on the W. the Catskill Mountains, of which a letter, as in o'er for aver, is called an A. -- Round Top, the highest peak, is 3804 feet above the sea; the Apoth'ecary. This name was formerly given in England to Kittatinnies, stretching from New Jersey to Virginia; the Blue the general medical practitioner. It was not till the reign of Mountains, a parallel range to the E. of the last, and extending Henry VIII. that the various branches of the medical profession as far S. as N. Carolina; and lastly, more to the westward, the came to be clearly divided. The physicians were incorporated range of the Alleghanies proper, in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and in I518; surgeons in I540. On 9th April I6o6, apothecaries the N. of Georgia and Alabama, and the Cumberland Mountains were incorporated by James I., along with the Company of on the E. of Kentucky and Tennessee. Grocers. They had meanwhile, however, notwithstanding There is no single range in this system which could be menthese charters, continued to act as physicians and surgeons. tioned as the true watershed, for the rivers which have their According to legal decision, they were then entitled to charge source among the mountains usually flow for a considerable their patients either for the medicines supplied or for attendance, distance along the valleys which lie between the different ranges, but not for both. The legal recognition of the A. having a right and then cut their passage through the hills so as to join the to practise of course exempted him from legal responsibility for Mississippi or St Lawrence on the W., or the Atlantic on the the results, unless his treatment showed flagrant ignorance or E. The distance of the Atlantic from the most eastern of the carelessness. These privileges belonged in England solely to A. varies considerably. At the Hudson the ocean almost the licentiates of the Apothecaries' Society of London, and in washes the base of the hills, while from N. Carolina to Florida Ireland to the licentiates of the Apothecaries' Hall of Ireland, the breadth of the slope is 200 miles. On the W. there is a though many practised without the licence. The Medical Act gentle but broken descent to the Mississippi, the breadth of the of i858 has further improved the position of the apothecaries. country from the river to the most western of the ranges being They are entitled to be registered as licentiates in medicine, about 300 miles. registration giving the right to practise medicine throughout the With regard to geological formation, a considerable portion British empire, to charge for their visits and professional advice, of the northern tracts is occupied by Primary strata-such as and for medici'e and medical appliances supplied by them. The gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, and granular limestone, frequently Pharmacy Act of i868 has further widened the distinction associated with granites and traps. In the mountains proper, between the A. and the ordinary Chemists and Druggists (q. v.) however, sandstones, slates, and transition limestones are much It still,'however, allows the A. to keep a shop for the sale of more abundant. Coal, sandstone, and slate are found in Pennmedicine, and to make up his own prescription. It has been sylvania, the coal being of the kind known as anthracite or held in England, by the inferior courts, that no other medical blind coal. Beds of bituminous coal are obtainable high up in practitioner than an A. can recover the price of medicine supplied the Alleghanies of Ohio. The Secondary formations of Europe, to a patient; but as there has not hitherto been any appeal to the between the coal measures and the chalk, are of rare occurrence. Supreme Court on the question, it cannot be held as so settled. The country between the mountains and the Atlantic is covered,, 1I3. APP TIlE GLOBE ENC YCL OPADEIA. APP for the most part with Tertiary deposits, in the alluvial accumu- stood, we cannot hope for a satisfactory theory or solution of lations above which are found remains of the mastodon and what are called A. megatherium. The formation of the A. dates from a period posterior to the Carboniferous epoch, and anterior to the Appeal', inlaw, signifies the removal of a suit from one Jurassic era, for the strata, including the coal measures, are the court to a higher, that the latter may affirm, reverse, or alter newest upturned beds associated with the Appalachian range the udgment of the former. In England, A. is competent while on the eastern base of the mountains there is a series of from the inferior courts of record to the Queen's Bench; and red sandstone beds, belonging to the Jurassic period, which are the writ of error from the Queen's Bench or Common Pleas is unconformable with the upturned strata, and which, con- returnable into the Exchequer Chamber, thence to the House of sequently, must have been deposited after the upheaval of the Lords, whose judgment is final. In criminal cases, the judgrange. Of unstratified rocks there occur granites, syenites, and ment of lower tribunals may be reversed by writ of error. There serpentines, together with columnar basalts and other traps. are also appeals in equity, in bankruptcy, app eal s are subject to Large beds of different kinds of iron ore are found in various mary convictions of magistrates. All appeals are subject to formations throughout the range; and in Pennsylvania and Ohio regulations as to security for costs, bail, and deposits. In Scotthere are important iron-works. Lead, gold, copper, and nickel land, judgments of the Sheriff-Substitute may be appealed also occur, the two last in not inconsiderable quantity among the against to the Sheriff-Principal, from whom an A. may Palheozoic formations. again be made to a Lord Ordinary of the Court of Session, whose judgment is subject to review by the'Inner House'Appalachico'la, a river of the United States, rising near the consisting of two divisions, with three judges in each-of the Appalachian range in the N. of Georgia, and flowing S. into the Court of Session. Under certain restrictions, A. may again be Gulf of Florida, after a course of about 400 miles. During the made to the House of Lords, whose judgment, as in England, is larger part of this course it bears the name of Chattahooche, and final. Under the Supreme Court of Judicature Act of I873, forms the boundary between Georgia and Alabama; but after the which makes many important alterations in the legal adminiconfluence of the Chattahooche and the Flint on the borders of stration of England, it was proposed to constitute a new supreme Florida, the united waters take the name of A. The river is'Court of A.' of the House of Lords, for the United Kingnavigable for steamers up to the point of confluence, a distance dom. This part of the bill of a873 did not become law; of 70 miles. At its mouth lies the town of A., with a pop. but under a bill now (I875) before Parliament, it is still intended (I870) of II29, and a large export trade in cotton. to carry out this provision. Under the bill of 1873 the new Supreme Court would have consisted of, ex offcio, the Lord Appa'rent Mildagnitude of a body is the angle subtended at Chancellor, the Lord Chief-Justice of England, the Master of the eye by the diameter of that body. A. motion is the motion the Rolls, the Lord Chief-Justice of the Common Pleas, and which a body seems to us to have in virtue of our own motion. the Lord Chief-Baron. Her Majesty was empowered to apThe A. 1position of a star differs from the true position owing to point certain other English, Scotch, Irish, and Colonial judges, the effect of various physical phenomena, such as atmospheric to the proposed new Court of A. of the House of Lords. The refraction, aberration, nutation, &c., and for which, accordingly, scheme is, however, meeting with strong opposition in Scotland, correction must be made. mainly on the ostensible ground of its being contrary to a clause Appari'tions. History and present experience show that of the Treaty of Union with England. Another Supreme Court of A. is the idifcial Committee of there has existed from remote ages, and still exists, especially Another Supreme Court of A. is cour t may b e made from the among less civilised nations, a belief that the spirits of departed Admiralty and cclesastical Court, and fom the courts of the ones frequently present themselves to the bodily vision of living British colonies and dominions abroad. See PRIVY COUNCIL, relatives or friends. There are many records of such, but it is doubtful if there have ever been more than one individual to JUDICIAL COMMITTEE OF. whom the apparition was visible at one time. Many cases are Appenzell', a canton in the N.E. of Switzerland, encircled easily referred to an over-excited brain, a strong imagination, or by that of St Gall, is mainly mountains with numerous small some bodily malady. Every one is more or less capable of re- valleys. Its highest point is Mt. Siintis, 8232 feet high, and it calling the appearance of some object previously seen, or even of is intersected by the river Sittern. There are two divisionsforming a combination of physical objects which was probably Ausserrhoden, entirely Roman Catholic, and Innerrhoden, exnever before observed by any one. _Artists, poets, writers of fiction, clusively peopled by Protestants, of which the last is by far the have this faculty in a marked degree; and the only tdifference more populous, forming, indeed, one of the most densely-peopled between this and the appearance of A. seems to be that the one districts in Europe. This division has existed since 1597. Both is voluntary and the other involuntary. The case of Nicolai, a the Catholics and Protestants have separate, but purely demoBerlin bookseller, is well known; and he himself referred the cratic constitutions. The chief industries are agriculture, and appearance of these spectral images, which were visible to him the manufacture of cotton and embroidery. Area, 152 sq. miles; for several months, to the condition of his bodily health during pop. (I870) 60,635.-A., the capital (pop. 3686), lies on the that period. Sir Walter Scott, in his work on Demonology and Sittern, and has some trade in linens. Witchcraft, gives, among other instances, that of a gentleman who died from the great mental agony which he suffered on Ap'perley, Charles James, a notable English hunter and account of the continual presence of a human skeleton, which writer on sporting subjects, was born in Denbighshire in 1777, appearance his reason told him was nothing but the product of educated at Rugby, and after a lengthened career devoted to the his imagination. The appearance of the murdered Cmesar to pleasures of the chase, and marked by habitual extravagance Brutus before the battle of Philippi was perhaps the consequence and frequent impecuniosity, died in France, i9th May I843. of Brutus's recollections of his former friend's kindnesses, and The best of his clever and chatty performances, The Chase, the evident failure of the scheme for securing the liberty of Rome. the Turf; and the Road, appeared in the Quarterly Review Another curious and well-authenticated anecdote is in connec- (I827). tion with Sir Charles Lee's daughter, who is said to have died Appert, Benjamin Nicolas Marie, a philanthropist of at the exact hour which she previously told had been pre- France, born at Paris in I797. At the age of eighteen the desire dicted by her mother's spirit the preceding night. Possibly she seized him to devote himself to a life of practical benevolence. was so convinced that the prediction would come true, that her From i8i6 to 1830 he was principally engaged in establishing feelings became more intensely excited as the time drew near, In 1846 he visited and just as she hearcd twelve strike, the excitement proved Belgium, Germany, and Austria, everywhere inspecting schools, too much for her brain, and, she expired. The fact that great prisons, and hospitals, and has published the result of his invesexcitement may produce death has been fully authenticated in tigation in several valuable works, of which may be mentioned many instances. Until psychology has been more fully studied, however; until his Voyage en Belgique (Brun. 1846);'Voyage en Prusse; Hambours, ses Prisons et Hospices ( I85o); Les Prisons, Eddftaux, the action of the brain, the extent of the sphere of its action, as Eraoes en Aztriche et Bavitre etc. (Leipz. I85I.) to whether minds may act and react upon each other, though separated by a considerable distance, the phenomena of dreaming, Ap'petite is a sensation referred to the stomach. When the and kindred subjects, are more fully investigated and under- sensation is intense enough to be pleasurable, it is called A.; but 139 4> APP' THE GLOBE ENCYCY OPOEDIA. APP when painful, it is called hunger. It indicates not any local America.- The Greeks called the A. Mela, and the Romans affection of the stomach which can be detected, but rather a l7//aluzm; the Hungarians call it Alma, the Bretons Aval or Avegeneral want of the system for nourishment. Nutriment intro- len, the Welsh Afalen, the Germans Apfel, in Dutch Appel, in duced directly into the blood, or into the rectum, in the form of Danish Aeble, and in Swedish Aple. Botanists term the fruit a injection, removes A., and even hunger, without the stomach Pome (q. v.) Biffins or Beaufins are apples which have been dried being directly affected. See FOOD, HUNGER, THIRST. in ovens. There are different species of crab apples. The Siberian Crab A. is Pyrzs baccala, the American Crab A. P. coreAppia'ni, Andrea, court painter to Napoleon, was born in rian Crab A. is Pys bacc t he American Crab A.. has I754 at Milan, where are his most famous works, two frescoes, also been given to other fruits, i.e., A. of odom to the fruit of in the church of Sta Maria and the royal palace. He painted the also been given to other fruits, i., A. of Sodom to the fruit of portraits of the family of Buonaparte, and a number of classical Anonm Sodomea; Devil's A., Cindragos Limetta; Custard A., and romantic pictures, among which are'Olympus,''Toilet of Solaum esculenuma; Love A., LycMpersicum escaden/; MaiJuno,''Venus and Cupid,' and'Rinaldo in the gardens of mee A., men Americana; May A., Podop/ylhem pe/atmm; Armida.' Honours were heaped on him prior to I814; but his e A., Azn ss;, pela fortunes declined with his patron, and he died poor ini Pine A., Ananassa saliva; Rose A., Eugen Datozra Stramonium, &c. Oak A. is the name given to an Appia'nus, author of a Roman history in Greek, was born excrescence formed on oak-trees by insects puncturing the at Alexandria, and lived at Rome during the reigns of Trajan, branches. Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius. Eleven of the twenty-four books Apple-Berry, an Australian name for Billardiera (q. v.) of his history are extant. His method of narration is peculiar, and not on the whole happy. Of the various peoples with whom Ap'pleby, the county town of Westmoreland, on the river the Romans warred from the beginning of their power till they Eden, 30 miles S.E, of Carlisle, is a station on a branch of had acquired universal dominion, he gives the history of each the Stockton Railway. It has an old castle which was defended separately till its final conquest. Beginning with the old Italian during the civil wars by the Countess of Pembroke against the tribes, he ends with the Illyl-ians and Arabians. His geographical Parliamentary forces. The keep; 8o feet high, is called Coesar's blunders are very gross, but we have abundant evidence that he Tower. A. has linen and woollen manufactories, and some was in some cases singularly careful and exact in his weighing brewing and malting. Pop. (I871) I989. of evidence and authority. This holds good especially of the Appleof odom. See SOLANUM. period of Augustus. Yet he is never brilliant or morally impassioned. Schweighaiiser's edition (3 vols. 8vo, Leipz. 1785) is Ap'pleton, a town of Wisconsin, United States, on Fox highly esteemed, but the most complete is that iln the Bibiaio- river, near the Grand Chute rapids, with considerable trade in tlizqice Gr-ecpqe of Firmin Didot, which contains the new frag- wheat, Indian corn, tobacco, and timber. Pop. (I870) 45I8. ments discovered by Angelo Mai. A. also wrote memoirs of Appoggiatu'ra, a note in music printed always in small his life, which have perished. type, receiving the accent of, and taking half the duration from, Ap'pia~n W~ay (Lat. Via Ayppia), the oldest of the Roman the next following note. It is commonly a discord, and its roads, leading from the For/la Cua~~eia at Rome southward to notation probably arose from a wish to evade the strict laws of Cpena adt Romed southward to Cthe old harmonists as to the preparation of discords. It was Capua, and named after Appius Claudius Ctecus, who was written as an ornament, with a tacit understanding that it was censor in 313 B.C. It was afterwards extended to Brundusium. Remains of it may still be seen at Telracina. to be played in full. The purely ornamental note, printed in The engineering the same way, but played witlout accent, is called an acciacdifficulties, which were great, were successfully overcome, but ca/ura. at an enormous cost. The roadway consisted of a foundation and several carefully-cemented strata, topped with a neatly- Appoint'ment, in English law, means the exercise of a power jointed pavement. reserved under a deed of conveyance; such as a power to charge the property conveyed with a pecuniary burden. In Scotch Ap'pius Clau'dius Crassus, a Roman decemvir (451-449 law, the equivalent terms are'reserved power,' and'faculty to s.c.) Remaining at Rome while his colleagues, with one ex- burden.' Courts of equity in England often give relief when ception, were abroad with. the army on an expedition against the power of A. is defective in legal execution, if adequate, or the Sabines, he secretly ordered a beautiful maiden named Vir- what is called' meritorious' consideration has been given for the ginia, the daughter of Virginius, a plebeian who was with the reservation. army, to be seized, on the plea that she had been born the slave of his client M. Claudius, and then pronounced this plea valid Appoltionment, a legal term in the law of Engand and Scotland arisiag under the Appointment Act of 4 and 5 Will. in the court over which he himself presided. Virginius, informed Scotland arising under the Appointment Act of 4 and Will. of this byIcilius, the betrothed of Virginia, hastened to Rome IV. c. 22. The questions with which the Act deals were preto claim his daughter, but a second trial merely confirmed the viously a common cause of litigation, arising mostly between the issue of the first. Virginius, seizing a knife, slew his daughter to heir-at-law of one deceased and his executor; the heir being preserve her honour. Popular indignation was roused, and the to the real, the executor to the personal, estate; the army, returning to Rome, deposed the decemviri. A. C., ac- difficulty being with regard to the portion of rents, interests, cording to Livy, committed suicide in prison, but Dionysius says salaries, &c., which thus fall to each as determined by the date the commo on was that he n opinion by f death. The Act was for some time not held to apply to order of the tribunes. This incident, graphically narrated by Scotland, but in 5844 the Court of Session decided that it did Livy, forms the subject of one of Macaulay's Lays of Rome. so, and this decision was affirmed by the House of Lords. The Act, being expressed exclusively in the phraseology of English Ap'ple. The fruit known in Britain as A. is the produce of law, has given much trouble to the Scotch courts. Its operation cultivated varieties of the common wild crab-tree, Pyrus mauis. has been greatly extended by the Act 33 and 34 Vict. c. 35. See PYRUs. The A.-tree is the most widely distributed of all The general principle of the accounting is that when any one fruit-trees, and succeeds best in temperate regions, although it dies, his income is counted up to the day of his death, and is payalso grows in the Indies, Persia, Arabia, and Australia. In able at the same time as the next payment would have been tropical regions and in high latitudes, the fruit, however, is had the recipient not died. almost worthless. The varieties of A. are exceedingly numerous, and new ones are continually being produced by cultivators. Appori'tion (Lat. appositio, a placing near) denotes in Many marked varieties are known by general names, such as grammar the placing of a noun, pronoun, adjective, or phrase rennets, pippins, codlins, &c. All the different kinds are kept beside another noun, to explain or limit it, as'John the Baptist;' up and propagated, not by seeds, but by grafts and cuttings.'we thought her foolish;''you were silent when accused-a The fruit is used for dessert, jelly, tarts, pies, sauces, &c. Its clear conefession of guilt.' fermented juice forms Cider (q. v.) The cider A. takes the place Appraise'ment is the valuation made by the appraiser; but of the vine in the N.W. of France. A. contains malic acid, in English law it signifies the judicial valuation made under a which is used for medicinal purposes, and a vinegar and a spirit'distress' for rent. The correspondcing term in Scotch law is are made from them in Switzerland. Large quantities of apples appreciation, under a Poinding (q. v.), an important process sare annually imported into Britain from the Continent and in the law of Scotland, 140 ~ -_ —------------— + —------— 4 APP THE GL OBE ENC YCZ OPDIA. APP Apprais'er is a person employed to value property. By Approach'es, in military language, are the trenches or pro. 8 Vict. c. I5, duties on sales by auction were repealed, and a tected roads by which the besiegers may advance with comparalicence-duty of;Io a year imposed on the A. A few of the tive safety, from one parallel of earthworks to the next, upon a more important provisions of the Act are, unless an auctioneer besieged town or fortress. disclose the name of his constituent, an action will lie against Approbate andReprobate. This is a technical expression him in the event of breach of contract. Goods sold remain at in the law of Scotland, signfyingthat one tas advantage of on the risk of the seller, so long as anything remains to be done by part of a deed, but rejects the rest. This the law does not permit. him to ascertain the price; afterwards, if allowed to remain on The analogous doctrine of the law of England is called ei the premises of the auctioneer, it is at the risk of the buyer. If doctrine f (q. v.) The doctrine recommends itself to common sense; yet an estate advertised for sale by auction is sold by private con- there are exceptions to its operation which probably do so also. tract, those who come to the expected sale may recover the The law will not allow any one to take benefit under the provision expense of attendance from the seller, or from the A. if he will of a will, and at the same time to refuse to give effect to another not name his principal; hence the common precaution in an of its provisions in favour of some one else; but to secure a advertisement'unless previously sold by private contract.' A benefit under a will, te law will not oblige te eneficiary to bidder may retract his offer previous to the fall of the hammer, fulfil a frivolous condition, or a condition which in no way unless there is an article of sale to the contrary.'Puffing' affects any private or public interest. Thus, a legacy devised may, in a court of equity, be held to vitiate a sale by auction. under condition that the legatee change his name, will legally Apprehend' is, in law, to arrest a criminal or debtor in fall to the legatee without his being obliged to fulfil the conorder to commit him to prison. The warrant of a judge is ditio the law regarding the name by which a man chooses to usually required for the legal justification of apprehension; hut call himself as a purely private affair. Apparent exceptions also certain officers may, under certain circumstances, A. summarily, occur. Thus, it has been decided by the Court of Session in without warrant. But the right must be exercised with great Scotland, and affirmed by the House of Lords, that an heir-at-law caution, any infringement of legal liberty forming a valid ground may, in virtue of a deathbed deed, reduce a previous deed, of action against the offender. A private person may find himself otherwise good; at the same time, that he may set aside the in considerable difficulty under the statutes regarding the law of deathbed deed, in so far as he is injured by it. apprehension; for not only is he entitled to arrest a felon if he Appropria'tion Clauses. The effect of the Roman observes the committal of the felony, but he is bound by law to Catholic Emancipation Act (I829) was disappointing to those do so, under penalty of fine and imprisonment, if he negligently politicians who had hoped that one main effect of it would be allow him to escape. But again, a private person may not A. the social and political pacification of Ireland. Of the causes of another merely because he suspects him of felony, however failure, the chief tangible one lay in the antipathy of the Roman strong may be the suspicion. A peace-officer may A. any one Catholics to pay tithes to the Protestant clergy. So strong was against whom he can show reasonable ground of suspicion. The this feeling, that any Protestant clergyman in the Catholic diswarrant of any judge in the United Kingdom for the apprehen- tricts resorting to law to exact his rights, did so at the imminent sion of a criminal is effective throughout the United Kingdom, risk of assassination. The remedies devised by the Liberal party on the endorsation of a judge of the territory in which the war- in England were termed the A. C. They provided for the comrant is to be enforced. Conventions have now been entered into mutation of tithes into a rent-charge upon the land, for the between the British government and most foreign States for the reduction of the number of sinecures in the Irish Protestant extradition of criminals, except for political offences; and on the Church, and for the appropriation of the surplus revenues to the extradition of a criminal, it is always understood that he shall advancement of the education of the people. not be tried for a political offence. The wilful obstruction of a In I833 the Liberal Cabinet succeeded in substantially carrying legal warrant to A. is a very grave offence, and if accompanied the second of these provisions. The Act by which this was by certain aggravating circumstances, such as the use of firearms, effected is known as the Irish Church Temporalities Act. It is punishable with penal servitude for life. If the legal officer, still, however, left the Church of Ireland with an income wholly or any one assisting him to discharge his duty, be killed in the out of proportion to its adherents. The efforts of the Liberal endeavour, the crime is murder. See DEFENDING FORCIBLY, party-somewhat, however, divided on the question-were reDEFORCEMENT. newed in I834, but unsuccessfully. On 2d April I835, however, the House of Commons, by a majority of thirty-three, passed a *Apprentice. An A. is one who engages by indenture to resolution affirming the principles of the third clause. The Conserve a master for a certain number of years, in order to be in- servatives resigned in consequence, and the Liberals returned to isero which the servatives resigned in consequence, and the Liberals returned to structed in some profession, art, or manufacture, which the office, pledged to the appropriation principle. They twice master becomes bound to teach him; or at least to afford him succeeded in passing a bill affirming this principle through the fair opportunity of learning. In Scotland, a pupil (see AGE) House of Commons, but on both occasions the A. C. were rejected may enter into an indenture, yet he or she must have the con- by the House of Lords. For some years the question maintained currence of parent or tutor, who is alone responsible for the a precarious vitality at the hustings and in Parliament, but engagements of the A. At common law an A. cannot enlist or England and Scotland were plainly tired of it. The Government enter the Royal Navy; and by the Mutiny Act severe penalties of 1838 carried a measure for Ireland, by which the tithes were are attached to his enlisting, besides which he is bound to serve commuted into a rent-charge of three-fourths of their value. as a soldier on the expiry of his apprenticeship; and if he does They were now collected with comparative ease. The disennot deliver himself to a military officer authorised to receive dowment of the Irish Church in of course ended the conrecruits, he incurs the penalties of a deserter. In I837 the troversy HI-ouse of Lords, on appeal, reversed a decision of the Court of Session in Scotland finding that an A. to a Dundee barber was Appro'er, or Prover, in English law, is one who is bound to attend at his master's shop on Sunday mornings for the accessary (see ACCESSARY OR AccEssoRY) to a crime, and bears purpose of shaving customers. The decision of the Scotch court evidence against his accomplice. There is an implied promise proceeded on the terms of the indenture, which provided that to the witness, or Queen's evidence as he is called, on condition the A. should'not absent himself from his master's business, of his making a full and true confession; but if he equivocate, holiday or weekday, late hours or early, without leave first he forfeits this claim, and is confession may be used against asked and obtained.' The reversal again was on the ground of himself. The law of Scotland is very nearly the same as that of the stipulation being contrary to certain old Scotch statutes, England respecting the A. or Socizs crininis, as he is called in especially one of I 559, which provides that'na handy lautboring the criminal courts of Scotland. In Scotland, however the or wirking be used on Sunday.' It is probable, however, that Queen's evidenre has better legal protection than in England. considerations of public expediency may have influenced the By the mere act of calling an accomplice as a witness, the public House of Lords in giving effect to the provisions of an ancient prosecutor gives up all right to proceed against him on account of statute, which might otherwise have been set aside as obsolete. the crime in question. Thus the objection to his testimony on S~ee DESUETUDE. the ground of its being his interest to criminate his associate is, or is supposed to be, obviated. But a private prosecutor cannot Appri'sing, an old Scotch law term now obsolete. See tie the hands of the public authorities by examining a Socius ADJUDICA'rION. criminiis. Sir Archibald Alison, in his Practice of tAe Criminal v ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~aI~r APP THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPADIA. APS Law of Scotlanad, mentions the case of a soldier, confined as a called, and imprisoned at Narva, where he died 3 It August 1 758. military delinquent, who was allowed to become A. against See Biog-ratien der Russ.FeZdcnarsczalle (Petersb. I840-4I). another charged with the same offence as himself. Counsel for Ap'ricot, the name given to fruit of the different varietfes the soldier objected to his client being made a witness, as he of Pr)unus Armeniac, a tree, indigenous to Armenia, belonging was amenable to trial by court-martial, and his testimony might of Rosace. The name A., which was written be used against himself. The civil court, however, declared that they had power to protect him, and would do so if he were a-Ji-ecoke by early authors on horticulture, is supposed to be a endangered by 1his evidence. corruption of P-accocia, the name given to it by the Romans. The tree is believed to have been introduced into Britain from Approxima'tion is a mathematical term applied to calcula- Italy during 1524 by Woolf, gardener to Henry VIII. There tions which are not rigorously accurate, but are sufficiently near are now numerous varieties in cultivation. The following are the truth for all practical purposes. As instances of A. may be among the finest, viz., the royal, the Turkey, the large early, mentioned logarithmic, trigonometric, and astronomical tables, the Moorpark, and the Breda. Some of the kinds have sweet and the solution of equations beyond the fourth degree. kernels, while in others they are bitter. The former are eaten as almonds, and from the latter, which contain prussic acid, is Ap'pui, a French word meaning generally a stay or support. distilled the French eau de noyazux. The fruit is either eaten In military language apgoints d'A. is any part of a field of battle fresh, made into a preserve, or split up, the stone removed, and which can be used to assist the operations of an army, to facili- then dried. In Eastern countries it is used in cases of fever. tate assault or obstruct attack. Thus a wood, a morass, a river, A black pigment is obtained by charring the stones. Prunzts or a slope may become a joins d'A. Bsgffantiaca is the Briangon A., and P. Sibirica the Siberian A. Appulei'us, or Apuleius, son of a wealthy magistrate of A'pril (from Lat. aijerire, to open), the name given in the Madaura in Africa, was a famous satirist of the 2d c. After Roman calendar to the month of the opening of the buds. The studying at Carthage and Athens, he entered on an extensive Ist of A. is called in England All-Fools' Day, from the custom course of travel, during which he visited Italy and Asia. His of sending on that day simple persons on bootless errands. first literary effort was his Ag4ologia, still extant, spoken be- The person so imposed on is called in England an A. fool; in fore the proconsul of Africa, in which he vindicated himself from Scotland, a gowk, i.e., simpleton (also applied to the cuckoo) the charge of using magic, preferred against him by the relatives and in France, un poisson d'Avril (an A. fish). The origin of a lady whom he had married, and whose hopes of sharing in of this custom is not certainly known. It may be a relic of her wealth had been thus destroyed. It contains various bio- paganism, or it may have been suggested by the sending of graphical circumstances, and in particular an elaborate account Christ backward and forward from Annas to Caiaphas, and of the circumstances that led to his marriage with Pudentilla at from Pilate to Herod, as represented in one of the Easter Oea (mod. Tripoli?) His after-life was spent at Carthage, where miracle-plays. The Hindus practise the same sort of tricks on he devoted himself to literature and oratory. He was a priest the 3Ist of March. of IEsculapius, the patron god of the city; he had the charge A-priori is the name given to that process of reasoning of exhibiting gladiatorial shows and wild-beast hunts in the pro- s e to vince; and statues were erected in his honour by the Senate of which rests on what aoe held to be necessary or universal ideas, Carthage and of other states. According to Lactantius, the early pagan controversialists used to rank A. with Apollonius of these two methods are styled the deductive and the inductive Tyana as a miracle-worker equal to Christ. His reputation has nethods, Aristotle representing the forner, and Bacon the latter. The advocates of each system assert that it virtually includes is difficult to determine, but it can hardly be (as some have sup- the other; the y. school holding that experience merely tests posed) a satire on the quackeries of the pagan priesthood, for necessary truths; while the a-josler-iori school maintains that the hero (Lucius), after having gone through numerous ludicrous these so-called'necessary' notions are not simply verified by and painful adventures as a jackass, is at last restored to human experience, but are derived from it. shape by the interposition of the goddess Isis, to whose service Apse (Lat. apsis, an arch), the end of the choir or chancel of a he is solemnly consecrated for life. The Golden Ass abounds church. It is sometimes semicircular, at other times it is polyin wit and humour, and gives evidence of a wide erudition; but gonal, or even triangular. The word is applied also to the it is artificial, affected, and viciously archaic in diction, besides series of small lateral chapels which are usually arranged bebeing unutterably gross in passages. Several other works of A. hind the altar in this recess. remain, though many are lost. G. F. Hildebrand published a Crypts and vaults are generally complete edition at Leipzig in I842. There are three separate placed under the A., to secure English versions of the Golden Ass, one by T. Taylor (I822), their being near the altar; and another by Sir G. Head (I851), and a third in Bohn's Classical this gave rise to the structural Library (i853). necessity, which by-and-by beAprax'in, Feodor Matvayevich, a famous Russian ad- came the traditional usage, of M i miral, born of noble family in I67I. He entered the navy in hvithelevelof the A. above that of the floor of the church. 1683, and in 1700 was made chief admiral. By greatly extend- that of the floor of the church., ing the marine forces he advanced the ambitious projects of When the ends of the tian- j Peter the Great, who favoured him with a warm friendship. He septs are finished with vaults, defeated Liibeker, the Swedish general (170o8), in Ingermann- as they sometimes are, they are land, and captured the Finnish town of Viborg in 17Io. In said to have apsidalends. The, 1713 he took Helsingfors and Borgo, defeated the Swedish fleet, origin of the A. in Christian and brought about the peace of Nystadt, by which Finland and churches was the vaulted extre iliy Esthonia were finally ceded to Russia. He was present at the mity of the ancient basilicas siege of Derbend (1722) during the Persian war; and died at It s ommon as an rchitecMoscow, Ioth November I728.I-His brother, Peter Matva- tural feature of the churches of yevich A,., rose to be lieutenant-general in the Russian army, Germany and France. In Italy X and signalised himself by the suppression of a rebellion on the it is seen chiefly in baptisteries; Lower Volga in 1703. He died at St Petersburg in I720.- in England in chapter-houses. Apse. Stepan Fedorovich A., Count, a Russian field-marshal, Specimens of it in Scotland grandson of Feodor, fought first against the Turks under Miin- are to be seen in the parish churches of Leuchars in Fife and nich, and afterwards in the Seven Years' War against Prussia, of Kirkliston and Dalmeny in Linlithgowshire. in which he overran Courland (I757), entered Prussia, captured Ap'sides, are the greatest and least distances of a heavenly Memel, shattered the Prussian army under Lehwald, and was body from its centre of attraction. In hyperbolic and parabolic threatening Kinigsberg, when the news reached him that the orbits there is evidently but one apse. The line of A. (the line Russian Empress Elizabeth was dying. Knowing the Prussian joining those points) is, as a necessary consequence of the law sympathies of her successor, he stopped in his career of victory. of gravitation, subject to a continual rotatory motion which is Unfortunately for him, Elizabeth recovered. A. was now re- well marked in the case of the moon. + 42 --------------- - __ _ _ _ APS THE GLOBE ENC YCL OPEDIA4. AQU Ap'sley, a river of New South Wales, Australia, enters the scale, they form both a pleasing and instructive domestic ornament. Pacific 40 miles N.E. of Port Macquarrie. A. is also the name The water in an A. must be kept in a condition fit to mainof a strait, 48 miles long, and from I-2 to 4 broad, between Ba- tain the life of its inhabitants, not by frequent renewals, but by thurst and Melville Islands, to the N. of Australia. a sufficient access of atmospheric air, and by adjusting the balance Ap'tera (' wingless'), a name applied collectively to denote of animal and vegetable life within it. The vegetation in a tank the three lower orders of insects-Anojplvura (lice); Tkysan.urcz should be sufficient to absorb and decompose the carbonic acid (spring-tails); Malopt(aga (bird-lice)-in whice) wings are un- evolved by the animals, and in fact an A. should be a perfect developed. The eyes are, further, of simple structures or may illustration of the reciprocal relations of animal and vegetable be absent. The young undergo no metamorphosis3 and these life. It should not be necessary to add anything to an A. in a orders are hence also termed o mAmeoaboZe. healthy condition other than the food necessary for the creatures and sufficient water to replace that lost by evaporation. An A. Ap'teryx, a genus of Cursorial or Running birds, found in tank should have a large superficial exposure, and the depth New Zealand, and including three species, the best known being should be graduated by a sloping back of stonework. In the the A. Australis of Gould. case of a domestic fresh-water tank it is sometimes possible to.: ~? It averages a goose in size, have a small jet continually playing in the centre, and where The webs of the feathers this is not practicable the water-both fresh and salt-must be _=_-_ __~ are of loose, unconnected frequently agitated to expose fresh surfaces to atmospheric instructure, and no accessory fluences. Where sea-water is not obtainable it may be artificially plumes existin the feathers. prepared by adding the necessary salts. It is seldom possible to The beak is long, slender, keep seaweed alive in tanks, but under the influence of light and possesses the nostrils sufficient minute vegetation develops from the spores disseminated opening at its tip. The through water, and in fresh-water as well as marine aquaria legs are short. Three front such vegetation is now preferred. Aquaria vary in size from toes and a hinder toe ex- small glass globes in which one or two gold-fish may be kept up ist, the latter being spur- to large buildings containing numerous tanks, many of them of like. The tail is rudiment- several thousand gallons capacity. The first public A. was ary, as also are the wings, opened in the Zoological Society's Gardens, London, in I853. Apteryx Australis. which are hidden by the Many Continental towns now contain aquaria on an extensive feathers. Each wing ter- scale, and a large one was opened at the Crystal Palace, London, minates in a sharp claw. This bird is of nocturnal habits, and in I87I, besides another at Brighton a year later. In several feeds chiefly on insects. other British towns public aquaria are either in contemplation Aptor'nis, the name of an extinct bird genus, the fossil or actual progress. The construction of aquaria proper may be remains of which occur in the Recent formations of New Zealand. said to date from I84I, when one was made by Mr N. B. Ward, These birds, like the apteryx, were wingless. the inventor of the Wardian case for plants. Since that time Apu'lia, anciently a maritime province in the S.E. of Italy, they have enjoye great popular reputation, but success in between the Apennines and the Adriatic, bounded on the N. by managing the tanks of amateurs is frequently the result of much the Frentani, and on the S. by Calabria and Lucania. Its patient endeavour and many disastrous failures. Some crealimits, as defined by Strabo, show that it included the area now tures are eastly kept aliveln the confinement of aquaria, while others immedigtely succumb in spite of every care and attention. forming the modern provinces of Capitanata (q. v.) and Terra di Bari (q. v.) The ancient inhabitants of A. were the Apuli, pro- Aqua'rius (' the Water-carrier'), one of the constellations of bably an offshoot of the Oscan race, and the Daunians, so called, the zodiac, which the sun traverses during a part of January according to Greek legend, from Daunus, the son of Lycaon, and February. who settled on this coast; but whatever original difference may Aquat'ic Animals. Various species and groups of animal have existed between the two, at the dawn of Roman history forms are adapted for life in the water. The fishes, crustaceans they are completely blended into one people. Horace was a and many similar groups exemplify forms which are suited for a native of this region, and here, during the second Punic or Han- permanent aquatic life. Others, such as frogs, crocodiles, &c., nibalic war, the Romans suffered the tremendous disaster of are only partly aquatic in habits, and are said to be'amphibious.' Cannoe. The modern form of the name A. is Puglia. The swimming and wading birds also exemplify such forms; Apure', a river of S. America, rising in the Eastern Andes whilst the beavers, water-rats, otters, seals, &c., form examples of the United States of Colombia, and flowing westward through of terrestrial types adapted for aquatic existence in a greater Venezuela till it joins the Orinoco (q. v.), after a course of 982 or less degree. The respiration or breathing of purely A. miles, 867 of which are navigable. -A. (e.g., fishes and crustaceans) is always carried on by branchize or gills-organs adapted for utilising the air, mechaniApur'imac, a river in Peru, rises to the N. W. of the table- cally combined with or suspended in the water, for the purifi. land of Titicaca, and flouws N. to join the Tangaragua and form cation or aeration of the blood. The air is not chemically the Amazon. It waters the richest part of Peru, and after 500 combined, but merely mixed with the water; and if the water miles of its course takes the names of Tambo and Ucayali. be deprived of this air, these A. A. perish for want of the From the great rapidity of its stream, the A. is useless for navi- vitalising atmosphere, just as land animals would do if the gation, and its banks are almost inaccessible. atmospheric air were abstracted. The land or terrestrial forms Aqua Fortis was the name given by the alchemists to dilute breathe by lungs, by the general surface of the body, or by air-tubes or pulmonary-sacs, as in insects or spiders. In these nitric acid on account of the corrosive action it exercises on cases, the air is inhaled directly from the atmosphere. The many substances, and is still employed in the same sense. See ss, the air is inhaled directly f-om the atmosphere. The ~~~NITRK~IC ACI~~D. ~~plumage or fur of A. A. is usually protected by special secreNITRIc AcID. tions, as seen, for example, in the oily fluid furnished by the Aqua REegia is a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, tail-gland of birds, &c. The whales-true mammals, breathing usually in the proportion of I to 3, and is principally employed by lungs-seals, and other allied forms, require to ascend to dissolve the metals gold and platinum. The name A. R. periodically to the surface of the water to inhale the atmospheric was given to the above mixture by the alchemists, because it was air. Some water insects and spiders (e.g., the water-spider the only substance then known which would attack gold-the Argyroneta) carry down bubbles of air with them for the purking of metals. pose of breathing, and thus fill their abodes constructed at the Aqua'rium, an arrangement for keeping marine and fresh- bottom of pools. water creatures in captivity under conditions as nearly as possible Aquat'ic Plants. This appellation is sometimes used very the same as those in which they naturally exist. An A. is either vaguely, and made to embrace all plants found growing in salt one or a series of tanks or vessels containing fresh or sea water, and fresh water and in marshes. Botanists, however, apply it according to the kind of creatures they are intended to receive. only to plants found in running or stagnant fresh water, such as Aquaria are very useful for observation of the habits and life- the arrowhead (Sagittaria), water-lily (Nynzphaa), pond-weed history of creatures otherwise difficult to watch, and, on the small (Potamogetmon), awlwort (Subularia), water-soldier (Stratiotes), *f * AQU Tl.E GLOBE EVCYCLOP.SADIA. AQ1U duck-weed (Lemna), water-buttercup (Ranunculus fluitans), Even the provincial towns of Italy in the Roman times had their African pond-weed (Aponogetoz, q.v.), Vallisneria (q.v.),Anacharis water supply by means of aqueducts, as is witnessed by the A. of (q. v.), &c. Some A. P. root in the mud, and appear above the Trajan at Civita Vecchia, which had a course of 23 miles; and as surface of the water, others remain submerged, while a few float late as 6o4one of the Lombard'dukes,' Theodolapius, built that of freely on the surface without rooting below. A. P. possess a Spoleto. The modern aqueducts of Leghorn and Pisa are magnilarge number of Air-Cells (q. v.) in their structure. ficent structures, the latter having a thousand arches. Wherever Rome formed settlements, this mode of procuring a supply of Aq'uatint, a form of engraving by which imitations of water was introduced; and in Spain, Portugal, and France exChina ink or sepia drawings are produced. It is accomplished tensive remains of such structures still exist. Those of the A. by strewing powdered mastic over the surface of the copper- formed at Nismes, probably by Agrippa, now known as the Pont plate, which prevents the aquafortis from biting the points to du Gard, are the most striking and the best preserved. Three which the particles adhere, and a mottled granular surface is the rows of arches, rising the one above the other, support a small result. conduit, covered with slabs, the interior of which still retains its coat of cement. The height is I88 feet, and the length of the highest row of arches 873 feet. We have seen that Frontinus Aqua Vitae, two Latin words signifying'water of life', a was'keeper' or'guardian' of the aqueducts -llnder Nerva and phrase applied to alcoholic stimulants, inasmuch as they were Trajan. There was always such an officer, with the proper subconsidered capable of prolonging life, and as a cure for many ordinates, to inspect, repair, and improve those useful structures. diseases. Alcohol undoubtedly is a most valuable remedial agent Special and separate functionaries were intrusted with the care of in the hands of the skilled practitioner, and hence it was specially the channel, of the reservoirs, of the cement, &c. That the Rocalled A. V. mans did not conduct water as we do in pipes, was not because ueuct, an artificial watercourse. The fountains of they were ignorant of the law that water always finds its own level. This fact was well known to them. A magnificent recent Greece were so numerous and full-flowing that the Greeks stood level. This fact was kind is the Croton A., 38 mies long, which in no need of aqueducts, though they were not unacquaint~ construction of this kind is the Croton A., 38 miles long, which in no need of aqueducts, though they were not unnacquaint- supplies New York with the waters of the river Croton. It was hed withof them; but commenced in I837, and finished in I842. It crosses the river = ~-~( -= ~/O $& those of the Romans Haarlem by fifteen arches, the highest elevation of the masonry =____.___ i~ constituted some of from the foundation being I50 feet. It can discharge 6o,ooo,ooo their noblest structures, and two of gallons of water in a day. them still contribute Aqueduct, a term used in anatomy to denote a narrow x-'.....~x'-.~-,~~.~.~ to supply Rome with channel or conduit. There are the A. of Fallopius, the A. of water. Of the four- the cochlea, and the A. of the vestibule in the petrous portion of teen aqueducts of the temporal bone, and the A. of Sylvius, communicating beN::s Z0l Z1IXZ I t 1 —I K ancient Rome, only tween the third and fourth ventricles of the brain. nine existed in the A'queous HuImour, the watery or semi-fluid substance time of Frontinus, which fills and distends the corneal chamber of the eye or space keeper of the aque- between the posterior part of the cornea (the transparent front ducts under Nerva part of the fibrous capsule of the eye) and the front portion of and Trajan, and of the crystalline lens. The A. H. consists chiefly of water; 1- of these he wrote an its weight being composed of chloride of sodium (salt) and exaccount, whichisstill tractive matters (Berzelius). It is probably formed by the epiAqueduct. extant. thelial cells of the posterior part of the cornea. See EYE. i. Aqua Aqia, begun by the censor Appius Claudius about Aqueous Rocks, otherwise called sedimentary or stratified 313 B c. It was chiefly underground. All traces of it have rocks, are, as these names indicate, rocks which have been dedis2. Anippea es, commenced d.C. 273 by M. Cuius Dentatus* posited in layers or strata through the agency of water, either in ens its liquid state, as in seas and rivers, or in its solid state, as in chiefly subterranean; length 43 miles; traces of it at Tivoli and glaciers nd icebergs. Suc formations are continually going on, glaciers and icebergs. Such formations are continually going on, near the Poita Maggiore. especially at the mouths of our great rivers and estuaries, the 3. Aqua Mlarcia, built by Q. M arcius Rex, B.c. 144; about waters of which bring down from the interior large quantities 6o miles long; its water was cold and wholesome; some arches of minutely-divided sand and mud in suspension, which are are still to be seen in the Campagna. 4. Aqua Tey5la (527 B.C.);* afterwards connected with gradually precipitated as the force of the current diminishes. 54. OYua epua (buIlt27 b.c.); afterward 3*ms connected with St lA. R. are divided into a number of distinct strata, which serve 5. Aq4ua 55lia, built by Agrippa, s.c. 33; remains of it still as landmarks to the great periods of animal life upon the earth's exist. Ac robityArp tospyhbah stlsurface. For further information the reader is referred to the 6. Au go, built by Agrippa to supply his baths; still three great primary divisions of A. R.-Kainozoic, Mesozoic, in use, having been restored by the popes Nicholas V. and Plus IV. in 1568; now called Aqua Vergine, and furnishes the best water in Rome. Aquifolia'cee, a small natural order of evergreen trees and 7. XAua Alsietina, built by Augustus to supply his Nanmachia, shrubs found in various parts of the world. Astringent, tonic, on which his mimic sea-fights were represented. It has been and emetic properties characterise the order. The common restored, and supplies the fountains in front of St Peter's. Holly (q. v.) (rflex Aquifoliulm) is indigenous to Britain, and forms 8. A/qua Claudia, commenced by Caligula A.D. 36, and excellent hedges and fences. At Tynninghame, in Scotland, finished by Claudius A.D. 50. A series of splendid arches, still there are great hedges composed of it, which are about I50 stretching across the Campagna, formed part of the Aqua Clau- years old. Its wood is white and hard, and is valued by the dia. cabinetmaker; its bark furnishes birdlime; and its berries are 9. Ania oNovus, the highest of all the aqueducts, with a length emetic and purgative. flex Paragteayensis furnishes the Yerba of 62 miles. The two last were united near the city, their malte or Paraguay tea of S. America. A decoction of the leaves channels running on the same arches. Their united streams of flex vomitoria is used by the Creek Indians as a mild emetic, doubled the former supply. The gate named Poorta Maggiore under the name'black drink.' is an interesting relic connected with these. By means of it they were carried over the via Labicana and the via Pranestina. The aqueducts subsequently formed were inferior in extent Aquila, a fortified town of Italy, capital of a province of the and splendour to the older ones. The Romans generally built same name on the Aterno, a branch of the Pescara, and in the their aqueducts of brick. The conduit, which was paved, and neighbourhood of the highest peaks of the Apennines, is the seat had sides of brick or stone, covered over with an arch or a flat of a bishop, and has a trade in paperl, linen, wax, and saffron. It coping of stone, ran over semicircular arches, springing from was built by the Emperor Frederick II., but was destroyed square piers. by an earthquake in 70o3, when 200ooo people perished. During * I44 AQU THE GLOBE ENC YCLOP-D1EA. ARA the Neapolitan rule the town was noted for its liberal sentiments. Magnus, Bonaventura, and A. were the victorious champions of lop. 12,000. the latter. Their arguments can still be read in one of A.'s Aquila, Pon'ticus, the author of a Greek translation of the Opuscla entitled Contra Impignantes Dei Cultl= etReligione. Old Testament, was born at Sinope, and flourished in the 2d c.In I257 he obtained from the same university, against whose A.D. Epiphaniustaes s s that Siphe was a nephew ofd the Emperor leaders his polemic was delivered, the degree of doctor, and his A.D. Epiphanius states that hewas a nephew of the Emperor reputation as a philosopher and divine now spread over the Hadrian, but this is improbable. He was originally a pagan, wole of atins a philosopher and divine now spread over the then, according to some, a Christian, and finally a Jew. His w ices sought his advice, and Lois IX made version is remarkable for its literalness, and on that account was him a member of his Privy Council Pope Urban IV., anxious placed above the Septuagint both by the Jews (who called it t o b ring about a reconciliation between the Greean IV., anxious the Hebrew verity) and the Ebionites (q. v.). Every Hebrew Ch urches, called h im to Italy in betwee and A. accmp an word is rendered by a corresponding Greek one. This feature Holiness on all his journeys, teaching and l ecturing in many renders it valuable for textual criticism, but much less so for cities of the peninsula. To this period belongs his Cant cities of the peninsula. To this period belongs his Contra initerpretation. Errores G;r-corum. Clement IV., who became Pope in 1265, Aquilaria'cese, a small order of Dicotyledonous trees, natives entertained the same high respect for A. as his predecessor, of the tropical regions of Asia. The fragrant wood of Aquilaria and offered him the archbishopric of Naples, which he declined. ovata and A. Agallochum, is called eagle-wood or Aloes-Wood A.'s real ambition was to govern the thoughts of men, not to (q. v.). It is regarded as the aloes or lign aloes of Scripture. rule the Church. It was from this desire that he undertook the great work of his life, the Summa Theolog;iw.'Disgusted,' as Aquile'gia, a genus of plants in the order Ranunculacece. he tells us himself,'with the extravagances, obscurity, and disSee COLUMBINE. order of the scholastic theology up to his own time, he conceived Aquile'ja, or Aglar, the most westerly town of the Austrian the idea of a luminous and methodical compend of the entire Coastlands on the Adriatic Sea, 22 miles W. N.W. of Trieste. system of Christianity, from the sublime doctrine of the existence It was founded by Roman colonists in i8i B.C., soon became a of God down to the humblest precept of evangelical morality.' rich centre of trade, and on account of its strong fortifications The execution of this chef-d' uvre, the supreme monument of was called the second Rome (Rorna S~ecsnda). The great high- the 13th c., occupied the last nine years of his life, without, howroad of Italy to the East, the Via zEmilia, was continued to A., ever, hindering him from discharging his public duties as a lecand the roads to Rhaetia, Pannonia, Noricum, and Dalmatia had turer on divinity in Bologna, Paris, and Naples. Summoned their starting-point here. In 452 it was destroyed by Attila, and from the last of these cities by Pope Gregory X. to take part in has never since risen to importance. Its line of bishops is car- a council at Lyon, he was seized with illness on his journey, and ried back to the age of Nero, and can be traced with certainty expied at Fossa-Nuova, in the diocese of Terracina, 2d March to the 3d c. About the 6th c. they took the title of patriarchs, 1274, at the early age of forty-nine. His canonisation was and claimed rank next to the Pope. In 1750 the patriarchatedeclared by Pope John XXII. in 1323, and the title of Doctor was divided into the two archbishoprics of Udine and Gorz. A. Ecciesie was conferred on him by Pius V. in I567. His worldhas a cathedral built in Io41, but is now a decayed place, with- famous surname Doctor Angelic.s was given to him because out trade. Pop. 1750. of the precision and completeness with which in the first part of his Summa he defines the nature and attributes of angels. Aquinas, St Thomas (It. Tommaso d'Aquino), a famous If any one wishes to thoroughly comprehend the peculiar charschoolman of the middle ages, was born in I225 at Rocca Secca, acter of metaphysical thought in the middle ages, he should a small town near Aquino, in Naples. The family to which he study A., in whose writings it is seen in its greatest consistency. belonged was one of the most illustrious in Southern Italy. His Depth and strength of understanding, vigour of logical statefather, the Count of Aquino, was a nephew of the Emperor ment, fulness of knowledge, —these are the great qualities of the Frederick Barbarossa; his mother was descended from Tancred Summa. Nor is there absent from it, though more fully seen in of Hauteville, the Norman conqueror of Sicily; his elder some of his other works, such as the'unlmma Catholice Eidei brothers, Reginaldo and Landulfo, held high offices in the Im- contra Gentiles, a flame of devotional poesy, and that strange perial army, while most of his sisters contracted distinguished mysticism into which all spiritual thought seems ever destined alliances. A., however, was insensible to the associations of to pass. The literature to which A. has given birth would itself mere worldly greatness. From his youth he displayed an ex- make a library, and is a testimony to the immense influence clusive passion for philosophical and religious study. At the of the man. His own writings, which are far too numerous to age of fifteen he entered as a novice the Dominican order. To specify, have been printed separately and collectively many escape the reproaches of his relatives he fled from Naples to times. Among the complete editions may be mentioned those Rome, and then proceeded on his way to Paris, but was arrested of Rome (I8 vols. fol. I570-7I); Venice (I8 vols. fol. I593-94); by his brothers at Siena, and confined in the paternal castle of Antwerp (i9 vols. fol. i614); Paris (23 vols. fol. I636-4I); Rocca Secca for a space of two years. According to the Bol- Venice (20 vols. fol. 1745-60). A new edition, to be completed landists (q. v.), who have invested this captivity with a halo of in 24 vols., was begun at Rome in I858. See Haureau, De la miraculous circumstances, when everything else failed, it was Philosophie Scholastique (2 vols., Paris, I850). attempted to win A. back to the world by introducing a Lais *into his chamber, but such was the violence of his virtue that Aquita'nia, the name given by Caesar to that part of Gaul she was forced to beat a precipitate retreat. It is said that the which lay between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, and which Dominicans obtained from the Pope and the emperor an order was originally peopled by an Iberian race akin to the Basques for his release, and for leave to follow the way of life he pre- of Spain, whose name is still preserved in the words'Vascons' ferred. Be that as it may, in 1243 he took the Dominican vows, or'Gascons' and' Biscay.' See BASQUES. Augustus added and went first to the schools of Paris, and afterwards to Cologne, the country between the Garonne and the Loire, which was where he had for his master Albertus Magnus (q. v.). At this inhabited by fourteen tribes. In the year 412 it was conquered period of his life he was very silent and meditative: his fellow- by the Arian Visigoths, from whom it was wrested in 508 by the students called him Bos magnus, bos mutus,'the great dumb ox;'' Catholic' Clovis, but under the later Merovingian kings it but when he publicly sustained an argument with a singularly became an independent duchy. After various fortunes, it was strict and luminous logic, Albertus, turning to the pupils, said, united to France in I 37 by the marriage of the heiress Eleanor'The bellowings of this ox will yet resound throughout the uni- to Louis VII. Fifteen years later, by the marriage of the divorced verse.' During 1245-48 he resided in Paris with his master, Eleanor with Henry II., it became English, but it was finally and on the return of Albertus to Cologne, A. accompanied him united to France in 1451. in the capacity of muagister scolarum. It was about this time that he composed his first works, ePrincpiis atr and Le ra, a genus of Scansorial or Climbing birds, popularly P i iis X r and D~e Iknown as Macaws (q. v.). The name MFacrocerus is more freEnte el Essentia. In 1252 he again went to Paris, obtained a quently applied to indicate tis genus; and the name A. is chair of theology, preached in the churches, and commenced the derived from the Indian name for these birds, which inhabit derived from the Indian name for these birds, which inhabit writing of his Opuscula. Meanwhile a lively quarrel broke out tropical America and the. Indies. between the University of Paris and the mendicant orders, which was ultimately fought out before Pope Alexander IV.; Albertus Arabesque (Fr.), a term meaning in the Ar abian style, but ~~~~~~~~~~~~19'~~~~~~~~~~~45 -v - ARA TIHE GLOBE ENC YCLOPJEDIA. ARA generally applied to a fanciful style of ornament, much used in Sultan of Wahhabi; while the maritime region of the S. E., from mural decoration among the ancients, and subsequently in the peninsula of Katar to Dofar on the Indian Ocean, is under the supremacy of the Sultan of Oman or Muscat. Hadramaut (q. v.), the strip of coast region extending along the Indian Ocean from Aden to Dofar, is occupied by independent tribes. The principal towns are Mecca and Medina in the province of Hedjas; Sana and Mocha, in Yemen; Aden, on the S. coast, near the entrance to the Red Sea, and belonging to England; Muscat, in the S.E., on the Gulf of Oman; and Ri'ad, the capital of the Wahhabis, in the central highlands. Climzate, Soil, &'c.-In the low lands and upon the strips of desert the heat is intense, and the blast of the Semmum, or -' C poisonous wind,' is described by Palgrave as fatal when encountered on the open plains. In the central highlands the climate is delightful, and here corn, vegetables, and most of the subtropical products are grown with success. In A. the best coffee and dates are produced and exported, besides gums, myrrh, and various spices, senna and other drugs, and pearls from the Persian Gulf. Cotton, indigo, and tobacco are also cultivated, and might be largely grown for export. The principal domestic animals of A. are the camel, the celebrated breed of horses, oxen, sheep, and goats. Among wild animals are the lion, panther, jackal, and hyena. Arabesque. History.-The earliest inhabitants of A. are believed to have been Cushites, who were forced to migrate from A; to Abysgeneral use for various purposes, and the purest types of which sinia on the arrival in their country of certain Semitic tribes are afforded by the Venetian monuments of the Lombardi and descended from Kakhtanz, the grandson of Shem, and Ishmael. other cinquecento sculptors. It consists of floriated scrolls and The Hivzyarides, a dynasty descended from Kahtan, are said to figures perfectly executed. Grotesquerie, however, haslbrmed- have flourished in Yemen for 2000 years. The Romans, who though not in all cases-a quality of A. from the earliest times, invaded A. in the beginning of the 2d c., and again under and foliage with griffins appears in the friezes of Greek temples, Augustus, failed to reduce this dynasty to dependence. But and in the mural decorations of Pompeii. Saracenic A. is seen what the Roman legions could not accomplish was brought about in wonderful variety and beauty in the Alhambra; but the most by subsequent internal disturbances, and for several centuries splendid examples of this species of ornamental design are the the history of the country is only a record of inter-tribal wars. works of Raphael and Giulio Romano. See Wornum's Analysis With the rise of Mohammed A. also uprose; and the tribes, having of Ornamenzt (I86I). adopted the creed of the Prophet, united for the sacred purpose Arabgir' (anc. Anabrace), a town in the vilayet of Sivas, of extending it; and under the Califs (q. v.)-the successors of Asiatic Turkey, on the caravan route between Aleppo and Tre- Mohammed-A. attained great power, and spread her conquest bizond, distant from the latter S.S.W. 150 miles. It lies on an far and wide. In 749 the Abbasides (q. v.) assumed the rule elevated plateau, is surrounded by mulberry-trees, and employs of the Faithful, and the reigns of Mansur, Harufn-al-Raschid, an immense number of hand-looms in the weaving of cloths from and Mamfin, the most splendid of the Bagdad Califs for luxury English cotton yarn. Near A. are the lead and copper mines of and refinement, form the golden age of the Mohammedan Kaben-Maden. Pop. about 30,000, chiefly Turks and Armenians. dynasty. In the gth c. the merchants of A. were in all the markets of the world, trading from Spain to India and China. Arabia, the great peninsula of south-western Asia, connected The removal, however, of the capital of the Califs far beyond with Africa by the Isthmus of Suez, and with the Asiatic conti- her frontier was the first cause of the decline of A., and after the nent by the Syrian Desert, is bounded W. by the Indian Ocean, capture of Bagdad (I258) and the fall of the Abbasides, the S. by the Red Sea, and E. by the Persian Gulf. Lat. I2~ 30' country relapsed into insignificance. In recent centuries the terto 3I~ N.; long. 32o 20' to 60~ E. Area estimated at I,230,ooo ritory of A. has been ravaged by various assailants, and during sq. miles; pop. at 4,000,ooo. The general type of A., accord- the I6th c. the Turks had acquired Yemen, the Persians Oman, ing to Palgrave, the most recent explorer of A., who has crossed and the Portuguese Muscat. The Wa/izabis (q. v.) arose in A. the peninsula from the frontier of Palestine to Muscat on the Sea towards the close of the ISth c., and established themselves of Oman, is that of a central tableland, surrounded by a desert supreme in Nejed. Their enjoyment of power, however, was not ring, sandy to the S., W., and E., and stony to the N. This without a check. Ibrahim Pasha (I8r8) swept down upon them, outlying circle is in -its turn girt by a line of mountains, low and and set up Egyptian domination in their province. But the sterile for the most part, but attaining in Yemen (q. v.) and misrule of the Egyptian princes led to their own overthrow, and Oman (q. v.) a height of from 600ooo to 8ooo feet in many of the Turkee, a surviving son of the last Wahhab monarch, was inpeaks, and also considerable breadth and fertility, while beyond stalled in the throne of his fathers. Feizul, the son of Turkee, these a narrow rim of coast is bordered by the sea. The surface has extended the Wahhabite religion and sway, and seems to of the midmost tableland or Nejed (q. v.) equals somewhat less have inaugurated a more promising era among its inhabitants, as than one-half of the entire peninsula, and its special demar- a wider area of soil is now under cultivation in Nejed and its decations are much affected, nay, often absolutely fixed, by the pendencies. See Palgrave's Central and Eastern Arabia (Macwindings and in-runnings of the'Nefood,' or sand-passes- millan, I865); Burton's El-Medinzah and Meccah (Longmans, offshoots from the D'hana, or Great Sandy Desert, in the S. 1855); and Wrede's Reisen in Hadhranzaut (I870). of the peninsula, and which covers about one-third of its entire Arabian Language and Literature. The Arabic is extent. If to these central highlands we add whatever spots of the most widely-spread branch of that family of languages comfertility belong to the outer circles, it will be found that A. monly called the Semitic, though a more appropriate designation contains about two-thirds of cultivatable or at least of available would be the Syro-Arabian. Together with the Ethiopic it land, with a remaining third of irreclaimable desert, chiefly to forms the southern branch of the family, and is divided into a the S. The whole of the W. maritime region of A., extending northern and southern dialect, the former of which has become S. from the Syrian frontier to the neighbourhood of Aden, predominant through the influence of the Koran. Arabic is not stretching inland in some quarters to the depth of 200 miles, only a languagehighly developed, but from the peninsular position and embracing the provinces of Hedjas,'Asear, and Yemen, of Arabia it has preserved nearly perfect purity of form and idiom. belongs to the Ottoman empire; the north-eastern region around Being necessarily coextensive with the spread of Islamism, it was the lofty Djebel Shomer is under the dominion of the Sultan of spoken and written in almost all Western Asia, in Eastern and Shomer; Nejed, the central highlands, extending N.E. from Northern Africa, in Spain, and in some of the Mediterranean Mecca to the N. W. shores of the Persian Gulf, and having an islands. It was the ecclesiastical language of Persia, Turkey, average breadth of about 350 miles, forms the empire of the and the other Mohammedan countries, in each of which it has 146 ARA THEE GLOBE ENCYCCIOPI/EDA. A A FRA left traces of its former ascendancy; and it is still as indispens- history of Sicily under the Arabs, and Ibn-Abizer the annals of able a part of a learned education to a Moslem priest as Latin the Moorish kings. The style of the Arabian historians is simple is to a Christian ecclesiastic. It has a close affinity with Hebrew, and unadorned. and contains nearly nine-tenths of the Hebrew roots; hence it The Koran is the basis of Arabian theology and jurispruhas now begun to be studied by those who wish to accomplish dence; but the study of the Aristotelian philosophy resulted in themselves as Biblical scholars. The grammar and lexicography speculations which gave rise to numerous sects, four only of have been so elaborately explained by native scholars, that the which are regarded as orthodox. The sayings of Mohammed student of Arabic can proceed with as much confidence as the have been collected into what is known as the Sunna, a valuable student of Greek. Abul-Aswad-al-Duli, who flourished under body of tradition, which helps to the elucidation of the Koran, Ali, the fourth calif, was the earliest grammarian; Mohammed- the principal occupation of students in theological jurisprudence. ben-Yakub-al-Firuzabadi (died I414) compiled Al-KIamus, the The attention of the French has of late been directed to Mohambest lexicon of the language; and technical terms in art and medan law, a course rendered indispensable by their conquest science have been explained by Jordshani. Arabic, which is of Algeria. In philosophy, the Arabians confined themselves singularly rich in synonyms, is spoken with the greatest purity mainly to the exposition of Aristotle; and Western Europe owed in Yemen. The old Kufic form of writing, which had special its acquaintance with the Peripatetic philosophy to translations symbols for only sixteen of the twenty-eight consonants, was dis- into Latin from the Arabic. Among their most eminent and, best placed in the ioth c. by a current handwriting, the NAeskhi, still known philosophical writers are Avicenna (IIth c.), Abubekr in use, in which points distinguish the consonants that are similar Ibn-Tofail, who seems to have anticipated the evolution theory in form. Arabic texts are either pointed or unpointed, the in his Hai-ebn-Yokdan (Pococke, Oxf. I67I); and Averrhoes points representing the vocalisation. There are collections of (I2th c.), famed as much for his medical system as for his comArabian MSS. in the Escurial, and at Rome, Paris, Berlin, mentaries on Aristotle. See Ritter's Ueber unsere Kienntniss dcr Vienna, Gotha, Leyden, London, and Oxford. Among the Arab. Philosop/hie (G6tt. 1844), Dieterici's NVazuranschaauung more recent contributions to Arabic grammar and lexicography zvid Natur Phziloso/phie der Araber iym 10. 7ahrh. (Berl. I86s). are Grammnatik der VNez-Arabischen Spi-ache, by Wahrmund That medicine owes so much to the Arabs results primarily (4 vols. I86I-66); and an English Lexicon of Iodern Arabic, by from their intimate acquaintance with the uses and properties of Newman (2 vols. I87I). simples, due to the exuberant vegetation of South-Western The earliest Arabian literature is poetic, as was to be expected Arabia. Alchemy (q. v.), first cultivated in Egypt, was taken from the temperament, the mode of life, and the surround- up by the Arabians, and by them introduced into Spain; and ings of the nomadic tribes. Love and war are the themes, hence arose chemical pharmacy, a purely Arabic creation. In and poetic contests, like those at the Grecian games, were held all departments of medical science they were brilliant discoverers, at the great fair of Mecca and elsewhere. The successful except in anatomy, dissection being forbidden by the Koran. poems, rewritten in characters of gold, were hung up in the The Arabic notation, and the substitution of the sine for the Kaaba at Mecca, and thence termed the Modsahhabdt,'the chord in trigonometry, were valuable contributions to mathemaGolden,' or Moallakdt,'the Suspended.' The Chrestomathie tical science; astronomy and geometrywere sedulously cultivated; Arabe of De Sacy (2d ed. Paris, 1822) contains translations from Euclid was translated into Arabic, and several important astroNabegha, Asha, and Shanfara, the most distinguished of the bards nomical discoveries were made. The Christian and Jewish elebefore Mohammed. Kaab-ben-Zohair also deserves mention. ments are necessarily meagre, as neither Judaism nor Christianity He lived to celebrate the work of the Prophet in verse, which obtained any permanent influence among the Arabs as a nation. Freytag published with a Latin translation (Bonn, I822). The Hence no entire version of the Bible exists in Arabic, though peculiar nature of the life and poesy of an Arab minstrel of this independent versions of separate books are far from scarce. period are beautifully delineated in the Divan of Amrulkais These versions, however, were not made directly from the (translated into German by Riickert, Stuttg, I.843). The richest Hebrew, but from the Septuagint, or from Latin versions. collection of the older Arabian poesy is to be foand in the But by far the brightest outcome of their literature was their Anthologies of Hamasa, the Divan of the Hudhailites (published poetry, which gradually assumed a highly artistic form. Fiction, by Kosegarten, Greifswald, I854), and the Kitdb al-aghdni (Kose- expressed both in verse and prose, was wonderfully popular; garten, Greifswald, I840). See Weil, Die Poetische Literatur der and The Arabian Nights' Entertainments (q. v.) still ranks as Araber vor Mohammed (Stu'ttg. 1837); perhaps.the most graceful and interesting collection of fabulous The revision and publication, of the Koran by Calif Othman, and romantic lore in existence. Hardly less popular is the poem in the middle of the 7th c., mparks an important era in Arabian on the exploits of Antar (q. v.). The drama alone, of all species culture; and fully a century, later, after a whirlwind of conquest, of poetic composition, was neglected; but their imaginative literathe Arabs settled themselves down to literature, science, and the ture still colours that of Europe. We have only space for the arts, under the fostering sway first of Al-Mansur (754-75), and names of some of their more brilliant bards; as Motenebbi, afterwards of the world-renowned Harfin-al-Raschid (786-808). Abul-Ala, OmarBen-Faredh (Divan, Paris, 1855), Abu Nuwas, Men of learning were attracted from all cquarters, and splendidly Tograi Ibn-Doreid, Busiri, Hamadani, and Hariri. This wonrewarded; translations of the best Greek, Syriac, and Persian derful luxuriance has been succeeded by a barrenness as wonderauthors were made and disseminated; schools were founded in ful, due to the depressing sway of the Turks, though the press the more important cities.; libraries were collected; and pupils of Cairo, Beyrout, and Algiers occasionally issues works of no repaired from many parts of Europe to Cordova, in Spain, where great importance, written evidently with an eye to European also the Arabs had founded a famous school. Such rapid pro- criticism. Hammer has written a history of Arabian literature gress in culture is without a parallel; indeed, Arabian literature in 7 vols. (Vien. I850-56); it is exhaustive so far as it goes, but spans the chasm between the extinction of classical learning and it only comes down to I258. A very complete survey of the the revival of letters.in the I5th c., and what is justly known as subject is given by Zenker in his Bibliotheca Orieztalzis (2 vols. the'dark ages' in the rest of Europe, was a period of intel- Leipz. 1;846-6I). lectual light and splendour in Arabian Spain. All departments of learning were cultivated. Medicine, physics, and. mathe- Arabian Nights' Entertainments, the title usually matics received special attention, and astronomy, geography, given to English reproductions of Les AMille el Une Nuits, and history were favourite studies. The earliest Mohammedan Contes Arabes tradzits en Franfais (The Thousand and One historian is Hesham-Mohammed-al-Kelbi- (died 8i9), who wrote Nights-Arabian Tales, translated into French), by Antoine a life of the Prophet (ed. by Wiistenfeld, Gitt. I.857). In the Galland, a famous Orientalist, and which were first published in same century flourished Wakedi (died 822), Ibn-Kotaiba, Abu- Paris in i2 vols. 1704-14. Galland described the collection as Obaida, Al-Baladsori, and Afraki. But with the ioth c. history that of an unknown Arabian author; but at first he himself was became a sort of passion with Arabian authors. Masudi wrote believed to be the writer. All doubt on this question has long an historical encyclopoedia entitled Meadows of Gold (Fr. transl., been dispelled: a number of MS. copies of the text in Arabic vol. i. Paris, i86I). Tabari (died 922) wrote Annals (Kose- have been found at Cairo and published. Among these is the garten, Greifswald, 183r), and Hamza of Ispahan, and Eutychius Alif Laila, or Book of the Thousnd Nights and One Nzigt, of Alexandria first attempted universal history; Abulfaraj and commonly known as the A. NV. E., now for the first time Abulfeda followed; Abul-Kasem of Cordova (died II39) nar- published complete in the original Arabic, from an Egyptian rated the history of the Arabic dominion in Spain, Nuvairi the MS. brought to India by the late Major Turner Macan (editor 4X~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I~~~~~~~~~~~47 AlRA THE GI OBE ENC YCL OPED}I4. ARAi of the Shanh Nameh), edited by W. H. Macnaughten, Esq., 4 vols. fications are still to be seen, and the numerous ruined pagodas Calcutta and London, I839. The Thousand and One lVigts had on the surrounding heights attest its ancient grandeur. The its origin in a collection of Persian tales called the Thousand famous idol which stands near the capital of Burmah was taken Fanciful Tales, which are known to have been in existence in the from A., and is still tended by the descendants of Aracanese middle of the Ioth c. But though the A. N. E. contains much captives. The province was annexed by the British in I826, matter similar to what occurs in its archetype, yet it has this and is now divided into four districts-Akyab, Ramree, North claim to be an original work, that it was written most probably A., and Sandoway. in Egypt during the I6th c. by an Arab, and that its tales arericari, a sub-genus of the Toucans, included exclusively illustrative of Arab character, whether the scene in under the name Prrogossus. These birds are colouans, included which they are cast be Persia, India, or China.' In my endeav- with red or yellow breasts. They inhabit S. America, and posours,' says Mr Edward William Lane, perhaps the most scholarly sess much smaller bills than they inhabit S. America, and posand most successful translator of the A. N. E.,'to ascertain the period and the country in which this work was composed, Ara'cem, an order of Monocotyledonous plants. See ARUM. I have not merely considered its internal evidences of the time and place. The earliest period at which any portion of it has Ar'achis, a genus of Leguminous plants with papilionaceous been incontestably proved to have existed is the year 955 of flowers. A. hy1o5aca has the remarkable habit of pushing its the Flifght (A.D. I548).' The exquisite fancy, humour, and fruit or pods into earth, where they are matured; hence they pathos of these tales, and the evident fidelity of its pictures of receive the name of ground-nuts in this country. The plant is Arab town life and manners, have won for it an extraordinary an annual, and was originally a native of the V. Indies and popularity in England and on the Continent, and evoked the Africa, but is now cultivated in most warm regions, and even indirect flattery of scores of imitations. Perhaps the latest and succeeds well in France. The pods contain two seeds about the most perfect edition of the A. Nt o. Pis the new edition of E. size of a pea, which are eaten as food, either raw, boiled, or most perfect edition of the A. JV. E. is the new edition of E. roasted. Wben piessed, a large quantity of oil is obtained frEom W. Lane's translation, edited by E. Stanley Poole (Murray, Lond. I859). In this work, which is de lxe in illustrations, &rc., the them, one bushel yielding about one gallon. The oil is equal interesting question of the origin and literary history of this in quality to olive oil, and is often used as a substitute for it. It singular collection of tales is fully and satisfactorily discussed. has been used in the manufacture of soap, &c. The plant is Among the other translators of the A. N. E. may be mentioned recommended as forage for cattle. Dr Scott (I8iI); Henry Torrens, who translated the Alif Laila Arach'nida, a class of Arth/ropoda or Higher Annulose (Calc. 1838); and the Rev. Ed. Forster (Lond. I847). animals represented by spiders, mites, scorpions, &c. The A. Arabiarmn Numlnerals, the name given to the characters are distinguished by the head and chest being united to form a 0, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. They were in reality borrowed by single segment-the cphalothorax; by the presence of eight the Arabs from the Hindus, and were first introduced into legs; by the absence of wings and antennze; and by the breathEurope about 980 A.D., but were not in general use until the ing organs consisting of pulmonary-sacs, or of tracheae, or of both invention of printing. combined. The eyes are simple. The class is divided into the section Trachearia, represented by mites, ticks (Acarina), seaArabian Sea (anc. Mare Erythrceunm), an immense bay of spiders. (Podosomata), and harvest-spiders (Phalangida), &c. the Indian Ocean, stretching from India to Arabia, and extend- These breathe by air-tubes or trachea, and the eyes are not more ing from Beloochistan on the N., to about the latitude of Cape than four in number. The second section, or Pumzonarians, Comorin and Cape Guardafui in the S. It includes the Persian represented by spiders and scorpions, breathe by pulmonary-sacs Gulf and the Red Sea proper, the latter of which was connected alone, or combined with tracheae, and the eyes number six or with the Mediterranean Sea in 1869 by the Suez Canal (q. v.). more. From the earliest times till the doubling of the Cape of Good Arachnoid Membrane. The brain and spinal cord are Hope in 1497, the A. S., together with its great inlet, the Red Sea, was the chief route by which trade between Europe and protected by three membranes. These are (I) the dura-mater, ~~~~the East was carried one~a fibrous structure which lines the skull and canal of the vertebral column; (2) the pia-nzater, a very thin fibro-vascular memAr'abine is the chief constituent of gzum-arabic, in which it brane spread over the surface of the brain and cord; and (3) occurs combined with lime and potash. By adding alcohol to the arachnoid, a serous sac placed between the dura-mater and an aqueous solution of gum-arabic acidulated with hydrochloric pia-mater, covering the inner surface of the dura-mater on the acid, pure A. is precipitated in white flocks. Its composition is one side, and the outer surface of the pia-mater on the other. the same as that of starch, both of which contain quantities of The arachnoid is thus a shut sac containing a small quantity of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, corresponding with the formula serous fluid. Between the A. M. and the parts where the pia-mater C6H1005. When boiled with dilute sulphuric acid, A., like dips into the fissures of the brain is a space called the sub-arachstarch, takes up water, and becomes converted into grape sugar. noid space, which also contains a serous fluid called the cerebroC6H1005 + H1O = C6H11O0 spinal fluid. ~Aabine. Water. Grape sugar. Arad, the capital of a province of the same name, Upper Arabine. Water..Grape sugar Hungary, on the Marosh, a branch of the Theiss. It was deAracaju', the capital of the Brazilian province of Sergipe, on stroyed by the Turks in the 17th c.; but when rebuilt it was the river Cotinguiba, about 5 miles from its mouth, and 150 miles strongly fortified, and afterwards played an important part in N. of Bahia. It is the only port of the province opened to the revolution of 1849. Kossuth issued from A. his proclamasforeign commerce, and has considerable trade, chiefly in cotton tion declaring the hopelessness of the Hungarian cause. A. is and sugar, the latter of which is of superior quality. In 1872 the seat of a non-united Greek bishop, and has a gymnasium the value of sugar exported was ~369,938; and of cotton, and a Walachian seminary. Next to Pesth and Debreczin it has.306,532. A bar at the mouth of the river, however, is a great the largest cattle-market in Hungary. There is also a large hindrance to shipping, and has caused the transmission of two- trade in corn and tobacco. Pop. (1869) 32,725. On the oppothirds of the trade of Sergipe to the port of Bahia. Pop. over site bank of the river lies New A., a fortified suburb with 4670 20,000. inhabitants. The province is rich in wine and wood, and conAr'acan, or Arracan, the most northerly province of British tains marble quarries and mines of copper and iron. Area, I 700 Burmah. Area, I8,530 sq. miles; pop. (I871) 46I,I36. It is sq. miles;pop. 254,ooo. separated from Pegu and native Burmah by the Yomah Moun- Ar'afat, Mount (7ebel-er-'rahme, Mountain of Mercy), a tains, from 3000 to 5000 feet high, and its seaboard extends from small hill 15 miles S.E. of Mecca, on which, according to the estuary of the Naaf to Cape Negrais, along the E. side of the Mohammedan belief, Adam again met Eve, after a separation of Bay of Bengal. Akyab (q. v.) is the chief town. The principal 200 years, following the banishment from Paradise. See ADAM. export is rice. A. was once an independent kingdom, but was It is the scene of a great yearly ceremony at which the Mohamconquered by the Burmese in I783, when its old capital, A., medan pilgrims require to be present before they can assume the was destroyed. This city, lying in a basin 50 miles inland, is name of Hadji. Burckhardt states that in I814 the gathering now a place with 4000 inhabitants. Some parts of its old forti- consisted of upwards of 70,000 people. 148 4> 4^~ —~ —-- ARA THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP/EDIA. ARA Ar'ago, Dominique Fran9ois, a famous French physicist, in I871 was 928,718. Chief towns, Saragossa, Teruel, Huesca, was born at Estagel, near Perpignan, in the department of the and Calatayud. Eastern Pyrenees, February 26, I786. At the age of seventeen Conquered by the Romans at an early period, A. afterwards he entered the Polytechnic School at Paris; and in 1805 became came into the possession of the Visigoths, and in the 8th c. of secretary to the Paris Observatory, in which capacity, along with the Arabs, from whom it was subsequently wrested by the ChrisBiot and the two Spanish commissioners Chaix and Rodriguez, tians. It was then governed by its own monarchs until its he extended from Barcelona to Formentera the measurement of union with Castile in 1469, on the marriage of Ferdinand and the arc of the meridian which had been begun by Delambre and Isabella. Mechain. A succession of romantic and perilous incidents now rago'a, a town of Sicily, miles N.N.E. of Gireti. befell him. Suspected of being a spy, he was for a time a pri- Pop. 7947 The ancient castle of the princes of A., a vast strucPop. 7947. The ancient castle of the princes of A., a vast struesoner in the citadel of Belver, near Palma, twice carried to ture in the Renaissance style, is rapidly becoming a ruin. The Algiers, and once sent to the Spanish hulks at Palamos. Finally, mud-volcano of Maccaluba is near A. in I809, he reached Marseille. A few months after his return to Paris he was almost unanimously elected to fill up the vacancy Aragonite, or Arragonite, a mineral named from Aragon in the Academy of Sciences occasioned by the death of Lalande, in Spain, composed chiefly of carbonate of lime, with a small and about the same time was appointed a mathematical pro- percentage of carbonate of strontia and sometimes magnesia. It fessor at the Polytechnic School, where he had Laplace and frequently occurs in compound crystals, chiefly white, but someMonge for his colleagues. From this date till 1848 he was times tinted with yellow, green, or violet, and when it has a engaged almost wholly in scientific pursuits. In I8r s he directed silky lustre it is known as satin spar. In this last form it is used his attention to the polarisation of light, and laid the foundation for small ornamental articles in the same way as alabaster. of that branch of physical optics known as chromatic polarisation. In he started, along with Gy-LussAraguay', also Rio Grande, a large river of Brazil, rises de Chimie el de Ph0ysique; and, in the same year, demonstrated in s o' S. lat., among the southern sierras, and is about 1 the truth of the undulatory theory of light over the emissiong. It flows N., surrounding in its course an island theory. In 0 he followed up with great success Oersted's dis- (Santa Anna) over 200 miles long, and joins the Tocantins at theory. In 182o he followed up with great success Oersted's dis- SnJa a usBra.Tevleso hsrvraes covery of the action of an electric current upon a magnet; and Sn Jao das duas Barras. The valeys o this river are so richly beautiful that the region is known as the'Garden of for his labours in this field he received, in I825, the Copley t hhazil.' Medal of the Royal Society of London. As regards politics, A. was a keen republican. He had a seat in the provisional Ar'al, Sea of (lit.'Island Sea'), the'Blue Sea' of the government of 1848, and was made Minister of War, and later Russians, a great lake to the S. of the Russian government of was a member of the War Committee in the National Assembly. Orenburg, about 150 miles W. of the Caspian Sea, between He showed his consistency in refusing to take the oath of alle- 43~ 42' and 46~ 44' N. lat., and 580 IS' and 6i~ 46' E. long. giance to Napoleon III. after the coup a'Zlal of 1852; but the Area, 26,650 sq. miles; lying ~43 feet above the Caspian. Its emperor made special exception for him. in recognition of the waters are brackish. The Sir (anc. 7axartes) and Amu (anc. valuable services, scientific and political, which he rendered his Oxus) are its only feeders, and it has no outlet. In the opinion country. A. died at Paris, October 3, 1853. A fine edition of of Rawlinson and others it was dry land during the Grecohis (Euvres, in i7 vols. (Paris, i855-6o), has been published by Roman period, and again during the I3th and 14th centuries Barral. His son, Emmanuel A., born at Paris in 812-, is a after Christ, the Jaxartes and Oxus then entering the Caspian. distinguished member of the French bar, and a notable politician The restoration of the Oxus to its old bed is being attempted of the party of the Left. (1875) by the Russian government. There is a Russian squadron stationed at Kazala (q. v.), which, however, was of too great Arago, 2tienne, a brother of the astronomer, and a wellArag, ~tenne a rothr ofthe strnome, an a wll-draught for river service during the Khivan expedition of 1873. known playwright and journalist, born in Io02. He has held draught for river service dung the hivan expedition'of 873 several State offices, and was mayor of Paris during the Franco- Ara'lia and Araliacese, a genus and order of DicotyledonPrussian war.-A., Jacques 2!tienne Victor, another of the ous trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants found both in tropical brothers A., was born in 1790. He was artist to the Government and cold regions. The common ivy (Hedera Helix) and the expedition of I8 7-20,underFreycinet, described in his Promenade moschatel (Adoxa Iosc/zaellina) are the only representatives of autozur dzu M/onde (I822). He wrote many plays, but while still the order in Britain. The plants have generally aromatic and young was suddenly afflicted with blindness. His Voyage d'unz stimulant properties. Panax Sczinseng furnishes a stimulating Avezugle en Calif/onie is the record of a hapless expedition to the drug, much used by the Chinese under the name of gingseng, and gold-fields of California, headed by A., who died ist January P. quztinquefolium possesses similar properties. P. frzuicosum and 1855.-A., Jean, the fourth brother, a distinguished general in P. cochlea/zus are used as aromatic medicines in the East. The the Mexican service, born in 1788, sailed for the New World in pith of Fatsia (Arabia) taqyyr-fera forms the famous rice paper 1815, and died in 1836. Santa Anna owed to hitm a great part of China. A. nudicaulis of N. America has a fragrant and aroof his first successes. matic root, which is used as a substitute for Sarsaparilla (q. v.), Ar'agon, a former province in the N.E. of Spain, embracing and is also said to be used as a remedy against syphilis, and as the three modern provinces of Saragossa, Huesca, and Teruel. an application to fresh wosnds. Some American species of A. It is bounded N. by the Pyrenees; E. by Catalonia and Valen- yield an aromatic gum resin. A. sinosa is called angelica-tree yied tnoaothaceticgreesin. N. siascaller n eica.te cia; S. by Valencia and New Castile; W. by Old and New d toothache-tree in N. America. Castile and Navarre. Its greatest length from N. to S. is about Ar'am, Eugene, the hero of poem, drama, and romance, 200 miles; its greatest breadth is 130 miles; and its area 14,720 was the son of a gardener, and was born at Ramsgill, Yorkshire, sq. miles. 1704. He pursued learning with avidity, though his poverty The central part of A., through which the Ebro. flovws, receiv- retarded his progress in this direction. He married early,'being the waters of many rivers, is level. The N. and S. por- came a schoolmaster, and settled at Knaresborough, where he tions are mountainous. The Pyrenees send down long spurs contracted a friendly alliance with one Daniel Clark, a shoeinto the district. Except on the banks of the Ebro the plain maker. The sudden disappearance of the latter, while in the country is not fertile, being badly supplied with water. There temporary possession of a quantity of valuable property, threw is, however, splendid vegetation in the Pyrenean valleys, where suspicion upon A., and the schoolmaster's garden having been wheat, rye, maize, barley, &c., are plentifully produced. Excel- searched, a quantity of the missing property was found. A. was lent timber grows on the mountains, and rich pasturage abounds. consequently tried, but acquitted for want of evidence. Leaving In the plains the climate is sultry, but on the hills it is temperate. Knaresborough he travelled through a considerable part of EngAmong the minerals are copper, lead, iron, salt, saltpetre, amber, land, eventually becoming usher of Lynn Academy, Norfolk. and coal. The bear, wolf, and lynx inhabit gorges of the While thus engaged, his secret was betrayed by a confederate: Pyrenees, and merino sheep are reared in great quantities. The the skeleton of the murdered man was exhumed and identified, manufactures are unimportant. The people of A. are brave and and A., tried at York, 3d August 1759, for murder, was found active, but proud, cold, and stubborn. They are true friends, guilty, and condemned to be executed within three days. He but fierce enemies; and hence their country has often been the had conducted his own defence with consummate ability-hi. scene of the most embittered and bloody strife. The population great speech being remarkable for its learning and close reasonIZst 4: -- - ARA THE GL OBE ENVC YCL OPzEDIA. ARA ing. Before his execution he confessed his guilt, wrote a defence obviously means a region and not a particular summit. Still it of suicide, and endeavoured to practically illustrate his theory; was quite natural that the name should be transferred to the but failing to gratify his desire in this direction, was executed highest peak in the region, as the spot where in all probability according to sentence. His studies were mainly philological, the ark rested. It is known to the natives as oassis Leusar and he had acquired a knowledge of Chaldee, Arabic, Welsh, ('mountain of the ark'), to the Turks as Agri-Dagh ('steep and Irish. At the time of his apprehension he was engaged upon mountain'), and to the Persians as Ih/zi-Nzvuh ('Noah's mouna Comparative Lexicon of/the English, Latin, Greek, Hebrezow, and tain'). It is about iz miles southward from Erivan, and rises in Cetic Languages. In Lord Lytton's romance of Engiene Aram a double peak to the height of 17,2r2 feet. Politically Mount A. (later editions), a very interesting and learned essay by A. on an is a prominent landmark, as since I827 it has indicated the locality antiquarian subject will be found. More exquisitely genuine in which the Russian, Turlkish, and Persian territories converge. than this romance, however, is the poem of Hood on the same The village of Arguri, encircled by gardens and orchards, and subject. tenanted by 0ooo inhabitants, formerly stood at its base; but Arame'a (Heb. Aram, the plateau or highland),, the country was destroyed by a frightful earthquake, 20th June 1840. NatuN.E. of Palestine, bounded N. by Taurus, E. by the Tigri S. by rali'sts and other travellers have shown considerable activity in N.E. of Palestine, bounded N. by Taurus, E. by the Tigr.is~, S. by Arabia, W. by Arabia and Phoenicia, and corresponding to the the neighbouring regions in recent years. Mount A. was Mesopotamia of the Greeks. The language of the country, ascended by Major R. Stewart in 1856, and by Dr Radde, called Aramaic, was divided into two dialects, that of the W. director of Tiflis museum, in i87o. being the Syriac, and that of the E. the Chaldee, specimens of Ar'as (anc. Araxes; Turk. and Arab. Ras, from the Sansk. which are to be found in Daniel and Ezra. After the Babylonish root Ara, swift), the largest affluent of the Kur (q. v.), rises in captivity, the Syriac, or Western Aramaic, gradually superseded T urkish Armenia to the S. of the city of Erzerum, and flows E., the Hebrew in Palestine, and was the vernacular of the Jews in forming in the middle part of its course the boundary between the time of Christ. Everywhere, however, in Syria and Meso- Russian Transcaucasia and the Persian province of Azerbijan, potamia, the Aramaic has now been displaced by the Arabic and after a course of about 500omiles, joins the Kur, which flows and Persian, and though it was probably tlhe most ancient of the into the Caspian Sea. Syro-Arabian tongues, it only lingers in isolated spots among the mountains of Kurdistan. Ara'tus, of Sicyon, a Greek statesman and general, born Arada, Pedro Pablo baaca y olea, Cout of, B.C. 271. His father having been slain in a political conflict, arSandsaPeda Pasblorn AraDcay oa C w A. was, at the age of seven, withdrawn to Argos, whence he a Spanish statesman, was born rSth December I718. He was ljke most of the cities of the returned in his twentieth year. Like most of the cities of the for seven years ambassador of Charles III. at the court of Peloponnesus, Sicyon was then under a tyrant. Protected and Augustus III. of Poland. A formidable revolt having broken encouraged byAntigonus Gonatas, A. succeeded in expelling out at Madrid in 1765, A. was made President of the Council of the usurper, whose name was Nicocles, made the city a republic, Castile. He restored order in the capital, established the supre- and joied it with the chaian League, his aim being to form a macy of the law throughout the kingdom, and energetically united Greece out of the several statgs. A. saw the double introduced a series of liberal reforms in the army, navy, com- danger to his country-from Rome and Macedonia-and sought merce, and agriculture of the country. Having procured the to s tyanln e w P eofEp ut to surmount it by an alliance with Ptolemly of Egypt, but his expulsion of the Jesuits, he was, in 1 773, through clerical intrigues, efforts were unsuccessful. Seventeen times generalssmo of the efforts were unsuccessful. Seventeen times generalissimo of the got rid of for a time by being sent' as ambassador to France. chaian League, he was finally, in.. 23 poioed at the Achaian League, he was finally, in B.C. 213, poisoned at the Returning to his old position, he once mnore lost it through in Returning to his old position, he once nore lost it through i- instance of Philip II. of Macedon, his disinterested efforts for the trigue; and having expressed unpalatable sentiments respecting liberties of Greece having been frustrated by the petty jealousies he wa ban-liberties of Greece having been frustrated by the petty jealousies the war with France that followed the Revolution, he was ban- of the states. A. wrote a. history of the Achaians, which Polybius ished to Aragon, and died there in I799 praises. JAranea and Alraneidm. See SPIDER., Aratus, of Soli, Cilicia, wrote about 270 B.C. his PhaiAran'juez (Lat. Ara-pgvis), a town of Spain, 28 miles S.S.E. nomena, a Greek astronomical poem, which Cicero translated into of Madrid, famed for its palace and gardens. The gardens were Latin. To these was joined his Diosemeia or Prognostica. The laid out by Philip II., but the palace, completed by Charles IV., quotation made by Paul (Acts xvi., 28),'We also are his offis a reconstruction in the French style, by Philip V., of an older spring,' is from A., whose fellow-countryman the apostle was. edifice that had been partly destroyed by fire. The residence of The ediio 5rinceps of A. was published by the elder Aldo the royal family here during the spring formerly brought a great Manuzio (Ven..499); the most complete edition is that of influx of visitors into. A,, the population of less than 4000 being Buhle (2 vols. Leipz. I793-I8oi), but there Ire later ones by sometimes increased to Io,ooo. In the gardens are magnificent Buttmann (Berl. 1826), Bekker (Ie.rl. i829), anid K6chly (Paris, elm-trees that were brought from England by Philip II. Here I851). an alliance was concluded between France and Spain against Araucania, an independent state, within the boundaries of England, I2th April I772, and here Charles IV. abdicated, ISth Chili, between, 360 44' and 39' 50' S. lat., and 70' and 740 30' March I8o8. ~~~~~~~March i ~8o8. ~W. long. It rises from the Pacific to the Andes in three great Ar'any, Jnos, a Hungarian poet, inferior in reputation only terraces, and its productions resemble those of Chili. Area to Pet6fi, was born of poor parents at Nagy-Szalonta in I819. about a-5,ooo sq. miles; pop. estimated (I868) at 300,000. He studied hard for four years at Debreczin College with the view From I537 to I773 A. waged an almost constant war of indeof entering the Church; hut in 1836, wearied of the dull inactive pendence with the Spaniards, and is the only country of the New life, threw in his lot with some strolling players. He soon, how- World whose aboriginal race has successfully resisted European ever, returned to Szalonta, where he settled as a notary. In inroads. Of late years (x870) it was at war with Chili, stirred I847 he published Toldi (the Hungarian Samson), a trilogy, up by a French adventurer named De Tonneins, who had assumed which instantly nerved the national sentiment of all classes. A. the title of King Orelio Antoine I:., and is striving to form in rose to fame and favour after the Austro-Hungarian war. He A. a constitutional monarchy. Los Angeles is the capital, with has written many poems, some of which are translated into Ger- 3960 inhabitants. See Smith, Yhe Araucanians (New York, man, the best known being Ka'alin ('Catherine'), a narrative 1855); Orelie4Anloine er.Roid'i4AracanieetdePatagonie,gsarluiin thirteen cantos. The first part of a second great trilogy, mrnme (Paris, 1863); and Aimard, L'Araucan (Paris, I864). Budaa Hald/a, was crowned by the Hungarian Academy in 1864. Arauca'ria, a genus ofConiferous, Evergreen trees found in In 1874 appeared a humorous epos, recounting his early adven- the southern hemisphere. A. iict, called Chili pine or the southern hemisphere..4. imbricata, called Chili pine or tures as an itinerant actor.'puzzle monkey,' is the only species which will bear the climate Ar'arat (properly Aiara/a,'the plains of the Aryans'), the of Britain. but occasionally during severe winters it is much inname originally given to the high plain or plateau on the middle jured. It is found growing in large forests on the mountains of Aras or Araxes, which was the earliest home of the old Armenian Southern Chili, where it attains the height of I50 feet. Its wood and Medo-Persian Aryans, and formed, even in tihe time of the is yellowish-white, hard and durable; its cones are large and writer of Genesis, a country distinct from Armenia proper; for round, and its seeds are eaten either raw or roasted. A4. Bidthe phrase in the narrative of the Deluge,'the mountains of A.,' -wi/ii or the Bunya Bunya is a handsome tree found in Queens150, 4 4 ARA THE GIOBE ElNCYCIOPEDIA. ARB land; its cones and seeds are larger than those of the preceding attendance of witnesses and the production of documents. Disspecies, and the latter are eaten by the aborigines. A. obedience to the order is contempt of court. The submission Brasiliensis is the Brazil pine, where it forms forests, and its seeds becomes void by the death of an arbitrator, or of one of the are used as an article of food. The Norfolk Island pine, A. parties to the deed, unless there is a stipulation to the contrary. (Eutassa) excelsa, is grown in conservatories in Britain. A. Every one legally free, and held capable of judging, may be an (Etuassa) Cunninghaonii is the Moreton Bay pine. arbitrator or umpire. Arbitrators have a jurisdiction over the costs of the submission. An award must be in writing, legally Araucariox'ylon, a genus of fossil trees found in the Car- Coniferous sandstone. n the neighourood of Edinburgh executed. It may, however, be -made by parole, if it is so boniferous sandstone. in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh specimens have been met with'in the 1Granton, Craigleith, and expressly provided in the submission. The right of counsel to bind his client to an A. has generally been upheld by English Redhall quarries. One obtained from Craigleith is exhibited in and Scotch curt, specially by the latter. But in the Court of the Edinburgh Botanic Gardens, which measures 30 feet 8 inches Common Pleas, in the case of Swinfen v. Swinfen, a comproin length, and 6 feet across at the lower end of the trunk. Full Pleas in the case of Swinfen v. Swinfen, a comprodinlsength, ing and 6feetacrossatthelower spiend of t.have tunk. mise by her counsel was successfully resisted by the plaintiff. details regarding this and other specimens of A. have been given It is the duty of an arbitrator to base his conclusion upon the by Sir Robert Christison, Bart., in Transactions of the Royal same rules of law and equity which would have guided the same rules of law and equity which would have guided the Society of Edinburgh, vol. xxvii. In structure and appearance decision of the court for which he actsas substitute. An award A. resembles Arcar (q. v.) of the present day. may be set aside on appeal to court, on the ground of corruption Arau'jo, D'Azeve'do Anto'nio, a celebrated Portuguese and fraud on the part of the arbitrator. A frequent ground of statesman, known in political life as the Count da Barca, was litigation in court following a submission is that in his award born near Ponte de Lima, May I4, I754, and was successively the arbitrator has gone beyond the power conferred on him ambassador at the courts of Holland and Russia, Secretary of under the submission. Again, an award may be set aside owing State (I803) and Prime Minister of Portugal (i8o6). The wide to a wrong view of law on the part of the arbitrator,; or where industrial knowledge which he had acquired by his observations his procedure has been plainly unjust; as, where.he has not in England and France was now put in use.for the benefit of his fully heard the parties, or when he has;taken a proof in the country, and he made great efforts to establish different kinds of absence of-one of them. Thus, as we'have said,'it by no means manufactures in Portugal. Following the royal family to Brazil follows that an A. is a short cut to the end of a:litigation. The on the temporary triumph of the French invaders (I807), he burden of proof, however, always lies on the party wishing to immediately set about improving the agriculture and manufac- set aside the award, or any part of it. And), on the other hand, tures of that rich country; and founded, in i8.I6, a school of if there is no manifestly wrong application of law, the court will fine arts at Rio Janeiro. A. died at Rio Janeiro, 21st June not consider the matters of dispute merely on their own merits. I8I 7. The A. Act, I872 (35 and 36 Vict. c. 46), makes further provisions Arau're, a townl of Venezuela, S. America, about i6o miles for A. between masters and workmen, and applies the Masters and Servants Act (3o and 31 Vict. c. I4I). S.W. of Caracas, near a spur of ithe Andes, that runs up to the An arbitrator who accepts the office is not entitled to renounce Venezuelan coast. Pop. 0o,ooo. The neighboulrhood is well it. He is bound to perform faithfully the duty which he has watered and fertile; coffee and cotton are grown, but cattleundertaken, and he may be compelled by law to do so, and to breeding is still the most important industry. execute his award. Aravulli (the'Hill of Strength'), a mountain range of N.W. India, running parallel to the river Chumbal. On its N. Arho'ga, an old city in the province of Westmannland, side it faces the desert of Scinde. The highest summits do not Sweden, lies on a stream of the same name, near where it enters much exceed 3000 feet, while on the N.E. the range sinks into Iake Malar. It is only now of historic interest, having been at rocky hills of small elevation, but important as a frontier. one time a residence of the royal family of Vasa, and the scene of many Church assemblies,and diets. The A. Articles (I561) Ar'balest, rcu'balest, or Cross-Bow, a famous weapon gave Eric XIV. a check on the power of'his nobles; and in I625, in mediaeval wars, gave place in the I4th ~. to the long-bow, Gustavus Adolphus issued at A. an edict relating to the coin of which was found to be much more convenient in battle. The A. the realm. Pop. (1872), 3393. consisted of a bow fastened cross-wise upon a stock. When the bow was bent, the string was caught up by a'kind of spring in Arborescent, a term applied to plants having a tree-like such a way that upon ptidling a trigger the string was loosed and character, however dwarf they may be. shot a short and stout arrow, commonly called a quarrel, forward with considerable velocity. The window'or opening through which the arbalestiers or cross-bowmen discharged their society of the kind in Britain. Itwas instituted in i854, and has bolts was called an arbalestina. now a membership of about 8oo, consisting of proprietors, nurserymen, factors, land-stewards, and foresters. The Queen Arbe'la, now Erbil, a small Assyrian town, 40 miles E.'by S. is patron. The object of the society is the promotion of arboriof Mossul, near which at Gaugamela, Alexander finally defeated culture in all its branches, by periodical meetings for the reading Darius, B.C. 33I, and subverted the Persian empire. and discussion of papers, the offering of prizes for essays and Arbitra'tion is the adjudication by one or more persons, at reports on the practical operations of forestry, and the publicathe request of parties who are at variance, to end the matter in tion of these papers. The society has published 7 vols. of dispute; the object being generally to prevent the loss of time transactions. and the expense incident to procedure in a law court. Usually Arboricul'ture. The cultivation of forest-trees and shrubs these ends are to some extent gained, but an A. is nevertheless is one of the most interesting and important of the rural arts. a lawsuit, the judge in which has to be paid by the litigants; Scientific men have recently shown that trees exercise a great nor does the procedure prevent the possibility of ultimate and benign influence on the health and death-rate of a country, appeal to a court of law. The act or deed of reference is called so that their conservation and cultivation has now become a subthe submission; the judge appointed by it is called the arbiter ject of national importance, not only as regards Great Britain, but or arbitrator. When reference is made to more than one arbi- also her colonies and Indian empire. Within the last hundred trator, with provision that, should they disagree, another shall years the landscape of Britain has undergone a complete change decide, that other is called an umpijre. from the extensive planting of trees, and many of the bleak and'Arbitrations are of two kinds:'first, where there is a cause pend- barren hills and tracts of waste ground are now occupied by ing in court; and secondly, where there is no cause pending. The thriving plantations, thus improving the health of the people, as submission in the former case is either by rule of court, or judges' well as making the adjoining lands more fertile and valuable, order before the trial, or by the order of nisi pr-ius at the trial. and thereby materially increasing the food-production of the In the second case, the submission is by the agreement of the country. To cultivate timber-trees successfully, many things parties, which is either in writing or by parole.; or by the positive have to be carefully attended to, such as soil and situation, direction of an Act of Parliament, as in the case of the Inclosure draining and fencing, selection of plants, mode of planting, and Acts.' Submission to A. by rule of court is not revocable by either judicious thinning and pruning. party without leave of the court. The court may order the In forming plantations, the object always held in view is the I5I -4 -— ~ —_ _ __ ARIB THE GI OBE ENCYCIOPL/EDIA. ARO production of revenue, shelter, or ornament. One or other of was exclusively A.'s production. His letters are remarkable for these ends can invariably be obtained, and not unfrequently a their wit, and also for their somewhat melancholy and savage harmonious combination of all three. There are two classes of irony, which may in his case, as in that of Swift, have been timber-trees-viz., the hard-wooded and the soft-wooded. The spontaneous and natural, but was probably developed, to some former are illustrated by the oak, elm, ash, beech, birch, horn- extent at least, by companionship with the author of Gzlliver. beam, Scotch fir, &c. and the latter by the poplar, willow, lime, His literary reputation, however, most securely rests on his satirihorse - chestnut, &c. Some trees will grow well in exposed cal History of'Fohn Bull (I712), a political/eu d'espyrit ridiculing situations, such as the Scotch fir and oak; while others, which are the quarrels of nations, the inspiration of which has fired every not natives of Britain, require a good soil and shelter, such as the pamphleteer down to the author of The Fight in Dame Europa's lime and horse-chestnut. The cluster pine (Pinus Pinaster var. School. A. is also the author of a number of essays on scientific inaritima), the plane or sycamore, the elder, and the buckthorn subjects. He died, February 27, I735, at Hampstead. are adapted for planting in situations exposed to the sea-breeze. Ar'butus, a genus of trees and shrubs belonging to the Sometimes plantations are formed of only one kind of tree, natural order Ericaceae (q. v.), or the Heath family. They are but more frequently a mixture of different sorts are employed, chiefly found in the S. some being destined for the permanent crop, while others act as of Europe and N. nurses, and are gradually removed as the plantation increases in America. A. Unedo, A growth. Spruce and larch make the best and most profitable the strawberry - tee, nurses. grows abundantly on The rearing of timber-trees on land unfitted for agricultural the rocks at Killarney, crops is very remunerative, the return being on an average /ji in Ireland, and is also -.per acre for every year the trees have occupied the ground. found in Asia and N. Hedgerow-trees are planted either for ornament or shelter. See America. In Corsica articles TRANSPLANTING and COPPICE. a wine is made from For full directions as to the practical operations of A. we its fruit, and both a refer the reader to Brown's Forester, and The Transactions of the sugar and a spirit are Scottish Arboricultural Society. obtained from it in Ar'bor Vit'ee, in anatomy, a name given to the arborescent Spain. In Greece its Albutus Unedo. or leaflet appearance shown in a section through the cerebellum. bark and leaves, which It is produced by the lobes of that organ being composed of are astringent, are used for tanning some kinds of leather. All leaflets, each leaflet consisting most internally of a layer of white the species possess more or less narcotic qualities. matter composed of nerve-tubes, outside of this a layer of granu- Arc (Lat. arcus, a bow) is any portion of a curved line. The lar nerve-cells, and still more externally a fenily molecular layer. chord of an A. is the straight line joining its extremities, and is See CEREBELLUM. always less than the A. The A. of a circle is proportional to Arbor Vithe, the name given to certain species of Evergreen, the angle which it subtends at the centre. Coniferous, shrubby trees, belonging to the genus Thuja. The Are, Joan of. See JEANNE D'ARc. origin of the designation is uncertain. The common A. V. of Ar'ca, or Ark-Shell, a genus of Lamellibranchiate mollusca, gardens is T. occidenta/is, a native of N. America, and grows to forming the type of the family Arcade, in which the shell is equithe height of 40 feet. The plant possesses an aromatic odour, valve, the hinge long and toothed, the muscular impressions and the young twigs have been used in cases of rheumatism, on symmetrical, the foot large and deeply grooved, and the mantle account of their causing sweating. T. (Biota) orientalis, the lobes not united. The valves of the shell are'boat-like' in form, Chinese A. V., is also cultivated in Britain. It has a somewhat hence the popular name. Three or four species are British, the pungent, aromatic odour, and its wood resists the action of most familiar being the A. tetragona. The A. noce is a Medimoisture for a long time. The derivation of the generic name terranean species. _Thul~a, is from thyon, sacrifice. Arcade', in architecture, a series of arched openings attached Arbroath', or Aberbroth'wick, a seaport in Forfarshire, at to a building. The use of arcades was developed from the inthe mouth of the Brothock, I3 miles S.E. of Forfar. In 1178 troduction of the circular arch into Roman architecture. In its King William the Lion here founded an abbey, in which (I214) modern use the term has come to be wrongly applied to any he was buried, and where the Scottish nobles met (I320) to covered way, whether arched or not, and by an A. a glass. oppose the aggressive claims of Edward II. The abbey, next roofed roadway lined with a series of booths or small shops is to HIolyrood, the richest in Scotlandl, was destroyed (I56o) by now generally understood. the Reformers; its ruins are still picturesque. A. is now a busy Arca'dia, the central portion of Peloponnesus, took its name, town, with much flax and jute spinning, and large leather and according to mythic legend, from Arcas, son of Callisto, though sail-cloth manufactures. The vessels of the port (I873) num- the name is better explained as denoting the'land of bears,' from bered 65; tonnage, 9362. The exports are grain, potatoes, its dense oak and pine forests having been the resort of numbers fish, and paving-stones. A. is a royal burgh, and unites with of these animals. It was encircled and traversed by mountains, the burghs of Montrose, Brechin, Forfar, and Bervie to send one and was thus cut off, to a great extent, from its neighbours. The member to Parliament. Pop. (1871) I9,973. About I2 miles western part, rugged, and clothed with dense forests, was bleak S. E. the well-known Bell-Rock Lighthouse rises from the sea. and sterile; but the eastern part possessed some fertile valleys, *Arbuthnot, John, physician, litterateur, and wit, the and in these were situated its chief cities. The highest peak was friend and companion of Pope and Swift, and the most learned Cyllene (7778 feet); the chief river, Alpheius (q. v.). The Arca. of the knot of brilliant satirists of the reign of Queen Anne, was dians were long rude and barbarous, and their livelier and more a cadet of the old Scottish family of the same name. He was polished neihbours used their name as a synonym for a simpleborn at Arbuthnot, near Montrose, about I675, studied medicine ton. They were fond of music and dancing. Their mode of and graduated at. Aberdeen. His father, a clergyman of the`life was pastoral, and Pan was their favourite divinity.'ArcaScottish Episcopal Church, being deprived of his charge at ther expression for pastoral poetry, and the Revolution, young A. removed to London, where for a time he poets represented A. as the abode of song, felicity, innocence, maintained himself by teaching mathematics. He owed his and peace. introduction to the court to accident, and the first royal favours Arca'dius, first Emperor of the East (395-408 A.D.), born in lie received were in acknowledgment of professional services. Spain in 377 A.D., was the elder son of Theodosius the Great, at Appointed court physician in 1709, he had serious reason to whose death the division of the empire into East and West took regret. the death of the queen in I7I4. Referring to the effect place. A., effeminated by luxury and sloth, suffered the empire to of this event upon himself, he says, in a letter to Pope,' This be ruled in turn by Rufinus, Eutropius, Gainas, and his wife blow has so roused Scriblerus that he has recovered his senses,' Eudoxia, known principally by her inveterate persecution of &c., a passage which establishes his copartnery in the authorship Chrysostom, whose exile she procured in 404, for his persistent of the Memoirs of lMfartinus Scrilberus, the first book of which, opposition to the doctrines of Arius. A. died in 408 A.D., leavforming a powerful satire upon the abuses of human learning, ing the empire to his son, Theodosius II., who was a minor. The 152 and_ —-------------- --------- — 4 ARC THE GLOBE ENAC YC~LOPEDIA4. ARC greatest event of his reign was the movement of the West Goths as having been erected at Rome, of which the Arch of Titus, under Alaric on Italy, to which they were instigated by Eutropius. with bas-reliefs of the spoils of the temple at Jerusalem carried in procession, is specially interesting and magnificent. Ar'ce, a town of S. Italy, province of Caserta, 60 miles E.S.E. procession, is specially interesting of Rome. It derives its name (Lat. arx, citadel) from occupy- Archreol'ogy, the study of the evidences of the manners and ing the summit of a hill, still crowned by a fortress, Rocca d'A4rce. customs of ancient times. The wide field of investigation dePop. of commune, 5467. noted by the term causes it to be somewhat vague. In its popular Arcesila'us, founder of the Middle Academy, bhorn at Pitane, and narrower meaning, A. concerns itself with the monumental, in eolia, B.C. 36, fostudied first under Theophrastus the Peripa written, and traditional evidences of the ancient condition of a in _,Eolia, B.C. 316, studied first under Theophrastus the Peripatetic, an then under Crantor, at whose death he became head country. In its wider meaning, it is used as a collective term for of the Academy, and gave it a new critical direction, which several distinct branches of knowledge, bearing on the origin, ofmarks it ofAc istorically from the school of Platl. His position laws, religion, language, science, arts, and literature of ancient marks it off historically from the school of Plato. His position was that there is no certainty in the knowledge arrived at through peoples. The evidences of these are sought for in philology, the senses, and that dogmatism is not permitted to a philosopher. ethnology, mythology, &c. For long archzeologists were occuThe ancients complained with justice that there was no system pied almost solely with the antiquities of ancient Greece and Rome. The discovery of the famous Rosetta stone in recent in his teaching, and no conviction in his opinions, which were Rome. The discovery of the famous Rosetta stone in recent an eclectic and discordant medley of Platonism and Pyrrhonism times, by giving a key to the hieroglyphics, has enabled A. Witty and poetic, he loved the licence of literature more than profitably to give its attention to the histoly and records of the the restraints of metaphysical dogmatism, and went to the iliad civilisation of the ancient Egyptians. he discoveries of Layard (according to his own phrase)'as to a mistress.' Diogenes Laer- and George Smith at Nineveh are among the most interesting tius has preserved some of his baon-mzots and epigrams in his Life and instructive of our day; and perhaps not less so are those of Mr Wood at Ephesus. Mediaeval A. began to be cultivated of A., who loved controversy, though not a fanatic, and who com- Mr W ood at Ephesus. Medival A. began to be cultivated bated with keenness and vigour the stern conclusions of the about the middle of the i6th c. The following are probably the Stoics, His death (aB.C. 24), in his seventy-sixth year, is said most celebrated archaeological collections of Europe: The Royal Stoics. His death (B.C. 241), in his seventy-sixth year, is said Museum of Naples, which contains the objects gathered frorm to have been caused by excess in wine. Museum of Naples, which contains the objects gathered from the ruins of ITerculaneum and Pompeii; the Museums of the Arch, an architectural erection sustained by the mutual gravi- Louvre at Hotel de Cluny in Paris; the British Museum in tating pressure of the individual parts. It seems to have been London, established in I753; and the Museum at Copenhagen of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of the North. l Archaeop'teryx, a remarkable extinct or fossil bird-genus, the remains of which-forming a single specimen only-were discovered in the lithographic slates of Solenhofen in Bavaria; rocks belonging to the Upper Oolite system. It presents characters closely approaching those of reptiles. The tail is elongated and reptilian. It was longer than the body, and each segment or vertebra supported a pair of quill-feathers. No ploughshare bone or pygostyle, present in all existing as well as fossil birds, terminated the tail in this form. It had two free claws developed in the wing, which claws are possessed by no other living or fossil bird. The metacarpal bones were not ossified together, as in all other birds. It equalled a rook or crow in Pointed Arch. Tudor Arch. size, was probably a vegetable feeder, and perched on trees. The A. macrura is the only species. It is made the type of a known and used by the ancient Egyptians; and as representa- special order (Saururac) of birds by Huxley. tions of arched gates are frequent in Assyrian bas-reliefs, it is certain that this nation was also acquainted with the principle. Archan'gel (Gr. arch-on, a chief, a captain, and angelos, an The A. never appears in the architecture of the ancient Greeks; angel). According to the later, more fully-developed Jewish and it was only in later ages that the Romans introduced it, notions regarding angelic beings (see ANGELS), there were difhaving probably borrowed it from the Egyptians. Gradually, ferent degrees and classes among them. Such a celestial hierhowever, the A., as a principle in architecture, gained ground, archy is ieferred to by Paul, Rom. viii. 38, Eph. i. 21, and Col. passing during the dark and middle ages from the simple semi- i. I6. The same apostle mentions an A., I Thes. iv. I6. circle to the segment and ellipse, from these to the more compli- Michael, called an A. by Jude (9), is also mentioned in cated horseshoe, pointed, trefoil, cinquefoil, and polyfoil arches, Daniel (x. I3, &c.), and in the Apocalypse (xii. 7). In the apountil at last it arrived at the graceful decorative ogee and Tudor cryphal Book of Tobit (xii. 15) Raphael calls himself'one of the arches. The peculiarity of shape of most of these is indicated by seven holy angels, which... go in and out before the glory the name. The sides of an A. are called the haunches orfianks, of the Holy One.' According to another Jewish tradition; four the top part the crozan, the wedge-shaped stones or bricks of principal angels stood round the throne of God: Michael, Gabriel which it is formed the voussoirs, the highest being the keystone, (Dan. viii. 6, &c.; Luke i. I, &c.), Raphael, and Uriel (2 and the lowest the springer; the under sides of the voussoirs are Esdras iv. I). the intrados, the upper the extrados. thle intradas, the upper the ex/r-adas. Archangel (properly Archangelsk), the capital of a deArch, Triumphal, among the Romans an insulated struc- partment of the same name in Russia, lies on the Dwina, about ture, erected across some main 40 miles above where it enters the White Sea. The Norsemen E \M1\= street of the city, to commemorate made trading expeditions to this region as early as the Ioth c., (I) the triumph of a victorious and Englishmen began to resort hither after the middle of the general; (2) a victory for which I6th c. to carry on an overland trade with Persia and India; no triumph had been granted but the town proper was first founded in 1584, and was named W and (3) sometimes events other |after a monastery dedicated to the archangel Michael. It was than victories. It took its ori- for I2o years the only port of Russia, and though its trade fell gin from the Porta Triumph- off greatly after the founding of St Petersburg, it has of late years a/is, the gate through which risen again, and A. is once more the chief entrepot for Siberia; the triumphing general led his but the harbour is only clear of ice from July to September. army into the city. Stertinius The houses are mostly built of wood, and the trade is chiefly (B.C. 196) first erected a T. A. at in train oil, furs, timber, wax, iron, and caviare. A. is the see of c Rome; six years later another a bishop. Pop. 19,936. Horseshoe Arch. was erected by Scipio Africanus; Archangel New. See SITKA. and under the emperors they became numerous and splendid. Twenty-five in all are recorded Archbish'op (Gr. prefix, archi, chief, and bishop), a bishop 20+~~~~~~~~~ 1SR +~~~~~I53 * * ARC THE GL OBE ENC YCL OPE DIA. ARC who has rule over several other bishops, as well as his own 3. A., the greatest of the generals of Mithridates, was a diocese. The office and title arose in connection with the pro- native of Cappadocia. He was sent by his master into Greece vincial councils which began to be held in the Church in the 2d with a great fleet and army, overran and conquered nearly the c. Of the delegates (see BISHOP) who met, it was necessary whole country, and was on the eve of reorganising a league that some one should preside and exercise a certain authority. against the Romans, when Sulla met him at Chaeroneia, and so This pre-eminence was generally conceded to the bishop of the completely defeated him, that of an army of I20,000 men only city in which the council met, generally the metropolis of a civil Io,ooo could be rallied after the battle. A fresh army of 8o,ooo, province. Hence arose the office and title of Metropolitan after two days' fighting, sustained an equally signal defeat at (bishop), which by the addition of certain other prerogatives Orchomenos. Becoming suspected by Mithridates, he deserted were developed into those of A. The Council of Antioch (341) to the Romans B.c. 8i, and then vanishes from history.gave the metropolitans jurisdiction over several dioceses, which 4. His son, of the same name, married Berenice, Queen of were called their province, and a pre-eminence in rank over other Egypt. After reigning six months, he was slain in a battle bishops. The title of A. was first usedby Athanasius in the4th against Gabinius, B.c. 55.-5. A., son of IHerod the Great, c.; in the West it was not adopted till the 8th c. After the succeeded under his father's will, but being accused of tyranny hierarchy of the Church was fully established, besides what were by the Jews in the tenth year of his reign, he was deposed by absorbed by the Pope, the privileges of archbishops were chiefly Augustus, and banished to Vienna, in Gaul, where he died. these: Jurisdiction over the bishops of their province in ecclesias, tical matters, and an appellate jurisdiction over the bishops' Arch'enholz, Johann Wilhelm, Baron von, a German courts; the right of convening the provincial council and pre- litteraeur, born at Dantzic, September 3, 1745; served in the siding in it, of enforcing the rules of the Church, and of correct- Seven Years' War, but did not secure the good opinion of ing abuses. Frederick the Great, and was dismissed after the peace in I763. In England thlere are two Protestant archbishops-the A. of For sixteen years he wandered about Europe as a sort of chevalier Canterbury, who has the title of Primate of all England, and d'industrie, and on his return to Germany settled at Hamburg, ranks next to the royal family and its immediate relatives; and where he lived mainly by his pen. He wrote an animated and the A. of York, who has the title of Primate of England, and picturesque History of the Seven Years' War (2 vols. Berl. 1793, ranks next to the Lord Chancellor-and one Roman Catholic 9th ed. I867), and several other historical and biographical A. of Westminster. In Ireland there are two Protestant and works, of which, perhaps, the most valuable and interesting is a four Roman Catholic archbishoprics; and in Scotland there were, history of the buccaneers who infested the W. Indies in the first in the I6th c., two Roman Catholic archbishoprics (StAndrews part of last century. A. died at Oyendorf, in Holstein, 28th and Glasgow), now there is but one. February 1812. Arch'er or Shooting Fish (Toxotes), a genus of fishes Archdea'con (Gr. prefix, archi, chief, and deacon) was ori- Archer or Shooting Fish (Toes), a genus of fishes ginally the chief of the deacons in a metropolitan church. But belongig to the family Sqscanipenzes ('scaly-finned'), of the in the 5th c. archdeacons became the assistants and representa- Acanthopleryr ii. Their popularname is derived from their tives of th.e bishops. Ulntil the gth c. they were only delegates habit of shooting drops of water at insects which light on aquatic of the bishops, but after that they became independent officials. plants, in order to cause the insects to drop into the water, and After the 13th c. their power again declined, and the office is so become their prey. The soft and spiny part of the dorsal.now almost wholly abolished in the R~oman Catholic Church. fin is covered with scales like the rest of the body. Numerous It still exists, however, in the Church of England, in which the teeth, closely set in the mouth, exist. These fishes inhabit archdeacons act as the deputies of the bishops, especially in the tropical seas. The Toxotes yaclator of the Ganges and Indian duty of parochial visitation. Ocean is a familiar species. This form can project drops of water to a height of 3 or 4 feet. Archduke', a title superior to that of duke, and first assumed by the Dukes of Austria in II56, to mark their equality in rank Thus the Assyrian archers formed both light and heavy troops, with the electoral princes of the empire, but their right to it was us th curved an angular bows, each heavy-armed archer only confirmed in I453 by Frederick III. A. is now only an ing both curved and angular bows, each heavy-amed archer being protected by two shield-bearers. After the second Punic Austrian, not a Germanic, title, and is taken by all the sons of War, the Romans employed giarii, who marched with the War, the Romans employed sagitlardi, who marched with the the emperor. The daughters are archduchesses. velites or light troops. In Christian Europe the bow has been Archegosau'trus (Goldfuss), a genus of fossil or extinct generally used. A capitulary of Charlemagne directs every Amphibians (frog-like animals), the remains of which occur in feudal soldier to have a bow, two strings, and twelve arrows. the Carboniferous rocks. These animals belong to the order By 1139, long-bows and cross-bows had become so deadly, that Labyrinthodontia (q. v.), the extinct order of the class Anmphibia; the second Lateran Council prohibited their use. England be. and by Professor Owen, A. has been made the type of a distinct came noted under Edward II. for long-bow shooting, which often group, to whi~ch he has given the name Ganocep~hal~a. By some prevailed, as at Cressy and Homildon Hill, against superior numpalnontologists the A. is accounted the immature form of some bers. The long-bow, which shot faster, and was more easily carried amphibian. The head was defended by bony or g'anoid plates. than the Norman cross-bow or arbalest, was therefore encouraged. The occipital condyles were not apparently ossified. The skull Towns were directed to provide butts, and practice was made comis flattened and triangular in shape. The teeth are conical pulsory, an idea borrowed by James I. of Scotland (Act 424, in form, and possess a labyrinthine structure. The fore andc. 8). The importation of bow staves was enforced on the imhilnd limbs were small, and adapted for swimming. A perfect porters of certain merchandise, the price of bows was regulated, spine was undeveloped, a notochZord supplying its place. The and bowmakers planted in places where required. The self-bow ribs were short and straight. The feet were provided each with was probably 6 feet long, straight when unstrung, and of ash four toes of slender make. The A. remains were first discovered or yew wood in one piece. (The backed-bow, consisting of two in the clay-slates of the Bayarian coal measures, and were also pieces of bent wood fixed in a handle, was not in military use in found in the coal-field of Saarsbruck, near Treves. These ani- England, but is still used by Eastern nations.) Lighter arrows mals were at first deemed to be fishes; but Gergen, Meyer, and were used against an enemy at a distance. At closer quarters others subsequently remarked and maintained their armplhibian the archer was protected by an iron stake thrust in the ground characters. Three or four species are known. before him. At sieges, combustibles were sometimes fastened to arrow-heads, and signals were given by'whistling' arrows. Archela'us. the name of several persons of note in antiquity. Four hundred yards was the mzaximJzum flight. A general -I. A., a mythic Heraclid, son of Temenus, was banished by stringent law was passed by Henry VIII., directing every male his brothers, and fled to Macedon. Alexander the Great was between seven and sixty years of age to practise A. at 220 supposed to have been descended from him.-2. A., illegiti- yards. From the slow action of the primitive musket, the mate son of Perdiccas II. of Macedon, gained the throne by long-bow was used long after the introduction of firearms. By perpetrating three murders, and ruled from B.. 413 to 399. He treaty in I572, Queen Elizabeth engaged to send Charles IX. patronised literature and art, and Euripides and Zeuxis were 6ooo00.0 men with long-bows and cross-bows. There is no mention guests at his court. He is said to have been murdered by a of bows in the Commission of Charles I., issued in i63I, to favourite named Craterus, either from ambition or contempt.- examine the arms used by the militia. Essex tried to raise a - 154 Cal A ARC SITE GLOBEI ENCYCI OPED1. ARCO troop of archers in the Civil War, but by this time military A. was born at Syracuse about the year 287 B.C. His remarkable may be said to have ceased. The Artillery Company of London penetration of mind is shown in connection with the crown which kept up the practice of A.; but not till towards the end of last Hiero, King of Syracuse, had commissioned his goldsmith to century did it revive as a national pastime. Toxophilite societies make of pure gold, but which was suspected of being composed came into existence, and in I844 the Grand National A. Society of an alloy of gold and silver. The king, wishing to detect the was started. This holds meetings at which both sexes compete. fraud without injuring the crown, applied to A., to whom the A self-bow, 5 feet Io~ inches in length, and from 48 to 55 lbs. solution suggested itself on his entering the bath one morning, in pull, is generally used. The backed-bow, with a reflex pull, when he observed that he displaced so much water as to cause is said to jar. The arrows are 27 inches long, and either' self' it to overflow. This is said to have been the occasion on which or'footed' (i.e., with a piece of hard wood let in at the feather he uttered his world-famous Eurekal Eurekal ('I have found it I end).' Chested' and'bobtailed' arrows, in which the' stele' I have found it!') Possibly some such incident led A. to the of the arrow diminishes in circumference from the feathers to the enunciation of that hydrostatic law known as the Principle'pile,' and from pile to feathers respectively, are said not to fly of A. (q. v.). Of the numerous inventions ascribed to him may straight. The' bracer' is buckled round the left arm, to protect be mentioned the Archimedian Screw (q. v.). The old Greek it from the recoil of the string. The'ascham' is a sort of historian Polybius, and, following him, Livy and Plutarch, write movable cupboard for holding A. implements.'Bracing' and with feelings of astonishment of his mechanical contrivances to'notching' are technical terms for stringing the bow and fitting baffle the Romans at the siege of Syracuse; but the story of his the arrow to the string. The targets are usually made of straw, burning their ships by means of mirrors is first found in Galen, covered with canvas, and are 4 feet in diameter. The range who wrote in the 2d c. A.D. As regards his discoveries in pure for flight-shooting is seldom more than Ioo yards. The Royal mathematics, we may mention his quadrature of the parabola, Company of Archers and Queen's Body-Guard for Scotland his treatises on spheres and cylinders, spheroids and conoids, (created by Act of Privy Council in I677) still shoot for their and his investigations on spirals. silver-arrow prizes at I8o yards. The history of this company A picturesque legend represents A. as slain by a Roman solhas been written by Mr Balfour Paul (Edinb. I875). Three dier, when Syracuse was captured (212 B.C.), while profoundly hundred yards is now thought to be the maximum flight.'Clout- engaged with a mathematical problem in the public square. His shooting,' or shooting with heavy arrows over a long range at a tomb, on which was engraved a sphere with the circumscribing wand, is almost abandoned.' Roving,' or shooting at accidental cylinder, was discovered by Cicero while quoestor of Sicily. A marks, is sometimes practised. collection of his extant works was edited by Torelli at Oxford Archibio'sis is a term proposed by Dr Charlton Bastian to in I792; a French translation, by F. Peyrard, was published at Paris in i8o8; and a German one, by Nizze, at Stralsund in designate the production of living forms from a non-living organ- I824. isable fluid. It is synonymous with the words heterogenesis and spontaneous generation. Many naturalists deny the possibility Archimedes, Principle of, a most important hydrostatic of any such mode of origin, and hold that living forms must come law, discovered by Archimedes the Syracusan, which may be from pre-existing living forms. See REPRODUCTION. enunciated thus: When a body is immersed in a specifically Ar'chill, or Orchill, the name given to a colouring substance lighter fluid, the weight lost by the body is equal to the weight obtained from various species of dull-grey coloured lichens, but of the quantity of fluid displaced. See HYDROSTATICS. especially from Roccella tinctoria, which grows in large quanti- Archime'dian Screw is a machine for raising water, said ties on rocks in the Levant, and on the Cape de Verd Islands. to have been invented by Archimedes during his stay in Egypt, The colour is not originally in the plants, but is developed during in order to irrigate some porputrefaction. A. is soluble in water and alcohol, and is em- tions of land which were ployed chiefly in dyeing silken fabrics a rich lilac colour, which, above the direct influence of however, is easily acted on by the sun's rays. R. fuciformis, the Nile. abundant on the coasts of Africa, yields much of the A. or In its simplest form it conOrchilla weed of commerce. Angola A. is regarded as the best sists of a tube bent spirally quality. The Spanish name Orciglia is that from which the round asolidcylindricalaxis, names A. and O., as well as the generic name Roccella, are which is inclined to the horiderived. Cudbear (q. v.) and Litmus (q. v.) are analogous zontal at an angle varying ~~~~to A~~~L~~~~. ~usually from 350 to 45~. Archil'ochus, of Paros, flourished about 714-676 B.C., one Suppose now that a small of the earliest Greek lyric and elegiac poets, was the son of solid body is placed in the... Telesicles, and of a slave named Enipo. He conducted a colony lowest bend of the tube, and I from Paros to Thasos, and while here lost his shield in a contest the screw turned round in a with the Thracians. Repairing to Sparta, he was soon banished, direction opposite to that of Archimediai Screw. probably from the licentiousness of his verses; and returning to the hands of a watch, it is Paros, he fell in a battle against the Naxians. The fame of A. evident that as each point of the screw will successively pass is founded on his satiric iambic poetry, in which, by the consent beneath the body at the lower side of the cylinder, the body of the ancients, he held undisputed pre-eminence. Like Homer, will ultimately be found at the upper end. Similarly, if the lower Pindar, and Sophocles, he was ranked as chief in his own de- end be immersed in water, the continual turning of the screw partment. His satire was merciless and scathing, and his words will raise the water until it flows out at the top. Machines unmeasured in their licence. Lycambes, who had promised him differing only in detail from this are used extensively in Holland. his daughter Neobule in marriage, but afterwards refused her, Archipel'ago, a term applied to such tracts of sea as are was, together with his family, satirised with such malicious skill, and with so much force and point, that his daughters are said thickly interspersed with islands, or to the clusters of islands to have hanged themselves. His imitator Horace calls'rage' themselves. It was originally applied to, and still especially (rabies) the special feature of his muse. This he expressed by denotes, that part of the Mediterranean between Asia Minor and Greece. The islands in this A. are divided into the Cycladesmeans of the iambus, which gives a light tripping movement. Greece. The islands in this A. are divided into the Cycades means o f the iambus, which gives a light tripping movement. Tenos, Andros, Naxos, Melos, &c., belonging to Greece, under ile was also the inventor of the epoc/e, in which a shorter verse is subjoined to one or more longer ones. The extant fragments which they are noticed; and the Se5orades-Cos, Scio, Rhodes, of A. are contained in Begk's oe Lyrici Greco (Leipz Lemnos, Samos, Metelin, &c., belonging to Turkey (q. v.). I843 and I854). Other archipelagoes, still more notable geographically, though not historically, are those of the E. and W. Indies, the Aleutian Archiman'drite (Gr. archi, and mandra, a fold, a monas- A. in the N. Pacific, and the Patagonian A. at the opposite extery), in the Greek Church, the title of the superior of several tremity of the.New World. monasteries, and corresponding to that of Abbot Superior in the Roman Catholic Church. - Architee'ture, a Latin formation from the Greek prefix arcz;i, chief, and tekt'n, a workman, denotes literally the master Archime'des, the most famous of ancient,mathematicians, art or science, but practically signifies the application of artistic'55 ~ ---------- I44 —--— ~~ ARC THE GI OBE ENC YCI OP.-ZDA. ARC principles to the art of building. In a loose manner, A. and the noticed under their respective headings. See BYZANTINE, technical art engineering are frequently confounded, as, for ex- GOTHIC, GREEK, RENAISSANCE, ROMAN, &c. ample, when naval A. is spoken of. But the engineer simply takes cognisance of the problems of how best to secure strength, that part of the entablaturefix, hich r ests immediately on the stability, and suitability of a structure without regard to its rela- part of the entablature w hich rests immediately o the tion to the aesthetic sense, while the architect has to deal not only columns. The name is also given to the outer moulding of the with the fitness of a structure for the purposes to which it may arches of doors and windows. be devoted, but with the harmony of its proportions and thebeauty Archives. See RECORDS. of its details. A. therefore ranks as one of the fine arts, and it has fitly been described as the'art of ornamental and Ar'chivolt (Gr. archi, chief, and Lat. volveire, to roll), the ornamented construction.' It is not sufficient for an architect band of mouldings running round the voussoirs of an arch, and to understand the nature and properties of the materials in which terminating on the imposts or capitals, architectural conceptions are embodied, and the technical details Archon, the chief magistrate at Athens, of whom the first by which these are most fitly and durably put together. With was Medon, son of Codrus, the last king of Athens. The fice these his function as a building engineer ends, but as an architect was at first for life, and dynast e., confined to one family; was at first for life, and dynastic, i.e., confined to one family; he must understand the principles of design, and the various but in 752 B.c. it was limited to ten years; in 714 B.c. it was qualities which go to form a dignified, impressive, and artistic thrown open to the nobles; and to all citizens in 477 B.C. In Astructure. took its ise fromthe necesity feltbythehmanrace683 B.C. the office became annual, and the number of archons A. took its rise from the necessity felt by the human race was increased to nine, the first of whom was called A. Eponymos, for some shelter from the vicissitudes of weather. Among the ear beng registered in his name; the second, Basi/eus, the primitive inhabitants of the earth, and still among savage managed religious affairs; the third, Po os, was generlraces, there is no scope for architectural display, for all such skill managed religious affairs; the third, Poresmaetas, o r legislators, denotes a considerable advance in the arts of civilised life. though, strictly speaking, they did not make laws, but only During the early ages of the world, when implements of stone declared and expounded them. only were used by the human family, the erections of our ancestors must necessarily have been rude and simple. Nevertheless, Archy'tas, of Tarentum, a distinguished philosopher, such megalithic structures as Stonehenge, and Avebury or Abury, mathematician, soldier, and statesman, who flourished probably must have possessed a certain grandeur and massiveness from the about 400 B.C., and was drowned on the Adriatic coast. So great arrangement and vast proportions of their design, and the evi- was his integrity, that he was seven times the general of his city, dence of immense labour which they afford. Similarly, the though the office was usually held only for a year. He was ancient Cyclopean structures, in which huge masses of stone are victorious in all his campaigns, and his administration of civil piled up into rough mason-work, give a vivid sense of power and affairs was of the greatest benefit to the community. In his stability which are among the essential features of true A. philosophy he was a Pythagorean, and Plato and Aristotle are Such structures, however, in their rudeness and simplicity, are a thought to have been both indebted to him. He invented the faithful reflex of the condition of the people who erected them, method of analytical geometry, solved the problem of the as indeed all A. is a measure of the civilisation of the races by doubling of the cube, and applied mathematics to mechanics. whom it has been elaborated. Numerous fragments attributed to A. are given by Stobaus (see The development of A. among different races, and in various Orelli's ed. I82I), but their genuineness has not been satisfacregions of the world, has been guided by the materials at the torily established. disposal of the people, the climate of their lands, their social condition and habits, their intellectual and scientific advance- Arcidos'so, a town in the province of Grosseto, Central Italy, ment, and, above all, by their religious beliefs. Thus connected on an affluent of the Umbrone. Pop. of commune, 5859. with each distinct growth of civilisation there is a special and characteristic style of A.; and so we have Egyptian, Persian, Arcis-sur-Aube, a town in the department of Aube, France, Indian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, and Gothic styles, all as dis- famous as the scene of a victory of the Austro-Russian allies over tinct as the races with which they originated. Architectural style Napoleon, March 2I, I814. It is now an entrepot for the iron and remains, therefore, become a valuable adjunct to the study of the Vosges, and has several cotton-factories. Pop, (I872) of history, and parallels in the A. of different countries or periods 2784. indicate either an amount of similarity in the condition and habits of the races, or a borrowing of the civilisation of the one Ardcola, a village in the province of Verona, N. Italy, on the by the other. The highest efforts of architectural skill have in Adige, I5 miles E.S.Ew of the town of Verona. It is remarkall ages been put forth in connection with the loftiest conceptionsable for a battle in which Napoleon, after three days' hard of our race; and as it was in the temples for their deities, or i fighting, defeated the Austrians under General Alvinczy, Novmemorials for apotheosed mortals, that the ancients attained their ember 17, 1796. architectural triumphs, so it is in cathedrals, churches, and places Ar'9on, Jean Claude Eldonore d', a French engineer, of worship that the purest examples of modern architectural was born at Pontarlier, 733 and studied at the school of MepowerMuch ingenious speculation has been indulged in to account zieres. He is chiefly noted for the invention of floating batteries, Much ingenious speculation has been indulged in to account by means of which he hoped to capture Gibraltar from the Brifor the first causes which led to the development of A. along any by means of which he project, however, failed, and A. fell considerspecial line, such as the Grecian or Gothic. The A. of Greece, tish in 1782. The project, however, failed, and A. fell considerspecial line, such as the Grecian or Gothic. The A. of Greece, ably in the opinion of his volatile countrymen, though Elliot, the for example, is affirmed to have its basis in a wooden hut, defender of Gibraltar, did justice to the boldness and ingenuity'The first ties and posts which were fixed in the earth for sup- of his design. In I793 he distinguished himself during the war porting a cover against the elements, were the origin of the sieges with Holland and forced Breda to open its gates to isolated columns which afterwards became the support of porti- him. A. died July i, i8oo. His chief work is Consid/raions cos in temples. Diminishing in diameter as it rose in height, mililaires etpolitiyues sur Zes FoHlificaiions (i795). the tree indicated the diminution of the column. No type, however, of base or pedestal, is found in trees; hence the ancient Ar'cos de la Fronte'ra, a town of Andalusia, Spain, overDoric is without base.' The other constituent elements of hangs the Guadalete, 32 miles N.E. of Cadiz. It has a romantic Grecian A. are accounted for by similar analogies. In like situation, with a splendid view W. towards the Ronda Mounmanner the mass and solidity of Egyptian buildings are derived tains. It was called Arcos, a'bow,' from its crescent shape, from the rock-cut caves in which its early inhabitants dwelt, and e c Froiera, because it stood near the Moorish frontier. and the topes of the Buddhist races of India are supposed to be In the plains below A. a rare breed' of horses was reared, and the natural sequence of the'barrows' or tumuli of primitive man, the A. barbs and their skilfuil riders are often mentioned in the But although such causes as these may have given the first im- national ballads. The chief industries are tanning, and rope and pulse to the styles characteristic of the various races, their de- thread spinning. Pop. I 1,270. velopment must have been modified by all the complex influences which affect the progress and direction of the civilisation of any Ar'cot, the capital of a district of the same name, stands on people. The leading characteristics of the various styles will be the river Palar, 68 miles W. of Madras. It contains the ruins of 156 * 4 + ARC THE GL OBE ENCVCYCLIOPALD1IA. AR the Nawaab's palace, military cantonments, and some mosques. Ardea. See HERON. Clive first won distinction as a soldier by the capture and subsequent defence of A. in I75I. POP. 53 500. Ardeche', a southern department of France, about 50 miles inland, formerly part of Languedoc. It is a wild hilly region, Arcot, a district on the E. coast of the' province of Madras, and abounds in extinct volcanic peaks, basaltic columns, vast British India. It is divided into North A., with an area of 7526 caverns, and deep ravines. The Rhone bounds A. on the E., sq. miles; and South A., with an area of 4765 sq. miles. Near and along its banks the rich terraces produce good wine, olives, the coast the country is low and productive, but inland it is hilly figs, and almonds. The Cevennes traverse the W., and in the and full of jungle. As most of the rivers become empty in the N. terminate in the volcanic Mont-Mezene, 5972 feet high. The dry seasons, thousands of tanks, some of which are of enormous river A. is a branch of the Rhone, and has many affluents. The size, are required for irrigation and domestic use. Pop. (187I) chief towns are Privas, Aubenas, and Bourg. The manufactures of North A., 2,007,667; of South A., 1,762,525~ are silk, paper, leather, and iron. Area, 2133 sq. miles; pop. Arc'tic and A'ntarctic Circles are imaginary lines drawn (I872) 380,277. round the earth at a distance of 23~' from the N. and S. poles Ardee' (Ath-Fhirdia, pronounced Ahirdtee,'Ferdia's Ford;' in respectively, and serving to mark those regions at which, at old English writers, Atherdee), a town of Louth County, Ireland, one period of the year, there is no night, and at another period on the Dee, I2 miles from its mouth, with some trade in agriculno day. The word A. is from the Greek, and literally signifies tural products. It has two ancient castles. Pop. (187I) 2572.'near the Bear,' i.e., the great constellation in the northern The name is derived, according to Irish tradition, from a Fir. sky; hence northern, its secondary meaning. bolgic chief called Ferdia, who fell in battle here. Arctic Ocean, the sea which surrounds the N. pole, and Ardennes' (Celt. the'Great Forest'), a department of extends as far S. as the Arctic Circle. It is partly hemmed in France on the Belgian frontier, formerly part of the province by the northern shores of Europe, Asia, and America, leaving of Champagne. The surface is generally hilly and sterile; the open the connection with the Atlantic on the N.W. of Europe, prevailing rock is limestone, and in the S. E. the muschelkalk is and with the Pacific through Behring's Straits. Despite the rich in iron ore; only at Mezieres, in the S.W., is the vine heroic daring and active enterprise of about three centuries, grown. The N. of A. is watered by the Meuse, and the S. by little is yet known of this great ocean. Beyond the 83d parallel the Aisne; both rivers have affluents, and the Canal des A. there lies a circle nearly 2Ioo miles in diameter, being about unites them. The chief towns are Mezieres, Rethel, Rocroy, equal to the area of Europe, which remains totally unexplored. and Sedan. The manufactures are glass, woollens, marble, ironThe numerous polar expeditions of late years have resulted in wares, and pottery. Area, 2021 sq. miles; pop. (I872) 320,217. conflicting accounts regarding the A. 0.; but it would seem A. is part of the rugged slate plateau of the same name, which that at the most northerly point reached the fields of unbroken includes also parts of Belgium and Rhenish Prussia (' the forest ice give way to a sea more or less covered with drifting floes. of Ardennes'), a region of vast heaths, impenetrable marshes, Parry, who reached lat. 82~ 45' in I827, mentions heavy falls of and dense oak and beech forests. The bed of the Meuse here rain as indicating the comparative mildness of temperature. It presents a sterile, savage appearance, overhung sometimes by is now also beyond a doubt that there exists an almost constant cliffs 60o feet high. current from the A. 0. southwards; and it would seem to be established that Greenland is an island, or possibly a group of Ardnamurcthan Point (Gael. Aprd-na- o nor-ca inn, the islands, which the glacier ice has covered and united. The Ger- height of the great headland), a promontory of trap-rock in the man expedition of I869-70 reached the 77th parallel, explored N.W. of Argyleshire, and the most westerly point of the British part of the E. coast of Greenland, and made many valuable mainland. A lighthouse, visible 20 miles off, was built here i scientific discoveries, notably that of the abundance of the musk- I849. ox at the most northern point to which they penetrated. See Ar'doch (Gael.' high field'), a village in Perthshire, Scotland, NORTH-EAST PASSAGE, NORTH-WEST PASSAGE, and POLAR 8 miles S.S.W. of Crieff, interesting for its Roman camp, the VOYAGES. best preserved in Britain. The camp formed a rectangle, 500 feet Arc'tium, a genus of Composite plants. See BURDOCK. by 430. Five ditches and six walls defended the N. and E. sides, while a morass lay on the S.E., and the precipitous banks of Arc'tomys. See MARMOT. Knaig Water, 50 feet high, protected the W. side. The praetoArctostaph'ylos, a genus of plants of the order Ericacere. rium, a square with a side of 60 feet, occupied a position near the There are only two species which properly belong to the genus,. centre, and the sites of three of the gates can still be traced. A and both are natives of Britain. The red bearberry (A. uva- human skeleton was found in a stone coffin under a cairn a mile ursi) is a small trailing evergreen shrub found in the northern to the W. of the village, but this was probably a Caledonian and parts -of Europe, Siberia, and N. America. It ascends to 3000 not a Roman work. The stones have been gradually carried off feet in the Scottish mountains. The plant is astringent, and is to construct buildings and fences. occasionally used for tanning, as well as a valuable astringent in Ardoye', a town in W. Flanders, Belgium, 17 miles S. of cases of excessive secretion in the human body. The black Bruges. Chief industry the bleaching of linen. Pop., including bearberry (A. a/pinga) has black berries about the size of the commune, 6478. common sloe, which have a peculiar taste. The plant, which is the badge of the Clan Ross, has a trailing habit similar to the Ardrossan (Gael. the'high foreland'), a well-built seaport other species, and is found on some of the Scottish mountains, and favourite watering-place in Ayrshire. The harbour, i6 miles N.W. of Ayr, formed at a great expense by the Earls of EglinArctu'rus, or a Bootes, a star of the first magnitude, in the ton, and now leased by the Glasgow and South-Western Railway same direction, and about twice as far from the Pole-star, as the Company, is safe and commodious, and much coal and iron is end tail-star of the Great Bear. exported from it. In 1873, 2300 ships, British and foreign, Ar'cus Seni'lis. This term is given to a blue or grey ring entered, with a total tonnage of 302,297 tons; 2236 cleared, seen around the margin of the cornea of the eye in people of with a total tonnage of 297,915 tons. Shipbuilding is the prinadvanced or premature age. It is due to fatty degeneration of cipal industry. Steamers ply regularly to Ayr, Glasgow, Arran, the substance of the cornea, and is usually regarded as significant and Belfast. Pop. (I871) 3845. of the presence of the same kind of degeneration in the coats of Are, the unit of French land measure, is equivalent to Ioo the blood-vessels and in the heart. At the same time, cases of sq. metres (see MhTRE), and therefore contains about 1076 Engfatty heart occur in which there is no A. S., and, on the other lish sq. feet. The decare contains Io ares, and the hectare ioo hand, A. S. may exist without fatty changes in the substance of ares-nearly 2-5 English acres. the heart. A'rea is a mathematical term signifying ~ziantity of szuface; Ard, or Aird, a Celtic root, meaning'high,'' great,' which or it may be defined as the number of square units contained by enters into the composition of many names of places in Scotland, a given surface. The calculation of such is one of the most Ireland, France, and other Celtic countries; e.g., Ardnamurchan, practical outcomes of geometry. The analytical expression for the Aird of Lewis, Ardrossan, Ardmore, Arran, Ardagh, Ard- the area of any plane surface is the integral of the product of glass, Ardennes, the Ardes (or'heights') in Auvergne, &c. the ordinate and the increment of the abscissa, or/'ydx. I57 4 4 + ARE TtLE GLOBE ENCYCLOPzEDIA. ARE Are'ca, a genus of palm-trees. A. Calechu has a lofty stem, connecting isolated clumps of houses. A. was for some time the and is cultivated in parts of India for its seeds, which are con- residence of Louis Philippe after the French Revolution. Pop. tained in fruits of a fibrous 4456. texture about the size of a ren'ga, a genus of palms. See GOMUTO. fowl's egg. The seeds are -. / (k,( i'~known as A.-nuts and Arenic'ola, a genus of Errant worms or Annelides, reprebetel-nuts, and are much sented by the A. piscalorum, the familiar lob or lug worm of used in Eastern countries. fishermen, so much used for bait; hence the specific name, They are cut into small pisrcatorun (' of fishermen'), of the worm. This worm possesses pieces, chewed along with a massive, obtuse, rounded head, and a body of smaller calibre. hot - lime and the leaves In size theygenerally resemble large earth-worms. The branchioe, of the betel-pepper as a or gills, exist in the form of thirteen pairs of tufts placed along stimulant. See BETEL. the sides of the body. No eyes or jaws exist. The lob-worm is Charcoal is made of the the artificer of the little coils of sand so numerous on the seanuts, and used as a tooth- beach after the tide has receded. These sand-coils are passed _ ~. ~~!~.~..,;~powder in Britain. A through the body as the animal burrows downwards in the sand....=.... kind of Catechu (q. v.) is _-ind byof Catechu (q v) is Are'ola Tissue is a variety of connective tissue found in bnuts. The cabboge palm the animal body, by means of which various organs and parts of nuts. The cabbage palm....of the W. Indies (A. organs are connected together. A. T. consists of very soft fibres....: t't-~ oleracef ) has a tall stem of various degrees of coarseness. These are often so close totermllinated by a large gether as to form laminie, which frequently cross and recross in Areca Catechu (Betel-nut Palm). leafy bud, which is used all directions, leaving open spaces, or areoloe, between them. A. T. is found underneath the skin, forming a bed in which lie numeas a vegetable; hence its name. A small species, A. sa5ida, occurs in New Zealand. rous fat - cells, also covering the muscles, blood - vessels, and nerves, and also connecting the lobes and lobules of glands. It Areci'bo, a town on the N. coast of Puerto Rico, in Spanish is the most widely-distributed tissue of the body, and it may be W. Indies, with a good trade. Pop. I I,I87. traced uninterruptedly from one part to another. For further details regarding it see CONN.CTIV. TISSU.. Areiop'agus (' Hill of Mars'), a celebrated council of ancient Greece, so called from the hill of that name on which the council Areom'eter (Gr. araios, thin; metron, a measure) is an inmet. The hill lies to the W. of the Acropolis at Athens. The strument for measuring the densities of liquids. Its principle origin of the council is lost in antiquity. As early as the first Mes- may be stated simply thus: Any solid body senian War (B.C. 740) we find notice of its fame. Even then it is sinks further in a light liquid than in a heavy spoken of as old. Solon made important changes in it, modi- one. The A. usually consists of a small fying considerably its purely oligarchical constitution. It was glass bulb loaded at the bottom with mercury now composed of the archons (see ARCHON) of the year. Be- or small shot, so as to keep it upright, and sides exercising supreme authority in affairs of state, the rule of provided with a graduated scale at the top, the council seems to have been eminently what we call'paternal.' so as to mark the depth to which it sinks in They enforced observance of hygienic law by prohibiting the the liquid. As the densities of the liquids overcrowding of rooms at social gatherings, and they even sent change with the temperature, a thermometer officers on such occasions into private houses to see that their is frequently placed alongside the graduated rules were observed. Drunkenness, extravagance, and impiety scale, and is sometimes so ingeniously adwere noted, offenders punished, and the deserving rewarded. justed as to give at once the required correc- Pericles, however, dealt the A. a blow from which it never tion. The delicacy of such instruments recovered. What was the precise nature of the decree which he depends to a great extent upon the thinness succeeded in carrying (B. c. 458) we do not know. It is probable of the tube with respect to the bulb, so that that the A. was deprived of its high political authority, but it it may be disregarded in the calculation. dl long retained considerable moral influence over the community. Of all areometers, Gay-Lussac's is decidedly Even this gradually dwindled away, until in the general moral the most accurate, but is seldom used in prac- Areometers. corruption of Athens which followed its subjection to Macedonia tical measurements. In Nicholson's A. the an Areiopagite became a name of scorn. Still, as late as the time specific gravities are obtained from the weight which is required of St Paul we hear of it as having some religious authority, and to be added to the bulb, so as to sink it to a fixed mark upon we find it in. existence so late as A.D. 380. The date of its ex- the neck. This form evidently requires no graduated scale. tinction is not known. Arequi'pa, the third largest city in Peru, capital of a proAre'na, that part of an amphitheatre in which the combats of vince of the same name, lies in the rich valley of Quilca, at the gladiators and wild beasts took place. It was usually strewed W. base of the Andes, 35 miles from the Pacific. It wasfounded with sand, hence its name. The A. was surrounded by a wall in 1536 by order of Pizarro, and has now a considerable export of sufficient height to protect the spectators, and-a feature trade, chiefly in wool and Peruvian bark. Its port, Islay, which worthy of imitation in our own places of public assembly-there has one of the best harbours in the republic, was partly destroyed were four main entrances. On the Continent, any open building by an earthquake in August 1868. A. is connected with its port of the nature of a theatre is called an A. by a railway. Pop. about 45,o0o. —The province of A. extends along the Pacific, and is generally sterile. Area, 26,700 sq. Arena'ceous Rock's include all rocks composed largely or miles; pop. I8o,ooo. About 14 miles E. of the city is the famous wholly of grains of quartz or flint. The recent deposits are interspersed with loose sand; but in the older deposits the sand is generally held together by various cements, silicious, calcareous, Aretee'us, a famous Greek physician, born in Cappadocia, of ferruginous, &c. whose life nothing is known further than that he practised probably at the close of the Ist and beginning of the 2d c. A.D. Arena'ria (Sandwort), a genucies of plantumeros b elonging to the He generally followed Hippocrates in his practice, but was not order CaryophZy/lacc. The species are numerous, and are widely the slave of any system; and his descriptions of the symptoms, distributed. They are mostly small herbs found in sandy places, lave of any systemnd his prescriptions for the treatment of disease, hae been ofteoms And his prescriptions for the treatment of disease, have been often and are of no economical value. endorsed by subsequent experience. His work on the causes, Ar'endal, a thriving seaport on the bay of Christiania, in symptoms, and treatment of acute and chronic diseases, in eight the S.E. of Norway, with considerable shipbuilding- works, books, written in very pure Ionic Greek, in imitation of Hippodistilleries, breweries, and tobacco-factories. It is picturesquely crates, is not quite complete, some chapters being awanting, and situated, the houses being partly built on rocky islets and on minor lacunce numerous. The first edition of the Greek text was piles overhanging the water, on account of which the Norwegians published by Goupyl (Paris, I554). A much finer one appeared call it'Little Venice.' Many of the streets are merely bridges at Oxford (Wigan, I723); but the latest and best is that (f 158 s+ -, -- + VARB THE GL OBE ENC YC LOPEDIA. ARG Ermerius (Grin. I847). It has been translated into French, fruit, used for feeding cattle. F'rom the seeds an oil is extracted Italian, and Germain, and parts of it into English by J. Moffat of great value. Its wood sinks in water, and is very hard. (Lond. I 785), and by T. F. Reynolds (Lond. I837). (Loud.Areth78,san See ALPHEIUS (Loud. 1837). Argaum', a village of Berar, Central India, 40o miles S.W. Areth.u'sa. See ALPHEIUS. of Ellichpore, where Major Wellesley (afterwards Duke of WelAreti'uo, Pietro, an Italian wit and poet, born at Arezzo lington) gained a signal victory over the Mahrattas, November in Tuscany, in 1492, was the natural son of a gentleman, Luigi 28, 803 Bacci, and of a female of obscure origin named Tita. From the Argel, or Arghel, the Syrian name for Solenastemma A., Latin Aretinus ('belonging to Aretium,' or Arretium, mod. a plant of Arabia and Northern Africa, belonging to the order Arezzo) comes the Italianised form Aretino. Throughout life AscZejiadaceae, the leaves of which are used for tie adulteration A. was accomplished, licentious, and vagrant. Banished from of Egyptian senna. Arezzo, he commenced a wandering life, and eventually found himself at Rome, fascinating people by his wit, daring, and Ar'gelander, Friedrich Wilhelm August, an eminent general talent. He first won, then lost, the patronage of the German astronomer, born at Memel, March 22, I799. In I823 Pope, through writing licentious verses, the notorious Sone/ti he was appointed astronomer at the observatory ofAbo inFinland. Lussuriosi, sixteen in number, intended to accompany as many The result of his observations on the fixed stars, both here and obscene engravings. He shone for a time at the court of Giovanni subsequently at Helsingfors, was the publication of a catalogue de Medici, and of Francis I., at Milan (I524); passed to Venice, of 56.o of these stars having proper motions. After removing to which he was wont to call an earthly paradise, and where he and Bonn in I837, he published Uranometria Nova (I843), and A4strohis sisters led a life of scandalous pleasure. Yet this unsurpass- nomical Observations (I846, et seg.). A. was subsequently engaged able libertine occasionally affected the saint, and wrote works in observing the changes of light in variable stars. He died of piety which drew tears from devotees, and induced him to February I7, 1875, at Bonn. His latest observations were of cherish hopes even of a cardinal's hat; but though Pope Julius Coggia's bright comet of I874. III. flattered A., he did not venture to commit so flagrant an outrage on religion. A. died at Venice, I556. His works comprise five comedies, abounding in humour; a tragedy; the veraced. A. Me icana, the Mexican poppy, has become widely Sone/ti Lussuriosi, a French version of which is oddly named distributed overthewarmer regions of the globe. Its Academie des Dames; Rime, S/anze, and Capitoli, mostly panegy- regions othe globe. Ithe rical, or licentious, or satirical; an unfinished epic, Due Cante diseeds, like others of the, Marfisa, and a considerable number of other pieces, some Poppy family, have narcotic,- religious, but the greater part indecent. See Mazzuchelli ita npurgative qtalities. oil is obtained from them. di Pietro Areetino (last ed. Milan, 184). oil is obtained from them. The juice of the plant, Aretino, Spinello Spinelli, an early Italian painter- which is yellow, has been Vasari prefers him to Giotto-born at Arezzo in 1323, studied successfully used in diseases under Casentino, and lived sometimes at Florence and some- of the eye. times at Arezzo, where he died in I4I5. Among his works are(I) in Arezzo, an Annunciation, a Madonna presenting the infant Ar'gens, Jean BapJesus with a rose, the Twelve Apostles, and other frescoes; titedeBoyerM ayqu is (2) in Florence, frescoes in San Miniato from the life of St Bene- d', has a place in history as a friend and associate of dict; (3) in Pisa, in the Caomo Santo, some incidents in the as a friend and associat. He lives of St Potitus and St Ephesus. Frederick the Great He was born at Aix, in Pro-' Arez'zo (anc. Arretium), capital of the Italian province of the vence, June 24,- I7o4, ensame name (1276 sq. miles; pop. 2I9, 559), in the valley of, and tered the armyat fifteen, but Argeinone grandiflora. 4 miles distant from, the Arno, and 38 miles by rail E.S.FE. of was from the first (accordFlorence. Its chief buildings are its churches, and its cathedral ing to Carlyle) an'extremely dissolute creature.' After being contains a miagnificent marble altar by Pisano. It is one of disinherited by his father, he took to literature, and published the oldest towns in Tuscany-the ancient Arre/ium having been Lettres 7uives, Lettres Chinoises, Lettres Cabalistiqzees, and La one of the twelve chief cities of Etruria-and was famous for its Philosophie de lon Sens,'frothy books' of an'anti-Jesuit turn,' pottery-bright red ware, with objects in relief-and its works bu.t, like himself, full of good-humour and a'certain light, sputin bronze. No important industries are now carried on. Pop. tery wit.' They attracted the notice of Frederick, who invited (1872) 38,907. A. is the birthplace of Moecenas, the Emperor the author to Prussia, appointed him chamberlain, and a Augustus, Petrarch, Pietro Aretino, Spinello Aretino, Vasari, director of the Art Academy at Berlin. He was more loyal and many other illustrious men. to Frederick than any of the foreigners who summered in his Arcgali LSheep (Ovis Ammon). This, the c wild sheep' of favour, and but for his amorous peccadilloes, might be considered naturalists, inhabiting Kamchatka, Siberia, the Himalayas, Bar- a very honest gentleman. After'many temporary marriages bary, Corsica, and Greece, is by some naturalists considered the withnactresses,'heweddedone'inpermanence, Mmsell Cochois, original progenitor of our domestic breeds. It is agile and active a patient, kind being,' and settled down into domestic regularity. and inhahboits mountainous districts. Its flesh is savolry. The A. died on a visit to his native Provence, 26th December 177. and inhabits mountainous districts. Its flesh is savoury. The food consists of grass and leaves of young trees. The milk is Frederick's letters to his widow show how truly he loved his used as food. The horns are about 4 feet long, and 14 inches light-hearted friend of thirty years' standing. A collection of in circumference at their base. his works, in 24 vols., appeared in 1768. See Carlyle's History of Frederick the Great (jpassim). Ar'gancl, Aim6, physician and chemist, celebrated as the inventor of the A. lamp, was born at Geneva about the year Argen'solag Luper-io and Bartolomeo, poets of Spain, 1755. At London, in 1782, he made his first lamp, which differed born respectively in I565 and 1566, studied at Huesca, and from other lamps at, that period in having a circular wick and afterwards removed to Madrid, where they were taken under the a glass chimney, by which means a greater supply of air was patronage of Maria of Austria, who appointed the elder her priobtained, and a more perfect draught generated, thus effecting vate secretary, and Bartolomeo her chaplain. Lupercio was suba more complete combustion. As the priority of the invention sequently appointed Historiographer of Aragon to Philip III. was disputed by a Parisian of the name of rLang, the patent was and afterwards Secretary of State to the Viceroy of Naples, where taken out in the name of both; but the controversy in which he he died 1613. Bartolomeo succeeded his brother as Historiohad been involved so pPreyed on his mind that he became sub- grapher of Aragon, and, having earned a fame, chiefly by his ject to deep melancholy, and died in great misery in his native Coanuista de las Isias Mo/ucas (I609) that ranks him among the town, October 24, 1803. Spanish classics, died 631. Besides their poemns, Rimas (Saragossa,!634), examples of cultivation rather than of originality, Argania, a genus of plants of the order Saotacere. The the combined work of the brothers may be seen in the continua. argan- tree of Morocco, A. sideroxylon, yields an egg-shaped tion of Zurita's Annals of,ragon (1630). I59 4P 4 ARG THE GL OBE ENC YCLOP/~DIA. ARG Ar'genson, Mlarc Pierre, Comte d', a French statesman, of cattle and large droves of horses and mules are reared on the born 1696. The family to which he belonged has held property rich pasturage of the Pampas (q. v.). Among wild animals menin Touraine for many generations. Nor was he its first distin- tion may be made of the tapir, hippopotamus, armadillo, llama, guished member. History takes note of Ren6 de Voyer, and vicuna. Mining has not been vigorously engaged in. There Oomte d'A., a diplomatist and statesman in the days of Riche- are silver mines at San-Juan, and sulphur, alum, iron, have been lieu and Mazarin; of Marc Rene d'A., President of Finance found; but the name given to the estuary of the Parana, viz., in the time of Law, and a resolute but unsuccessful opponent of Rio de [a PlZata ('river of silver'), though it is perpetuated in that wild speculator; and of his two sons, Rene Louis, Mar- the new name of the Confederation (Argentine Republic), merely quis d'A., a vigorous and bold politician and author, and represents the unfulfilled expectation of the early explorers. Marc Pierre, the subject of our notice, who became lieutenant The estuary of the La Plata was discovered by Don Juan Diaz of police in I72o, and Secretary of State to the Minister of da Soles in 1515, and Buenos Ayres was founded twenty years War in 1742. On the death of Fleury, the year after, the whole afterwards by an expedition sent out by the Emperor Charles V. burden of the department fell on him, just when France was Cities were gradually founded by the Spaniards all over the completely exhausted by repeated disaster. He soon changed country, which, however, remained under the Peruvian vicethe face of affairs, and the victory of Fontenoy and the leaguer royalty till I775, when the Plate provinces were formed into a of Maestricht led to the glorious but unprofitable treaty of Aix- separate government, the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. In i8o8 la-Chapelle in 1748. He now repaired the fortresses, inspired the colonists deposed the Spanish viceroy, and, after a struggle, the army with fresh spirit, and established the Acole Militaire in succeeded in asserting their independence of Spain. Between I751. As a generous and intelligent patron of literature, the I8Io and 1835 the A. R. thus formed had upwards of thirty Encycdopekdie was dedicated to him by Diderot and D'Alembert, changes of government. From I835 to i85I, General Rosas and he supplied Voltaire, whose schoolfellow he had been, with ruled with dictatorial sway. In 1853 the present constitution, materials for his Sidcle de Louis XIV. Intrigues set on foot by which provides for an elective president, a senate, and a house Madame Pompadour caused him to be exiled; but after her of deputies, was established. A., along with Brazil, carried on death he returned to Paris, and died there, August 22, I764. a war with Paraguay from I865 to I870. Buenos Ayres (q. v.), His grandson, Marc Ren8 de Voyer d'A. (born I77I, died as the seat of the principal city, and the outlet of all the trade of 1842), was notable in his later years for his devotion to repub- the republic, has always exercised a preponderating influence in lican ideas. the formation and execution of the intrigues, conspiracies, and Ar'gent (Fr. aent, Lat. argn, silver), the term always insurrections which constitute the political history of the conAtr'gent (Fr. a ~ent, Lat. arffenfuz, silver), the term always federation. used in heraldry for silver. In engraving shields, it is left white. Ar'ges, a genus of fishes belonging to the family Silurider. These forms are of small size, and were described by Humboldt Argeta, a town in the province of Ferrara, Central Italy, and other travellers. as being ejected from the craters of S. on the Reno. Pop. of commune, 15,926. American volcanoes, in showers of muddy water. The most A ~rgeu'teus Codex. See UFILAS. familiar species is the A. cyclojum. Their origin, or the condiArgen'teus Codex. See U LFILAS. tions under which they exist, form unsolved problems of the Ar'gentine Republic (Sp. Confederacion Argentina), naturalist; but as water in the form of steam is now known to be formerly called the Confederation of the Rio de la Plata, a the cause of volcanic eruptions, these fishes are doubtless concountry of S. America, in lat. 22~ 30' to 41~ S., and long. 54~ to tained in this water, which gains access to the volcanic depths. 70' 30' W. It is bounded N. by Bolivia; E. by Paraguay, Bra- Ar'gile Plastique', a series of beds at the base of the Tertiary zil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic; S. by Patagonia; and W. by zil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic; S. by Patagonia; and W. by formations occurring in France, and consisting of sandy deposits, the Andes of Chili. In length it is about 1746 miles, in breadth 1000Iooo miles. The following table shows its divisions, area, and interspersed with beds of clay, and corresponding to the lower Eocene of the English geologists. They rest on a conglomerate population, according to the census of!869:of angular chalk-flints. Provinces. Depart- Area in Populaio. Argilla'ceous Rocks are composed, either entirely or in part, ments, Sq. Miles. i o mets...Sq.. Mitesof clay or silicate of alumina, and include the plastic olays, such x. BuenosAyres. 5 83,6T5 495,107 as kaoZzlin and common clay; the laminated clays, such as shale; 2. Santa Fd. ~ 4 25,087 89,II7 and the hard metamorphic clays, such as clay-slate. These last 3. Entre Rios -. 0 29,955 1I34,27I form extensive deposits in the Azoic strata, but are also found 4. Corrientes.. 7 45,454 129,023 in the Pakeozoic formations, having been produced by the action 5. Cordova... 14 58,997 215,5o8 6. San-Luis... 8 24,151 53,294 of heat on the shales of these strata. 7. Santiago.. 8 38,799 232,898 8. Mendoza. 8 30,699 65,413 Ar'gol, or Argal, is the name given to the impure bitartrate 9. San-Juan... 4 8,772 60,319 of potash, KHC4H406, which is deposited from wine after it io. Rioja.. 7 3T103 41746 has been kept for some time in cask. The bitartrate of potash:i i. Catamarca 8 35,78o 79,962 I2. Tucumana 9 23,386 7o8,953 is not formed during the keeping of the wine, but exists in the 13. Salta.... 6 63,46i 88,933 grape-juice in a state of solution before fermentation; owing, 14. Juijuy 9 33,527 40,379 however, to its insolubility in dilute alcohol, it becomes deposited Total.. 173 542,786 1,741,923 after this is produced. A. is the chief and only important source of tartaric acid, the preparation of which firom this substance Besides the above provinces there are some unwill be found in article TARTARIC ACID. Pure bitartrate of tories, such as El Gn Cco, whose area and population are potash, or cream of tartar, as it is called, is readily prepared uncertain. Great numbers of immigrants, chiefly Italians, have from A. by dissolving it in boiling water, decolorising the soluuncertain. Great numbers of immigrants, chiefly Italians, have tion with animal charcoal, and allowing to crystallise. been increasing the population of late years. In 1871 there were tion with animal charcoal, and allowing to crystallise. ~~~~~45,390 immigrants. ~Of the two kinds of A. found in commerce, wohite A. is de45, 39o immigrants. Z!, ~~~~~~~~~~~posited from white wine, and is of a pale pink colour; whilst With the exception of the N. W. corner, which contains some posited from white wine, and is of a pale pink colour; whilst red 21. is obtained from red wine, and is dark ried, of the loftiest outlying portions of the Andes, and the province of Entre Rios, where there are some elevated ranges, the country Ar'golis, the peninsula lying between the gulfs of Nauplia is very level, consisting chiefly of immense grassy plains. In the and _iEgina, in the N.E. of the Morea, was anciently a state of N. is the desert of El Gran Chaco. the Peloponnesus, and now forms, along with Corinth, a nome of The republic is well watered by numerous rivers, among the modern Greece. The plain of Argos, 12 miles long and 5 broad, principal of which are the Parana, with its great tributaries from once famous for its noble breed of horses, is now largely occuthe N.W., the Pilcomayo, the Vermejo, and the Salado; the pied by marshes. The only river flowing through A. during Colorado, and the Negro, all debouching into the Atlantic. the whole year is the Kephalari (Erasinus); the Banitza (Inachus), Lakes, both fresh and (in the W.) salt, are abundant. The which falls into the Argolic Gulf, is often dry in summer; and climate and productions vary from tropical in the N., to tem- the others are mere mountain torrents. Mountains, the highest perate in the S. Agriculture is little prosecuted, but millions summits of which rise to between 5ooo and 6oo0 feet, shut in i6o 4 —------------------- --------— d~4 kARG T-HE GI OBE ENCYCL OPEDIA. ARKG the plain on three sides, while on the fourth it is open to the sea. has been differently interpreted; but it probably refers to The plain produces corn, cotton, vines, and rice. Argos was a voyage of discovery to the coasts of the Euxine by eager said to be the oldest city in Greece, and was fabled to have spirits among the wealthy Minyans of Iolcus, in quest of new been built by Inachus, I8oo B.C. It was the head of a league of commercial relations. Doric cities, and, together with its urban territory, contained, in Ar'gos. See ARGoLIs the height of its prosperity, Ioo,00ooo inhabitants. According to the Greek myth, it was the birthplace of Hercules, who per- Argos'toli, the capital of Cephalonia, the largest of the formed in the neighbourhood two of his twelve labours-the de- Ionian Islands, lies on the S.W. coast, and has a good harbour. struction of the Lernean hydra and the Nemean lion. Agamem- Pop. about 5500o. non was ruler of Argos. The inhabitants were famed for their piety to the gods, and were skilled in statuary and in music, but Arguell'es, Agustin, a liberal Spanish statesman, was born did not excel in literature. The modern Argos contains-o,ooo at Ribadesella, in the Asturias, in I775, and studied law at Oviedo. When the War of Independence broke out in i8o8, inhabitants, and the nome I27,82o. he began an agitation in Cadiz for a regency and free constitution. Ar'gonaut, a name given to the genus A-rgonauta, one of In I812 he was made a member of the Cortes, where for his the Dibranchiate or Two-gilled Cuttle-fishes'(q. v.) (CeJ/aZoqpoda), fiery eloquence he was soon known as the Spanish Cicero, and popularly known as the PaEqer Naztilus, or'Paper Sailor.' It surnamed El Divino. Ferdinand VII., on his return, arrested belongs to the Oclopoda, or group of eight-armed cuttle-fishes. A. (I814), who, however, by his subtle defence, evaded conviction Two of the eight arms are greatly ex- on five successive trials. The monarch himself finally sentenced panded, and secrete and protect the shell, him to ten years at the galleys of Ceuta. The revolution which is single-chambered, and possessed of I820 again set him free, and he became Minister of the by the females only. The male A. is a Interior for a short period. On the restoration of Ferdinand in small shell-less form, averaging an inch in I823 he fled to England, where he resided till I832. After his length; and the third left arm of the male return he was repeatedly made President of the Chamber of is developed to form a Heclocolyfus (q. v.) Deputies, was for some time guardian to the young Queen for reproductive purposes. This is the Isabella, and, next to Espartero, was the most trusted of the animal so celebrated in poetry, and which Spanish patriots. In discussing the law regarding the sale of formerlyused to be regarded as sailing on Church. property (1841), he strongly opposed all concordats the surface of the sea; using its two ex- with the Pope. A. was a moderate, but stanch and consistent panded arms as sails, and the other arms liberal, who loved his country, and distrusted the projects of the Argonaut. as oars-a statement purely fictitious and republicans. He died at Madrid, March 23, I844. erroneous. The expanded arms are always clasped around the shell, and the creature can move only after Ar'gument, a reason advanced to induce belief, an abstract the fashion of other Cuttle-fishes (q. v.). of the subject-matter of a writing, and, in logic, the premise on which a conclusion rests. Logicians distinguish several kinds Argonauts ('sailors of the Afrgo'), the name of certain of A., of which the best known, though not the best, is the Greek heroes, who, according to a beautiful legend, set out Argumentzlm ad ho/zoinem, which is simply an unfair attempt to in their ship Airgo, under Jason, to fetch the golden fleece a prove a position by appealing to a man's known prejudices or generation before the Trojan war. The author of the Odyssey admissions. Another favourite A. with those who are in a posiknew the story; Pindar and others give versions of it; but the tion to effectively use it, such as military tyrants and enraged first consistent and connected narrative is that of Apollodorus, mobs, is the Argumientum a baculo ('from the cudgel'), or the outlines of which are these: Jason, commissioned by his'physical-force A.,' which, though rudely expressed, is difficult uncle Pelias of Iolcus to fetch from Colchis the golden fleece, to answer. which was guarded by a sleepless dragon, commanded Argus, the son of Phrixus, to build a ship of fifty oars, which he manned Ar'gus, according to Apollodorus, the son of Zeus and Niobe, with fifty of the choicest heroes in Greece, whose names are given was the third king of Argos, which, Hyginus says, received its differently in different lists, and sailed from Iolcus. They re- name from him.- A., surnamed Pantopes (the'all-seeing') mained two years at Lemnos, their first landing-place, where because he had Ioo eyes, some of which were always awake, a Hypsipyle, wife of Thoas, bore Jason two sons. Next they mythic personage whose origin is variously given. After several sailed to the Doliones, whose king, Cizycus, Jason accidentally heroic exploits in the Peloponnesus, Juno set him to watch Io, killed, and proceeding to Mysia, they left there Hercules and but Mercury, after lulling him to sleep with his lute, cut off his Polyphemus. In the country of the Bebryces, Pollux killed head. Juno transferred his eyes to the tail of her favourite, the King Amycus with the boxing-gloves. In Thrace the A. con- peacock.-A., the son of Phrixus, and builder of the Argo. suited the blind seer Phineus, who gave them his counsel on See ARGONAUTS. condition of their delivering him from the Harpies, which waseus), a prominent member done by Zetes and Calais. With the aid of Juno they steered of the genus ArPh us, included in the sub-family Piasianine of their vessel through the opening and closing Symplegades, losing the Rasorial or Gallinaceous birds. This bird inhabits the Eastern only some of its stern ornaments, as had been prefigured to Archipelago. The male measures about 5 or 6 feet from the them by the fortune of a dove let loose by the advice of Phineus. bill to the tip of the tail, which consists nearly wholly of two After further adventures they reached the mouth of the Phasis, elongated central feathers. The body-plumage is of a brown in Colchis. The king,,Eetes, promised Jason the golden fleece colour The secondary quills of the wings are very long, and on the condition that he should yoke to a plough two fire- the breathing, brazen-hoofed oxen, and sow the dragon's teeth which of which the name A. has beor eye-like spots, from the presence Cadmus had left at Thebes. Medea, daughter of the king, by her of which the name A. has been derived. These long secondary Cadmus had left at Thebes. Medea, daughter of the king, by her plumes are said to impede the flight, but to assist the bird in magic power enabled Jason to accomplish this and other perilous running. The said to impede the female are much less brilliant, and exploits. Seizing the golden fleece, Jason embarked by night are not so elon feated as tose of the e male. with Medea and her brother Absyrtus. 2,Eetes pursuing them, M edea cut up her brother into fragments, which she cast into the Argyle', Campbells of, a family of whom Scotland has sea, and she and her lover escaped while her father was gather- some reason to be proud. Its origin reaches far back into ing them up. The mast, formed of one of the vocal oaks of the middle ages. Eight centuries ago, Gillespie Campbell Dodona, now warned them to sail to Ausonia, and get purified acquired, by marriage with an heiress, the lands of Lochow, by Circe for the murder of Absyrtus. This they did. As they in Argyleshire. From him descended Sir Colin Campsailed past the Sirens, they were preserved from their charms by bell of Lochow, who obtained the surname of' More' or the song of Orpheus, and arrived at Corcyra, the island of'Great' on account of his deeds in war. He was made a Alcinous. Leaving Corcyra, they encountered a storm, from knight by Alexander III. of Scotland. From him descended which they were saved by the agency of Apollo. Touching at Sir Duncan Campbell, who assumed the designation of'A.' Crete, they sailed thence to ZEgina, and, after a four months' IHe was summoned to Parliament in I445 by James II., under voyage, arrived safely at Iolcus. At the Isthmus of Corinth the title of'Lord Campbell.' This Lord Campbell married Jason dedicated the Argo to Neptune. The story of the A. Lady Marjory Stewart, daughter of the Regent Duke of Albany. *l, x6 - ARG THE GLOBE ENCYCIOPZI7D~A.' ARI He was succeeded by his grandson Colin, created Earl of Argyle islands, the chief of which are Mull, Islay, Jura, Tiree, Coil, in I457. Archibald, the second earl, was killed at Flodden in Rum, Lismore, and Colonsay. Its coast-line is so much indented I5I3. Archibald, the eighth earl (see ARGYLE, A. C., MARQUIS that it exceeds 660 miles in extent, though the county is not over OF), was created a marquis on I5th November I641. I15 miles long and 60 broad. Area, 3255 sq. miles; pop. (I87I) 75,679, showing a decrease of I3,6I9 since I85I, chiefly Argyle''Archibald Campbell, first XVarquis of, an emi- caused by emigration. A. is famed for its romantic scenery, nent character in the history of Scotland. He was born in I598,emigration. nent character in the history of Scotland. He was born in 59, abounding in lofty mountains, rugged glens, wild promontories, and succeeded his father as Earl of Argyle in I638. An honesta and succeeded his father as Earl of Argyle in 638. An honest and extensive lochs or arms of the sea. The principal peaks are and fearless man, on the formation of the National Covenant, he Bedan-ambran, 3760 feet; Ben Cruachan, 3668; Buachael gave his opinion without reserve to the king and government,; Ben Jura, 33 I; and n rore, 3I74 The chief by whom he was consulted. In i638 he took the side of the Etive, 334are; Ben Jura, 339; and Ben More, 3174. The chief Covenanters, of whom he at once became the leader. Notwith- lch is och Awe (Cq.v), one of the finest in land standing, when Charles I. came to Scotland in I641, he showed loch is Loch Awe q v), one of the finest in Scotland the favour toA.,creatinghim a marquis. Inthewarwhichfollowed, sea-bays, Lochs Moidart, Sunart, Linnhe, Eil, Leven, Fyne, fa.In thewar wbich followed, ad Long. In this wild district the prevailing rocks are micathe Royalists under the Marquis of Huntly were defeated by A.; sland Long. In tis wild district the prevailing rocks are mic but the brilliant victories of Montrose ultimately drove him sate, trap, qsaltz, and granite. Excellent roofing-slates are from the field. During the negotiations between Charles and his quarried at Easdale and Ballachulish; the mineral Strontianite parliament, A. endeavoured to mediate, but unsuccessfully. He was first discovered at Strontian; and lead and copper mines occur in Coil and Islay. A. rears more sheep than any other opposed Cromwell's invasion of Scotland, and to the last remained loyal to the king, Charles II., on whose head he Scotch county, and is only behind Aberdeen, Ayr, and Perth in the number of its cattle. In I872 there were 54,967 acres had put the crown at Scone, ist January i65I. Ultimately of permanent pasture, 24,246 of corn, and I2,305 of green he made terms with the Protector. On the Restoration, he was The chief towns are Inverary (the county town), impeached for high treason, on the ground of having made terms Cop.th with Cromwell. He was tried before the Scotch Parliament Campbelton, and Oban, which unite with Ayr and Irvine in in February I66I, and being found guilty, was executed at sending one member to Parliament; the county returns one also. Edinburgh n the fllwing t May. There are fewnobler There still exists much poverty and ignorance amongst the Edinbucharacters in Scothe following 27than May. There are few nobler of A. peasantry of A.; but there is no lack of vigorous character in A. men, who have supplied Glasgow, and other centres His son, Archibald, ninth Earl of A., fought at Dunbar A. men, who have supplied Glasgow, and other centres is'Son, Archibald, ninth Earl of A1., fought at Dunbar of industry, with not a few of their foremost citizens. The and Worcester on the side of the king, but was no less a lover of dustry, with not a few of their foremost citizens. The only considerable manufacture is whisky, Islay and Campof constitutional freedom than his father; and when the policy beon being famous wherever that liquor is consumed. The of James VII: excited the rebellion of Monmouth in the S.W. celton being f thons. of England, A. sought to stir Scotland also, but was taken chief antiquities are the ruins of Iona and Oronsay. Cantire, prisonern andA. executed June 30stir Scotlandalsobut685.a in former times, belonged to the powerful Lords of the Isles, and has many very interesting ecclesiastical remains. A large Argyle, John Campbell, Duke of, was born in I678. He portion of A. is the property of the Campbell family, represented served with distinction under the Duke of Marlborough, of whose by the Duke of Argyle as its head, and also by the Marquis of political party he was originally an adherent. On the fall of the Breadalbane. Whigs in 17Io, he was nevertheless appointed by their successors Ar'ia (Ital.' air'), in music, is a word generally restricted to the to command the British army in Spain. The dexterity with more elaborate and extended airs in an opera, cantata, or other which A. contrived to steer through the political turmoils of his such composition. time has laid him open to the charge of laxity of political principle; yet, practically, he rendered real services to his country. Ariad'ne, daughter of Minos of Crete and PasiphaE, fell in The union between England and Scotland was largely owing to love with Theseus, who had come from Athens with the tribute for his influence and energy; and during the troubled times which the Minotaur. She gave him a clew given to her by Hephastus, followed the death of Anne, his prompt and wise measures were by which to guide himself out of the labyrinth into which he had of the utmost service to the State. In recognition of this, he was penetrated to slay the monster. Theseus having promised to in 1718 made Duke of Greenwich, in the peerage of England. marry her, she fled with him to Naxos, where Diana slew her. His defence of Edinburgh before Parliament, after the Porteous Another legend represents Bacchus as finding her in Naxos on mob, in 1737, showed a patriotism which secured him unbounded his return from India, and marrying her. On her death he popularity in Scotland. He died in I743. Of him Pope has placed her nuptial crown among the stars. writtenritn'Argyle, the State's whole thunder born to wield,, Arial'dus, a deacon of Milan in the I Ith c., who strongly And shake alike the senate and the field.' condemned simony, and the practice common among the priests His good qualities are seen at their best in Scott's Heart of of the time of keeping concubines. Popes Stephen X., Nicholas.MH~fndua~loties aredlseeno bhhiaz. bes inSctt' HnrtofII., and Alexander II. lent him their countenance; but emissaries of the Archbishop of Milan, who by his agency had been Argyle, George John Douglas Campbell, eighth and excommunicated, murdered him in an island in-Lake Maggiore, present Duke of, was born in 1823, and succeeded his father whither he had fled from the violence of his enemies in Milan, in I847. The great Presbyterian struggle in Scotland, which, and threw his mangled remains into the lake, June 28, Io66. slumbering for centuries, ended in the disruption of the Scottish The Bollandists register him among the saints of June. Church in 1843, engaged his earnest attention while yet a minor. On taking his seat in the House of Lords, he quickly Ariana (mod. Ian), the name given by Stlabo to an extenshowed a capacity for statesmanship; and on the formation of sive region in Asia, corresponding pretty closely to the area Lord Aberdeen's Ministry in I853, he was made Lord Privy occupied by the existing states of Persia, Afghanistan, and Seal. In I855 he was made Postmaster-General, and on the Beloochistan. It has originated the moder name'Aryan,' formation of Mr Gladstolne's Cabinet in I868, Secretary of which, as an ethnological and philological term, has almost State for India. In I854 he was elected Lord Rector of Glas- entirelysuperseded'Indo-European'and'Indo-Germanic.' See gow University, and in I86I President of the Royal Society of ARYAN. Edinburgh. In 1844 hIe married Lady Elizabeth Georgiana Arial'no, an episcopal city in the province of Avellino, S. Gower, eldest daughter of the Duke of Sutherland. By her he Italy, in a pass of the Apennines, 2800 feet above the sea, and has a numerous family, the eldest of whom, the Marquis of 50 miles N. E. of Naples. Earthenware is manufactured, and Lorne, married in I87I H.R.H. the Princess Louise. He is the wine and butter are exported. A. has a noble cathedral. It has author of one or two able works, of which the most popular is suffered much from earthquakes. Pop. I2,588 the Reigw of Law (Lond. I867). Argyle'shire (Airer- Gaedhil, pronounced Afser- Gale, land of Arians. See ARIUS. the Gael, a memorial of the Gaelic or Irish colonisations) is a Ar'ias Monta'nus, Benedict'us, a famous Catholic divine maritime county in the W. of Scotland, bounded N. by Inverness- and Orientalist, born in 1527, in the village of Frexenal de la shire. W. and S. by the Atlantic, and E.by Perthshire, Dumbarton, Sierra, in Estremadura, at an early age acquired a competent Loclh Long, and Firth of Clyde. It includes upwards of forty knowledge of Arabic, Syriac, and Chaldee, and subsequently I62 *~~~~~~.-' + ARI THE G OBE ENC YCLOPiEDI4. ARI mastered several modern languages. After accompanying the and, ostensibly in the service of the duke, but free to follow his Bishop of Segovia to the Council of Trent, he resolved to dedi- literary employments, he continued to reside there, wrote comecate his life to literature, and withdrew to the mountains (hence dies, and superintended their public performance. He died his name'Montanus') of Andalusia; but at the request of June 6, I533. Italy is justly proud of A., who preceded and Philip II. he left his hermitage of Aracena, and repaired to Ant- inspired the still greater Englishman, Spenser. The Faery werp, to superintend the publication of Christopher Plantin's Queene is a work of higher genius and nobler motive than the Polyglot Bible, which appeared in I572. For this he received a brilliant romance of the Italian poet, yet, but for the latter, it pension of 2000 ducats from the king. The Jesuits caused him might never have been written. The Orlando Furioso continues much annoyance by questioning his orthodoxy. Though he to charm its author's countrymen, and has been repeatedly devoted himself mainly to Jewish antiquities and biblical lore, he reprinted in the present century. The best editions are those was the author of several works in the department of general of Panizzi (Lond. 1834); Gioberti (Flor. I846, 3d ed. I854); literature. He died at Seville in I598. Lloyd (Trieste, 1857-59). It has also been translated into many Ari'ca, a seaport in the S. of Peru, with an excellent road- European languages. A.s English translators are Sir John stead, I9o miles S.E. of Arequipa. It forms an outlet also for m ost elegant of all, Wm. Stewart Rose (Lond. 823-35) and the the products of Bolivia, and exports silver, copper, wool, alpaca, and guano. In I872, 222 vessels of 259,824 tons entered, and Ariovist'us, a German chief, entered Gaul on the invitation 221 vessels of 257,024 tons cleared, the port. The climate is of the Averni and Sequani, who wished his aid against the unhealthy, and A. is frequently visited by earthquakes, the last ZEdui. The Germans crossed the Rhine in vast numbers, and and most destructive of which occurred in August x868. It was the allied forces subdued the.Edui. A., however, seized a third once a flourishing and populous town, but has lost much of its part of the Sequanian territory as his reward, and then made importance, and is now merely the port of Tacna (q. v.), a large further demands. The Gallic tribes, in their despair, invoked the town about 30 miles inland. -.. ^ - aid of Caesar; and in a great battle (B.C. 58), from which A. Ar'ichat. See CAPE BRETON. escaped by flight, the Romans scattered the German host. The name of A. is conjectured to be Latinised from Heer, an army, Arifge', a department of France, lies along the N. base of the and Fiirst, a prince. Pyrenees. It is extremely mountainous, the highest peaks being Aris'p6 a town of Mexico, state of Sonora, in the extreme Montcalm (IO,513 feet), Estats (io,6ii), and Serrere (9592). N.W. of the country, is situated on the river Sonora, near the The manufactures are linen, woollens, and pottery; there are Sierra Madre. The neighbourhood is rich in the precious metals, also iron mines and marble quarries. Chief towns, Foix, and also produces considerable wine, grain, and cattle. Pop. Pamiers, St Girons. Area, 1847 sq. miles; pop. (I872) 246,298. 8ooo. The river A. is a branch of the Garonne. Arista and Aristate. See AWN. A'ries, the Ram, the first of the signs of the zodiac, begins at the point where the ecliptic cuts the equator at the vernal equi- Aristee'us, according to the Greek myth, was a son of Apollo nox. It originally coincided with the constellation A.; but by Cyrene, the granddaughter of Peneius. He was born in that now, owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the sign A. is in district of Libya named Cyrenaica, after his mother, and was the constellation Pisces, and all the other zodiac signs are altered taught the arts of healing and prophecy by Cheiron and the Muses to the same extent. See PRECESSION. in Bceotia, where he is said by some to have married Autonoe, daughter of Cadmus, by whom he had several sons, notably Ar'il, a peculiar body which surrounds the seeds of some Actaon (q. v.). After delivering the inhabitants of Ceos from plants. It forms the mace in Nutmeg (q. v.), and the orange- a destructive drought, he sailed away into the Western Meditercoloured covering of the seeds of the spindle-tree. ranean, ruling for a time over Sardinia. He was next initiated in Thrace into the mysteries of Dionysus; and after residing for Ari'on, of Methymna, Lesbos, a famous lute-player, and a short time near Mount Haemus, disappeared from the earth. inventor of the dithyramb, flourished about B.C. 700. Accord- His worship was widely diffused in all Hellenic lands, and he ing to a story which first appears in IHerodotus, he was return- figures in the mythic tale as a beneficent divinity who protected ing to Corinth from Tarentum with much treasure, when the and fostered the peaceful industries of mortals. mariners conspired to kill him and seize his riches. Warned by Apollo, he first, with the consent of the sailors, played on his Aristar'chus, the greatest grammarian and critic of antiquity, lute, and then cast himself into the sea, where a dolphin receiv- flourished at Alexandria in the 2d c. B.C. He made recensions ing him on its back, carried him to Tsenarus, whence he went of many ancient writers, but he specially devoted himself to to Corinth. The sailors told Periander of Corinth that A. was the construction of a sound text of Homer, and his text has been dead; but being confronted with him, they owned their guilt, the basis of all subsequent editions. He died at Cyprus of and were put to death. The only remains of A.'s verse that voluntary starvation, to escape the pain of an incurable disease. have come down to us-and even these are doubtful-are a Aristarchus, of Samos, one of the earliest astronomers hymn in honour of Neptune, and an inscription preserved by of the Alexandrian school, flourished about 280-264 B.C. His /Elian, which are given in Brunck's Analecta. only extant work gives an ingenious but unpractical method of Arios'to, Lodovico, author of the famous romantic poem comparing the distances of the sun and moon. Archimedes Orlando Farioso, born at Reggio 8(Modena), th September 474.states in his Arenarisus that A. held the true theory of the diurnal His-father was a military officer i(Modena), the emploment of land annual motions of the earth; Vitruvius ascribes to him the first Duke of Ferrarla, and Cardina l pp olto d'Este, younger son invention of the sca5hium, a kind of concave sundial; and finally, Censorinus says that he was the author of the Annus Mafgnzzs, or of this duke, having been favourably impressed by a collection Censorinus says that he was the a period of 2484 years. Only o of odes written by A., received the young poet into his household work of A. survives, whic was first published af 2484 years. Oly one as gentleman, and employed him on various missions and other work of A. survives, which was first published at Venice in important affairs. Amid these employments, and the distract1ions 498, and again by Wallis at Oxford in i688. It has been transimportant affairs. Amid these employments, and the distractions lated into French by D'Urban (Paris, I823). of the court, Orlanzdo Fzrioso, a poem descriptive of the marvellous adventures of paynims and Christian knights of the age of Aris'teas, according to a tradition reported by Herodotus, Charlemagne, and upon which the author spent ten years, was a magician whose soul could quit and return to its body at will. composed. It was first published at Ferrara, April I516, in forty, After visiting the Arimaspae and the Hyperboreans, he described and afterwards in forty-six, cantos. From the service of Cardinal what he had seen in an epic of three books entitled Arimasjeia. Ippolito, A. passed into the service of his brother Alfonso, Duke Of the existence of such a poem there can be no doubt, but of Ferrara. In 1522 the poet was appointed governor of Gar- even the ancients did not believe A. to be its author. fagnana, a wild district in the Apennines infested with bandits. A. is also the name of a Cyprian, represented as an officer at Here A. resided nearly three years, during which time his wise the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus, to whom was long ascribed administration of affairs, to which his reputation as a poet con- a remarkable letter (now considered a fabrication), giving an siderably contributed, resulted in the suppression of the more account of the more account of the Egyptian embassy to Jerusalem to obtain translacriminal forms of lawlessness. He returned in I524 to Ferrara; tors of the Pentateuch into Greek. See SEPTUAGINT. 4 - _ ____ _____ x63. ARI THE GLOBE EVNCYC~L OE2DJA4. ARI Aristi'des, surnamed'The Just,' was the son of Lysimachus, of snakes and mad dogs. It is also used as a stimulant in cases of one of the leading families of Athens. One of the ten leaders of fever. One or more species of A., called Guaco, is used for chosen to oppose the Persian invasion, A., setting the example, similar purposes by the natives in Central America. When a prevailed on the others to make Miltiades commander-in-chief drop or two of the drug is placed in the mouth of the snake, it on the field of Marathon. For some time after the victory A. produces stupidity; but if an overdose is given, it results in death. held the office of chief archon; but by an intrigue of Themis- A. Sipho is cultivated in gardens under the name of pipe-vine, tocles, and by popular fickleness, he was subsequently banished from the form of the flowers resembling a tobacco-pipe. A. from Athens by'ostracism.' After the victory of Salamis, in grandizfora is a handsome species cultivated in hothouses. Its which he took a generous part, A. was restored to popular roots have a powerful nauseous odour, and are said to kill any favour-being in command of the Athenian forces at the victory animal that eats them. The flowers of many species form a sort of Platoea in 479. Elected archon a second time in 468, he of fly-trap. A. Indica is common to India and Australia. assured the welfare of Greece and the pre-eminence of Athens by his wisdom and moderation. A. died B.c. 468. He died Aristoph'anes, the only writer of the old Greek comedy of as he had lived-a poor man, as regards material wealth. He whom any entire works are extant, and one of the greatest is one of the finest characters of antiquity. His life has been masters of Attic Greek, was born about B.c. 444. He was a written by Plutarch with his customary grace and dignity in the native of the Attic borough Cydathene, and in early life was a delineation of character. pupil of Prodicus. He was of a social and convivial temperament, and passed the life of a lover of pleasure; but the proAristip'pus, a Greek philosopher, was born at Cyrene, in foundest historical and poetical interest is awakened by the Africa, about 424 B.C. He went at an early age to Athens, wonderful series of comedies in which, with unsparing hand, he where he became the pupil of Socrates, to whose teaching, lashed the evils, follies, and extravagances of Athenian life. He however, his own is directly opposed. He is the founder of what was the author of fifty-four plays, of which only eleven are is called the Cyrenaic school of philosophy among the Greeks- extant. Of these the earliest was the Acizoanzizns (B. C. 425), in a philosophy which is essentially a form of Epicureanism, teach- which he inveighs against the Peloponnesian war, and represents ing that it is wiser to seek pleasure than pain, better to be happy the evils of war by a comparison between Diceopolis, a native than sad; that the morality of action consists simply in its re- of Acharna, who made a separate peace for himself and his suits, as affecting the welfare of others. A. spent much of his family, and Lamachus, the representative of the war-party. In time at the court of Dionysius of Syracuse, where he was noted the Knidghts (a.c. 424) A. attacked the insolent demagogue as a philosophic man of pleasure. He imbued his daughter Cleon with such scathing satire that the latter brought an action Arete with his principles; these she again taught to her son, A. against the poet to deprive him of his civic rights. In B. C. 423 the Younger. By him they are supposed to have been worked was exhibited the Clouds, the best of all his comedies. In it he into a system known as Hedonism, or the philosophy of pleasure. attacked the school of sophistical philosophy, of which he made See Wieland's historical romance, Aristipp mnd einige seiner Socrates the impersonation, and throughout the play the great Zeitgenossen (' A. and some of his Contemporaries'). philosopher and moralist is represented as teaching Pheidippides to Aristobu'lus, an Alexandrian Jew, probably a Galilean by cheat his creditors, beat his father, and disregard the gods. This birth, was the first (B.C. I6o) of a series of Jewish philosophers, can best be accounted for by the considerations that A. could poets, and historians who mediated between Judaism and the not appreciate the true character of Socrates, that Socrates Gentile world. With the LXX. as a centre, they formed an was the most prominent of the public teachers, and that his elaborate literature, transforming Moses into a Greek philosopher, snub nose, bare feet, careless dress, and strange manners were and the philosophers into the patrons and clients of Hebrew ready materials for caricature. In te Wasps (B.C. 422) A. atwisdom. He was long credited with being the author of the tacked the flagrant litigiousness of the Athenians. The Peace Exegetical Commentaries on the Books of iMoses, which consisted (B.C. 42I), like the Actzarnians, exhibited the miseries of war. of forged extracts from some of the oldest Greek authors, intended The Birds (B.c. 4I4), in which the Athenians, under the figure to show that they had borrowed from the Old Testament. of the birds, are persuaded to build a city in the clouds, which is to cut off all communication between gods and men, is a Aristoc'racy means, etymologically, a form of government powerful satire on the Sicilian expedition. In B.C. 4II apin which power is in the hands, not of the mass, but of a select peared the Lysistrata and the 7hes7mzophoP.riazusaz, the latter few, presumably the fittest for the office, the superior aptitude commencing the attack on Euripides which was continued in arising either from demonstrated personal ability or from the in- the Frogs (B. C. 405). The BEcclesiazzsav (B. C. 392) ridiculed herited wealth and consequent culture of successive generations. the theories of Plato and the institutions of Sparta; and the Among the Greeks and mediaeval writers the word is only used Plutus (B. c. 388) was an allegorical satire on the rich. A. died as denoting a form of government. But in this sense it has never probably not later than B. c. 380. The editio 5rincejps appeared been popularly used in England, owing to the fact that in Eng- at Venice in I498. More recent editions are those by Brunck land aristocratic government has never existed, unless it was in (Strasb. I781-83), by Dindorf (Leipz. I826), Bekker (Lond. the days when Cromwell ruled the land. A. in England denotes I829), and Dindorf (Paris, i838). There are English translaa special class of the community invested with peculiar privileges, tions by Hookham, Cumberland, &c.; French by Artaud, and possessing a social influence more powerful there than in any Poinsinet de Sivry, &c.; and German by Voss, Droysen, &c., other country in the world. Strict definition is impossible. No ordinary wealth will admit any one to the aristocratic society of Aristotelia. See MACQUI. England. On the other hand, a certain wealth is requisite for Ar'istotle, the weightiest, and, except Plato, the most illusany one to move comfortably in it. Again, the minutie of trious of Greek philosophers, was born at Stageira, in Chalcidice, social culture are more rigidly insisted on by the well-born and B. C. 384. His father, Nicomachus, who was physician to Amyntas well-educated in England than in any other country. An Eng- II., King of Macedon, died before his son had reached his sevenlishman may be wealthy, clever, and accomplished; yet if he teenth year, and A. was intrusted to the guardianship of Proxenus. calls a horse an''orse,' or uses his knife in place of his fork, the In B.c. 367 A. went to Athens, where he passed the succeeding flaw would be fatal to any aristocratic claim. twenty years of his life. During the first three years, while Plato Aristogei'ton. See HARMODIUS AND ARISToGEImoN. was absent in Sicily, he engaged chiefly in private study. On Plato's return, A. became pre-eminent among his pupils, and was Aristoloch'ia, a genus of Dicotyledonous plants, the type of called by his master the'Intellect of the School.' The remainder the orderAristolochiacece. Most ofthespeciesareclimbers inhabit, of his residence at Athens was spent in study, uninterrupted, and have a singularly-coloured, inflated calyx. They are found save by his warm controversy with Isocrates, the distinguished in tropical Africa, S. America, N. America, Europe, and Asia. teacher of rhetoric. After Plato's death, disappointed, possibly, A. Clematitis, or common birthwort, is a doubtful native of that he had not been chosen to succeed his great master, he left Britain, being generally found in the neighbourhood of ruins. Athens, B.C. 347, and went to Atarneuis, in Mysia, where he Its roots were formerly used medically in parturition, hence its lived for three years with his former pupil Hermeias, the ruler English name. Other species had a similar reputation. A. of the city, on whose assassination by the Persians, B.c. 343, serpentaria is called Virginian snakeroot, from its being used as a he fled to Mitylene with his wife Pythias. In B.c. 342 he serpentary drug in some parts of America as a cure for the bites accepted the invitation of Philip of Macedon to become the * 164.... ARI TH-E GL OBE EN1VC YCZOPADIA. ARI tutor of his son Alexander, then thirteen years of age. This Arabic versions of the Greek originals became the basis of Latin relationship between the great philosopher and the future con- translations for the scholars of Western Christendom; but graqueror continued for four years; and its beneficial effects may be dually a knowledge of the originals themselves was obtained, traced in Alexander's love of physical exercise, interest in philo. especially after the Crusades, and before long the Universities sophy and literature, and intimate intercourse with his old master, of Paris and Oxford were filled with crowds of implacable diswhich lasted till it was painfully interrupted by the murder of putants, who regarded A. as an almost infallible master. The Callisthenes. In B.C. 335 A. returned to Athens, and founded exclusive devotion of the schoolmen to his logic, and their misthe famous Peripatetic school, to which he soon attracted nume- use of his method, brought about a reaction on the revival of rous pupils. Here, during twelve years, in the shady walks of learning, and the name of Bacon is associated with an imaginary the Lyceum, to his select followers in the morning, and to a antagonism to the'mighty Stagirite.' But the scope of his philowider circle in the afternoon, he expounded in regular lectures sophy is now better understood, and almost every country of the principles of philosophy, rhetoric, and politics; and at this Europe has furnished critics and editors of his works, of whom time too he composed the greater portion of his works. On Bekker (Berl. I831) is perhaps still the best. Translations also Alexander's death, A. was accused by his enemies in Athens of exist in English, French, German, and other languages. impiety, and fearing the fate of Socrates, he retired to Chalcis, where in the same year he died, B.C. 322, Numerous as arIe Aristox'enus, of Tarentum, a Peripatetic, and writer on the genuine extant works of A., they form a small portion of music, flourished about330 years B.C. Suidas says he produced what he actually wrote. Many of them seem to be mere out- 453 treatises in all departments of literature, of which we only lines of lectures, and they treat of every subject in the whole possess his Elements of Harmony, and a few fragments. The range of the learning of his time. His writings on Physics, from best edition of the Elements is that of Meibomius (Amst. 1652). their defective method, are necessarily incomplete and unsatis- It is said that A. expected to have been appointed successor to factory. The History of Animals, a voluminous work, the ex- Aristotle, and was much chagrined when Theophrastus was tent, if not the existence, of which was due to the munificent chosen. His musical system consisted in judging of intervals by aid of Alexander, is a vast treasure-house of well-classified facts the ear, in opposition to the Pythagorean system of determining in natural history, being, according to Cuvier, not so much a them arithmetically. zoology as a general anatomy. The Metaphysics received its Arith'metic (Gr. arithmos, number) means the science of title in an arbitrary manner, because in the order of arrangement numbers; and as such is properly applicable to algebra. It is of his works it came after the Physics. It is an abstruse treatise now, however, restricted to the application (not investigation) of on the science of'that which is,' the universal, the first princi- the properties of numbers to practical calculations. ples and causes of things, called by A. the absolute philosophy, Not till the introduction of the decimal system and the Arawisdom, theology. The Poetics and the Rhetoric are well-known bian numerals, when the science was freed from the thraldom treatises on these two forms of the exercise of the creative faculty. of a cumbersome and inconvenient notation, did A. make much The Economics, the first book of which alone is genuine, treats progress. Since then, however, it has made great advances. of the domestic relations, and uses them to illustrate the relations The discovery of compound proportion, and the introduction of of the various members of the State. The Nicomzaclhan Etzics, decimal fractions in the I6th c., constitute a great epoch in the named after his son Nicomachus, and by some scholars attributed history of A. The last great step was the invention of logato him, is the earliest treatise devoted to the special discussion of rithms in the 17th c. morals, and much of its penetrating thought has been embodied in later ethical systems. The Politics, a work based on a collec- Arithmet'ical o ean is that number which lies midway tion of 158 constitutions made by A. himself, is designed to between two others, and is equal to half theirsum. show how the happiness of the State may be secured, and con- Arithmetical Progression is a series of numbers which tains a searching investigation into the principles of the various increase or diminish by a common difference. The sum of such constitutions, the opinion of the philosopher himself tending a series is found by multiplying the sum of the first and last towards monarchy. This catalogue of A.'s principal works may terms by half the number of terms; and the last term is the be fitly closed with the Organon, for logic occupies a most pro- algebraic sum of the first term, and (n - I) times the common minent place in the Aristotelian philosophy; and it is not too increment (where i is the number of terms). much to say that he was at once the creator and the completer of the science and art of reasoning. It is impossible to avoid con- rthmetocdl g ar e symbols used for the sae of trasting A. and his master Plato, to whom it is pleasant to note brevity, to denote the various arithmetical operations to be perthat he always shows marked respect, even when opposing his formed on numbers. Thus, + (plus) is the sign of addition; views.'Plato considered the sensible as transitory, changeable, - (mins) of subtraction; x of multiplication; - of division. and therefore untrue: it was but an imitation of that which alone 75 means that 7 is to be raised to the fifth power; V/32 means had true existence, the ideal world. With A., experience of the that the fifth root of 32 is to be extracted. The same signs are sensible is the starting-point; from the actual he ascends to the used in algebra. ideal. He begins with the impressions made upon the senses A'rius, from whom the doctrine called Arianism got its name, from without, and advances step by step through each operation was a native of Libya, and born about the middle of the 3d c. of consciousness, until he arrives at the highest energy of the At the end of the 3d c., the doctrine of the Logos, as a intellect. A. does not, like Plato, consider the sciences as secondary God become man in Jesus Christ, which had first mutually connected parts of one harmonious whole, but parallel appeared in the works of Justin Martyr, and been developed by to, and independent of, one another. A.'s method is plain, Tertullian, Clement, and Origen, was apparently the prevalent simple, and uniform. After clear definition of his subject, and doctrine of the Church. The Son was a God, but subordinate adequate criticism of pre-existing doctrines, he traces the object to the Father. But now there began a divergence of opinion, of his treatise, and develops its parts from its simplest principles some holding to the subordination of the Son; others, to satisfy to its most complicated results.' Though differing widely in style, their feelings of piety, which could not exalt Christ too much, method, and mental constitution, the great master and pupil sought more and more to raise him to an equality with God. divide between them the supremacy of the intellectual world. This last was the current of Christian sentiment at the time, and The influence of A. as a thinker was less predominant in A. became a heretic for struggling against it. The abuse with antiquity than during the middle ages. Although his greatness which he has been loaded by Church historians has been due to was felt and acknowledged, and his works frequently copied the writers projecting the notions of their own time back to that by scribes, and commented on by the Alexandrine critics and when the Arian controversy took its rise. philosophers, it was not till the Arab followers of Mohammed -A., who had become pastor of a parish in. Alexandria about had acquired, by their Persian conquests, a taste for science and the beginning of the 4th c., fearing the above tendency would literature, that his genius began to exercise its almost super- lead either to Sabellianism (which held the three persons of the human authority. The wisdom which Justinian had banished Godhead to be merely three mzodes of the divine essence) or to from the schools of Greece, and which found a -home at the Ditheism, set forth in distinct terms the inferiority of the Son to the court of Khosru Nushirvan, was soon carried by the victorious Father; a point on which all were agreed. It was the doctrine of arms of the Moslem into the most distant regions of the West. the Church according to the Council of Antioch, which condemned What Avicenna did in Bagdad, Ayerrhoes did in Cordova. at the same time Paul of Samosata and Sabellius. But if, said ARI THE- GLOBE ENVCYCL OPMDIA. ARK A., the Son is subordinate to the Father, he is not absolute unchangeable orthodoxy of Christendom. But the conversion God; in other words, he is not equal to the Father. Not being of the Goths and other Teutonic nations by Arian missionaries equal, he is not of the same substance. If he were, that sub- imperilled for more than two centuries the fortunes of the Trini. stance being perfect, he would himself be perfect, and there tarian creed, which, however, finally triumphed by the zeal of would be two Gods equal in everything. Besides the uncreated successive bishops of Rome, and Arianism died out before the One there can only be created beings, i.e., beings created in time close of the 7th c. A few great men in modern times have by God out of nothing. The Son, therefore, is not eternal, but maintained it, such as Milton, but it has never succeeded in merely the first and most excellent of the creatures; there was a evoking again the enthusiasm of a race or a nation. time when he, was not. In a word, the Son is neither consubstantial nor coexistent with the Father. These two negatives Ar'kansas, one of the United States of America, bounded were the leading points in what came to be known as Arianism. N. by Missouri, E. by the Mississippi river, S. by Louisiana The Bishop of Alexandria, whom A. had previously accused of and Texas, and W. by Texas and Indian Territory. Lat. 330 Sabellianism, called a synod in 321, at which A. was deposed to 36' 30 N.; long. 89~ 45' to 940 40' W. Length, 242 miles; and excommunicated. He found sympathy and support, how- breadth, I70 to 229 miles area, 52,I98 sq. miles. ever, among the bishops of the East, who tried in vain to settle In the E. portion the surface is low and marshy, and the the dispute. On the contrary, it grew more bitter, and spread climate unhealthy. In the centre and W. it is hilly and more over the whole empire, to the great annoyance of the Emperor salubrious. It is well watered by the A., the Washita, the Constantine. After trying in vain to impose silence onthetwo Wite River, the Red River, the St Francis, &c. The soil parties, the emperor convened a council at Niccea, in Bithynia, varies greatly; the chief products are cotton, Indian corn, wheat, for the purpose of restoring peace. Three parties were repre-ad, m anganese, gypsum, and salt sented at this famous council (325)-the Arians, whose doctrineare among the minerals. Wild animals are still numerousis stated above; the opponents of A., whose views were defended buffaloes, elks, stags, beavers, otters, bears, and wolves. The before the council by Athanasius, an archdeacon of Alexandria, manufactures are unimportant. Pop. (1870) 484,471; i.e., with who thereafter became the champion of the absolute deity of an area equal to England, it has a population less than ManChrist; and a third party, including the majority of the members, chester. Capital, Little Rock. A. was settled by the French who did not agree with either, thinking that A. stated the truth in I685 (their first settlement being A.-Port, now a village just too roughly, and charging Athanasius with innovation. The op- the mouth of the river A.), and came into the possesponents of A. got the ear of Constantine, and in the end all but sion of the United States by purchase in I803, as part of three yielded to the imperial pressure, and decreed the perfect Louisiana. It was organised as a separate territory in I819 equality of the Son with the Father. A. and two others werede- and was made a state in i836. In the war of I86I-65 it posed and banished. But the opinions of A. were not crushed. sided with the Southern States. Having friends at court, he was recalled from exile (328), and had Arkansas River, a large river of the United States. It an interview with the emperor (330), who merely required from rises in the Rocky Mountains, on the borders of Utah, and joins him a confession couched in general terms. Satisfied with that, the Mississippi in lat. 33~ 55' N., and long. 9I~ Io' W., after a he desired that A. should be reinstated at Alexandria; but Athan- course of 2170 miles, receiving in the Indian territories the asius, who was now bishop there, refused to receive him, and a waters of the Canadian and Potean from the right, and of the series of tumults ensued. Eusebius, Bishop of Nicomedia, called Verdigris and Illinois from the left. During the periodical swell, a synod at Tyre, and deposed Athanasius, who in his turn was it is navigable to the Rocky Mountains, and at other times for banished by the emperor. A. was about to make a triumphal 6oo miles from its mouth. After the Missouri, it is the largest entry into the Church of Constantinople, when he died suddenly affluent of the Mississippi. of a bloody flux, which was viewed by his opponents as a divine judgment, by his friends as the result of foul play. dAr'klow, a seaport in the S.E. of Wicklow County, Ireland, At the death of A., the West only was faithful to the Creed of at the mouth of the Avoca, with extensive herring and oyster Nicaea; the friends of A. holding, however, intermediate opin- fisheries. The river is spanned by a bridge of nineteen arches. ions, and hence called Semi-Arians, were strong in the East, and Sandbanks greatly obstruct the harbour. Near A. is Shelton rallied round Eusebius, now Bishop of Constantinople. When Abbey, the seat of the Earl of Wicklow. Pop. 3500. The the two sons of Constantine succeeded their father on his death name A. is conjectured to be Danish, but its etymology is unin 337, each, Constantius in the East, and Constans in the West, certain. happened to profess exactly the same belief as the majority of the Ark of the Covenant, a description of which is given Christian subjects of his own division of the empire. An attempt in the 25th and 37th chapters of Exodus, was an oblong was made, at a council held at Antioch (341), to gain over the wooden chest, about 4 feet 4 inches long, by 2 feet 8 inches Eusebian party by giving up the word hokzoozusia; but it led to wide, and 2 feet 8 inches high, and plated with gold outside and nothing but new disputes and schisms. In 347 the two emperors, inside, which was placed in the innermost apartment of the in the hope of restoring peace, convened a council at Sardica, Jewish tabernacle and temple. The lid was of solid gold, and but the bishops of the West alone attended. Those of the East met called the mercy-seat. Upon it, facing each other at the ends, at Philippopolis; and both kept their own opinions. Constantius, were the figures of two cherubs. Within the A., according to when sole emperor after 353, sought to introduce into the West Deut. x. 2, were the two tables of the law. According to the the Semi-Arianism which alreadyprevailed in the East, andAthan- Epistle to the Hebrews (ix. 4), besides the tables, there were in asius was condemned at the Council of Aries (353), and of Milan it the golden pot with manna (Exod. xvi. 34), and Aaron's rod (355). At the Council (2d) of Sirmium (357) a formula was (Num. xvii. Io). If so, they had been removed by the time of drawn up in general terms intended to satisfy all, with the usual Solomon, for it is distinctly stated (I Kings viii. 9), that there result of satisfying none;. and at the Council of Ancyra (358) was nothing in it when placed in his temple but the two tables. Semi-Arianism maintained its ho~moiousia, its distinctive term, as The real significance of the A. seems to depend on the answer,hozoousia was that of the Athanasian party; so that, as was to the question, Was the mercy-seat merely a cover for the A., said, the peace of the Church at the time depended on an i. or was it occupied by any object? Some of the reasons for supThen a new expression was tried. It was agreed, at a council of posing that it was not unoccupied, as is generally assumed, may the West at Rimini, and of the East at Seleucia (359), to describe be briefly stated: I. Among the Egyptians, Phoenicians, and the Son as'like (homoios) the Father in all things.' But neither other ancient nations, an A. or chest was kept in the innermost had this any good effect. On the accession of Julian, two years sanctuary of their temples, which, as seen on the Egyptian sculpafter, all edicts of banishment for religion were revoked, by tures, bears the most exact resemblance to that described in the which the Athanasian party were the chief gainers. Under Old Testament, except that between the cherubs there is the Valens (364-378), who sought very unsuccessfully to restore truncated cone or symbol of the generative principle in nature. Arianism by some concessions on the part of the Athanasian 2. That the mercy-seat was to be something more than a mere party, the Semi-Arians were reconciled to them, and the majority lid to the A. is evident from the fact that it was not made of of the Church was won over to the Nicene doctrine. When wood plated with gold, like the A. itself, but of solid gold. 3. The Theodosius, an Athanasian, succeeded to the throne, he found office of Cherubs (q. v.) was that of guardians; and what would his own party morally ruling the situation, and his measures have been the meaning of their stooping over the mercy-seat, soon succeeded in making the Nicene creed the definite and with wings spread out like a screen, had there been nothing be-:66 _____ _ __ ARK THE GI OBE ENCYCZ OPMEDI~A. AR tween them; and that there was something seems to be the plain Ar'lon, the capital of Luxemburg, Belgium, on the Brussels meaning of Exod. xxv. 22,' There I will meet with thee, and I Railway, with a trade in iron and corn, and manufactures of will commune with thee from above the mercy-seat, from between linen and woollen stuffs, leather, tobacco, &c. It suffered ihe two cherubimn which are upon the A. of the testimony.' 4. greatly in the wars of Louis XIV., and was pillaged by the Of the four names applied to the A. -A. of Jehovah, A. of the French in I793. Pop. about 5760. In the Izinerary of AntoCovenant (of Jehovah), A. of the Testimony, the A.-the first nine it is mentioned as Orolaunum vicus, and from the number is used in all the oldest narratives, and it is sometimes distinctly of coins, inscriptions, &c., found here, must have been of some spoken of as the abode of Jehovah; see Num. x. 35, 36; 2 Sam. importance in the times of the Romans. xv. 25 (it= Him), &c. 5. The Eduth, always translated'Testimony,' does not always refer, as is supposed, to the tables of the Arm. This is the name given to a part of the anterior exlaw (see Exod. xvi. 34; xxv. I6, 21, &c.), although it is true tremity in man. The anterior extremity may be anatomically that in Deuteronomy this Testimony, whatever it was, is trans- divided into (I) the shoulder, (2) the arm, (3) the wrist, and formed into the tables. 6. And what did the prophet Amos (4) the hand. The arm is subdivided by anatomists into the mean when he said (v. 26), they had'borne for forty years in arm and forearm. the wilderness' (which could not refer to any temporary outbreak i. Bones. -There is one bone in the arm called the humerus, and of idolatry)'the tabernacle of their king, the pedestal of their two in the forearm, the radius and ulna. The humerus articuimage, the star of their god, which they had made for them- lates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula or shoulder-blade selves'? From which hints, all taken together, there seem above, forming the shoulder-joint. At the other extremity it some grounds for believing that the Jewish A., as it exactly re- forms the elbow-joint with the upper articular surface of the sembled those used by other nations in every other respect, so ulna. The radius articulates above with the ulna, and below it also in this, that on the mercy-seat there was at one time, if supports the semi-lunar and scaphoid bones of the carpus or not always, some representation of Jehovah, which was some- wrist. times put in the A. 2. Mzlscies.-In front of the humerus there are three muscles, the cor-aco brachictis, the biceps, and the br-achiacis antlicus. The Arko'na, a promontory in the N.E. of the island of Riigen, biceps raises the rm at the ps, and the br- c s s. The in the Baltic, is mentioned as far back as the time of Saxo Gram- biceps raises the alm at the sholdermaticus (q. v.). It was noted for a temple of the Wendish god Swantewit, which stood within a sacred enclosure, and which bow, and also assists in supination, that is, turning the forearm so as to was captured and destroyed in II68 by Waldemar, King of direct, turning the forearm so as to Denmark. A lighthouse was erected on its site in 1827, which direct the palm upwards. The brais visible at a distance of more than 30 miles. chialis anticus flexes the elbow; the coraco brachialis draws the arm in- b Ark'wright, Sir Richard, a celebrated inventor, was wards. On the back of the arm there born at Preston, December 23, I732. Being the thirteenth is a very powerful muscle, called the j child of very poor parents, he had few opportunities of triceps, which extends the elbow- d mental or literary culture. He first followed the trade of a joint. In the forearm the muscles i' barber, which he gave up in 1760 to become a dealer in are divided into great groups: in hair. About I767 he made the acquaintance of a watchmaker front there are flexors'bf the wrist of the name of Kay, in Warrington, and with his help (for he and fingers, and pronators which so had no knowledge of mechanics) projected a cotton-spinning rotate the radius as to direct the machine. Henceforth his whole attention was directed to the palmdownwards; while behind there subject of inventions for spinning cotton. His first machine-the are antagonistic groups of extensors spinning-frame-was set up at Preston in I768, but excited such and supinators. furious indignation on the part of the operatives that he removed 3. Arteries.-The arm is chiefly to Nottingham, and there erected in the following year a mill supplied by the brachial artery, which j worked by horse-power to carry out his invention, which he had is a continuation of a large vessel in patented. A. had no means of his own, but he had fortunately the armpit, termed the axillary. Dur. entered into partnership with one who had, Mr Jedediall ing its course down the arm, the braStrutt, the improver and patentee of Lee's stocking-frame; and chial gives off several branches, and several improvements suggested by the latter were adopted finally terminates below the bend of Right Forearm: Superficial by A. In I771 the partners built a second spinning-mill, worked the elbow by dividing into the radial Flexor Muscles. by water-power, at Cromford, in Derbyshire. Owing to the and ulnar arteries. The radial is a a, biceps flexor cubiti. strenuous opposition of other manufacturers, it was not till five continuation of the brachial, and ex- b, pronator radii teres. years had elapsed from the establishment of this mill that any tends along the front of the forearm c, flexor carpi radialis. profits were realised; but after that time wealth continued to as far as the lower end of the radius, ng flexor digitorum sublimis. flow in abundantly. In 1783 the partnership was dissolved, A. where it passes into the palm. It is f, flexor carpi ulnaris. retaining the works at Cromford, while Strutt continued those the vessel which is usually employed g, palmaris brevis. at Belper, which had been founded about I776. In 1786, A., as in observations on the pulse. The ulnar extends along the High-Sheriff of the county of Derby, was knighted on present- inner side of the forearm into the palm of the hand. Both of ing an address to George III. after the attempt on the king's these arteries give off numerous branches during their course, life by Margaret Nicholson. He died at Cromford, under a which supply the muscles and other structures of the forearm. complication of disorders, on 3d August 1792. His only soi, 4. Veins.-The blood is returned from the hand, wrist, foreRichard (born I755, died I843), carried on the business with the arm, and arm by two sets of veins, the superficial and the deep. same sagacity and business talents which had characterised his The former are the larger, and collect so as to form three, the father, and was said to have been the richest commoner in Eng- radial on the radial side of the forearm, the ulnar on the ulnar land. side, whilst between the two there is a larger one termed the Arles (anc. Arelate), a town in the department Bouches median. This middle vein, at the bend of the elbow, divides into du Rhone, France, on the Rhone, 26 miles from its mouths. two. On the other side there is the median cephalic, which, unitIt is very old, having been the seat of a Roman prefect, and the ing with the radial, forms the cephalic vein; on the inner side the residence of the Emperor Maximian. The Gothic king Eurich median basilic,which, uniting with the ulnar, forms the basilic. The made it his residence; and in 879 it was the capital of the Bur- latter (median basilic) is the vein usually opened in blood-letting. gundian kingdom of Arelate. A. contains many Roman re- The cephalic vein terminates in the axillary vein in the armpit, mains, among them those of an amphitheatre built to hold about and the basilic unites with one of the companion veins of the 30,000 persons, of a theatre, of a palace of Constantine the brachial artery, or with the axillary vein. The deeper veins of Great, of temples, triumphal arches, &c. In the 3d and 4th the arm are companion veins to the various arteries. centuries several ecclesiastical synods were held here. A. now 5. lNerves.-The nerves of the arm arc derived from a great has considerable manufactures of silk, tobacco, brandy, and plexus in the lower part of the neck, termed the brachial plexus. hats, and possesses a good haven, a naval school, a college, and See BRACHIAL PLEXUS. They are divided into cutaneous public library. Pop. (I872) I5,I20o. and muscular. The former confer sensibility on the parts to 167 *_ ARM THIE GLOBE ENCYC'LOPt-EDIA. ARM which they are supplied, while the latter supply the muscles and America. The jaws possess simple molar teeth, which may excite their power of contractility. They are- number nearly one hundred, as in the great A. In one form in(a.) Internal cutaneous. This nerve supplies the skin of the cisors are present; anterior and posterior surface of the forearm. and in some of the (b.) Small internal cutaneous. This nerve supplies the skin of armadillos, alone of iM the lower half of the arm on its posterior and internal aspects. all Edentates, a (c.) MuscZlo-cutanleous. It supplies the muscles ill front of second set of teeth the arm, and the skin on the outer side of the forearm. is developed. The (d.) Ulnar nzervze. This nerve supplies certain muscles on the limbs are short, the anterior aspect of the forearm, the elbow and wrist joints, the skin toes being provided on the lower part of the forearm, and the hand on its palmar with strong claws 1 and dorsal surfaces. adapted for burrow- f (e.) lledian nerve. It supplies pronator and flexor muscles, ing. Well-deve- s and gives cutaneous branches to the thumb, index, middle, and loped collar - bones one side of the ring fingers-the remainder being supplied by the exist. The skin is. ulnar. covered in these (f.) Aiusculo-spiral. This nerve supplies the extensormuscles forms by a coat or both of the arm and forearm, and to the posterior and outer armour- casing of aspect of the lower part of the upper arm, forearm, and hand. bony scutes or Armadillo. 6. Lymphatics.- These originate in the hand, receive numerous plates, disposed in branches from all parts of the forearm, pass into small lymphatic various ways, and so arranged as to permit of flexibility and glands placed near the bend of the elbow, receive other branches movement. The tail is in many cases also invested with bony firom the arm, and finally terminate principally in a group of plates, and the animals, in some instances, possess the power of glands in the armpit known as the axillary glands. The glands rolling themselves up into a ball-like form for protection, after,at the bend of the elbow and in the axilla are often swollen and the fashion of the hedgehog. Various genera and species painful during inflammation or suppuration in the hand or exist. The Dasyjpuspeba; the poyou (D. sexcinlctus); the tatofingers. uay (D. atatouay); the D. gig-as, or great A., are familiar species. All of the foregoing structures are bound together by connective Chlamyphiorts trunzcatus is a diminutive species, averaging only tissue and aponeurosis, whilst underneath the skin there is usually 6 inches in length. The food consists chiefly of insects. The a layer of fat. tongue is s'mooth, and the saliva glutinous. The flesh is Arma'da (the Spanish form of the Lat. armata, armed) eaten by the natives. Glyptodon (q. v.) is an extinct gigantic form allied to the armadillos. means, among the Spaniards, any armed naval expedition, but is used in English to denote the great fleet launched against Armagh', the capital of a county of the same name, on England by Philip II. of Spain, called by him the'Invincible,' a rising ground near the Callan, 62 miles N. of Dublin. The but always spoken of by us as the'Spanish' A. It consisted of name A., originally Ard fMacha (Lat. Altitludo Mazcha),' Macha's I30 vessels, mostly of very large size, bearing I9,295 soldiers, Height,' preserves the memory of one of those semi-mythical per8000o mariners, 2000 oarsmen, and 2000 volunteers of the most sonages to whom the oldest Irish traditions seem to cling for distinguished families of Spain. The English force held in pre- support.'M acha of the golden hair' is said to have founded paration to meet the A. amounted to only 30 vessels, but, before the place, and to have been buried here in the 3d c. i. c. After the actual collision of the fleets, was augmented, by volunteers the conversion of the island to Christianity, it became the metroand otherwise, to I8I, mostly small vessels, carrying I7,472 men. polis of Ireland from the year 495 to the 9th c., and its college The Duke de Medina Sidonia and Ricaldo (vice-admiral) comn- was then in the highest renown throughout Latin Christendom. manded the A., while the English fleet was led by Lord Howard Its cathedral, which was lately repaired at a cost of /Io,ooo, of Effingham, supported by Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher. is said to be on the site of that founded in the 5th c. by St The Spanish plan of attack was, after sailing through the Channel, Patrick. A. is the seat of the Archbishop of A., the Primate and taking up the force of the Duke of Parma (amounting to and Metropolitan of the disestablished Irish Protestant Episcopal 30,oo0 foot and 4oo0 horse) on the coast of Flanders, to descend Church, and returns one member to Parliament. The chief with the combined forces upon England. The A. left Lisbon industry is linen-weaving. Pop. (I87I), including the suburb 29th May 1588, was delayed several weeks at Ferrol, to refit of Drumadd, o, 138, of whom 5243 are Roman Catholics. after a storm, and only on the last day of July was seen by Lord Howard bearing up the Channel in the form of an immense Armagh, a county in Ulster, Ireland, 32 miles long and 20 crescent, seven miles from horn to horn. Unable to deliver broad; area, 5I28 sq. miles. It is low and marshy in the N., general battle, Lord Howard hung upon the rear of the A., and adjoining Lough Neagh; but is hilly in the S., where it cut off or seriously damaged a number of the ships. Tracking borders on Louth, the chief heights being Slieve Gullion, the enemy to Calais Roads, he sent a number of fire-ships, with 1893 feet high; the Newry Mountains, I385; the A.-Breaghy a favourable breeze, into their midst, thus creating consternation IHills ('Wolf Hills'), i200; and Mullyash, 1034. The chief and confusion, of which he promptly took advantage by attack- rivers which flow through A. are the Upper Bann and the ing the Spaniards, and capturing or sinking ten of their largest Blackwater, with its branch the Callan._ The north and centre vessels. The A., already practically defeated, now bore away of A. are fertile, and very populous; in I872, 172,554 acres northwards, to round the N. of Scotland, and so return to Spain. were under crops. The chief towns are A., Lurgan, Portadown, No naval retreat was ever so disastrous. A terrible tempest and Newry. The county returns two menbers to Parliament. smote and scattered them when they reached the northern seas. Pop. (I87I) I7I,260, of whom 85,057 were Roman Catholics. Only'fifty reached Corunna, bearing o, ooo men, stricken with in Fance ste pestilence and death; of the rest some were sunk, some dashed ing from the Pyrenees to the Garonne, now included in the to pieces against the Irish cliffs. The wreckers of the Orkneys Hautes Pyro eees and Gers. The land, producing corn and wine and the Faroes, the clansmen of the Scottish Isles, the kernes f D and Galwayr, asll hade c their part inhI the x Uworkn s of Iabundantly, is held in small estates by numerous peasant pro. of Donegal and Galway, all had their part in the work of murder and robbery. Eight thousand Spaniards perished be- prietors, distinguished equally by their simple morality and their tween the Giant's Causeway and the Blaskets. On a strand near ignorance. Capital, Lectoure Pop. 2820. Principal product, Sligo an English captain numbered IiOO corpses which had eao d'Armagnac, a much-esteened brandy, reckoned not inI been cast up by the sea' (Green's S/ort Hisory of the gish ferior to cognac. In the middle ages A. gave name to a race been cast up by the results of the failuret History of the A. were that of counts who drew their descent from Clovis, and who played, 2it destroyed the power eof Philip on the tSpanish main, tant an important part in French history. Bernard VII., Comte d'A., threw open the commerce of Philip on the Indies panhitherto jealousyin, and a bold and powerful soldier, took the side of the Orleanists threw open the commerce of the Indies —hitherto jealously guarded-to Britain and to all the world (thence named Armagnacs) against the Burgundians in the guarded-to Britain and to all the*world. civil broils that disgraced France in the early part of the I5th c., Armadillo, a genus of Edentate mammals, forming the type and rendered the triumph of the English arms comparatively of the family Dasypodidc, and confined in their distribution to S. easy. i 68 _ __ __ __ -0 ARM THE GLOBE ENCYCIOPEDIA. ARM I Ar'mament is the term used to express the complete equip- ginning of the 4th c. by Gregory the Illuminator (so called from ment of a ship or army with the weapons of war. his work in converting the country). Having succeeded in conAr'mansperg, Jos. Ludwig, Count of, an able statesman verting the king and his nobles, he was ordained the first Bishop of Armenia by the Bishop of Cappadocia, and then laboured and diplomatist, was born at Kbtzting, in Lower Bavaria, 28th toArmenia by the istian religion trougout the country. In the to diffuse the Christian religion throughout the country. In the February I787. He entered public life in I8o8, and held a great beginning of the 5th c. a translation of the Old Testament was variety of offices, administrative and diplomatic. Ludwig I. of maie by the Patr5th Isaac and aiesrob (see ARMENIAN LITEBavaria, on his accession to the throne, appointed A. his Min- RATUE) by the PatLXX.,iarc Isaac and Miesrob (see ARMENIAN LI666, when oFnn anF n but his liberal o RATURE) from the LXX., which was used in MS. till I666, when ister of Finance and Foreign Affairs; oons an edition of the New Testament was printed at Amsterdam by drew upon him the hatred of the Camarilla and the Jesuits, and on of their bish Ps. forced him to resign his post in 1831. In 1833 he undertook to oue of their bishops. form the government of Greece under Ludwig's son, the young About 460 A.D. the Monophysite doctrine (q. v.) regarding the gform Othe governmentd of Greece under Ludwig's son, the young person of Christ was disseminated in Armenia, and the A. C. has King Otho, and for four years laboured with good results for held it ever since, though differing from the other Monophysites the new kingdom. Intrigue here also proved too much for him, of the East as to many opinions and practices. Except in this and in 1837 he was dismissed from office. A. died at Deggen- point, it does not differ very materially in doctrine from the doff, 3d April i853. Roman Catholic Church; the hierarchy differs little from that Armato'les, a name given by the Turks to a Greek militia of the Greek. The Primate of the home Church is the Cat/ioli/os force organised by Sultan Selim I., and intended to guard or Patriarch of Etchmiadzin. Most of the numerous Armenians Northern Greece against tle inroads of the.lieKtkts, or patriotic in foreign countries belong to a sect called the United Armenians, brigands of Thessaly. On the outbreak of the Greek war of acknowledging the supremacy of the Pope, and holding the independence in I820, the A. threw off the Turkish yoke, and Roman Catholic doctrines. were distinguished by their bravery in the contest that followed. Armenian Literature. The Armenian alphabet was ilAr'mature (Lat. armtatura, armour) is a term applied to a vented (according to tradition, however, received from heaven) by piece of soft iron which joins the poles of a magnet, the object Miesrob, a learned Armenian, at tile beginning of the 5th c. being to preserve their magnetic power. This A. is itself a Having communicated it to the Patriarch of the Church, they magnet as long as it is in contact with the true magnet- and made together a translation of the Old Testament from the Syriac. thus the latter is kept in a state of constant magnetic activity, Two pupils were sent to the Council of Ephesus (43I) to request which prevents any disturbing influence from lessening its power. a copy of the LXX.; but Miesrob and the patriarch were unable, from ignorance of Greek, to make any use of it when they got it, Armed Ship officially denotes a private vessel hired and till other pupils were sent to Alexandria to study Greek. On the commissioned by the Admiralty for some special purpose, such return of these young men, however, the work was soon accomas protecting part of the coast, or attending a fleet in time of plished. Fragments of translations of several Greek authors war. made about the same time are still in existence: the Chronicle of Eusebius; the Discourses of Philo; Homilies by St ChrysosArme'nia, in ancient times a powerful, independent kingdom tom, Severianus, Basil the Great, and Ephrmem Syrus. One of of Western Asia, now partitioned unequally between Russia the pupils sent by the Patriarch Isaac to learn Greek at Alex(Russian A., or government of Erivan), Persia (province of andria was Moses Chorenensis, who wrote a history of Armenia. Azerbijan), and Turkey (vilayet of Erzerum). The region From this time till the I4th c. there were numerous theological, of A. extends between the Black and Caspian Seas, and between historical, and geographical writers; among others David, who the Caucasus on the N. and the plains of the Euphrates on the translated the works of Aristotle, Esnik, and Joannes Ozlliensis. S. Its boundaries have differed at different periods in its his- But the old Armenian language is no longer spoken; and the tory, and it is now only a geographical name without political new Armenian, or spoken language, which exists in four dialects, significance, although the inhabitants have succeeded in preserv- is much corrupted with Turkish. See Neuman's Versuch eizner ing their language, literature, and national characteristics. The GescziicIteder AJr4men. Literatur (Leipz. I836); Patkanian's Ca/aregion embraces the sources of the Euphrates, Tigris, and Aras. Zogue de Littule Alrmaieze i the Mkauges Asiatiqtes The country consists of plateaux of from 5000 to 7000 feet, (St Petersb. I86o). dominated by mountains, of which the highest is Ararat (q. v.), and furrowed by deep valleys. On its high plains the finest corn Armentieres, a town in France, department of Nord, on crops are grown in abundance, its rich pastures support good the Lys, 9 miles N. W. of Lille, clean, well built, and prosperous, breeds of horses and cattle, while in its valleys the grape and with manufactures of linen, lace, hosiery, and beetroot sugar, many other fruits are indigenous. Its climate in the upland and a brisk trade in grain, bricks, wine, brandy, and tobacco. districts is subject to extremes, being rigorous in winter, and Pop. (I872) I7,831. very hot in summer. A., according to one of the most widelydiffused traditions of mankind, is the cradle of the human race. Arme'ria, a genus of plants belonging to the order PluemThe Armenians, who belong to the Aryan family, were one of baginace. See THRIFT. the earliest civilised peoples in the world. When first heard of they were governed by independent kings, afterwards they be- a st April u757. H aving rendered important services to came tributary to Assyrians and Medes, but recovered (6th c. land, ac.) independence under Ticgranes I., whose dynasty was, how- C;Gustavus III. of Sweden in his disputes with his nobles, he was ever, swept away by Alexander the Great. The country was rewarded by that monarch with an important military post. In afterwards ruled by the Seleucidae (q. v.) and their governors, the war which followed (788-90o) with Russia, he showed in whose time the division into Greater and Lesser A. took place; genius and energy, which were crowned with good fortune. lie and subsequently by the Parthians and Romans. Early in the defeated the Russians at Summa; and, as the representative of 5th c. the Persians made A. a province of the empire of the his king, lie made peace with them at Verela, I4tl August I790. Sassanides (q. v.), and in the 7th c. it passed under the Gustavs was assassinated in March 1792. I-e was succeeded dominion of the Arabian califs. In I472 Greater A. became a by his son, a minor, Gustavus IV., under the regency of the late Persian province. A. Minor, the part of this region to the W. king's brother, the Duke of Sudermania. Becoming conscious of the Euphrates, was conquered in I374 by the Egyptian sultan that his court influence was fast waning under the new govelnShaban, and since that time it has remained subject partly to ment, A. got himself made ambassador to Naples in July the Persians and partly to the Turks, though recently, as noted I792. Here he entered into treasonable correspondence with above, part of the country S. of the Caucasus has become a certain factions in Sweden, with the view of overthrowing the R~ussian government, regency. The plot being discovered, A. fled to Russia. I-Ie was tried in Sweden for high treason, found guilty, and deprived of Armenian Church. Christianity seems to have been intro- his titles and possessions. These were, however, restored to him duced into Armenia during the first half of the 3d c., for Euse- by Gustavus IV., when he received the crown in I799. He was bius records that Dionysius of Alexandria, about 260,'wrote recalled, and appointed to military command in Finland in a concerning penance to the brethren of Armenia, over whom Meru- war against Norway. Fortune this time went against him, and zanes was bishop.' But the A. C. was first organised in the be- he was in consequence recalled. In the subsequent revolution 22 69 ARM THE GL OBE ENCYCZOP.DA. ARM l which again placed the Duke of Sudermania in power, A. was Armies, oedicsval. The division of the territory of the treated with consideration; but getting. compromised in the western portion of the Roman empire among the races by whom poisoning of the Prince of Augustenburg, he was obliged again it was conquered, gave rise to what is called the Feudal System to retire to Russia. He was there received with great honour, (q. v.), of which the shadow even yet remains. A standing being created a count, and made a member of the senate. He army at the service of the king, and owing allegiance solely to died at Zarskoje-Selo, I9th August I814. His autobiography him, was a thing unknown. Each baron was entitled to keep can be found in the Handlingar rdrande Sveriges Historia an armed force of his own. With this he was, no doubt, in (Stockh. 1830). terms of his allegiance, obliged to assist his sovereign when called on to do so; but, nevertheless, the substantial power so retained Armi'da, a beautiful enchantress, who may almost be con- in the hands of the greater nobles was an effectual check on the sidered the heroine of Tasso's Gerusalemmze Liberata, and whose crown. The chief A. of the I4th and Ihth centuries name has passed into literature as an exquisite type of the seductive were those of France and England, those of the Mloors land the siren. Rinaldo, the model crusader, for a time forgets his reli- Spaniards, and of the Italian republics. Of strategy and tactics gious vows in her voluptuous bowers, but is at length delivered there was comparatively little, and valour and enthusiasm were by the efficacy of a powerful talisman, and finally persuades the of more effect on the battle-field than in ancient or more modern lovely emissary of Satan to embrace the Christian faith. times. Knights-' steel-clad warriors'-singled out some'foeAr'mies. According to the international law of civilised man worthy of their steel,' and the battle would pause to see the nations, during war the hostile countries accord to each other, end of the duel; sometimes, indeed, its issue was allowed to and to the army of each other, what are called belligerent rights. determine the issue of the battle itself. The invention of gun. Thus it would be held a violation of these rights to shoot powder gradually changed all this, and effected a total revolution prisoners, or to refuse quarter to an army after it had hoisted the in the military art. This change, however, was very gradual, flag indicating surrender. But questions sometimes arise as to and can hardly be said to have taken place until after the what constitutes an army, and gives an armed force a title to'middle ages.' these rights. Mere armed bands of peasantry, for example, molesting an army of occupation, are not held entitled to the Armies, iodern. Towards the close of the m5th c. we belligerent rights of an army, and prisoners are'accordingly begin to trace some endeavour to embody a system of strategy liable to be shot, A certain amount of organisation and dis- and tactics for cavalry, as also to train the infantry to the use of cipline, with recognition by the proper authorities of the country, firearms. In France, Charles VII. and Charles VIII., after are required to constitute an army. repeated efforts, succeeded, in spite of feudal opposition, in establishing a well-disciplined standing army, trained to the use Armies, Ancient. The immense change in the implements of firearms. The strategy and tactics of the A. engaged in the of war which has taken place since ancient times, has caused a great wars of Western Europe from this time began to grow into corresponding change in the strategy and tactics of modern a science, and to supersede valour as determining the issue of A., as compared with those of antiquity; nevertheless, there battles and of wars. The science may be said to have culminated are certain rules for individual training, and for the effective under Frederick the Great of Prussia, whose skill in manceuvrorganisation of military force, which have held good in all time, ing troops was beyond that of any general of his age. But the and, having their foundation in human nature, must always skill of Frederick was that of immense experience, not the incontinue to do so. Thus, the value of discipline was as great tuition of consummate natural military genius; and when this and as well known to ancient as to modern generals. If we look did appear upon the stage in the person of Napoleon Bonaparte, to the ancient Egyptians-whose great conqueror, Sesostris, lived the inadequacy of established routine quickly appeared. Selectsixteen centuries B.c.-we find that the youth of the country ing the weak point of his foe, the young general threw an overintended for war were from their earliest days so trained as to whelming force upon it with a celerity until his own time undevelop to the full their physical strength and their skill as dreamt of. Thus Napoleon gained his early victories in Italy; soldiers, as subordinates and as commanders. The youth of thus he destroyed the Austrian army in 1805, the Prussians in Persia, also, in the great days of that empire, were trained and 8o06, in both cases before the advent of the Russians, whom hardened to military life. Perhaps, above all, the Lacede- again, in conjunction with the remnant of their allies, he crushed monians were inured to self-denial, frugality, endurance, and all at Austerlitz, Eylau, and Friedland. the virtues which are essential to make the successful soldier. The recent improvements in breech-loading rifles'andlcannon To this training were probably mainly owing the victories of have revolutionised the tactics of armies, and altered'the relative Marathon and Platsea. Yet, to their great contest with the importance of the different branches of military service. The mighty empire of Persia these ancient Greeks brought a know- great lesson of the late Franco-Prussian war was that the combinaledge of military organisation and tactics such as was probably tion of such vast numbers in the field of action, and the movement at that time confined to themselves. The vast hosts of Persia, of these with the required celerity, depended principally on the drawn from all its conquered and tributary nations, were to a application of engineering science. Prussia began the war of great extent little better than an armed mob, which supposed 1870 with 88 engineer companies, I6 telegraph and 6 railway that it could strike its foes with panic by force of its immensity, detachments, beside several other bodies of' technical troops.' its elephants, its war-chariots, and other showy appliances. But Most European armies are now organised on a system similar to every Greek was a trained soldier, and'the pomp and circum. that of Germany. stance' vanished into air before the serried ranks of the Lacedoe- We now give a few details regarding the present military monian Phalanx (q. v.). organisation and A. of the principal powers of the world:Again, in ancient Rome, every Roman was a trained soldier. Germanzy.-Under the constitution of 1871, every male subNor does any such doctrine seem to have been mooted in ancient ject of the German empire, capable of bearing arms, must serve times as that this physical training of its youth was so much loss in the army. After completing his twentieth year, he must be to the State, by reason of its being so much time abstracted from in active service for three years; four years must then be passed productive labour. Their doctrine, probably, rather was that a in the reserves. Five years more must then be passed in the reasonable portion of human life given to the cultivation of its Landweer. During peace, the German army, organised by the, vital force was considerations of war apart- a wise and law of May 2, I874, consists of (I874) 40I,659 men, with 19,752 economical measure, likely even to be remunerative in agricul. officers. In time of war this force is raised to 1,278,6I9 men, ture and in commerce. The hardy Roman legion (see LEGION) with 31, 546 officers. In the last war with France, the Germans was formed of young men who, from the age of seventeen, had had at one time in the field I,3oo0ooo, and more than quarter been subjected to military discipline and drill-taught to camp, of a million of horses. and march, and work out of doors. Thus, when he came to France.-By the law of August I8, 1872, all Frenchmen, with face the enemy, the Roman felt himself at home. The Roman a few exceptions specified, are obliged to serve in the army. legion was, among the military forces of ancient times, especially' They must serve five years in the active army, four years in its distinguished for its power of preserving order, and of rallying reserve, five years in the territorial army, and six years in its when obliged to yield. Thus, even in retreating-that important reserve. The active army of France had, in I875, 442,014 men, point of strategy-the fighting power of the legion was very which, during war, can be raised to over I,Ioo,ooo. Including formidable. the territorial army, its reserves, and reserves of the active army, I70 v,~~~~~~~ ARM THE GLOBE ENCYCYLOP/sDIA. ARM the total military force of France will amount, when the new his opponent, that God is graciously disposed to the whole organisation is completed, to 2,423, I64. human race, and that no one is absolutely excluded from eternal _Russia.-The Russian army is recruited -by annual conscrip- salvation. When appointed Professor of Theology in the Univertion, to which all males, without distinction of class, capable of sity of Leyden (I604), he felt it to be his duty to controvert the service are liable who have attained their twentieth year. The Calvinistic doctrines; by which he drew on him the hostility of period of service is six years in the active service, and nine in the Calvinistic, i.e., nearly all the divines in Holland, and iil the reserve; but in the case of those called to military service in particular of his colleague Francis Gomarus. A. died (I609), Asia the period is reduced to a total of ten years, of which seven however, just as the long and bitter controversy was beginning are in active and three in reserve service. The regular Russian to rage. army, during peace, consists of over 23,500 officers, and over At first the controversy was confined to the points of Grace and 750,000 men. During war, there are over 28,ooo officers, and Predestination, and the Arminian doctrine very nearly resembled about I,520,000 men, and 300,000 cavalry. the Lutheran on these subjects (see PERSEVERANCE OF SAINTS Austria.-All subjects of the empire are liable to military and PREDESTINATION), as appears from the five points of a service, the period being three years of active service and seven'Remonstrance' drawn up by the followers of A. (I6Io), and in the reserve. There is a further liability for two years in the presented to a conference of the States at the Hague (I6II). Lanzdwer. The total of the Austrian army during peace is The substance of these articles is as follows: I. That God made (I873) 259,173 men; in war, about 772,729. from all eternity a conditional decree to bestow salvation on Italy.-The army is recruited under the Sardinian law of con- those who, as he foresaw, would persevere in their faith in Christ, scription, and the service is three years active and nine reserve. and to inflict everlasting punishment on those who should con. The total peace force is (I 874) 203,279 men; during war this tinue in their unbelief. 2. That Christ made an atonement suffiis raised to over 823,827; besides which there is a strong pro- cient, and intended for all men, but that the efficacy thereof is vincial nilitia. restricted to those who believe in him. 3. That true faith canSpain.-The Spanish army is stated (I872) at 80,00ooo men, not proceed from the operation of free-will, since man is incapwith I36,ooo0 of reserve. There is, besides, an army of over 60,00ooo able of any good, but that regeneration by the Holy Spirit is in Cuba, with a small force in Porto Rico and in the Philip- necessary for his conversion. 4. That, nevertheless, this divine pines. The military system is modelled on the French, and grace of the Holy Spirit may be resisted and rendered ineffectual though conscript, admits of substitution. by the perverse will of the impenitent sinner. 5. That believers Deznmark.-All subjects of the kingdom over twenty.one are are enabled successfully to resist sin; but that whether or not liable to military service for eight years in the regular army, and they may fall from a state of grace and finally perish is not clearly eight years in the reserve. The total of regular and reserve stated in Scripture. (This doubt was afterwards changed to the during peace is about (1874) 35,975 men, with over Io03I officers. affirmative.) In reply to this Remonstrance the Calvinists preDuring war this is raised to over 52,656. pared a Counter-Remonstrance; hence the one party was called Sweden anzd Norway.-The regular army has (1873) 35,646 the Remonstrants, and the other the Contra-Remonstrants. After men; the reserve 86,IoI; the Gothland militia I50,773. Norway long altercation and violent contests, the States-General ordered has a small army of I2,000, which can be raised to I8,ooo. the controversy to be submitted to a national synod (held at Dort Holland.-The total military force, officers and men, in I6I8-I9), at which were present representatives from England Europe, is (I874) 62,071, exclusive of a militia. There is, be- and Scotland, Hesse, Bremen, the Palatinate, and Switzerland. sides, an army of (1872) 27,659 in the E. Indies. The system of At this synod the Arminians were found guilty of'corrupting recruiting is partly by enlistment and partly by conscription. theology and holding pestilent errors.' In consequence, all were Belgium.-The total force, without officers, is (I874) 103,900. deprived of their sacred and civil offices, and those who would Recruiting is by conscription, but substitution is allowed. The not submit exiled. Under the next stadtholder, however, the service is for eight years. exiles were recalled, and enjoyed toleration. A seminary was Switzerland.-The total federal army has (I874) 84,045, with established at Amsterdam in which their own theology was a reserve of 51, Io2, and a Landwekr of 65,562, making a total taught by Episcopius. available military force of 20I,578. After the Synod of Dort, the opinions of A. were at least more Tzurkey.-An obligatory system was nominally established in clearly expressed, and came very near to a denial'that a man needs I869, holding all Mohammedans liable to a service of twenty any divine aid in order to his conversion and living a holy life.' years, four being active, eight reserve, and eight Landsturmz Their whole system is directed to the one object of uniting (Hiyade). The regular army now (I873) is said to number Christians into one brotherhood, notwithstanding differences of in peace I57,667, and II,540 cavalry, and on a war-footing opinion in doctrine and worship. According to them every one can be raised to 486,Ioo. By 1878 it is assumed that this belongs to the kingdom of Christ who (I) receives the Bible as will be increased to 70o0,000oo. The irregular force — Bashi- the rule of his religion; (2) is opposed to polytheism; (3) leads bazouks, &c.-numbers about 50,ooo. Egypt and other depen- an upright life; and (4) never disturbs those who hold different dencies are bound to furnish contingents to the number in all of opinions from himself. The sect is dwindling in nominal adherabout 6o,ooo. ents, but their opinions are widely prevalent. A.'s writings were United States of Americea.-Before the civil war, the United collected and published at Leyden I629, and at Frankfort i631 States only kept up a force of about 14,000 men; while, by the and I635. See Brandt's Historia Viteo Arminii (Amst. I724). successive levies during the war, over 2,500,000 men had been Ar'mistice is a cessation of hostilities between two armies called out by the Northern States. In I874 the standing army or s of amounted to 32,602 m1en. The militia was at last census (I870)or nations at war, either to allow of a breathing-space when both nominally 3,245,000. are exhausted, or to give an opportunity for arranging a treaty See BRITISH ARMY, EAST INDIA ARMY. of peace. For instance, during the war between the Germans and Danes in 1864, an A. was agreed upon while the London Armil'lary Sphere (Lat. armilla, a ring) consists of a Congress was meeting, when accordingly the Danish and German number of rings which are so put together as to represent the armies remained most strictly at peace. The desire of an A. for principal circles of the heavens. It may be regarded, then, as a a temporary purpose is indicated by the hoisting of a white flag. sphere of which every part has been cut away, except the equator, the ecliptic, the colures, &c. This instrument, how. Armorica, in Coesar's time, denoted the whole country along ever, is never used now for any practical purposes. the coast of Gaul from the Seine to the Loire, but at a later period only Bretagne. The word is a Latinised form of a Celtic Arminius, Jacobus (thle Latinised form of James Har- name, meaning' the region near the sea.' The Celtic mor,'the mensen), was a Dutchman, born at Oudewater (' Old Water') in sea' entering into the composition of many Armorican names, 156o. Educated first at Utrecht and Leyden, he then studied at as Morlaix, Morbihan, is also seen in the Gaelic Moray, and is Geneva under Beza, and at Basle under Gyrnxus, so that he was cognate with the Latin mare and the German Meer. trained in the strictest Calvinism. Nevertheless, being appointed a minister at Amsterdam (1588), he soon after (I591) abandoned Armour, the defensive covering used in war and military the Calvinistic doctrines about predestination and the divine de- exercises, down to the period when the introduction of firearms crees, being led, by a candid study of the writings of Coornhart, rendered such a kind of protection impracticable. Some kind which he had been engaged to refute, to adopt the opinions of of A. was probably of almost as early invention as the weapons v_____ _______ ----- 4' 4 A TEM HGLOBE FNCYC2OAPEDiAo ARM of offence against which it was intended to guard. The shield, sary limit. The extreme limit of naval armour does not yet ap. its the simplest, most obvious, and most useful defensive weapon, pear to be reached, for Mr Barnaby has designed vessels in which was the earliest adopted, and in early times it was made of wood, he proposes the employment of plates 24 inches in thickness. the hide of animals, and plaited osiers, and to these, plates of metal were added, till the entire shield of metal-work gradually Armoury, a storehouse of military weapons, or a museum developed. The remains of shields belonging to the bronze collection of specimens of arms valuable for artistic beauty or period of Central Europe, some of them characteristically orna- historical connection. The most famous collection of armour in mented, are yet numerous. The sculptured figures of ancient the world is at Dresden; but the Tower of London also conAssyrians and Persians represent their warriors clad in complete tains a very valuable collection. suits of A., and in the time of Homer the defensive weapons of the Greeks consisted of helmet, cuirass or corselet, knemzides or Arms, the general name given to weapons of owence. greaves, and shield. The Roman legionaries were protected Amongst the earliest of these were the bow and arrow, the with helmet, breastplate, and greaves, with a large rectangular sling coming perhaps next in point of antiquity. The club, shield or sctmz; * and the cavalry in the time of Trajan wore a sword, javelin, pike, spear, dart, lance, dagger, axe, mace, and bronze cuirass of scales (sqzuaoamt), or a kind of mail-coat (ha- chariot-scythe seem also to have been in use from the earliest times. The cross-bow was introduced at a later date by the mate). In Europe, from the ioth to the 15th c mail-coats wereNormans, and previous to the invention of gunpowder a rude worn, composed either of flat rings fastened on to cloth or mans, and pe of gunpowder a rude leather; of oval rings overlapping each other; of lozenge-shaped artillery consistng of catapults, balste, and battering-rams pieces of metal; or of metallic scales. The art of wire-drawing, were used in warfare. first practised about I306, greatly facilitated the manufacture of Till the of gunpowder in the 13th c., little cllain-mail. Mail-A. gradually gave way to complete suits change had taken place in the implements of war; but that of plate-A., wvhich system of equipment reached great per- invention set men's genius to work to utilise it, and the larger fection about the early part of the i6th c. A knight armed sort of firearms (artillery) were brought into use early in the cap-a-pie during the middle ages wore the helmet or casque; 14th c. Cannon were used by Edward III. in his first neck collar; cuirass, composed of breast and back plates; campaign against the Scots in I427; and twenty years later we shoulder-plates, arm-guards, and palettes to protect the arms; hear of them being used by the French at the battle of Cressy. brayette, and loin-guards, to protect the abdomen; cuishes, knee- Portable firearms, the earliest in date of which was the handplates, and greaves for the legs; solerets for the feet, and gaunt- cannon (a simple tube of iron fixed on a straight stock of wood lets for the hands. A system of protective A. for war-horses furnished with a touch-hole, and fired from a rest by a lighted wvas also used in the middle ages. Some suits of A. manu- piece of tow), were introduced into this country by Henry VI. factured in the I6th c. are masterpieces of artistic skill. One, in I471; but it is generally believed that such A. were in use in by the German armourer Kollman, for a mounted warrior, now Germany nearly half a century previously. The principal varieties byin the Dresden Museul, decorated with subjects lepresenting the of portable firearms which have been in use are the hand-cannon, in the Dresden Museum, decorated with subjects representing the lebt demi-haque, musquet, matchlock, wheellabours of Hercules, cost I4,000 cro-wns. The introduction of arquebus, c haquebut, lemi-hacue, musquet, matchlock, dgeelgunposwder gave the deathblow to defensive A., and from lock, currier, carabine, fusil, musquetoon, blunderbuss, dragon, the end of the I5th c. its use gradually declined, till it alto- hand-mortar, dag, pistol, firelock, rifle, &c., nearly the whole of gether disappeared before the end of the gra y7th. Relics of the which are now obsolete. In connection with portable firearms, system are yet seen in the metallic helmet and cuirass worn by various contrivances for rendering them serviceable as weapons of offence when unloaded have from time to time been used, some cavalry regiments. amongst the earliest being the'sweynes feather' (hog's bristle), Armourer, a name applied to the artificers who in ancient a long blade, the handle of which, being inserted into the muzzle and medi/eval times were employed in the fabrication of weapons of the gun, made a very effective weapon. About I671 the of offence or defence. Many armourers have become famous bayonet was introduced, and at first the handle fitted into the owing to the perfection of the metal in which they wrought and muzzle of the piece; but subsequently a ring was added to fit the beauty of their workmanship; others are renowned for the over the outside of the muzzle, thus permitting of the firing of artistic finish of the shield, mail, and defensive accoutrements the weapon with the bayonet attached. In recent years the imfabricated by them. For making suits of defensive armour, the provement of A. has advanced with almost inconceivable rapidity, armourers of Italy and Germany were most highly esteemed. and a mere catalogue of modern inventions would occupy a large The brothers Nigroli and Hieronimo Spacini (temp. Charles V.) space. The principal kinds of A., ancient and modern, will be were among the most famous Italians; Kollman and Seussen- described under their proper headings. hofer being the leading German artificers of the same period. In the manufacture of sword-blades, the armourers of Toledo ex- Arns, Assumptive. See HERALDRY. celled; but those made by Andrea di Ferrara, an Italian in the Arms Bells of, are tents for keeping the small-arms of each i6th c., are most highly prized. The skilled artisans attached company in a regiment of infantry. to regiments and war-ships to care for and repair weapons are called armourers. Arms, Heraidic, or Armorial Bearings, the badges by Armour Plates, the thick plates of rolled ilron used for the which, in early ages, military knights and leaders were distindefelnsive protection of modern war-vessels. The system of guished. The badge was engraven, or otherwise represented, on armour-plating was first applied to the French vessel La Gloirethe shield; hence the shield form of A. B. The practice is and the British Warrior. In the case of the Wtarrior, the A. "alluded to by Homer, and it rose into high importance at the P. were 4~- inches thick, and they were applied only to a period of the Crusades. certain portion of the vessel, leaving both extremities unprotected. Arms, Messenger at. See MESSENGER-AT-ARMS. Several vessels in the English navy were built on this type. In other ships built later, the hull is protected from stem to stern, Arms, Sergeant at. See SERGEANT-AT-ARMS. the thickness of the armour is increased to 51, 6, 7, 8, 9, II, rs, Stand of, denotes every weapon, offensive or defen. 12, and even 20 inches, the thickness being in recent vessels Arms, d hethe point to be protected. sive, required for the complete equipment of an infantry or varied according to the vulnerability of the point to be protected.cavalry soldier. The resisting power of these plates is increased in most vessels by thick backings of teak, and an iron skin varying from 4 to Armstrong, John, whose Art of Preservinff Health, (I 744) i1 inch in thickness. The law of resistance of A. P., estab- was, until the commencement of the present century; esteemed lished by experiments on plates up to 51 inches, is that the resist- one of the finest didactic poems in the language, but which is now ance varies as the square of the thickness. Thus a plate 4 inches quite, though not deservedly, forgotten, was born at Castleton, thick is found to have sixteen times the resisting power of another Roxburghshire, about I 709, studied medicine at Edinburgh, i inch thick. Laminated armour, which is a covering of several graduated in I 732, and settled in -London as a physician in plates bolted together, was adopted in the American navy; but such 1735. He died 7th September 1779. The four stanzas conplates are much weaker in proportion to the aggregate thickness eluding the first part of Thomson's Castle of Indolence are A.'s. of the armour than solid plates. A. P. are also employed for land Besides other poems, he is the author of a number of medical fortifications, to their thickness in which case there is no neces- essays. ARM THE GLOBE EiNOC YCIL OPiDIA. ARN Armstrong, John, M.D., an eminent physician and medical of the Forces, who is authorised by the Treasury to honour them. writer, born May IS, 1784, at Ayres Quay, near Sunderland, died The total A. E. for the period Ist April I875 to 3Ist March December 12, I829, at London, where he had practised for I876 was~IX3,488,200. eleven years. His principal works are treatises on Pueryperal.Army List is issued monthly under authority of the War Ferver and Typhus (iSi6). His lectures on the practice of phy- Office. It gives the names of all commissioned officers in the sic, delivered h i London, were published in I834 by Joseph Rix, British army, of the general and field officers of the old Indian army, of the holders of staff appointments and military honours, Armstrong, Sir- William George, was the son of an besides further ample military detail. Hart's A. L., printed in eminent citizen of Newcastle-on-Tyne, and was born there in smaller type than the above, gives even more information, but ISIo. He first entered the legal profession, but his unmistak- does not possess official authority. able scientific bias, developed by the tastes of his father, after Army Schools. There are schools in connection with the some years diverted him from the law. While still a practising army, for giving general tuition to private soldiers and to their solicitor, however, he was led to the invention of the hydro- children, such as the Royal Military Asylum at Chelsea. There electric machine (1842), for which he was elected, in I846, a are also schools which specially train youth for military service. All fellow of the Royal Society. In 1845 he invented the hydraulic candidates for the Royal Artillery and the Royal Engineers must crane, and in later years extended the application of hydraulic be trained and pass their examination at the Royal Military power to hoists of every kind, capstans, spring-bridges, and a Academy (q. v.) at Woolwich. Then there are schools for imhost of other purposes. It was for the manufacture of such proving the military efficiency of the officers and men. The machinery that he, after having given up the less congenial pro- principal one of these is now-since the abolition of purchase fession of the law, established along'with some friends the in the army-the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. See Elswick Engine-Works. SANDHURST, ROYAL MILITARY COLLEGE. A. is especially famous, however, for his invention of a gun of most extraordinary power and precision. His attention was Arnauld, Antoine, a great French advocate, born at Paris drawn in this direction during the Crimean war in 1854, when in 156o. He was the son of A. A., counsellor of Catherine de many inventors were producing new forms of cannon and pro- Medicis, and was distinguished for his earnest opposition to jectile. In I858 the Rifle Cannon Committee recommended the Jesuits, by whom he was accused, though without reathe adoption of the A. gun (see BREECH-LOADING ARMS, sonable cause, of being a Protestant. His defence of the UniCANNON, &c.), which was specially distinguished from the old versity of Paris in 1594 against this formidable order is the pieces of ordnance in being rifled, and in having an ingenious chief foundation of his reputation; but he wrote a variety of contrivance for loading at the breech. Soon after, Mr A. pre- political works which were notable in their day. A. died 2gth sentecd his patent to the government, without any stipulation. December I6I9. Of his family of twenty, six daughters emHe was made chief-engineer of rifled ordnance for seven years braced a'religious' life, and were the founders and mainstay of provisionally, and received the'honours of C.B. and knighthood. Port-Royal. The two most conspicuous were Jacqueline Marie In February I863 Sir W. A. resigned his appointment, and re- Angelique A. (born I59I, died I66I), and Jeanne Catherine joined the Elswick Manufacturing Company, and in the same Agnes A. (died I671.) year was elected President of the British Association. In I862 Arnauld, Antoine, known as'the great A.,' youngest son he received fiom Cambridge the honorary degree of Doctor of of the above, was born at Paris, 6th February I612. Intended Laws. by his father for the bar, he early showed a strong bias towards the Church, with a love of scholastic theology. For the Church BArmy. See ANCIENT, MEDIEVYAL, MODERN ARMIES; ARl- he accordingly studied, entering the Sorbonne as a pupil of MIES. Besides the main A. which conducts the great operations Lescot, confessor of Cardinal Richelieu. His study of the in the field, various subsidiary armies are employed in a war. writings of St Augustine fixed his theology for ever. In 1641 he The Covering A. guards the roads and passes. The A. of Obser- was ordained a priest, and in 1643 he published a worl entitled vation watches the enemy. The A. ofjReconnaissance ascertains De la Fe-itente Commznion. On its account he was admitted the strength and position of the enemy at a special position, or oftheSociety'oftheSorbonne. The or, howevergavegreat generally. The Flying~rr A. moves qluicktly, protects garrisons, offence to the Jesuits, with whom A. henceforward carried on an and alarms tlhe enemy when required. Siege and Blockading implacable controversy, which may be considered to have begun s may also e reuire. with his eologie Morale des ites, and to have closed only Army Administration. The -sovereign is the supreme with his death. In I640, on the appearance of the Ancgustinus, ruler of the British army, from which it follows that the respon- a posthumous work of Jansenius (q. v.), which gave rise to the sible ruler is a member of the Ministry for the time being. He great Jansenist controversy, A. defended the learned work in is called the Secretary of State for War. It is his business to opposition to the Jesuits, and to Pope Urban VIII., by whom it prepare the Army Estimates (q. v.), and to lay before Parliament had been condemned by Papal bull. His apologetic pamphlets, any scheme which may seem to him likely to promote military which appeared in quick succession, were Premi"res et Secondes efficiency and economy of administration. Questions regardingObservatios; Considations; Dicts; and Apologie de enlistment, recruiting, and promotion, and with regard to the 7ansenizs. But piety had its charms for him as well as religious relationship to be maintained between the Regular Forces and the strife, and his Mours de l'glise Catkolique; Correction; Grce; Militia (q. v.) and Volunteers (q. v.), are probably the most fre- La Verite de a Riligon; De la Foi, de l'Epein Ic, et de la quent which the Secretary for War has to consider. The com- Chzarite, are evidences of a noble and devout soul. Even secular mander-in-chief, again, is the representerature claiied a high share in his regards. During a lull in matters relating to military command and discipline. Prono- the theological storm, he wrote his Grammnaire Gete'irale liisounnd', matters relating to military command and discipline. PromoElements de Gkomerie, and L'Art de Pe]zser. In I649 the Jantions and appointments in the army are ordinarily under the custopatronage of the commander-in-chief. See COMMANDER-IN- senist controversy broke out withrenewed fury, with the custoCHIEF. mary flood of polemical literature, the practical result being that in I655-56 A. found it prudent to leave Port-Royal, being at the Army Agent. See AGENT, ARMY. same time expelled from the Sorbonne and from the Faculty of Theology. But his pen was more vigorously employed than Army Estimates. As the name imports, these are the ever. Besides furnishing his friend Pascal (q. v.) with the estimated expenses of the army. They are made up annually materials for his Provincial Letters, he published Cinq Ace-its en in spring by the War Secretary, and submitted by him for ap- faveur des Cuers de Paris contre les Casuistes reldc/es (I658); proval to the Treasury and to the Chancellor of the Exchequer. La Nozvelle Hfersie, and Les Zllusions, i.e., of the Jesuits (I662); After adjustment, they then form part of the Budget (q. v.) which Cin zDe'zonciations (I689-90); la MAorale Pratique (I683), and the Chancellor of the Exchequer submits to Parliament. They are many other works. Finally,'the Jesuits induced King Louis of course open to criticism in detail, and to amendment in Comi- to issue an order for his arrest. He consequently was obliged mittee of the House of Commons. On the supply as granted by to retire into Belgium (I679), where he passed the rest of his the House the Accountant-General of the War Office passes life. IHe died at Brussels, 8th August I694. His works, of drafts as they are required, addressed to the Paymaster-General which there are upwards of Ioo volumes, were published at 4, ~I73 ARN THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP.MDII. AAR Paris, 1775-83. Socially, A. was celebrated for equanimity and national air Rule Britannia first appeared. A. died in I778. gentleness. His bitter spirit of controversy doubtless resulted His son MIichael inherited much of his talent, and set several from an earnest love of what seemed to himself the truth, with operas to music. a lack of capacity for seeing more than one side of a question; but he was beyond question a man of brilliant, versatile, and Arnee, or Ana (Bos Arnee), a species or variety of ox inacute genius, a ripe theological scholar, and a profound meta- habiting India, and forming the largest member of that family physician. See Sainte-Beuve's Hisloire de Port-Royal (Paris, (Bovide). Some naturalists regard it as a variety of the buffalo. 1840-62). The horns are very large, measuring, in some cases, 6 feet each along the outer or greater curve. Arnauld, 1arie Ang6lique, a daughter of Robert A. d'Andilly, and granddaughter of Antoine A., the advocate, Arn'hem, the A4ezenacum of the Romans, and the Arnoldi was born 28th November i624. Of a resolute and strongly Villa of the middle ages, is the capital of Guelderland, Holland, devotional character, at an early age she became a nun at Port- on the Rhine (Lek), here spanned by a bridge of boats. It is Royal des Champs. Here, when twenty-nine years old, she strongly fortified, stands at the foot of a slight range of hills, in was made sub-prioress, an office which she continued to hold a healthy locality, and has an active transit trade with Geron her subsequent removal to Port-Royal de Paris. In I640 many. A. is connected by railway with Amsterdam, Rotterthere had appeared a posthumous work of Jansenius, Bishop of dam, Zutphen, &c. It has the most picturesque situation of any Ypres. This work laid down with Calvinistic rigour the doc- town in Holland, and is a favourite residence of Dutch E. India trines of predestination and of the depravity of human nature. merchants when they come home. Here Sir Philip Sidney These doctrines were embraced by Marie Angelique with enthu- expired (7th October 1586), after being mortally wounded at siasm, and maintained with the heroism which they have so often the battle of Zutphen. In 1813 the Prussians tookA. from the inspired. Her convent was broken up by royal edict, its inmates French. Pop. (1870) 33,081. distributed among the more orthodox convents in France, and Arnica, a genus of Dicotyledonous plants of the order every endeavour made by the Jesuits to induce them to recant; inos plants of the order vain, however, as regards Marie Angelique at least. In I669 Compositav. A. montana is the mountain tobacco of the French. The plant has acrid properties; at one time was Pope Clement IX. endeavoured to effect a compromise between French. The plant has acrid properties; at one time was the Jansenists and the Jesuits. The nuns of Port-Royal des extensively employed on the Continent as a stimulant in fever, Champs, who had already been restored to their nunnery under and palsy. A tincture prepared from the plant was restrictions, received back their privileges. Marie Angelique applied externally to fresh wounds and bruises, which promoted was again elected prioress, and in i678 she was made abbess. their speedy healing. The plant has now fallen into neglect, To some extent persecution was revived on the death of her and in Germany has received the name of Panacea lapsorum. protectress the Duchess de Longueville. She died 29th January Ar'nim, the name of a very ancient and noble German I684. - Her Memzoires pour servir c la Vie de la Mfre I A. A. family, thich professes to derive its origin from the town of de Sainte Madeleine, Reformaltrice de Port-Royal, were published Armhem, in Holland, as far back as the ioth c., but whose in 5730, and her Confdrences inl I760. historical distinction properly begins with a Heinrich von A. in 1280. The family gradually acquired extensive possessions Arn~auld, Robert d'Andilly, ein the Ukermark, the Altmark, the Magdeburg region, Pome. the advocate, was born at Paris in 1588. For some time he was a man of considerable consequence at the French court, but rania, E. Prussia, Silesia, Saxony, Bavaria, Hanover, Mecklenat the age of fifty-five he retired from the world, and devoted burg, &c., and divided into two main lines, Biesenthal and Zehdenik, each of which has several subdivisions. himself to religious history and biography. He died 27th September I674. His daughter, Marie Angelique (q. v.), is more Arnim, Bettinza von, sister of the rhapsodical novelist famous than himself. Clemens Brentano, and wife of Ludwig Achim von A. (q. v.), nd nn Prtestnt divine brn t Bllenstdt was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main, 4th April I785. She wrote Anhalt, 27th December 555a Protestant divine, at C elle, Hanovernst, th several fantastic stories, and is best known as the romantic and Anhalt, 27th December I555; died at Celle, Hanover, Iith MIay 1621. IHis Waleres Ghrstent/zm ('True Christianity', charming correspondent of Goethe, as seen in Goethe's BriefMay His hres ChZristentum ('True Christianity"'), ~wechse mir einem YCinde (' Correspondence with a Child'), pub. still popular in Germany, had at one time a European reputa- lished in 85 She died a BCorresponden, thJan a Chil859'), pub. tion. An English version by W. Jacques, in 2 vols., was pub- l ished in 835. She d married at Be, 2th January 859. Of her lished at London in 18I5. A. was tinged with mysticism, but known by her Dela on A., married to Hermann Grimm, is the aim of his work is to promote practical religion. He wrote several other works, none of which are now much read. Arnim, Earry Counat von, a member of the A. family, Arndt, Ernst Noritz, a German patriot and martial lyrist, was born at Moitzelfitz, in Pomerania, in I824, entered the serwas born in the island of Riigen, December 26, I769. He was vice of the Prussian State I847, and commenced his diplomatic made Professor of History at Greifswald in I8o6, but had to career in 185I, when he was named secretary of legation, in which take refuge in Sweden after the fatal battle of Jena, having made capacity he resided successively at Rome, Cassel, and Vienna. In himself conspicuous as the author of the Geist der Zeit (' Spirit of 1862 he was appointed minister at Lisbon, created count in i870, the Time,' Altona, i8o6). On his return in I8Io he actively and in 187I, by imperial decree, minister extraordinary to the supported the minister Von Stein, and by his many writings and French Republic, and some time after raised to the rank of songs did much to fire the German patriotism. An interesting ambassador. Here he opposed the ecclesiastical policy of the work relating to this period is his Wanderungez sund Wanzde- German chancellor, and involved himself in such antagonism to lunzgaez reit dem Reichzsfreiherrn von Stein (2d ed. I858). His his chief that his diplomatic career ended in one of the most song, WZhat is thIe German Fat~herland? may be termed the remarkable state trials of late years. Recalled from Paris, 2d national hymn of Germany. A. was appointed to the chair March i874, he was left unemployed by the government. of history at Bonn in i8i8, but was actually suspended till Irritated, it is supposed, by his humiliation and neglect, he made 1840, for'demagogic' tendencies. In I848 he was made a certain revelations to the public (2d April 1874) in the Vienna member of the German Parliament, at once joined the national press relating to the policy of the Papal court. The discovery party, and seceded with Gagern (q. v.) in I849. He died was then made that a large number of state papers had been January 29, I86o. His Gedic/ste were published in a collected taken from the archives at Paris during A.'s term of office, and form at Frankfort, I8IS (new ed. Berl. i860). See Life of A. failing to give a satisfactory account of them, he was arrested, by Baur (2dl ed. i862), and by Schenkel (6th ed. i868). 4th October I874. He was tried by the Tribunal of the city of Berlin (9th to I5th December), found guilty of removing public Arne, Thomas Augustine, XVus. Doc., a famous English documents, and sentenced to three months' imprisonment. An composer, was born in I710. In 1733 he,produced his first appeal was made to the Kammergericht, which on the 25th opera, Rosamond, which was received with universal applause. June 1875 found A. guilty of removing state papers from the His other compositions include two oratorios, Zara and fdit/h; Paris Embassy, which he subsequently refused to give up, and the operas of Eliza and Artaxerxes; a comic operetta, Tom sentenced him to nine months' imprisonment. See Le Proc- s Thumb; Comas; and The Miaszue of Alf-ed, in which the a'Arnim by MM. Figurey and Corbier (Paris, 1875). e > + + ARN KTHE GLOBSE EVCYCZOPV9IAD. ARN Arnim, Karl Otto Ludwig von, a distinguished traveller, times, was born at W. Cowes, Isle of Wight, in I795. He was born at Berlin, Ist August I779, well known as the author of educated successively at Warminster and Winchester schools, and Fliichtige Bemerkuzngen einesf ichtzgen Reisenden (' Passing Notes in I8I I entered Corpus Christi College, Oxford. His university by a Passing Traveller,' 6 vols. Berl. I837-50), a narrative of career was auspicious, and he formed friendships with such men his wanderings in Europe, marked by clearness and purity of as Keble, Whately, and Justice Coleridge, which lasted through style. He is also the author of several poems and translations. life. In I8I8 he was ordained deacon at Oxford; in I8I9 he A. died at Berlin, February 9, I86I. settled at Laleham, near Staines; and in I82o he married Mary, youngest daughter of the Rev. John Penrose, rector of FledArnim, Ludwig Joachim, usually Achim von, a Ger- borough. At Laleham he remained for nine years, taking seven man novelist, was born at Berlin, I78i. He assisted Clemens or eight private pupils in preparation for the universities. Here Brentano in editing the Witnderhorn, a book of ballads (I806). he employed himself chiefly on a lexicon of Thucydides, and an In I8Io appeared his best-known romance, Armuth, Reichtlhumz, edition of that author; and here he first became acquainted with Schuld, uned YBusse der Grdfin Dolores (' The Poverty, Wealth, Niebuhr's History of Rome, on a perusal of which he determined Guilt, and Penance of the Countess Dolores'), which was greatly to delay any work of his own till he had further studied this new praised by Jean Paul. His works show imaginative, or at least field of inquiry. In 1827 he was elected to the head-mastership fantastic, power, but are marred by tedious reflections, and a of Rugby, and in I828 entered on that distinguished career of confusion of fact and fancy. A. died at Dahme, near Berlin, educational reform and administration by which he changed the January 21, 183I. His Sivmmtliche Werlee ('Collected Works') face of education throughout the public schools of England. were published by W. Grimm (I9 vols. Berl. I839-46). His theory of education may best be gathered from his own Ar'no (anc. 4Arnus), an important river in Tuscany, Central words:'If there be anything on earth which is truly admirItaly, rises on the S. slope of Monte Falterona, a western able, it is to see God's wisdom blessing an inferiority of natural peItaly, of the Apennines, about 30 miles W. of Florence. It runs powers, where they have been honestly, truly, and zealously peak of the Apennines, about 30 miles W. of Florence. It runs cultivated.''It is not knowledge, but the means of gaining S. through the long deep valley of Casentino, sweeps W. into.''It not knowlede, that I have to teach. He placed implicit confidence the fertile plain of Arezzo, and here receives the Chiana; it then in a boy's assertion, so teach.' He p laced implicit confidence fo Nfr ietrgt'e' Eu in a boy's assertion, so that there grew up a general feeling flows N. for 14 miles, through the Valdarno,'where th' Etru-'that it was a shame to tell A. a lie-he always believes one. rian shades high over-archt imbowr;' is joined by the Sicve, He'kept punishment in the background as much as possible, and abruptly turns its course W. to the Mediterranean. The and b kindness and encouragement attracted the good and A. passes Florence and Empoli, and enters the sea 5 miles below and by kindness and encotrageme t attracted the good an Pisa. It has a course of I4o miles, and is subject to sudden nobe feelings of those with whom he had to deal.'' Till a mall inundations. a learns that the first, second, and third duty of a schoolmaster is to get rid of unpromising subjects, a great public school will A; r'nold, or Arnlald, of Brescia (in Lat. Arsno'ldus, Arnol- never be what it might be, and what it ought to be.'' It is not pahus, Arnulphu/zzs Brixiensis), a monk, trained under Abelard, necessary that this should be a school of 300, or Ioo, or 50 boys; and famous for his eloquence, preached against the corruption of but it is necessary that it should be a school of Christian gentlethe clergy, which all contemporary evidence attests was then at men.' A. took a warm interest and an active part in the poliits worst, and excited disturbances over a great part of Italy in tical and theological discussions of the stirring period in which the early part of the 12th c. Banished by the second Lateran he lived. In politics he was a Whig:'There is nothing so Council (II39), he retired to France, whence the irreconcilable revolutionary, because there is nothing so unnatural and so conenmity of St Bernard. drove him to take refuge in Ziirich. The vulsive to society, as the strain to keep things fixed, when all the spread of his doctrines having excited an insurrection at Rome, world is by the very law of its creation in eternal progress.' A. A. repaired thither, and attempted to introduce a republic, but was an earnest advocate of the belief that Church and State are for ten years there was continual disorder. Pope Lucius II. was identical, and that there is no Christian priesthood as distinct killed by the populace in I I45; Eugenius III. escaped to France, from a Christian laity. He died suddenly at Fox How, near but Adrian IV. restored order by excommunicating the city Ambleside, July 12, I842. He published five volumes of ser(I154). In II55, on the coronation of the emperor, Frederick lllOns, a History of Roe, and an edition of Thucydides, besides I., at Rome, A. was crucified, his body burnt, and its ashes numerous paphlets His Lfe and Correspondence, by his thrown into the Tiber. St Bernard, who persecuted him, ad- favourite pupil, Mr (now Dean) Stanley, appeared in 1844; mits the purity of his life, and explains his singular abstinence and lr Hughes, another Rugbean, has given us, in Tom Brown's from all carnal pleasures by the amiable hypothesis that,'like School-Days, a graphic picture of Rugby in A.'s time. the devil, he thirsted only for the blood of souls.' See Francke's Arnott, Neil, N.D., &c., a distinguished physiAr~nold von Br.escia (Zbr. 1825). - cian of the present century, was born at Arbroath in I788. On Arnold, Matthew, an exquisitely critical English author, completing his medical course at Aberdeen, he went to London eldest son of the late Dr A1rnold of Rugby, was born 24th in I8o6, and after some experience in the navy, started practice December I822. He was educated at Rugby and Woinchester in the metropolis in I8II, where he died March 2, I874. A.'s In I857 he was elected Professor of Poetry at Oxford. In principal works are Eeozents of Pzysics (I827), treating o 1859-60 he was sent by the British government as assistant to natural philosophy in its bearing upon medicine; and a Survey the Commission to inquire into the state of education in France, oftzshans Progress (i86i). In 1869 he gave to each of the ScotGermany, and Holland. His early writings were poetical, showv- tish universities /Iooo for prizes, in order to promote the study ing delicacy of finish and a rare classical feeling. The chief of of natural philosophy among medical students and to the Lonthese are Poemts (1853); Alerope, a tragedy on a Greek model don University /2000, for the foundation of a scientific scholar(1858); and Vew Poems (I867). In recent years he has written ship. many prose works, as Lectures on Translating Z zomzer (I86i), Arnotto. See ANOTTO. Essays on Criticism (I865), and Lectures on the Celtic Literatuzre (1867). His chief writings on education and other social sub- Arns'berg, an important district of the province of Westjects are a Reportton Education in France, Germany, and amol- phalia (q. v.), Prussia, forming part of the highlands of the land (I86I); A French Eton or Middle-Class Education and lhe Lower Rhine; area, 2900 sq. miles; pop. 791,360. It is rich State (i864); Schools and UnLiversities of Ihe Continent (iS68)); in coal, iron, lead, and silver; and there are numerous factories and Culture and Reli/ion: an Essay in Political and Social and mills, owing to the abundant water-power, but only in a Criticism (1869); and Hziher Schools and Universities in Get- few valleys is the surface arable. The capital is A., on the many (1874). His treatment of such subjects is at once subtle Rhur, with manufactures of linen, broadcloth, and potash; pop. and trenchant, and animated by an intense disdain of insolent 4784. The court of the Holy Fehme (see FEMGERICHTE) used stupidity and vulgar pretence. In his St Pauland Protestanztismn to be held here. (I870), and Literalture and Dogma (i872), he has developed a system of literary criticism as applied to religion marked by a Arn'stadt, the chief town in the upper part of the principality singular freedom and incisiveness. of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, on the Gera, 13 miles S.W. of Gotha. It is one of the oldest of the Thuringian towns, Anold,Thomas, D.D., the greatest schoolmaster of modern its history going back to the beginning of the 8th c., and has 175 -'4 IRO THtE GLOBE ENCYCL OiOPSDA. ARR considerable manufactures, chiefly in gloves, pottery, beer, and Ar'quebus, or Harquebus (from the German Track-btss, a paper. Near it are extensive copper and salt mines. Pop. (1871) cannon with catch), is frequently loosely applied to different port8603. Its history, ancient and modern, is recorded in Hesse's able firearms of the 15th and I6th centuries. The appellation speciA.'s Vorzeit und Gegenzwart (Arnst. i842). ally belongs to a firearm which was provided with a match-holder, Arokalla a t in n 44 milesN.. of Pest trigger, and tumbler, and was invented in the second half of the Arokall'as, atown i Xn ungary, 44 miles 1 Ith c. With a barrel a little over a yard in length, it admitted an entrepft for the trade between Upper Hungary and Pestb, of a steady aim being taken-in this respect excelling all preand the centre of a rich agricultural and grazing district. Pop.et of the same period is often convious hand-guns. The musket of the same period is often con(I869) 8170. founded with the A.; the only difference between them lay in Aromat'ics, substances which are possessed of an agreeable the former having a calibre twice as large as the latter. The odour, and are prized on that account. Many of them are the double A. had two match-holders, and a longer barrel; in sources of perfumery, and will be treated of under that head; some cases so long as 7 feet, necessitating the use of a supbut there are other substances, the odours of which are too faint port. It was chiefly employed to defend ramparts. Other or fugitive to be capable of extraction or application as perfumes. arquebuses of later invention are distinguished in name by the Aroma or any form of smell is given off by substances in a state mechanism of the lock, as the snaphaunce-lock and wheel-lock of exceedingly minute gaseous subdivision, and it has been cal- A. The foot soldiers armed with these weapons were called culated that the human nose is capable of perceiving the odour arquebusiers. of one thirteen-millionth part of a grain of oil of resin, and a Arracacha, the name given by the natives in some parts of much smaller proportion of musk. Only such bodies as are S. America to tuberous-rooted plants, and applied by botanists energetically acted on by oxygen give off odour, such gases as to genus of Umbelliferous plants. A. esculenta is cultivated nitrogen and hydrogen, which mingle without combining, being for its roots, which form a large proportion of the winter food inodorous. In chemistry, benzoic acid, and a series of its homo-ple of Columbia and other pats of S. A of the people of Columbia and other parts of S. America. A logues, are termed the aromatic series. - fermented liquor is made from these roots, and an ardent spirit Aromatic Vinegar is a perfume compounded of strong by distillation. The plant will not thrive in Britain, as has been acetic acid and various essences, according to the taste of the proved by experiment. perfumer. The pungency of the acetic acid, combined with Arrack or Raki a name for distilled liquors in India, Ceyfragrance of the perfumes, makes A. V. a refreshing and stimulating preparation of great value in case of headaches, and theMalayanArchipelago. TheformsAracaand latg preparation of great value. in case of headaches, and Araki are also used in other parts of the East. One of the chief in the sick-room generally. Originally it came into repute sources of A. is the sweet sap of palm-trees, especially the cocoaas a prophylactic in infectious disease; and the'four thieves' nut palm (Aocos and the palmyra palm (Borassse avinegar' a(vinaiqre des guatre voleurs), a complex preparationi a th.a7.yra pal.as vinegar' (vinaigre des qar.e voleurs), a complex preparation belliformis). This juice is procured by binding the spathes containing with the acetic acid wormwood, rosemary, sage, mint, which surround the young flowers, and after which surround the young flowers, and afterwards wounding rue, lavender, spices; camphor, alcohol, &c., is said to have en- them, to facilitate the flow of the sap into earthen chatties, which abled four persons to attend and rob a multitude of individuals are attached to the spathes. The sap on fermenting is called at Marseille, sick and dead from the plague, without themselves toddy, and yields A. on distillation. The distillation of toddy is being affected. extensively pursued at Goa and Colombo; and it has been estiAronia, the name given to a species of hawthorn. See mated that in Ceylon alone, one-fourth (about 5,000,000) of the CRATIEGUS. entire cocoa-nut trees of the island are devoted to the drawing of toddy, of which the greater part is distilled for A., the residue Ar'pad, the first Grand-Duke of the Magyars, and founder of being boiled down to obtain jaggery or palm sugar. In ricethe kingdom of Hungary, was born about 870. Leo the Wise, growing countries A. is distilled from a fermented infusion of Emperor of Constantinople, obtained- his aid against the Bulga- that grain; and in Java and the neighbouring islands molasses rians, and Arnulf, Emperor of Germany, against the Moravians and toddy are added. In one Javanese method the ingredients (892). About 894 he appeared in force on the Carpathians, and are employed in the following proportion: Thirty-five parts of by a series of conquests took possession of the land far beyond glutinous rice, sixty-two parts of molasses, and three parts of the Theiss, then in the possession of Slaves, Bulgarians, Wala- toddy, which yield on distillation twenty-three and a half parts of chians, and others. Juhutun, his chief captain, conquered Tran- proof A. sylvania. A. himself was more a statesman than a mere soldier, and showed great prudence and sagacity in organising a settled Arr'ah, a town of Hindustan, presidency of Bengal, and disgovernment in his new dominions. In 899 he conquered the trict of Shahabad, 25 miles W. of Dinapore, has a pop. (I872) of region between the Danube and the Drave. The Magyars com- 39,386. It is notable in connection with the mutiny of I857, prised seven great clans, subdivided into houses, and the Consti- when an isolated house was defended for seven days, from 27th tution was based on these distinctions till King Stephen, by the July to 2d August, by twenty white civilians, aided by fifty establishment of a monarchy, broke their power. A. died in Sikhs, against 3000 Sepoys, who finally withdrew. 907. The A. dynasty expired with Andreas III. in I30I, but its founder is still the hero of Hungarian ballad and romance. its founder is still the hero of Hungarian Sballad andtners S romance. fying the calling of a prisoner by name to the bar of the court, Zngagcric rzn (i746), and E ndlich er's edition (Vien. I827). to answer the charge against him. Unless there is apparent gaic (I746),.and Endlicher's edition (Vien. 82danger of escape, the prisoner is produced without bonds. IHe Arpe'ggio (Ital.), a musical term, denoting that the notes holds up his hand, by doing which he is held to admit himself forming the chord so marked are to be played in rapid succes- to be the person indicted. The indictment is read to him, and sion, beginning with the lowest. the question put,'Guilty or not guilty?' If he plead'Guilty,' judgment is then pronounced. If he plead'Not guilty,' the jury Arpi'no (anc. Arfpinzzuz), a town in the province of Caserta is sworn, and the trial proceeds. Refusal to answer is held equi(Terra di Lavoro), S. Italy, midway between Rome and valent to pleading'Not guilty.' In Scotch law the whole form Naples, and about 65 miles from each. It was the birthplace of procedure by which a person accused of a crime is brought to of Cicero and Caius Marius, and in I88 B. c. obtained the Roman trial is included in the term Crimiznal Prosecutionz (q. v.). The franchise. A. has a beautiful situation on the slope of a rugged special branch of procedure corresponding to A. in England is hill, 6 miles W. of the river Garigliano, and near it are rich termed Caling t/Ie Diet. On the day fixed (see INDICTMENT, marble quarries and iron mines. It has considerable manufac- CRIMINAL LETTERS), the accused and the prosecutor, whether tures of woollens, parchment, paper, and leather. Pop. 12,648. public or private, must appear in court, the Lord Advocate Ar'qua, a village in the province of Padua, N. Italy, among the having the privilege of appearing by deputy. If the prisoner Euganean Hills. Pop. I200. Petrarch died here, July i8, pleads'Guilty,' the court passes sentence. If he pleads'Not 1374; his furniture -is still p reserved, and his grave is maked guilty,' the case is submitted to a jury. See PLEA OF PANEL, I374; his furniture is still preserved, and his grave is markedVERDIcT. in the churchyard by a red marble monument. The house in which he lived was presented to the municipality of Padua by Arr'an (Gael. the' lofty isle'), in Buteshire, an island in the Cardinal Silvestri in July I875. Firth of Clyde, 20 miles long and I2 broad, with an area of I65 176 A~ —-- |ARR 17HE GLZ OBE ENVCYCL OPEDIA. ARR sq. miles. It is separated on the E. from Ayrshire by the Firth of bankruptcy. The debtor may, however, apply to the court to Clyde, and on the W. from Cantire by Kilbrannan Sound. The dismiss the summons, or he may pay, secure, or compound the surface in the N. and N.W. is mountainous, and the general debt within time provided by the Act, without being held to aspect is grandly alpine. The highest elevation is Goatfell, an have committed an act of bankruptcy. Under the Act of I869 English corruption of the Gaelic Gaoth-ceannz,' Windy Mountain,' imprisonment for debt is abolished except in special cases. See 2865 feet. At its base lie Glen Rosa, Glen Sannox, and the DEBTORS AND CREDITORS. There are classes exempted by beautiful bay of Brodick, on the southern shore of which is the privilege from A. Diplomatic representatives of foreign courts village of Invercloy, with a spacious hotel. Brodick Castle, a are; so also are English, Scotch, and Irish peers, members of seat of the Duke of Hamilton, proprietor of nearly the whole of Parliament, and all persons connected with a cause before a the island, overlooks the bay from the N. E. Lamlash Bay, fur- court of justice. See ARRESTMENT, ARRESTMENT FOR FOUNDther S., is the safest and most capacious roadstead in the Clyde, ING JURISDICTION. sheltered on the E. by the huge rock called the'Holy Isle.' Arrest of Judgment, the procedure in English law so IKildonan Castle, at the S.E. extremity, is opposite the isle of termed is regulated by the Common Law Procedure Act of 1852. Pladda, on which a lighthouse has been erected; and' King's After the jury have given their verdict, follows the 7ud-oanenzz of Cove,' a cavern in the cliffs of the S.W. coast, was (according the court. But judgment may be suspended or arrested where to local tradition) a hiding-place of Robert the Bruce. In the there has been any defect in the procedure, for it cannot be N. end is Loch Ranza, with a castle, once a royal residence. A. entered until the next term after trial, and upon notice to the offers a richer field to the geologist than any district of equal other party. Causes for suspending judgment, by granting a extent in Britain. Devonian sandstone occupies the S.E. por- zezw trial, may arise for want of due notice of trial, improper tion, trap and carboniferous strata the middle and W., granite behaviour of the jury among themselves, or of the plaintiff toand mica-slate the N. W., and the Lower Silurian rocks the N. E. wards them, by which their verdict is influenced; misdirection and S. A. is a favourite summer resort, and numerous steamers of the judge, or exorbitant damages. A. of J. may be made for ply between it and ports on the Clyde. Pop. (I871) 5234. See good cause in criminal as well as in civil cases. In the Scotch Arran nd orerhClvIde Islands, by Dr James Bryce (Lond. 1875); criminal courts, when the prosecutor moves for sentence, the and,Arran: Its Topographzy, NVatural History, and Antiqzities, prisoner may propose reason in arrest. But no objection to the by the Landsboroughs (new ed., Guthrie, Ardrossan, I875). indictment or admitted proof will be heard. Arran, South Isles of, are three islets near the entrance to Arrest'ment is, in the law of Scotland, the term for the proGalway Bay, on the W. coast of Ireland. The largest is Inish- cedure by which a debtor in a personal obligation is restrained more (the' Great Isle'), 7 miles long and 2 broad; the other from paying his creditor until a debt due by that creditor is paid two are named Inishman ('Middle Isle') and Inishere. To- or secured to the arrestee. The A. does not, however, transfer tal area, 11,287 acres; pop. (I87I) 3050, of whom all but 57 are the debt. To do this, there must be a decree in the arrester's Roman Catholic. Inishmore has 2122 inhabitants, and is much favour under an'Action of Forthcoming,' which may be sued visited on account of its monastic relics. Formerly twenty under either the supreme or inferior courts. The corresponding churches and monasteries were scattered over these islands, and term in English law is ATTACHMENT (q. v.). Inishmore is still called'A. of the Saints' (Aran-na-naon/z). Arrestment for Founding Jurisdiction, or, as it isusually They also contain the remains of nine huge fortresses of rough, called in Scotch law, *urisdictionis Fundanda Causa, is a legal uncemented stones, said to have been built in the'st c. by the lprocedure in Scotland for bringing a foreigner under the jurisdicFir-Bolgs (q. v.), on being driven from the mainland. Fishing tion of its courts. This can only be done when the foreigner has is the chief occupation, and the coracle, or basket skiff, is still mi real or personal property in Scotland. In the forer case arrestuse here. The soil of the islands is mostly under rye, oats, and s i. I use here. The soil of the islands is mostly under rye, oats, and ment is not required, as he is held to have aforum, and merely potatoes; but the summer drought often brings famine. requires to be cited as out of the kingdom. In the latter event, Ar'ras, the capital of the department of Pas-de-Calais, lies on however, the process in question is necessary. It is held to give a slight elevation at the confluence of the river Scarpe with its the court jurisdiction both over the property arrested and its owner. branch the Crinchon. It is divided into four portions, the city, The principle involved has been affirmed by the House of Lords. the upper and lower town, and the citadel, built by Vauban. Arrestment of Wages. With a view to prevent the hurtA. was capital of the old province of Artois, and has been the ful efects produced among some of the working classes in seat of a bishop since 390 A.D. Its fine Gothic Cathedral of Scotland, from credit given them by dealers in respect of their Notre Dame swas built I780, for the meeting of the States or power of A. of W., the Act 33 and 34 Vict. c. 63, was passed. It local parliament. A. the Nernaetacpum of the Romans, was the exempts from arrestment earnings not exceeding 20s. per week, capital of the Atrebdtes, a Belgic people, whose name it after- and prohibits their arrestment under small-debt summonses; wards took, Atrebate, which has been gradually corrupted into A. that is, for debts under 1I2. In England, with one or two exAlong with the county of Artois, it formed part of Lower Bur- ceptional cases, wages cannot be arrested for debt. gundy, and-except for a short time, when Louis XI. seized itremained in the hands of the Austro-Spanish successors of Charles Arrhenath'erum, a genus of grasses. A. avenacenin or oatthe Bold till I640, when it surrendered to Richelieu. Siice then grass, is a British species, and grown along with others as a ift has always been a French town. A. is the birthplace of Robes- meadow-grass. On the Continent it is cultivated for fodder, and pierre, and during the first revolution it was domineered over by the worst Terrorists of the time. The town was famous during ever, are low compared with some other grasses. the middle ages for its pictured tapestry, which, in fact, was called Arria'nus, Flavius, a philosopher and historian, was born A. in England. It has now considerable manufactures in iron- at Nicomedia, in Bithynia, about Ioo A. D. He was a follower wares, woollen and cotton goods, lace, pottery, and leather; its of the great Stoic Epictetus, and from a desire to be to him what trade is chiefly in corn, flour, oil, wine, and brandy. An impor- Xenophon had been to Socrates he published the life, conversatant corn-market is held here. Pop. (I872) 21,447. tions, and lectures of his master, and also the famous JManual of Arrest', an English law term in criminal and civil procedure. Epictetus. His most important work is his account of the Asiatic Criminal A. has been considered under Apprehend (q. v.). Civil expedition (Aabasis) of Alexander the Great, which we have A. means the apprehending or restraining a person in execution comnplete with the exception of one gap in vii. 12. The work of the command of a court, or by an officer of justice. The is of great value, A. s tone being sober and practicals and his A. of debtors, against whom there is a presumption of intention judgment discreet. He also wrote on the Chase, on India on to abscond, is now regulated by the Bankruptcy Act, 1869, and his voyage round the Euxine, and on Tactics. In A.D. 124 he the Absconding Debtors Act of I870. The latter provides that gained the favour of the Emperor Hadrian in Greece, and from the Court of Bankruptcy may, by warrant addressed to any his hands received the honour of the broad purple. A. was apconstable or prescribed officer of court, cause a debtor to be pointed (A.D. I36) Prefect of Cappadocia. He died in the reign arrested and safely kept, if, after a debtor's summons has been of M. Aurelius The best editions of the Anabasis of A are granted according to the Act of I869, and before a petition of those by Ellendt (Regim. 2 vols. I832), and KrUger (Berl. 1835). bankruptcy can be presented against him, it appears to the court Arro'ba, a Spanish and Portuguese weight equal to about that there is reason to suppose that he intends to go abroad to an English quarter of a cwt., and in the former country a avoid paying the debt, or to avoid or embarrass procedure in measure for liquids, varying, however, in the different provinces | 23 2773 ARB THE GL OBE ENCYCIOPAEDIA. ARS The Castilian A. (A. mayor de vino) contains about three and a Spirituali Pzugnante, Vincente, et T5riuminhante Dissertatio (Canlb. half English gallons. I665, Amst. 1700); A Chain of Principles (1622); Theanthropos Arrondisse'ment (from the French arrondir, to make (i66o). He died in February 1658-59. round), a subdivision of a French Department (q. v.). Arroy'o Xoli'nos, a village of Estremadura, Spain, famous Ar'row. See Bow AND ARROW. for a brilliant victoiy gained by Lord Hill over a French force Arrowhead, the English name for Sagoittaria sagitlifolia, under General Girard, October 28, I8II, in which I300 prison. a handsome aquatic plant with arrow-shaped leaves found in Britain, belonging to the natural order Alismacece. It is also Arru' Islands, a group of over thirty islands, about 80 miles found throughout Europe, in Northern Asia, and some parts of S.W. of New Guinea, stretching from 5~0 20o' to 60 55' S. lat., India. A variety of the plant, regarded by some as a species and from I34 [o' to I34' 45' E. long. The largest is 70 miles (A. Sinzensis), is cultivated extensively by the Chinese for its long and 20 broad. They are inhabited -by a mixed race of corms, which constitute an article of food. Several other species Malays and Melanesians; and at Dobbo, on the island of Warud, are also cultivated for the same purpose in warm countries. there is a settlement chiefly of Chinese and Dutch merchants. Arrow-headed Characters. See CUNEIFORM INSCRIP- The exports are pearls, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, trepang, TIONS. and aromatic bark. Arrow-heads. See FLINT ARROW-HEADS. Arsac'idm, the name of the dynasty of kings who wrested Parthia from the grip of the Seleucidoe, and founded an Eastern Arrowroot, the general name for a pure kind of starch empire that lasted for nearly 500 years. This dynasty takes its obtained from various plants in different countries, and being name and its origin fiom Arsaces.1., whose history is somewhat very digestible and nutri- obscure. He was probably of Scythlian origin, and according tive, is largely used for to one account satrap of Bactria at the date of his invasion and dietary purposes. W. conquest of Parthia (B.C. 256 or 250). He was succeeded by Indian A. is remarkably his brother Arsaces IZ, Tiridales, who reigned thirty-seven pure, and is obtained from years, and strengthened the Parthian power by his decisive the rhizomes of Iaranta victory (B.C. 238) over the Syrian king Seleucus Callinicus. He arundinacea; that from was followed by Arsaces II., Artabanzus I. (died B.c. I96); Bermuda is regarded as Arsaces IV., Phriabatius (died B.C. I8I); and Arsaces V., the best. Brazilian A., P/hraates I. (died B.c. I44), who, though he had several sons, or tapioca-meal, is ob- left the government to his brother Arsaces VI., Mit/ridates tained from the roots of I (died B.c. I36.) Mithridates was a man of splendid military ilaanihot utilissima, a genius, subdued the whole region between the Indus and the plant belonging to the Euphrates, and made the Parthian empire alike famous and orderEz5p/ihorbiacea. Chi- formidable. His son, Arsaces VII, Phraates SI. (died B.C. nese A., from the tubers I27), by his victory (B.c. I38) over Antiochus Sidetes, freed of Nelumbium speciosum, the Parthians for ever from the attacks of the Syrian kings. an aquatic plant. E. About this time, however, commenced those fierce wars with Indian A., from Curcuma the nomadic races of the interior which were only ended by the Arrowroot (IMacante arundzinacee). ~ an~grstifo/ia; and English repeated victories of Arsaces IX., Mithridates II.) (died B.C. 87), A. is the starch of the who has in history the surname of'the Great.' He had a powerful common potato tuber Solanum tuberosum. Oswego A. is obtained rival in Tigranes, first king of Armenia, and in the year B.C. 92 from Zea Mays, or Indian corn. A fine kind of A., called Tos- first came into relation with the Romans, whose alliance he les-mois, is obtained from Canna edulis in the W. Indies. Tacca sought and obtained. After the overthrow of the kingdom of pinnitficda furnishes A. in the South Sea Islands, and Arnm Pontus (B.C. 69), which occurred in the reign of Arsaces XII., mnaculatum yields what is called Portland A., or sago. The Puma/es II., the Roman and Parthian frontiers touched each name A. is applied to the produce of various plants, but it is other, and this furnishel the occasion frequent strife between generally associated with that of ilaranta (q. v.), which belongs the two powers. The first Romano-Parthian war was conducted to the order iarantacea. The annual imports of A. into by Crassus against Arsaces XIV;, Oroes I. (died B.C. 37), which Britain are very large: in I874 they amounted to over 400 tons. was quickly followed by a second, in which Antonius was Arrowsmith, Aaron, a celebrated geographer and con.- opposed by Arsaces XV., Pgraales IV. (died A.D. 4). Of the structer of maps, was born at Winston, Durham, July 14, I750. later A., Arsaces XXYzTIL., Vologeses I. (died A.D. 90), was unsucAt an early age he had to face the world, and in I769 we find cessful in a war against the Romans (A.D. 56-64) for the posseshim in London in the employment of Cary, for whose large county sion of Armenia; Arsaces XXV., Chosroes I. (died A.D. I21), lost maps he soon became the principal draughtsman. In I79o-98 Mesopotamia and Assyria in the reign of Trajan, but recovered he published his large map of the world on Mercator's projection, them in that of Adrian; Arsaces XXVJLf., Volofgeses IIZ (died which greatly surpassed everything else that had yet been pro. A.D. I92), and Arsaces XXIX., Vologeses IV (died A.D. 209), sucduced for clearness, accuracy, and excellence of engraving. He cessively warred against the Romans, the former against L. Verus, published altogether more than a hundred maps, all of the same the latter against Severus. The last of the A., Arsaces XXX., admirable quality, the chief of which are the Germany (I8i3, Artabanzs IV., was finally defeated and slain by Artaxerxes seven sheets), Tnrkey in Errope (80o), Asia (I80I, four sheets), (Ardashir) son of Sassan, founder of a new Persian or native and United States of America (I796, four sheets). He also wrote dynasty, the Sassanida (q. v.), A.D. 226. See Vaillant's ArsaA Compansionz to a llap of thie World (I814), A Memoir relative cidartnm Imperinm (2 vols. Paris, 1725), Richter's Iistor.?D'it. to the Construction of a JM/ap of Scotland (I8O7), and a work on Versucih iiber die Arsaciden und Sassaniden Dynastie (Giitt. the Geometrical Projection of Maln s (I825). Many of A.'s maps I804), and Longperier's Sur les Monnaies des Rois Arsacides were reproduced in Paris by H. Langlois. He died in London, (Paris, I854). April 23, I823. Ar'senal is a magazine for naval or military arms, ammuniArrowsmith, John, a Puritan divine, born at Gateshead, tion, and equipments, sometimes combining with this character Newcastle, March 29, I602, was educated at St John's College, that of a manufactory. Brest, Toulon, L'Orient, and Cherbourg Cambridge. After some years' residence as a fellow of Catherine are the great French arsenals; but though Portsmouth, Plymouth, Hall, he settled at Lynn, in Norfolk, and in the great rebellion Deptford, and Sheerness may be regarded as storehouses for was appointed a member of the Westminster Assembly of naval clothing and provisions, Woolwich is the only place in Divines, in which capacity he took an active part in drawing Britain which really deserves the name, as it is not only a naval up the'Catechism.' He was a preacher for some time at St and military magazine, but also a place possessing foundries and Martin's, Ironmonger Lane, London, and subsequently held the laboratories for the manufacture and final fitting up of almost respective posts of Master of St John's College, Vice-Chancellor every kind of arms and ammunition. See WVOOLWICH. of the University of Cambridge, Regius Professor of Divinity Ar'senic, or Arsen'icum. Some of the compounds of this and Master of Trinity College. The principal of his works, element were known to the ancients, and are spoken of by which are chiefly polemical, are Taclica Sacra, sive de Milite Dioscorides and Aristotle. A. was also studied by the early 178 Ags ---------- -- ------------— a` ARS THE GLOBE ENC YCLOP.zEDIA. ARS alchemists. Schrceder, in I694, was the first, however, to isolate chamber, whilst the oxide of the metal remains on the hearth A.; and its properties were subsequently studied by Brandt, of the furnace. The A. A. condenses on the cold surface Davy, Berzelius, Bunsen, and others. It occurs sometimes in of the chamber in the form of a white powder, technically the free state, but more frequently in combination with sulphur called poison-mzeal (Gifimzeh), whilst the sulphurous acid, being and the metals, forming a large group of bodies called arsenical gaseous at ordinary temperatures, either passes up a shaft and minerals. A. is usually prepared by heating mispicel —a mineral into the air, or is employed in the manufacture of sulphuric containing sulphur, iron, and A.-in iron tubes or retorts. The acid. The impure A. A. is purified by subliming it in iron A. volatilises and condenses in proper receivers in the crystalline vessels, becoming converted by this process into a transparent, state, whilst sulphide of iron remains. A. is a brittle, crystal- colourless glass. A. A. recently sublimed has a very high line substance, of steel-grey colour, and possesses considerable specific gravity (3'7). If it be kept for some time, a change metallic lustre. It crystallises in the same form as antimony, with takes place both in its appearance and properties: it loses its which element it is therefore isomorphous. See ISOMORPHISM. transparency, becomes opaque and crystalline; and ceases to Heated to I8o~ C. in a closed vessel, it volatilises without fusing. dissolve to the same extent as before in water. Thus A. A. Heated in contact with the air, it combines with the oxygen to exists in two distinct conditions, called respectively the vitreous form solid arsenious acid, the fumes of which have a very charac- and crystalline. A. A. is only slightly soluble in water, but hydroteristic odour of garlic. The specific gravity of A. varies from chloric acid dissolves it in abundance, partly converting it into 5'6 to 5'9, according to the method by which it has been pre- chloride of arsenic, AsC13. Nitric acid and aqua regia also dissolve pared. The chemical properties of A. are more closely allied to it; and on evaporating the solution, arsenic acid, 3ItO20,As2O5, those of phosphorus and nitrogen than to those of the metals; remains. A. A. is also soluble in solutions of the alkalies hence, in spite of its appearance and physical properties, which potash and soda, combining with them to form arsenite o! are of a metallic character, A. is generally regarded as a non- potash, or arisenite of soda, as the case may be: the former of metallic substance, though chemists are not unanimous in this these is used in medicine, and is known by the name of Fowler's opinion. The atomic weight of A. is 150, and its chemical solutionz. A. A. is largely employed in the manufacture of the symbol As. A. combines directly with many elements. Thrown pigments called Schzweinfurth and Scheele's greenz, and orf~iinto chlorine, it burns, forming chloride of A., AsCl3. Heated Ymezl, or kin6'syellow. The two former are arselzites of copper; in the air, or in oxygen, oxide of A., As2O3, results; and, indeed, the latter, suelphide of arsenic, A2S3. The glass manufacturer oxidation takes place slowly at ordinary temperatures. A. also uses A. A. to decolorise green glass, by conversion of green procombines directly with sulphur, if the two be heated together, toxide of iron into yellow or slightly-coloured peroxide of ironz. forming orpiment, AsS3, or realgar, AsS2, according to the A. A. is also a' valuable preservative. Skins are anointed with proportions employed. Indirectly, compounds of A. with almost a mixture of A. A. and soap, called arsenical soap. every other element may be formed. I. Arsenic (Arsenziouzs Acid), Properties of, as a Drug. -This The compounds of A. exert a highly poisonous effect on substance acts as an antiperiodic, alterative, and tonic to the neranimal economy, details concerning which will be found in the vous system. As an antiperiodic it ranks next to quinine, and is article ARSENIOUS ACID. A. is employed in the arts to harden employed in ague, neuralgia, &c. It is employed as an alterative metals; thus lead is mixed with a small proportion of A. in in diseases of the skin, especially in those of a scaly kind. It has shot-making. also been used successfully in chronic rheumatism. It is much rsen'ical Minerals large number of substances used as a tonic in cases where there is nervous debility, and also ~arse~ics compuse a lin nervous diseases of a spasmodic kind, such as epilepsy, chorea, which occur in nature, and contain the element arsenic com- &c. It is also used externally as an escharotic, td destroy lupus bined with other bodies, chiefly sulphur and the metals. exedens, masses of cancer, &c., and is the chief ingredient in all Many of these minerals are of considerable importance, not pastes -used by~quack doctors for the cure of cancer. Arsenic only as a source of arsenious acid, but also on account of the asu e b q oc f t creon e sei metals they contain, of some of which they are the principal accumulates in the body, and its administration must be stopped ores. Tthemostimpotatare thefollowing arsenical if the conjunctive become swollen, the bowels loose, the stomach ores. The most importat are the ollowing: arseniclpytes, irritable, and the tongue silvery white. Given internally, arsenic or I1ZiSsAic/~rie[, FeSzFens,, found, in Saxony, in th~e H arz or mipickel, FeS2FeAS2 found in Saxony, in the Harz should be much diluted, and taken after food. Mountains, and in some of the Cornish mines. This mineral 2 Arsenic (Arsenious Acid) as a Poison-From two to thirty 2..4rsenic (Ardenziotas 21cid) as a Poi~son.-Fr'om two to thirty occurs in steel-grey crystals, having considerable metallic grains is a poisonous dose for an adult; the average ftal ose, lnste, ad i empoyedin he pepaatio of he lemet. grains is a poisonous dose for an adult; the average fatal dose, lustre, and is employed in the preparation of the element arsenic, three grains. In acute poisonaing by this substance, the symphd its oxideb, arsenloous acid. Com alpt-gionte (cmip ine, silver- toms may come on quickly, or not until two or three hours after it cot), analogous in composition to mspckel, occurs in the dose. There is depression, faintness, nausea, severe burning large crystals in Norway and Sweden. It is also found in pain at the pit of the stomach, vomiting, purging; urine scanty, Cornwall and in Silesia. NMickel-glance, NiS2NiAs2; arsenical high-coloured, bloody; intense thirst, cramps in the legs, swollen nickel, NiAs,2; and copper nickel (Kupfernick~el), NiAs, the abdomen; the pulse is thready and irregular, and death is prelatter found in Saxony, Bohemia, and Hesse, in copper-coloured ceded by increased faintness, spasmodic movements, hiccough, crystals. All of these minerals are valuable ores of nicktel. crystals. All of these minerals are valuable ores of nice. and delirium. Arsenic may also act as a chronic poison, if given Arsenical iron, FeAs2. Arsenical cobalt, also called tiln-white in small, oft-repeated doses. The symptoms of chronic poisoning cobalt, CoAs2, found in Saxony; also the arsenical fahlores are those of gastro-intestinal irritation, red, suffused eyes, firontal (Fahlerze), minerals which contain sulphur, antimony, copper, headache, trembligs, and a peculiar sin eruptioncalled headache, tremblings, and a peculiar skin eruption!called and iron, in varying proportions; and sometimes in addition to eczea arsenicale. The treatment in cases of acute poisoning is these, zinc, lead, silver, and mercury. Realgar, As2S4, and or)pi- to empty the stomach as quickly as possible by the stomach men, A2S3 ar naivesulhids f asenc. rseolie, s_,3,to empty the stomach as quickly as possible- by the stomach. ment, As2S3, are native sulphides of arsenioar c. Arsenoita, AsO, pump, and give lime-water, or chalk-and-water. If nothing else native ofarsenious acid ie silvr r, 3ASAsS3, a sulpharse- can be had, break down the plaster of the room, mix it with nite of silver; and cbealt blom, 3CoOwsO5, arseniatte of cobalt, water, and cause the patient to swallow the draught. Give milk A. M., when heated before the blowy-pipe, emit; the character- and light farinaceous food after the acute symptoms have passed istic odour of burning arsenic. They are mostly soluble in nitric off. Although so poisonous, it appears that the system ma acid. ~~~~~~~~~~~~o ff. Although so poisonous, it appears that the system ma~y acid. become inured to it by constant use in small doses. The mounArse'nious Acid, commonly called wohite arsenic, or simply taineers of Styria and the Tyrol eat quantities often amounting arsenic, is an oxide of the element arsenic, having the composi- to three or four grains daily, and they are said to give it to their tion'epresented by the formula A203. On account of its uses horses also. in medicine and the arts, A. A. is a substance of much importance. It is prepared as a by-product in the extraction of many Arsin'o6, daughter of Ptolemy I., King of Egypt, born metals from their ores, the latter containing sulphur and arsenic about B.c. 316, married in 300 to Lysimachus, King of Thrace, in addition to the metal to be isolated. As a preliminary whose son Agathocles had married Lysandra,. her half-sister. metallurgical operation, the ore is heated in a reverberatory Anxious to secure the succession for her own children, she infurnace, connected with a large chamber of brickwork, into duced her husband to put his son to death. The widow of the which the products of combustion pass. Oxidation of sulphur, murdered man flew to Seleucus, King of Syria, who declared arsenic, and the metal takes place, sulphurous acid and A. A. war against the Thracian monarch; but Seleucus himself was being produced, and both being volatile, pass into the brick soon after assassinated by a half -brother of A., who then 179 ARS THE GL OBE ENCYCL OPEDIA. ART4 offered her marriage, his motive being to destroy her two sons, sufficiently vague to make it impossible to say that they are not who might one day prove dangerous rivals; and he had no true; but the artist who copies literally from nature-who has sooner obtained her consent, than he carried out his barbarous not in his imagination a touchstone leading him to select, and design. Fleeing to Egypt (279), she there married her own even to alter-will produce a very unnatural and stiff result. It brother Ptolemy II., Philadelphus, by whom she was most ten- is recorded of Sir Waiter Scott, that, visiting for the first time a derly beloved, and who gave her name to several cities, and to scene which he meant to depict in poetry, he noted with infinite an entire district of Egypt. exactness each species of tree, flower, and shrub which beautified it. But then he did this as an auxiliary, that he might not put Ar'son is the malicious setting fire to a dwelling-house. If it. But then he did this as an auxiliary, that he might not put any one is in the house when the offence is committed, it is into his picture that which was not, and that he might select punishable with penal servitude for life. To cause a fire by negli- from that which was in the landscape. He did not suppose that gence is not A., but it may form ground of action for damage, if a catalogue was poetry. He put it into the machinery of his mind, and it came out poetry. If, says Mr Ruskin, you would the property of another is consequently injured. An intention mid, and it came out poetry. If, says r Ruskin, you would paint a ba-tlyums e ni oeta ensak to set fire to a house in town, without intending to injure an paint a bean-stalk, you must see in it more than a bean-stalk. one, thou not A., is punishable as a hig misdemeanour.. will not give this higher vision; but it will help to make it effective. The fiction of our day shows some special examples The setting fire to a stack of corn, or other farm produce, or P of the additional force of, genius when under the guidance of to coal, wood, &c., is punishable with from seven years' penal of the additional force of tgenius when under the guidance of servitude to penal servitude for life. The in1jury of property by consummate A., and also of the prodigality of genius dispensing servitude to penal servitude for life. The illjury of property byalotwlywihtsas.ISlsMrerehveaok gunpowder, or other explosive substance, is similarly punishable. almost wholly with its las. In Sis aer we have a work The analogous term to A. in the criminal law of Scotland is of genius regulated by almost perfect A. In the Pickwick wiiful/'re-raising. In certain circumstances, it is still in Scot- Ppers it may almost be said that A. there is none. Yet we land a capital crime, though the extreme penalty is never in- ead and laugh, re-read and laugh again, regardless of whether flicted. It is in both countries a material aggravation of the the canons of criticism sanction our doing so or not. For the offence if it is committed with the intention of committing a ludicrous is an element which, we suspect, transcends analysis; fraud. Under an Act of Geo. III., applicable to Scotland as and even if it does not, the fact may remain that the intellect well as England, and which has not been directly repealed, the hick can reduce it to law is not able to seize it, while he who does seize it is unable to follow the analysis. So in poetry, so setting fire to a ship or cargo, with the intention of injuring the seize it is unable to follow the analysis. So in poetry, so owner or the underwriter, is a capital crime. in painting, the A. critic may find in one work much to approve. of, nothing to condemn; in another, these conditions may be reArt. Under the widest signification of this word we include versed; yet it may be that in the latter, he who knows nothing all mechanical skill of execution having a basis of scientific know- of the laws of A. in poetry and painting instantly feels the touch ledge. Without this basis, no amount of mechanical skill comes of genius which has eluded the grasp of criticism. Infinitely under the name of A., even in its widest sense. Thus, however subtle is this touch; in poetry it will lie in the cadence of a syldeft be the fingers of a button or a pin maker, he is but a clever lable. Transpose a syllable, and the charm is gone. What a mechanic, not an artist. To some extent, of course, even the picture of the din, the glare, and carnage of war is instantly button-maker does require science; but he does not require it to painted in the mind by the versea sufficiently appreciable extent to make us regard his craft as'Then shook the hills with thunder riven, an A. To draw a precise line between artistic and mere Then rushed the steed to battle driven, mechanical skill is impossible. The shoemaker is a mechanic, And louder than the bolts of heaven Far flashed the red artillery'! not an artist; but we can conceive that, by bringing some special Fr flashed the red artillery' knowledge of the anatomy of the human foot to bear on his Transpose by ever so little, and the vivid picture is gone —has craft, he might so elevate it as to merit the name of an A. vanished into a newspaper paragraph. Doubtless the fact is Again, if we are asked to draw a line of distinction between a owing to ascertainable law; and hence the power of the verse is science and an A., we should say, that where the science is futile, in a sense the result of A.; but we suspect that the writer of this without a requisite and largely appreciable mechanical skill, we verse, and the writers of similar poetry, are probably ignorant of use the word A. Where, on the other hand, the knowledge is the law by which they produce the effect. They do so by the the main point, and the mechanical skill requisite to make it intuition of imagination and feeling, beyond which fact they can effective butlittle, then we speak of a science. Where the two probably give no account of the process. forces are nearly equally balanced, we may with propriety use In fiction, the main scope of A. is twofold-the construction either word. Thus painting is an A., because, without requi- and elucidation of the story, and the development of the characsite and largely appreciable mechanical skill, no science will ters, some authors limiting their aim to the former, others limitmake a painter. Doubtless, something beyond both science and ing theirs to the latter, while others aim at success in both. mechanical skill is required to make a great painter; but for the Each chapter, or portion of a fiction, should possess an interest sake of our illustration, we need not consider this. See Mill's in itself; it should derive an interest from those which have gone Logic, vol. ii. c. xi. before, and help to sustain the interest of those which are to folAgriculture, or navigation, we should call a science; because low; while, at the same time, the characters unfold themselves to be a good agriculturist or navigator much special knowledge in dialogue, easy and natural as that of everyday life, and, as is required, and but little mechanical skill. A skilful surgeon occasion requires, helping to develop the tale. There are many we might with equal propriety call either a scientific man, or an popular fictions written quite in opposition to these rules; yet artist. Ordinarily, however, we use the latter name only in its are they the rules of A. in all classical fiction. restricted sense; and when we say that a man is an artist, we History of Art.-This has hitherto almost exclusively conmean that he devotes himself to the making of pictures. By A., cerned itself with the particular arts of painting, sculpture, and again, in its restricted sense, we denote its application to one or architecture, though the most comprehensive treatment of the other of the fine arts, or to literature, subject, would, as indicated above, embrace a survey of all Every great painter, sculptor, poet, musician, novelist, or essay- imaginative work, including literature and music. In the works ist, must be cognisant, and more or less observant, of the rules of his of the classical writers of antiquity,. Pliny and others, we find A. But, on the other hand, no knowledge or nice observance of tracings of the history of A.; but the overthrow of the Roman these rules, however much the critic may consequently mete out empire by semi-barbarous races, and the slow growth of civi. approval, will enable a man to produce a really great work with- lisation and culture among the conquerors, hindered any deveout the subtle power of imagination. Scientific knowledge lopment of the subject for a thousand years. A. itself, indeed, and mechanical skill in combination-i.e., A.-willnot give a silently revived, and was insensibly transformed under the inman imagination-genius; and if he has none of the mzens divinior, fluence of new ideas, but no history of A. was written. Duriit then he must fail-not necessarily so in the world's estimation, the middle ages the student may perhaps glean a little bearing because critics, who may themselves be destitute of genius, may on the subject, but anything in the shape of historical critiapprove; and critics largely influence the verdict of their genera- cism is utterly unknown. With the revival of letters in the tion, though not that of posterity. But if A. will.not bestow I5th and i6th centuries, however, a mass of fact respecting genius, it enables a man, to make the best of what he has. It artistic subjects was brought together and treated of by various thus does for his genius what economy does for his income. writers. The productions of Byzantine and Italian A.-the Nature, it is said, is the artist's standard. The words are works of Michael Angelo and of Raphael-were contrasted with I8o 4 —--------- *-`P ART THE GL OBE ENCYCL OPSDMI. ART the great works of the heathen world, and the influences of episode, the revolt of his brother, the younger Cyrus, who was Christianity on A. thus inferred. The history of A., as forming aided by I,oo000 Greek mercenaries. The retreat of the IO,ooo a branch of the history of civilisation, may be said to have begun through the highlands of Armenia, under the command of Xenowith the work of Winckelmann (I764). In recent times the sub- phon, is one of the finest military exploits of antiquity, and is ject has been similarly treated by Kugler, in his valuable work, the described with beautiful simplicity by the leader himself. See Handibuc/z der zunstgescziczte (5 vols. I872). There are few more ANABASIS and XENOPHON. He fought against the Lacedaeinteresting subjects of speculation than that of the bearing of the monians, and forced them to cede to him again the suzerainty of development of A. among a people upon their moral and intel- the Greek cities of Asia Minor, but was less fortunate in his lectual progress-or, conversely, that of the manifestation in attempts to subdue an insurrection in Egypt.-3. A., surnamed their A. of their moral and intellectual status. That there is an Ochers, was the son and successor of the foregoing. He ascended intimate connection between that which is good and that which the throne in 360 B.C., after murdering two brothers and eighty is beautiful, is what no one who has an eye to see beauty in half-brothers. He was successful in reducing Egypt to submisnature and A. will doubt; but that a generally diffused sense of sion, but excited universal hatred by his cruelties. A gross the beautiful promotes the practical efficiency of a people is, it is outrage on the religious feelings of the conquered people-viz., to be feared, the reverse of true. The appreciation of beautiful the slaughter of the sacred bull Apis, which he ordered to be scenery, painting, sculpture, and music, in a very high degree, served up at a feast-induced his vizier, the eunuch Bagoas somewhat indisposes a man for toiling after gold and going to (himself an Egyptian), to poison him, 336 B.C. war with his neighbour; on the other hand, it does dispose him Art'edi, hed Swedish naturalist, as orn, towards ease and luxury. Yet it must be but a barbarous nation edi, Peter, a distinguished Swedish naturalist, was born, February 22, I705, at Anund, in the old province of Angermanrespecting whose A. no history can be written. See, besides land. He studied medicine at Upsala, where he became acthe works mentioned, Vasari's Lives, and the modern works of Scthe wor ks me ntioned, Vasari's Liv ish, T. C. Jack, Edirn wors of quainted with Linnaeus, and so great was their friendship that cinaa873), Springer ()Lbke (66; English, T. C. Jac, Einb. each subsequently made the other heir of his MSS. A. devoted 873), Springer (i870), and Carrire (87). himself to fishes, while Linnaeus studied insects and birds. Ar'ta, a town in the vilayet of Janina, Turkey, on the river After residing for a year in England, A. went to Leyden in I735, A., 7 miles from the N. shore of the gulf of the same name. It where he met Linnaeus, just returned from a Lapland excursion. is the seat of a bishop, and was a considerable town when in Here A. prematurely met his death by falling into a canal, I828 it was stormed by the Greeks under Marco Bozzaris. It is December27, I735. Linnaeus published, along with a memoir, an entrep t for the commerce of Janina, 39 miles N., and has his IchtzyolZoia, sive Opera omzzia de Piscibus (Leyden, 1738, 2d manufactures of woollens, cottons, leather, and articles of attire; ed., with corrections and additions by Walbaum; Greifswald, its floccatas, or long shaggy cloaks, are highly esteemed. A 1788-92). Cuvier says that A. is the first writer who treats the bridge of Venetian construction here spans the river. Pop. subject of fishes in a scientific spirit. (1873) 8ooo. A., ancien-tly, Al-cia, vas founded by Corinthian Artemi'sia, the name of two famous queens of antiquity. colonists about 635 B.c., became a flourishing city, carried on a A Queen of Halicarnassus, who, after the death of her protracted and wasting war with the Amphilochians, and was finally conquered by Philip II. of Macedonia. Later it fell into husband Lygdamis, jined Xerxes with five ships, and distinthe hands of Pyrrhus, who made it capital of Epirus, and adorned guished herself at Salamis (B.C. 480).-2. A., Queen of Caria (died 352-350 B c-), the sister, wife, and successor of Prince it with works of art. Successively held by the }Etolians and Mausolus, to whom she erected the splendid monument from it rapidly declined, but rose again in the later days of Mausolus, to whom she erected the splendid monument from Romans, it rapidly declined, but rose again n the later days of which is derived the name Mausoleum (q. v.), and which was the empire. Under the Byzantines it was strongly fortified, and excavated by Newton in I857. under the new name of A. played an important part in the wars of the I2th c., was wrested from the Turks by the Venetians Artemisia, a genus of shrubby or herbaceous greyishin I688, conquered by Ali Pasha in I798, and reconquered by coloured Composite plants, commonly called wormwood. A. the Turks in I82I. AbsintZizmz, or common wormwood, was well known to the Arta, Gulf of (anc. Sinus Anzbracius), an inlet of the Ionian ancient Greeks as a medicinal plant; they called it Alsinthion. Serta, partly separates Turkey from Greece. It is 25 miles long This, as well as other species, possesses aromatic, bitter, and tonic Sea, partly separates Turkey from Greece. It is 25 miles long ties and is used as a stomachi and 1 f Tl and IO wide, but its entrance is shallow and intricate. To the propert,, a so as a vermiuge. Te S. of the entrance is the promontory La Punta (anc. Acti, flower-stalks and heads of a number of species of A. are sold as q. v )t and on the N. side stands the town of Preveza. wormseed, and are powerful anthelmintics. They are principally imported from the Levant. The Chinese prepare moxa from Artaba'zus, the name of several Persian generals, of whom A. Moxa, which produces a sore when burned on the skin, on the following are the best known: I. A., the Median, who the same principle as a blister. The bitter aromatic extrait flourished in the 6th c. B.c., and is celebrated for his devotion to d'absinhe is manufactured from a species of A. growing in SwitCyrus.-2. A., son of Pharnaces, accompanied Xerxes on his zerland. It is much used in France, and forms an agreeable invasion of Greece as far as the Hellespont with 6o,ooo men, stomachic. A. Abrotanuztn is the shrub called southernwood or and at a later period joined Mardonius, whom he vainly attempted' old man' in gardens. Sprigs of this plant are often placed in to dissuade from fighting the battle of Platsea. His retreat to wardrobes to prevent clothes being destroyed by'moths, it being Asia was a proof of his capacity.-3. A., general of Artaxerxes, very obnoxious to insects. A. LADracuncuzzts, the estragon or first employed to suppress the Egyptian rebellion, 450 B.C. —4. tarragon of Siberia, has a peculiar aromatic taste, without the A., a general employed by Artaxerxes II. to crush the sedition bitterness which characterises the other species. It is used as a of the imperial satraps, 362 B.C., but completely defeated by pickle, and to flavour fish-sauces and vinegar. A. vuzorzris is a Datames, satrap of Cappadocia. He fought at the battle of common British plant called mugwort. Arbela, and accompanied Darius in his flight. Alexander, in Artereot'omy is cutting into an artery, so as to permit an appreciation of his fidelity, made him governor of Bactria. effusion of blood. It is now very rarely, if ever, practised in Artan'the. See MATICO. medicine. Artaxerx'es (according to Herodotus, the word means Ar'teries, Diseases of. A. are liable to various diseases,'great warrior') is the name of three Persian kings. —. A., of which the following are the chief: — surnamed Longimzanuzs, because his right hand was longer than I. Atherovnatoes degeneration. —This is a variety of fatty dethe other, reigned forty years (465-425 B.c.). He was the son generation in which the muscular coats are chiefly involved. It of Xerxes I., who was assassinated by Artabanus, the captain of may lead to rupture of the wall of the vessel, and effusion of his guards. A. slew the latter in the presence of the army, and blood into the brain, or other important organ. exterminated his partisans. The most notable events in his 2.- Calcareous degeneration.-In this condition, which may be reign were his suppression of an Egyptian rebellion, his restora- preceded by atheroma, the wall of the vessel becomes brittle by tion of the independence of the Greek cities in Asia Minor, and the deposition of earthy salts in its coats, or in the fatty matter his permission to the Jews to re-establish their worship at Jeru- formed by previous fatty change. It frequently commences in the salem —2. A., surnamed Muemzon, on account of his great internal coat of the larger vessels. This condition may also lead memory, succeeded his father, Darius II., B.C. 405, and died B.c.. to sudden rupture. 36I. His long reign of forty-four years has at least one famous 3. Amy/aid degeneration.This consists in the formation of a I81 + - ART THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP/EDIA. ART glue or starchy-like matter, which becomes diffused through the chalk, permits water to percolate with ease through it. If these coats of the vessel. It occurs chiefly in the middle coats of the strata are bent into a cup-shape, so that the edge of the middle smaller A., the walls of which become thickened. See AmYLOID one crops out of the surface, obviously water will be collected DEGENERATION. This state of the A. is usually associated with between the two impervious layers, and will exert a strong upward similar morbid changes in other important structures, such as the pressureupon the lower side of the upper oftheseimpervious strata. kidneys or liver. Accordingly, if we bore a hole through this top layer, the water 4. A4rteTilis, or inflammation of the A., is a very rare disease will ascend, and endeavour to attain the level of the water at the in the acute form, but it may follow surgical operations. edges. A. W. are said to have been long known to the Chinese. 5. Anesirism.-Dilatation of one or more of the coats of an The Austrians have used them for hundreds of years; they are artery. See ANEURISM. numerous in and about London, those which form the orna6. Wozunds. -When an artery is accidentally cut, the blood, of mental fountain in Trafalgar Square descending to a depthof nearly a scarlet colour, escapes in a series of jets which correspond to 400 feet; while that of Grenelle, in the neighbourhood of Paris, the contractions of the heart. Hsemorrhage from a large artery has the extraordinary depth of ISoo feet. Algeria has been also is rapidly fatal unless arrested. Should such an accident occur, greatly benefited by such borings; and there seems reason to pressure must instantly be made on the side of the wound next hope that these may yet change parts of the African deserts into the heart, so as to compress the artery. A tight ligature may be beautiful oases. The temperature of the water thus obtained is applied, so as to surround the limb. To effect complete stoppage found to increase with the depth, thus affording a powerful arguof hemorrhage, the artery must either be tied by a ligature (a ment in favour of the interior heat of the earth. proceeding requiring surgical assistance), or pressure made on the bleeding wound by a series of small compresses made of cotton rt'evelde, Jacob or Jacmart van, a popular leader in or lint, so arranged as to have the smaller next the wound, larger the early part of the 4th c., was a brewer of Gent. He sided wvith England against France, in opposition to the French nzoblesse ones over these, and so on, the whole being firmly secured by a of Flanders, against France, in opposition to the French noblesse of Flaniders, whom he defeated and compelled to evacuate the badg.For the different modes of arresting hremorrhage, see ct.Fr wo edfae n ople oeaut h bandage. For the different modes of arresting oemorrhage, see city. For nine years he exercised sovereign power, proving himH-IEmORRI-AGE. ~~~HIE~~~~~~MORRHAGE. ~self in the main to be a bold and adroit leader; but his proposal Ar'tery. The arteries are vessels which carry the blood out- that the Black Prince, son of Edward III. of England, should be wards from the direction of the heart towards the periphery of chosen governor of Flanders, caused an insurrection in Ghent, in the body. They terminate in the capillaries, from which origi- which A. was killed, July i9, I345. His son Philip, at the head nate the veins. The name A. was given by the ancients to of the Ghentese, gained a great victory over Count Louis of these vessels because they were then supposed to contain air-an Flanders at Bruges (1381), and was named Regent of Flanders; error exploded by Galen. As an A. is traced outwards, it is but after many further successes, he was defeated and slain at found to give off branches, usually at an acute angle with the Rosbeke, November 27, 1382. Full of striking incident, his life main trunk; but occasionally an A. divides into several branches has been the subject of several dramas, the best of which is at once, none of which are so large in calibre as the main trunk. Henry Taylor's PhIilip vanz A. (Lond. I846.) When arteries unite, they are said to anastomose. Arteries usually Art Exhibitions owe their establishment to the necessity pursue a straight course, but they are sometimes tortuous, as in of publicly displaying works of art, for the purposes at once of the case of the spermatic arteries in the ass, bull, or ram. Such obtaining purchasers for the same, and of fostering public taste. a tortuous arrangement must impede slightly the velocity of the After the time when a middle class sprang up through the excurrent of blood, and also admit of a considerable amount of tension of commerce and manufactures in the different countries movement or stretching. The larger arteries are highly elastic, of Europe, the patronage of art was no longer confined to ecclewhile the smaller have less elasticity but more contractility. siastics, princes, and nobles, whose pictures remained accessible This will be understood after considering their structure. All to the public in churches and palaces, but was assumed by a vast arteries, except the very smallest, have three coats, named, from class of merchants and burghers. These -adorned their private their relative position, internal, middle, and external. I. The houses with pictures, which exercised little or no influence on internal is formed of a layer of epithelium (sometimes termed public taste, and rendered the establishment of A. E. necessary. endothelium, and continuous with the capillaries), lying upon two A. E. are collections of works in painting and sculpture belonglayers of elastic tissue, one of which is perforated by numerous ing (i) to the nation, as in the permanent exhibitions, National apertures, and is therefore called thefenzesirated or window-like Gallery, South Kensington Museum, &c.; (2) to private indilayer, while the other consists of fibres and bands of elastic viduals, from whom the works are obtained for exhibition on loan, tissue arranged longitudinally. 2. The middle coat consists of as in the case of occasional exhibitions-as the Manchester Art involuntary muscular fibre arranged circularly round the vessel. Exhibition the Exhibitions of National Portraits, and in a numIn the larger arteries this coat is arranged in layers separated by er of instances in the Gallery of the Royal Scottish Academy, thin septm of connective or elastic tissue, and the elastic tissue &c.; or (3) to the artists who painted them, and who ths offer &c.; or (3) to the artists who painted them, and who thus offer predominates, whereas in the smaller, the muscular layer is free tem for sale to the public. n the various annual A. E., te fro thse epteand reatiel tothecalbreoftheveselisthem for sale to the public. In the various annual A. E., the from these sept, and, relatively to the calibre of the vessel, is vast majority of the works exhibited belong to the class last very much thicker. This anatomical difference explains the high enumerated. Besides the permanent A. E. of London, which 911enumerated. Besides the permanent A. E. of London, which degree of elasticity of the larger, and the great contractile power have considerably increased within recent years-the last estab. of the smaller. 3. The external coat consists of an inner layer of lished being that of the Bethnal Green Museum - and the elastic tissue, and an outer of white connective tissue. National Galleries at Edinburgh and Dublin, there are annual Arteries are supplied with minute capillaries, and with nerves. A E. at Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Glasgow, and The nerves belong chiefly to the sympathetic system of nerves, Edinburgh; and at Cambridge, Coventry, Nottingham, Sheffield, whrich, by acting on the muscular fibres, keep the vessel in a and other towns, there are galleries in connection with the local state of partial contraction. See SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM. The schools of art. In France there are about Ioo towns which special vital property of arteries is contractility, dependent on have public galleries of art; and in Geany and ustri tey the uscuar oat bov desribd. Se CPILLRIE, CICU-have public galleries of art; and in Germany and Austria they Lthe muscuar coat above described. See CAPILLARIES, CIacu- are also very numerous. The Royal Commission of I866 estabLATION, VEINS. lished in the clearest manner that it was to the A. E. of the Arte'sian Wells, so named from the district of Artois, in country that the improvement of the public taste in art is due, France, where they were first made, are perpendicular borings especially to the Great Exhibitions of I85i and I862, and to the into the ground, through which most successful Manchester Exhibition of 1857. The first exhiwater rises from various depths bition of the Royal Academy took place in 1769, when few works to the surface of the soil. Their were exhibited; while in that of I875 there were exhibited 1408 action is due to the well-known works by 835 artists, and the receipts of the season, from the hydrostatic law that water con- payments of visitors, realised an immense sum. Similar prostantly endeavours to seek its gress is seen in the northern part of the island. The first exhiArtesian Wells own level. Suppose there be bition of the Royal Scottish Academy took place in 1826, when three contiguous strata of earthy there were 178 works, by 27 contributors; that of 1875 conmaterial, the lowest and uppermost ones, such as clay, being im- tained O1029 works, by 439 artists. In both exhibitions a fair pervious, or nearly so, to' water, while the middle layer, such as proportion of the pictures were sold. I82 ART THE GL OBE EC YCLOPeEDIA. ART Arthri'tis. This is a term usually understood as denoting a above all, the belief in the marvellous and the supernatural had chronic or subacute inflammation of the fibrous textures of a joint, received an enormous development. Nowhere is this more wildly or of the fibrous coverings of muscles, dependent on the presence visible than in the story of A. as moulded anew by the brilliant but in the blood of an excess of uric acid. This form of the affection credulous genius of Geoffrey of Monmouth. In his Historia is known as gout. See GOUT. The term is also applied to Britonum we see the origin of that A. R. which fed the wonder rheumatic affections of the joints, in which, however, there is no of the middle ages. To what extent it is a creation of the Welsh permanent deposit. It also denotes in recent nomenclature archdeacon's patriotic imagination, it is impossible to say; a remarkable disease often called rheumatic gout, chronic but while we may suspect his declaration that he only translated rheumatic A., rheumatoid A., or chronic osteo-A., in which his Historia into Latin out of'a very ancient book in the British there is pain, swelling, contraction, and stiffness of the joints and tongue,' it is not an irrational supposition that it contains, besides limbs. In severe cases of this kind the joint is entirely destroyed. the splendid additions of his own invention, the gathered riches The fibrous textures surrounding it become thick, the cartilage of centuries of legend, both Armorican and British. The covering the bones is absorbed, and the heads of the bones appearance of Geoffrey's work (appropriately dedicated to the become enlarged from new ossific deposit. The causes of this Earl of Gloucester, son of Henry I. by the daughter of Rhys disease are not known. The only treatment beneficial is such ap Tewdwr, the last prince of S. Wales) marks the transference as promotes the general health and the nutrition of the body. of the A, R. from Cumbria to S. Wales, and the beginning of No drugs appear to have the slightest effect. that phantasmagoria of fiction from which all traces of historical Arthro'dia, a term first employed by an anatomist called truth or even of verisimilitude utterly vanish. Henceforth the rWinslow', to denote a joint admitting of only a very slight romancers of the middle ages, whether in verse or prose, revel insldegree of movem denote a joint a tting of only a very slight in the description of gorgeous scenes and incredible exploits. degree of movement. The simple GwZedifg of the Welsh bards, and the dux bellorzmz of Arthrol'ogy is that department of anatomy which treats of Nennius, is transformed by Geoffrey into a world-famous monthe structure and functions of joints or articulations. arch, who, after vanquishing the Saxons, Scots, and Picts at home, makes victorious expeditions abroad, successively reduces TICULATA), in which jointed limbs, articulated to the body Ireland, Iceland, Gothland, the Orkneys, Norway, Dacia, Apresent. The Arthropodous Annulosa include four classes The Aquitaine, and Gaul, while in a great battle in the valley of resent. The Arthropodous Annulosa include, four classes: The Suesia he inflicts a tremendous defeat on the Romans, though Jnsects, A1rac/niud (q. v.) (spiders, scorpions), Myriahoda they are supported by the forces of every Eastern king whom (q. v.) (centipedes), and Crustacea (q. v.) (crabs, lobsters, &c.). Geoffrey'smemory or imagination ca summon to their help. The body, as in all Annulosa, consists of numerous joints or ys memory or imagination can summon to their help. The body, as in all Annulosa, consists of numerous joints or Wee now learn for the first time that his father was Uther Pen-'somites' arranged along a longitudinal axis. Each joint usually We now learn for the first time that his father was Uther Penbears a pair of appendages. The skin is generally hardened by dragon, and his mother Igerna, wife of Gorlois, Duke of Corndeposits aof horny or limy matter. The head consists gpenerally wall. Merlin does not play any part in the reign of A., but in deposits of horny or limy matter. The head consists generally of six segments, and of never less than four. No cilia or vibratile those of Ambrosius Aurelianus and Uther e fires as the ofia gments a re developed in any of the Anfou. No czcorvibreathieg prince of magicians, and A. himself, according to Geoffrey, owed filaments are developed in any of the A. The breathing is by his existence to his medicinal enchantments. A.'s somewhat thegills, air-tubes (rck) or pulmodorsal aspect, and generally saconsists of heart lies on mysterious fate was brought about, we are told, by the treachery the back or dorsal aspect, and generally consists of an enlarged of his nephew Modred (the Medraut of the Welsh bards), contractile chamber or cavity, which may be provided with who, during his absence in Italy, ad seduced his wife Guanvalves. who, during his absence in Italy, had seduced his wife Guanhumara, raised a revolt, and summoned the heathen Saxons Ar'thur and Arthu'rian Romance. A., a British to his aid. A., mortally wounded in battle, was carried to the warrior who flourished in the 6th c., but whose real history has Isle of Avallon to be healed of his wounds, and there Geoffrey been so distorted by fable and romance that it is barely possible leaves him. During the next two centuries (I3th and 14th) the to feel sure of his existence. The earliest mention of him is A. R. continued to grow through all Latin Christendom, until it made by the Welsh bards, that is, if we accept the antiquity became simply a magnificent mirror of mediaeval chivalry-of its assigned to their poems-an antiquity which, though assailed by valour, tenderness, superstition, piety, and licence. New charStephens and Nash, is, in a modified way, skilfully, and it seems acters, unknown to Geoffrey, are introduced, legends that had to us successfully, defended by Skene. In these poems'Arthwys' originally no connection with A. are woven into the manyappears as the GzoZedig ('military leader') of the Britons-a heroic coloured web of the A. R., such as the saintly legend of the prince, who successfully battles with heathen Picts and Saxons, Holy Grail, which first becomes Arthurian in the Quest, the but whose origin and history are entirely free from any obscuring witcheries of Vivien, and the story of Lancelot of the Lake. All halo of romance or magic. It is considered by some critics to the splendours of Oriental fancy thathad reached the West through be a fatal objection to his historical reality that neither Bede the influence of the Crusades, the Moors of Spain, and the cease. (who wrote in the 8th c.) nor the Chronicle (begun in the 9th) less action of literature, are seen shining in the Arthurian poems mentions his name; but it may be answered that Bede's silence of the troauvres of France and England, and the minnesingers of extends to the century in which A. is believed to have flourished, Germany. At least six different romances are included in the and that the Chronicle concerns itself mainly with the struggles of Arthurian cycle: (I) The romance of A. himself, including the the Britons and English S. of the Humber, while the exploits Mort or Death (q. v.); (2) Merlin (q. v.); (3) Lancelot of the of the British prince were performed in a region far to the N. Lake (q. v.); (4) The Holy Grail (q. v.); (5) The Quest of and W. This is, in fact, Skene's contention, and whether his the Holy Grail; (6) Tristram and Yseult (q. v.). Finally, the critical analysis of the so-called Nennius produce conviction or romance passed into prose in the I5th c., and in an English not, it is impossible not to admire the ingenuity and consistency form was printed by Caxton in I485, from a compilation made of his argument. After the Welsh bards, Nennius, whose name by Sir Thomas Malory in I46I. This is the easy source from was latterly given to the work known as the Historia Britonum, which Tennyson has drawn not a little of the spirit, the colourand who flourished in the 8th c., is the oldest authority on the sub- ing, incidents, and the language of his famous Idylls. The best ject of A. In the fiftieth chapter of this work we read:'Tunc edition is that edited for the Lilbrary of Old Enfglish Aulthors by A., pugnabat contra illos (i.e., Saxones) in illis diebus cum regibus Wright (I866), from the text of the latest black-letter edition of Britannorum, sed ipse dux erat bellorum.' The writer then pro- I634. It is from Malory that English readers have long derived ceeds to mention the twelve battles in which A. vanquishes his their idea of A. as a peerless prince, presiding over a court of foes. A minute examination of the chapter has led Skene to the fair women and brave men, and shedding a kind of celestial inconclusion that the popular notion of A. as a prince of S. Wales, fluence upon his times by his unblemished virtue and unrivalled derived from Geoffrey of Monmouth and the later romances, is magnanimity, till the infidelity of Guinevere and the perfidy of incorrect, and that in all probability he was a Cumbrian or Lancelot dissolved, as with fatal sorcery, the whole beauty and Strathclyde Briton, an hypothesis fortified by numerous tradi- strength of the noble companionship. It is certainly not a little tions in the W. and centre of the country now called Scotland. remarkable that a British prince, whose name was beneath the We are disposed to accept Skene's conclusion that'the A. of notice of contemporary history, and the earliest records of whom Nennius is the historical A.' After Nennius, there is a silence in are meagre and indefinite, should have had the fortune in later literature regarding A. for upwards of 400 years. During that ages to become more illustrious in romance than Charlemagne period vast changes had taken place in Western Europe, and, himself. Perhaps the true explanation of the phenomenon may ^_ _ _ _i_~~- 183 ART THE GLOBE E1NC YCOP 0ED4. AIRT be that the Norman trouvires who first began to make the story was published in forty-two articles. This confession, however, famous in the West, took all the more willingly to a hero whom does not seem to have been approved by Convocation, and was tradition represented as the implacable foe of the English race, not ratified by Parliament, although the king ordered it to be and whose victories were grateful to the descendants of the subscribed by all clergymen, schoolmasters, and churchwardens. warriors that conquered at Hastings. See Turner's History of But immediately after its publication Edward died; and one of the Anglo-Saxons (7th ed. I 852); Grksse's Die Grosse Sagenkreise the first acts of the Convocation summoned with Mary's first des Mlittelalters (Leipz. I 842); Stephens' Literature of the kymJzy Parliament, was to declare that these forty-two articles had not (I849); Nash's Taliessin; or, T7e Bards and Druids qf Britain been set forth by the agreement of that House, and that they did (1858); Skene's Four Anzcient Books of Wales (Edinb. i868);. not agree thereto. A new confession for the Reformed Church and Glennie's Arthu3iian Localities (I869). was drawn up by Parker, Cranmer's successor in the see of Arthur's Seat, a picturesque hill overlooking Edinburgh to Canterbury (1559), under Elizabeth. For this purpose he rethe S. E. It is 822 feet high, and commands a magnificent pro- vised the forty-two articles of Edward VI., rejecting four enthe S.E. It is 822 feet high, and commands a magnificent pro- tirely, substituting four in their place, and alterng seventeen spect. The chief rock is trap, which in vast tabular masses hasirely, substituting four in their place, and broken through the Carboniferous strata, and frequently encloses others. By were rejected altogethe thirty-ninth, fortieth, and portions of hardened sandstone. Salisbury Crags, avast crescent forty-second were rejected altogether; and thus they were printed, So feet high, crown a steep hill aboutreduced from forty-two to thirty-nine. When they were printed, ~of rugged cliff~s from 6o~ to the twenty-ninth was omitted; butit was restored in I57I1, in 500 feet in height to the N. of A. S., and overhang the older part of Edet in hbureight to the N.upper part of A. S. is formedag the of basalt, which year they were ratified by Parliament, and finally accepted part of Edinburgh. The upper part of A. S. is formed of basalt, as are also the angular columns called' Samson's Ribs,' on the as a fair declaration of the doctrine held by the Church. W. side. If Skene's interpretation of the chapter' in Nennius Articles of War are regulations for the government of the relating to A. S. be correct, it was the scene of that monarch's army, including the forces in India, for the marine forces, and eleventh battle, and preserves in its name a memory of the event. for the navy. See The Folrr Ancient Books of Wales, p. 57. Articles of War for the Army are issued under the authority of Ar'tichoke, the common name for Cynara Scolyinus, a -the annual Mutiny Act (q. v.). The operation of these laws is hardy, perennial, thistle-looking plant, belonging to the order confined to military offences, and in no way exempts the officer Corlposiace. It is a native of Barbary and the S. of Europe, or soldier from the jurisdiction of the civil courts of the country; and has long been cultivated for the sake of its excellent flower and in the event of a collision between the military and civil laws, receptacle, called the'choke,' and the bases of the fleshy the latter is supreme. The A. of W. relate to the duties of the flower scales, which are used as a vegetable. They have a very soldier, to military offences, and to military rank. These articles delicate and agreeable flavour, and are much used on the Con- issue directly from the crown. tinent, being cooked in a variety of ways. The heads of flowers, Articles of Wari for the Marine Eorces.-These articles are when young, are used for pickling. Its flowers curdle milk like framed under the authority of another Mutiny Act, relating solely rennet, and the plant is said to furnish a good yellow dye. The to the marines. They do not issue directly from the crown, but Cardoon (q. v.) is a closely allied species. The Jerusalem A. from the authority of the Lord High Admiral, or that of the com(q. v.) belongs to a different genus. missioner for executing the duties of that office. The marines Ar'ticle (Lat. articulus, Gr. arthron, a joint). The Greek are subject to these articles only when on shore. At sea they grammarians correctly used this grammatical term, because their are under the A. of W. for the Navy. A. really served as a' joint' uniting several words together; A rticles of War for the Xavy. These are not framed under A. really served as a'joint' unithig several words together; the authority of the Mutiny Act, but under that of the Naval Disthe Latins, who had no A. in their language, applied the ciline ( ) Act. They are, in the letter, eminently severe; term more loosely to any short word, whether verb, conjunction, p term more loosely to any short word, whoether vnrbw, conjunction, but, both by the superior officers and naval courts, they are usuor pronoun; but Englishmen have no excuse now for retaining ally leniently and wisely administered. it, because their'a' or'an' and'the' have no articulating power. Formerly it was different, at least as far as the A.'the' Articula'ta, a name sometimes used synonymously with is concerned, which, in the earliest English, could be used as a the newer term Annulosa to indicate a sub-kingdom or primary relative pronoun, like the modern German dars, and therefore division of the animal world. The sub-kingdom is represented by had an articulating power. The best English grammars now worms, insects, centipedes, spiders, &c., and crustaceans. In discard the name A. from the parts of speech, and consider'a' all the body is composed of a series of joints or somites arranged or' an' and'the' to be still what they were in the beginning, in a longitudinal manner; hence the names'A.' and' Annulosa,' the former (ad,'one') a numeral, and the latter (that,'that') meaning'jointed.' The outer skin may be horny or calcareous, a demonstrative adjective. and to the hard investment, when present, the muscles are atArticles, The Six, were passed through Parliament in the tached. The heart, when developed, invariably lies in the year I539, in the reign of Henry VIII., when the king had be- dorsal or back region; the digestive system runs through the come reactionary in religion. They are as follows: (I) That the middle of the body; and the nervous system exists typically as a Eucharist was really the present natural body and blood of double chain of nerve-knots or ganglia, lying on the floor or Christ; (2) that the Communion uinder both kinds was not ne- ventral aspect of the body. The cesophagus or gullet pierces cessary to salvation; (3) that priests could not by the law of God the nerve-chain at the anterior extremity of the body. The marry; (4) that vows of chastity, whether in man or woman, limbs are developed in pairs, and when present, are turned priest, monk, or nun, must be observed; (5) that private masses towards the nervous side or front of the body. The A. are must be retained as essential; (6) that the use of auricular con- divisible into the Anarthropoda, or Lower A., represented by fession is expedient and necessary. They were subsequently the various kinds of worms; and into the Arthropoda (q. v.), called the'Bloody Statute,' because the penalties attached to or Higher A., represented by Insects, Myriapoda, Arachnida their contravention sent many persons to the stake. (q. v.), and Cruslacea. The Anarthropoda possess no jointed limbs, the Arthropoda being provided with these appendages. Articles, The Thirty-nine, is the name given to the Confession of Faith of the Church of England. The first attempt at Artic'ulate Sounds. See LETTERS. a Protestant Confession was made in 1536 by Henry VIII., who Artificial Hori'zon is obtained by means of a perfectly prescribed what doctrines should be taught in the Church. calm and plane surface of a liquid (such as mercury) whose reAccording to which instructions, the Scriptures and the ancient flecting power is great. In obtaining the altitude of any object creeds were made the standards of faith; the doctrine of justi- by this means, the sextantis brought as close as possible to the fication by faith was set forth; four of the seven Roman Catholic reflecting surface, the sextant is brought as close as of the to thet sacraments were left out; purgatory was left doubtful; but tran- re made to coinsurface, so that the true and r ef is evidently half the substantiation, auricular confession, and the worship of saints are made to coincide, so that the true angle is evidently half the and images were retained. The above, in substance, was what was enforced by the Bloody Statute passed in I539, which re- Artificial Limbs. These are substitutes for limbs lost by mained in force till the end of Henry's reign. Under Edward accident or removed by operation. From the time of Ambrose VI. Cranmer and Ridley drew up a confession of faith (I55I), Pare, in the middle of the I6th c., mechanicians have devoted which, being approved by a commission of divines and the king, much skill to the construction of artificial arms, hands, legs, and I84 a ART TIHE GLOBE EAC YCLOPMDIA. ART feet. Pare constructed an arm and hand of iron, but it was so XIV. In I795 the famous French school, the Polytechnic, heavy that it could only be worn for a short period. The famous was established. Germany has its most important school at iron hand of Gitz von Berlichingen, by which he could wield Berlin; and Russia, Austria, and Italy have also thoroughlya sword, was three pounds in weight. In the beginning of the equipped institutions for A. instruction. The great A. school of present century, Baillif, of Berlin, constructed, of lighter materials, England is the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, which a hand which could seize and retain an object, such as cloth, a possesses twenty-two professors and instructors. The students hat, or a pen, Since that time many improvements have been enter between the ages of seventeen and twenty, and are recruited effected, and motion has been secured in the elbow, wrist, and by competitive examination. In connection with the Woolwich fingers, so that hands are now made by which a glass may be Academy are some subordinate institutions, such as the Departraised to the lips, or a pin picked from the ground. The best ment of A. Studies, and the School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness. stump for the attachment of an artificial arm and hand includes See Lieutenant-Colonel Owen's Modern Artillesy (Lond. I87I). two-thirds of the forearm. For details see a 2Manzal of Ot/zo15raxy, by Heather Bigg, 2d ed., London, I869, pp. I34-I60. Artillery Company, Honourable, the oldest existing With regard to the lower limb, the first point of importance is volunteer corps in England, dates as far back as the reign of the nature of the stump, because on it rests the weight of the Henry VIII. In 1537 that monarch granted power to three body when the limb is used. In amputation above the knee, the persons, who were nominated' Overseers of the Science length of stump most convenient for an artificial leg is two-thirds of Artillery,' to establish such a company for the practice of of the thigh. In amputation below the knee, the stump should shooting both with bow and arrow and firearms. James I. and not be shorter than one-third of the leg. By careful arrange- Charles I. successively ensured the preservation of shooting and ments, however, an artificial leg may be adapted to a stump only shooting-grounds about London for the A. C.; and in I638 the a few inches in length. In the language of orthopraxy, the part corporation of London presented to the company the artillery of the artificial leg which receives the stump is termed the bucket: grounds near Moorfields for military exercise. The company the bolts are the various centres which fix the parts of the leg has never experienced actual warfare, but in I780, during the together, and around which there is axial motion; while the Gordon riots, it successfully defended the Bank of England from springs may be regarded as elastic motor appliances for regulat- the attack of the No-Popery rabble. ing the action of the ankle and toe-joints. The simplest form of The members are elected by ballot, and pay an annual subleg is the common pin-leg used by the poor, which consists of a scription of one guinea, besides furnishing themselves with the bucket and a pin which reaches to the ground. Another form necessary dress and accoutrements. The corps is made up of ten is the box-leg, such as is worn by pensioners, and is suitable for companies, six of which are infantry, one grenadier, one artillery, amputations below the knee. It consists of a trough to receive one rifle, and one light infantry. Since I849 the crown has apthe knee, a pin to stretch from the trough to the ground, and a pointed the officers, who were previously elected by the members. shaft to fix it to the wearer's body. There are numerous other contrivances for obtaining movement at the knee and ankle tillery, oyl Regien of, the collective name for The chief of these are the Anglesea leg, contrived by the late the whole A. of the British army, which consists of two parts Marquis of Anglesea, the Palmer leg, and Dr Bly's leg. The namely, the Royal A. and the Royal Horse-A. It was latter is an admirably-constructed artificial leg, admitting of rota- first formed during the reign of Queen Anle; and though tion and lateral action of the ankle-joint, and having a self- greatly increased since that time, and now forming quite an acting spring in the knee-joint which urges the leg forward in army in itself, it has always constituted but one regiment. walking. For details see Heather Bigg, pp. 6i6-623, This is different from the arrangements prevailing in Germany, France, Russia, and other great powers, where the A. force is Artillery is a term used with a variety of significations. divided into numerous regiments. The foot-A, of the British (I) It denotes cannon or other ordnance; (2) the shot and shell consists of /eavy and lit A.; the former for siege-work along with the cannon; (3) the body of men who manage the or the defence of fortified places, the latter for field-work. The cannon; (4) both the cannon and the men. For a description of horse-A. accompanies the cavalry, and is provided with much the larger pieces of ordnance, see the article CANNON. EPquip- lighter guns. The former is divided into brigades (Nos. I to nment of A. comprises the persoznnze, mzateriel, and transpfort. The 23); the latter into five brigades, named according to the first different kinds of equipment are divided into Batteries (q. v.) for letters of the alphabet. There is also a further division into more convenience. The battery is the tactical unit of A. batteries. The army estimates of I874-75 show for the horseArtillery Corps, first recognised as a distinct part of an army A. a force of 57II men, of which 242 are commissioned by Gustavus Adolphus, now occupy with all European nations as officers; and for the foot-A. a force of 29,055, of which 1159 important a place as infantry and cavalry. They are divided into are commissioned officers, thus indicating a total force of land-A. and marine-A., the former comprising field, garrison, 34,766. and siege A., of which the field-A. is subdivided into horse and foot, and also into light, heavy, and reserve A. Military opinion has varied as to the number of guns which should accompany rupeds, represented by the hippopotami, the swite, and all ruminants, and characterised by the fact that the included an army in the field; but since the Franco-German war of 1870 an s possess an even number of toes-two or four. The -which was essentially a war of A.-most authorities are agreed tim als possess an even nf mber of toes- four. The that there should be four field-guns for every Iooo infantry, and third toe on each foot forms a pair with the fourth toe. The tfive ore six hourse-A. frguns for every mIoooony cavalry. a vertebrae of the back and loins (dorsal and lumbar) collectively five or six horse-A. guns for every cavalry. This propor- umber nineteen. When horns exist, they are invariably devetion, however, necessarily varies according to the nature of the n inhey country and the means of transport. loped in pairs. The stomach is generally of complex or com. rtillery, Park of is a term used to denote all apurtenances, pound nature. The A. are divided into the Oznnivora (hippoi ces, potami and swine) and Rluninantia (sheep, oxen, deer, anteguns, carriages, ammunition, &c., requisite for the working of lopes, camels, giraffes, and a) (sheep, oxen, deer, nte A., and includes besides whatever is necessary for their repair. It does not, however, include the personnel, that is, the officers Artocarpa'ceoe, an order of Dicotyledonous plants found in and men, together with the necessary smiths, armourers, wheel- tropical countries, and abound in a milky juice. The genus wrights, and other mechanics and labourers. - In battle.or siege Artocar7pus is the type of the order. A. incisa is the Bread-fruit the park of A. is protected from the enemy's fire; and its position (q. v.) of the South Sea Islands; and A. inztegrzfolza, the Jack is always chosen with a view to easy access. Tools and instru- (q. v.) of the Indian Archipelago, which is a favourite food among ments for field purposes, such as intrenching and pioneering, the natives. Galactodendron uile is called Palo de Vaca, or coware placed nearest the field of action; while the laboratories for tree, in Demerara, from its nutritive juice being used as milk. the preparation of shot, shell, and other ammunition are at a Antiaris toxicaria is the source of the famous poison called greater distance. Bohun or Pohon upas. See UPAs. A. saccidora is the sackArtillZey, Schools of; are institutions for the instruction of tree of the W. Indies. The wood of Piratinera Guianensis is officers in the tactics and art of A. warfare. The first school for the snake-wood or letter-wood of Demerara. The seeds of this purpose was established by the Venetians in the beginning many of the A. are eaten. Brosimnusn alicastrunm yields breadof the I6th c.; and soon after similar schools were founded at nuts, which are a nutritious and agreeable food when boiled or Burgos and in Sicily by Charles V., and in France by Louis roasted. 24 I8t [ 4 4_____ __ _ A- ___ —.__ _ ART THE GLOBE ENTCYCLOPEDIA. ARU Ar'tois, a former province in the N. W. of France, now chiefly Art Union is ~32, IOS. The chance against winning a prize is represented by the department of Pas-de-Calais. It was made 99 to I. In the year 1859 the chance against winning a /25 a county in I239 by Louis IX., afterwards belonged to the prize was I44 to I. In the Shilling A.U. the average value of Counts of Flanders and Dukes of Burgundy, but was finally prizes is from ~5 up to /I5. In the Birmingham Shilling Art ceded to France in I678. Charles X. for some time bore the Union, the chance against winning a /I5 prize, in I859, was 325 title Count d'A. Arras (q. v.) was the capital. Artesian wells to I. The expenses of the Shilling A. U. generally swallow up derive their name from A., where they were known in early times. at least 50 per cent. of their revenues. The London Art Union has, since its commencement, received,6326, Ioo in subscripArts, Degrees in. On the institution of universities in the has, since its commencement, received 6, in subscripmiddle ages, the'Faculty of A.' comprised the students in tions, while it has given /I65,697 to the public in prizes, besides science and philosophy, in contradistinction to those in the facul- /86,260 worth of engravings distributed to the subscribers. ties of theology, law, and medicine. The'A.,' or'liberal Shilling subscriptions to A. U. were not heard of until I858. A.,' were seven: grammar, logic, rhetoric (the 7s'ivisz); music, The Liverpool Shilling Art Union was found to engender so arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy (the Quadrivisum). Origi- much evil that the artists of Liverpool entirely withdrew from arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy (the Qrcndriviz~m). Origi- it. Like all the other Shilling A. U., it was a mere lottery, nally a teacher was a Master or Doctor, but the former term came it. Like all the other Shilling A. U., it was a mere lottery, to be appropriated by the teacher in the'A.' When it became worked by the secretary for his own profit. The secretary was necessary for every teacher to establish his fitness for his office, paid ~5oo a year, and he also received large sums of money for necessary clerks and'office expenses.' There was no check upon the sale examinations were instituted, the result of which was to class the of tickets, and each prizeholder received from the secretary a candidates in different'grades' or'degrees.' The initiatory de- prize, the value of which was not more than half the amount gree of Bachelor (q. v.) was instituted by Gregory IX. (I227-4I) supposed to have been won. It w moreover, always doubtfl The master, who had a further and higher examination to under- supposed to have been won. It was, moreover, always doubtfl whether a ticket obtained even the chance of a prize, for it could go, was not only entitled but required to teach-a practice long never be ascertained whether every ticket had been put into the discontinued. See DEGREE. wheel. The percentage of expenses to receipts in the Shilling Art Unions are associations for the purchase of pictures to A. U. was very high, amounting to as much as 50 per cent. be distributed by lot. They originated in France early in the The expenses consisted partly of commissions to agents, and present century, and were subsequently extended to Belgium, Ger- partly of the cost of advertising; they were in some measure due many, England, America, and other countries. The first im- also to frauds by local agents. As the expenses were so great, portant Art Union was that of Mechlin or Malines (8i sI); but it follows that the public paid twice as much for their shares as Munich Art Union (I823) became the model for most Continental those shares were worth. It having clearly appeared from the institutions of the kind, though in point of importance it is now evidence taken by the Royal Commission of I866 that the far surpassed by that of Diisseldorf (I829). In England the first Shilling A. U. were by no means beneficial to art, and were, Art Union was founded at Liverpool (1834), and was followed in moreover, liable to gross abuses of management, certain condiI836 by the London and Scottish A. U. In the same year appeared tions were proposed for their better regulation, but it remains to a'report,' issued by a select committee of the House of Com- be seen if they will prove successful. mons, appointed'to inquire into the best means of extending a knowledge of the arts and of the principles of design among the Art'vi, a town in the vilayet of Trebizond, Asiatic Tulkey, people (especially the manufacturing population) of the country.' Ioo miles E. of Trebizond, with a trade in oil, honey, wax, and In pursuing this inquiry, the attention of the committee was drawn butter. Pop. about 6500, the majority of whom acknowledge to the' Kunst- Vereine,' or A. U. of Germany.' These associa- the authority of the Bishop of Rome. tions, for the purchase of pictures to be distributed by lot,' say the Ar'um, a genus of Monocotyledonous plants of the order committee,'form one of the many instances in the present age Aracee, characterised by having a large spathe enclosing the of the advantages of combination. The smallness of the contri- flowers. All the species of A., and those of allied genera, possess bution required brings together a large mass of subscribers, many a similar combination of acrid properties, along with starchy of whom, without such a system of association, would never matter, which can be separated, however, from the poisonous have been patrons of the arts.' Before this committee Waagen matter by means of water or heat. A. maculatlm is a British was examined, and this eminent authority on artistic matters species found in damp woods and highly estimated the advantages conferred on the arts by such under hedges, it is commonly called associations, which had prospered in Prussia since their first cuckoo-pint, lords-and-ladies, or wakeintroduction there by the king and his minister Humboldt. Ten robin. At one time it was extensively years after the issue of the report referred to the A. U. Act cultivated in the Isle of Portland fol (9 and Io Vict. c. 48) was passed. It exempts societies which the preparation of arrowroot, which have been formed for the distribution of works of art from the was obtained from its corms, and sold operation of the Lottery Laws; but it was opposed by Sir R. under the name of Portland arrowPeel, who entertained great doubt whether these A. U. had a root or sago. The plant is still cultitendency to encourage a high style of art. The Act might lead vated in India for food, the acidity to an increased demand for inferior productions, but he did not being got rid of by boiling. In Switthink it would encourage any productions which might not be zerland its corms are used as a substidispensed with without any great detriment to the interests of the tute for soap; and in France the cosarts. In June I866 appeared the'Report from the Select metic called cypress powder is preCommittee on Art Union Laws, together with the Proceedings pared from them. A. Inzdicumn is also of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence, and Appendix.' This cultivated in some parts of India for its most valuable document traces the history of the chief A. U. of esculent stem and corms. A. Itfa/iczn the country, and arrives at the deliberate conclusion, on the evi- is found in the Isle of Wight. The dence of a number of eminent artists and other witnesses, that corms of A. mojztanuzm are employed these associations are not of any real benefit to art or artists. in India to poison tigers. A. D)racozn-'The tendency of A. U. has been to foster the love of chance culus or dragon-plant has a snake-like Arum maculatum. and speculation rather than to encourage high art.' And while spotted stem, and is commonly cultithese institutions have failed to further the advancement of art, vated in British gardens as an ornamental plant. A large amount that object has been attained, so far as it is possible to attain it, of heat is given off from the flowers of different species of A. by quite other institutions-namely, Schools of Design (q. v.) during the period of flowering. and Art Exhibitions (q. v.).'The London Art Union, and the Glasgow Art Union,' says the report already named,'are superior Ar'undel, a market town of Sussex, on the Arun, 5 miles to all the others, fur each subscriber annually receives an engraving from its mouth, and I9 miles W. of Brighton. It consists chiefly or book of prints to the full nominal value of his subscription.' of a long, steep street, rising to the brow of a hill crowned by a A considerable profit or surplus remaining over to the credit of castle, the ancient residence of the Dukes of Norfolk. The the society, the surplus is expended in buying pictures, or in pro- river is navigable for small vessels, and is here crossed by a ducing statuettes, bronzes, medals, and chromo-lithographs, for stone bridge. There is some export trade in timber, bark, and distribution by lot. The average value of prizes in the London corn. Pop. (187I) 2956. The castle is a Norman structure, <86 4~a 4 —---- ARU THE GLOBE ENC YCI OkP-9.EIA. ASA covers 5~ acres, and has a massive dungeon-keep. During the and, derived from the last, Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, civil wars it was destroyed, but it has in late years been restored, Provengal, Rumanic. 5. Teutonic: (I) Low German, including and is still the Norfolk family residence. Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, Old Saxon, Old Frisian; (2) Old High German; (3) Old Norse: with the existing forms of these three Arundel, Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury, second son Teutonic dialects-English, Dutch, German, Danish, Norwegian, of Richard Fitzalan, Earl of Arundel, was born at Arundel Castle, Sussex, I353. At the age of twenty-one he was conse- ndSwedish. 6. Savonic: Russian,Bulgarian, Polish, Bohemian, crated Bishop of Ely, in I386 was appointed Lord High Chan- Illyrian. 7. illuanian: Lettish, Old Prussian. 8. Cellic cellor of England, and was raised to the primacy in I396. Richard Welsh, Erse or Gaelic, Manx, Breton, Cornish. II., having struck a sudden blow at the party of the Duke of The original home of the ancestors of the A. races, who spoke Gloucester, A., a chief supporter of the duke, was condemned the primitive language from which all these cognate languages, to exile, and fled to rome. It was A. that urged Gloucester's with their derived dialects, sprung, is held by universal consent to ei, t aoucestei to have been the plateau of CentralAsia. From this region the nephew, the Duke of Hereford (afterwards Henry IV.) to under- Asia. From this region the nephew, the Dukte of Hereford (afterwards H-Ienry IV.) to under- various tribes migrated at different times, those furthest W. in take that invasion of England which resulted in the deposition various tribes migrated at different times, those furthest W. i of Richard, and in his own restoration to the see of Canterbury Europe probably going first, as is indicated by their languages in I399 He was a fierce persecutora of the Wicklifte urys. The having a fainter family likeness to the primitive language than in I399. He was a fierce persecutor of the Wickliffites. The have those of the tribes who settled in the East. The tribes Act for burning heretics (De Heretico Coamburendo),'the first legal have those of the tribe s ho s ettled in the East. The tribes enactment of religious bloodshed which defiled our statute-book' (Green's Short listo;y of the Englishe People, p. 258), was passed the other S.W., and taking possession of India and Persia during the reign of Henry IV., and vigorously worked by A. respectively. and his brother bishops. A. also forbade, by synodal decree, Arzigna'no, a town in the province of Vincenza, N. Italy, the translation of the Scriptures into English. He died Feb- with manufactures of woollens and leather, and a trade in wine ruary 20, 4I3. and cattle. Coal and lime abound in the neighbourhood, and Arundel:Marbles, the remains of a collection of ancient brickworks have also been established there. Pop. 7287. sculpture formed by Thomas, Earl of Arundel, early in the 17th As, a Roman pound; also a bronze coin, originally weighing c., and presented by his grandson, afterwards Duke of Norfolk, a pound, though afterwards reduced to I-48th, and even to I-6oth to the University of Oxford in I667. The collector-the of a pound. Its value varied from three farthings to a halfpenny, earliest liberal patron of the fine arts among the aristocracy of and the oldest form bore the figure of some animal (pecus), England-employed Evelyn (q. v.) and Petty to procure for him whence, it is said, jeczunia, money, is derived. the best obtainable examples of ancient art. His magnificent collection of sculpture, embracing 37 statues, 128 busts, 250 in- A'sa, son of Abijah, and third king of Judah, succeeded to scribed marbles, &c., was disposed of after his death, together with the throne in 956 B.. He was so zealous a rooter out of iclolahis other collections. The gems were purchased in Venice for try, that he deposed his grandmother Maachah from the imporsIo,ooo. The A. Mi. bequeathed to Oxford include the'Parian tant and influential position of'king's mother' for having set Chronicle,' fragments of an inscription in marble, said to have up an'idol' (literally, a'horror') in a grove (I Kings xv. 13) been executed at Paros, 263 B.c., and, in its complete state, He set himself to fortify frontier cities, and levied an army of containing a record of the great events of Greek history from the 580,ooo men (according to 2 Chron. xiv. 8), with which he time of Cecrops (I582 B.C.) to that of Diognetus (264 B.C.). utterly routed the host of Zerah the Cushite, who had invaded Judah. A peace of twenty years followed, which was broken Arun'do, a genus of grasses. See REED. by Baasha, a king of Israel, against whom A. purchased the aid of Benhadad of Damascus with the treasures of the temple. /r've, a tributary of the Rhone, which it enters immediately For this he was censured by the prophet Hanani. A., whose For this he was censured by the prophet Haniani. A., whose below the Lake of' Geneva, rises on Mont Blanc, and flows through the Lfamous valley of Ch on MontBlmoancni. and ow heart is said to have been perfect with the Lord all his days, through the famous valley of Chamouni. It has a course of 50 died in 9i6B C. miles, is a violent Alpine stream (according to Coleridge'raves died in 916 B.c. ceaselessly'), and is liable to sudden and destructive floods. Asadul'cis, a plant belonging to the genus Thaapsia, of the Arvic'ola. See VOLE. natural order Umbelliferea, a native of the S. of Europe, which was valued by the ancients as an antispasmodic, diuretic, Ar'yan is the name now applied to a group of languages and purgative. It is not used in modern medicine. and of races which formerly went under the name of IndoEuropean, or Indo-Germanic. It is derived from a Sanskrit Asafoe'tida, a drug formed of the concreted milky juice of word drya, which in the later Sanskrit means'noble,''of NarthexA. (q. v.), and of that of varius species of e (q. v.), a good family,' but which was originally a national name, two genera of Umbelliferbeing preserved in the Sanskrit name for India, Aryavairta ousplants. It is imported ('the abode of the Aryans'), and in the Zend, Airya, which from Persia and Afghanis-, in the Zend-avesta of the Zoroastrians means'venerable,' tan, and is largely used in and is also the name of the people. The knowledge of the medicine. It possesses family relationship which exists among the different languages stimulant and antispasbelonging to this group we owe to the genius of Schlegel, Hum- modic properties, and is boldt, Bopp, &c., following up the discovery by Wilkins, Jones, employed as a stimulant and Colebrooke, some ninety years ago, of Sanskrit, the ancient in hysteria with excellent sacred language of the Hindus. The discovery made by these effect, and also in cases men, which so completely revolutionised the views formerly en- of flatulence and chronic tertained of the ancient history of the world, was this, that Sans- catarrh. It has a disgustkrit, Zend, and the languages of the Greek, Roman, Celtic, ing odour, which is a seriTeutonic, and Slavonic races were all varieties of a common ous impediment to its use, type, and stood in the same relation to each other as the Ro- although the Persians use mance languages do as dialects derived from the Latin.'They it as a co ndiment, and call all count with the same numerals, call their individual speakers it'food of gods,'in strange by the same pronouns, address parents and relatives by the same contrast to' devil's dung,' titles, decline their nouns upon the same system, compare their the popular name for it in Narthex asafcetida. adjectives alike, conjugate their verbs alike, and form their deri- this country. vatives by the same suffixes.' The classification of the languages A'saph, St, a cathedral city, near the confluence of the thus related, as given by linguists, is as follows: I. The Indic, Clwyd and Elwy, in Flintshire, Wales, I5 miles N.W. of Flint. or Sanskrit, from which were derived the Pralrrit dialects, partly It stands on a slight hill, in the richly-wooded vale of Clwyd. seen in Pali, and finally corrupted into the modern Hindi, Hin- The cathedral-a miniature building-was erected in 1480, on dustani, Mahratti, and Bengali. 2. Iranic, comprising Zend, the site of a wooden church said to have been founded in the 6th Old and Modern Persian, Kurdic, Armenian, &c. 3. Greek: c. by Kentigern. With the Flint district burghs St A. returns Classic and Modern. 4. t/alic: Umbric, Oscan, Sabine, Latin, one member to Parliament. Pop. (187) 900oo. IS7 j~_xt ASA THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPixEDIA. ASC St A., from whom the place takes its name, is traditionally sects the equator. It thus corresponds to longitude upon the reported to have been its first bishop, but we know almost nothing earth. The old terms, oblique ascension, and ascensional difabout him, and have no proof that he is the author of the ference, were given respectively to the R. A. of the point of the writings attributed to him-viz., the Ordinationes Ecclesiae Sancti equator which rose simultaneously with the body, and to the Asaghi, and the Vita Sancti lentigerni, contained in the first difference between the oblique and right ascensions. volume of the Ada Sanctorum. For the method of determining R. A. see TRANSIT INSTRUAsarabac'ca, the common name for Asa)rum Emuropeum, a MENT. plant doubtfully native in Britain, belonging to the natural order Ascension-Day, or Holy Thursday, an ecclesiastical Aristolochiacea. Its roots and leaves are acrid and aromatic. festival in commemoration of the ascension of Christ, held on Formerly A. was much used as a purgative and emetic. The the second Thursday before Whitsunday. It has been observed, powdered A. is employed in cephalic snuffs, to promote sneezing. as some believe, from the Ist c. of the Christian era. The In France it is called cabaret, from its common use by drunkards Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches still observe it. On to produce vomiting. A.-D. parochial processions were made to fix the boundaries, a practice still continued in some places. This was called riding As'arum, a genus of Dicotyledonous plants of the order the marches. Aristolochiacec. A. EUro02zneum is the most important species. See ASARABACCA. Ascet'icism is generally regarded at the present day as a As'ben. See AIR. peculiar product of Christianity, its advocates finding a complete justification of the practice, as well as the explanation of As'calon, or Ashkeloin, once a city of Palestine, on the its prevalence, in Matt. xix. 2I and I Cor. vii. 37. But although Mediterranean, 36 miles W. S.W. of Jerusalem. Remains of the it undoubtedly formed the foundation on which the systems of walls of a palace, and of some churches, still exist. Anciently penance and monasticism were reared, its roots are to be found one of the five cities of the lords of the Philistines, it came early in certain beliefs regarding the nature of the universe and of man into the possession of the tribe of Judah. It was embellished by which prevailed before the origin of Christianity, and which Herod the Great, was long under the dominion of Rome, and were properly opposed to the spirit of that religion. It sprang, was taken by the Arabs in the 7th c. After being repeatedly in short, from the belief, which was so characteristic of the Eastern captured by Crusaders and Moslems in turn, it was utterly de- systems of philosophy and religion, that all matter was essentially stroyed by Sultan Bibars in I270. Near A. was the temple of impure and evil; that the human soul, formed of the purest Derceto, the Syrian Venus, and'within the walls and towers ether, was fettered by the impure body; and that the only means now standing Richard (of England) held his court' (Stanley's of purifying the soul and attaining to communion with God was Sinai and Palestine, p. 257). The neighbourhood is celebrated deliverance from the contamination of matter, from flesh and for its cypresses, figs, olives, pomegranates, and bees. lust. The practice to which this belief naturally gave rise was abstinence from all gratification of the senses and appetites, and As'caris. This is a genus of intestinal worms which infests a general mortification of the body. Accordingly practices of the alimentary canal of man and many other animals. It belongs this kind, of various degrees of intensity, have prevailed among to the group of Nermatoda, or round worms. The one most com- religious devotees in the East from a remote antiquity down to mon in man is A. lumbricoides. It resembles the common earth- the present day. worm in size and general appearance. The body is smooth, The Jews were to some extent infected with dualistic notions tapering at both ends, and marked by many fine transverse rings. during their captivity in Babylonia, and it is probably as an outAt the anterior extremity there is a mouth, surrounded by three come of these that we find various ascetic practices among small papillae. The male worm is from 4 to 6 inches in length, certain of their sects. A. was one of the characteristics of the while the female attains a size of from 12 to 14 inches. The Pharisees, and in a much more extreme degree of the Essenes. manner in which the young enter the human body is not known; Ascetic practices were early developed in the Christian Church, but it is generally held by naturalists that the ova are matured in the corruption in this direction being directly fostered by the influwater, and the young enter the body probably by direct trans- ence of the Neo-Platonic philosophy, according to which a distincference from river or pond water. These worms do not usually tionwas made between two modes of living-the one,'according to exist in great numbers in the intestinal canal, but Kiichenmeister nature,' for ordinary persons; the other,'above nature,' for those mentions the case of a child which harboured about 400 of these who aspired to a higher degree of virtue. The rule prescribed worms. Their habitat is the upper part of the small intestine, for the latter was, that the soul ought to be withdrawn as far as and occasionally they reach the stomach, and may be dislodged possible from the debasing influence of the body, and that by vomiting. One or two worms in the intestinal canal of a child therefore all sensual gratifications were to be avoided, and the produce usually no bad effects; but cases are on record in which mind to be absorbed in contemplation. In imitation of this the these creatures have perforated the wall of the bowel, and pass- Christian teachers, early in the 2d c., prescribed a twofold rule of ing into other cavities, have given rise to serious disease, and holiness-the one lower, for ordinary persons; the other higher, even death. The most effective remedy for their dislodgment is for those who sought to attain to a higher standard of holiness santonine, the active crystalline principle of Artemisia Santonica, a here and higher glory hereafter. This, again, soon gave rise to a species of wormwood. Children may have from one to three grains class of persons who professed to strive after that higher degree of this substance twice or thrice daily, until six or eight doses of holiness, and therefore supposed many things to be forbidden have been taken, after which a small dose of castor oil should be to them which ordinary Christians could enjoy, such as flesh, administered. For further details see INTESTINAL WORMS. A wine, matrimony, and business. They were called ascetics (Gr. variety of A. infests the cat, called A. mzystax, the development askhets), from practising (askco, to practise or exercise) severe of which has been carefully studied. See Entozoa, by Dr religious exercises. Ascetics, then, were the genus from which Spencer Cobbold, London, i864, pp. 316-331. sprang the different species, Monks (see MONASTICISM), AnAscen'sion, a solitary island in the S. Atl~antic, about chorites (q. v.), Ccenobites (q. v.), Eremites (q. v.), Stylites 8oo miles N.W. of St Helena, nearly midway between Africa (q. v.), &c. and Brazil. It is 8 miles long and 8 broad; area, 35 sq. miles. In the after-history of the Church, A., turning chiefly on celiA. was discovered by the Portuguese in i501, on Ascension- bacy, poverty, and mortification of the body, formed the basis of Day, it is said, whence its name. It is of volcanic origin, rocky, all the rules of the various orders of monks and friars, and also of and desolate, with one peak 28 feet high. In, when penance, which occupied such an important place in the doctrine Napoleon was confined at St Helena, the English took posses- of the Church. The Reformation, the fundamental principle of sion of the still uninhabited island as an additional security which was that salvation is secured by justification through faith against attempts to liberate their illustrious prisoner. Its pro- alone, and not through dead works, struck at the root of A. ductions are the tomato, castor-oil plant, and pepper; exports Nevertheless it has continued to manifest itself in various forms chiefly turtle and birds' eggs. Pop. about 4oo00, mostly military. even among Protestants. The Shakers maintain the practice of celibacy, and generally among evangelical Christians crucifying Ascension, Right, in astronomy, is the arc of the equator the flesh, a phrase of Paul's which, like a great deal more of his intercepted between the first point of Aries and the point at language, has a remarkable affinity with the philosophy of the which the circle of declination, passing through the star, inter- Alexandrian Philo, is regarded as a highly spiritual exercise. I88 - ASO THE GLOBE ENhC YCLOP/EDIA. ASC Asch, a town in the W. of Bohemia, near the borders of of his English works, the Toxo/hilus and the Scholemasler, Saxony and Bavaria, on the Ascha brook, at the foot of the the latter of which is incomparably the more important in Hainberg, with manufactures of cotton; linen, hosiery, woollens, regard to its matter. It is a treatise on the best methods of leather, and paper. Pop. (i869) 9405. educating, with some excellent criticisms on Latin authors, and is written in unadorned, yet graphic and idiomatic, EngAschaff'enburg, a town in the Bavarian circle of Lower lish. There have been two collections of his English worksFranconia, on the right bank of the Maine, where it receives one by Bennet (Lond. I76I), with a life by Dr Johnson, and the Aschaff, 20o miles S.E. of Frankfort, and on the railway another by Cochrane (Lond. 1835); but the best and the only from Bamberg to Frankfort and Darmstadt. It is the seat of a complete edition of his entire writings is that by Dr Giles in court of appeal for Lower Franconia, and of various other govern- the Library of Old Aulthors (Lond. I865, 3 vols4). meat offices. A. is surrounded by walls, and the streets are Achesle'ben, a town of Prussia, province of Saxony, dissteep and narrow, but the situation is pleasant; and the environs Ach1eb, to f Ps poie of S ii (e.g., the Schinentlal, the 2vasanerie, the Schb'ne Busch, with a (e~g., the Schiinenlllal, the Fascutrie, h czb ucwt ric of Magdeburg, on the Eine, about 50 miles N. W. of Leipzig royal LustschIoss and orangery) are noted for their beauty. It and 32 S. of Magdeburg. It is the chief town of a district of t amend3S.oMagdeburg. I is severa ieton o fadustries. of is overlooked by the castle of Johannisberg, built by the Elector te sme name, and has several industries o growing impor of Mainz (Johann Schweikhardt) between i6o5 and 64 A tance. Its chief manufactures are woollens, linens, machinery, ofwain (JohandSheiadt befoetweeRmn invson fGray and 6its A was founded before the Roman invasion of Germany, and it and paraffin oil, and it also possesses beetroot-sugar factories, wuiialeitnedes froune before the Roaninaso of Gemay andis a municipal existence dates from before the 9th c. It has a breweries, and potteries. About 2 miles from A. is Wilhelmscollegiate church, founded in 974 by Otho I., Duke of Swabia bad, and still nearer are some ruins erroneously supposed to be and Bavaria, and a valuable library, rich in icunba and the remains of the old town of Askanien, the original home of and Bavaria, and a valuable library, rich in incunabula andt copper engravings. The town has now considerable trade in te house ofnhalt. Pop. (1872) 6,734 wood, building-stone, tobacco, and wine; and its coloured Asciano, a town in the province of Siena, N. Italy, 12 papers are noted. In the war of i866 it was the scene of a miles S.E. of Siena, on the S. bank of the Ambrone. Pop. 2082. battle between the Prussians and the Austrians, in which the Ascid'ian, the popular name applied to Molluscous animals l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~s~anthe pplr name defeated tol I) Molsop. (1n72m9212 latter were defeated (July 14). Pop. (1872) 9212. belonging to the class Tunicata, and familiarly known as' seasquirts.' The genus Ascidia, which may be taken as a Asch'am, Roger, a writer who merits equal praise for the familiar and typical form, is represented by many examples on purity of his English and the beauty of his Latin prose, was a purity of his English and the beauty of his Latin prose, was our shores. The name'Ascidia' is derived from the Greek native of Yorkshire, and was born at Kirkby-Wiske, near askos a wine-bottle or wine-skin, and has een applied to these askos, a wine-bottle or wine-skin, and hgs been applied to these Northallerton, in 1515. At the age of fifteen he entered St animals in allusion to the form of the body, enclosed in its tutnic fohn's College, Cambridge, then the most famous school of John's College, Cambridge, then the most famous school of or investing sac, with its double apertures or'necks.' The one learning in England, and threw himself with ardour into the neck or aperture corresponds to the mouth, which leads into revolutionary movement in favour of the Greek classics which had r c te ch er the r uc o eain a large ciliated chamber, the Bra~ncz~zl c/zam~Ebr or breathing now reached Cambridge. Though he had many brilliant con- organ of these animals. The gullet and stomach are continued organ of these animals. The gullet and stomach are continued temporaries during his academic career, none became a more fr from this breathing chamber, the intestine terminating in a illustrious scholar. At the age of eighteen he- took the degree of At the age of eighteen he took the degree of second sac or chamber lying parallel with the first, and known B.A.; was elected a fellow of his college a m.onth later, and s as the atrial chamber. Water is admitted to the branchial soon became the foremost Greek tutor of his day. From 1539 chamber for breathing puposes, and after eng so used, passes chamber for breathing purposes, and after beings sdpse to I541 he held a mathematical lectureship, but in spite of his to the a to the, atrial chamber, with which the breathing sac is in comgreat reputation for scholarship, the suspicion of heresy in reli- ti h wt w c t ratin is om munication. The effete water of respiration is ejected from the gion —of Protestantism, in fact —appears to have at this period branchial chamber by the second neck of the sac or second hindered his success, and for some years he was unhappy and opening of the body, known as the alria/ apert-ure. The water straitened in his circumstances. But his letters show that he eing ofte bd owat i aet re Te r mixed himself up in every strife great and small that broke out being sometimes expelled forcibly in a jet, has procured for mixed himself up in every strife great and small that broe out these forms their popular name of'sea-squirts.' Food is in the university, and this may have added to his embarrassments, brought to the digestive system in the water admitted to the Meanwhile he had commenced his first work, Toxopuilus, tke breathing sac. The heart exists as a simple tube, and is Schloe of Shoolingfe conleyned in two Bookes, which appeared in Scolof SZooine ctyned i o Boo, which appeared capable of propelling the blood either to or from the heartI545 with a dedication to Henry' VIII. The king granted him the circulation being thus periodically reversed. Tentacles fringe a pension of /Io, and in the year following A. succeeded Cheke opening of the mo. The nervo consists the inner opnn ftemuh h evus system cnit as public orator at Cambridge, in which capacity he had to write a oen o m T nervous te cn t all the public letters of the university, a task for which he was of single mass or ganglion of nervous matter lying between the two apertures of the body, and from this nerves radiate to eminently qualified, as he was one of the best penmen of his the various tissues. These animals are found round our coasts, age, and acted as writing-master to Prince Edward and the attached and rooted b one extremity to rocks and stones. attached and rooted by one extremity to rock-s and stones. Princess Elizabeth. During I548-49 he was classical tutor to Some species are of considerable size-one Mediterranean species the latter, and in 1550 he proceeded to the Continent as secre- (Cynti microcosmus) being used for food. The outer tunic or tary to the English embassy to the court of Charles V. H (CyntZa mzkrosnzs) being used for food.e tayt~hnls masth orfCalsV Here coat of the body is composed in greater part of cehiztlose, a subhe remained for three years. Augsburg being his headquarters, sn eay id ca i ran ar ou vstance nearly identical with -starch, and largely found in vegethough some of his letters are dated from the Tyrol, Carinthia,tae e ierca r an lar vu n tables. The inner coat or mantle is muscular, vascular, and and the Palatinate. The result of his foreign observations was highly contractile, and is the agency whereby jets of water are higl~y contractile, and is the agency whereby jets of water are his Report and Discourse of th~e Affairs ar.ct State of Germny his I t and Discoure of th Afairs n State of enany, expelled. Ascidianzs may be sinzle, social, or coniound. The and thze Emnzerour Charles the Great, probably written from Spires in 55, in which yea it was printed, and again in young appear at first as swimming tadpole-like bodies, which Spires in I552, in which year: it was printed, and again in atrosthitilanfxthmlvsTefuhr sooner oi later lose their tail, and fix themselves. The further I57o. During the reactionary reign of Mary A. not only 570. During te reactionay reig of Mary, A. not only structure and classification of these forms will be found in the managed to escape the ordeal of a'recantation,' but actually articles MLLuscA and TNIcT, &c. articles MOLLUSCA and TUNICATA, &C. obtained the office of secretary to the queen. Cardinal Pole, himself a fine scholar, admired and availed himself of A.'s Asci'tes, a term denoting a swollen, tense condition of the accomplishments, and, in short, he was as great a favourite as if abdomen, due to the accumulation of an excessive quantity of he had always been a sound Catholic. When Elizabeth ascended watery fluid in the cavity of the serous membrane by which the the throne, he was continued in his office; but in spite of a fair abdomen is lined. This membrane is called the peritoneum. salary, a pension, a canonry, the lease of a farm, and other The blood circulating through the alimentary canal from the sources of income, his letters indicate a desire or a necessity for stomach to the rectum has to pass through the liver before it more money, the reason of which is not easy to ascertain. In re-enters the general circulation. The veins of the abdominal 1563 he was invited to write the Scholemaster by Sir Richard viscera unite to form a great vein going to the liver, termed the Sackville, but left the work unfinished at his death in December vena porta. The vena porta conveys the blood to the liver, and i568. It was published by his widow in 1570, and has been from the liver it reaches the general circulation by another vein frequently reprinted. By far the best edition is that of Mayor termed the hZepatic vein. Any obstruction, therefore, to the flow (Lond. 1863). Although an exquisite Latin scholar, as his of blood through the liver will speedily produce A., and any letters and poems show, the fame of A. now depends on two obstruction to the general circulation, by preventing blood from 189 ASO TIHE GLOBE EC YC OPA9DIA. ASH passing freely from the liver, will ultimately have the same effect. As'coli (ane. Asctulznz Picenzu;zm), the capital of the province Accordingly A. may be caused by disease of the liver, by pres- of Ascoli-Piceno, Central Italy, on the river Tronto, I6 miles sure on the portal or hepatic veins, by disease of the kidney, and W. from the Adriatic, and 15 N. of Teramo. It has a strong by disease of the heart. The most common cause is disease of military position on the crest of a hill, with a splendid view the liver. The treatment is to remove the cause if possible. If towards the Apennines. Its chief manufactures are glass, this cannot be done, temporary relief may be obtained by drain- majolica, silk, and leather, and its port, at the mouth of the ing away the fluid by purgatives, or by stimulating the functions Tronto, has considerable coasting trade. Pop. (I872) 22,937. of the kidney. If the accumulation be so rapid as not to be A. was. anciently the chief city of the Piceni, and was taken in quickly enough removed by these means, then it must be re- 268 B.c. by the Romans. By the murder of Q. Servilius in moved by tapping. This consists of pushing through the wall 90 B.C., it gave the signal for the outbreak of the Social War, of the abdomen a cylindrical instrument called a trocar, having in which the town suffered severely. In I426 Pope Clement V. a sharp point, and carrying on it a tube known as a canula. The united A. to the Papal States. trocar is withdrawn and the canula left, and through it the fluid Another A., known as A. di Satriano, a town in the province escapes. This may have to be done repeatedly. The relief is of Foggia, on the E. slope of the Apennines, about 40 miles usually temporary, and the patient sinks from exhaustion. from Beneventum, is the ancient seat of a bishop, but is mainly Asclepia'daceee, an order of Dicotyledonous plants, embrac- famous as the scene of a great battle of two days' duration, ing fully Iooo species, inhabiting chiefly warm and tropical B.C. 279, between Pyrrhus and the Roman consuls P. Sulpicius regions; but many extend to northern climates, although absent and P. Decius, in which the former las victorious, but with in Britain. The plants of the order have acrid, purgative, such heavy loss that he is reported to have said,'Another such emetic, and diaphoretic properties. Many of them have a milkyreturn to Epirus alone.' juice, which is usually bitter and acrid; but occasionally it is Asel'li, Asellio, or Asellius, Gasparo, an Italian physibland, and used as milk, as in the cow-plant of Ceylon (Gyrz- cian, was born at Ticius or Cremona about I58o, and died at nenza lactifezruz). The fragrant roots of Ilemnidesmus Indicus are Milan, February I4, I626. His great merit lies in his discovery used in Madras as a substitute for Sarsaparilla (q. v.). The bark of the lacteal vessels, which he first observed while dissecting a of the root of several species of Ca/otropis furnishes a substance living dog in 1622. His results were published by his friends called Mudar (q. v.), which is used as a diaphoretic in India. and fellow-physicians, Alessandro Tadino and Septalius, in a Cylnanc/zzum vmonspeliaccum furnishes Montpellier scammony, and book entitled De LactiNils, sen Lacteis Venis, Quarto Vasoermz Perip/oca mant-itialza Bourbon scammony. These act as pur- IVesaraicornlmiz Genere, Novo ]zvseno, Z)issertatio (Mil. I627). gatives, and are used to adulterate true Scammony (q. v.). Various species of Asc/epias (q. v.) are of economic value. The Ases. See AEsIa. leaves of a species of So/enostemzmcza are used to adulterate Alex- As'gill, John, pamphleteer, born about the middle of the andrian senna. See ARGEL. Allarsdenia tincloria and Gymneyna andrian 7senna. See ARgEL. Spiersd ena tisictoria and Gycalneled 7th c., and studied at Lincoln's Inn. His ienc/hant for pamphlet tinffens yield a dye like indigo. Species of Sla/eia are called. carrigon flowers from their fetid Odour.H carniosa is ar weiting involved him in continual pecuniary embarrassments..carron flowers, from their fetid odour. Hoya c n's a.,..In I699 he passed over to Ireland, then filled with litigation beautiful climber, cultivated in hothouses under the name of wax- arising from disputes as to forfeited estates, hoping to find scope flower.. f for his legal talents; and in this he was not disappointed. He Asclepi'ades, a Greek physician, who flourished in the Ist was soon after elected a member of the Irish Parliament, but was, c. B.C., but the precise date of whose birth or death is unknown. four days after, expelled on the ground of blasphemy contained He was a native of Prusa, in Asia Minor, and finally settled at in a, tract published in 1700, in which he had attempted to prove Rome. It is not wonderful that he proved a popular practitioner, that' man might be translated into eternal life without passing for he maintained that a physician ought to cure his patients through death.,' In I705, returning to England, he was elected surely, swiftly, and agreeably. But if he was the first to recog- member for, Bramber, in Sussex, but expelled I8th December nise the distinction between chronic and acute diseases, he de- X707, for the same blasphemous allegation. The last thirty years serves to be honourably remembered in the history of his science. of his life were spent between the Rules of the Fleet and of the Gumpert has collected and edited the Fragfsiests of A. (Weimar, King's Bench. He died in November I738, getting up pamI798). A little poem, Pr'cec/ta Sazitatis, which has come down phlets to the last. to us under his name, but which probably belongs to the 7th c., has been published by Welz (Wurz. I840).Ash, or Ashes. 011O the complete incineration of any organic Another A., surnamed Sikelid'es, from his father, Sikelos, was body, either animal or vegetable, an incombustible A. always the friend and contemporary of Theocrites. His name is remains, to which the term A. is applied. The A. is as essential attached to thirty-nine epigrams, mostly erotic, in the Greek to the organised body as is the organic matter, and it is difficult anthology; and a certain kind of verse (of which Horace fur- to draw a clear line of separation between the two. Generally nishes examples), beginning with a spondee and ending with an it may be said that organised matter is, or may be, derived from iambus, is named from A., Asc/epeidias verse. the atmosphere, whereas A. invariably comes from the earth. Asclep'ias, a genus of plants called swallow-worts, belonging Compounds of potash, soda, and lime, with phosphoric and other sle'is, genus of plantthe ords caller swallow-worts, belonging acids, are the most abundant constituents of A. Potash (potto the order Ascefi.adac(ei ashes) is derived from the burning of wood, and when refined ( v.). The species are is commercially known as pearl-ashes. mostly found in America, are Herbaceous plants, with Ash, the common name for the various species of Fsraxiznzs, milky juice, and are all more a genus of Dicotyledonous trees belonging to the order Oleacee. orlesspoisonous. A. Syriaca The common A. (F. excelsior:) is a native of Britain, Europe, is misnamed, being a native N. of Africa, and some parts of Asia. It grows to a height of America, and not of Syria, of IOO to I50 feet, is graceful in form and elegant in foliage; as was supposed, and is com- the latter is late in making its appearance, and falls off very early monly called Virginian. swal- in autumn. The timber is very valuable, being white, hard, and low-wort. In Canada its tough, and is used for various purposes. There are several young shoots are used as as- varieties which have been produced by cultivation, such as the Ki5 paragus. A. tzeberosa, but- curled-leaved A., the simple-leaved A., and the weeping A., terfly-weed, or pleurisy-root, originally derived from a single tree discovered about one hundred is used in N. America as a years ago growing in Cambridgeshire. The A. is the badge of catharticanddiaphoretic. A. the Clan Menzies, and has many superstitions connected with it. OCZurassavica is called wild We have only space to refer to one very ancient usage, but one ipecacuanhaintheW. Indies, which was practised till recently in Warwickshire. Evelyn - from its emetic properties. writes:'I have heard it affirmed with great confidence, and Asclepias. The Somia plant, referred to upon experience, that the rupture to which many children are as an object of adoration in obnoxious, is healed by passing the infant through a wide cleft the Sanskrit Vedas, is supposed to be a species of A. made in the bole or stem of a growing A. -tree; it is then carried, I~90 _ 4-* + ASH TYHE GLOBE ENC YCLOPADUIA. ASH a second time round the A., and caused to repass the same aper- slave trade, and for the extradition of suspected criminals. A. ture as before. The rupture of the child being bound up, it is died 13th May I848, and was succeeded in the title by William supposed to heal as the cleft of the tree closes and coalesces.' Bingham Baring, his eldest son, who was born I799; educated According to Scandinavian mythology, the first man and woman at Oxford; elected member for Taunton I836; appointed Secreformed were ask and embla, or A. and elm. The mountain A., tary to the Board of Control I841, Paymaster-General of the or Rowan-tree (q. v.) of Scotland, belongs to a different order of Forces and Treasurer of the Navy 1845, and President of the plants. There are many species of A. found in America, such Geographical Society I86o. He died March 23, I864. as the white A. (F. Americana); the red A. (F. pubescens); the water A. (F. snmbucifolia); the blue A. (F. gsadrazu/atas); Ashburton, a small town in the S. of Devonshire, I6 miles the green A. (F. Iuzlanzdifo/ia); and the Carolina A. (F. Caro- S.W. of Exeter, with considerable copper and tin mines, slate liniana.) These, and others, are all valuable timber-trees. On quarries, and serge manufacture. It has a cruciform church in the shores of the Mediterranean, the small-leaved A. (F. parvi- the Perpendicular style. Pop. (I87I) 2335. folia) and the lentisk A. (F. lenliscifolia) form graceful trees. Ash'by- de-la-Zou'ch, a market town in the N.. of The flowering A. (F. ornus, or Orznus Europ&ae of some) of the Leicestershire, on the Mease, a branch of the Trent, 15 miles S. S. of Europe is commonly called manna A. from the saccha- of Derby. It has some leather, hat, and hosiesy manufactures, rine substance it yields, commercially known as Manna (q. v.). and considerable iron-smelting. Near it are extensive mines Ashanti', or Ashantee, the most powerful native kingdom of coal, lead, ironstone, and limestone. The ruined castle of of Guinea, W. Africa, is bounded W. by the river Assinie, E. by A., built in the reign of Edward IV., was for some time the the Volta, N. by the Kong Mountain, and S. by the S. Atlantic prison of Mary Queen of Scots. The church of St Helen here Ocean. Lat. some 6~ to 8~ N.; long. 5' W. to I' E. Area, contains the tombs of the Hastings and Huntingdon families, 72,000 sq. miles; pop. about 400,000. It is iln great part including that of Selina, Countess of Huntingdon, founder of hilly, well watered, and covered with dense tropical vegeta-the religious sect named after her. Pop. (I871) 7302. tion. The climate is unhealthy; from April till November the Ashdod. See AZOTUS. rains are almost unceasing, but during the remainder of the year the northerly or inland wind (ZarmattAaz) brings the'healthy Ash'era, a goddess referred to in the Old Testament, although season.' Along the coast tropical diseases are common, but the name is always translated'grove' in the authorised version. inland, where the country undulates, it is much healthier. The In numerous passages'grove' (i.e., holy wood) means a wooden cutting of roads through the impenetrable jungle of bamboo object, generally close to the altar of Baal (Judges vi. 25; see and brushwood with which A. is overgrown, is a task of great'grove' in authorised version); this was undoubtedly the linga difficulty, and communication is therefore defective. The chief or phallic symbol, represented by a tree stripped of its branches, natural products are maize, millet, rice, yams, tobacco, sugar, or a tree-stem driven into the ground. But in several other cotton, gums, dye- woods, the pine - apple and other fruits. passages it is evidently used as the proper name of a goddess. Coomassie (q. v.) is the chief town. There is a considerable In Judges iii. 7, e.g., analogy requires it, thus:'the baals and export of gold-dust and palm-oil. The natives are well made, the groves,'= Baalim and Asheras; Manasseh, as well as the intelligent, and warlike, and are skilled in the manufacture of mother of Asa, made an image for A. (I Kings xv. 13; 2 Kings cottons, sword-blades, gold ornaments, and earthenware. They xxi. 7); and in I Kings xviii. I9, mention is made of priests of are almost entirely fetish worshippers, indulging largely in A. along with those of Baal. A. represented the female side human sacrifice, but there is also a sprinkling of Mohamme- of Baal-Baaltis, or Mylitta, and therefore was served along dans. The early history of A. consists of vague and uncer- with Baal (Judges vi. 25). She is not to be confounded, tain traditions. In the beginning of the present century the however, with Astarte or Ashtoreth (pl. Ashtaroth), notwithcountry had risen to considerable importance, embracing not standing Judges ii. 13; x. 6; I Sam. vii. 4 xii. IO, where the fewer than forty-seven conquered states, chief of which were latter is put in conjunction with Baal. In all the other passages Akim, Assin, Sanem, and Wassau. In I8o7 the Ashantis Ashtoreth and A. are kept distinct; and on closer investigation defeated the Fantees, who inhabited a region near Cape Coast their characters are found to be quite distinct and even antagonCastle, afterwards attacked the Dutch and English, and were istic. Astarte was the moon-goddess, as appears from Ashterothcompletely repulsed by a strong English force in i826. The Karnaim, the name of a trans-Jordanic city (Gen. xiv. 5, and cession of the Dutch forts to Britain led to another collision in Deut. i. 4), meaning'Ashteroth of the two horns,' i.e., of the 1873, but A., despite strong natural defences, was quite unable crescent moon. She was at any rate a severely chaste goddess, to resist an English expedition. Sir Garnet Wolseley, at the probably the same as the'queen of heaven,' whose worship by head of a force of I600 men, marched on Coomassie, routed the the Israelitish women was approved by their, husbands (Jer. vii. enemy, and before returning to the coast burned the capital. I8; xliv. I5). The worship of A., on the contrary, was of the King Coffee Calcali, ruler of A., finally surrendered, and a treaty most unchaste description; the special service of her priests and was signed by which England was to receive 50,00o ounces of priestesses being to prostitute themselves for hire to her worgold as war indemnity. Later events seem to confirm the shippers (Deut. xxiii. 17, IS; 2 Kings xxiii. 7). fear that A. in her feeble state will fall a prey to some of the Ash'ford, a market town of Ient, on the Esshe, a branch of more savage tribes by which she is surrounded. See Sir Charles the river Stour, 14 miles S.W. of Canterbury. It has a Gothic Adderley's Colonial Policy; Fanti anzd As/zani, by Captains church, and is now an important railway junction, with some Brackenbury and Wilson; and the Edinbusrgh Review for October damas and linen maufactures. POP (1 8458 I 871. I*damask and linen manufactures. Pop. (I87I) 8458. Ash1b-ourne a market townl in the WV. of Derbyshlire, on the |. Ash'lar, in architecture or masonry, is the name given to any bou, an mactures town in lace, and ironf Derbyshire, n active kind of squared and polished building-stone, as distinguished Dove, with manufactures of cotton, lace, and iron, and an active from the undressed rubble of the quarries. trade in cheese and malts. It has a cruciform church, built in 124I, with a fine spire 2I2 feet high. The troops of Charles Ashley, Lord. See SHAFTESBURY, EARL OF. I. were defeated at A. in I644 by the forces of the Parliament.lias, antiquary, born at Lichfield, 23d May pope (I87JI) 2083- QAsh'mole, 1Elias, antiquary, born at Lichfield, 23d May I6I7, and became a Chancery solicitor in I638. In the civil Ashbur'ton, Lord (Alexander Baring), born October wars he joined the Royalists, and was a captain in Ashley's regi27, I774. He was trained to commerce in the Canadas and the ment, studying at the same time mathematics and astrology at United States, and in ISIo became head of the great house of Oxford. In I646 he became intimate with the great astrologers Baring Brothers & Co. He was elected M.P. for Taunton in Lilly, Moore, and Booker; married Lady Mainwaring in I649; I812, and for N. Essex in 1832; was President of the Board of and in I650 published, under the feigned name of Hasalle, his Trade and Master of the Mint in the Peel Administration of Fasciculus Chenmicus, or Chemical Collections, etc:ressing the InI834-35; created Baron A. 1835; and in 1842 was appointed gress, Pirogress, and Egress of the Secret Hermetic Science. Two special Ambassador to the United States to settle the N. V. years later appeared his T5heatruzn Chyymicum Brizannicumz, which boundary, which was fixed by the treaty of Washington in procured for him the friendship of Selden. He next devoted August of that year, somewhat to the advantage of the United himself to antiquarian studies, of which a valuable result is his States. Provisions were made in it for abolishing the African History of the Order of the Garter (I672); and in I682 he preI9I 4IP A —^ —---------- -~b ASH TI.E GLOBE ENCYCLOP.TEDIA. ASI sented Oxford with a valuable collection of curiosities, given to The political divisions, with their area and population, as him by a family named Tradescant, to which he added many given by the latest authorities (I869-73), are as follows:collected by himself. This is named the Ashmolean Museum. A. left a diary containing a minute account of his life, which was State. Square Miles. Population. published at London in I774. He died May iS, 1692. SaeSqreMls Pouti Ash'mun, Jehu'di, born at Champlain, New York, in 1794, Arabia,.,o26,o4o 5, 00ooo 000ooo educated for the ministry, held for a short time a professorship Chinese Empire, including China Proin the theological seminary of Bangor, Maine, and then became per, Dependencies of Mongolia,. editor of the Repertory, a Washington monthly magazine. As Tibet, Corea, Mantchuria (ead- 4,700,000 425,u46,520 editor of the Re ~~~~~~~~~~~Tibet, Cores, Mantchuria (esti-['0'0 Rectory a Wasingtonmonthl magazne. As mated I873),.~. agent of the African Colonisation Society, he conducted a band Japan (i873), I49,399 33,Io,825 of liberated negroes from Baltimore to Liberia, landing at Cape Further India (i.e., beyond tie GanMesurado 8th August 1822. After six years assiduously devoted ges)to the task of establishing the colony on a solid basis, his health Anamd or Cochin-China, with Ton quin 98,043 9,000,000 gave way, and returning to America, he died at Newhaven, Burmah,.. o,517 4,000, o00 Connecticut, ioth August I828. See Gurley's M(emoir of A. Siam,.. 309,024 6,298,990 (Washington, 1835.) E. Indian Islands,. 99, 359 27, 064,728 Afghanistan and Herat, 2.58,530 4 000,00ooo Ashtabu'Ila, a post town in the county of the same name, Beloochistan, i65,830 2,000,000 Turkestan — State of Ohio, N. America, 3 miles from Lake Erie. A. has an Bokhara, 250-0 Bokhara,...'\ eoono active commerce, and is rapidly increasing. Pop. 3394. Khokan, 3,000,000 Ashton-in-Mlakerfield, a township of S. Lancashire, with Maymenep. 64o, 56 - 00,000 Turcomania,..770,000 extensive collieries, potteries, and cotton-mills. Wigan is its Khiva,. 1,500,000 post town. Pop. (I870) 7463. Persia or Iran (estimated 1872). 562,344 5,000000 Britis/k Possessionis in AsiaAsh'ton-under-Line, a town in the S. E. of Lancashire, on Hinduslan (0872)the river Jame, 6 miles E. of Manchester, with which it is con- Under Gov.-General of India, 48,709 7,880,557 nected by two canals and by railway. There are several hand-,,Liet.-Gov. ofBengal,. 248,231 66,856,859 some municipal buildings and numerous churches. One of the," of N. W. Prov., 80,90oI 30769,056 of Pcnjab, 202,001 07,596,752 oldest buildings is the Manor Hall, ancient seat of the Asshe-,, Chief-Com. of Oude, 13,973 1,22o, 747 tons. The chief employment is the cotton manufacture; but,, of Cent. Prov., 84, 62 9,066,038 there is also bleaching, dyeing, calico-printing, engineering,, Governor of Madras,. 14, 746 32,3I, 142 there is also bleaching, dyeing, calico-printing, engineering, an,, of Bombay,. 027,532 24,042,596 brickmaking. Near A. is a large bog, abounding in black oak Ntivale Statesand resinous fir trees. Pop. (187I) 37,389. Under Gov.-General of India, 385,296 27,726,352, Lieut.-Gov. of Bengal,. 79,056 2,039,565 Ash'toreth. See ASTARTE.,,,, ofN.W. Prov., 5,390 1,284,69i A~~sh-W~edn y the first day of Lent, derives its name 99 of Punjab,. 43,877 5,086,502 Ash-Wednesday, the first day of Lent, derives its name, Chief-Com. of Cent. Pros,., 28,399 o,095,275 from the practice in the Roman Catholic Church of the priest's,, Governor of Madras,. 3,953 2,371,333 making on that day the sign of the cross on the forehead of the, ), of Bombay, 72,076 6,552,70 people with the ashes of the palms that had been consecrated on Frtherylon Idi- 24,454 2405,287 previous Palm-Sunday. He made use of this formula: MJe- British Burmah (0872), 93,664 2,562,323 mento, homo, quod cziis es, et in cinerem reverleris (' Remember, Straits Settlements (Singapore, man, that thou art ashes, and shalt return to ashes'). This Penang, and the province of 1,206 308,097 Wellesley,. custom, of very ancient standing, was sanctioned by the Council China Seaof Beneventum, o1091. In the Anglican Church the commina- Labuan,.. 45 4,898 tion service is read on A. The Protestant Churches of the Con- Hong Kong, 32 020,024 French Possessions in )Jfal' tinent do not celebrate it, but in some parts of N. Germany a Cochin-China, 2Pi28 979, I6 Cochin-China,. 1.0,728 979,206 memorial of it survives in a children's pastime called Asche- Chandernagore,..... 29, 000 abtehrnen ('ash-brushing'). Karikal,... 5,000 Mahe,..... 4, 000 A'sia, the most extensive of the great divisions of the globe, Pondicherry,...... 44,000 lies in the eastern hemisphere, and extends over fully 18o degrees ortugnese A siaPaujim, Damsun, Diu, 34,000 of longitude, for the most part within the temperate zone. It ttim D th in Sl4 Settlements in the islands Solor, forms at least four-fifths of the continent of the Old World, Timer, and Midora,. being fully four times the size of Europe, and in the S.E. is Macao (China),....... 35,00 fringed by a numerous group of islands. Its area is estimated Russian AsiaSiberia,'... 5,400,ooo 4,625,699 at about 20,000,000 sq. miles; pop. nearly 850,000,000. In Caucasia,... 67,000 4,57,97 reference to population, it may be noticed that not only is it the Turkestan,...... most populous continent, but that it contains more people than Ottoman Asiaall the rest of the globe. In fact, it supports two-thirds of the Anatolia (Asia Minor), 720,000 10,700,000 I. ~~~~~Syria, Maesopotamia, Kurdistan, 450, 870 4)450, 000 human race. China and India are the most densely, Siberia the most sparsely, peopled regions. On the W. side it is partly connected with Europe and Africa, but otherwise is surrounded The physical geograj5hy of A. is singularly interesting. This by the ocean. It is bounded N. by the Arctic Ocean, E. by the vast continent contains at once the widest plains and the highest Pacific, S. by the Indian Ocean, and W. by Europe, the Black mountain peaks in the world. It stretches far into the Arctic Sea, the Mediterranean, and the Red Sea. In the S.W. it is circle, and penetrates the tropics by three great peninsulas, joined to Africa by the Isthmus of Suez, and in the extreme thus embracing the utmost extreme of climates. Its mountains, N.E. is only separated by Behring's Strait from N. America. plains, and river systems may be best considered separately. Its greatest length, from Singapore to the N.E. cape of Siberia, The great mountain chains of Central A. are four in numberis 5300 miles; breadth, from Smyrna to Japan, 6oo000 miles. (i) The Himalayan range (q. v.), separating India f-rom Tibet,'The mass of the continent is nearly a square, with seven great and extending from the Bolor Tagh to the grand curve of the projections stretching out from it in the form of peninsulas-viz., Brahmaputra, whence it branches off into the lower ranges of Europe and Asia Minor on the W.; Hindustan and Further China and Further India; (2) The ranges which stretch from the India on the S.; Cores and N.E. Siberia on the E. It is a Bolor Tagh to Behbring's Strait, and from the N. E. boundary of curious fact that each of these great projections has a smaller the central plateau, including the Thian Span in Kashgaria, the peninsula or island closely connected with it. Thus Europe Altai and Sayanslk in S. Siberia, and the Stanovoi and Aidan has the British Isles; Asia Minor, the AEgean Archipelago; ranges in E. Siberia; (3) The Hindu Kush range, between Arabia has Oman; Hindustan has Ceylon; Further India has Afghanistan and Turkestan, running W. from the Bolor Tagh, the Malay Peninsula; Corea has Japan; while N. E. Siberia has and finding its continuation in the Elbruz Mountains S. of the Kamchatka.' Caspian, the mountains of Armenia, and the Taurus range; (4) 192 ASI THE rGLOBpE VC YCO AeDao. ASI The ranges forming the southein boundary of the central plateau, The lakes are few, and mostly of inferior dimensions. There the chief of which are the Karakoum and Kuenlun Mountains are several of large size, however, the principal of which are the of Tibet, Pe-ling, Yun-ling, and, Nan-ling in China, Inshan and Caspian Sea, the largest lake in the world; Lake Aral, in the Kinghan S. and E. of the Shamo desert. In addition to the main steppes of Turkestan; and Lakes Baikal and Balkash, the former series there are lesser ranges, such as the Suliman and Hala in the S. of Siberia, the latter at the eastern edge of the steppes Mountains, separating India from Afghanistan and Beloochi- of the Kirghis. In the tableland of Chinese Tartary are Lob-nor stan, and forming the E., as the Zagros or Kurdistan Mountains and Koko-nor; in Tibet, Tengri-nor; in the basin of the Yang-tse, form the W. wall of the plateau of Iran, the Eastern and Lakes Poyang and Tong-ting; in Iran, Lakes Hamun and Urmiah Western Ghats of India, and the Ural Mountains, which in or Urumiyah; in Armenia, Lake Van; in Syria, Galilee and the part separate Asia and Europe. Away to the S.W. again, Dead Sea; and Tuz-GGl in Asia Minor. Several of these are the Arabian mountains may be considered as forming a link salt —Tuz-Gfil being reputed the saltest in the world. of connection with the lofty snow-clad mountains of Afiica, In metals A. is exceedingly rich, having indeed been celebrated lying beyond Abyssinia. The mean height of the Himalayas from the remotest times for the profusion of its mineral wealth. greatly exceeds that of any other mountain range, being variously The precious metals are distributed more liberally than in Europe, estimated at from I2,0oo to 20,000 feet; certainly not fewer especially in China, the Altai and Ural Mountains, India and than forty peaks are over 2I,o00 feet, and a considerable num- Burmah, and are associated with diamonds. In the Altai and ber of them are above 25,000. This range contains the loftiest Urals, iron, lead, and platinum are found; in India and Monknown point on the globe, Mount Everest, which towers to the golia, rubies and other gems; salt in Central A.; coal in various gigantic height of 2g,oo6 feet. The snow-line is exceedingly places; petroleum in the Caspian region; and bitumen in Syria. high on the Himalayas, and on the S. side the descent to the The E. of Turkestan abounds in silver, lead, copper, iron-ore, narrow valleys or gorges is extremely precipitous. There are sulphur, coal, besides jasper and turquoise. comparatively few passes, and all have a great altitude; several The botany of A. is unsurpassed in richness and variety by are higher than Mont Blanc, and one is estimated at 20,000 that of any other continent, and ranges from the scant flora of feet. To the N. of the main range many of the peaks are the circumpolar region to the prodigal vegetation of the tropics. volcanic; the higher mountains, however, are either of granite, The southern zone is especially notable for the number of its gneiss, or quartzite. native fruits and esculent vegetables, India, Indo-China, and The two great plains of A., the Eastern and Western, are Arabia abounding in trees yielding gums, spices, balsams, resins, tablelands. The latter, called the Plateau of Iran, has an esti- and dyes. Among the more characteristic specimens may be mated area of I,700,000 sq. miles, and a general elevation of 4000 mentioned the birches, willows, larches, and stone pines of N. feet, the salt desert of Persia and the tablelands of Armenia Siberia; the root plants of Central A., including rhubarb, being nearly double that altitude. This vast region, together with angelica, and cow-parsnip; the palm, date, fig, cedar, banian, that of Arabia, is singularly arid and barren, being rarely varied and other S. Asiatic trees; and the nutmegs, cloves, and other by the appearance of vegetation. The great Eastern Plateau or spices peculiar to the Eastern Archipelago. China and Japan tableland of Tibet lies N. of the Himalayas. It includes over are famous for the cultivation of tea, and India for the produc3,500,000 sq. miles, and is traversed by several large rivers. tion of rice, cotton, coffee, opium, indigo, and maize. This enormous tract, which is little known, is of great height The zoology embraces one-third of all known quadrupeds, in. (I7,000 feet) in the S., and descends towards the mountain cluding a large variety of wild animals of great strength. Bears, range forming its N. boundary. A lowland plain occupies the lions, tigers, rhinoceroses, leopards, are the chief of these; beentire N.W. of A., embracing W. Siberia and W. Turkestan, sides which there are the badger, wolf, Arctic fox, hyaena, jackal, with an area nearly double that of Europe. The southern and monkey. Among the domestic animals are the ox, buffalo, part of India forms the tableland of the Deccan, which is bounded sheep, goat, horse, ass, camel, elephant, and dog. Birds and on the E. and W. by the Ghats, or hill ranges of the coast. reptiles are very numerous: of the former may be mentioned the The river systems of A. are on the same grand scale as its peacock, pheasant, bird of paradise, besides numerous singingmountains and plains. They may be divided into three separate birds; of the latter, the boa-constrictor, python, cobra, crocoseries: those which flow into the Arctic Ocean, those which dile, &c. The insects are of large size and splendid tints. enter the Pacific, and those which drain into the Indian Ocean. The principal islands are those in the S.E., known unitedly Of the first class there are nine large rivers, the chief of which are as Malaysia, or as the Eastern, Indian, or Asiatic Archipelago, the Lena, Yenesei, and the Obi, each having a direct course of and comprising five principal groups: (I) The Sunda Islands nearly 1500 miles, without including windings, and draining (Java, Sumatra, &c.); (2) the Celebes, including the Sangir nearly half a million sq. miles of territory. They all rise at very group; (3) the Moluccas or Spice Islands; (4) the Philippines; inconsiderable elevations in the Altai Mountains, pass through (5) Borneo, including the Sulu group. Borneo is the largest immense desolate plains, have sluggish courses, and form occa- island in the world. Other islands of A. are Ceylon, in the S. sionally vast marshes, which occupy a great part of Siberia. of India; the Japanese Islands, E. and N. of Corea; Formosa, The deltas formed by the Lena and Yenesei are frozen for nine E. of China; Cyprus, S. of Asia Minor; and New Siberia, months annually; and the latter river, in its upper course, expands in the Arctic Ocean. into the great Lake Baikal. Of rivers that flow into the Pacific In apolitical aspect the various countries of A. present a curious the chief are the Hoang-ho and Yang-tse-kiang, each with a combination. The forms of government range from the primicourse of I200 miles, not including windings. They both rise tive rule of the nomad sheik to Chinese despotism, while the in Central Asia, drain about half a million of sq. miles, and wandering tribes of Siberia and Turkestan remain almost uncarry down a great amount of mud, which is deposited at their governed by the Russian Czar, who claims them as his subjects. mouths in the Yellow Sea. The next largest river is the Amur, The vast territory of India has been brought by British governwhich, with a drainage even greater than that of the two former ment directly under European influence, and Japan is freely rivers, forms a part of the southern boundary of the Russian modelling her institutions on those of the West. The great dominions, and enters the Sea of Okhotsk. The rivers which political power of A. belongs, however, to the past. In ancient empty into the Indian Ocean —the Ganges, Brahmaputra, times it embraced many powerful monarchies, the chief of which Irawaddy, and Indus-are inferior to those of Northern A. in were those of Assyria and Persia. The Huns, who overran everything but historical interest and commercial importance. Europe in the 5th c., issued from a region E. of the Caspian A singular double river system is formed by the Ganges and Sea; the fanatical armies of Arabia conquered the greater part Brahmaputra, which both rise in the Himalayas and unite their of the ancient world; and the Osmanli, who rose on the ruins of voluminous waters to form an immense delta covered with the the Seljukide Turks, of whom they were merely a sept, overdensest jungle vegetation. The Euphrates and Tigris, rising in threw the Roman empire in the East and established the the tableland of Armenia, also combine before entering the Turkish dynasty. But, with some brilliant exceptions, the Oriental Persian Gulf. In addition to rivers which flow into the ocean, governments for the last two hundred years have either remained there are several in Central A. which have no drainage beyond stationary or have lapsed into feebleness and decay. the high tableland, and no outlet except the lakes, where their As to etknography, the entire population of A. embraces three superfluous water is carried off by evaporation. The chief of main groups, the Turanian (q. v.), Aryan (q. v.), and Semitic these, the Amur-Daria (anc. Oxus), rises in the Hindu Kush, and (q. v.). The peoples in the N., E., and S.E. of A. are enters the Sea of Aral after a course of about I700 miles. Turanian; those of Northern India, Afghanistan, Persia, and ^ 25 ___ _93 j. ASI THE GIOBE ENC YCL OPDWZA. ASP a portion of Asiatic Turkey are Aryan; and the inhabitants A. by aid of which Cleopatra wrought her tragic end. The of Arabia, Palestine, and Syria belong to the Semitic family of A. or Vipera As pis of the Alps, Sicily, and S.E. Europe generaces. rally, is another form to which the term A. is applied. This The religions of A. are numerous and diverse. The most im- latter has a broad head, and somewhat resembles the common portant are the Brahminism of India, the religions of Buddha, viper in appearance. Confucius (if his system of practical ethics, minus a deity, can be called a religion), and Lao-tse in China, and the various forms Aspar'agine is a crystalline substance occurring in the young of Islamism in Arabia, Persia, and India. There are, besides, shoots of the asparagus, also in the climbing vetch, marshmany native Christian sects in India, Armenia, Kurdistan, and mallow, bean, pea, and other plants. It is related chemically Syria. The subject of religion is dealt with in the articles on to malic acid, and may be converted into that substance by the various religious creeds. treating it with nitrous acid. In point of civilisation many of the countries of A. had in the C4tH5(NI12)04 C4H5(OH)04 earliest times made great industrial and intellectual progress. Many of the arts originated in A., which is regarded as the Asparagine. Malic acid. birthplace of humanity itself. The history of Eastern civilisation, Aspar'agus, a genus of Monocotyledonous plants belonging however, exhibits a singular phase. Development entirely tothe orderLiliaceaz. A. oafcinalis, commonA., is a Herbaceous ceases after a certain stage has been reached in the evolution of plant indigenous to Britain; and in the southern parts of Russia art, science, industry, law, and commerce; conservatism then and Poland it grows so abundantly that cattle and horses eat it becomes the ruling principle, and the result is what is seen in as grass: it is also found in Greece, and was formerly used as a the rigid and unchanging systems of India and China, though vegetable by the Romans. In some parts of England it is cultithe former country shows signs of awakening from its long intel- vated extensively for the London market: the young shoots alone lectual slumber, and may perhaps again reach distinction, if its are used as a culinary vegetable. Both the shoots and roots are educated youth do not lapse into mere scientific scepticism. The diuretic, and have been beneficial in cases of gravel and dropsy. Arabs, Turks, and Persians still retain slavery; Hindu society The seeds of the plant have been used as a substitute for coffee, is fixed by a rigorous system of caste; but in China there pre- and a kind of spirit has been made from its berries. A. albus, vails civil and political equality in a sense, i.e., there is no aris- and other species found in the S. of Europe, are used in the tocracy to modify the absolute despotism of the imperial rule, same way as the common A. A. scaber is not used, owing to its all being thus alike powerless. bitter properties. Prussian A. is the young shoots of a plant Asia'go, a town in the province of Vicenza, N. Italy, 22 belonging to a different genus-viz., Ornithogalum pyrenaicuzn, miles N. of Vicenza, noted for the manufacture of straw hats, which grows abundantly in some parts of Somersetshire, espeand for turning. The inhabitants speak a corrupt form of Ger- cially near Bath. man. Pop. 5I40. Asparagus Stone. See APATITE. Asia Minor, the ancient name of the modern Anatolia, a district of great historical interest, as having contained some of mental accomplishmea n, daughter of Axiochus, possessed rare the most famous cities of the ancient world-Troy, Ephesus, mental accomplishments. Coming to reside at Athens, her the Smyrna, & c. On this of theatre were transacted events of thesus, beauty and culture fixed the affections of Pericles, who had parted from his wife with her own consent. His union with A. greatest magnitude and interest, as the wars of the Greeks with parted from his wife with her own consent. His union with a foreignwoman the Persians;* of the Romans with Mithridates;* and the more was as close as the law permitted, marriage with a foreign woman th e Persiansts of the Aromans with Mithrida thedeaying Empire being strictly prohibited. Her ascendency over Pericles was recent contests of the Arabs and Turks with the decaying Empire supreme, and her house became the rendezvous of the most of the East-events stretching over a period of more than 2000 supreme, and her house became the rendezvous of the most of they e ars. Under Turkish rule A. M. has gradually lapsed into polished society of Athens. The comic writers were habitually poverty, sterility, and barbarism, in striking contrast to its unjust to her, falsely ascribing to her influence both the Samian wealth, fertility, and c io in erig st i and civiPeloponnesian wearlier ages. In the mIenexenus of Plato there is wealth, fertilty, and cf A. M. ivilisation ancient timer ages. The most Phrygia, a discourse composed by A. in honour of the soldiers who died portant countries of A. M. in ancient times were Ionia, Phrygia, for their country at Lechoeum, of which Cicero says that the portant.ilicia, GalaaBithynia, Pontus, and Cappadocia. for their country at Lechieum, of which Cicero says that the Lydia, Cilicia, Galatia, Bithynia, Pontus, and Cappadocia. Athenians were so proud that they caused it to be declaimed Asiat'ic Chol'era. See CHOLERA. once a year, and adds that the custom prevailed to his own time. Asinalun'ga, or Sina Longa, a well-built town in the On the death of Pericles she attached herself to Lysicles, a province of Siena, N. Italy, 22 miles S.E. of Siena, with a fine cattle-dealer, whom she succeeded in moulding into a brilliant collegiate church, containing several valuable paintings. Pop. of orator. Her son by Pericles, legitimated by a decree of the commulne, 8500. people, assumed his father's name. See Plutarch's Life of Pericles. Asmannshau'sen, a village in the Prussian province of Pericles. Wiesbaden, on the Rhine, famed for the splendid wines to which As'p6, a town in the province of Alicante, Spain, 21 miles it gives name. The ducal vineyards here yield red wine superior W. of Alicante, with flour and oil mills, a trade in wine and in some respects to those of Burgundy. brandy, and soap manufactories. Pop. 6744. Asmode'us (Heb. Ashmedai, the destroyer) figures in the As'pect is an old astronomical term, now completely disused, Book of Tobit as an evil spirit, who slew in succession the seven applied to the position of one planet with respect to another, as husbands of Sara on the bridal night. Tobias burned the heart seen from the earth. There were five aspects, which received and liver of a fish caught in the Tigris, the smell of which forced distinct names: Conjunction (symbol C ), when the two bodies A. to flee into Egypt, where the angel bound him. According had the same longitude; Sextile (-:*), when they were 60o apart; to the Talmud he drove Solomon from his kingdom, and for this Quartile ([2), when 9go0; Trine (A), when I20~; and Opposition he was afterwards forced to serve in building the temple. (cd), when I8o0. Conjunction and opposition are the only two Asmonm'ans. See MACCABEES. now in use. Aso'la, an ancient fortified town in the province of Brescia, Aspen, or Trembling Poplar, the common names for NT. Italy, I9 miles W.N.VW. of Mantua, kno-wn for its manu- Populus trenzula, a tree native in Britain, many parts of Europe, facture of silk-twist. Pop. of commune, 5500. and Siberia. It is common in damp soil in the Highlands of Scotland, ascending to I500 feet above the level of the sea. It Asp, the name of a poisonous serpent, the zoological posi- has received its name from the leaves having a quivering motion, tion of which is but doubtfully indicated. The term appears to caused by the petioles or leaf-stalks being flattened or compressed have been used by popular authors and writers in a very general laterally, so that the slightest breath of wind moves the leaf. sense. It is supposed to correspond to the Naja Haje of Egypt, The wood, which is white, light, and soft, has been used for a a snake allied to the famous Naja tripudians, or Cobra di variety of purposes. The smaller branches make good gun. Capello of India. See NAJA. By other naturalists the A. is powder charcoal. It is a fast-growing tree, with a smooth, believed to be one of the ViYzeridcz, or vipers; the Cerastes, or greyish bark, and is supposed to be the mulberry-tree of Scriphorned snake of Egypt, and the Vipera Ec;his being two of the ture, referred to in 2 Sam. v. 24, and I Chron. xiv. I5. It forms thus suggested. The former is regarded as the snake or belongs to the natural order Amzentiferw, or the Willow family. I94_ + —---------------- --------------- ----—. —------------—. —---------— ~g ASP THE GLOBE EN YCZOPEDIA. ASP Aspergill'um, or Watering-Pot Shell, a genus of bility it displays decided advantages over any other material. Lamellibranchiate Mollusca, in which the body is contained On account of its smoothness it is not well adapted for steep within a calcareous or limy tube, formed by the calcified siphons inclines, and the objection of slipperiness after slight rain has or breathing-tubes. The two valves of the shell consist of two been raised against it. small structures embedded in the front part of the tube. The tube, In I873 Great Britain imported I I,690 tons of A., the greater at the anterior portion, terminates in a perforated disc, like the portion being furnished by the W. Indies and France.'rose' of a watering-pot —hence the popular name of these forms-and its opposite extremity often possesses ruffle-like As'phodel, the common name for the genus of plants A4spao folds. These animals bore into sand, or burrow in stone or dee'us, belonging to the order wood; the elongated tube serving to convey water and food to iliacecn. The species, whicha the enclosed animal. A. yavanum and A. vaginiferum are familiar species. herbs with thick fleshy roots: they are natives of Southern Aspergill'us, a genus of Filamentous fungi. See MOULD. Europe. The yellow A. (A. As'pern, or Gross As'pern, a village 5 miles E. of Vienna, luteus); the white A., or king's on the left bank of the Danube, famous for a battle in I809 spear (A. albus); and the between the French and the Austrians. The French, under branching A. (A. ra Napoleon I., entered Vienna on the I2th of May, and on the are very ornamental garden 2Ist began crossing the river to attack the Archduke Charles, plants. The last named, which who had posted his forces on the opposite bank. The Austrians is regarded as a variety of the white A., is very abundant charged the French with the utmost fury, but the day's combat white A., Is very a was not decisive. Renewing the attack next morning, the in some parts of Italy, where Austrians forced the French, after an obstinate resistance, to it aff ords excellent food for withdraw, first to the island of Lobau, in the middle of the river, slheep. The bog or Lancaand afterwards to the right bank, with a loss in killed and wounded of more than 30,ooo. Marshal Lannes was among the ossifagum, a common British slain, plant in wet moors, belonging to the order f/ncace F, Asphodelus ramosus. Asper'ula, a genus of Dicotyledonous plants belonging to The name of Scotch A. is the order Rubiacew. See WOODRUFF. often given to Tofieldia palustris, a British plant belonging to the As'phalt, Asphalt'um, Bitu'men, or Min'eral Pitch, Colchicum family (Medantlacer). is a solid amorphous mineral, resembling common pitch, found Asphyx'ia is death beginning at the lungs. It is characabundantly in almost every quarter of the globe. Many theories terised by loss of consciousness and muscular power, stoppage exist regarding its origin, but that most generally received holds of the movements of the chest, and afterwards of the pulsations it to be the product of the distillation of carbonised vegetable of the heart, along with accumulation of blood in the right matter by the action of subterranean heat and moisture in the cavities of that organ, and throughout the venous system geneabsence of atmospheric air. The existence of naphtha, petro- rally. It is caused by any interference with the passage of air leum, and allied mineral substances, is ascribed to the same to and from the lungs. When from any cause this occurs, the cause. B. occurs in nature in three distinct forms-the earthy, venous blood carried to the lungs by the pulmonary artery is not the elastic, and the compact. They are all readily inflammable, arterialised in the capillaries, and consequently is returned to the and possess a black or brownish-black colour, with a specific left side of the heart still in a venous condition. This venous gravity from I to I 6, according to the amount of impurities blood is at once distributed by the left ventricle to the brain, present. B., when pure, however, has a density rather less than nervous centres, muscular system, and to the heart itself-all of water. Earthy B. breaks with a rugged edge; and the soft, which organs require a proper supply of arterial blood for the flexible, or elastic variety, sometimes called'mineral caoutchouc,' due performance of their respective functions. This accounts from its capability of removing lead-pencil markings, is extremely for the confusion of ideas, delirium, unconsciousness, muscular rare. The compact variety, commonly termed A., is the most spasms, convulsions, and failure of the heart's action. The blood abundant kind. It fractures conchoidally, with a brilliant resinous quickly stagnates in the pulmonary capillaries, and the backward lustre; fuses at 212~ F.; burns with a thick red smoke; and effects of the disturbed circulation ultimately distend the right when rubbed, emits a pitchy odour. It is insoluble in water, side of the heart and venous system with very dark venous blood. partly soluble in alcohol and ether, and almost wholly so in spirit The cause of the stagnation of the blood in the pulmonary capil. of turpentine. - According to Boussingault, it is composed prin- laries is not well understood. After death, the left chambers of cipally of an oxygenated hydrocarbon, called by that investiga- the heart contain only a small quantity of dark-coloured blood, tor aspqhalene. The largest known asphaltic deposit occurs in and the vessels of the membrane and the sinuses of the brain are the island of Trinidad, where there is a lake of it I~ miles in filled with dark blood. circuit. It also exists abundantly in Barbadoes, Cuba, New A. may be caused in any of the following ways: (I) Breath. Grenada, Peru, United States, Canada, and New Brunswick- ing an irrespirable gas, which quickly causes spasm of the glottis, the A. of the latter place being called albertite. Burmah, and thus prevents air from passing into the lungs; (2) mechani. Turkey in Asia, France, Albania, and many other European cally, by pressure on the windpipe, as in strangulation; or by the localities, also furnish considerable quantities. After an earth- impaction of a foreign body in the trachea, as in choking; (3) quake, large masses of A. are found floating on the surface of by puncture of both pleural cavities, which allows the air to press the Dead Sea (the Lacus Asphaltites of classical authors), which the lungs towards the back part of the cavity of the chest; (4) circumstance seems to point to the existence of bituminous by pressure on the outer surface of the chest, so as to prevent the springs in the bed of the sea, probably identical with the' slime- movements of inspiration, as in death caused by a squeeze in a pits' of the Vale of Siddim. From the earliest historic times crowd of people; or by sand or gravel so falling on a labourer as A. has been used for various purposes. The Egyptians em- to surround his chest and leave the head free; (5) by paralysis ployed it in embalming the dead; and bricks from Babylon of the respiratory nerve-centres in the medulla oblongata, as in exhibit adherent bitumen, indicating its use as mortar. At the hanging, where, as practised in this country, death is caused by present time it is turned to account in the preparation of artificial the odontoid process of the axis (the second cervical vertebra) pavement, as a covering for roofs, and a lining for cisterns and being fractured and crushed into the medulla; (6) by narcotic iron pipes; it also forms the principal ingredient in Japan varnish. poisons, which paralyse the respiratory centres; (7) by immer. -A. Stone is a dark-brown compact limestone, impregnated sion in water, or any other fluid which prevents air from passing with from 6 to Io per cent. of B., found at Seyssel, de- into the lungs; and (8) by any mechanical impediment placed partment of Ain, France; in the Val de Travers, canton of in front of the mouth. The -general rules for treating an Neufchatel, Switzerland; and other places in the Jura Mountains. asphyxiated person are-(I) to remove the cause as quickly as Its suitability for roadways, when powdered and mixed with 7 possible; (2) to admit around him abundance of fresh air; and per cent. of B., has led to its adoption for that purpose in many (3) to excite artificial respiration.:For further details see cities; and in noiselessness, comparative cheapness, and dura- DROWNING and RESPIRATION. a_^ —----- IS l 95 ASP THE GL GOBE EAC YCl OPMJDIA. ASS Aspid'ium, a genus of Ferns (q. v.). Persia, and Syria. The costermongers in London use it almost Asp'inwall, a town on the small island of Manzanilla, in the exclusively in their trade, and it is only right to say that it is ~SP'United States sm of Colombila, foundedin I, and well treated as a rule. Of late years Baroness Burdett Coutts United States of Colombia, founded in 1852, and ceded in per- and others have taken much interest in the A., and have en4 petuity to the Isthmus of Panama Railroad Company, is the and others have taken much interest in the A., and have enpetuity to the Isthmuslanti of thisPanama Railroad Company, connecting the deavoured to raise its status by offering liberal prizes in comterminus on the Atlantic side of this railway, which, connecting petitions at agricultural shows, but the effort has been a the Atlantic and Pacific, has been termed the highway of the petitions at agricultural shows, but the effort has been a comparative failure. The A. in its nature is much hardier than world. Already seven great lines of mail steamers touch at A. the horse, and subsists upon much coarser food. It can find Pop. about 4o00. meat when other beasts of burden would starve, as it is fond As'pirate means a breathing (Lat. spiro, I breathe). The of thistles and other prickly plants. In Ireland, on small farmstrong breathing (Lat. spiritus asper; Gr. plezezma dasu) corre. holdings, it is often employed in ploughing and harrowing, and sponds to the letter h, and is formed by the free emission of breath shows no obstinacy. Its milk contains less caseine and more through the perfectly open glottis. There is also a soft breathing saccharine mnater than cow's milk, and it is used in cases of (Lat. spiritus lenis; Gr. pneuma psilon), a slight sound heard on debility. the pronunciation of any initial vowel, as in old. The mark of the As'sagay-Tree, the name at the Cape of Good Hope for rough breathing was originally l,, afterwards H; finally the Curlisia faginea, a large tree belonging to the order Connacew. rough and soft breaths were expressed by the halves of this mark, The natives in the districts where it abounds use its wood for thus - and -, whence came the present signs; and Max Miller shafts for the javelins, or assagays; hence its common name. denies, on physiological grounds, the identity of the h with the The genus is named in honour of Curtis, a well-known English spiritus asper. The term A. is also applied to combinations of botanist. h with the letters called mutes or checks, from the fact that in their formation the emission of breath is quite checked. When a,hich the name of a bvcture used by the inhabitants of h is breathed immediately after a check, sounds are produced eduLis, a palm-tree which grows in swampy places, and attains a occurring in- Greek kh, th, ph (hard aspirates), and occurring heights, a palm- tree which grows v ery nutritious whe n sweetened in Sanskrit, gh, dh, bh/ (soft aspirates). Whether the original with sugar and mixed with farina, such as Manioc (q. v.). It Aryan language possessed both hard and soft aspirates is a point forms the daily food of a large number of the inhabitants. much disputed among philologists. Assal', a salt lake in Adel, E. coast of Africa, near the mouth As'pirator is an apparatus used in physics and chemistry of the Red Sea, 25 miles S.W. of the seaport of Tajurrah. It to draw a continuous stream of air through tubes or other vessels. is 8 miles long and 4 broad, lies 00 feet belo the sea-level, and It usually takes the form represented in the is 8 miles long and 4 broad, lies 7o0 feet below the sea-level, and figu re, and consists of a vespresentedl full of water, yields vast quantities of salt for the Abyssinian caravans. figure, and consists of a vessel full of water, I provided with a stopcock both at top and -bot- Assam', since February I874 a separate province of India, is a tom: the upper stopcock is attached by an long curving valley watered by the Brahmaputra and other rivers, indiarubber tube to the apparatus, through bounded on the N.E. by the mountains of Tibet, and separated which the air is to be drawn. On opening the also by mountains from Burmah on the S. and S.E. Area, lower stopcock, water runs out, and a steady 27,8oo sq. miles; pop. according to census report(I873), 1,682,692; current of air flows through the apparatus to chief town, Gowhati. Timber abounds, the reserves being under take its place. the management of the Forest Department, the open forests under civil officers. The tea-plant was introduced in I826, and in I874 Asple'nium, a genus of Ferns (q. v.). the yield of tea was II,082,958 lbs. For I875 it is estimated at Ass (Asinus), a gelnus of Ungulsate or over I3,000,000 lbs. The teas from A. are especially valued on acHoofed quadrupeds included in the family of count of their strength, and are preferred to those of other districts horses (Equiade), or in the corresponding division for mixing purposes. Rice, the precious metals, lead, petroleum, Soridnguaa,r in which the feet have each a sin and coal are other products. Wild animals, tigers, elephants, Solidungula, in which the feet have each a single Aspirator. perfect toe-the third-enclosed in a broad rhinoceroses, and buffaloes are very abundant. A. was ceded to piator. hoof. No accessory hoofs are developed, the British at the close of the Burmese war (I826), but was not Canine teeth are developed in the males only. The dental for plced completely under British administration till I838. Annals mula shows six incisors, two canines, six priemolars, and six ofind. Adnin., 5872-73, by Dr G. Smith (Seramp. 5874). molar teeth in each jaw. The Assas'sins (Lat. Assassini and Asshssini), the name given by asses, occasionally included the mediseval chroniclers to a branch of the Ismaelites (q. v.) of i/["I;}~~ E~,~ E EmXinthegenus Equus, instead of Persia and Syria, belonging to the Shiite sects. It is thought forming the type of a distinct the name is a Latinised form of the Arabic Hashasashin ('herbgenus (Asinus),possess a'dor- eaters'), because they were wont to madden themselves with sal line.' The tail is tufted. various intoxicating plants when about to proceed to their The grey body-colour ex- bloody work. Eastern writers, however, rarely use the name hibits bands or stripes of Hashashin; here and there we find eddcwi ('the self-sacrificers'), darker hue. The hind-legs but in general the A. are not distinguished from the larger sect want the'warts' possessed of Ismaelites from which they sprung. Hassan-ben-Sabbah-elby the fore-limbs, and which Homairi, the founder of the A. proper, whose convictions of //I //V,,A \ ~j - are present on both limbs in the truth of Islamism were not deep, was of Persian origin, had Z _horses. The ears are elon- studied under Mowasek, at Nishpur, about the middle of the / gated, but this is probably I Ith c., and had been partially initiated into the mysteries of i a character moe common to the Ismaelites. But having quarrelled with the heads of the MW1'^i domesticated forms. A dark Grand Lodge at Cairo, he was expelled, and escaping to Persia, r —. o cross or mark exists at the | proceeded to found an order of his own, which should exert an shoulders. The'facial line' organised terrorism over the neighbouring districts. Seizing the | Wild Ass. is arched or curved. The Persian fortress of Alamut in Io090o, he quickly acquired territory wild A. (Ezquus or Asinus and influence by intimidation and assassination. The order so Onager), a native of Central Asia, is the progenitor of the com- founded consisted of seven degrees. At the head of it was the mon A. and other domesticated varieties or breeds. In Persia, Prince or Old Man of the Mountain (Shei/th-al-7ebal), who had Tartary, &c., these animals occur in large herds, migrating towards lieutenants (Dai-al-kebir) in Jebal, Kuhistan, and Syria. Under India in winter. The'Kiang Djiggetai' (Equsts or Asinus these were the Dais and Refiks, whose initiation was imperfect, Hemionus) of Central Asia appears to be a second distinct species and who were not accredited as teachers. The novices and of wild A. It is coloured a pale grey or tawny, with a blackish mechanics rigidly observed the Koran, an obligation from which dorsal line. This form neighs like a horse, and appears in certain the initiated were relieved. So great was the dread inspired points to resemble the domesticated A. more closely than the wild by the SAeikh-al-ebal, that princes were wont to ensure their A. The domestic A. is used as a beast of burden in Arabia, safety by secretly paying him tribute. Hassan died, aged 596 ASS THE GL OBE ENC YCL OPEDIAi ASS seventy, in I I24. In I I63 Hassan II. was slain by his brother- standard solution of common salt is gradually added so long as in-law for abolishing Islamism in the whole order, but it was a precipitate is formed. The quantity of the solution of salt re-established by Hassan III. The seventh and last Sheikh-al- required to precipitate the whole silver as chloride gives a basis yeba/, or chief of the Persian A., was Rokn-eddin, who was for calculating the proportion of silver present in the alloy. The crushed in I256 by the famous Mongol, Hulagu, and the Syrian humid process produces much more accurate results than can branch was completely destroyed in I272 by Bibar, the power- be obtained by the cupel, and it is now used in most mints for ful Sultan of Egypt. See Von Hammer's Geschich/ze der Assas- estimating silver alloys. sinen (Stutt. and TUb. ISI8); Sir John Malcolm's History of A close approximation to the value of gold can be made by Persia (2d ed. Lond. I828); and Weil, Die Assassinen, in Sybel's means of the streak produced on a touchstone or a piece of slate. Histor. Zeitschrifi (Jahrg. I863). The streak made by the article to be tested is compared with the streaks made by a number of pencils of gold of known comAssault' (Lat. ad and salio, to spring towards) is a sudden position. The streak may be tested various ways, in ddition attack upon r a fortified place. The attacking body is dividedposition. The streak may be tested in various ways, in addition attack upon a fortified place...The attacking body is divided to the ocular evidence it affords, and it is of value as a prelimiinto'storming-parties,''support-parties,' and'firing-parties.' nary test when an estimation of the proportions of gold and The storming-parties endeavour to force their way into the place, silver is to be made, affording as it does an indication of the and are sometimes accompanied by'ladder-parties' with ladderst to be added for the process of for scaling purposes. The firing-parties, or musketeers, serve to a certain extent to shield the storming-parties from the enemy's quartation. fire. The support-parties follow in the rear. Assaye', a village in the fork of the Juah and Kaitna. Here Wellington, then Major-General Wellesley, gained a signal Assault, in law. See BEATING AND WOUNDING. victory over the Mahrattas, 23d September I803, which estabAssay', or Assaying, is the method by which the proportion lished British supremacy over a great part of India. of the precious metals present in any of their alloys is determined. Asseerghur', a formidable mountain fortress in the N. E. of Silver-plate must by law be made of a certain degree of fineness the presidency of Bombay, taken by the British in I803, and in Great Britain, and each article made has to be assayed, and, again in I8I9. There are only two approaches, both of them if approved, stamped at the Goldsmiths' Hall. Assays of gold steep, and strongly fortified with escarpments nearly Ioo feet jewellery are similarly made and guaranteed, and it is besides a high. The town stands at the foot of the rock on which the fort matter of great commercial importance to test the degree of is built. Pop. about 2500. fineness of coin and bullion, &c. The principal method of estimating the alloys with the baser metals is by the cupel, or Assema'ni, Jos. Simon, a celebrated Orientalist, born at cupellation. The operation of cupellation depends on the ready Tripoli, in Syria, in I687. He belonged to a Maronite family oxidation of lead at high temperatures, and by the action of lead of Lebanon. In his travels through Egypt, Syria, &c., he oxide, copper and other metals, added to gold and silver, are collected numerous Oriental MSS. for the papal library, of which freely oxidised. The oxides so formed are, in a state of fusion, he was keeper. A. died I4th January I768. His most imporabsorbed By the porous body of the cupel in which they are tant works are Bibliotheca Orientalis Clementino- Vaticana (4 reduced, leaving the noble metals in the form of a round metallic vols. Rome, 1719-28), an edition of the Opera Ephratrmi Syri globule on the surface of the cupel. A cupel is a form of crucible (6 vols. Rome, 1732-46), A'alendaria Ecclesize Universre (6 vols. made out of pure bone-ash, and is highly porous in structure. Rome, 1755-57), and Bibliotheca 7uris Orientalis Canonici et A sufficient number of such cupels for the tests to be made are Civilis (4 vols. Rome, i762-64). His sister's son, Stephan introduced into a muffle, or covered fireclay pot, placed in a:Evodius A., born at Tripoli, I707, keeper of the Oriental MSS. furnace of special construction, and heated gradually to a bright in the Vatican Library from 1768, and Archbishop of Apamea, redness. A minute quantity of the metallic compound to be died I782, is the author of three valuable works: Bibliothecae assayed is carefully weighed, and wrapped up with a propor- Mediceo-Laurentinz et Palatina Codices Manuscrti Orienta es tion of pure lead, varying according to the supposed degree (2 vols. Flor. I742), Acta Sanctorum Martyrum Orientalium et of fineness. This is introduced by means of a pair of tongs Occidentalium (2 vols. Rome, I748), and a fragmentary catalogue into the heated cupel, in which it fuses, and the lead quickly of the MSS. in the Vatican Library (Rome, I757). A brother forms films of oxide on the surface of the globule, which are of Stephan, Josephus Aloysius A. (born I7Io, died I782), absorbed by the cupel till, when the pure silver or gold is only is the author of a Codex Liturgicus Ecclesice Universalis (13 vols. left, the surface assumes a bright metallic lustre. It is then Rome, 1749-66), De Catholicis seu Palriarchis Chaldeeorum ATesgradually and carefully cooled, and the weight of the globule left torianorum (Rome, I775), and other works. A later kinsman, on the surface, compared with the weight of the original sample, Simon A. (born I752, died 182i), is the author of several gives the means of determining the degree of fineness of the alloy useful treatises: -The Museo Czfico Janiano 11lustrato (2 vols. to within a small fraction of the absolute composition. In the A. Pad. 1787-88), Saggio sull' Origine degli Arabi (Pad. I787), of a gold alloy, a larger proportion of lead has to be employed Catalogo dei Codici Manoscritti della Biblioteca lVaniana (Pad. than is required for silver, and bismuth may be substituted for 1787), and Globzs Ccelestis Czfico-Arabicus (Pad. I790). lead in the process of cupellation. In cases where it is necessary Assem'bly, General, the chief court of a Presbyterian to estimate separately the gold and silver in any alloy, the pro- Church. That of the Church of Scotland comprises both a lay cess of cupellation is only employed, if necessary, for first elimi- and a clerical membership, and composed of representatives from nating the base metals. The proportions of gold and silver are each of the eighty-four presbyteries, of representatives from the ascertained by the process of parting or quartation. The silver four universities, and of elders from the royal burghs. It asis dissolved out of the compound by the action of hot nitric or sembles annually at Edinburgh in May, is presided over by a sulphuric acid, but as the gold will not part with the silver unless moderator elected every year, has a prncipal and deputy clerk the latter be present in large quantity, as much pure silver is procurator and an agent. In all matters ecclesiastical the added to the A. sample as will make the weight of the silver a procurator, and an agent. In all matters ecclesiastical the three times that of the gold. W hen the two metals, in these G. A. possesses supreme legislative and judicial authority; but tree mes tat o te gold Ven te two metals, n the civil power, on the other hand, possesses the right of deterproportions, are thoroughly incorporated, the globule is ham- mining whether a matter is ecclesiastical or not. The civil authomered out, and twisted into a small spiral, in which state it is rity is represented by a royal commissioner. The constitution termed the cornet. The cornet is submitted twice to the action rty represented by a royal commis the same, with the cnstitution of boiling nitric or sulphuric acid, which dissolves out the silver, of the royal commissioner. The busimess not overtaken during and the weight of the gold is determined after it has been com- the sittingof the G. A. is handed over to a commission which pacted by heating to redness in the mufle. meets quarterly, and of which the moderator is convener The humid process is a method of A. applicable only to silver ver. alloys, and depends on the chemical reaction between a solu- Assembly, National, the name assumed by the Commons tion of chloride of sodium and nitrate of silver. The chlorine or Tiers-etat of the States-General, convoked by Louis XVI. of combines with the silver, forming an insoluble chloride of silver, France, May 5, 1789. The clergy and nobles, from fear of their and the nitric acid takes up the sodium to form nitrate of votes being outnumbered, having refused to sit in the same sodium, thus, AgNO3 + NaCI=AgCl + NaNO3. A solution chamber with the Commons, the latter constituted themselves a in nitric acid of the alloy to be tested is prepared, to which a N. A., and were afterwards joined by deputies of the two 197 *..... - - -d ASS THE Gi OBE ENCYCLOP/tDIA. ASS privileged orders. They framed a new constitution, based on Assessed' Taxes. These include various domestic taxes the sovereignty of the legislative body, subject to the veto of assessed on houses, menial servants, carriages, and other private the king, whose person was declared inviolable. In little more articles. In I85i duties on windows were abolished, and instead than two years the Assembly passed 3250 decrees; by which feudal a duty was put on inhabited houses worth /20 a year or upwards France was swept away. The chief of these measures were the of rent. The inhabited house duty is, for dwelling-houses, 9d. suppression of monastic orders, the declaration of the Rights of per/J; for shops, and some other classes of houses, 6d. per/. Man, the introduction of free-trade, the confiscation of Church property, the issue of Assignats.(q. v.), and the abolition of all Assess'ors are a ppointed to advise and assist a judge aristocratic titles. In September I79I the king accepted the new as to procedure, and in forming his judgment They are usually constitution, and the Assembly, called also from its functions the barristers; in Scotland, advocates. In ecclesiastical law proConstituent Assembly, then made way for the Legislative As- cedure, functionaries of the Church are usually joined to a sembly, intended to reform the civil and criminal laws in the barrister of good standing. spirit of the Revolution. Former members were formally ex- Assets', derived from the old French assetz, enough, originally cluded from the new Assembly, which, carried away by the meant the property of one deceased equivalent to his debts. It is excitement of the times, abolished monarchy, and imprisoned now, however, generally used in contradistinction to the word the royal family. A National Convention (q. v.) was summoned'liabilities,' in mercantile affairs; hence its meaning is apto license these infractions of the new constitution, to which all parent. In a mercantile Balance-Sheet (q. v.) the A. are parties had so recently sworn allegiance. placed on one side, the liabilities on the other. If the former There was a N. A. elected after the revolution of I848, exceed the latter, the concern is solvent; otherwise, it is insoland another in February I87I, on the termination of the Franco- vent. In English law, A. are legal or equitable according to the Prussian war. A N. A., professing to represent Germany, nature of a procedure which a creditor may use against the mlet at Frankfort in 1848, and the Cortes of Spain constituted executor or heir. A. is not a technical term in the law of Scotitself a N. A. on the abdication of Amadeus I., I6th February land; but it is much used in mercantile affairs, in which it has I873. the same signification as in England. Assembly of Divi'nes, or We'stminster Assembly, Assid'ians. See CHASIDIM. appointed by an ordinance of the two Houses of Parliament, June I2, I643,' to confer concerning the liturgy, discipline, and Assigna'tion is a legal term in Scotch law analogous to the government of the Church of England, or the vindicating the English term Assignment (q. v.). It is applied to a written deed doctrine of the same from all false aspersions and misconstruc- of conveyance in favour of another, made by the creditor in any tions;' was composed of I49 members, of whom II9 were obligation, or by the proprietor of any subject not properly clergymen, IO were from the Lords, and 20 from the Commons. feudal. The maker of the A. is called the cedent. The receiver To these were added 4 clerical and 2 lay commissioners from is called the assignee, or cessioner, or cessionary; and where the Scotland. The place of those who had died, or who refused to right or subject assigned is a debt or obligation, the obligant or attend, was supplied by superadded members. From the first debtor in this is called the common debtor. To complete the meeting, July I, I643, till February 22, I649, the Assembly sat transference to the assignee, the A. must be intimated to the II63 times. Almost complete unanimity existed as to doctrine, common debtor; and if there is more than one A. of the same but there was great divergence respecting Church government. subject or debt, the first intimated is preferable, though another After some opposition, the Solemn League and Covenant was be of prior date. The intimation ought to be notarial; but it sanctioned, and Parliament ratified the Directory of Public Wor- may be made effectively by other formal notice. Some assignaship, October 2, I644, and the doctrinal part of the Confession of tions, however, require no intimation. Indorsation of a Bill of Faith, March I648. The Shorter Catechism and the Larger Exchange (q. v.) and Adjudication (q. v.) require none. In ScotCatechism date respectively from November 5, I647, and Sep- land, A. of movables, while the cedent retains possession of them, tember I5, I648. The theology of these formularies, which are is not effectual against an onerous creditor.'the standards of all Presbyterian Churches, is Calvinism, and the mode of Church government sanctioned is the Presbyterian. Ass'ignats. This was the name of a paper issue, under the Hitherto Baillie's Letters and Lightfoot's 7ournal have been authority of the French National Assembly, after the revolution the chief authorities for the details of the proceedings of this of I789. The notes were for the values of from five to a hundred Assembly; but in I874 William Blackwood & Sons, Edinburgh fiancs. They were nominally on the security of land held to and London, published the JMlinutes of the Sessions of the West- be assigned to the holder. The first issue alone bore interest. minster Assembly of Divines, while engaged in 5reiaringf their The law, so far as it could, made the acceptance of the A. Directory for Church Government, Confession of Faith, and Cate- at full nominal value compulsory. But the law of political chisms, I644-49. Edited by Rev. Alexander F. Mitchell, D.D., economy proved stronger than that of the National Assembly, and Rev. John Struthers, LL.D. A list of the members is given and in March i796 twenty-four francs in gold were worth 7200 in Masson's Lzfe of Milton, I87I, pp. 509-527. in A. In July of the same year the forced currency was withAss'er, John,- the biographer of Alfred, was a monk of St drawn, after doing a great deal of mischief to the public. Davids, in Wales, and most probably of Welsh origin, for he Assignee in Bankruptcy. See BANKRUPTCY. speaks of the English as if they were a people foreign to him, calls Wales his'own country,' and states that he was' bred and Assign'ment, in English law, is a deed or instrument of educated there.' Alfred invited him, about 885, to the court of transfer; the operative words of which are to'assign, transfer, \W5essex on account of his skill in literature;' and he certainly and set over' to another, some right, title, or interest in real or exercised. a' direct, influence over the king's studies, for he ex- personal property. A possibility, right of entry, or matter in pressly tells us that during an eight months' visit to Alfredan al-action or suit, cannot be assigned; nor can arrears of rent, (before finally settling ing in Wessex) he'read to him whatever and matters similar. Some things are assignable by custom books he liked.' Alfred was greatly attached to his learned and and under statute which would not be so by the natural operapious friend, bestowed on him many gifts, and finally made tion of English law. Thus promissory notes and bills of exhim Bishop of Sherburne. The Chronicle gives the year 9Io change (see BILL OF EXCHANGE) are so. An A. for the as the date of his death. A. will always be remembered by his benefit of creditors is generally of the whole of the debtor's Annales Rerumn Gestarum /Elfredi Magni, an historical memoir property; which A. the creditors accept in place of their claims. which embraces the greater part of Alfred's life. As a con- Unless, however, all creditors assent, such an A. may be a fraud temporary record of the noblest of English princes, it possesses under the Bankrupt Act of 1869. By it a fraudulent A. is an the highest value. It was first published, but in a very cor- Act of Bankruptcy (q. v.). An A. with intent to defraud is void. rupt form, by Archbishop Parker, in I574. The best edition is This word is also sometimes used in the law of Scotland to that of Wise (Oxf. 1722). It gives the text of the Ioth c., and denote the transference of property in patents, copyrights, and is accepted by most scholars, English and German, as in the registered ships. main the work of A. The question is critically discussed in Dr Assignment of Error, in English law, is the statement of Reinhold Pauli's AIfred the Great (Bohn, Lend. I857). grounds on which alteration of the judgment of a court of law Asses, Feast of. See FooLs, FEAST OF. is asked from a higher tribunal. Under the Common Law Pro198 ASS THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPAEDIA. ASS cedure Act the term is now limited to certain grounds of ob- in such a way that when any one of them is afterwards presented jection there defined. to the mind, the others are apt to be brought up in idea.' A Assigns, in the law of England, is the term applied to good example is in the association of the feelings of vocal effort parties in whose favour an Assignment (q. v.) is made. The which so largely assists pure memory. The idea of a nauseous analogous Scotch term is Assignee. See ASSIGNATION. taste calls up the feeling to a certain extent. Mr Bain states Assimila'tion. See NUTRITION, the law of similarity thus:' Present actions, sensations, thoughts, Assimila'tion2. See NUTRITION. or emotions, tend to revive their like among previous impressions.' Assiniboine', a river in the S. of the Dominion of Canada, This property of mind is at the root of the scientific faculties Hudson Bay Territories, flowing W., and joining the Red River which trace identity in the midst of diverse conditions. Alat Fort Garry. though the laws of A. of I. have long been known, it was only Assi'si, an episcopal town of Central Italy, in the province of by degrees that they were applied in explanation of particular Perugia, with manufactures of needles and files, and famous as mental operations or faculties. Thus Locke notices A. of I. in Pthe birthplace of St Francis, founder of the Franciscan order ofa short chapter dealing chiefly with the prejudices of children; the birthplace of St Francis, founder of the Franciscan order of while Bain abandons the subdivision of the mind into faculties, Mendicants, who built here the Convento, Sacro a beautiful while Bain abandons the subdivision of the mind into faculties, Mendicants, who built here the Convento Sacro, a beautiful and proceeds entirely on the laws of A. of I. The controversy as specimen of early Gothic, containing many exquisite paintings to the ogin of knowledge has consisted chiefly in attempts to exby Cimabue and Giotto. The tomb of the saint is said to have to the origin of knowledge has consisted chiefly in attempts to explain by A. of I. indissoluble or'necessary' connections of ideas. been sometimes visited by as many as oo,ooo0 pilgrims in one Aristotle confined himself to habitual connection, not thinking day. The poet Metastasio was also a native of A. Pop. 14,033. that a necessary connection required explanation. Berkeley, Some remainspi of the ancient Umbrian town Assisiih exist, in- however, has successfully applied A.of I. to the perception of discluding a portico of the temple of Minerva, with fluted Corin. thian columns, the whole constructed of travertino. fluted Cori tance; and some psychologists even maintain that the belief in an external world is due to the association of possible sensations Assize'. The word, according to Sir Edward Coke, is with movements. Physiologists assert that when impressions are derived from the Latin assideo, to sit together. In England, received together or in succession, a connection along a definite assizes are held twice, or, in some counties, three times a year, tract of nervous force is established. Nothing is known, howexcept in Middlesex, before two judges appointed by the Queen's ever, with regard to the actual changes taking place in the sub. special commission. These judges sit in virtue of five several stance of the brain. commissions-namely, of commissions of the peace, of oyer and terminer, of gaol delivery, of A., and of nisi plrizts. A. also Assouan', Essuan' or Eswan' the Syene of the Greeks, signifies any statute or ordinance for regulating the weight, who formed the word from the Coptic (A., souan, the opening, measure, or quality of the thing which it concerns, as formerly to which the Arabs have added their article el, softened into es) the A. of bread or ale. a town in Upper Egypt, on the right bank of the Nile, near the In Scotland, A. sometimes signifies the sittings of a court, last cataracts, best known for its quarries of a kind of granite, sometimes its ordinances, and sometimes the jury. A jury or called, from Syene, syenite. In these quarries there are still A. in the Court of Justiciary consists of fifteen men, formerly remains of partially-cut blocks, and numerous inscriptions, which chosen by the court, now chosen by ballot from a greater num- served to indicate what material had been quarried and removed, ber (not exceeding forty-five), summoned by the sheriff;. of these and by the order of what king. The staple trade is in dates, a list must be served on the defender, with a copy of his indict- the palm flourishing well here. The traffic in slaves has not ment. yet been suppressed, and there is no other trade of importance. Asso'ciate Synod was the designation adopted by that party Pop. 4000. among the Seceders (see UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH) Assum'ition of the Virgin Mary, a festival of the Greek who affirmed that it was lawful to take the burgess oath, and who and Roman Churches, held on the 15th of August since the 7th were therefore popularly known as' Burghers.' As the other c., in commemoration of the assumption of the soul and body of party, the Antiburghers, denied this, a' split' became necessary, the Virgin into glory by Christ and his angels. From the 4th and accordingly it took place in I747. The Antiburgher Synod c. to the 7th the same day was observed in memory of her death. called itself the General Associate Synod. Assu'rance. See INSURANCE. Associa'tion. See CO-OPERATION SOCIETIES, LEAGUE, COMPANY. tEAssurance, Common, is the legal evidence of the conveyance of property. See CONVEYANCE, DEED. Association of Ideas is a general name for the orderly sequence which obtains among mental states. Aristotle says, Assyr'ia was a part of the Mesopotamian plain nearly as'Each mental movement is determined to arise as the sequel of large as Great Britain, bounded on the N. by Mount Niphates a certain other.' He then states that reminiscence, whether in Armenia, on the W. by the Khabur and the Euphrates, on voluntary or spontaneous, proceeds according to the law of simi- the S. by the alluvial plain which forms the N. of Babylonia and lars. the law of contraries, and the law of coadjacents (including Susiana, and on the E. by Media, from which it is separated by order in space and in time). Hume says,'To me there appear Mount Zagros (mod. Mountains of Kurdistan). E. of the Tigris to be only three principles of connection among ideas: resem- A. consists of fertile plains in the lateral valleys; W. of the Tigris blance, contiguity in time or place, cause and effect.' Hamilton it consists of an undulating tract and a level plain, both sterile and and others have pointed out that'cause and effect' is merely a with little water, lying N. and S. of the Sinjar Hills. Eastern A. case of contiguity in time-viz., succession. The association of is the scene of its history, the warlike expeditions to the W. being contrary ideas is also generally admitted to be due to often- always described as'across the Tigris.' Adiabene, the most fertile repeated contiguity, assisted by the mental shock of contrast: in district, watered by the two Zab rivers, was near the sites of the the connection of relatives proper, e.g., son and father, the one capital cities Asshur, Nineveh, and Calah. Ruins of cities and idea may be said to be a part of the other. James Mill attempted strongholds are frequent on the E. bank of the Tigris. About to reduce the connection of similar ideas to the law of con- the origin of A. nothing is certainly known; but the traditions tiguity, on the ground that we generally see like things together. of Nimrod, the Biblical statement that Nineveh was founded by On this view, which is affirmed on a large scale by evolutionists, Asshur from Babylon, and the similarity of Assyrian race and mental association would depend entirely on the order in which civilisation to the older Babylon, suggest that A. was colonised the original sensations presented themselves. Similarity is, how- from Lower Mesopotamia, which is supposed to have been the ever, admitted by psychologists to be an independent source of source of Semitic emigration to Arabia and Palestine. The oriattraction among ideas. Vivid impression, frequent repetition, ginal capital of A. was Asshur (now Kalah Shergat), on the W. and retentiveness of the particular mind affected are the main bank of the Tigris, 60 miles S. of Nineveh. Till lately the conditions of strong association. Mr Bain thus states the law of Kalah Shergat cylinder was the earliest historical document: it contiguity:' Actions, sensations, and states of feeling, occurring gave the names of five kings, going back to the I3th c. B.C. We together, or in close succession, tend to grow together, or cohere have now a tablet giving the names of four kings in the I4th c., and the list of kings is hypothetically completed to I850 B.c. * There are eight circuits annually-the Home, the Midland, the Norfolk, Asshur is said to have existed in that century, but it may have been the Oxford, the Northern, the Western, the N. Wales, and the S. Wales. partly dependent on Babylon. Twenty-one kings, commencing *i -u-'99 sp v _, _..._ A_. A_.,....... + —-— P5~ * 4 ASS THE GC OBE ENWC YCLiOPAtD!A. ASS with Ismidagan, and including two of the name of Samsivul, Nabopolassar, and Cyaxares of Media. A. then becomes a must have reigned at Asshur. Of these, Belnirari (1370-50) satrapy of the Persian empire, which was overthrown by Alexand Vulnirari I. (1330-1300) both defeated the Babylonian Kassi. ander the Great, B.c. 312. His general, Seleucus, founded the From 1300 to 745 (when the Canon of Ptolemy introduces cer- dynasty of the Seleucidce, whose capital was on the Tigris, below tainty into dates) we have twenty-two kings, ending with Assur- Bagdad. In 248 B.c. (a date fixed by Mr Smith from Babynirari II. Shalmaneser I. (I300-I271) built the city of Calah, lonian tablets) Arsaces founded the Parthian dynasty of Arsa40 miles N. from Asshur. It is now represented by the mounds cidae, which again was destroyed (A.D. 226 or 227) by Artaxerxes, of Nimrud, near Nineveh. Shalmaneser made Nineveh the seat a tributary king of Persia. The Persians were succeeded bythe of government. His son, Tigulti-ninip, or Tiglathi-nin (127I- Califs of Bagdad. Finally, in 1638, the Turks obtained A. 1240), drove the Arabian kings from Babylon, and established Under their rule A. is scantily populated, in great measure by there an Assyrian dynasty for seventy years. Assur-risilim (I 15o- Arab tribes, and there is little cultivation of the soil. Nineveh 1120) warred with Nebuchadnezzar I. of Babylon. His succes- has long been in ruins. It is last mentioned (A.D. 11ii6) as having sor, Tiglath-Pileser I., whose history was written on the duplicate been captured by Trajan in an expedition against the Parthians. cylinders in the British Museum, simultaneously translated by The modern Mosul, in the pashalic of Bagdad, has a good four English scholars in 1857, subdued the Syrians, Moschians, trade with Aleppo. and others, took tribute from the Armenians, Shuhites, &c., and Religion. —'My Lord Asshur,' corresponding to the Babystormed Babylon. He also restored the temples at Asshur, and lonian 11 or Ra, and represented by a winged circle enclosing built the Zab canal, and a palace at Calah. Assur-nazir-pal the figure of an archer, was the supreme deity of A.; he is gene(885) is mentioned among others as repairing and rebuilding rally first mentioned in the inscriptions, Then comes a governing the Nineveh temple of Ishtar, daughter of the god Hea. Shal- triad, Anu, Bel (whose wife was Beltis or Mylitta,'mother maneser II. (860-825) defeated Benhadad and Hazael of Dam- of the gods'), and Hea; Sin, Shamas, and Vul'in his stormy ascus, received tribute from Jehu of Israel, and extended the coil,' form a triad of the elements.'My Lady Ishtar,' of Nineveh Assyrian power from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean- and Arbela, resembles Venus or Astarte. The Babylonian legend'the seas of the rising and thle setting sun.' The black marble represents her as in love with Izdubar.'Ninip fierce, the obelisk in the British Museum shows his victories. In this reign great warrior with his mighty arrows,' or Nin, represented by the the Ninevites, complaining of power being transferred to Calah, winged bull, and Nergal, the winged lion, were also popular. revolted in favour of Assur-dani-pal, but were suppressed by Nebo and Nushu ('the glorious attendant') were inferior diviniSamsivul IV. (Shamas Iva.) In 8Io Vulnirari III., the husband ties. Each god had a goddess. of the famous Semiramis, succeeded. Pul, mentioned in 2 Kings Discoveries, &'c.-In 1842, M. Botta, French consul at Mosul, xv., was probably an officer of Tiglath-Pileser II. (745-727), who began work at Kouyunjik, a large mound opposite Mosul, and[ called himself King of Babylon. He defeated Rezon of Syria in the northern part of the site of Nineveh. He soon went to and Pekah of Samaria, besieged Damascus, and received tribute Khorsabad (Dursargina), some miles to the N.E., where he from Media, Chaldma, Arabia, Moab, Gaza, and Tyre. He discovered Sargon's palace, and obtained many sculptures of comes into contact with Azaiah and Ahaz of Judah, and Mena- mythological figures, battle scenes, processions, most of which hem and Hoshea of Israel. In 722 Sargon appears, of whose in i846 were deposited in the Louvre. The work, continued expedition against Ashdod, called'my ninth expedition to the by M. Place (French consul), was taken up in 1845 by Mr land beside the great sea,' Mr G. Smith has recovered an account Layard, who discovered the palace of Sennacherib at IKouyunjik, on an octagonal cylinder. In spite of the combination of Judah, and one of the Nineveh gates, the palace of Esarhaddon at Edom, Moab, and Philistia, Sargon defeated the Egyptian Nebbi-Yunas, a mound to the S. of Kouyunjik, and several Shebek (Sabago), reduced Samaria and Arabia Petrfa, crushed palaces and temples at Nimrud (Calah). Since then Sir Henry Merodach Baladan at Baladan, and received tribute from Cyprus. Rawlinson and Mr Loftus have carried on important excavations; He used widely the policy of deportation. His palace at Khor- and in 1873-74 Mr George Smith, of the British Museum, made sabad is said to have been capable of holding 80,0ooo persons. valuable additions to our knowledge. Grotefend was the first His son Sennacherib (705-68r), whose history in the Bellino and decipherer of the cuneiform (arrow-shaped) writing, but Sir H. Taylor cylinders has been supplemented by Mr Smith, overran Rawlinson, by the light derived from his interpretation of the Phcenicia, smote Egypt at Altaku, took Ekron, and after be- trilingual Behistun inscription (genealogy and life of Darius), sieging Hezekiah in Jerusalem, carried off 200,000 Jews, and was first able to translate, in 1851, some official Assyrian docuexacted a heavy tribute and indemnity, part of which was stripped ments. Dr Hinch and Mr Fox Talbot are among the best from the temple. The destruction of Sennacherib's army at cuneiform scholars in England. Of the results of Mr Smith's Pelusium by the'angel of the Lord' (2 Kings xix.) is not re- expedition, the most important has been the completion of the ferred to in the Assyrian inscriptions. Sennacherib also defeated tablets containing the Izdubar or Flood Legends, or Chaldean at Khaluli a combination of Susub of Babylon and the Elamites. story of the deluge, supposed to have been composed during the He built the great Nineveh Palace. His son Esarhaddon (68i- early Babylonian empire, about 2000oo.c. Izdubar, or Nimrod 668) resided sometimes at Babylon, the Babylonian contract- (who ruled in Erech, modern Warha, on the Euphrates), hears tablets of the period being dated by reference to his reign. His the story told by IHasisadra (Xisithrus), who built the Chlaldean ten expeditions penetrated further than any of his ancestors. ark at Surippah. The deluge was caused by man's wickedness, Cilicia, Tyre, Edom, Arabia, were all visited: he crushed but, unlike Noah's, it lasted only seven days, and many more Tirhakah of Egypt, and established Neco at Memphis. He than eight people escaped in the ark, which stranded, not on pardoned Manasseh of Judah, but secured his power by aug- Ararat, but on a mountain to the E. of Adiabene. Hasisadra menting the foreign population in Palestine. Twenty-two kings was translated to heaven. Mr Smith has also found the Babycontributed materials to his palace at Calah, which is fully de- lonian legend of the seven evil spirits, which illustrates the Assyscribed in the inscriptions: he also built thirty-six temples, rian pantheon. Anu rules, passive and supreme, in the upper'beautiful as the day.' Assur-bani-pal, or Sardanapalus (668- heaven; his son, Vul, in the atmosphere; on earth, Bel, the 626), was the greatest of Assyrian kings,'the principal patron active god of the middle region; in ocean, or the deep below the of Assyrian literature,' the greater part of the library at Nineveh earth, Hea, who represents the mind or wisdom of God. There being written during his reign. He succeeded in two campaigns is chaos in heaven, and Eel wishes to create order by placing against Tirhakah and Undainane of Egypt, established Assyrian there Shamas (the sun), Sin (the moon), and Ishtar (Venus). power at Sais, Memphis, and Thebes, and carried on an exter- This change the evil spirits resist, but are ultimately vanquished, minating war in Susiana, where hlie took twenty-six cities, in- though Shamas, Ishtar, and Vul take their side. Mr Smith cluding Susa. His brother, Saulmugina of Babylon, frequently observes that the Assyrian year consisted of twelve lunar months, revolted, in league with Vaitch of Arabia. His palace at Kou- to which they occasionally added an intercalary month, according yunjik is remarkable for the number of hunting-scenes it contains, to the relative positions of the moon and a certain star,'the star Cruelty in war and magnificence at home are traceable in all the of stars,' which was just in advance of the sun at the vernal inscriptions of this reign. Little is known of the reigns of Bel- equinox. He also gives interesting copies of Assyrian deeds of zakir-ishun and Assur-ebil-ili (Saracus), from 627 to 607, except sale, with the designations and sales of the parties, the extent that Phraortes the Mede attacked A., that there was a Scythian and boundaries of the subject (in one case 15 lbs. of silver for invasion, and that finally Nineveh was burned and the Assyrian 500 acres), and the names of seven witnesses. The excavations empire destroyed by a league between the Babylonians under show that the Assyrians were a luxurious, but a brave and ener200 -------------------------------------------------— ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.A AST THE GLOBE ENC YCzLOP;EDTA.. AST getic people, fond of war and hunting. Enriched with costly and Vesta, were discovered by Olbers and Harding. For neally tribute, and with the help of imported labour, they excelled in forty years no more were noticed, though astronomers generally magnificent architecture, their sculpture being much superior in accepted Olbers' theory that the A. were fragments of some design and execution to that of the Egyptians. Their public large planet, and that, probably, other such fragments would drains and aqueducts show their knowledge of the arch; and yet be discovered. Hencke's detection of Astrrea in I845, from the Scriptures we see that the lever and the roller were and the rapid succession of discoveries that followed, were used in building operations. Like the Babylonians, they made hailed as a corroboration of this theory by its supporters; constant observations of the stars: a valuable astrolabe was dis- but it has since been shown upon dynamical principles, that covered by Mr Smith in Sennacherib's palace. The link between the diversities existing between the elements of the individual A. and the subject states was payment of tribute; service in the orbits are inexplicable on the disruptive theory alone. The field was not required, and very seldom were the Assyrian gods magnitudes of these planets are very small, the largest not forced on the conquered. The agreements to pay tribute were exceeding 450 miles, while the majority are considerably smaller. more frequently broken as the empire extended; hence the ex- The orbits are more eccentric than those of the larger planets, haustion and sudden fall of A. See Rawlinson's Five Great that of Nysa having an eccentricity amounting to almost oneMona~rchies of tze AZncient World (4 vols. I862-67), and George half of the major axis. The inclinations to the plane of the Smith's Ancient I-istoryfrno m the Alonuments —A. (I875). ecliptic vary much-from only 4I' 7" in the case of Massalia, As'tacus. See CRAYFISH, LOBSTER. to 34~ 42' 41" in the case of Pallas. Feronia has the shortest year (1148 days), and Sylvia the longest (2374 days). From Astar'te (the Ashtaroth, or, more correctly, the Ashtoreth, of 1847 one or more have been discovered yearly, and in 1868 the Old Testament), the chief goddess of the Phoenicians and there were no less than twelve added to the list. At present Syrians, and erroneously confounded with the Greek Aphrodite. (I875) there ale 148, of which I37 have had their elements See ASHERA. Tyre and Sidon were the chief seats of her determined. The mean breadth of the zone in which they all lie worship. Originally typified by a cow, her later emblem was a is almost as great as the distance of the earth from the sun; but star, which is said to be the signification of the word Ashtoreth, owing to the great eccentricity of several of the orbits, some of There is little doubt that she was the moon-goddess, and more them venture much farther into space. Another interesting like Diana than Aphrodite. feature of these orbits, first pointed out by Mr Cooper, As'ter, a genus of Composite plants embracing about 200 of Markree Castle, is that more than 70 per cent. have their species. They are mostly perennial and herbaceous, and a few perihelia within the semicircle from o~ to ISo. There must are shrubby. They are found sparingly in Europe, Asia, and be some hidden cause for this speciality, for the laws of prow S. America, but abound in N. America. They generally flower bability are utterly opposed to the casualty of such a distrilate in the season, hence they are called Michaelmas daisies. bution. As regards the mass of these small bodies, Leverrier There is only one species native in Britain, the A. Tripoliinm, has shown that their total mass cannot exceed one-fourth that of which grows in salt marshes. There are many N. American the earth; for if it did, the perihelion of Mars would have been species cultivated in gardens, the more showy kinds being A. disturbed within a century to a quite perceptible degree. In spectabilis, A. Wove-A ngiie, A. versicolor, and A. turbine/lus. conclusion, it remains to be said, that notwithstanding the eccenA. Sikkinzensis from the Himalaya, and A. amel/us from the S. tricities and inclinations of these orbits, and the intricate net-like of Europe, are also cultivated. The China A. of gardens is the appearance which they, taken as a whole, present, yet even these Callistephus Chzinensis, a very showy annual, of which there are minute orbs rigorously obey Kepler's three laws, thus affording numerous varieties. a further proof, if such were necessary, of the truth of the NewAs'terisk (Gr. asteriskos, a little star) was a mark (*) an- tonian theory of the universe. ciently used by grammarians in opposition to the obelisk, dagger,h it (tar-avd), a enec name in p or cross, to denote that a passage was either unjustly suspected Asterophyllites ('star-leaved'), a generic name in pal of not being genuine, or was otherwise notable. The Church ontological botany, including certain fossil plants found in the fathers, however, introduced a certain laxity in the application Carboniferous rocks. The different forms of A. have recently of these signs. Thus Jerome, in his translation of the Bible, been proved to belong to the foliage of the genus ca/mitles, the employed the A. to point out where the Greek version of Theo- fossil stems of which they are generally associated with. The motion had more Atwords than t he Hebrew text. Since the inven plants are allied to the horse-tails or Eqziseta of the present day. dotion had more words than the Hebrew text. Since the invention of printing, the A. has served as a reference to a note at the Asthenia. Life is maintained by the circulation of warm bottom or on the margin of a page (though the letters of the arterial blood. If no blood circulates through the arteries, or alphabet and numerals are now much in use for this purpose), if the blood be entirely venous, that is, containing a deficiency of and also to mark omissions of one or more letters or words. oxygen, death is the result. When no blood circulates, death is A number of asterisks indicates that there is a gap in the text. said to occur by Syncope (q. v.). This is of two kinds. First, there may be no blood to circulate, as in cases of profuse cinodrate, including haemorrhage: this is death by anemia, or want of blood. the Starfishes (q. v.), which possess a central body or disc, Or the contractile action of the heart may fail: this is death giving origin to a greater or less number of arms or rays, con- by A. A. may be caused by disease of the heart, or by th taining prolongations of the organs and viscera of the body. action of various poisons; or it may he brought on by lightning, The skin is calcareous or horny. The mouth, situated on the in- concussion of the brain, or intense mental emotion. A. is thereferior aspect of the body, is unprovided with a dental apparatus. fore a Mde of death. The tube-feet or ambulcacra exist in grooves in the under-surface of the rays. The larva or young form is worm-like, and does As'thma is a nervous disease, attended by great difficulty in not possess any calcareous skeleton., breathing, hence the origin of the name,'gasping for breath.' Asteroid Polypes, a term applied to the Alcyonarian It is caused by spasm of the circular muscular fibres which Polypes (see ALCvoNIU), in allusion to the star-like appearancesurround the smaller bronchial tubes, which so contracts their -Polypes(see ALCYONIUM), in allusion to the star-like appearance lumen as to admit only a small quantity of air into the air-cells. presented by the tentacles or feelers around the mouth of each A fit or paroxysm of A. frequently occurs during the night. polype. The sufferer awakes with a sensation of suffocation, which someAs'teroids, less commonly, but more correctly, called plane- times is so severe as to cause him to sit up at an open window, toids, the name given to a zone of small planetary bodies revolving and with livid countenance and outstretched arms to struggle in in orbits situated between those of Mars and Jupiter. The first vain attempts to obtain relief. The expression is anxious, the eyes was not detected till the beginning of the present century, but staring, the skin cold and clammy, or bathed with a hot sweat, the singular gap which, according to Bode's Law (q. v.), seemed -the pulse small and weak. Gradually the symptoms abate, and to exist between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, had suggested pre- there may be an intermission for hours, days, or even weeks. viously to astronomers the probability of there being one or more The irritation which excites spasm of the bronchial tubes (see planets in that region hitherto unobserved, on account either of REFLEX ACTIONS) may be central, in the mnedazlla oblongata their small size or feebly luminous power. On the Ist day of (the great respiratory centre), or it may commence in the January I80o, Piazzi of Palermo discovered a small planet, which peripheral branches of the pulmonary or gastric portions of the he named Ceres; and within three years three more, Pallas, Juno, pneumogastric nerves. Dust, cold winds, irritant vapours, 26 201 ~ -------------- -~ —- s* AST THE GIOBE ENVCYC1 OPEDiIA. AST ipecacluan powder, smoke, improper food, intestinal irritation, for the American fur trade. It was founded in ISII by Astor may be the proximate cause or causes of an attack. A. is not a (q. v.), and is notable as a chief point on which the American fatal disease in itself, but it is apt to produce congestion of the claim to the Oregon Territory (q. v.) was based. lungs, emphysema, hypertrophy, with dilatation of the right side of the heart, and repeated attacks render the patient's Astrabad', a town in the province of the same name, Persia at the N. base of a high and densely-wooded spur of the Elbruz existence miserable. The treatment may be divided into two at the N. base of a high and densely-wooded spur of the Elbruz parts(I) during the attack, and (2) during the interval. Mountains, 20 miles from the S. shore of the Caspian. It was During the attack, remove the cause, admit fresh air, and, in formerly the capital of the Kajar princes, from whom the premany cases, give an emetic to relieve the stomach. Atten- sent sovereign family of Persia is descended, and is still surtion must then be directed to remove the spasm by the use of rounded by mud walls. The number of half-ruined buildings, nitrous ether, spirit of chloroform, breathing the fumes of burn- among which the remains of the splendid castle of Shah Abbas ing filtering or blotting paper which has been soaked in a are conspicuous, give a somewhat waste appearance to the town saturated solution of nitrate of potash hand dried, or by the but this effect is modified by its large bazaar, its numerous inhalation of chloroform. Smoking tobacco often gives great mosques, and its gardens rich in fig, pomegranate, orange, and relief, while tincture of Lobelia inflaata and tincture of Stramonium cltron trees. The trade is hampered by the insecurity of proare also useful. Between the attacks everything must be done pely, for the Turkoman tribes approach, and sometimes break to improve the general health by the use of tonics, and the through, its walls. But since the Russians of late years have patient must live on light, easily-digested, nutritious food. established a consulate here, and obtained possession of the Residence in a climate of equal temperature, not too moist, is island of Ashur-adeh (Great Ashur), not far off, its prosperity also to be recommended. has begun to revive, and will probably increase. Unfortunately it is so unhealthy as to be called by the Persians' the city of As'ti, a large city of Piedmont, N. Italy, in the province the plague.' Pop. 6ooo to 8ooo. of Alessandria, on the river Tanaro, 27 miles E.S.E. of Turin, Astrae'a, daughter of Zeus and Themis, was the goddess on the Turin and Genoa Railway, the Asta Ponmpeia of the of justice, hence also called Dike, and was the last divinity to Romans, so called because it was rebuilt by Pompey the Great leave the earth on the expiry of the Golden Age. She took her after it had been destroyed by the Gauls. It is the seat of a place among the stars as Virgof- is also the name given to bishop, and carries on a considerable trade in silks, stuffs, and a the planetoid discovered by Hecke, also the name given to celebrated wine like champagne, called vino d'A., produced in s idereal revolution iscovered by Hencke December 8 days. the district. Pop. (I872) 31,033. A., which is a very ancient city, was burned by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1154. Astrlea. See CoRAL and MADREPORE. It was in the possession of France from I387 to 1529, when it Astrag'alus, a genus of Dicotyledonous plants belonging to was ceded to Charles V. at the peace of Cambray, who gave it the order Legusninos. It embraces a great many species, to his aunt, Beatrice of Savoy. Alfieri the poet was born at A., distributed throughout Europe, Asia, and N. and S. America. where a monument was erected to him in I862. Some are found in the Arctic regions, and there are three indiAstig'matism is that condition of the eye in which the refrac- genous to Britain. In Persia and Asia Minor the gum-like tive powers of the horizontal and vertical meridians are unequal. substance called Tragacanth (q. v.) is obtained from A. gurzzrife-, It is due to the degree of convexity of these meridians being dif, and some other shrubby species. A. Bodticus is a native of the S. ferent, so that corresponding rays, instead of converging into one of Europe, and is cultivated for its seeds, which are roasted and point, meet at two foci. The consequence is, the individual does used for mixing with coffee. A. glycyjphyllos, called'wild not see objects in the same plane, although they may really be liquorice' from the sweetness of its roots, is occasionally cultivated so. The defect may be corrected by the use of cylindrjcal as fodder for cattle. A. alpinus is a beautiful alpine plant glasses. See EYE. found in Northern Asia, N. America, Europe, and the Arctic regions. In Britain it occurs only in two localities-viz., on a As'ton, Luise, a German authoress, born about 182o. After lofty crag at the head of Glen Dole, in Forfarshire, and on the separating from her first husband (an Englishman), she ap- outai Little Craig-an-dal, in Aberdeenshire. peared as a champion of'woman's rights,' displaying herself in male attire, and, by her conduct, was twice obliged to leave Astragalus (in anatomy) is the bone of the foot which Berlin. During the Danish war, however, she showed great receives the weight of the body from the leg. It articulates devotion as a nurse. She married Dr Meier of Bremen in with the tibia above, with the os calcis below, and with the 185I. Among her works is one entitled Meine Emancipation, scaphoid in front. It is a strong irregularly-shaped bone, and is Verweisung, uznd Rech/fertigtnzl (' My Emancipation, Exile, and connected with the others by powerful ligaments. For details Vindication,' I846). see FooT. As'tor, John Jacob, born in Walldorf, Heidelberg, Ger- Astrakhan', the capital of a Russian government of the many, July I7, I763, was the son of a peacsant. He came to same name, on an island of the Volga, i4 miles from its nearest, London at sixteen, and emigrated to America in 1783. There and 36 fiom its farthest, mouth. It is the seat of a Greek archhe engaged largely in the fur trade, founding Astoria (q. v.), in bishop, and has a large brick-built cathedral with five cupolas the state of Oregon, as a depf8t. After the war of 18I2 his mer- ((I646), which stands within the Kremlin, a fortified square. The cantile enterprises were extended to all parts of the world, and old town, in former times the stronghold of the Tatars of the he amassed the largest fortune in America (/4,ooo,ooo). By a Volga, from whom it was taken by the Russians in 1554, lay gift of,/8o,ooo he founded the A. library in New York, one farther up the river. A., besides twenty-five other Greek of the largest and best for reference in the United States. A. cIlhrchs, has two Roman Catholic, one Lutheran, and four Ardied March 29, 1848. The A. property, mostly in New York, menian churches, sixteen mosques, and a Lamaite pagoda. It is still managed by the son, William B. A., and is valued at carries on considerable trade with Khiva, Bokhara, Persia, and /I.2,000,000. India, and employs not fewer than I300 vessels. The chief exports are Russian leather, linens, woollens, caviare, salted sturAstor'ga, EEmanuele d', an eminent musical composer, geon, and isinglass; imports, raw and spun silk, jewels, rice, born at Palermo in i681. His father, a Sicilian nobleman, was rhubarb, drugs, and gold-embroidered goods from Persia. Many ex'ecuted by the Spaniards in 170I, during a war for the annexa- of the inhabitants are employed in the fisheries of the Volga, and tion of the island. Educated through the kindness of a Spanish in large salt-works near the town. Pop. (i867) 47,839. princess at Astorga, in Leon (whence his name), he displayed stakha a govemet of a great talent for music, and became a great favourite at the with an area of 50,000 s. miles, and a pop. 87) of 39,78, court of the Emperor Leopold of Austria, after whose death he among whom are numbers of m irghis, Calmucs, Cossacs, c. travelled through the greater part of Europe, staying in London It is mainly a vast barren waste of salt marshy steppes, intwo years. The original score of his best composition, the tersected by the Volga, and has much sturgeon-fishing, and Stabat Mater, still much admired, is still preserved at Oxford. manufacture of Caviare (q. v.). The climate is one of extremes, A. die d ab out I7575.5~ the temperature varying from 13' F. in winter to 70' in summer. Asto'ria, a village and port of entry in Oregon, U. S., -A. is the name of a rich fur produced in Southern Russia, IO miles from the mouth of the Columbia river, formerly a depot Persia, and Bokhara by a peculiar breed of sheep. 202 4 * X F AST.THE1 GL OBE E 2NC YCL O&EDIA. AST As'tral Spirits (Gr. astron, a star), in the old Eastern reli- tion to the nature and characteristics of the fixed stars. Practi, gions, were the spirits or souls of the stars. The belief in such cal A. is the application of such knowledge to practical life, as, spirits naturally originated from the worship of the heavenly for instance, in the case of navigation. This branch of the subbodies. From the Persians and Arabs it passed, with modi- ject has been termed Mathematical or Geolmetrical A. fications, to the Greeks and Jews, and from them to the early A. is in all probability the most ancient, as it is unquestionChristian Church. Under the quickening influence of the new ably the noblest, of the physical sciences; but its very antiquity religious ideas it rapidly developed into a wild and wondrous tends to throw a considerable degree of obscurity around it. system. In the middle ages, when demonology was regarded It can scarcely be disputed that the Chinese have the oldest as a science, A. S. were variously conceived of, but generally authentic observations on record, which they assert go back as born of fire, and having no proper connection with earth, 2857 years B.C. The first recorded phenomenon is a conjuncheaven, or hell. In the I5th c., when superstition and moral tion of five planets in the reign of Emperor Schuen-hin; and M. scepticism were both at their height, the A. S. were assigned Bailly has calculated that in the year 2449 B.c. a conjunction the highest rank among evil spirits. of Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn occurred. It is also Astringents are medicines which have the property of recorded that Tchong-kang put two astronomers, Ho and Hi, diminishing secretion, repressing haemorrhage, and giving tone to death for neglecting to announce a solar eclipse which took to the muscular system. Nearly all A. coagulate albumen and place in 2I69 B.C. precipitate fibrin, and they thus constrict many dead animal The Hindus assert that their Tirvalore tables go back as far matters. Their specific action is to cause contraction of muscular as 3I02 B.C., the beginning of the Kali-yug or Iron Age of the fibre. Among A. may be mentioned tannic acid, turpentine, Hindus, at which time a conjunction of sun, moon, and planets bismuth, acetate of lead, the mineral acids, sulphates of iron, is said to have occurred; but they are, as far as the date is zinc, and copper, perchloride of iron, alum, corrosive sublimate, concerned, quite unreliable, and the tables bear internal evidence nitrate of silver, &c. of being derived from more recent sources, as, for example, in the case of the equation of the moon's centre, which presents a Astrocar'yum, a genus of prickly palms found in tropical suspicious resemblance to that of Hipparchus. America. A. vzlg'are, or Tucum palm, is cultivated in Brazil for The Chaldaeans, however, seem to have been the first to make the strong and durable fibre obtained from its young leaves, which really reliable observations. Porphyry and Simplicius mention is used for bowstrings, fishing-nets, hammocks, &c. A. Tcugma, that a catalogue of eclipses observed during I903 years prior to the the Tucuma palm, which is quite distinct from the last mentioned, time of the conquest of Babylon by Alexander the Great was yields an edible fruit, as does also A. Mulurztmuru, the Murumuru sent from there to Aristotle. Ptolemy, however, quotes none palm of Para, the flavour of which resembles that of a melon. anterior to the year 720 B.C. It was from these records that As'trolabe (Gr. astron, a star; labein, to take) was the name Halley discovered the moon's acceleration-that is, that her given in the days of Ptolemy to any circular instrument used for velocity in her orbit is greater now than it was formerly. astronomical observations. In the middle ages, however, it was The Egyptians were probably the first instructors of the used in the same sense as the word planisphere, the projection of a Greeks in A., but they seem to have left behind them no valusphere upon a plane, and was the peculiar badge of the astrologer. able observations, for Ptolemy and Hipparchus were always forced to have recourse to the Chaldaean records. Astrology (Gr. astron, a star; logos, a word or discourse) forced to have recourse to the Chaldcan records. si gnified originally the science of the star; oos, a word or discourse) at The A. of Greece undoubtedly begins with Thales (640 B.C.), signified originally the science of the stars, but became at the founder of the Ionic school. He predicted the year of a length restricted to the so-called science of foretelling future great solar of the Ionic school. He predicted the earth was a sphere, a ets by means of the positions of the heavenly bodies great solar eclipse, taught that the earth was a sphere, and Coevents by means profound the positionsce of the eavenl law s of the unitaught the Greeks the use of the constellation of the Little Bear Considering the profound ignorance of the real laws of the uni- in navigation. Anaximander is said to have held that the moon verse, and the large area over which star-worship prevailed, it is sho ne by reflected light, and that the earth hd a diurnal ronot surprising that a belief in the influence of the heavenly tation reflected its own axis. Pythagoras (500 had a diurnal robodies upon terrestrial and human affairs should have arisen astronomer of eminence, w as far befores age. He promulin the early ages of the world. In the oldest seats of civilisation, e true doctrine of the motion of the earth round the the empires on the Nile, the Euphrates, the Ganges, and the gated th the empires on the Nile, the Euphrates, the Ganges, and the sun, and showed that the morning and evening stars were one Hoang-ho, we find the belief already established in the very d the same planet. beginnings of history. From Persia and Chaldaea it passed to T the sa important epoch in the history of A. was the founthe Jews and the Groeco-Latin races, and began to be popular dation of the Aleximportantan sch Of the istory of A. was the foun at Rome about the close of the Republic. The Arabs were dation of the Alexandrian school. Of the many distinguished given to A. before the days of Mohammed, but from the 7th to astronomers who have made this school famous,we may mengiven to A. before the days of Mohammed, but from the 7th to tion Aristyllus, Timocharis, Eratosthenes, and Aristarchus, the the 13th c., when their military and literary renown were at the t ion Aristyllus, Timocharis of a very ngenious but impractihighest, they cultivated it as a science with the greatest ardour. cable method of determining the distace of the sun. But impractiThe names of Messalah, Alburnazar, Ali-ben-Rodoan, Alia-ben- cable method of determining the distance of the sun. But of The names of Messalah, Albumazar, Ali-ben-Rodoan, Alia-ben- all the Alexandrians, Iipparchus of Nicxa (s5o B~c.) stands preRagel, Almansfir, Zahel-Bebis, were once illustrious in thealltheAlexandriansipparcusofNicea(..)standspreRagel, Almansfir, Zahel-Bebis, were once illustrious in the eminent. He discovered the precession of the equinoxes, fixed forgotten roll of astrological experts. Latin Christendom re- eminent. Hapogee and perigee, and determined the equinoxes, fixed ceived A. partly from the Moslem conquerors of Spain, partly the sun's apogee and pericity, the equation of her entre, the through direct intercourse with the East, and it continued to inclination, her eccentricity, the equation of her entre, the exercise a kind of fascination over the students of physical incliation of orbit, and the motion of her apogee. His most exercise a kind of fascination over the students of physical important service perhaps to A. was his compiling a catalogue science long after the dawn of real knowledge had begun. of io8i stars. Cardan, Tycho Brahe, and even Kepler, clung to it, though After Hipparchus, A. seems to have made no advance for with a relaxed hold, and it is said even yet to have obscure almost three centuries, till Ptolemy (q. v.), famous as the founder votaries in Europe. But the discovery of the true system of the of the system which bears his name, appeared. The Ptolemaic world by Copernicus was fatal to the permanence of its hold on system made the earth the centre of the universe, and accounts the educated human mind. It gradually sunk down till it finally for the irregular motions of the planets by supposing each to became the property of illiterate charlatans, who seized upon its for te irregular mo tions of the planets by supposing each t quaint phraseology to assist them in the fabrication of impudent earth. His greatest discovery was the libration or evection of almanacs, and it is now cultivated as a science only by Moham- the moon, which Hipparchus seems to have suspected. medans. Between the times of Ptolemy and Copernicus we must look Astron'omy (Gr. astron, a star; nomzos, a law) treats of the to the Arabs for any new information regarding A. The most motions and natures of the heavenly bodies. The first step illustrious of these Arab astronomers were Albategniots or El towards the foundation of such a science is observation, which, Batani (880 A.D.), and Ibn-Yunis (Iooo A.D.), the former of combined with mathematical operations, gives us correct ideas whom discovered the motion of the solar apogee, while the latter of the distances, magnitudes, shapes, &c., of the heavenly bodies. made some important observations upon the eccentricities and Physical A., which dates from the time of Newton, inquires into disturbances of Jupiter and Saturn. Trigonometry also underthe nature of the forces and laws which produce and regulate went great improvements at this period. the heavenly motions, and gives a method of calculating these In the I3th c. A. again began to be cultivated in Europe, motions from those laws. Sidereal A. directs its special atten- the first notable evidence being the translation of Ptolemy's 203 AST THEu G; OBE EgNC YCI OPED~IA. ATA Amnagest, by the command of the Emperor Frederick Bar- cities of refuge (Num. xxxv.), and in Greece and Rome asylums barossa, about 1230; and among others who did much to pro- became so numerous as seriously to interfere with the course oF mote the science were Purbach, Regiomontanus, and Wal- justice. Hence their sanctity came to be disregarded, and the therus, in the I5th c. refugees were often driven from them by force. After the estabThe most eminent of European astronomers in the I6th c. lishment of Christianity, churches, and all the enclosed ground was Copernicus (q. v.). Struck with the complexity of the belonging to them, were made asylums; but criminals abused Ptolemaic system, this great man meditated on the true system the privilege of sanctuary to such a degree that it was from time of the world for nearly forty years, and but a few months to time modified, and gradually withdrawn. See ABBEY. It before his death published his work On the Revolzitions of the was abolished in England by Acts passed in I534 and I697. Hfeavenly Bodies, in which he holds that the planets, including The word now denotes a retreat for the destitute, and especially the earth, revolve round the sun, which is fixed immovably in the for lunatics. See LUNACY. centre of the universe. As'ymptote (Gr. asym/totos, not coinciding) is a term applied In the latter half of the same century appeared the famous in mathematics to a straight line which continually approaches, Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (q. v.), who held that the earth but never meets a given curve. Of such curves we may menwas fixed in the centre of the universe, and that round it revolved tion, as the best known, the hyperbola, the logarithmic curve, the sun and moon, while the planets revolved directly round the the conchoid. Some curves, especially thoe of the higher sun. His observations were of immense service to his contem-e vige porary, Kepler (q. v.), in discovering those famous laws known as orders, have several asymptotes. The A. may also be defined Kepler's laws, and which ultimately led Newton to the grand as the tangent at infinity. theory of universal gravitation. About this time also Galileo Atac'amite, an ore of copper originally found as sand in the (q. v.) applied the telescope to astronomical observation, adding province of Atacama, in Chili. It also occurs in veins in various additional evidence in favour of the Copernican system by the parts of Chili, Bolivia, Australia, &c. It has a bright-green discovery of Jupiter's satellites and the phases of Venus. colours and is a compound of oxide and chloride of copper. The next great epoch was the publication of Newton's Principia in 1687, in which the law that holds the universe together was Atahual'pa, the last of the Incas of Peru, son of Huayna first revealed to the world. While physical A. was taking such Capac, on whose death in I525, seven years before the arrival gigantic strides, the astronomers proper were notidle. Three sc- of the Spaniards, he became ruler of Quito, his elder brother, cessive astronomers-royal, Flamsteed, Halley, and Bradley, made luascar, having ascended the tlhone of Peru. Dssension springgreat and important discoveries-notably the aberration of light ing up between the brothels, A. made war upon Huascar, by Bradley, which proved incontestably the fact of the earth's defeated and threw him into prison, and seized his kingdo motion. The close of the 18th c. was marked by the magnifi- in 532. A few months later the Spaniards, led by Pizarro (q. v.), cent discoveries of Sir W. Herschel, and by the splendid analyti- in Peru, and the conquest of the country was prac cal researches of Lalande, Lagrange, Delambre, and Laplace. tically begun and ended by the seizure of the person of A. and The I9th c. opened with the discovery of the first four asteroids. the massacre of many of his chiefs, who had been invited to Then followed the greatest achievement of modern analysis, the assemble unarmed within the square of Caxamalca, from which simultaneous and independent prediction by Leverrier and Adams, egress was impossible, and in which the terror-inspiring artillery in 1845, of another planet more distant from the sun than Uranus. of the strangers was first brought to bear upon them. With Of late years much has been done in sidereal A.; great advances the object of purchasing his freedom, the captive A. offered as have been made in the knowledge of the constitution of heavenly ransom to fill a room 22 feet long by I7 feet broad up to the bodies through the aid of the spectroscope; mathematical re- height of 9 feet from the floor with gold. Immense quantities searches have shown the arrangement of the solar system to of plate, embracing goblets, ewers, salvers, tiles, and plates for depend, not upon chance, but upon the conditions of stability the decoration of public buildings, representations of plants and deduced from the universal law of gravitation. For detailed animals, ornaments, &c., were accordingly collected and divided information regarding the state of astronomical knowledge at among the Spaniards. A. now demanded his liberty, which the present day, the reader is referred to such special articles as Pizarro refused; and having obtained as much booty (amounting PLANETS, ASTEROIDS, SUN, M1OON, &C. in value to ~3,5~00,000~~) as could be readily obtained from A., See Delambre's Histoire de lN'Astonozie, ancienzne (Paris, the Spanish leader found it most convenient to put the Peruvian I8 7)', histoire de'Astonomie dn Moyen Age (Paris, 8), His- monarch out of the way. He accordingly accused him of plottoire die slAstr~~~~~ 4 4 ATH TSIE GIOBE ENC YCL OPEDZA. ATL I687 the Venetians, under Morosini, captured the city, when an daughter of Ra, the sun, and identified by the Greeks with explosion of gunpowder, placed in it by the Turks, reduced the Aphrodite. Her symbol was the cow; and sometimes she is Parthenon to a ruin. The Turks got possession of the city in represented with the sun's disc between her horns, and somethe following year. For a century the finest remains of anti- times with a temple on her head. Her chief sanctuary was at quity were used as quarries, and marble statues of inestimable Denderah. The third month of the Egyptian year, correspondvalue were calcined to obtain lime. After the War of Liberation, ing to our November, was named after her. A. was in 1834 declared the capital of the new kingdom of Greece; new streets were built, of which the most noteworthy are the es, ols, and ee, and the royal palce, begun on'te Santo, the Holy Mount, so called from the numerous are the Hermes, /Eohls, and Athene, and the royal palace, begun in 1836, was finished in I843. The University of A. (founded monasteries with which it is covered, a lofty mountain at the 1834) is attended by between 500 and 600 students, and has a extremity of a Macedonian peninsula projecting into the _Egean, large staff of professors and tutors. The trade of the city is in- between Gulfs Contessa and Monte Santo, 6349 feet above the sign aififcant. POPess(18a71 ) 44 rs. The tr510 of tcity is in- sea-level. Herodotus gives the names of five towns that were,significant. Pop. (1871)44,510. built on A. Xerxes cut a canal through the isthmus, of which Athens, a town of Georgia, U. S., on the Oconee river, 92 traces are still visible. The principal village in the peninsula miles N.W. of Augusta. It has a college called Franklin is Karyoes, with a pop. of Iooo. The monasteries, having about College, and is the centre of a rich cotton-growing district. 8oo0 monks (who devote themselves to agriculture, gardening, Pop. about 4000. A. is the name of over twenty other places and the care of bees, and are abstinent, not ascetic, in their mode in the United States, of which the most noteworthy is the A. of of life), constitute a kind of republican federation, under the Ohio, 72 miles S. E. of Columbus, and the seat of Ohio Univer- suzerainty of Turkey, to which they pay a yearly tribute of about sity. Pop. about 2000. ~4ooo. The largest are Ivoron and Hagia-Laura; the richest, Vatopzedi. Their libraries, of which` nearly every cloister Atheri'na, a genus of fishes belonging to the Mullet family Vatopoedi. Their libraries, of which nearly every cloister ( x and represented by the sand smelt (A. Presbyter). possesses one, are now much neglected. Besides printed works, (MugiZid~), and represented by the sand smelt (. Presbyter). they are rich in old and beautiful MSS., many of which have These forms are sometimes included in a distinct family, that of been brought to Western Europe by fortunate scholars. Cassical the Atherinircz. They are small fishes, about 6 inches in literature is not well represented, but its ecclesiastical MSS. are length, and inhabit the southern coasts of Britain. They ascend viluable, particularly those in the Georgian language at Ivoron, rivers with the tide. These fishes are sold in many provincial and in the Old Slavic or Bulgarian language at Docheiru. and in the Old Slavic or Bulgarian language at Docheiru. markets as true'smelts.' Paintings and frescoes are numerous, and assist greatly in giving Athero'ma is a name given to a disease of the lining mem- us clear ideas of Byzantine Christian art. Those at Hagiabrane of the arteries. Severe strain on the vessels, or a peculiar Laura and Vatopoedi, ascribed to Michael Panselinos, are constitutional taint, as in gout, leads to a chronic form of inflam- particularly interesting. See Pischon, Die Moizchs Republik mation. This causes an exudation on the inner surface of the des Berges A. in the Hislor. Tasct/enbucl (Leipz. I86o). lining of the vessel, giving rise to broad elevations of an opaque Athy' ('ford of Ae,' a Munster chief who fell here in one of yellowish-white appearance. The effused matter may subthe half-fabulous conflicts of early Irish legend), a town of Kilsequently undergo degenerative changes. The principal effect of A. on the blood-vessels is a diminution of the elasticity of their dare, Leinster, on the Barrow, where it Is Joined by the Erand coats. Canal, 33 miles S.W. of Dublin. A. is of some note in the early history of the country, and was taken and plundered by Edward Ath'erstone, a market town in Warwickshire, I6 miles N.E. Bruce in I3I5. It is a station on the South-Western Railway, of Birmingham, on Watling Street, the old Roman road to the and exports grain. Pop. (I87I) 5693. N., with manufactures of hosiery, ribbons, and hats. Pop. (I871) Athyrum, a genus of graceful ferns closely allied to e 3667~''Athyr'ium, a genus of graceful ferns closely allied to'Aspfe3667. nium. See FERNS. Ath'lete (Gr. a/hieeFs, a combatant, especially a prize-fighter), a competitor for the prizes in the Greek games. The Greek Atlan'ta, a city of Georgia, U. S., 69 miles N.W. of MilledgeA. held an entirely different social position from that of the ville, in a district rich in cotton and grain. It was founded in modern prize-fighter, and stringent inquiries were made as to I845, and became a flourishing centre of trade, and the focus of his birth, position, and character. The most illustrious philoso- the four chief railways of the state. General Sherman, after phers entered the lists, at least as amateurs, if not as profes- two sanguinary battles, 22d and 28th July I864, forced the Consionals, e.g., Pythagoras, Plato, Chrysippus, and Cleanthes. The federates to evacuate the city, which he subseqlently destroyed, victor in the Olympic games brought so much honour to his city,has since recovered something of its old prosperty. that a breach was made in the walls to admit him on his return, Pop. (I870) 21,789 through which he passed in a chariot drawn by four white horses; Atlan'tes was the name given in the architecture of the he was maintained at the public expense, and at his death had a Greeks to male figures more or less colossal in size, which, like public funeral. M. Fulvius introduced athletic contests at Rome the female caryatides, were used instead of columns or pilasters I86 B.c., at the close of the -.Etolian war, and during the empire to support entablatures, and even the beams of public structures. they became extremely popular, but never attained the dignity Examples of such A. were obtained from the baths of Pompeii. they held in Greece. The Romans also called them Telamones, in allusion to Ajax, Athlone' (At/-LZuain, the ford of Luan, originally At,- the handsome Hercules of the Trojan War. more, the great ford), a town and strong military station, Atlan'tic Ocean, the great thoroughfare between the Old partly in the county of Westmeath and partly in that of Ros- and New Worlds, washes the eastern shores of America and common, lies on the Shannon, three miles below Lough Ree. It the western shores of Europe and Africa; stretches from the has manufactures of felt hats, friezes, soap, and beer. The Arctic Ocean in the N. to the Antarctic Ocean in the S., a disShannon is here crossed by a handsome stone bridge and an iron tance of gooo miles; presents a most irregular boundary in the railway bridge. A. Castle was built in the reign of King John, northern hemisphere, giving off numerous and extensive ramifiand near it, in late times, have been erected barracks for 3000 cations, such as Baffin and Hudson Bays, Gulf of St Lawrence, men, and fortifications 15 acres in extent. A. returns one Bay of Fundy, Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea, on the member to Parliament. Pop. (I87I) 6565. American side; the North Sea, Baltic Sea, English Channel, Ath'ole (Gael.'pleasant land'), a hilly region in the N. of Bay of Biscay, and Mediterranean Sea, on the European side; Pelrthshire, at the S. base of the Grampians, 450 sq. miles in and is bounded towards the S. by the bold unbroken coasts of extent. It was formerly one of the best Scotch hunting districts, and S. A merica. It s breadth varies (between and its forest still contains about 60oo00 head of deer. The most Norway and Greenland) to 4000 miles (between Morocco and famous spot in A. is the Pass of Killiecrankie, about 17 miles Florida); and its computed area is about 25,000,000 sq. miles. N.W. of Dunkeld, where Claverhouse fell in i689. A. gives the The principal islands studding its broad expanse are Iceland, title of duke to the ancient house of Murray. Faroe, Bermudas, Azores, Ascension, St Helena, the Falkland Islands, S. Georgia, and Sandwich Land. Ath'or, or Athyr, properly Het-her (i.e.,'dwelling of It is only within recent years that the nature of the A. O. at God'), the name of an Egyptian goddess of the second class, different depths, and of animal life abounding at these depths, 208'- ---—' e — I A tL 2'H GLOBOE ENCYCiOPA'iDA. ATM has been at all made out; and what is known has been obtained that of the earth. As regards the atmospheres of the sun, from the expeditions of II.M.'s ships Porcupine and Challenger. planets, and satellites, the little we know of them will be found Animals are found at much greater depths than was formerly sup- under the special articles on these bodies. posed, and several new species of invertebrata have been dis- That the A. had weight was suspected by Aristotle, and ascovered. The greatest depth measured by the Challenger was serted by Epicurus; but till the experiments of Otto de Guericke at a point about go miles off St Thomas, W. Indies, where the and Torricelli, which proved that the air could be weighed and soundings reached 23,250 feet. The' Telegraph Plateau,' along exerted an enormous pressure, it was commonly accepted that which the Atlantic cable is laid, is a remarkable ridge about the A. was imponderable. The latter showed that this pressure 400 miles wide, extending along the bottom, at a depth of from at the earth's surface was capable of equilibrating a column of Io,ooo to 12,ooo feet, from Cape Clear in Ireland to Cape Race mercury 30 inches high, from which it follows that the A. exerts in Newfoundland. a pressure of 14 lbs. on every square inch of the earth's surface. In the A. there are two great currents, known as the Equa- This pressure must obviously decrease as the height above the torial Current and the Gulf Stream, which latter may be regarded sea-level increases; but the law according to which this takes as a continuation or offshoot of the former. See CURRENTS, place is extremely complex even in theory. Besides this, howOCEAN. ever, the pressure varies also with the latitude, the maximum Over the whole of the eastern portion of the A., from lat. being about the 30~ or 40~ parallel; but it has been stated that 45~ northwards, the prevailing winds are S.W.; and this, there is a second maximum at the pole. Lines drawn through together with the warming effect of the Gulf Stream, con- localities having the same mean annual atmospheric pressure siderably ameliorates the winter climate of the western coast are termed isobaric or isoba~rometric lines. Further, the pressure of Europe. The isothermal lines, or lines of equal temperature of the A. is subject to diurnal and annual variations, in both of of the A., show remarkable peculiarities. The temperature which there are two maximum pressures, and consequently two reaches a maximum in the equatorial regions, and from thence minima. In the former periodic variation, the maxima occur at it diminishes towards the poles; but owing to the Gulf Stream, 9'37 A.M. and Io II P.M., and the minima at 3'45 A.M. and 4'5 the lines in N. temperate regions, and especially during the P.M. In the latter, the maxima occur in midsummer and midwinter season, are excessively eccentric. Besides varying with winter, and the minima at the equinoxes. latitude, the temperature of the water diminishes as the depth As regards the true height of the A., little is definitely known, increases; and the rate of diminution also decreases, thus afford- since great discrepancies exist between results obtained by ing an argument in favour of the internal heat of the earth. different methods. Thus, from the duration of twilight, the depth of the atmospheric sea surrounding our earth was fixed at Atlantic Telegraph. See TELEGRAPH, SUBMARINE. 45 miles; Sir W. Herschel fixed the height of an aurora, which Atlan'tis ('the island of Atlas'), first mentioned by Plato in his is almost indisputably an atmospheric phenomenon, at 83 miles; Timceus and Critias, in an imaginary conversation between Solon while M. Lias, from experiments on the polarisation of the sky, and a priest of Sais, in Egypt, in which it is represented as lying determined the height of the A. at 2I2 miles. in front of the Pillars of Hercules, and as being larger than The law of the variation of the density with the altitude may Libya and Asia Minor taken together. Some. consider it to be stated thus: as the height increases in arithmetical, the denhave been part of the W. shores of Europe or Africa, while sity diminishes in geometrical, progression. This law, however, others assign it to the New World, on the shores of which is not strictly true, on account of the imperfect gaseous characters they suppose Phoenician merchantmen may have been at some of the air. According to thermo-dynamic principles, change of time driven, and hence the tradition, of which they may have density should produce change of temperature; and this is found brought home the news that gave birth to the tradition. The to be the case, but the law regulating this variation has not been name furnished Bacon with the title of his political romance, as yet fully investigated. 7The New Atlantis. Chemical Composition of the Atmospzere.-Just a century has At'las, a son of Japetus and Clymene, af~ccordhing to Hesiod, elapsed since Lavoisier proved that the air is a mixture of the and Clymee, according Hesiod, two gases oxygen" and nitrogen, and showed that they were though Apollodorus and Hyginus assign him each a different present in the proportion of of the former to of the latter parentage. For having led the Titans in their attempt on W t p r o t fm latr eavrent Zeus condemnred him to bear the heaven on his head Before the time of the great French chemist, air was believed to belong to the elements, and was classed with earth, fire, and and hands, though the myth has been explained by representing water. further analysis of the ingredients of the A. has taught tas havingt heavbeen haskilled ina globular form. The namefirst who shown that in addition to the two substances already mentioned, it contains a small but variable amount of carbonic acid, and applied to a collection of maps, was first used by Mercator in it contains a small but variable amount of carbonic acid, and applied to a collection of maps, was first used by Mercator in aqueous vapour, also traces of ammonia and organic matter, and sometimes other impurities, such as nitric and sulphurous acids, Atlas, a large mountain range in N.W. Africa, stretching sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, &c., these being defrom Cape de Ger in a N.E. direction through Morocco, and rived from local sources. The fundamental ingredients are, thence E. through Algeria and Tunis, till it is gradually lost in however, oxygen and nitrogen, both of which exist in the air in the wastes of Tripoli. The A. is less correctly described as a the free or uncombined condition, and not in chemical combinasingle range than as a vast mountain mass containing many tion with one another. The oxygen, though present in a much ranges connected by ridges, and several outlying mountains of smaller proportion than the nitrogen, is nevertheless the active great elevation; but still one can clearly enough discern a coast- ingredient upon which the two most important properties of air range parallel to the Mediterranean, and another more to the depend-namely, its power of supporting combustion and resS., overlooking the desert. The A. culminates in the peak piration. The nitrogen acts simply as a diluent to moderate the of Miltsin, one of the febel-el- 7helj, or' Snowy Mountains' of too energetic effects of the oxygen. Analyses of the air have Morocco, which is I3,000 feet high, but the elevations decrease been made by many distinguished men of science since the time gradually towards the E. The mountains are clad on the N., of Lavoisier, and these all tend to show that the composition of W., and S. with forests of valuable timber, and contain much the air is constant, or very nearly constant. In spite of the mineral wealth, which, however, has not as yet been developed. millions of animals continually using up the oxygen, and the They are intersected by numerous fertile valleys; capable under other numerous processes of oxidation, artificial and natural, proper cultivation of yielding valuable crops. going on from day to day, the air does not appear to vary by more than 1 per cent. in the amount of oxygen it contains, a Atlas (in anatomy) is the first vertebra, and is so named be- difference only to be detected by the mot skilled experimenter. cause it supports the head. It differs from the other vertebrae difference only to be detected by the most skilled experimenter. This constancy in the composition of the A. may be traced in having no body, that part being represented by the odontoid in parnstancy in the composition of vegetable life on carbonic acid gas, process of the axis or second vertebra. It articulates above in part to the action of vegetable life on carbonic acid gas ax in part to the enormous bulk of air surrounding the globe. with the condyles of the occipital bone, and below with the axis. For whereas animals in the act of respiration absorb oxygen, For details see VERTEBRAL COLUMN. and return it to the air combined with carbon as carbonic acid, At'mosphere (Gr. atmos, vapour, and sp;haira, a sphere) is plants, on the other hand, absorb carbonic acid and abstract the properly the gaseous envelope of any celestial orb; but, when carbon from it, thus leaving pure oxygen, which they return as used without any qualifying adjective phrase, it applies only to such to the A. The amount of carbonic acid present in the air 27 209 4? ^ __ a..=.==..._i..._=_sXv 4 4 ATM THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPEDIA. ATO in open country amounts on an average to 4 volumes in Iooo. one difficulty, however, in the conception of such atoms.; for The ammonia, though playing an important part in vegetable their indivisibility presumably depends upon their hardness, existence, is present in the air in only minute quantity, varying which must of necessity be capable of resisting any force, i.e., from about 50 to o'I volumes in I,ooo,ooo of air. must be infinite. To obviate this difficulty, Sir W. Thomson has brought forward his theory of vortex atoms. See VORTEX. hAtt~mospher'ic Electricity. Since the time of Franklmin, This well-known physicist has also made an approximation to who showed the identity of lightning with electricity, there have the size of atoms, which may be best conceived of from the been numerous observers in this department of electrical science; following description: If a drop of water were magnified to the but it is only within recent years that the difficulty of making size of the earth, the atoms composing it would appear of a size accurate quantitative measurements has been overcome by the somewhere between a small shot and a cricket-ball. construction of delicate and portable electrometers, for the vast improvement of which we are specially obliged to Sir William Atom'ic Theory. The A. T. teaches that all matter (that Thomson of Glasgow; and as yet sufficient observations have is to say, that which has weight) is composed of minute parnot been made, or sufficient facts established, to enable us to tides or atoms. All the atoms of the same element (or sub. satisfactorily explain many curious phenomena traceable to the stance containing but one kind of matter) are of the sameweight, presence of electricity in the atmosphere. and possess the same properties, but the atoms of different In ordinary weather, the earth is negatively electrified, and the elements have different weights, and possess different properties. atmosphere positively electrified, with the exception of the first All matter is composed of the elements; and as up to the present few feet, which are neutral. When the weather is wet and time science has revealed only sixty-three of these, it follows stormy, however, the electricity of the atmosphere becomes that but sixty-three kindsof atomsareasyetknown Comtounds negative. The intensity is found to increase as the height in- are formed of atoms of different elements united together by the creases, and is subject to diurnal and annual periodic fluctuations. force called aInity or chemical attraction. The smallest particle In one day there are found to be two maxima and two minima- of a compound obviously contains two or more atoms, and this the maxima occurring a few hours after sunrise and sunset. This smallest particle or complex of atoms is called the zolecule of variation has been explained as due to the change in electrical the compound in question. As, however, the smallest particle conductivity of the lower strata of air produced by variation o f that can exist in the uncombined or flee condition temperature. The annual period is also double, the maxima often contains more than one atom, the term molecule is not occurring at midsummer and midwinter —the greater maximum restricted to compounds, but is employed generally to designate at midwinter, which fact may be explained as being caused by the smallest particle of any body which can exist in the free or the greater humidity of the air in winter than in summer.- The uncombined condition. direction of the wind has also a marked effect; thus, Sir W. Atoms are represented for the sake of brevity by symbolsThomson could almost predict the occurrence of an E. wind by usually the first letter or letters of the name of the element. finding a particular high electrification. Thus' O' stands for an atom of oxygen,'Sn' for an atom of As to the cause of A. E;, there have been various theories ad- tin (Stannum),'Hg' for an atom of mercury (Hydrargyrum). vanced, all of which, however, require experimental proof. For In writing the formula of a molecule, the symbols of the element instance, it has been suggested that evaporation may have pro- or elements composing it are placed side by side, and on the duced this electric tension; chemical action has been urged as right hand, below each, a small figure is placed to indicate the cause; and, more recently, thermo-electricity. Meanwhile, the number of atoms of the element in question contained in the there can be little doubt that the friction occasioned by the molecule. Thus'Os' represents a molecule of oxygen, and currents of air has no slight effect. shows that it contains two atoms of that element:'H0O,' a Atmospheric,Railway is a railway on which locomotion molecule of water, containing two atoms of hydrogen and one is effected by means of the pressure of the atmosphere. The atom of oxygen. first methods aimed at producing a difference of pressure on the The atom of each element is characterised by its weight and two ends of a carriage fitted closely, but movably, into a long power of combining with other atoms (atomticity). As to the tunnel, either by forcing air in behind, or by exhausting it in absolute weight of any atom nothing whatever is known, but it front of the carriage. These were, however, unsuccessful, owing has been found possible to determine the relative weights of to the great waste of energy, and to the inconvenience of travel- the atoms of all the elements; and this is a point of fundaling in a dark tunnel. About I835, Henry Pinkus proposed and mental importance in chemical science. The atom of hydrogen, patented another plan of propulsion; and this method, with a on account of its extreme lightness, offers a convenient standard few alterations, was for a time worked with a certain amount of with which to compare the weights of the atoms of other success on the Kingstown and Dalkey line. The essential elements; its weight is therefore taken as unity, and the weights difference between this and the former methods was that the of other atoms expressed in terms of it. The atomic weight of carriage was external to the tube, but was.connected by a rod to an,element, then, is the weight of its atom compared with the a piston fitted air-tight into the tube, which piston was forced weight of the atom of hydrogen. The atomic weight of oxygen, along by exhaustion of the air in front. The result showed, for instance, is I6; that is to say, the atom of oxygen is however, that, except in peculiar circumstances, the A. R. could i6 times as heavy as the atom of hydrogen. See ATOMIC not commercially compete with the ordinary locomotive. WEIGHTS. The A. T. well explains the laws of chemical combination (from which, indeed, it was first deduced, and estabAt'oll, the Polynesian name for the perfect form of coral lished as a rational hypothesis) island, which consists of a more or less circular ring of coral, The first of these is nown as the w ofions, enclosing a lake termed an A. or lagoon, communicating and may be thus stated:with the outer sea by a break in the coral ring. According to The same compounc, no matter what its origin, contains the Mr Darwin's theory of coral-reefs, the A. marks the complete same proportions of its constituents. subsidence of original land; the coral structures being built up A quantity of any compound consists of a number of molecules around the land as it is depressed. Some atolls are of large size. characteristic of it, each of which contains the same number and Bow A. is 30 miles long by 6 broad; Rimsky, 54 miles long by hind of atoms. The sums of the weights of the different atoms 20 aross;th Suadiva A. is 44 miles in one diameter by 34 in in the molecule will necessarily also be the proportions in which the respective elements are present. Thus the compound water, At'om (Gr. atomos, an indivisible particle; from a, negative, no matter from what source (providing it be pure water), is and temno, I cut). With regard to the ultimate state of matter, found on analysis to contain 8 parts by weight of oxygen, and there have been two rival theories from a very early age-viz., I part by weight of hydrogen, and these proportions never vary. first, that matter is indefinitely divisible; and second, that how- It has been stated above, that the smallest particle of water ever much you may divide and subdivide any portion of matter, capable of existing contains two atoms of hydrogen united to a stage is at last reached beyond which it is impossible to go: in I atom of oxygen, and that the atom of oxygen weighs I6 other words, you have arrived at the small, hard, indivisible times as much as the single atom of hydrogen; and thus it particles known as atoms, which constitute matter. The latter follows that oxygen and hydrogen are present in water in the theory is that now generally accepted; and it is especially useful proportions I6: 2 or 8: 1. in the theoretical discussion of chemical compounds. There is The second, or law ofmultipZle i5roportions, teaches that — 21O — _ —— J ATO THE GL OBE ENACYC2 OPREDIA. ATO WZhen two bodies unite in more than one~roziortion, the quantities The atomic weight of mercury, as arrived at by this method, is of each contained in the dierent comihounds bear a simple relation I99'8, a number closely approximating 2oo00'2. to one another. Another important aid to the determination of A. W. is In any series of compounds containing the same elements, afforded by Gay Lussac's Law of Atomic Volumes, which may be the difference between the members of the series is'owing to the thus stated: The densities of all gases are proportional to their number of atoms the molecule of each contains, hence the A. W. If the weight of a volume of any gas be compared with proportions by weight in which each element is present will the weight of the same volume of hydrogen (at the same ternvary according to the number of its atoms contained in the perature and pressure), the number expressing the relation bemolecules of the different compounds. tween the weights of the two gases will be the atomic weight of The subjoined table of the composition of the oxides of nitro- the gas in question. gert will render the above explanation clear. gen will render the above explanation clear. TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS WITH THEIR ATOMIC WEIGHTS. Composition. Atomic Atomic Oxides of Nitrogen. Formula. Compsition.~ Name. Symbol. Weight. Name. Symbol. Weight. Nitrogen: Oxygen. Nitrous oxide (laughing-gas), NO 28:i6 Aluminum loyen ~Nitric oxide,.~NzO, 2~8:12 Antimony Sb 22 Nickel Nib 59 Nitrous anhydrid~~Nice,.. NiO { 8 4 Nitricousxanyide..N02 28 48 Arsenic As 75 Niobium Nb 94 Nitrous anhydride, N,05 28 48 Barium Ba 237 Nitrogen N'4 Peroxide of nitrogen, NO 28 Bismuth i Osmium Os 4 Bismuth Bi 210 oOsmium. Os x99 Nitric anhydride,... NO, 28: 80 6 Boron B Xo'9 Oxygen i _ _-Bromine Br 80 Palladium Pd co6'5 Atomic weight of nitrogen,'4 Cadmium Cd 112 Phosphorus P 3' Atomic weight of oxygen,. 6 Czesium Cs'33 Platinum Pt 197' The laws of equivalent proportios will be treated of in art. Calcium Ca 40 Potassium K 39' Carbon C 12 Rhodium Ro o04'3 EQUIVALENT. Cerium Ce 92 Rubidium Rb 85'3 The belief that matter is composed of minute particles or Chlorine Cl 355 Ruthenium Ru. I042 atoms is a very ancient one, and appears to have had its origin in Chromium Cr 525 Selenium Se 79'5 Cobalt Co 59 Silicon Si 28 India or Persia. A very complete A. T. was taught by the Gre. Co C Sil Ag 8 Copper Cu 63'5 Silver Ag m8 cian philosopher Leucippus, and after him Democritus (460 B.c.); Didymium Di 96 Sodium Na 23 indeed it is surprising in how many respects the views of the Erbium E II2'6 Strontium St 87'5 ouh GFluorine F x9 Sulphur 5 32 latter philosopher coincide with those of the present time, although Fluorine F 99 Sulpuur S 32 Glucinum G 5 Tantalum Ta 182 um G Demrnocritus supported his theory on metaphysical argument only. Gold Au 196'6 Tellurium Te 029 It was reserved for John Dalton (x804-8) to establish the atomic Hydrogen H I Thallium Ti 204 hypothesis on a firm experimental basis, and to show that with- Indium In 756 Thorinum Th'38 Iodine x 27 Tin Sn xx8 out its assistance the facts of chemical combination would be Iodine I 227 Tin Sn iml Iridium Ir 197'x Titanium Ti 5o altogether inexplicable. Iron Fe 56 Tungsten W Iron Fe 56 Tungsten W x84 Lanthanum La 92 Uranium U Atomic Weights. The atomic weight of an element has Lead Pb 207 Vanadium V 51'3 been defined in art. ATOMIC THEORY; it remains to describe Lithium Li 7 Yttrium Y 6x'7 the methods by which these have been determined. Magnesium Mg 243 Zinc Zn 65 Manganese Mn 55 Zirconium Zr 89'5 As all compounds are formed by the union of whole atoms of Mercury Hg son different elements, each atom possessing a definite weight; and as in the same compound the same number and kind of atoms Aoe'me, as used in the Bible, means, in the Old TestaAtone'merit, as used in the Bible, means, in the Old Testa. are contained, it follows that the proportions by weight in which ment, the reconciliation of God to men, hen alienated from meithe'reconciliation of God to men, when alienated from the elements combine together will be directly as their respec- them by sin, by means of sacrifices; in the NeTestamen tive A. W., or as multiples of these; hence from the analysis of simply reconciliation. A consciousness of guilt in relation to a a series of compounds which an element forms, its atomic weight divie being, accompanied with the belief that it could be condivine being, accompanied with the belief that it could be conmay be arrived at. ~~~~~~may be arrived at. ~doned by sacrifices, seems to have been a universal sentiment in The atomic weight of mercury was deduced by Erdmann and human experience. The finest of certain animals were offered Marchand from the analysis of the red oxide of miercury. In Marchand from the analysis of the red oie of rcuy. I in this way, and, when the sacrifice required to be peculiarly I 1 3938 parts by weight of this compound, they found 09og6308 precious, even human beings. Dr Magee, in his learned work of mercury, and hence by subtraction 8'7630 of oxygen. As-. on Sacrifce, has adduced abundant proof of the fact that suming the atomic weight of oxygen to be 16, the quantity of -human sacrifices have been offered by every nation of the mercury combined with i6 parts of oxygen is arrived at by the known world except the 7ews, and perhaps he need not have proportion made even that exception. An elaborate system of sacrifice 8'763: Io96308:: x6 was, at any rate, in vogue among the ancient Israelites, and which gives 200'2: and this number is considered to be the atomic continued among the Jews until the time of Christ. It is continued among the Jews until the time of Christ. It is weight of mercury, assuming that the red oxide of mercury generally believed by those who hold what is known as the contains a single atom of oxygen and mercury (HgO). But here unity of the Old and New Testaments, that these sacrifices were arises a difficulty. There is a second compound of oxygen and typical of the A of Chist, so that the great centrl truth of typical of the A. of Christ, so that the great central truth of mercury containing 4004 parts of mercury combined with i6 Revelation,'without shedding of blood is no remission,' was set parts of oxygen. Is the atomic weight of mercury 400'4, and forth in the Old as well as the New Testament. According to the formula of the first oxide HgO2, that of the second being this view, all the Old Testament sacrifices had relation to a HgO? or ~~~~~~~~~~~~tis vitewo, and the formulsamn oarfichesa rltwon comoud H HgO? or is it 2002', and the formula of the two compounds HgO covenant between God and man; the sin-offering implied that: and Hg20 respectively? This question cannot be answered by and Eg2O respectively? This qluestionl cannot be answered by that covenant had been broken, but might be knit together again analysis, but fortunately a discovery made by two French phy- thr hthe shedding of blond; or that, because the wages of sicists-Dulong and Petit-enables a decision to be made. These sin is death, an A. was made for the sin that existed in man by s in is death, an A. was made for the sin that existed in man by two observers, from a series of experiments, found that the s two observers, from a series of experiments, found that the the vicarious suffering of an appointed victim. All this sacrificial amount of heat necessary to raise a given weight of an element phraseology is distinctly applied in the New Testament, espethrough a certain interval of temperature-in other words, the cially in the Epistle to the Hebrews, to Christ, who united in cially in the Epistle to the Hebrews, to Christ, who united in specific heat of the element-is inversely proportional to its atomic his own person the office of priest, offerer, and sacrificer, and weight, hence the product of specific heat and atomic weight made an A. which is at the same tine the vicarious sacrifice ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~maeaA.wihis a cnthsant numebtevcriu sacrific is a constant number (6'4). rendered necessary by the sin of man, and also the completion of S x A = C 6.4 that perfect obedience to the will of God which is the natural And by means of this law the atomic weight of an element may duty of sinless men. In order to give an intelligible account of be deduced by dividing the number 6'4 by the specific heat of the subsequent development of the doctrine of the A., it will the element in question. be necessary to make a classification of the different opinions A= 6'4 that have prevailed regarding it. The most important of these S may be included in one or other of the following five classes:211 *& *-^ ATR THE GL OBE ENC YCL OPIEDIA. ATT I. It will be most convenient to start with the orthodox theory, ages, and the ideas and language connected with it are found which, in its essential features, is common to the Roman Catho- to a considerable extent in the writings of the Reformers. See lic, Lutheran, and Reformed Churches. This theory was deve. Anselm's Cur Deus Homo, Calvin's Institutes, Baur's Christ. loped by Anselm (i ith c.), on the foundation of the Augustinian liche Lehre von der Vershznung, Neander's Christliche Dogmentheology. See AUGUSTINE. The propositions laid down in geschichte, Gieseler's Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, Maurice's his famous book Cur Deus Hono are-( i.) That it is neces- Theological Essays, M'Leod Campbell's Nature of the A., Crawsary that man should be redeemed. (2.) That this redemption ford's Doctrine of Holy Scripture respecting the A. (2d ed. I874), cannot be made without satisfaction. (3.) That satisfaction and Hodge's Systematic Theology (I873). can be made only by a God-man. (4.) That it is in fact Atra'to, a river of the United States of Colombia, S. accomplished in Christ's passion. His argument is founded America, rises in the W. Cordilleras of the Andes, about 30 on the assumption that the pardon of sin requires a satisfaction miles from the Pacific, flows N. with an average fall of 3 inches of infinite merit, which can only be rendered by a person of to a mile, and after a course of 250 miles, enters the Gulf of infinite dignity. According to this theory, which has been more Darien by nine mouths. It is navigable for 140 miles, and a fully developed since the time of Anselm,'the work of Christ is scheme for connecting it with the Pacific by means of a canal is a real satisfaction, of infinite inherent merit, to the vindicatory said to be feasible. justice of God; so that he saves his people by doing for them what they were unable to do for themselves, satisfying the de- At'ri, the Atria or Ad)ia Picena of the Romans, is an epismands of the law in their behalf, and bearing its penalty in their copal town in the province of Teramo, S. Italy, i4 miles S.E. stead; whereby they are reconciled to God.' of Teramo, with numerous remains of antiquity, walls, mosaic 2. Another theory of the A., which was held by many of the pavements, &c. Its ancient coins are among the heaviest early fathers (including Augustine and Jerome), regarded the known. There are some excavated chambers in a neighbourwork of Christ solely as a deliverance of man from Satan, into ing hill, of perfectly regular form, and evidently of ancient date, whose power he had fallen through sin. Under this general the purpose of which has not been ascertained. Pop. 3632. theory three different phases prevailed. (I.) Satan was regarded At'riplex, a genus of Dicotyledonous plants belonging to the as the owner of man, by conquest in Adam. To deliver man order Chenoapodiacere (q. v.). from this bondage Christ offered himself as a ransom to Satan, which was accepted; and then Satan, having no power over a At'rium, the name applied to the entrance-hall of Roman which was accepted; and then Satan, having no power over a mansions, and in zoology to the sac or chamber in the Tunicate sinless being, found that he could not keep his ransom. (2.) As mansions, and in to the sac or chamber in the Tunicate Satan had conquered man, so Christ was regarded as having mollusca, or'sea-squirts,' into which the effete water of respiraconquered him, and thus acquired the right to set free his victims tion is sent, to be thence ejected from the body. The intestine and consign himself to chains. (3.) A third form of the theory also opens into the atrial chamber which in turn communicates was, that as Satan's right over man was founded on sin, he with the exterior by a definite aperture-the atria orifice. See exceeded his authority when he brought about the death of ASCIDIAN, MOLLUSCA, and TUNICATA. Christ, and so forfeited his authority over mankind. At'ropa, a genus of plants belonging to the order Solanacea 3. A third (the Moral) theory rejects all idea of expiation, or (q. v.), sub-order Atropacece. See BELLADONNA. satisfaction of justice by vicarious punishment, and attributes all At'rophy is a term used in pathology to denote wasting of a the efficacy of Christ's work to the moral effect produced by his part of the body. It may be either general or partial, and it character, teaching, and acts. Different theories of the A. are may occur from simple diminution in size of the organ or tissue associated with certain well-known names-e.g., F. D. Maurice, without organic change, or it may be associated with fatty or F. W. Robertson, Professor Jowett, J. M'Leod Campbell, DrJohn other degeneration or infiltration. General A. occurs, for ex' Young, Dr Bushnell, &c.-all of which, as well as the Socinian, ample, in old age; simple A. may be seen in the wasting of any are referable to this third class, and perhaps some of them partly special organ from a deficient supply. of blood or of nervous to the next two. An analysis of each of these, however, cannot energy; and A. with degeneration is seen in the case of a fatty here be given; it must suffice to notice three different phases of heart, in which, in addition to wasting, the fibres are found to the theory. (I.) The work of Christ as a redeemer is confined contain numerous fatty molecules. The causes of A. are-(I) a to his office of teacher. He introduced a new and higher form deficient supply of blood; (2) a deficient quality of blood; and (3) of religion, by which men were redeemed from the darkness and a deficient action of the nervous system. If we partially cut off degradation of the service of sin. (2.) The real benefit conferred the supply of blood to a limb, or sever the nerve distributed to by Christ was in his doctrine; but by his death his doctrine its various parts, it quickly undergoes A. Disease of the nerve was sealed with blood. He saves us as a martyr. (3.) The centres may also cause A. The antithesis of A. is hypertrophy. power of Christ for our redemption was due to the manifestation Atro'pia, or At'ropine, is an alkaloid contained in the he made of self-sacrificing love. As no such instance of it as different parts of Aroa Belladonna ad Daura Stramonium. different parts of Aitro~a Belladonnza and Datura Stramonihm. that of Christ had ever occurred before or could occur again, he that of Christ had ever occurred before or could occur again, he It is a white crystalline substance, of bitter and unpleasant taste, is the Saviour by pre-eminence. theory was first and has the chemical composition represented by the formula 4.. What may be called the Governmental theory was first C17H23N3. It is an exceedingly poisonous substance, hut is developed by Grotius (I7th c.), in opposition to the Socinians. given in medicine in small doses. It has the peculiar property The main idea of it was adopted by some of the Arminians, and of dilating the pupil of the eye when its tincture is applied as a has been reproduced by many modern writers both in Germany lotion. and America. Its principal features are as follows: (I.) In the forgiveness of sin God is not to be regarded as an offended Atrowli, or Attrow'lee a town of British India, in the N.W. party, a creditor, or a master, but as a moral governor. (2.) The Provinces, executive district of Allygurh, 63 miles N.N.E. of end of punishment is the prevention of crime and the promotion Agra, with a copious water supply and good bazaar. Pop. of the best interests of the community. (3.) As a good governor (1872) I5,052. cannot allow sin to be committed with impunity, God cannot At'tach6 (Fr.) is the name given to a young diplomatist who pardon sin without an adequate exhibition of his displeasure; accompanies an embassy to assist his superior and obtain a knowhe therefore punished sin in Christ as an example. ledge of political business. 5. The last theory (the Mystical) regards the effect of Christ's Attach'ment is an English law term for the judicial prowork as produced upon the sinner, and accomplished by the cedure corresponding to that which in Scotland is called Arrestmysterious union of the divine and human natures brought about ment (q. v.). By means of it a creditor may obtain the security by the incarnation. (I.) Among some of the early fathers there of the personal property of his debtor in the hands of a third was an obscure notion that in some way the coming of Christ person, for the purpose, in the first instance, of enforcing the had reversed the effect of the Fall, and produced a physical effect appearance of the debtor to answer to an action, and secondly, upon our race to render it immortal. (2.) By the Platonists, how- upon his continued default, of obtaining the property absolutely ever, the mysterious operation of the incarnation was connected in satisfaction of the demand. with their doctrine of the Logos. The Logos being one with God, An A. is also sometimes issued by order of the judges of a court and also with the inner life of the world (including man), these of record against a person for' Contempt' (q. v.). The offender two were made one by the incarnation. This theory was deve- is committed without appeal, indictment, or information; for loped by Erigena (9th c.) and other writers during the middle though, under Magna Charta, no one can be imprisoned without i A~~~~~~~ ATT THE GLOBSE ENCYCIOP/EDJA. ATT the judgment of his peers or the law of the land, yet this sum- was conferred on him, with the thanks of the House. In I704 mary proceeding is considered necessary for the due administra- he was made Dean of Carlisle, in I707 a Canon of Exeter, inl tion of justice, and is now confirmed as the law of the land. 17I2 Dean of Christ Church, and in 17I3 Bishop of Rochester and Dean of Westminster. But the tide of fortune turned on tile Attack', in militarylanguage, signifies an advance on the part of deat of Queen Anne in the following year. He refused to sign an organised force, with the view of dislodging the enemy from his the bishops' declaration of fidelity to George I., which brought position, either in the open country or in a fortress. The A. may be conducted by cavalry or by infantry, but in either case him he dislike of ha monarch and he there should always be a reserve of infantry and artillery to government. In 5722 his complicity in Jacobite plots threw him into the power of his enemies. He was committed to follow up the A. if successful, or to cover the retreat of the at- him into the power of his enemies. He was committed to tacking body if repulsed. As a rule, the A. is made upon one the Tower on a charge of treason. On this he was found guilty. or other of the flanks, which are generally ithe weakest portions He was sentenced to deprivation of all his ecclesiastical offices, or other of the enemy's flanks, which are generallybut the firweakest Napoleon referred to direct declared incapable of holding any civil or ecclesiastical office in of the enemy's line; but the first Napoleon preferred to direct one strong A. upon the central column. Ithe king's dominions, and condemned to perpetual banislhment. one strong A. upon the central conlumn. In usual circumstances, He left the country in June I723, settling shortly afterwards in attacks and assaults are best conducted at early dawn; but unless Paris, where he died 5th February 32 The interest whi the attacking party be well acquainted with the surrounding the life of A. has in our day, and his reputation as a writer, country, a night A. is seldom to be recommended. The artillery are from his letters to Pope, Swift, and other celebrated men generally does effective service before the A. proper has begun, of his own time. These show him to have been a man of thus paving the way, so to speak, for the infantry and cavalry, native wit and ability, and of cultivated literary power. In his by creating confusion to a certain extent in the enemy's ranks. by creating confusion to a certain extentlifetime, however, it was his controversial writings, his rhetorical Attain'der is the degradation and loss of civil rights which power, and his practical energy to which he was indebted for attached to a person, and to his descendants, when adjudged his intellectual reputation, and for his worldly success. His guilty of treason or felony. It is of feudal origin, and under it elder brother, Lewis A., LL.D., also became a clergyman, the convict could have no heir, his estate falling to the crown. and held latterly the rectories of Shepperton and Hornsey, in Nor could he succeed to any ancestor. These absurd penalties, Middlesex. He died 20th October 173I. Some volumes of his by which many innocent persons were made to suffer for the crime sermons and tracts are in print. The school for girls at New. of one guilty one, have now been mitigated, so as to bring them port Pagnell was endowed by him. into harmony with the civilisation of our own time. Now, even Attestation is in English law the verification of deeds and in cases of treason and murder, no penalty is inflicted upon the bills by witnesses. The clause at the end of tie instrument is family or heirs of the convict. He may he condemned to pay called the A. clause. In Scotland it is called the Testing Clause the costs incurred in procuring his conviction, During imprison- (q. v.). ment-if imprisonment be involved in the sentence-he cannot sue. Administrators are appointed to take charge of his pro- Att'ic is the name given in architecture to a low storey rising perty. Out of it they are allowed to give compensation for any above the entablature, or a cornice which marks the height of loss or damage occasioned to another by the crime or fraud of the principal part of a building. According to Professor Gold. the convict. They may also make a provision for the support stUcker (Transactions of the PhzilZoZoocalSociety, I854), the word of his family. When the prisoner is liberated, the administrators is from the Sansk. attaka, a room on the top of a house, which must account to him, and pay over to him any balance of his corresponds pretty closely with its ordinary application, viz., to property remaining in their hands. Any property which falls to denote a skylighted room in the roof of a house. a convict during the period of the sentence, is held to vest in himself, and not in the administrators. hAtt'ica, a political division of Greece, was of triangular himself, and not in the administrators. In Scotch law, the word A. is only applied to the penalty of shape, and was bounded on the E. by the kgean, on the W. treason; but in this case, and under the term generally, as applied by Megaris and the Saronic Gulf, and on the N. by Bceotia. It in English law, the penalties for A. in Scotland are nearly the iS distributed into the following natural divisions: The Eleusame as in England. sinian plain; the Athenian plain; the highlands; the midland district; and the sea.coast district. The principal hills Attainder, Bill of. See BILL OF ATTAINDER. are Cithoeron, Parnes, HIymettus, famous for its bees and Attaint, Writ of, a procedure in English law by which honey, Pentelicus for its marble, and Laurium for its silver the plea is urged of already A. In Scotch law, A., or'attaynt,' mines. The principal streams are the Cephissus and the Ilissus, means simply'convicted.' which water the Athenian plain. The soil was well suited for the growth of fruits, of which the olive and the fig were most Attale'a, a genus of palms found in S. America. The most abundant. From the earliest times the people of A. were of the species have lofty stems. From the leaf-stalks of A. divided into fourshy/z or tribes. Tradition ascribed to Cecrops Jfnifera a valuable fibre is obtained in Brazil, called Z'iassaba the distribution of the country into twelve communities, and to (q. v.), and used for ropes, brooms, &c. Another fibre of the Theseus their consolidation under one government. The old same name is got from a different palm, called Leotoldinia Pias- tribes were gradually increased to thirteen, and each tribe was saba, which is largely imported into Britain from Brazil. What subdivided into demai or townships, the number of which is supare known as Coquilla nuts are the hard brown seeds of A. posed to have been about I7O. A. became a Roman province funiftra, and are used in this country for making umbrella under Vespasian. In 396 A.D. it was overrun by Alaric, king handles, &c. The fruit of A. comjzta, the Pindova palm of of the Goths. At the present day, along with Boeotia, it forms Brazil, is edible, and much esteemed. A valuable oil is obtained a nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece. from what are called Cahoun nuts, the produce of A. CohzGne. Indiarubber, which is formed of the juice of Siihonica elastic, Att'icism (Gr. attikismos). Among all the Greek dialects, is generally dried by means of burning the nuts of A. excesa nd th Attic was the most finely developed, and as an instrument a the Attic was the most finely developed, and as an instrument ether species. for the expression of poetic and philosophic thought, was most widely spread in Greece. After the rise of the Macedonian Att'ar or Otto of Roses. See PERFUMES and ROSE. power, it became the language of literature and politics over the Att'erbury, Francis, Bishop of Rochester, was a son of the greater part of the known world, but its very extension exposed it to the corruption of foreign influences, and it soon began to Rev. Dr Lewis A., rector of Milton Keynes, Bucks, and was born t to the corruption of foreign influences, and it soon began to at the rectory 6th March 1662. He was educated at Westminster lose its purity. Against this evil the grammarians strove hard, School and Christ Church, Oxford, and came to London in i691, and sought by every means in their power to preserve the pure where his eloquence brought him into notice. He became chap- Attic of earlier times. This was the A. of the ancients, and lain to William and Mary, lecturer of St Bride's, and preacher those who distinguised themselves by the purity of their Attic at the Bridewell Chapel. A stanch churchman, he distinguished style were Atticists. The term is now used to denote any re himself (I700) in a controversy with Dr Wake, as the champion filed and concise mode of expression. of ecclesiastical against civil authority, especially maintaining Att'icus, Ti'tus Pompo'nius, born at Rome B.c. I09, of the authority of convocations. The House of Convocation an old equestrian family, the school-fellow, friend, and corre. was not slow in showing its gratitude. The degree of D.D. spondent of Cicero. On the breaking out of the first civil war, _ _ _ _ _- aTT ATT' TIE GLOBE ENCYCLOPEDIA. ATT he withdrew to Athens, B.C. 85, ostensibly to prosecute his stantly or within a certain time specified in the deed. The studies, but really to keep himself free from political complica- granter is liable, when the judgment comes into operation, at tions, but returned to Rome B.C. 65, at the request of Sulla. any moment to have all his property taken from him and sold He was intimate with the chiefs of all parties, to whom at a ruinous price. Moreover, the warrant or cognovit must be he gave wholesome advice. He inherited great wealth both filed in a public office within twenty-one days from its date; and from his father and his uncle, and this he increased by judgment this being done, credit is thereby completely ruined. The and enterprise as a mercantile speculator. His taste was ex- Debtors Act of I869 gives some protection to the unwary. It quisite, and authors eagerly solicited his criticism. Nepos com- provides that no W. of A. or cognzovit shall be effective unless the posed a life of A., and from Cicero's Epistles to A. we gather attorney of the granter be present to inform him of the nature additional details. A. was profoundly versed both in Greek and effect of the deed before execution, which attorney is to and Roman literature. He starved himself to death, B.C. 32, subscribe his name as a witness to the execution. A W. of A. when he found that he was labouring under an incurable illness. is also void against creditors unless filed in the Queen's Bench. None of his writings have been preserved, but his Annales, an epitome of Roman history from the earliest times to his own Attorney-General, the title of the first law officer of the day, and rich in genealogical lore, was highly valued by his crown in England and Ireland. To some extent the powers and contemporaries. duties are the same as those of the Lord Advocate (q. v.) of Scotland; but those of the latter are relatively to Scotland Att'ila (the name is a Latinised form of the Tartar Atealik, greater. The duty of the A. may be broadly stated to be to father-like; to this day a title among the Usbeks of Bokhara), advise and protect the crown and state; hence he conducts king of the Huns, son of Mundzuk, a scion of the royal stock prosecutions relating to revenue, files informations for wrongs of the Huns, in A.D. 434 succeeded to the sovereignty of the committed on the property of the crown, and guards the legal innumerable Turanian hordes between the Carpathians and interests of charitable endowments, the crown being of these the China, and had under him an army of at least half a million of legal guardian. All crimes which tend to affect the peace of barbarians, who believed him invincible as the possessor of the the state fall under the cognisance of the A. In his absence, sword of the Scythian god of war. The career of one who his duties are discharged by the Solicitor-General (q. v.). Both boasted that no grass grew where the hoof of his horse had officers are members of the government, and on a change of trod sufficiently explains how he came to be regarded with ministry their tenure of office ceases. an awe that found expression in the title of'the Scourge of God,' first applied to A., and afterwards to the whole race Attorneys and Solicitors are persons duly admitted to the of the Huns. In 447 he ravaged that portion of the Eastern Queen's courts, where they act for their clients. Being conempire lying between the- Euxine and the Adriatic, defeate sidered as public officers belonging to the courts, while allowed empire lying between the Eungingements the foAdriatic, defeat- certain privileges, they are under the summary jurisdiction of the ing in three sanguinary engagements the forces of Theodosius II., who, after forming a treacherous design against judges in everything connected with their profession. The his life, had to cede to him a large territory S. of the functions of an attorney and of a solicitor are exactly the same. Danube, and an annual tribute. A. next attacked the Western The practitioner in the courts of common law is called an Empire, allying with himself the Vandals and Franks. He attorney; the practitioner in the courts of Chancery is called a crossed the Rhine at Strasburg, and marched on Orleans; bu.t solicitor. In the transaction of business out of court, solicitor is the arrival of Aatius compelled him to retire to the plain near the word used. which Chalons-sur-Marne now stands, where he was defeated For permission to practise as attorney or solicitor, it is genewith immense slaughter, not fewer than from 250,000 to 300,000 rally necessary to be bound and duly serve under articles of having been left on the field. Next year, having recruited his clerkship to a practising attorney or solicitor for three years, and forces, he crossed the Alps, took and destroyed Aquileia, and to pass an examination; also to have the degree of Bachelor of ravaged the whole of Lombardy. He now prepared to march Arts or of Bachelor of Laws in the University of Oxford on Rome, which was saved by the mediation of Leo the Great, Cambridge, Dublin, Durham, or London, or in the Queen's whose majestic mien awed the savage into clemency. Then he University in Ireland; or the degree of Bachelor of Arts, retired to his palace beyond the Danube, and on the night of his Bachelor of Laws, or Doctor of Laws, in a university of Scot. marriage to a beautiful maiden named Hilda or Ildiko, died land. A barrister may plead in a county court without preby the bursting of a blood-vessel, A. D. 454 A. was short of viously receiving his instructions from an attorney or solicitor. stature, dark complexioned, large headed, with a stately gait, In Ireland the position of attorney and solicitor is almost exactly and small, quick, brilliant eyes. The circumstances of the the same as in England. In Scotland the corresponding profes. times made his barbaric expeditions peculiarly formidable to sional classes are called Writers to the Signet (see WRITER TO Western civilisation, but on his death his enormous empire fell THE SIGNET) and Solicitors before the Supreme Courts (see to pieces as rapidly as it had risen, though saga and song long SOLICITOR BEFORE THE SUPREME COURTS). The relations of preserved among the Germanic people the memory of the these bodies to one another, and the law generally respecting mighty monarch. See Klemm, A. nach der Geschic/le, Sage law agents, has been considerably altered by the Law Agents und Legende (Leipz. 1871); Therry, A. dans les Gauees (Par. (Scotland) Act of I873. I852); and Hagge, Geschic/zle A.'s (Celle, I862). Attrac'tion is a general name for any force which draws or Att'ock, a town and fort of the Punjab, on the Indus, where tends to draw different portions of matter together. Gravitation it becomes navigable for steamboats, 940 miles from its mouth. is a case in point, as also cohesion, adhesion, chemical affinity It was built by the Emperor Akbar in 1581, near the supposed electric and magnetic attractions. Cohesion, adhesion, and site of the ancient ~Zexiez where in 326 B.c. Alexander the chemical affinity are called molecuear forces, because they are Great crossed the Indus. About two miles above A. the Indus sensible only at insensible distances. is joined by the Cabul river, the valley of which forms the great Att'ribute, in logic, is a term used to denote a property or commercial highway of Central Asia. Pop. 2000. quality of a substance. It is by means of attributes alone that Attorney, iln its general meaning, signifies one appointed by we can conceive substances, yet they are not to be considered another to act for him, the substances themselves. They inhere in substances, and have no true existence as entities apart from them. Thus Attorney, Letter or Power of. This is a deed requir.'omnipotence' and'omniscience' are attributes of God, but ing legal execution and stamp. It may be either general or they are not God himself. Similarly whiteness is an A. of snow, special. In the first case, it empowers the agent of the granter and redness of blood. to transact his entire business during absence; in the second case, the power of the agent is specifically restricted. The deed, Attwood's Machine, a machine devised by Attwood for until revoked, gives the agent the full power of his constituent. testing experimentally the laws of motion, by reducing the velocity of a falling body so as to give time to investigate the motion. Attorney, Warrant of (English law term). This instru. Two equal weights are attached to the ends of a fine silk cord, ment is sometimes incautiously given by debtors who are pressed which passes over a pulley whose axis turns on friction wheels. by their creditors. A W. of A., as well as a cognovit, authorises In this position the apparatus will evidently be in equilibrium. A the creditor to enter judgment and levy execution, either in- third weight (very small in comparison to the other two) is then 214 ATW THE GLOBE ENC YCILOP/DZA. AUO added at one end, which immediately begins to descend. Now whose death he retired to Geneva, where he devoted himself to the only force which acts upon the three weights is the force of study till his death, April 29, I630. His chiefworks are, Eiseoire gravity due to the smaller weight. Hence, if m represent either Vniversel/e, from 1550 to I60I (Amst. I6I6-20); Histoire Secrete of the equal weights, n the small weight, f the force which first upon the three weights, and g the force of gravity, we have the appeared in Cologne in I721; and Let AvEztures da Baronz de equation aeneste (Gen. I630). The two last are singularly pungent, and f (2?nm + is) =gn or f,g _ _ I full of that epigrammatic virulence which marked the man, and I + 2 M cost him the favour of a prince who knew his sterling worth. -_- See Sayon's Vie de D'Aubigne' (Gen. I84I). where 21? may be made as large as we please, by making n Au'bry de Montdid'ier, a French knight, according to tradition assassinated in 137i by Richard de Macaire, as was small enough, so that the proportion of f to g may be made discovered by the implacable enmity displayed against the as small as we choose, and thus the velocity reduced as much murderer by A.'s dog. Charles V. hearing of this, compelled as may be required. By this means we establish experi- Macaire to fight the dog, which dragged him down, upon which mentally the law that the spaces described are proportional to he confessed his crime. The story became the subject of many the squares of the times. If we allow the heavier end to pass ballads, and finally under different names took dramatic shape through a ring of such size as to lift off the smaller weight, we both in France and Germany. No melodrama was ever more produce uniform motion; for there being now no force acting, popular in Paris or Vienna than the Dog of Montargis or the the body will proceed only by reason of the velocity impressed Forest of Bondy. upon it at the moment of change. Practically, a clock beating seconds, and a scale for measuring the spaces described, are Ao burn, the name of numerous towns in the United States attached to the apparatus. of America, the best known and most important of which is A., in the state of New York, 174 miles W. of Albany, on the outAtwisha, an Indian poison, supposed to be obtained from a let of Lake Owasco. Pop. (I871) 17,225. A. has manufactures species of aconite. of wool, cotton, iron, &c., besides numerous mills. The state Aubagne' (anc. Albania, the capital of the Albicii), a town prison at A. is conducted on the principle of isolating the conof the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, France, 9 miles E. of victs during the night, but of employing them in joint labour Marseille. A. has a church founded in II64, and manufactures during the day. The proceeds of their labour is said to defray of tiles, pottery, and paper, and some distilleries and tanneries. the expenses of the institution. Pop. (I872) 4903. Aubus'son, a town of the department of Creuse, France, 125 Aube, a department in the N.E..of France, lies in the miles W. of Lyon, noted for the manufacture of carpets, the basin of the Seine on the S.W., and of the river A. on the most famous in France after those of the Gobelins and Beauvais. N.E., and consists of the S. portion of the old province of A. has also tanneries and dye-works, and a trade in wine. Pop. Champagne and a small part of Burgundy. Area, 2351 sq. (1872) 5890. miles; pop. (I872) 255,687. A. is mostly arable; in the S.E. abounds in rich meadow-land; and yields grain, hemp, rape, Aubusson, Pierre d', grand-master of the order of St John hay, wine, and timber. The chief manufactaes are woollens, of Jerusalem, born in I423, was the fourth son of Renaud d'A., and ~~~~~~~~hay, wine, andtb. hcimnfteaeoeged to the old French family of the Vicomtes de la Marche, cotton and linen goods, ribbons, leather, porcelain, and paper belonge the narrative of his biographer, Father Bonhours, being for this there are also large distilleries, beetroot-sugar factories, and the narrative of his biographer, Fater hours, eing for this bleaching-fields. The bacon and sausages of A. are szpcialit. period almost destitute of dates and authorities, and frequently Troyes (q. v.) is the chief town. The river A. rises near Pralay, contradictory. He was one of the young seigneurs who accomin the department of Haute-Marne, flows N.W., and joins the panied the Dauphin in his expedition against the Swiss in I44 pan-ed the Dauphin in his expedition against the Swiss in 1444, Seine, after a course of go miles. and helped to win the battle fought near Basel; but soon after, when peace was concluded between France and England, he Aube'nas, a town in the department of Ardeche, France, on betook himself to the East. From this point his history is clear, the right bank of the Ardkche, 14 miles S. W. of Privas, with some and abundantly authenticated. At Rhodes he became a knight cotton, silk, paper, and leather manufactures. It has a ruined of the Christian brotherhood, obtaining the approbation of the castle, and is partly encircled by an old wall. Pop. (I872) successive grand-masters, Jean de Lastic and Jacques de Milly, 4647. About 42 miles N. W. of A. is the village of Vals, noted by the punishment which he inflicted on the pirates of the Greek for its mineral springs. In the neighbourhood is the famous islands. In I458 he was sent by De Milly to the French king'Ravine of Hell,' with a waterfall of 500 feet. to stir up his zeal as a Christian prince against the growing Au'ber, Daniel Fran9ois Esprit, a facile, graceful, and power of the Turks, and succeeded in effecting a league between frequently original musical composer, chiefly of opera-comique, Charles VII. of France and Ladislaus II. against Mohammed born at Caen, Normandy, 29thJune I784, was the son of a Paris printseller, and was sent at the age of twenty to acquire know- grand-master, and military. commander of the order in his ledge of business in London. In youth he had attained proficiency absence. In 1467 he was present at the chapter-general of the in several instruments, including the piano, and while in England order held at Rome, and signalised himself by his wisdom, tact, he devoted himself most assiduously to the study of music. Re- and eloquence. Elected grand-master in 1476, at a moment turning to Paris, he wrote several concertos pour basse, and when Mohammed II., irresistible in the East, was threatening published them under the name of the celebrated violoncellist the independence of Latin Christendom, A. showed undaunted Lamare. After several unsuccessful operas, his three-act opera, courage and incomparable skill in the presence of his formidable Lea Bergre Czhdelaine(I82o) was the first of a long and brilliant adversary. In 1480 he repulsed Ioo,ooo Turks with enormous series of triumphs. By far the best known of his works in Eng- loss in an attack on the island. A second expedition which land are Fra Diavolo (i830) and Les Diamants de lae Couronne Mohammed planned was put an end to by his death in May I481. (I841). His later style was much influenced by that of Rossini, For some time after this A. devoted himself to the improvement but in many respects he was not inferior to the Italian aestro, of the internal organisation of the brotherhood, in which enand he is often spoken of as the Rossini of France. His Amoozur deavour he won the respect and admiration of Christendom. In sacre' de l Patrie became a second Marseillaise, and sung by 150o he was appointed to command the forces of the German Nourrit, it was the signal of revolution at Brussels on the 25th emperor and his allies against the Turs. He attacked Mitylene August IS83. A. died I~th May 187.- but through internal dissension the allies were baffled. A. died at Rhodes in 1503, aged eighty. The age cannot show a more Aubign'e, Merle d'. See MERLE D'AUBIGNI. chivalrous Christian warrior and sage than A. See Bonhours' Aubignle, Th6odore -Agripa d', a Huguenot historian,L'Hisloire de Pierre d'A. (Par. I676, new ed. Par. I8o6.) Aubigne, Theodore Agrippa d', a Huguenot historian and poet, born 8th February I550, at Saint-Maury, near Pons, Auch (the Climbernum or Elimberis of the Gauls), the capital in Saintonge. Adopting the military profession, he rendered of the department of Gers, France, on the river Gers, 42 miles good service to the Protestant cause in I567, for which he was W. of Toulouse, with woollen, cotton, and leather manufactures, made vice-admiral of Guienne and Bretagne by Henri IV., after and some trade in wine and brandy. It is the seat of an arch Q+ ---------------------—.. --- _- — _ -_21 ATUO 3t CLe EOB9 tIVC YC2OPA2}!,. ATUD bishop, and has a splendid cathedral, founded in I489. In the on his own account, or engage some one to bid for him. Sale time of Caesar it was the chief town of the Azuscii, hence its announced as'without reserve' is, however, certainly held to name; then of Roman Aquitania; and in later times it was the render his doing so illegal. What is called'puffing' at an A. capital of Gascony and of the county of Armagnac. Pop. (I872) may vitiate a sale; that is, where the owner of the subject for 94I4. sale raises the price by means of bidders acting for himself. The Auche'nia, a genus of Ruminant mammalia, represented by law regarding puffing is, however, very obscure. See PUFFING the llamas and alpacas of S. America, which are included in the Camelidz or Camel family. The llamas, however, do not Auctioneer', one who conducts an auction. He may act as possess humps, and the two toes of each foot are free, and each agent, if he act in good faith, for any one wishing to bid. He is toe possesses a strong curved nail. The neck is elongated. The responsible to the seller for ordinary skill and assiduity. See head is small. The upper lip is deeply cleft and mobile. Four APPRAISER. kinds are known, but it is doubtful if more than two of these are distinct species. See LLAMA and CAMEL. Au'cuba, a genus of Evergreen shrubs belonging to the natural order Cornacee (q. v.). A. 7caponica, or Japan laurel, is Auchterar'der (Gael.'the upper high land'), a town in the a common garden shrub with variegated leaves, and capable of S.E. of Perthshire, I2 miles S.W. of Perth, on the Scottish thriving even in the atmosphere of towns. The plant is dicecious. Central Railway. Its chief industry is cotton-weaving. In Its berries, when ripe, are of a beautiful coral red. A. Himalaica 1839 the parishioners of A., by resisting the presentee of Lord has wholly green foliage and orange-red coloured berries. Kinnoul, began the contest which ended in the formation of the Free Church. Pop. (I87I) 3795. Audae'us (the name is the Latinised form of the Syriac Udo), a native of Mesopotamia, born in the early part of the 4th c. Auckland, capital of the province of the same name, New He has an obscure place in the history of the Church as the Zealand, founded in I840. Pop. (I87o) about I2,ooo. Till the founder of a sect which expired in the century that gave it birth. transference of the seat of government to Wellington, it was the A. began by assailing the clergy for the impurity of their lives, capital of New Zealand. It possesses two harbours, 6 miles and set an example of rigid austerity in morals, but along with apart, and many substantial public buildings. It is well situ- his asceticism he seems to have combined certain anthropomorated for commerce, and has a remarkably mild and equable phic views of God which the Church could not tolerate. In A.D. temperature. —A., the most northerly province of New Zea- 338 he was banished to Scythia or Sweden, where he formed a land, 400 miles long; greatest breadth, 200 miles; pop. new sect among the Goths, and where he died about 37o. His (1871) 62,335. Its mineral treasures are valuable, compris- party became extinct soon after, but the anthropomorphic heresy ing coal, iron, &c. It also produces much wool, and heavy spread through many monastic communities in the following grain crops. I century. See Augustine, De Hcoeresibus, c. 50, and Epiphanius, Auckland, Bishop, a town in Durham, on the Wear, IO Contra Heereticos. miles W.S.W. of Durham, containing the palace of the Bishop Aude, a maritime department in the S. of France, formerly of Durham. It is situated in the S. Durham coal field. Pop. It is for most part mon(I87I) 8736...part of the province of Languedoc. It is for most part mountainous, but is intersected by rich, well-watered valleys, which Auckland Islands, a group of islands S. of New Zealand, yield cereals, olives, wines, and fruits. The chief industrial with some good ha-bours, which make them a valuable station products are woollens, silks, leather, and paper; there are also for the whale fisheries of the Southern Pacific. Lat. 50~ 48' S., many flour-mills, distilleries, and iron-foundries. Carcassone long. I66' 42' E. They are almost uninhabited. (q. v.) is the chief town. A. is rich in iron, antimony, copper, Auckland, William:Eden, Lord, third son of Sir Robert and coal. Pop. (1872) 285,297. The river A., 120 miles long, den, Bart. of Wesan, rises near Mont Louis in the Pyrenees, is fed by many tribuasden, Bart. of West Auckland, diplomatist768, became Under- taries in the department through which it flows, and enters the was born in 1744, called to the bar in 1768, became UnderSecretary of State in 1772, M.P. for Woodstock in 1774, and Mediterranean 6 miles E.N.E. of Narbonne. a Lord of Trade in 1776. In I778 he was appointed one of the Aude'bert, Jean Baptiste, a French naturalist and encommissioners to treat with the insurgent colonists of N. America; graver, was born in 1759 at Rochefort. He excelled in designing held the office of Chief Secretary for Ireland, 1780-82; concluded and painting animals, and was much employed in this work by a commercial treaty with France, September 1786; was ambas- authors. His first work, Zistoire N/aureZlle des Singes, des Makis, sador to Spain, 1788, and to Holland, 179o. In I793 he was et des Gakofpitdhyues (Par. I800), created a great sensation made a British peer. He died 28th May I814. A., who was among naturalists. It was one of the earliest and most splendid a vigorous supporter of Pitt, wrote several political pamphlets, attempts to print in oils, and to imitate the tints of nature. His not without influence in their day. Histoire des Colibris, des Oiseaux.Mouches, des yacamars, et des Promerops (Par. i802) is considered the most perfect work of Auckland, George Eden, Earl of, second son of the fore- the kind that ever appeared. Fifteen specimens have been going, was born August 25, 1784. In July I834 he became First printed in letters of gold. A. died in I800. Lord of the Admiralty in the Cabinet of Earl Grey. From 1835 to I84I he was Governor-General of India, and nearly the whole Au'ditor, one who is appointed to examine accounts, public of his administration was occupied with the deplorable Afghan or private. The Commissiones of Auditare government officials war. One gleam of light, however, is shed across the gloom. appointed to look after the expenditure of certain branches of It was during A.'s rule that the British government ceased that the public service. Their establishment is called the Audit Office. connection with the native worships of Hindustan which af- It consists of a chairman, a secretary, and five commissioners, fronted Christianity, and did not honour Brahminism. A. was with a staff of subordinates. The army, navy, ordnance, and land recalled in I84I, and died at the Grange, near Alresford, Ist revenue accounts are now under the supervision of the Audit January n849. Office. The duties of a private A., or A. under a judicial remit, are very onerous, as, under commbn law, he may be held liable Auction, or Roup, is a mode of selling property by a com- for the consequence of any blunder or oversight on his own part. petition of bidders, under certain conditions. These conditions are partly implied under common law, and are so far applicable Auditor of the Court of Session, in Scotland, is an officer to all sales by A. Such as, that no attempt be made to raise appointed by the crown, to whom either division of the court, the price by fictitious offers, and that no attempt be made to or any Lord Ordinary, remits to tax the costs, in Scotland called keep it down by combination of the bidders. Besides these expenses, of a suit found due by one litigant to the other. The general conditions, an A. has generally its special conditions. A. reports to the judge, who will, if desired, hear objections on These are written and exhibited or read over before the sale either side. He then decides on the accounts summarily and begins, and they are binding both on the seller and on the pur-finally. chaser. This contract is in England called'Conditions of Sale;' Au'ditory Nerve is the special nerve of the organ of hear. in Scotland,'Articles of Roup.' There are many points of law ing. It is sometimes also termed the porlio zollis of the seventh respecting A. over which there is a good deal of obscurity. pair of cranial nerves. It arises from the floor of the fourth Thus there are doubts as to whether or not an exposer may bid ventricle at the back of the medulla oblongata. It passes into *2 6 ---— ~ —— ~ —-----— ~ — -43 AUD THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPMDIA. AUG I the petrous portion of the temporal bone through the internal with the finest spirit of S. German life, and are marked by the auditory meatus along with the facial nerve, or portio dura. It most pleasant humour. One of the very best is Die Frau Proultimately is distributed exclusively to the internal ear. See fessorin. In his Schrif/ und Volk (Leips. 1846) he discussed EAR, HEARING. the conditions and characteristics of popular literature. A.'s Au'dran, the name of several celebrated French engravers later works are Andree Hofer (Leips. 1850), an historical tragedy among whom may be mentioned Claude A. (born 1592, died of slender merit; Deutsche Abende (Manh. I85I; 3d ed. I853); I677), his three sons, Germain, Gerard, and Claude, of whom the is continuations of the Dorfgscuic/ten; Der Warspruch (Leips. first-himself a famous engraver-had three sons, all artists of note I859), a drama; and the widely-admired tales, Barfissele (Stuttg. in their day; the last was a painter, who almost equalled Lebrun, I856; 5th ed. I863), yoseplh im Schnee (Stuttg. I86o), and Edeland the second, GWrard, born at Lyon, August 2, i640, achieved weiss (Stuttg. I86I). A collection of his writings was published the reputation of being the greatest engraver. While practising at Stuttgartin 22 vols. (I861-64). A. was editor of the DeZCtscen his art in Paris, his abilities procured for him the patronage of Volks Kalenrder from I859 to I869. Lebrun, the painter of Louis XIV. He afterwards studied three Auf'recht, Theodor, one of the first Sanskrit scholars in years under Carlo Maratti at Rome, where he executed an excel- Europe, was born at Leschnitz, Silesia, in 1822, and was edulent engraving of Clement IX. The celebrity he acquired by cated at the University of Berlin. He came to England with this led to his being recalled to France, and to his appoint- a high reputation, and was employed at Oxford (1859-62) in ment as engraver to the king. A work of his in folio, Les Pro- compiling the catalogue of the Sanskrit MSS. in the Bodleian portions du Coryps humain mesurees sur les 5hlus belles Fig5ures de Library. In 1862 he was appointed Professor of Sanskrit and l'Antiquite, was published at Paris in I683. His finest produc. Comparative Philology in the University of Edinburgh, and in tions are his illustrations of the battles of Alexander. G. died I875 returned to Germany to become Professor of Sanskrit and at Paris in 1703. Comparative Science of Language at Bonn. A's. works are, Au'dubon, John James, a very eminent American ornitho- De Accentuz Comn5ositorum Sanscritorum (Bonn, I847); Die Umlogist, was born at Louisiana, May 4, 1780, of French parents. brischen SpSrachdenkmZiler (Berl. 1850); ZeitschrZiftfir VergleickFrom his earliest years he displayed a passionate enthusiasm for ende Sprac/forsckung (Berl. 1850); Ujvaladatta's Commentary the study of nature, especially of birds. His father established on the Unadisutras (Bonn, 1859), from a MS. in the India him in a farm in Pennsylvania, where he married; but neither his House; Halayudha's Abhidhanaratnamala: or, A Sanskrit love for his wife nor for his family could diminish the irresistible Vocabulary, edited with a Sanskrit-English Glossary (Lond. attraction of the primeval forests of America. In a series of (I86I); The Hymns of the Rig- Veda transcribed into English wanderings, commencing in xSIo, and lasting fifteen years, A. Letters (Berl. i86i); A Catalogue raisonne of Sanskrit.igtS. in executed on the spot, and from nature, those drawings which are Trinity College, Cambridge (Camb. I872); Tze Anthology of to be found in his magnificent Birds of America. This work was Sarngadhara (Leips. I873); Bliiten aus Hindustan (Bonn, 1873). of too costly and artistic a nature to find at that time an American At present (1875) A. is preparing for the University of Oxford publisher, but, nothing daunted, A. crossed the Atlantic, and after a larger work on the ancient dialects of Italy. several delays and disappointments it was finally published at Au'geas, or Augei'as, King of Elis, and one of the semiLondon (I826-39, 3d ed. I864, 6 vols.), accompanied with a mythical Argonauts. He fed 3000 oxen in his stalls, which literary description (Ornithological Biography, Edinb. I83I-39). Hercules in one day cleansed of the accumulated ordure of years, On the first appearance of the Birds of America, a thrill of by leading through them the waters of the Peneus and Alpheus. admiration went through the savans of Europe, and even now A. refusing the payment agreed on-viz., 300 oxen-was slain the language of Cuvier does not appear extravagant-' It is the by Hercules, /with all his sons save one, named Phyleus, whom -most magnificent monument that Art has yet raised to Nature.' the victor placed on his father's throne. While the publication was going on, A. continued his wanderings and observations. He visited the coasts, rivers, islands, Augereau, Pierre Franwois Charls, one of Napoleon's lakes, forests, and mountains of N. America, from the Gulf of greatest generals, was born at Paris, 2Ist October I757, of Mexico to Labrador, and in I843 commenced his Biography humble parentage. At the age of seventeen he enlisted in the of American Quadrupeds, which he finished in I850 (2d ed. French carabineers; but tiring of military service, he quitted 1854, 3 vols.). A. died 27th January I85. See Lives of A. France and settled in Naples as a fencing-master. Returning to by St John (1855) and Buchanan (2d ed. 1869.). France after the outbreak of the Revolution, he volunteered into the army, was nominated captain of a regiment of hussars 26th Au'er, Aloys (Ritter von Mfelsbach), born May II, I8I3, at June 1793, and on the 23d December of the same year was proWels, Upper Austria. At an early age he exhibited a great moted general of division. He was sent to the army of Italy in facility in acquiring modern languages, and in 1837 became Pro- 1795, and on the arrival of Bonaparte he became his lieutenant, fessor of Italian in the College of Linz, Upper Austria, and from and one of his most active and intrepid officers. During the I841 to I868 was Director of the National Printing Office in Italian campaign A. immediately came to be ranked among Vienna. But he is best known by his photographic discovery, the first generals of the Revolution on account of his unknown as Nature-Printing. See Die E'ntdeckung des Natur- swerving resolution, the rapidity of his movements, his vigour selbstdrucks (Vien. I856). In I847 he published the Lord's of execution,which difficulties onlyseemed to intensify. He was Prayer in 200 languages, each exemplar being in the national with the emperor'on most of his famous battle-fields, Jena, alphabet. A. died at Vienna, July Ii, I869. Eylau, Leipsic, &c. For his services he was created a marshal Au'erbach, Berthold, a German poet and novelist of Jewish and peer of France, with the title of Duke of Castiglione; but origin, was born 28th February 1812, at Nordstetten, in the Black having attached himself to the royalist cause, Napoleon, on his Forest, studied from 1832 to 1835 at Tsbingen, Munich, and return from Elba, refused to accept the services which his old Heidelberg, and first appeared as an author in I836, when he comrade hastened to Paris to offer. A. died 12th June i8i6. published Dws 7/udenthurm und die Neueste Liter atur. It was A fine soldier, at least in his earlier years, A. was in other refollouwed by a series of romances from Jewish history under the spects utterly destitute of culture or capacity, and far beneath collective title of Das Ghetto. To this period also belong his the other marshals of Napoleon in manners and intelligence. Spinoza (2 vols. Stuttg. 1837; 2d ed. I854), Dichter und Kiauf- Au'gier, Guillaunme Victor Emile, a French dramatic mann (2 vols. Stuttg. I839; 2d ed. I854), and a translation author, born at Valence, department of Drome, 17th September into German of the whole of Spinoza's works (5 vols. Stuttg. 1820. Though destined for the bar, at an early age he devoted 184I). Soon after, however, he entirely abandoned philosophy himself to letters. His first drama, La Ci'gut (I844), refused by and criticism for creative art, and it soon became visible where the Theatre Frangais, was accepted by the Odeon, where it was his strength lay. The precursor of his new style was Der played with deserved success. Two years later the Theatre Gebildete Biirger (Karlsr. 1842). This was followed by his Frangais, now alive to its own interests and to the genius of A., charming Schwarzw'ilder Dorfgeschichten (2 vols. Manh. 1843; inscribed the condemned play in its repertoire. L'Aventurisre, 4th ed. 1848; people's ed. i86I-62). These'Village Tales of of a more serious cast than La Cigu,; was received with considthe Black Forest' at once gave him a foremost place among erable favour. Then followed in I849 Gabriele, a comedy in popular German novelists, and in translations soon found their five acts, full of moral reflections, and to which the French Acaway into almost every European language. They are imbued demy decreed the Monthyon prize. Ze ouecur de FlSte, a piece 2f~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~8 ~217 tAUG THE GLOBE EVC YCLOP1EDIA. AUG of little value, was followed in 1852 by Diane, which proved a Lutheran Church, drawn up by Melancthon, with the advice of failure, though Rachel played the leading part. Many addi- Luther, and presented to the Emperor Charles V. at the diet tional pieces have been composed by A. in conjunction with other held at Augsburg, June 25, I530. Having been read in German writers, as Les Lionnes Pauvres (1858) and the Beau Mariage by the Chancellor of Saxony, two copies, one in German and (1859), with Foussier; L'Habil Vert, with De Musset; La Chasse the other in Latin (Confessio Augustana), signed by John Elector au -Roman, with Landeau; and an opera, SaJho (I85I), the music of Saxony and other four magnates of the empire, were preof which was composed by Gounod; La Contagion, first entitled sented to the emperor. Melancthon took as a basis the sevenBaron d'Estriganud, created a sort of sensation in I866, which teen articles of Torgau, which had been laid before the elector was intensified in I868 by what his countrymen call a'grand by Luther in the previous year. Of the twenty-eight articles of drame de passion,' Paul Forestier, which, like others of his the A. C., twenty-one state the Lutheran tenets of faith and pieces, is distinctly indecent. His Poesies (I856) are charac- doctrine, while the remaining seven deal with the points in terised by delicacy both of diction and sentiment, but his plays dispute between the Lutheran and Roman Churches. In I540 are radically vicious in their morality. A. was elected a member Melancthon published a Latin edition, containing important of the Academy in 1858, and became an officer in the Legion variations, introduced for the purpose of reconciling the views d'Honneur in the same year, and a commander in I868. of the Lutherans and Calvinists on the Lord's Supper. These variations were repudiated by orthodox Lutherans, and they Au'g*ie, a mineral which forms an important constituent gave rise to much controversy between the Lutheran and Rein basaltic and volcanic rocks. It *is a variety of Pyroxene formed Churches of Germany. See 611ner's Symbolik derLuth. (q. v.), in which the crystals are opaque, and black or dark Kirc/e (Hamb. I837). green in colour..reen in.olou.. Augsburg Interim. See INTERIM. Augmenta'tion, Process of, is a procedure in the Teind (Tithe) Court (q. v.) of Scotland, raised by the clergyman of a Au'guries and Au'spices are essentially Latin modes of parish against the titular and proprietors of the land (Scot. divination, and of greater antiquity than Rome itself. Both heritors) from which he draws his stipend, for an increase of it. words are connected with avis, a bird, as it was believed that The P. of A. cannot be raised at a shorter interval than twenty the flight of birds intimated in some way the will of the gods, years from the date of last decree for augmentation. The decree and that by this Jupiter taught men how to act in given circumof court, when given, is for so much grain or victual; it is, how- stances. The various kinds of signs observed by the augurs were ever, paid in money, the amount of which is each year deter- five-ex clao, ex avlius, ex tripuliis, ex qaarupedibus, ex diris. mined by the Fiar (q. v.) prices. P. of A. also comprehends The first, which was of prime significance, was connected with the apportioning or'localling' of the augmentation among the observation of thunder and lightning. The second related to the proprietors. The summons also asks for an increase in the A. from birds, of which there were two classes: oscines, as the sum hitherto allowed for the elements of communion. The raven and the crow, which gave A. by their voice; and alites, as usual grounds on which augmentation is asked are increase in the eagle and the vulture, which indicated the will of the gods by the number of inhabitants, or extent of the clergyman's parish, their flight. The A. ex tripudziis were taken from the feeding of or increased cost of living. chickens, and were consulted on military expeditions; ex quadrua notable city in Bavaria edibus, from four-footed animals, as the hare, wolf, or dog; ex agas'burg (Aug star Vin deaicoaum), a notable city in Bavaria, diris, from sneezing, stumbling, and other accidents. The person capital of the circle of Swabia and Neuburg, at the confluence h was to take the A. marked out with a wand a division in the who was to take the A. marked out with a wand a division in the of the Lech and the Wertach. Pop. (1871) 51,220, of whom heavens called m a term also applied to the station he 33,559 are Roman Catholics. Among its public buildings are occupied, which was solemnly separated from the rest of the the Council House, containing the splendidly-decorated'Golden land. At Ronie a station on the summit of the land. At Rome a station on the summit of the Capitoline Hill Hall;' the residence of the old prince-bishops, in which the had been consecrated for this purpose once for all. The Protestant leaders presented the'Augsburg Confession' (q. v.).em. lum was divided into right and left, and the A. were favourto Charles V.; the house of the famous merchant family of to Charles V.; the house of the famous merchant family of able or the reverse as the birds appeared in the one division or Fugger (q. v.); the Cathedral, the Bavarian Armoury, the Gal- the other. In ancient times no plebeian could take the A., lery of Art, &c. A. is a very old city. It owes its origin to the while every patrician could. No important undertaking, public while every patrician could. No important undertaking, public colony planted here 12 B.C. by Augustus (whence its name), or private, was in the early period of Roman history entered and which so rapidly prospered that Tacitus speaks of it as the upon without consulting the A. Hence the power and influence most splendid town in all Rhzitia. In the 5th c. it was ravaged of the augurs were paramount, and a veto of a single member of by the Huns; in the 6tl it came into the possession of the ranby the Huings. On the 6tdivision oft came into the oinions of tharle- their college could disperse the Comitia Centuriata. In war, the Frankish it fell to the divisionke of Swaia butthe dominionits of Chtrade and power of taking the A. was restricted to the commander-in-chief; industry ever growing it manage to secure for itself man any victory won by his lieutenants was said to be won'under his auspices,' and he alone was entitled to the honour of a privileges, and at last in 1276 it became a free city of the empire. tis auspices,' ande alone was entited to the honour of a In the latter part of the I4th and all through the I5th c. it was uder te favour or influence of another; but even in classical at the height of its greatness, and its burghers were famous for under the favour or influence of anoter; but even in classical times it had acquired this figurative use. their love of knowledge and art, no less than for their enterprise and wealth. While the ships of the Fuggers and Welsers were Au'gust (It. and Sp. Agosto, Fr. Aost), the name given by on every sea, A. was at the same time the headquarters of the Augustus to the sixth month of the Roman year, originally SexGerman school of painting. But the discoveries of the Spanish ti/is, when he rectified an error in the method of intercalating. and Portuguese gave a new direction to the commerce of the The decree'of the Senate ratifying the change assigns as reasons world, and other cities with greater advantages soon surpassed for it that in Sextilis had happened some of the most fortunate A. in commercial prosperity. Still it long continued to be an events in the life of the emperor, and that' the said month is, emporium of trade between Northern and Southern Europe. and had been, most fortunate to the empire.' Many events of the Reformation transpired in A. When the empire was abolished in I8o6, A. was incorporated with rb ugusta, the capital of Maine, U. S., on the navigable Bavaria. Its trade, long retrograde, is now reviving; printing, river Kennebec, 6o miles N.N.W. of Portland. It contains a lithography, bookselling, and the manufacture of paper being handsome state house of whitish granite, and a large arsenal. in active operation, and there are woollen and cotton factories, In i865 the whole business quarter was destroyed by fire, but and numerous breweries. A. had in w 870 ten printing and 34 was soon after restored. The river, on which steamboats ply for publishing establishments. It is also an important seat of bank- miles above A., is here spanned by a bridge 520 feet long. ing and of exchange operations, a great railway centre, and the Pop. (1870) 7808. place where the llgemeine Zeitzung, the most widely-circulated Augusta, a flourishing town in Georgia, U.S., on the Savannewspaper in Germany, is published. The ancient and invalu- nalh, I20 miles from its mouth. It lies in the centre of a rich able records of A., when it was a free imperial city, have cotton-growing district, and has ample railway and river combeen published in the CGroniken der ZDeutschen Stddte (vols. iv. munication. A bridge here connects A.. with Hamburg, in S. and v. Leips. I865-67). Carolina. Pop. (1870) 15,389. Augsburg Colnfession, the profession of faith of the |Augus'teenburg, a village on the Prussian island of Alsen, 218 AUG THE- GLOBE ENC YCLOPEDIA. AUG with II I6 inhabitants, near which is a fine castle, formerly the That the sole ground of this election is the good pleasure of residence of the Duke of Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg. God. 6. That, for the salvation of those thus elected, God gave I Augus'ti, Johann Christian Wilhelmk, a German theo- his Son to suffer for his people; thus making a full satisfaction logian, born at Eschenberga, near Gotha, in I771, and studied for sin, and rendering the ultimate salvation of the elect absounder Griesbach at Jena, where in 1798 he became a lecturer lutely certain. 7. That although the Holy Spirit operates more in philosophy. In I803 he succeeded Ilgen as Professor of or less on all men in restraining evil and exciting good, his in hilsopy.In I~o3 he succeeded Ilgen as Professor of Oriental Literature, and in I807 became Professor of Theology. efficacious and saving power is excited only on behalf of the Appointed Professor of Theology at Breslau in i8ii, he was elect. 8. That all the elect shall certainly be brought to the transferred P fto Bonn in 89, and was made Director of the Con- knowledge of the truth, the exercise of faith, and perseverance transferred to Bonn in I8x9, and w~as made Director of the Consistory of Coblena in 1833. He died 28th April 1841. A. was in holy living unto the end. As a thinker A. has the first place amng -the fathers, not merely because of the work he did, but originally rationalistic, but became much more orthodox in his among the fathers, not merely because of the work he did, ut later years. His best-known works are his System d/er hristjt. the way he did it.' Of all the fathers of the Latin Church,' DZogmalikc (Leips. 1809), Crin-driss elner Zistor. -A'ritischen Ei;- says Villemain (Tableau de i'28loquence de la Chaire au qualriyne ris Sicle, Paris, ed. 1849),'St A. is the one who:carried most ima. Dogmiengesic tmete (Leips. 1805), and, above all, his Derhziirdig. gination into the sphere of theology, most eloquence and sensiD9ogmengeschichle (Leips. I8o5), and, above all, his Denkzviirdig keiten aus der C(hristl. Archvologie (12 vols. Leips. I817-3I). h-bility into scholasticism. Give him another age, place him under a happier civilisation, and no man would have displayed Au'gustine, Aure'lius St, was born at Tagaste, a village a vaster or more plastic genius. Metaphysics, history, antiquiin Numidia, 13th November 354. His father, who filled the ties, morals, science-everything he embraced.' Perhaps a later office of a magistrate, was a pagan till nearly the close of his life; age might have purified the style, and modified the opinions of A., but his mother, Monica, to an exquisite tenderness of heart but it could not have added to his faith or enriched his genius. added all the graces of religion, and strove-though for years Of A.'s works, which fill eleven volumes of the Benedictine ediher work seemed to be fruitless-to imbue her son with her own tion (Paris, i679-17IO; Antw. I700-3), perhaps the most powerful pious convictions. After receiving a good school education, is his City of God; the best known and most read, his Confessions. he was sent at the age of seventeen to prosecute his studies at See Poujoulat's Vie de Saint Augustin (Paris, 2d ed. I852). Carthage. There he fell a prey to the temptations of the place, th f f th E h Ch and became exceedingly dissolute, and at the age of eighteen became Augutine, ft, Ae ouner en of the mnurcer the father of a natural son. By reading Cicero's Hortensins he the first Archbishop of Canterbury, was abbot of the monastery became enamoured of philosophy, and not finding what he of St Andrew, Rome, when he was sent by Pope Gregory I., sought in the Bible, he adopted the Manichuoan system. He Egih.D 9.Acrigt ee(it cllb i a. sought in the Bible, he adopted the Manichiean system. H-Ie with nearly forty companions, to preach the gospel to the pagan now returned to his native town, where he gave instructions i English, A.G. 596. According to Bede (Hist. Eccw, lib. ii. cap. literature; but about 380 again settled in Carthage, where he s), Gegory's interest in our countryme was first excited by taught literature for three years; and at this period he aban- eeing some English bys for sale in the Roman maret. Be doned the Manichiean system. In 383 he went to Rome, and that as it may, the missionaries, in obedience to the papal comnext year to Milan, in the character of teacher of liter mand, set out for Britain, and landed in the Isle of Thanet. nextyea toMiln, n th chracer f tache oflitratre.They were hospitably received by_/,Ethelberht, the Kentish king, There he was attracted by the eloquent preaching of Ambrose, Tey were hospitably received bythelerht, te entish king, Bishop of Milan; under whose influence he became a Christian, who was then Bretwalda, obtaining permission to evangelise his and was baptized, along with his son Adeodatus, in 387. Next subjects and to dwell in the city of Canterbury. Probably the fact that 2Ethelberht had a Christian wife of the Frankish nation, year he returned to Africa, where, according to the practice of fact that athelberht had a Christian wife of the Frankish nation, converts at the time (see Acts ii. 44, 45), he sold his estate, who by the marriage contract was permitted to privately practise devoting the proceeds to charitable purposes, and lived as a the rites of her religion, predisposed him to favour the newrecluse, with a few like-minded companions. In 391 he went to comers. Bede attrihutes the success of the missionaries in the Hippo (Bonn, Algeria), where he was ordained a priest, and work of conversion to the purity of their lives and the sweetness preached with marvellous success both in the Latin and Punic of their heavenly doctrine. The king himself soon received haptongues. His suppression of the stone-fights at Ciesarea, in tism, but he did not, like some princes, force his subjects to follow tongues. H~~~~~~~~~~~is example.siount ism thoeerwa mtore-gha Cefsfectua in Mauritania, by the irresistible eloquence of Christian pathos, is his example. Voluntarysm, hoever, was more effectul han a splendid evidence both of his heroism and his faith. In 395 compulsion, for we are told that great numbers of the English he was appointed colleague to the Bishop Valerius, and from of their own accord embraced Christianity. In the same year of their own accord embraced Christianity. In the same year that time till his death he was indefatigable in preaching and in which he commenced his missionary work, A. was made writing, combating error and ungodliness, and infiusing spiritu- Anglorem EriseCotnS (Bishop of the English people ), and ality into the churches far and wide. Nothing could surpass his thereafter sent two priests to Rome to obtain the advice of chivalrous magnanimity, his lowliness of heart, his noble huma- Gregory regarding the government and usages of the new nity. Whether teaching little children, defending the poor and Chuch, and the limits of his own authority. The Pope's replies the oppressed, selling the ornaments of the church and even the are admirable for their good sense, liberality, and piety. In are admiirnable fsonri theirgo sens nte, iberlitand, piety. I vessels of the altar to ransom slaves, or exhorting priests never 6o additional missionaries were sent into the island, with all to abandon their flocks, he was always the heroic follower of his the requisites for religious service-sacred vessels, vestments for the requisites for religious service-sacred vessels, vestments for to aandn teirflokshe as lway th heoicfolowe ofhisthe altars and the clergy, ornaments for the churches, relics of Divine Master. The Vandal invasion of Africa broke his heart, the altars and the clergy, ornaments for the urches, relics of but did not quell his courage. When the barbarians besieged sc rtyrs, andlearnEnlhbthBrons whohaaCu the city of Hippo, A. was foremost in encouraging and consol- sccess among the English; but the Britons, who had a Church ing the inhabitants, but his death in the third month of the siege of their own, refused to depart from their ancient customs (28t August 43) rendered his enthusiasm unavailing regarding Easter and baptism, or to acknowledge his authority. From the time of the condemnation of Pelagianism (q. v.), From the time of the condemnation of Pelagianism (q v' For this contumacy, Bede considers, they were afterwards at the Council of Carthage (412), he devoted his whole energie righteously defeated with great slaughter by the English king righteously defeated with great slaughter by the English king to refute and crush the doctrines called by that name. It was Ethelfrith. A. died in 604, and was buried in the church at mainly in that controversy that he developed the scheme of Canterbury. See Stanley's Historical Memorials of Canterbmy doctrine which has been the moving power in the Church ever (Loud. i855), and Green's Short History of the English Peolle since. It was sanctioned by the Latin Church, repudiated by (Loid. 1875). the Church of Rome in the Council of Trent, adopted by the Augustines, or Augustin'ians, the name of numerous Reformers, and incorporated more or less in.all the Protestant religious orders in the Roman Catholic Church, among which Confessions, forming especially the backbone of Calvinism. The may be mentioned-(I.) The CANONS REGULAR OF THE ORDER principal features of the scheme are as follows: I. That solely OF ST AUGUSTINE, or AUSTIN CANONS, brought into England for his own glory God purposed the creation of the universe, probably in I1o5, and had their first house at Colchester, and and the whole plan of providence and redemption. 2. That not at Nostell in Yorkshire, as stated by Reyner. They had mankind were placed in a state of probation. 3. That they were about 17o houses in England, and about 25 in Scotland, the brought, by the fall of Adam, into a state of condemnation, from earliest being founded at Scone in 1114. Their discipline was which they are utterly unable to deliver themselves. 4. From less strict than that of other orders of monks; they took the vows the mass of fallen men God elected a certain number to eternal of chastity and poverty, and their habit was a long black cassock, life, and left the rest to the just recompense of their sins. 5. with a white rochet over it, having over that a black cloakTand __9 AUG TFiHE GL OBE -E2-\C YCI OP 4. AUX hood. (2.) The HERMITS OF ST AUGUSTINE, or AUSTIN During the later portion of his life his policy was mild, and he FRIARS, a very austere order, who lived on the alms of the introduced many important reforms. He greatly beautified the faithful, were placed by Pope Innocent IV., about the middle city of Rome:' he found it of brick and left it of marble.' His of the I3th c., under the rule ascribed to St Augustine; Alex- age was the most brilliant period of Roman literature, and ander IV. in 1256 placed them under a president with the title was adorned, amongst others, by the poets Virgil,'Horace, and of'general;' and they were long governed by a code of rules Ovid, and by the historian Livy. compiled in I287; but as the middle ages drew to a close, the August'us (Ger. Au'gust) I., Elector of Saxony, son of order (like most others) degenerated, and new religious brother- Duke Heinrich the Pious, born at Freiberg, 3Ist July I526 hoods were formed in the hope of effecting a reformation. The married Anna, daughter of Christian III. of Denmark, in I548, DISCALCEATE (i.e.,'Barefooted'), a very austere order of A., and succeeded to the electorate in I553 In relation to the were established in I570; but the system of religious life which early Protestant Church, he first exercised his influence in favour such orders embodied and sought to advance was not in halr- of Calvinistic doctrines, but later, in I574, he assumed a hostile mony with the ideas of modern times, and after that great revolt attitude to Calvinism, and took up Lutheran tenets. A skilful against the past known as the French Revolution, the A. were administrator and reformer, he fostered education, agriculture, almost everywhere either suppressed or curtailed. (3.) An order and trade. He founded the library, as well as much of the of nuns, said to have lived under the direction of Augustine him- artistic and scientific institutions, of Dresden. A. married a self, had also the name of A. Their garments were black till second time in January 1586, but died a month afterwards. z632, when they were exchanged for violet. They still minister in the Hogtel-Dieu at Paris. Augustus II., Friedrich, named the Strong, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, son of the ElectorJohann Georg bA~ugustow'o (Aw us/ow), a town of Poland, province of III., born in Dresden, I2th May 1670, succeeded his brother Suwalki, on an affluent of the Bug, 138 miles N.E. of Warsaw, Georg in the electorate in 694, and haing changed his creed founded in 1557 by August I., whence its name. It has linen was chosen King of Poland in I697, after Sobieski had vacated and woollen manufactures. Pop. 0,050. the throne. Failing to win back for Poland the provinces that August'ulus, Rom'ulus, the last Emperor of the West, and had been ceded to Sweden, he was deprived of the crown by the son of Orestes, who, after driving out the Emperor Julius Nepos, Polish Diet, I4th February I704. By the peace of Altranstidt, had A. proclaimed emperor, A.D. 475, hiself retaining all real which he was compelled to conclude with Charles XII. of sway. The diminutive A. was applied to him on account of his Sweden (24th September I 706), he abdicated the crown of Poland youth and the insignificance of his character. After Orestes was in favour of Stanislaus. The overthrow of the power of Sweden, put to death by Odoacer at Pavia (A. D. 476), A. was exiled to by the crushing defeat of Pultowa (q. v.), restored A. to the the villa of Lucullus, with an annual allowance of 6ooo pieces throne of Poland. He now devoted himself to the object of of gold, after which his name disappears from history. By a driving the Swedes out of Germany. The death of Charles XII. curious coincidence the last Emperor of Roine bears the same in I7I8 brought hostilities. temporarily to a close. From the name as the mythical founder of the city. date of the death of Charles XII. to his own death, Ist February I733, A.'s reign was unmarked by incidents specially worthy August'us, Caius Julius Csesar Octavianus, common- of note. His restoration to the Polish throne was unfortunate ly known in history as A., was the first Roman emperor. He for Poland, for Saxony, and for himself. He squandered the was the son of C. Octavius and Atia, daughter of Julia, the resources of his subjects, even in times of famine, upon his sister of Julius Caesar, and was born B.C. 63. The native place mistresses, who were many, and his illegitimate children, who of the Octavian family was Yelitroe. During his early years A. were 354 in number. Even his patronage of the fine arts in received many marks of Caesar's attachment, and was adopted Saxony arose merely from that love of indulgence and luxury by him as his son and heir. After Casar's murder, B.c. 44, which was the ruling passion of his life. He is repeatedly A. came from Apollonia, where he had been studying, to sketched in the first and second books of Carlyle's Friedrich, in Rome, and claimed his inheritance. He was opposed by phrases that are unsurpassably graphic and essentially true. Antony, then all-powerful, but with great tact and skill he'The gay, eupeptic son of Belial' has a place in history, though won the favour of the nobles, the people, and the soldiers; it is not an enviable one. and, on the proposal of Cicero, he was intrusted with the comnmand of the army against Antony, whom he drove across the Augustus III., Friedrich, Elector of Saxony and King Alps. Notwithstanding the opposition of the aristocratic party, of Poland, the only legitimate son of the preceding, was born at A. obtained the consulship, and marched into the N., where the death of his father, and was chosen Kin electorate on he met Antony and Lepidus, to whom he was reconciled, and death of his father, and was chosen ing of Poland, 5th October I733, through the overpowering influence of Austria and with whom he formed a triumvirate, Lepidus obtaining Spain; RussiOctober and in spite of the influence of F rance, under whose Antony, Gaul; and A., Africa, Sardinia, and Sicily. After Russia, and in spite of the influence of France, under whose the destruction of their enemies, and the extinction of the Re-protection, and supported almost unanimously by the Poles them publican party at Philippi, B.c. 42, Lepidus obtained Africa selves, Stanislaus Leszcynski had been elected king on the I2th and A. Italy. The war excited by Fulvia, wife of Antony, was September preceding, but was obliged to fly from Warsaw brought to a close by her death, and Antony then married before the advancing troops of Russia ten days afterwards. A. Octavia, sister of A., the eastern provinces being now assigned to continued to be the dependant of the powers that had placed him Antony, and the western to A. After defeating Sextus Pompeiuson the throne, though the vacillating policy of his chief miniand Lepidus, A. addressed himself to his great contest with ster, Brihl, frequently compromised him. In the first Silesian Antony for the supremacy of the Roman world. Antony was war, le was on the side of the Prussians, but instigated by now the slave of Cleopatra's charms, and the Romans, having Brhl, who mortally hated the great Prussian king, A. formed a secret alliance with Austria. The result was that, in the second declared war against her, gained a complete victory in the sea- secret alliance with Austria. Te esult was that, in the second fight at Actium, B.C..I, after which Antony and CleopatraSilesian war (I745), Friedrich II. having defeated the allied committed suicide. I n.. A. returned to Rome and cele-troops of Maria Theresa and A., pushed on into Saxony, and bracommitted suicide. In B.C. 29,. returned to Rome and cele- occupied the capital, in which the state papers had been left, brated a triple triumph. Honours were showered upon him though the art treasures had been saved by the king. In the He received in succession the prefix of imperator, the potestas third Silesi art treasures hading756), Friedrich the censoria, the principate, the proconsular power in the provinces, thd Sile Saxon warmy again invadin its entrenched camp at Pira.i took and the title of A. In B3.C. 2 he offered to resithe whole Saxon army captive in its entrenched camp at Pirna. 27 he offered to resign the im- A. fled to Poland. On the threat of invasion by Russia, howperium, but was induced to resume it. Monarchy had already ever, he returned to Dresden, where he died, October, 1763, commenced, and A. gradually combined in his own person the ever, he returned o Dresden, here he died, October 5, I763, prerogatives of various republican offices-the impersonium, the e anniversary of his election to the Polish throne thirty years prerogatives of various republican offices-the imperium, the po principatus, the consulship and proconsular command, the potes- previously. See Carlyle's History of Friedrich II. of Prussia. tas tribunitia, the potestas consularis, and the supreme ponti- Auk (Alca), a genus of Natatorial or Swimming birds, beficate. Broken down by the overthrow of Varus, by domestic longing to the family Alcadce, which forms a division of the grief, by advancing years, he retired to Campania to recruit his Brevipennazez or'short-winged' swimmers. The feet are placed strength, but died at Nola, A.D. 14. A.'s wonderful personal his- towards the hinder extremity of the body, the hinder toe of each tory amply attests his possession of rare gifts as a rulerof men. foot being wanting. The three front toes are fully webbed. 220 r~ —----- Jo- - --------------- AUL THE, GLOBE ENCYCLOPiDL4. AUR' The wings, although small, are yet provided with quill-feathers, massacre of St Bartholomew. He was killed at the siege and are more useful for swimming and diving than for flight. of Rochelle, I4th March I573 —4. Charles de Lorraine, The hinder position of the feet en- Duc d'A., born I554, was one of the leaders of the politicoables these birds, when on land, to religious league which, under the pretext of suppressing the assume an erect attitude, whilst their Huguenots, attempted to raise to supreme power his kinsmen gait is unwieldy and awkward. But the Guises. In I589 he seized Paris and cast the members in the water they are exceedingly of the parliament into prison, but shortly after he was defeated __ X, active, and swim and dive with great at Senlis by La Noue, and again in the same year at Arques and facility. The bill is much com- Ivry. He held Paris for some time against the forces of Henri pressed, and is sharp on its upper IV., but finally surrendered, and suddenly joined the Spaniards, or elevated edge. These birds are who had invaded Picardy. For this he was found guilty of high distributed in the northernmost re- treason, and sentenced to be broken alive on the wheel. He gions of the world, the penguins escaped, however, and died, after a long exile, at Brussels in replacing them in the southern I63I, being the last scion of his race.-5.:Ienri-flugbnehemisphere. The great A. or Philippe, Louis d'Crleans,;Duc d'A., the fourtli son of gare-fowl (Alca imp5ennis) is now the late King Louis Philippe, was born at Paris, I6th January but rarely met with, having been 1822. He was educated at the College Henri IV., and at the almost completely exterminated by age of sixteen entered the army, where be rapidly rose to disGreat Auk. man. The Arctic seas, the Orkney tinction. In Algeria he crowned a series of brilliant services and Shetland Isles, form its chief by surprising Abd-el-Kader (I6th May 1843), and capturing habitat, and it has been occasionally shot on the coasts of Britain. 3600 prisoners, with the emir's treasure and correspondence. The great A. produces but a single egg, averaging about 5 A. was made governor-general of Algeria in 1847; but on the inches in length by 3 in diameter. The lesser A. or rotche revolution of 1848, by which his father was driven from France, (Mergulus or Alca alle) is nearly allied to the guillemots. It he resigned his post and withdrew to England. Since then he possesses a short conical bill, and inhabits the northern Arctic has gained considerable reputation as an author. The chief of seas, visiting Britain in winter. The Puffins (q. v.) are nearly his writings are —Zes Zonaves et les Chasseurs-a-pied (I 85 I),; Lettre related to the auks, but are included in the distinct genus sur IHistoire de France (I86I); Ifistoire des Princes de Cond! Fratercula. The Penguins (q. v.) (Spjheniscus and Apltenodytes) (I869, Engl. transl. I87I, 2 vols.); Qu'a-t.on fait de la France? are also included in the family Alcadoe. The Razor-bill (q. v.) (I868); and several important articles in the Revue des Deux (Utamania or Adlca torda) is more nearly related to the auks, Mondes, chiefly on political subjects. In i871, on the repeal of however. The wings in this latter form are proportionally larger the law banishing the house of Orleans, he returned to France, than in the auks. and was elected a member of the Assembly. On the Ioth of Aulapolay', or Alepp'i, a town of India, on the coast of March I872 he was created a general of division, and in this the native principality of Travancore. It has a trade in timber, capacity presided over the council of war which tried Marshal Bazaine (October 6 to December 1o, 1873) for the facile surbrought from the forests of the W. Ghauts, in betel-nut, cocoa, render of Metz He was elected a member 873 for the Academy in coffee, and in pepper, while canals furnish facilities for internal of Metz. He was elected a member of the Academy in communication. A. has no harbour, but there is good anchor- 1871. age a few miles from the shore. Pop. 7000. Aune (Lat. ulna, Eng. ell), a French measure of length = IX meitre= 47- English inches. The English ell= 5 quarters, or Au'lic Council (Lat. aula, court), a court of the old German 45 inches. empire dating from I495, and from I654 taking equal rank with Aun'oy, Marie-Catherine-Jumelle de Berneville, the Imperial Chamber. Though from the first performing im- Comtesse d', a French authoress, best known for her fairy portant functions, it had no definite constitution till I559. Its tes The Yellow Dwarf Te hite Cat, &c., still popular with members were a president, vice-president, vice-chancellor, and the young. She also wrote romances and historical memoirs, eighteen councillors, the last being classed as counts, barons, both of which have ceased to be read. She was born about and men of learning. It did not interfere with the political affairs of the empire, but confined itself to feudal processes and i650, and died at Paris, January I705. investitures, and to matters connected with the imperial jurisdic- Aurantia'cee, an order of Dicotyledonous shrubs and trees tion in Italy. The A. C. was dissolved on the death of each abounding in the E. Indies, and embracing upwards of one emperor, and reconstructed by his successor. It disappeared with hundred species. All the plants of the order exhibit receptacles the abolition of the old German empire by Napoleon in I8o6. of volatile oil in their leaves and the rind of their fruit. The genus Citrus (q. v.) is the most important in the order, yielding a Aumale (Lat. Alba Mala, Albamarla, Aumalcum), a French variety of agreeable fruits (see ORANGE, LEMON, LIME, CITRON, title reaching back to at least the middle of the IIth c., when SHADDOCK, &C.). /ditle Marmelos also yields an excellent Eudes, son of Henri-Etienne, Count of Troyes and Meaux, bore fruit (see!EGLE). A gum resembling gum-arabic is procured the title of Comte d'A. In the 13th c. it passed to the house of from Fer-onia elephantum. Skinmmia Zaureola is the only plant Ponthieu, and in the I5th to that of Lorraine. On the death of of the order found in cold regions. It grows on the tops of Rene II. (1508), the title and estates went to his younger son the mountains in Northern India, where it is covered for some Claude, Duc de Guise. In 1547 Henri II. raised it to a duke- months of the year with snow. Bergera Kyn-gi is known as dom in the person of Fran9ois, subsequently Duc de Guise, who the curry-leaf tree, its aromatic fragrant leaves being used to surrendered it to his brother, Claude de Lorraine. In I638 it flavour curries. The leaves, bark, and root are also used mepassed to a branch of the house of Savoy, and in I675 it was dicinally. Simbolee oil is extracted from its seeds. The fruit conferred on the Duc du Maine, legitimate son of Louis XIV. of Cookia j5unctata is'called wampee in China and the Indian At a still later period the title was borne by princes of the blood Archipelago. royal of France. Among the more notable D'Aumales of history e'lia. See C are-I. Jean d'Arcourt, eighth Comte d'A., and de Mortain, surnamed Le Mal des Anglais, was born in 1396. He Aurelia'nus, Lucius Domitius, otherwise Vale'rius, fought at Agincourt (Oct. 25, I4I5), Bernay, and Crevant, but is or Valeria'nus A., a Roman emperor, born a Pannonian or most fondly remembered by his countrymen for his brilliant vic- Dacian peasant about A.D. 212. From being a common soldier, tory over the English at Gravelle (26th September 1423). He by his valour and skill displayed in all parts of the empireperished the year following in the disastrous battle of Verneuil, Sarmatia, Gaul, Illyria, Thrace, and the valley of the Danube which was fought contrary to his advice.-2. Claude de Lor- — he gradually rose to the highest commands, and on the raine, first DuC d'A., born about the close of the I5th c., death of Claudius, was elected emperor by the army, A.D. 270. fought at Marignano (1515), conquered the duchy of Luxem- His short reign of four years and a half presents a series of bourg (I542), and died at Joinville, 12th April I550. — the most brilliant exploits. He routed the Goths and Vandals 3. Claude II. de Lorraine, Duc d'A., third son of the who had invaded Pannonia, expelled the Alemanni from Italy foregoing, born in I523, took part in the capture of Calais, after inflicting on them a great defeat near Fano; then turning the battles of Dreux, St Denis, and Montcontour, and in the his arms to the East, besieged the famous Zenobia (q. v.) in AUR THE GZOBE EiVC YCI OPEDIAA. AUR Palmyra, took her prisoner, and destroyed the city shortly after. gods and men. She was represented as a maiden with large But though Italy and the East owned his authority, and his fame wings, clad in white and purple, a star on her head and a torch was spread far beyond the Euphrates, the West was still in the in her hand, and driving a chariot drawn by four white steeds. hands of a rival named Tetricus. A battle fought near Chalons, She carried off Tithonus, with whom she lived beside Oceanus, however, made A. master of the Roman world. Yet fortune was and to whom she bore Memnon and Emathion. In the name in a sense unkind to this able man. Insurrections and conspi- we can still discern a form of the story antecedent to the myth. racies were frequent, in spite of his energy, courage, and liberal- A., from aurum,'gold,' and that from urere,'to burn,' is really ity, and he was finally slain in March, A.D. 275, the result of the same word as the Gr. ess and the Sansk. us/as, a name for a conspiracy organised by Mnestheus, his private secretary. The the dawn, and points to a time when the figurative language of chronology of the reign of A. is extremely confused. the solar myth-had not yet begun to be misapprehended. Aure'lius, Marcus. See ANTONINUS. Aurora Borea'lis, or, as it should be more properly called, Polar Light, there being also an Aurora Australis, is a singularly Au'ricles, the term applied to the lesser chambers of the heart beautiful luminous phenoof animals, the function of which is to receive the blood for trans- menon, generally in a state mission to the larger propelling chambers, or yentri/ces (see of incessant commotion, HEART). The name is derived from the Latin auricua, a little and often accompanied by ear, and has been thus applied in allusion to the supposed re- most magnificent combina- i semblance of the cavity to an ear. tions of colours and tints. Auric'ula, a genus of pulmoniferous or'air-breathing' In our latitude, an aurora Gasteroodous mollusca, in which a spiral shell covered by a generallyappears first as a rti a horny epidermis exists. There is no oer. misty fog stretching along.. it cuurcm or plate for closing the aperture the horizon from N.E. to - of the shell. The mouth of the shell is N.W.; but gradually as = _= elongated, and its edges may be toothed it rises towards the mag or serrated. The spire of the shell is netic zenith, it becomes short. These forms are found in warm re distinctly marked, regions; they inhabit fresh-water marshes, resembling more or less although they are air-breathing forms. perfectly a gigantic arch Aurora Borealis. The A. Mids, or' Midas' ear' shell, is a whose extremities rest on familiar species. the horizon, and whose apex lies very near, if not on, the magnetic meridian of the place from which it is viewed. Then Auricula, the common name for Pri- commence those well-known streamers, shivering, dancing, dartmula Auricula, a favourite garden flower ing, and, if prolonged sufficiently, culminating at that point in belonging to the order Primulacece or the heavens indicated by the prolongation of the dipping needle. Primrose (q. v.) family. The plant is a If several rays meet at this spot en masse, they form a portion of native of the Swiss Alps, and has yellow a brilliant corona or crown, which has been called the Boreal Auricula. flowers, but there are now numerous fine Crown. When this stage is reached, the display has attained varieties in cultivation of various shades its maximum intensity, and gradually the brilliancy diminishes, of colour. Many of these flower freely during April and May, until at last only the misty cloud remains, and it also in time in open, shaded borders; some of the finer sorts, however, being fades from view. In more northern latitudes, where aurorae generally grown in flower-pots in a greenhouse or cool frame. are seen to best advantage, the streamers combine and form inThey succeed best in a rich soil composed of fresh loam, mixed describably beautiful and graceful folds, resembling a gigantic with well-rotted horse or cow dung, and a certain amount of white variegated curtain suspended from dingy clouds, and shaken as sand. They can be propagated either by offsets or by seed. The it were by the wind. Noises, compared to that produced by the leaves of A. are said to be used by the inhabitants of the Alps rubbing of two pieces of rock upon one another, or even to the as a cure for coughs. rattling of firearms, have been heard by some observers, but there Auric'ular Confession. See CONFESSION. is no trustworthy evidence on this point. There is no doubt that the A. B. is a terrestrial phenomenon Aurill'ac, the capital of the department of Cantal (Auvergne), There is no doubt that the A. B. is a terrestrial phenomenon urllac, on the ourcapital of the departmentmiles of Bordeaux, at the occurring at various heights, which depend to a great extent upon ~France, on the Jourdanne, I44 miles Wa. of Bordeaux, at the surrounding circumstances. Nor can there be any question of junction of the four roads to St Flours, Rodez, Tulle, and Cler- surloundilg circumstances. Nor can there be any question of mont. It has considerable manufactures of jewellery, copper its electrical or magnetic nature, seeing what great effects an utensils, blonde lace, leather, carpets, and beer. There are horse- auroral display of any magnitude produces upon magnetic needles races here fi'om Ist to I5th May, and near the town is the and also upon electric telegraphic erections. races here from ist to igth May, and near the town is the Of late years a remarkable similarity between the frequency famous model farm La Peyrousse. A. is the birthplace of Pope of aurorae years a remarkable similarity betweelination has bfrequen Sylvester II., and of the revolutionist Carrier. The town is said aurorv and the variation of magnetic declination has bee to have grown up round a Benedictine abbey founded here i observed, both apparently having almost identical periodic varito have grown up round a Benedictine abbey founded here inl the Ioth c. by St Gerard. It was frequently besieged by the ations. Quite recently lines, each of which is drawn through stations for which the mean frequency per annum of auroral English in the I4th and 15th centuries, and was eight times displays is the same, have been laid down, and these so-called taken and retaken in the i6th c. during the Huguenot wars. isoc/hasmen lines are perpendicular to the magnetic meridians, and Pop. (1872) 8795. parallel to the lines of magnetic declination. The line of maxiAu'rochs (Bonzasuzs or Bos Bison), the Urus or European mum frequency passes just N. of the Faroe Islands and Norway, Bison, an ox or member of the family Boride, of large size, through the northern portion of Nova Zembla, to the N. of Asia found at present in the Caucasian forests in a wild state, and also and Behring Straits, through Hudson's Bay and the N. coast of maintained by the Emperor of Russia in a Lithuanian forest- Labrador, and just S. of Cape Farewell. This line, as with all, that of Bialoweiza. It formerly abounded wild in all the Euro- tends to follow the limits of perpetual ice depending upon the pean forests, and has been regarded by some naturalists as the form of the continents, the greatest deviations being where the parent of our domestic breeds of cattle. The head is broad, ice-limits are most irregular, as in Hudson's Bay and the Gulf and forehead arched; the hair of the forehead is long, and that of Labrador. M'Clintock observes that in the Polar regions of the chin and breast form a'beard.' The tail is tufted. The aurorae were most frequently visible when water was in sight; colour is a dark or dusky brown. These animals attain their full and Hayes has remarkled that the direction depended to a great growth at the fifth yea, and the females are smaller than the extent upon the position of a portion of water with respect to males. the observer. Ice or water seems, then, to have a great effect Auro'ra, the Latin name of the Greek Eis, the goddess of the upon auroral displays; and the presence of the Alps may very dawn, or' ruddy morn,' daughter of the Titans Hyperion and probably occasion the frequent appearances in N. Italy. Theia in classical mythology. In the morning she ascended Aurungabad', more correctly Aurangabad' ('Thronefrom the ocean to heaven, and announced the coming light to town'), a walled town in the territory of the Nizam of Hyder' 222..l\. JkA AUR THE GL OBE EIVCYCLOPADIA.. AUS abad, formerly capital of Dowlatabad, India, on the Dfidna, a dissolution of discipline in his armies, the increasing disorder branch of the Godavery, I8o miles N.E. of Bombay. It takes of his finances, and his terror at the approach of death. The its name from its founder, Aurungzebe, and contains the mauso- picture presented to us in his correspondence, which still survives, leum of his daughter, an inferior imitation of the famous Taj is a deplorable one, and should convey a solemn lesson to Mahal at Agra. It was the residence of the Nizams till the all who would dare to'wade through slaughter to a throne.' advance of the Mahrattas forced them to withdraw to Hyder- A. died at Ahmednuggur, 2Ist February 1707, at the age of abad, but still possesses a military station. It lies at the junc- eighty-nine, after a reign of half a century. Because he per. tion of four military roads, in an unhealthy and swampy valley secuted the Hindus, he took the title of Mohi- Uddin,'Restorer surrounded by naked rocky heights; but it is the best watered of Religion;' and on account of his numerous victories, Alamgzr, town in India: every house has a tank and a well. Its mosques'Conqueror of the World.' See Elphinstone and Mill's His. and palaces are in ruins, but the bazaar is important, and the tories of India. town is happily situated for a transit trade with Bengal, Bombay, Auscultation is the application of the sense of hearing to Delhi, and Hyderabad. Pop. 30,000. A. is the name of at the detection and diagnosis of disease. It was first employed least other three places in India. by a celebrated French physician named Laennec, and is now practised by all physicians and surgeons. A. may be either uru eb the last of the great Mogul Emperors of Hindustan, was the direct or indirect. It is said to be direct when the ear is applied the last of the great Mogul Emperors of Hindustan, was the to the chest, and indirect when an instrument for conducting third son of Shah-Jehan, and the grandson of Akbar (q. v.), sound, termed a stethoscope, is employed. A. is employed to and was born 22d October i6i8. The other children of Shah- detect (I) diseases of the lungs; (2) diseases of the heart; (3) Jehan were Dara-Shikoh, Sultan-Shuja, and Murad-Baksh, and aneurismal tumours; and (4) pregnancy. See ANEURISM; the princesses Padishah Begam, and Roshnara Begam, to the LUNGS, DISEASES OF; HEART, DISEASES OF; PREGNANCY; latter of whom A. was much indebted for the success of the intrigues which secured him the crown. His career divides itself and UTERUS, DISEASES OF. into three great periods. During thefirst of these, which lasted Auso'nius, Decius Magnus, a Latin poet, born at Burtwenty-five years (i633-58), A. sought to win the support of degala (Bordeaux) about 309 A.D. His father, a man of high the Mussulman priesthood by his austere zeal and fanatical social position, gave him an excellent education, in the carrying devotion, which formed a striking contrast to the careless out of which his whole kindred, especially the female portion, irregularities that marked the lives of his brothers. All of them deeply interested themselves. After practising at the bar of governed districts of the empire' under their father, and when his native town, he became professor of rhetoric there, and the latter, in I657, fell dangerously ill, Dara, the eldest, immedi- acquired so high a reputation, that he was appointed tutor to ately grasped the reins of power. The others soon combined Gratian, the son of the Emperor Valentinian. His discharge against him, and Dara was forced to flee. It is not necessary to of his new duties must have been eminently satisfactory, for, to trace the steps by which A. obtained the throne. One after the crown a long succession of honours, he was appointed consul by other his brothers and their children were assassinated or poi- his grateful pupil (A.D. 379). On the decease of Gratian, A. soned, Shuja6 perishing miserably in Aracan with all his family, withdrew to a rural retreat near Burdegala, where he died about while the aged Shah-Jehan, now fallen into imbecility, remained 392 A.D. There has been much controversy as to his religious a captive in the hands of A., who cunningly showed him a belief, but there can be little doubt that he was a Christian, harmless deference and homage. In I658 A. was practically though the author of the obscene Cento N2mPtialis can hardly master of the empire, but in I66I he was without a competitor. be considered an ornament of religion. His works, which are The second period in his career extends from I66I to I670, dur- numerous, and in many styles, both prose and verse, consisting ing which his dominions enjoyed, on the whole, a profound peace; of epigrams, idyls, and epistles, are vitiated by bad taste, though but it is, nevertheless, marked by the rise of a hostile power, his epigrams are sometimes expressed with much neatness. The the Mahrattas, whose successes in the long-run fatally weakened editio 5rincej5s of A. appeared at Venice in 1472; the best is the the Mogul empire, and hastened its decay. Sevaji, the Mahratta Variorumt of Tollius (Amst. I67I). There are French and adventurer, of whom Akbar would have made a friend, A. turned German translations of his works. into a mortal enemy by his rancorous Mussulman bigotry, and his Austen, Jane, an eminent English novelist, was born at crafty and deceitful policy, but some time elapsed before the strife Steventon, in Hampshire, of which her father was rector, I6th assumed an irreconcilable character. Meanwhile Shah-Jehan Dec. I775. Her first four novels-Sense and Sensibility (I8II), died, i666; but many years elapsed before A. allowed himself Pride and Prejudice (1813), lMansfield Park (I8I4), and Evmma to be proclaimed emperor, alleging with unsurpassable hypocrisy (I8I6)-were published anonymously. Her two posthumous that he did not care for the dignity. The third period begins ones, zNorthrangerA4bey and Persuasion appeared in I818. Few with I670, and closes with his death in I707. It again subdivides whose works are now so famous have been in life so obscure. itself into two parts, the first reaching from I670 to I675, and While yet in the shade, however, her power was recognised by marked chiefly by a defeat inflicted by Sevaji on the imperial many men of widely-different intellect. Sir Walter Scott'sgenerforces (1672), and by an Afghan war, in which a great victory of ous encomium is too well known to require quotation. If her scope the Afghans (1670) forced A. to take the field in person; the is limited, within her scope-and she never attempts to go beyond second occupied the remainder of his career, and is wholly taken it-she is almost unrivalled. The shafts of her delicate yet piercup with the Rajput and Mahratta struggle. All the virtues and ing humour are never tipped with the venom of cynicism. Her vices of A. were displayed in this protracted and desperate strife; characters unfold themselves by imperceptible touches; yet we his intolerance, superstition, narrowness of political view, habits end by knowing them as we know our most intimate acquaintance. of intrigue and dissimulation, distrust of everything and everybody, The structure of her tales is beautifully simple, but conceived and passion for glory, profound sense of order and organisation, tem- carried out with perfect art. We have nothing violent, nothing perance and simplicity of life, mildness of manner, and love of tragical, nothing even painful. Her material is human nature knowledge. But in a ruler there is no greater crime than — externally as it shows itself in the drawing-rooms of the wellreligious bigotry, and his persecutions after I679 of the Hindu educated. moderately-circumstanced classes of England; and Rajpoots alienated from A. for ever the affections and the obedi- developed by just such incident and such chat as are everyday in ence of those warlike chiefs, who were the mainstay of the Mogul that sphere of life. She died at Winchester on 24th July I817. empire; and, though he succeeded in capturing (I689) Sambaji, the son and successor of Sevaji, whom he put to death with Austen, William, a celebrated English metal-worker and cruel tortures, yet the resistance of the Mahrattas continued un-designer of the 5th c. His great work is the tomb of Richard abated by successive defeats, and at the close of his career they de Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, in St Mary's Church, War. were stronger and more enterprising than ever. During I685-88, wickshire. A. by intrigue, stratagem, perfidy, even more than by military Austerlitz, a town of Moravia, circle of Briinn, 45 miles skill, conquered Bijapur and Golconda, possessions of little value N.N. W. of Vienna, celebrated in connection with the'battle of to him, except as adding to the force which he could turn against the three emperors.' An alliance having been formed between the guerillas S. of the Vindhyas. The last years of his life Austria and Russia, with the intention of checking the fiery were made miserable by the disobedience and ambitious rivalries course of Napoleon, the troops of the two nations, headed reof his sons, by remorse for the crimes he had committed, the spectively by Francis I. and Alexander I., encountered those of 223 * g 223 AUS THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPzEDIA. kUJ France near A., December 2, i8o5. The allies suffered a crush- of Spencer Gulf, is only a curve in the coart-line. Harbours ing defeat, losing some 30,000 men, 40 standards, and I5o are exceedingly scarce in proportion to the extent of coast; pieces of cannon. The battle of A. led to the humiliating treaty and the N.E. coast is fenced in for 1200 miles by a series of coralof Presburg (December 27), by which Austria ceded Venice to reefs known as the Great Barrier Reef. The estuaries are small. France and the Tyrol to Bavaria, Pop. of A. (1870) 3452. A chain of mountains runs from the southern extremity of A. Ausin, the capital of Texas, U.S., on the Colorado, about almost to its northern extremity at Cape York, though less con200ilesfromitsouth Itspiturequelsitate, ~and is tinuous between I6~ and IoW S. lat. The mountains composing 200 miles from its mouth. It is picturesquely situated, this chain var in distance from the coast from 20 to 100 miles. accessible to steamboats during the winter floods. Its House he The southernmost portion is called the Australian Alps, and is of Legislature is a fine structure of native marble. Pop. (870) the highest section of the great range. Its culminating peak is 4428. peki ~~~~~~~4428.'~~~ ~ lhMount Kosciusko, so named by its discoverer, Count Strzelecki, Austin, John, a celebrated writer on jurisprudence, was who estinmated its height at 65Io feet. A later measurement, born 3d March I790o. When a boy he served for some years in however, shows its altitude to be 7308 feet. It is snow-capped the army. In I818 he was called to the bar. He does not, almost all the year. Mount Karribogong, in the same range, is however, seem to have had a physical constitution fitted for the 6563 feet high. N. of the Australian Alps, the Blue Mounfatigue of legal practice; on the other hand, his genius for what tains (q. v.) extend for i5o miles. They are remarkable for he himself called'untying knots'-that is, legal ones-seems to their tremendous chasms, walled in by cliffs in some instances have been of the highest order. In London he whetted this I50o0 feet in height. For twenty-five years they formed an insunatural acumen by social intercourse with Jeremy Bentham, perable barrier to the spread of colonisation beyond them. A James Mill, and other great intellectual powers. He further railway now runs over Mount Victoria, one of the loftiest peaks, improved himself by Continental travel and by study at Bonn, the line reaching a maximum elevation of 3494 feet above the then the residence of Niebuhr, Schlegel, and other famous men, sea-level. The Blue Mountains are succeeded by the Liverpool Returning to England, he published his Practice of/urisi.rudence Range (q. v.), whose highest peak is Mount M'Arthur, 5000 feet. Determiined (1832); an unquestionably great work, though un- The Liverpool Range is joined by the New England Range, successful in a commercial point of view. After holding some whose height varies from 2000 to 5000 feet. Farther N., the small temporary government appointments, he removed with his great dividing chain receives a number of different names, and family to Germany, living at Carlsbad in summer, and at Dresden is less clearly defined. Expedition Range, which runs N.W. or Berlin in winter. The disturbances of 1848 drove him back from the main chain, forms the watershed of Queensland. The to England. He then settled at Weybridge, where he died in Bellenden Kerr Mountains, in lat. I7' S., rise to the height of December I859. After his death, his lectures on jurisprudence 5400 feet. The northern coast of A. is low. The western coast were prepared for the press and published by his widow (with a presents a series of straggling mountain ranges of no great altimemoir) under the title of Lectures on Yurispirudence; beinzg a tude, save in the two cases of Mount Bruce, 3800 feet, and Seuel to the Practice of Yurisprudence Determined (1861-63). Mount Augustus, 3580 feet. In the south-western portion Probably no better work than this exists as a foundation for the of the continent is the Darling Range, which has a maximum philosophical study of law. Its author has eminently the faculty altitude of 3000 feet. The southern coast, from King George's of clearing his mind from the mist of words, and of seizing a Sound to Spencer Gulf, is a long plateau, faced for a great meaning even amid the fogs and clouds of legal phraseology. portion of the distance by sandstone cliffs from 300 to 400 feet -M3rs Sarah A., wife of the above, belonged to the family in height. of the Taylors of Norwich, which has had many members The result of the mountains of A. being thus for tihe most distinguished in science and literature. Faithful and devoted part close to the coast, is that the largest rivers flow towards to her husband when he was alive, his memory is largely in- the interior. Their inferiority is the most marked defect in debted to her for the ability and zeal with which she has edited the physical geography of the country. Though several of his lectures since his death. Mrs A. is also well known for her them can boast of a long course, they are all of very little able translations of many celebrated French and German works. service for commercial purposes. The largest is the Murray, From the former she has given us Guizot's English Revolution which rises in the Australian Alps, and flows W. and N.WV. (i85o); from the latter, Ranke's Popes of Rome, and his [listory till, some distance after entering the colony of South A., it of Germany during the Reformation. She is also the author of makes a sudden bend, or'elbow,' to the S., and empties its several valuable original works on subjects of social interest. waters into the Indian Ocean through Lake Alexandrina. In She died at Weybridge, 8th August i867.-Charles A., a its course it receives on the right bank the Murrumbidgee, with brother of John A., the celebrated writer on jurisprudence, its tributary the Lachlan; and the Darling, with its affluents the was for many years a leader of the parliamentarybar, and also Culgoa, Bokhara, Bogan, and Warrego. On the left bank it known in private circles as a profound thinker of the Utilitarian receives the Mitta-Mitta, Ovens, Goulburn, Campaspe, and school of philosophy. He might have reached the highest Loddon. After its confluence with the Darling, the Murray honours of his profession, having refused the offer of the solici- receives no tributary of any size. Its total length is about 1500 tor-generalship. He died December 1874. miles, and the area of its basin is computed to be about 270,000 Australa'sia (literally,'Southern Asia'), the geographical sq. miles. A fleet of light-draught steamers plies upon it, as name given to that portion of Oceania comprising Papua or New well as upon the Darling and Murrumbidgee. The last is naviGuinea, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, New Cgledonia gable in this way for 500 miles. Lake Alexandrina, into which New Britain, New Ireland, New Hebrides, and the Salomon the Murray debouches, is about 30 miles long by 27 broad, and Islands. The general term A. serves to distinguish the entire quite shallow. This defect, coupled with the difficulty of the group from Polynesia Proper on the E., and from the Malayan etrance from the sea, renders the Murray useless save as a or Indian Archipelago in the N.E. means of internal communication. Of the other rivers named, the Darling drains an area of I98,ooo sq. miles, and the MurAustra'lia, an island, or, as it is now considered by many, a rumbidgee an area of 57,000 sq. miles. The Lachlan is frecontinent, bounded on the N. by the Arafura Sea and Torres quently a mere chain of pools, and flows into the Murrumbidgee Strait; on the E. by the Pacific Ocean; on the S. by Bass through a vast morass. This is the character of most of the Strait and the Indian Ocean; and on the VW. by the Indian rivers flowing towards the interior of A.; the Macquarie, for Ocean. It extends from 1o' to 39' S. lat., and from 13' to 154' instance, losing itself in a marsh, which occasionally overflows E. long. Its extreme length, from E. to W., is 2550 miles; into the Darling. On the other side of the dividing range the and its extreme breadth, from N. to S., 2000 miles. Its area is rivers are of a very different character. Their courses being for estimated at 2,967,500 sq. miles-equal to about three-fourths the most part short and the fall great, the rivers partake largely that of Europe. The coast-line of A. is remarkably devoid of the character of torrents; and only two, the Fitzroy and the of large inlets, the only one of magnitude being the Gulf of Hawkesbury, can in any sense be regarded as navigable streams. Carpentaria on the N. and N.E., which has a depth on the east- The latter has been known to rise in flood 97 feet above its ern side of 500, and on the western side of 400 miles. Next ordinary level. Proceeding from N. to S., the principal rivers in size, but at a very large interval, are Spencer Gulf and St on the E. coast are the Burdekin, Fitzroy, Burnett, Brisbane, Vincent Gulf, both on the S. coast of South A.; and Sharlk: Clarence, M'Leay, Hunte;r, Hawkesbury, Shoalhaven, and Bay, in Western A. The Great Australian Bight, to the N.W., Snowy. On the S. coast the only rivers (exclusive of the Mur2 2 4 __ ___ ___ AUS lf~.~T GlOBE EA7CYLCOPFEDPA. AUS ray) deserving notice are the Varra-Yarra and Glenelg. On the Hargreaves, who had had gold-mining experience in California. W. coast the chief are Swan River and the Murchison. These In August of the same year gold was discovered at Ballarat likewise are torrents, On the northern slope there are several (q. v.), and Clunes, in Victoria. During 1852 the gold export large streams, the chief (from W. to E.) being the Alligator, from Victoria reached its maximum, viz., /I5,900o, ooo000. In the Roper, Albert, Flinders, and Gilbert. The Roper. has been'early days' of the gold discovery the working consisted for the ascended for ioo miles by a steamer of 6oo tons register, and is most part in washing the gold out of the alluvium, but in course a fine stream. The four rivers last named all flow into the Gulf of time these surface-deposits became in a large measure exof Carpentaria. hIausted. Recourse was then had to the extraction of the precious The coast-line of A. consists, as has been shown, in a metal from the quartz rock in which it was embedded, and from very large measure of mountain slopes. The interior descends this time forward quartz-mining steadily rose, and alluvial minfrom fine upland downs to immense open plains, in nearly ing as steadily declined in importance. In 1874 the dividends all places scantily watered, but still capable of depasturing paid by quartz-mining companies in Victoria amounted to vast numbers of sheep and cattle. In other parts, more /f806,999, while the dividends paid by companies engaged in especially towards the centre of the continent, along the Great alluvial mining amounted to only /45,o65, though, if the profits Australian Bight, and for many miles inland from the latter, of unassociated enterprise were added to the latter, the disprolarge tracts of desert exist. Low ranges of hills streak the heart portion would be considerably lessened. Quartzveins, or'reefs,' of A., becoming fewer and less elevated towards the N. The are now remuneratively worked at a depth of nearly o100oo feet. extensive explorations made within the last five years have re- The following shows the total export of gold from A. during vealed the fact that a much larger portion of the interior of A. 874:is suitable for pasturage than was formerly supposed. Since the Victoria, /3,668,ooo construction of a line of telegraph (finished in 1872) across the New South ales, 1,3,000 New South Wales, I4o83,000o continent firom Adelaide to Port Darwin, and since the gold Queensland, 500,000 discoveries near the latter place led to an influx of population ut al 0,000 South Australia (Northern Territorv), say 50,00o thither, stock have been driven across from both South A. proper and Queensland. Salt lakes and marshes are found in numerous Total,. 005,3oIooo places in the interior. The largest of these is Lake Torrens,' which is shaped like a horseshoe, and its inner edge in time of Other metals are plentiful in A. Copper has been exported flood measures some 400 miles. In this lake the Barcoo, a not from South A. since 1844, when the once-famous Burra-Burra inconsiderable stream, is absorbed. The clear portion of Lake mine was discovered. It is now also exported from Queens. Torrens, save in very dry weather, is from 15 to 20 miles in land, where some remarkably rich deposits have been found. breadth. One of these, discovered in 1874, yielded up to 98 per cent. of The climate of a territory such as A., stretching over 29 pure copper. There are also a good many copper mines in degrees of latitude, is necessarily very diversified. One-third operation ihi New South Wales. The value of the copper exof the continent lies within the Tropic of Capricorn, and its ported from Australia in 1872 was /1,o75,00ooo, of which South climate is therefore tropical. Of the remaining two-thirds, the A. produced /Soo,ooo worth, Queensland, fI195,ooo, and New climate varies according to the usual conditions, and in the most South Wales,.8o,ooo. Tin has been found over an enormous southerly portion is very similar to that of the S. of France. area in both New South Wales and Queensland, but these deThe mean annual temperature of Melbourne (370 48' S. lat.) is posits are not so largely worked as those of copper. In 1872 580, being about 7j degrees higher than that of London. The New South Wales exported /49,00o0 worth of tin, and Queensmean annual temperature of Sydney (320 52' S. lat.) is 65. The land, /Z2o,ooo worth. Silver, lead, iron, manganese, zinc, annual rainfall at Melbourne is about 27 inches; at Sydney, 49 quicksilver, and other metals have been found in different parts inches; at Brisbane, 51 inches; and at Adelaide, 21 inches. of A., but are not extensively worked. Opals have been found A. is subject to periods of excessive drought, which are most in Queensland, and diamonds are believed to exist in the same severe in the interior, and. cause great losses among live stock. colony. The heat during the third week of January 1875 was the greatest Pastoral operations are carried on upon a very large scale in known for a number of years. At Melbourne Observatory, on A., wool being the staple product of the continent. The fol. the 2oth, the thermometer stood at 111 in the shade, and 148~ lowing figures show the declared value of wool exported from, in the sun, being only one degree short of the excessive heat of and the area of land under agricultural cultivation in, each of January 1862, which, again, was the greatest known since 1858. the five colonies of the Australian continent in I872: During these droughts immense tracts of pastoral country and forest are destroyed by grass and bush fires. In the northern Acres under part of A., within the range of the monsoons, there is an annual Wool Cultivation. rainy season, when the country is flooded for great distances. 5,738,63 96 -Victoria,'..........-........,5,738,638 964,9'f~'faking A. as a whole, however, its greatest want is the want of New South Waleq, 3,342,900 454,635 water. South Australia.. 1,617,589 r, 164,846 Geologicafly, the greater portion of A. is composed of Ter- Queensland -. i,273,565 62,492 Western Australia, 222,637 53,240 tiary rocks, which form the whole, so far as is known, of the wna great central plateau and basin. The coast within the tropic Total.. I11,995,329 2,700,208 on the W. and on the N. consists of Secondary strata. Between these and the central Tertiary beds is a belt of Plutonic and The following table shows the financial position in 1873 of each M-etamorphic rocks, which is continued round the eastern, of the continental colonies, similar statistics relating to Tasmania western, and part of the southern shores. On the E. it includes and New Zealand being appended for convenience of compariwithin it the greater portion of the main dividing range of son mountains, though in places it is mingled with rocks exhibiting a stratified structure. On either side of this range is a wide strip stimated lite Poblif Debt Value of Value of Population Revenu of fi" of Paleozoic rocks, which unite in Central Victoria, and abound Cac o......s. Popalion.. nes..of Senadona e o1,2 LDee. Imports for oxpori for at close of 18734. per leiad 91 1873. 8713. 1873 with mineral and metalliferous wealth. Excellent coal is found 1873. 82op7la8tion. in abundance at Newcastle, at the mouth of the Hunter River,; ~ s. d. ~ 4 and is exported thence to all parts of Australasia, India, China, VictorN.. 790,492 3,943,692 9 4 2 0 ]2,445,722 6,533,856 25,322,454 N. S. Wales,.I 56o,~75 3,324,7x3 a 9 4 I ~,84e,4I5 xxI,o88,388'x,Sx5,Sec~ Japan, and the Pacific ports of N. and S. America. Good coal s. Australia,. 198,257 937,648 x 6 7 2:I74,900 3,829,830 4,587,859 Queensland,0. I46,69o 1,120,o34 4 0 41 4,786,850 2,88,y726 3,542,513 is also found on the Bulli River, New South Wales, and near W. Austraiai, 256 34 8 3 2 7 35,C00 297,328 285,2I7 eutala 5,76x1 x34,832 _3 e 7 1' 35,000 e97,328 a65,2x~ Perth, in Western A. Many attempts have been made to dis- 9,46,98 24 34,631,128 35,53872 I#ye1,475 9,46o,9z8 2 14 81!'30,28,t,887 34,63r,T28 35;513,87: cover paying seams of coal in Victoria, but without success. It Tasmania, 104,217 293,753 2 o 7 0 1,477,oo 0,o67 893,556 New Ze.aland, 256,260 1,587,92o368~3' 6,5ez,8oc is in metals, however, that A. is richest. The resemblance be. NewzeaIad, 256,sta C,527,906 3 eS'6,,59 641,963 5,5920 tween the great mountain chain of A. and the Ural Mountains, Total,.,8,952,3,59 2 2 7,6,58 497935 4,929,228 led Sir Roderick Murchison to express the belief, in 1845, that gold would be found there. In 1851 his predictionswereverified Further and more detailed statistics will be found under the by the discovery of gold near Bathurst (q. v.), by Mr E. H. names of the respective colonies. 29. 225 * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4AUS THE GL OBE ENCIVYCLOPEDIA. AUS The Botany of A. possesses some marked characteristics. The Aus'tria, Archduchy of, the hereditary dominions of the most striking specimens of the Australian flora are the trees be- house of Austria, and nucleus of the empire, lies on both sides longing to the genus Euzcalyjtzs (q. v.), of which there are fully of the Danube, and extends from Bavaria on the W. to Hungary Ioo species. They produce timber of the very best quality, though on the E. It consists of three crown-lands, or provinces of exceedingly hard when mature. A number of them also yield a the empire-Lower and Upper Austria, on either side of the gum-resin, and are hence called'gum trees' by the colonists. river Ens, and the duchy of Salzburg. The chief towns are The leading varieties are E. globulzs (blue gum), E. giganlea Vienna, Wiener Neustadt, Salzburg, Linz, and Ischl. Area, (stringy bark), E. robusta (red gum), and E. arnygdalina (pepper- I5,053 sq. miles; pop. (I869) 2,880,424. A. was originally a mint-tree). The two first sometimes attain a height of 300 feet, M.arkgrafenthum or border earldom of the Frankish empire, and the second an occasional girth of 6o or 70 feet. The acacias and was established by Charlemagne as a barrier against the are even more numerous in Australia than the Eucalypti, though Avars of Hungary. In I I56 it was raised to a duchy, and in less striking. The members of the Casuarina family (q. v.) are I453 to its present dignity of an archduchy. valued for their wood, and are very remarkable objects in Australian forest scenery, while the Banksias (q. v.) supply the Austria, Empire of, also known since i868 by the official element of beauty which is lacking in the Casuarinc. Ferns name of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, is next to Russia the and heaths are abundant, and of many varieties. It is a note- largest country in Europe, It is square and compact in form, worthy fact, in connection with the flora of Australia, that it is and only approaches the sea in the S.W., where Dalmatia all evergreen, though some of the trees shed their bark instead borders on the Adriatic Sea for about 10o85 miles. Three great of their leaves. mountain chains traverse the empire in an almost continuous The Zoolofty of A. is as peculiar as its botany. Its most semicircle from its S.E. angle to the Swiss frontier; these are marked feature is the abundance of marsupials (q. v.), chief the Carpathians, Sudetes, and the Rhretian and Noric Alps among which may be mentioned the kangaroo (q. v.), opos- (q. v.). The Ortles Spitze, in the Tyrol, is by far the loftiest sum (q. v.), bandicoot (q. v.), and wombat (q. v.). The Aus- peak in A., rising to a height of 12,808 feet. In Hungary there tralian opossum belongs to the natural order Phalangistidc, are several large lakes, the most important being the Platten and must not be confounded with the true opossum of See, 382 sq. miles in extent, and Neusiedler See (FertiS-Cava), II 7 America, belonging to the natural order Didelphice. That sq. miles, both of which abound in fish. Several extensive plains extraordinary creature the ornithoryncus (q. v.) is confined to occur, chiefly in the centre and S., the largest of which, the great Australia. The dingo (q. v.), or native wild dog, is not a mar- plain of Hungary, has an area of 21,ooo sq. miles. This plain is supial. See TIHYLACINE and DASYURE. The Australian bush watered by the Danube (q. v.), which has a course in A. of 849 abounds with birds of every description and the gayest plumage miles. The chief feeders of the Danube are the Inn, March, -cockatoos, paroquets, lories, &c. The most remarkable are Raab, Waag, Neutra, Gran, Theiss, Drave, Save, Bega, and the emu (q. v.), lyre-bird (q. v.), and bower-bird (q. v.). The Temes. Other rivers rising in A., though soon flowing out of coasts and rivers abound with fish, some of which constitute it,are the Elbe, the Adige, Vistula, and Dniester. The climate excellent food. Fishing for the pearls contained in the shells of is generally warm and healthy, but it necessarily varies much the pearl-oyster (Aviculda Margaritifera) is extensively and very over so wide an area; the mean temperature is Io0 5 C. at Vienna. successfully carried on off the north-western and north-eastern The empire is divided into seventeen crown-lands, or adminiscoasts. See WESTERN AUSTRALIA. trative provinces, and a military frontier. The divisions, area, The aborigines of A. belong to the Papuan, Austral-negro, or and population are as follows, according to the census of 31st Melanesian race. They rank very low in the scale of humanity, December I869:and fast disappear when brought into contact with civilisation. There are 40,000ooo Chinese in A., half of them being in Victoria. a in Pop. i 869. Crown-lands.Arai Po.nx89 Polynesians are being introduced into Queensland, and Malays Square Miles. into the Northern Territory (South A.). German Monarchy:The following is a summary of the main facts in Australian Lower Austria,. 7,654 I,990,708 discovery and colonisation:-Cape York was sighted by the Upper Austria,.. 4,632 736,557 master of the Dutch vessel Duyfhen in March i606. This is Salzburg. 2,767 15359 Styria,-8,669 I,137,990 the earliest authenticated record of the discovery of A. by Euro- Carinthia, 4,00oo5 337,694 peans, though part of the north-western, the eastern, and part Carniola.:3,856 466,334 of the southern coasts are laid down in Portuguese charts dated Illyria, or coast districts,. 3,084 600,525 X542, and now in the British Museum. The Spaniard Torres Tyrol and Vorarlberg, 116,323 885, 789 Bohenia,.20,o060 5,140,544 passed through the strait which now bears his name later in I6o6. Moravia, 8,583 2,0o7,274 The Dutch sailed along the western coast in I6t6-I8, and dis- Silesia, 1,987 53,352 covered Cape Leeuwin in I622. In I642 Tasman (q. v.) dis- Galicia..... 30,308 5,444,689 Bukowina,. 4,035 5I3,404 covered the Island of Tasmania (q. v.), which he named Van Dalmatia,. 4i95x 456,96i Dieman's Land. Captain Cook in I77o first sighted the south- Kingdom afHang-cary:eastern coast at Point Hicks, and explored the whole of the E. Hgay.87,043 1,633,162 ork. In 798, Bass, a navy surgeon, disco- Transylvania, 22,226 2,225,024 coast up to Cape YSork. In x798, Bass, a navy surgeon, disco- Croatia and Slavonia,. 8,941 2,68,037 vered Bass Strait, and Flinders traced the line of the southern Military Frontier, 7,841 593,232 coast in the same year. The first settlement was planted at 74: Botany Bay (q. v.) in January 1788. The whole of A., together Total, 24,955 35904435 with Tasmania and New Zealand, was originally subject to New South Wales, but the various colonies became independent of The military frontier extends from Translyvania to the Adria. the latter as follows:-Tasmania in I825; Western A. in 1829; tie, and forms part of the N. boundary of Turkey. According South A. in I834; New Zealand in 1841; Victoria in 1851; to the official returns of August 1874, the army of A., on the and Queensland in I859. Among the many men who have won peace establishment, consists of 259,173 men, with a war con. fame in the arduous and perilous field of Australian exploration, tingent, raising it to 772,729. The navy comprised 47 steamers, the names of Hume, Sturt, Leichhardt, Oxley, Eyre, Burke, Wills, with 87 light and 308 heavy guns. The pop. of A. is dense in the Stuart, Gregory, and Forrest are honourably distinguished. plains of the S. and N.W., but very sparse in the mountain regions. It embraces an immense variety of races, still preserving their Austra'sia, a Latinised form of the German Oester-reich, the peculiarities of feature and language. In 1870 there were name given in the time of the Merovingians to the East kingdom i6,219,000 Slaves, the predominant race, embracing the northern of the Franks, comprising Lorraine, Belgium, and the right bank Czechs, Ruthenes, and Poles, and the southern Slovens, Serbs, of the Rhine, and separated from Neustria (the West kingdom) Bulgarians, and Croats. Among other nationalities, the Gerby the Vosges, the Forest of Ardennes, and the Maas. Capital, mans numbered 9,040,000, the Magyars, or Hungarians proper, Metz. Under Charlemagne it became the principal part of the 5,431,oo000, the Rumans, whose name tells us that their language Frankish empire, and under his successors, part of Germany. is derived from that of ancient Rome, 3,456,0ooo00. There are See Haguenin's Histoire du Royaume Mierovingien d'Austrasie also Gipsies, Jews, Armenians, and Russians. Of this mixed (Paris, 1863). population 23,954,233 are Roman Catholics; 3,941,796 Greco226 * -- ~ — ~ - - - - - - - -v AUS THE GLOBE ENCYCL OPMDIA. AUS Roman Catholics; 3,o50,830 Greeks not in union with the mineral springs in A., many of which are noted, as those of Church of Rome; 3,570,989 Protestants; and 1,375,86I belong Baden in Lower Austria. to the Jewish faith. There are II Roman Catholic archbishop- Many of the anzimals of A. are becoming rare, but in the Alps, rics, and 57 bishoprics; and there are about 300 abbeys, and Carpathians, and Dalmatia, brown bears, wolves, jackals, and over 500 convents in the empire. A. has seven universities lynxes, are still plentiful, and the chamois is sometimes found. (Vienna, Prague, Gratz, Innsbriick, Pesth, Cracow, and Lemberg), The culture of silk is extensively carried on, chiefly in the Tyrol, four of which are' German' universities-that is, the lectures and it results in the annual produce of about 300,000 silk cocoons. are delivered in the German language. In I872 the University Domestic animals are extensively reared in many parts of the of Vienna had a staff of professors and teachers numbering 200, monarchy. The state promotes horse-breeding by the establishand 388I students; Prague had 97 professors and 1709 students; ment of'military studs,' and also encourages the breeding of Gratz, 70 professors and 926 students; Innsbriick, 58 professors sheep. Bohemia, Hungary, and Moravia yield the finest fleeces. and 612 students. There are also seven technical colleges, and The mnanzfacturing indusIry of A. is making rapid progress. many schools of science and art. The German system of educa- In I866 the imports amounted to ~2I,I38,215, in 1874 to tion is modified here in some respects. There is a greater ~56,561,588; while the exports within the same period had number of special or technical schools, and also of establish- increased from ~32,622,530 to ~45,225,o70. The chief manunments where the pupils reside; and both preliminary and higher factures are silks, woollens, cottons, linen, twist, and iron goods. education is in great part provided by the communes and the Bohemia is famous for its glass wares, and Vienna is the central state. As in Germany, attendance at the'Volks-Schulen,' or market for articles of luxury. The state has a monopoly of the National Schools, is compulsory. manufacture of tobacco, yielding nearly ~6,ooo,ooo annually. The commerce of A. has been much retarded by the want of The chief seaports are Trieste, Rovigno, Fiume, Zara, Ragusa, a sufficient means of communication. Its seaboard is not only Cattaro, Spalatro, and Buccari. barred off from the interior by high mountains, but the chief The form of governmeznt is a monarchy, secured in the Hapsrivers flow into other countries before entering the sea. In late burg-Lothringen dynasty, and the states of Bohemia and Hunyears, however, the facilities of transit have been greatly im- gary have the right to appoint a new king in the event of the proved. The entire length of railways in I874 was 9583 miles, reigning house expiring. For the other parts of the empire the and some 4213 miles were being laid down. In the same last sovereign can choose his successor, who must, however, be year there were 27,408 miles of telegraph lines. Not less a Roman Catholic. Since I7th February 1867, the empire has than 20,aoo miles of highways have been constructed in the pre- been dualistic in form, embracing a German or Cisleithan state, sent century, the most remarkable of which are those over the called A. proper, and the Magyar or Th-ansleithan kingdom of Stelvio Pass, the Splugen, and the Semmering. Since the in- Hungary. These two divisions have distinct laws, and separate troduction of steam the river navigation has greatly increased, parliaments and governments, but are united in a common parthe annual receipts of the Austrian Danube Steam Company liament of I20 members, to which each returns an equal number alone amounting to over700oo,ooo. Except in Dalmatia, which of representatives. This body of Delegations, as it is called, is an isolated district, all customs boundaries within the empire exercises jurisdiction chiefly over foreign affairs, war, finance, have been abolished. The removal of these impediments has and such other matters as affect the welfare of the whole monacted most beneficially on the commerce of A., which is for the archy. The parliament of A. proper, called the Reichsrath (at most part internal, having its headquarters at Vienna, Linz, Vienna), consists of an upper house of 175 members, and a lower Prague, Lemberg, Pesth, Gri.tz, and Brody. The chief imports house of 203. That of Hungary is the Reichstag (at Pesth), are raw cotton, yarns, woollen goods, silk, sugar, dye-stuffs, and which has 4IO higher and 438 lower representatives, and the olive-oil; exports, corn, flour, cotton, and silk goods. Machinery ministry of which is responsible to the emperor. and instruments were exported to the value of I1, 146,425 in As to finance, since the beginning of the present century the I874. The entire imports of merchandise in I874 amounted to credit of A. has been more or less depreciated owing to the ~56,561,588, and of bullion 1I,934,926; exports, merchandise, costly wars in which the country has been engaged. There are ~45,225,7Io, bullion, I1,952,893. three distinct budgets, as there are three parliaments-viz., the Fully three-fourths of A. is mountainous, but the soil is fertile Reichsrath, Reichstag, and Delegations-and in 1874 the total in many of the provinces; and including pasture and forest, more revenue was ~70,566,o59, and the expenditure ~75,403,459. than five-sixths of the entire surface is productive. Although The entire debt of this monarchy in 1874 was ~333,926,906. agriculture is still in a backward state, grain of all kinds is The land forming the present Archduchy of A. (q. v.) was abundantly produced in Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, Galicia, occupied in the earliest times by the Taurisci, who belonged to Silesia, and in other parts. In the mountain districts the the Celtic family, who subsequently disappeared before the products resemble those of Britain, and in the S. maize, Norici. In B.c. 14 the Norici were conquered by the Romans, millet, and mulberries are cultivated. In the Banat rice is who took possession of the land up to the Danube; while the grown; tobacco is largely raised in Hungary; Bohemia yields region north of that river up to the Bohemian and Moravian excellent hops; and in Dalmatia oranges and lemons are pro- borders formed part of the territory of the Marcomanni and duced. The vine is cultivated in nearly all the provinces; and Quadi. A part of Lower Austria and Styria, with Carinthia and the wine of Hungary, called Tokay, is equal to the finest wine of part of Carniola, belonged to the Roman municipiunz of Vindo. France. About 400 million gallons are produced annually, but bona (Vienna), the capital of Pannonia. Gdrz was part of the only a small quantity is exported. Roman province of Illyricum, and Tyrol of Rhcetia. But the In minerals A. is as rich as any country in Europe, its pro- irruptions of the barbarians obliterated these boundaries. Durduce amounting to about~9,ooo,ooo annually. For many cen- ing the 5th and 6th centuries, Boii, Vandals, Heruli, Rugii, turies mining has been a principal occupation, and has been Goths, Huns, Longobards, and Avars dwelt in turn in the broad fostered by the state. Gold is found in largest quantity in basin of the Danube; but after 568, when the Longobards had Transylvania and silver in Hungary; quicksilver occurs in pushed on into Italy, the river Ens formed the boundary between both these provinces, as also in Styria and Carinthia. Cra- the German Bajuvarii (Bavarians) on the W. and the Avars on cow and Carinthia are most productive of zinc, and iron and the E. Along the'Mur, the Save, and the Drave, Slaves began to copper are got in various provinces. Carinthia also contains appear in the beginning of the 7th c. After the abolition of the extensive lead-mines. Tin is confined to Bohemia, and Hungary ducal dignity in Bavaria by Charlemagne (788), the Avars pushed alone yields antimony. A considerable quantity of graphite, across the Ens into the Bavarian (now Frankish) territory, and arsenic, and petroleum is also found. There is abundance of their raids brought down upon them the heavy hand of the great good marble and fine porcelain earth. The precious stones of Emperor, who in 791 hurled them back to the Raab, and united A. are numerous, the most valuable being the Hungarian opal the conquered territory (from the Ens E. to the confluence of and Bohemian garnets. There are, besides, cornelians, agates, the Raab with the Danube) with the Frankish empire, under the beryl, jasper, amythyst, topaz, ruby, and sapphire. Im- title of the Avaric or East Mark (Marchia Orientalis, or Austria). mense deposits of coal exist, chiefly in Moravia and Bohemia, Charlemagne sent German colonists, chiefly Bavarians, into the but this branch of mining is not yet much developed. Rock- new province, over which he set a Markgraf or border earl, salt abounds in Galicia, Transylvania, and Hungary, and there while the Archbishop of Salzburg had the superintendence of all are large salt-works in the Tyrol and on the Adriatic coasts, ecclesiastical matters. After the treaty of Verdun (843), which some of which are carried on by the state. There are over 1600oo broke up the huge Frankish empire of Charlemagne into France i^~~~~~~~~~~. __~~~~~~~~~227 * 4 X 4 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -~~~~~~~~ AUtS TILE GLOBE ENVCYCLOPZE]D1. AUS and Germany, A. formed the eastern frontier of the German subsequently a vigorous but unsuccessful attempt was made to empire. But now a new Turanian race, the Magyars or Hun- recover it in the Seven Years' War (q. v.). The first partition garians, appeared on the scene, who repeated the incursions of of Poland (I 772) added Galicia and Lodomeria to A.; and in the vanished Avars, and about go900 made themselves masters of 1777 Bukowina was ceded by the Sultan. The political changes the East Mark, which was first recovered to Germany by the begun by the empress were vigorously extended after her death Emperor Otho I., after the bloody fight at Augsburg in 955- (1780) by her son, Joseph II. He enacted many beneficial In 983 the Emperor appointed Leopold of Babenberg markgraf reforms, but his inconsiderate zeal stirred up rebellion in various of A. He is memorable for his successful enterprises against the parts of the empire. Joseph II. died in 179o, and was sucMagyars. During the rule of his son, Heinrich I. (994-IO08), ceeded by his brother, Leopold II., Emperor of Germanly, the name Ostirrichi (i.e., Eastern kingdom) first appears in a docu- whose brief reign was marked by an alliance with Prussia against ment of the Emperor Otho III., of date 996. His nephew Ernst France, to which he was prompted by the fate of his sister, Marie (10o5o-75) was a favourite of the Emperor Heinrich IV., who Antoinette. In 1792 he was succeeded by his son, Franz II., called him'the foremost and the truest prince of the empire,' and against whom France declared war in the same year. A. was his land'the bulwark of the empire.' In II56 A. was raised to a deprived of Lombardy and the Netherlands by the peace of duchy, declared to be indivisible, with the government hereditary Campo Formio (q. v.), receiving instead the Venetian territory. in the eldest son of the Babenberg line, and not a fief of the empire, By the second partition of Poland(1799) it acquired W. Galicia. though subject to the laws of the empire. In 1246 the Baben- The war with France was resumed in 1799 by A. in alliance with berg line became extinct, through the death of Friedrich,'the Russia, and ended in the peace of Luneville. A. lost 42,000 sq. Quarrelsome,' in battle with the Magyars. From 1246 to 1282 miles of territory by the peace of Vienna in I809, but for this comthere was what may be called an interregnum marked by much pensation was given by the treaty of Paris (1814). In 1804 Franz confusion, the result of conflicting ambitions; but at last Otto- proclaimed himself hereditary emperor of A., with the title of kar, son of the king of Bohemia, was chosen by the states of the Franz I., and two years later gave up the dignity of German empeduchy, and might have established his dynasty had he not refused ror, held by the Hapsburgs for five centuries. In 1832 Franz I. to acknowledge the election of Rudolf of Hapsburg as Emperor died, and left to his son, Ferdinand I., the task of carrying on of Germany, with whom he rashly involved himself in strife. an oppressive system of bureaucratic government, under which He was slain at a battle on the Marchfeld, 26th August I278, the nation was already growing restless. The French revoluand in 1282 the emperor invested his own sons Albrecht and tion of 1848 was followed by an outbreak in Lombardy, Venice, Rudolf with the hereditary possession of the duchies of A., Hungary, and A. proper. For a time the revolution was sucStyria, and Carinthia. cessful. Hungary was declared independent; the royal troops With the Hapsburg dynasty, which continues to this day, the were driven from Italy; Vienna was held by the insurgents; greatness of A. began. It is not necessary to go over the his- Venice threw in its lot with Sardinia; everywhere A. seemed tory of the Hapsburgs while they remained merely dukes of A. breaking into pieces. After a time, however, the government, Albrecht left five sons, one of whom, Friedrich the Fair, was which had been surprised, began to grapple with the danger. elected Emperor of Germany in 1314, but was forced to yield Ferdinand I. abdicated (December 2, 1848) in favour of his to a rival, Ludwig of Bavaria, in little more than a year. An- nephew, Franz Joseph (q. v.). In 1849 a liberal constitution was other of the brothers, Albrecht II. (died 1358), greatly increased proclaimed, new ministers were appointed, and some degree of the family possessions by marriage, obtaining among others the satisfaction was restored among the more moderate parties. The Burgundo-Kyburg lands in 1326. Of his four sons, Albrecht army in Italy was reinforced, and, under the command of Radetzky III. and Leopold are the most notable. The latter, who founded (q. v.), soon regained possession of the country. The struggle the Styrian line, lost his life fighting against the Swiss at Sem- still raged fiercely in ilungary; but aid was procured from Russia, pach (1386). On the death of Albrecht III. (1395) additional and the rebellion was ultimately stamped out by overwhelming possessions were acquired by A. In I404 Albrecht V. married numbers. The IHungarian army, 25,00ooo strong, under G6rgei the daughter of the Emperor Sigismund, by which he acquired (q. v.), surrendered to the Russians on the I3th August 1849. Bohemia and Hungary, and, as Albrecht II., became German Before the end of the same year the Emperor of A. resumed his emperor. The marriage of Maximilian I., in 1477, to Maria, original power, the liberal constitution to which he had con. daughter of Charles the Bold, secured to the house of Hapsburg sented under pressure was revoked on January x, i852, and the the possession of the Netherlands. Spain also became an Aus- ministers of Hungary and of the other provinces were declared trian possession (I496) by the marriage of Philip, son of Maxi- responsible to the emperor alone. The old despotic system of milian. Philip's son was Carlos I. of Spain, who became government was reinstated, and the policy pursued towards Italy German emperor, under the title of Karl V., on the death of was insidious and threatening. Alarmed at the dangers by Maximilian I. in II9. All the German hereditary possessions, which she was environed, Sardinia began to prepare for war except the Netherlands, were given up by Charles to his brother, (1859). A. demanded her instant disarmament, and, on this Ferdinand I. (q. v.), who in 1556 succeeded him in the imperial being refused, crossed the Ticino (April 29, I859) and began dignity. By his marriage with Anna, sister of the Hungarian hostilities. France, as the ally of Sardinia, declared war on A. King Louis II., who fell at the battle of Mohacz in I526, Fer- (3d May), and the Emperor Napoleon III. led the troops in dinand secured to A. the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, person. In every engagement A. was beaten, and a treaty was together with Moravia, Silesia, and Lausitz, which were subject finally concluded at Zurich by which Lombardy was ceded to to Bohemia. On the death of Ferdinand in 1564, the Austrian Sardinia, and A. retained Venetia. Meanwhile between A. and possessions were divided between his three sons, and not again Prussia the struggle which had been carried on for so many years united till I619, under Ferdinand II. (q. v.). The attempt of for the leadership of the German Confederation began to assume Bohemia at this time to place the Elector Palatine, Friedrich V., a threatening aspect. An opportunity for deciding the question leader of the Protestant union, on the throne, plunged the of supremacy was all that was wanted, and this was readily country into the Thirty Years' War (q. v.). By this war, the found in the disposition of the Danish territory. See SLESvs. most tedious and terrible in the annals of A., the population of In June i866 war was declared against A. by Prussia in alliance Bohemia was reduced from 3,000,000 to 780,000. It was soon with Italy, and in less than a month the decisive battle of Sadowa after followed (1701-13) by the Spanish War of Succession (q. v. brought about a peace (signed 23d August), by which A. (q. v.), arising out of a struggle between Leopold II. and Louis ceded Venetia to Italy. Since the close of the war, however, XIV. of France for the Spanish crown. By the peace of A.,though excluded from the GermanConfederation, has enjoyed Utrecht (I713), concluded during the reign of Karl VI., the prosperity and peace, and has only been temporarily disturbed Netherlands, Milan, Mantuna, Naples, and Sicily were secured by the political demands of the Slavic nationalities. The biparto A.; but the latter two of these possessions were surrendered tite constitution of 1867 recognised the autonomy of the Magyar to Don Carlos of Spain in I737. On the demise of Karl VI., the kingdom, which has since had a separate parliament, and laws male line of the Hapsburgs had died out, and the heirship to and ministers of its own. The welfare of A. was still further the throne was claimed by his daughter, Maria Theresa (q. v.), promoted by the abolition in 1870 of the concordat entered into wife of Franz Stephan, Duke of Lorraine. See PRAGMATIC with Rome in I855, and the consequent withdrawal of the Papal SANCTION. A fierce war ensued, in which Maria had only nuncio. See the general histories of Malilath, Lichnowsky, and England as an ally, but her government was finally secured. those of Bidinger (from the I3th c. to 5858), Springer (I8o3 to 65), Silesia, however, was conquered by Friedrich II. of Prussia, and Helfert (5848 to 69), and the Archivz fiir Osterr. Geschicte (vols. 228 AUT THE GIOBE E2NCYC~ OPMEDZA. AVA i.-xliv. I848-71), also F. Schmitt's Slatistik des Oesterreichischen and marches. The chess-player of Kempelen, long regarded Kaisersoaats (Wien, 1873). as the most perfect of automata, is now a solved mystery, a crippled Russian officer having been hid in the interior. In Auteu'il, a yuartierof Paris, formerly a village, at the entrance 4 Mr Car of Bridgewater exhibited an A. Latin versifie to the Bois de Boulogne, and within the fortifications. From which he himself described as'neither more nor less than a the days of Moliere it has been a favourite residence of authors. pactical illustration of the law of evolution.' Bess these, practical illustration of the law of evolution.' Besides these, Authen'tic (Gr. authentikos, vouched for), a term applied to there have been numerous other ingenious, but almost useless, a writing the contents of which are true, and thus opposed to contrivances imitating more or less the action of living animals. that which is false. A distinction has been made by biblical Of more practical inventions may be mentioned calculating scholars between A. and genuine: the former implying that the machines, and automata for setting up type. statements made are true and authoritative; the latter, that the book has been written by the person whose name it bears. Ther selfdistinction is arbitrary. legislation) is the condition of a state or corporation which legislates for itself, and manages its own government. In the Autoc'racy (Gr. acutokrateia, lit. self-mastery, but used even Kantean ethics A. denotes the sovereignty of the pure reason, in classical times to denote absolute or arbitrary power), the when a man is a law to himself, and thus enjoys perfect liberty. name given to that form of government in which the sovereignven in some parts of America is absolute. Among European potentates the Emperor of Russia utu nal Fevera name given in some parts of Ameica alone is styled autocrat, his authority being subjected to no con- to enteric or typhoid fever. It is sometimes also called Fall stitutional control. In the Kantean philosophy A. is used in its fever. Both of these terms indicate the fact that this fever is primary sense of self-mastery, i.e., the subjection of a man's lower usually most prevalent in autumn, or the fall of the year. See nature to his reason. ENTERIC FEVER, TYPHOID FEVER. Au'to da F6 (Port.'act of faith;' the Spanish form is Auto Autun', a town in the department of Saone-et-Loire (Burde Fe), the public reading of the sentences pronounced by the gundy), France, on the Ferona, I79 miles S.E. of Paris. It is Inquisition on heretics, at which the culprits themselves were the seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral of the IIth and I2th present; if absent or dead, they were represented by their effigies ntures. Talleyrand among others was bishop of A. Its or bones. When an execution was to take place, a procession manufactures are serge, carpets, cotton-velvet, leather, and was held, generally on a Sunday between Whitsunday and paper. A. is the ancient Bibracte, the capital of the ~Edui, and Advent, the Dominicans leading with the flag of the Inquisition, was made a Roman colony under Augustus, and named Augustothe condemned following, and ecclesiastics bringing up the rear. dunum, of which its present name is an abbreviation. In 73t A blow on the breast from an officer of the Inquisitio~n gave the Saracens burned it, and in 888 it was partly destroyed by the condemned over to the secular arm, and in a few hours after- the Normans. The town contains many Roman remains. Pop. wards the sentence was carried into effect. On May 21, I559, (I872) 9729. thirty-one persons were burnt at Valladolid, and twenty-four at Auvergne', a former provinde of France, nearly correspondSeville on 24th September following. The last A. is said to ing to the modern departments of Cantal and Puy-de-D6nme have taken place about the middle of the I8th c. Napoleon (q. v.). It is a mountainous region, diversified with valleys fruit. abolished the tribunal in i8o8; its suppression was confirmed ful in corn and wine, and is watered by the Allier and Dordogne, by the Cortes in I813; it was reinstated in I8I4 by Ferdinand and their numerous branches. The hills are of volcanic origin, VII., and again abolished in I820; yet in I826 a schoolmaster and are rich in iron, lead, copper, antimony, coal, and mineral named Ripoll was executed at Valencia, on a charge of Deism, springs. Some of the chief heights are Cantal (6093), Montunder the forms of an A. d'Or (6i88), and Puy-de-Dgme (4806). The name A. is derived A~u'tograph (Gr. autograliaonz, what is written with olne's from the Arverni ('Highlanders;' Celt. Ar Fearann, the high own hand, and so the opposite of apograpon, or copy), at first country), who under Vercingetorix stubbornly defended their denoted a writing of any kind, any MS. executed by the author rugged fastnesses against Cresar, but were finally blent with the lhimself, but about the middle of the I8th c. came to acquire its Frankish conquerors of Gaul. The modern Auverguese furnish Paris With industrious and honest workemen, as the Highlands present restricted meaning. The passion for collections of autographs arose in France about the end of the I6th c., and the of Scotland do Glasgow and Edinburgh. earliest great collection was made by Lomenie de Brienne (died), capital of the departe I638). From France it spread to England, and thence to Ger- Yonne, France, on the river Uonne, go miles S.E. of Paris by many in the I8th c. The autographs of eminent individuals are rail. The district, of which the atmosphere is very salubrious, now articles of commerce, their value depending on their scarcity, produces much wine. The cathedral of St Etienne, the choir produces much wine. The cathedral of St Etienne, the choir and on the eminence of the writers. The interest attaching to of which dates from 126, is in the Flamboyant style, and has them is personal, there being an impression that character is ne windots of stained glass, of the 3th c. Its crypt, as well indicated by penmanship. But this is true only to a certain as that of the church of St Germain, is much admired. as well extent, for the hand of the scholar is frequently fashioned in levar surrounds the town on three sides. It Germain, is much admired. A bouimitation of his teacher's. From Richard II. downwards, there cational institutions, and a valuable public library. The chief is an unbroken series of autographs of the sovereigns of England, trade is in wine, but there are manufactures of woollen cloths, of which facsimiles were given by John Gough Nichols in a hosiery, earthenware, and leather, and timber and charcoal are work in folio (Lond. 1829). France and Germany are particu- exported. A. gives its name to a light Burgundy wine. Pop larly rich in collections of autographs. t exported. A. gives its name to a light Burgundy wine. Pop. larly rich in collections of autographs. (x872) f2,919' Autol'ycus, a Greek astronomer, born at Pitane, in LEolia, and flourished about the middle of the 4th c., author of treatises on the revolving spheres, and on the rising and setting of the Auxiliary Verbs. See VERBS. fixed stars, printed at Strasbourg in 1572. They show that A. was ignorant of spherical trigolnometry..A'va or Hava, the name given by the Polynesians to the root or rhizome of Macropi5per methzysticum, formerly called Piper Autom'aton (Gr. autos, self, and ma&, to move, or rather to methysticum, a plant belonging to the order Piperacene. It has strive after, as if possessing volition), a machine so contrived as narcotic properties, and is used in cases of rheumatism and other to imitate the actions of animals. There are many records of complaints. An intoxicating beverage is also prepared from it, such in past times, as the flying pigeon of Archytas of Tarentum, which the natives partake of before engaging in any religious the speaking head of Albertus Magnus, the flying eagle of Regio. rite. It is largely drunk in Fiji, and when taken in excess pro. montanus, and others, but their existence is not supported by duces various skin diseases. Another beverage of a similar satisfactory evidence. During the I8th c., however, Vaucanson, kind is prepared from a different plant, which, according to Dr a Frenchman, exhibited several ingenious automata, a flute- Seemann, has the flavour of soap-suds combined with jalap and player, a flageolet-player, and a most perfect imitation in form magnesia. The approved method of preparing A. is to chew the and behaviour of a duck. In I809 Maelzel produced atrum- root, and thus extract the juice. It has a soothing effect when peter, which played a selection of French and Austrian tunes partaken of in the raw state, but when fermented it becomes in229 _. - ~ ~.,-..... AVA THE GL OBE ENC YCLOPAEDIA. AVE toxicating. A. leaves are, in some of the South Sea Islands, to 20 feet high, and from 3 to I2 thick. This ancient work is chewed with the areca-nut, in place of those of the betel-pepper. approached by two avenues, each upwards of a mile long, and See ARECA and BETEL. defined by a double range of stones similar to those of the temple itself. Although it has long been the belief that these stoneAva, like Amarapura (q. v.), is only the ruin of what was. Although it has long been the belief that these stoneseveral times the capital of Burmah, and stands on the Irawaddy, circles were associated with Druidical woshp, there is a lack of evidence to warrant any positive belief on the point. The first opposite the once famous city of Tsah-gyne. It consisted of an to broach the'Druidical' theory was Dr Stukeley in his Stoneinner and outer city, both strongly fortified, and was built at a hege ales restored he British Drids henge and Abuyy, Two Tem'hles reslored to the British Druids bend of the river, being surrounded on the land side by a deep (I740). In the neighbourhood of A. there are many curious ditch or fosse. Crumbling walls, ruined pagodas, desolate streets lined with grand old tamarind and mango trees, are all that is barows, cromlechs, and other monuments of antiquity. now, however, left of what was long the capital of Burmah in Avei'ro, or Braganga Novo, a seaport in the province its palmy days. of Beira, Portugal, 33 miles S. of Oporto, on a lagoon at the mouth of the Vouga. It was a famous trading place in the I6th Av'alanches are large masses of snow or ice which are pre- c., is still the seat of a bishop, and has some trade in oil, wine, cipitated from high mountains into the valleys beneath. There sea-salt, and oranges; but its situation is unhealthy. Pop. 46oo. are four kinds distinguished: Drift A., produced by the action of the wind on snow rendered loose and powdery by the frost; Avell'a, the lMalifera Abella of Virgil, so called from the Rolling A., when a detached piece of snow rolls down the abundance of its apples, an ancient Italian town in the province steep, gaining in size and impetus as it descends; Sliding A., of Avellino, 20 miles E.N.E. of Naples, with many remains of when gravity overcomes the force of adhesion, and the mass antiquity. Pop. of commune, 5228. slides down the incline like a landslip; Glacial A., when masses of frozen snow and ice are loosened by the heat of summer, and Avelli'no, the capital of a province of the same name in S. precipitated into the plains below Italy, lies at the base of Monte Vergine, on which stands the precipitted into the plains below. monastery founded II9, by St Guglielmo da Vercelli, on the Avall'on, a town in the department of Yonne, France, on the site of a temple of Cybele. Its chief manufactures are woollens, river Cousin, 26 miles S.E. of Auxerre, with a curious old church. paper, and macaroni; and it has some trade in corn and hazelThe district produces corn and wine, and has rich pasture grounds. nuts. A. was visited by earthquakes in i694, 173I, and I85. There are paper and woollen manufactures, distilleries and tan- Near it is the Val de Gargano, where, in 320 B.C., the Samnites neries. A., the Gallic Aballo, a city of the Aldui, suffered fre- captured an entire Roman army. The old Abellinum, a town quently from sack and pillage from the 8th to the I6th c. Pop. of the Hispini, a Samnite people, lay at a little distance from (1872) 5029. the present town, but was destroyed by the Lombards. Pop. Avan'turine, a variety of quartz found in different parts of I3,446. Europe and Asia, and much used in the manufacture of imitation A've Mari'a, the commencement of an invocation to the gems. It reflects light with great brilliancy. Virgin Mary, used by Roman Catholics, and taken from the Ava'ri, a people of Eastern origin, belonging probably to salutation of Gabriel (Luke i. 28). It was enlargedby Urban the Uralo-Altaian branch of the Turanian family, and allied to IV. in I26I, and the form now in use was completed and sanc IHtuns and Magyars. They first appear in the regions north tioned by Pius V. in 1508. The A. M. is generally recited after of the Caucasus, between the Don and the Caspian Sea. the Pater Noster. The name A. M. is applied, in Italy, to the About the middle of the 6th c. they settled in Dacia, helped the ringing of bells about half an hour after sunset as a summons Longobards to destroy the kingdom of the Gepida, and by the to prayer, though it is elsewhere also termed Angelus. Readers close of the same century had made themselves masters of Pan- of Byron's Don than will remember the exquisite use of this nonia. Still later they conquered Dalmatia, made destructive application of the term (canto 3, st. cii.-ciii.). The small beads forays as far W. as Thuringia, and even penetrated into Italy. of the rosary are termed Ave Marias, because by these the Aves The Slavic nations N. and S. of the Danube were for a time are reckoned. compelled to acknowledge their authority, but in 640 A.D. the Avena, a genus of grasses. See OAT. A. were driven out of Dalmatia. Subdued by Charlemagne in 796, soon after completely crushed by the Moravians, they vanish Avengerof Blood. See BLOOD, AVENGER OF. from history early in the 9th c. The A. of the Caucasus, a v'ens, the common name for Gezn (q. v.). people of Lesghian stock, are in no way related to the ancient A. of Pannonia. Aventi'nus, Johannes, a German historian, was born at Abensberg, Bavaria, in I466. His proper name was Thurmayr Avast', a nautical term, used on board ship to express ana, in 1466. His proper name was T or Turmalr, but he is better known as Aventintus from his birthorder or command, generally a command to- stop the particular Aentnus from hisbirthoperation going on at the moment, e.g.,'avast heaving;' but place, the Aventinum of the Romans. A. studied first at Ingol stadt, and then at Paris, where he graduated; taught publicly it also enters into the phraseology of seamen in many ways for at Cracow annd in 512 became tutor to the so which it is not easy to find an equivalent in ordinary English, of the Due of Bavaria. From the first edition of his Anes e.g.,' avast there,' either'hold your tongue,' or' get out of the Bo (History of Bavaria), published in 554 (later ed. f 710), way., Bojorunz (History of Bavaria), published in I554 (later ed. I7IO), twenty years after his death, the editor Ziegler had excised Avatar', a Sanscrit word used to denote the'descent' of a numerous passages depreciatory of the Church of Rome, which Hindu deity on earth in some visible form, and therefore con- were restored by Cisner in I58o. A. wrote also the Chroniconz veying a similar idea to what is expressed by the term incarna- Bavaric (1522), and a life of the Emperor Henry IV., now very tion in Christian theology. Its rhetorical use in English is rare. He died at Regensburg, January 9, I534. See the inaccurate. The sudden appearance of a great thinker, states- Biographies of Wiedemann (Freising, I858) andDittmar (Nbrdl. man, priest, or warrior, is not an A. 1862). Avatch'a, a spacious bay on the E. coast of Kamchatka, Av'erage is a quantity intermediate to other quantities, so into which flow the rivers A. and Paratounka. The city of that the sum total of its excesses above those which are less, is the Petropaulovsk lies on the bay, and 20 miles N. there is a volcanic same as the sum total of its defects from those which are greater, mountain called A., 9055 feet high. and is found by dividing the sum of the quantities by the number Av'ebury, or Ab'ury, a village of Wiltshire, on the Ken- of quantities. net, a small branch of the Thames, 25 miles N. of Salisbury, is Average, in maritime contracts and in insurance has several notable for possessing the largest stone circle in Europe. This meanings. It means the compensation due by the underwriter circle, popularly assumed to have been a Druidical temple, when there is a partial loss of anything insured, as when goods consists of one hundred large blocks of stone, placed on end, are partly lost or injured. This is called'Particular A.' -When forming a circle 470 yards in diameter. It is bounded by a the captain of a ship throws goods overboard under distress, deep ditch and an embankment, and encloses two small circles this loss is brought into what is called'General A.;' that is, the of similar character. The stones are oblong in shape, from 5 loss is allotted proportionally to all concerned in ship, freight, 230 15 4' AVE MTZE GLOBE RENC YCLOPMDL4. AVI or cargo. The insurer of each owner, if he have any, must com| 3402 sq. miles; pop. (I872) 402,474. —The river A., go miles pensate him.'Particular A.' is the term applied to the liability long, rises near Severac-le-Chfateau, flows W. to Montauban, which the underwriters come under on specified articles. The where it joins the Tarn, a branch of the Garonne. term is plainly an incorrect one. The allotment of such ex-, pense as extra wages, pilotage, is called'Petty A.'' Average milveza S. o, a town in the province of Aquila, S. Italy, 22 bond' is a deed which those liable to General A. usually execute, the Barberini family. Lake Fucino, from which numerous bond' is a deed which those liable to General A. usually execute, miles S. of Aquila, lies on the Via Vateria, and is a possession of to empower an arbiter to value and allot the loss. the Barberini family. Lake Fucino, from which numerous marbles with inscriptions have been recovered, is about a mile Aver'nus (Gr. Aornos), now Lago d'Averno, a small circular distant. These marbles are carefully preserved in the churches lake in the crater of an extinct volcano, about a mile and a of the town. Pop. 5146. half in circumference. It lies between Cumoe, Puteoli, and Baise, and was said to give off mephitic vapours destructive of Asviary (Lat. aviarium, from avis a bird), a place for keeping animal life. Hence probably its Greek name, which signifies birds. Aviaries are of different kinds and sizes, from the domes-'without birds.' Homer makes it the entrance to the lower tic cage up to the extensive arrangements seen in zoological world, and here were placed the grove of Hecate and the grotto gardens. When the birds belong to warm regions, the aviaries of the Cumnean sybil. are generally in connection with hothouses for the purpose of artificially regulating the temperature; if natives of temperate Aver'hobs, or Averrho~s, a Graecised or Latinised form climes, the open garden is enough. The enclosure of each bird of the Arabic Aben- or Zan-Roshd, is the name of an illustrious is usually covered with netting. Moorish physician and philosopher, born at Cordova, according to El Ansari, in II20. He belonged to a very good family of An- Avicenn'a, a Latinised form of Ibn-Sina, the name of a dalusia. His grandfather, Abul-Walid-Mohammed Ibn-Roshd, famous Eastern physician and philosopher, born (according to the Cadi of Cordova, was a distinguished jurisconsult, and A. Ibn-Khallikan) in 980, in the neighbourhood of Bokhara, to resolved to follow the same profession. He studied theology, which city his parents removed while A. was still young. At jurisprudence, medicine, and philosophy under the best masters, Bokhara he commenced his studies, and exhibited a wonderful and was intimate with men who were the leaders of scientific precocity, acquiring, at an incredibly early age, a competent thought in Spain in the I2th c. Meanwhile great political knowledge of the Koran, of arithmetic and algebra, of the catechanges were taking place in the country. The dynasty of the gories of Aristotle, the elements of Euclid, and jurisprudence. Almoravides (q. v.) was, in I I30, violently replaced by that of At sixteen he applied himself with ardour to the study of natural the Almohades (q. v.), and a new impetus was given to literature philosophy and medicine, and with the aid of the commentary and science. The Sultan Yusuf (II63-84) was a great friend of Abu-Nasr Alfarabi, mastered the logic and metaphysics of of A., and conferred on himn high honours; but his successor, Aristotle. At twenty-one he wrote an Encyclopsedia of the Al Mansur (I 184-99), though for a time extremely friendly, sciences, and not long after gave public lectures on logic and the was essentially a religious fanatic, and finally lent his ear to the Ailnagesi of Ptolemy. His fame as a scholar and physician progroundless accusations of a malignant orthodoxy. A. was cured for him in turn the patronage of the rulers of Khorassan, banished from Cordova, and died at Morocco I2th December Khowaresm, and Hamadan. He passed the last fourteen years I I98. It is difficult to understand in what his heresy consisted. of his life at the court of the Emir of Ispahan, where he wrote the As told by the Arab historians, it is enveloped in vague and greater part of his works on logic, metaphysics, astronomy, puerile circumstantialities, but according to Ibn-Abi-Oceibia, and geometry. He died at Hamadan in 1037, his end having, the real cause was the hatred of the Mohammedan priesthood to it is said, been hastened by indulgences unbecoming a philosopher, the culture of philosophy and the study of the ancients. This is hence the proverb, that his philosophy could not give him wissomewhat confirmed by the fact that A. did not suffer alone. dom, nor his medicine health. The writings of A. number more A general persecution raged; everywhere philosophers, physi. than a hundred. His principal work, litab-el-kanuni-jfI- Tibbi cians, poets, &c., were in danger, and before the close of the cen- (Book of the Canon of Medicine), was printed in Arabic at tury the light of scientific genius in Southern Spain had gone out. Rome in 1593, in 4 vols. folio. It is selected for the most A.'s writings are numerous, and embrace almost every sub- part from the works of the Greek physicians, and was long in ject of human knowledge. According to a MS. in the Escu- great repute. Several translations were made into Hebrew, one rial, there are nearly eighty, most of which treat of philosophy, of which, attributed to the Rabbi Nathan Amathi, was published medicine, and the kindred sciences. Some are known only by at Naples in 149I, in 3 vols. fol. Latin translations are very Latin or Hebrew translations, others remain unedited. Of the common; there were at least fourteen before the end of the I5th former, the most valuable, and those that exercised the greatest c., the earliest was by Gerardus Cremonensis, a revised and corinfluence upon the philosophy of Latin Christendom in the rected edition of which, with notes, was printed at Venice in middle ages, were his commentaries and paraphrases upon Aris- I595, in 2 vols. fol. A.'s metaphysical writings, and his totle, of which a Latin version was published at Venice in II numerous contributions to physical science, were highly prized, vols. I552-53. See Renan's Averrots et iAverroimzne (Par. and found many editors; but a large number of his works have I852). never been edited, and the MSS. are scattered over the great Aver'rhoa, a genus of plants belonging to the order Oxali braries of Europe. See Wiistenfeld's Geschichte der Arabischzen dacec. See CARAMBOLA. AerIte und Naurfarscher (i840). Aver'sa, a town in the province of Caserta, S. Italy, midway Avicenntia, a genus of Dicotyledonous trees and shrubs between Naples and Capua. It lies in a delightful district of belonging to the order Verbenaces (q. v.). They grow in vineyards and orange-groves, is the see of a bishop, and has aswampy estuaries in tropical countries, and are called it a mangroves. A. lomentosa is used for tanning in Rio, and its cathedral. The Normans built A. in Io29, on land granted by mangroves. caDuthe Sergius ofThe Normans built Aaples. In I345 Andreas029, on land granted by ashes are employed for cleaning cotton cloth in India. The bark Duke Sergius of Naples. In 345 Andreas of Hungary was of A. ni/ida is used for tanning in the W. Indies. In New Zeamurdered here, with the connivance of his wife, Joanna I. of Naples. Near to A. is the site of the old Oscan Atella. See land a resinous substance got from A. resinfer is eaten. ATELLANiE. Pop. 15,902. Avic'ula, a genus of Lamelibranchiazte Mollusca, forming Av'es. See ORNITrHIOLOGY. the type of the family Aviculid&e, in which the shell is inequi-valve oblique, and fixed by a byssus or'beard;' the hinge is toothless, Avey'ron, a department of France, in the basin of the the mantle-lobes free, the posterior adductor muscle being larger Garonne, with the highlands of Auvergne on the N., and on the than the anterior; the foot is of small size. The genus is reW. the Cevennes, by the offsets of which it is traversed. Two- presented by the Aviculse, by the Pinnet or'wing-shells,' and by thirds of the surface are cultivated, and yield corn, rye, potatoes, the pearl-oysters (Avicula or AMeleag6rina Margaritifera), &c. fruit, and truffles; the rest affords excellent pasturage for cattle, a town in t e of Basilicata, S. Italy, goatsandsheep. scheese is famed. The d't Aviglia'no, a town in the province of Basilicata, S. Italy, goats, and sheep. Its cheese is famed. The department oo miles N.W. of Potenza, with a collegiate church. There are is watered by the A., Lot, Tarn, and other feeders of the rich pasture lands in the neighbourhood, on which a celebrated Garonne. It is rich in iron, coal, lead, zinc, copper, antimony, breed ofcattleisreared. Pop. 9236. and vitrol; and besides mining, there is much cotton-spinning, tanning, and carpet-weaving. Rhodez is the chief town. Area, Av'ignon, the chief city of the department of Vaucluse, in _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~,~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 23r 5 A-VI THE GI,/ O iiR P VCtcL OPDA AWE the S.E. of France, on the left bank of the Rhone, and a station The average length of the British species (R. avoce/fa) is about on the railway from Lyon to Marseille, has a population (I872) eighteen inches, the plumage being coloured white and black. It of 27,409. It is an archiepiscopal see, and its ecclesiastical struc- is now comparatively rare in tures are numerous and imposing. The most celebrated are England, but was formerly La Chzapelle des Daoms, containing the mausoleum of Pope John common in marshes and fens. XXII., which is considered a masterpiece of the I6th c., the papal It occurs also in Europe, Asia, castle, a singular structure of vast size and diverse architecture, and S. Africa. In the Amethe church of St Peter, and that of the Ccelestines. The city rican A. (R. Americana), the is rich in valuable collections, classic and mediaeval. At one bill is less curved than in the time A. possessed a university, but it was abolished in I794, British species. The wings in after having existed nearly five centuries. The vicinity is plea- both species are well devesant; the district produces grain, fruits, and wine, and there are loped. Other species inhabit manufactures of silks, muslins, calicos, tanneries, brass and iron- N. America, India, and Ausfoundries. From I305 to I377 A. was the residence of seven tralia. occupants of St Peter's chair, as well as of some anti-popes. void'ace is a term of - Two ecclesiastical councils were held here (I326 and I337). It English ecclesiastical law, sig- a was at A. that Petrarch first saw Laura, and her tomb is in the nifying that a benefice is Franciscan church.-A. the Ave.nio Cavarum of the Romans, vacant. first became a possession of the French crown in I226, but was sold to Pope Clement VI. for 8o,ooo gold florins. Avoir'dupoi's, or Aver- Avocet. dupois, usually said to be Av'ila, the capital of a province of the same name, Old derived from the French avoir dz paois, to have weight, but, conCastile, Spain, on the Adaja, 53 miles N.W. of Madrid. sidering the older form of the word, the verb from which it comes It is the see of a bishop-suffragan, with a grand cathedral, is probably not avoir, but the middle-age Latin verb averar-e and a university. Though now much decayed, it was formerly (obsolete French averer, to aver or verify), is the system of one of the richest cities in Spain. The nobles of Old Castile weights used in this country for all goods, except the precious met at A. in I465 for the purpose of raising Alfonso V. to the metals and medicines. The ton contains 20 hundredweights throne; and here also assembled the Third Estate or Holy (cwt.), 80 quarters (qr.), and 2240 pounds (lb.); the ipound conLeague in 1520, at which almost every city of Castile was repre- tains I6 ounces (oz.), 256 drams (dr.), and 7000 grains (gr.) Troy. sented. A. was the birthplace of the voluminous pedant Alfonso A stone, which is in extensive use, is I4 lbs., or half a quarter. Tostado de Madrigal, created bishop of A. in I449, and of'our In New York, aud some other American districts, the cwt. conseraphic mother, the holy Teresa, spouse of Jesus,' who was made tains only IOO lbs., and the ton 2000 lbs. lady-patroness of Spain by Philip III., and was canonised by Gregory XV. in I622. The town abounds in rich sculpture. v'on, a Celtic word signifying a river. The Welsh form Pop. 6420. is Afon; the Manx, Aaon; the Gaelic, Abhainn (pron. Avain). The root is seen in the Sansk. Ap or Ab, water. See AA. A. Avila Y Zuriiga, Don Luiz de, a Spanish soldier and is the name of many streams in England and Scotland, and historian about I490, born at Placencia, Estremadura. He enters into the composition of many words denoting streams in was appointed ambassador from Charles V. to Popes Paul IV. every Celtic country in Europe. Of the British Avons, the first and Pius IV., and engaged in the war waged by Charles in in point of fame is the Warwickshire A., which rises in North 1546-47, against the princes of the league of Schmalkald, of amptonshire, and flows, mainly in a south-westerly direction, which he wrote a graphic account under the title Commentarios through the counties of Warwick and Worcester, past Rugby, de la Guerra de Alematia, hecha paor Carlos, 5 en I546 y I547. It *Warwick, Stratford, and Evesham, till it joins the Severn at was first printed in Spain in I547, then at Amsterdam in I550, Tewkesbury, after a course of Ioo miles. Two other Avons in turned into Italian (Ven. I548) by the author himself, and has England merit notice, one of which, in the lower part of its been repeatedly translated into French and German. course, forms the boundary between Gloucester and Somerset, Avila, Gil Gonzalez de, a learned Jesuit, author of many and after passing Bath and Bristol, discharges itself into the historical works, was born at Avila, Old Castile, in 1577, and died Bristol Channel below the latter city; the other, rising in the April 25, I658. The most valuable are his Historia de la Vida Wiltshire Downs, flows S. through Salisbury Plain and the y Nechos del Rey Don Henrique III. de Castilla (Madr. I638)* W. side of Hampshire, past Amesbury and Salisbury, entering His/aria de la Yida y Nec/os deSl Monarc~ a Dozn Felipe I.,*the English Channel at Christ Church. The Welsh Avons are Hist/ria de Salamanca (Salam. i806); and Teatro Eclesias/ico very small, and so are the Scotch, the largest being the Lanarkdte la przimiiva Iglesia de las Inzdias Occidentales (2 vols. Madr. shire A., which rises on the borders of Ayrshire, and flows N.E. 1649-56). past Strathavon, joining the Clyde at Hamilton. Avranches', a town in the department of Mlanche, France, A-viles', an ancient town in the province of Oviedo, Spain, i9a miles N. by W. ofancient town in the mouthvince of a navigable branch 55 miles S.W. of Caen, near the mouth of the Seez, which enters y W. of Oviedo, at the mouth of r a navigable branch the Bay of Mont St Michel. It has some trade in hemp, flax, of the Aviles. Copper and coal are found in the vicinity, and lace, brcs, cider, and sea-salt, and possesses amuseum, botanithere are manufactures of glass and earthenware. The original lace, bricks, cider, and sea-salt, and possesses a museum, botanithere are manufactures of glass and earthenware. The orginal cal garden, and public library of 25,000 volumes and 200manncharter granted by Alonzo VII. in II35 is still preserved in theal g arden, and public libraryof 25,ort volumes and200manu. ~~~~~~mu~icipal archives. Pop.scripts. A. is a favourite resort of English families. Pop. municipal archives. Pop. 7400. (I872) 7324. A. is the old Ingena of the Gallic Abrincatui, Aviz', a Portuguese order of knighthood, instituted, like the who have given name to the modern town. It was the seat of Spanish order of Calatrava, to resist and quell the Moors. It a bishop from the 6th c. to 1791, was fortified by Charle(dates from the reign (II85-I2II) of Sancho, second King of magne as a frontier defence against the Celts of Brittany, and Portugal, and still exists as an order of merit. under Lanfranc (q. v.) became a great school of philosophy. In the Hundred Years' War between France and England, it Avoca'do Pear, the namte given to the fruit of PeIsea was repeatedly taken by both parties, and suffered a similar issim, a tree belonging to the order Laurace ( v) It is fortune in the I6th c. during the Huguenot wars. Its fine common in tropical America and the West Indian Islands, where cathedral, ruined during the revolution of 1789, had to be taken the fruit is highly esteemed. The pulp has a buttery taste, and down in 1799 for safety. A stone on which Henry II. of Eng is generally eaten with spice, or pepper and salt. An excellent land is said to have knelt to receive absolution from the papal -Avocet' (Recur~viros/ra), a genus of Grallatorial or Wading overshadowed by lofty mountains. Iv is abouti 24 miles long, olirdl, distinguished by the elongated bill, which is curved from a mile to Ii miles broad, and extends N.E. and S.W. Its upwards at the tip. Tra),e legs are elongated, and the toes are surface, which seldom freezes, lies It8 feet above the sea. At more fully webbed than in the majority of true wading birds. its N.W. end are many picturesque islands, on one of which 232 |AWN TIlt GLOBP ]LWCYCZ1t OPAi9iA. AYA (Fraocheilean) are the ruins of a castle built in the reign of Alex- agate put on a heated axe-blade. He was deemed the criminal ander III. Here also, on a peninsula, stands Kilchurn Castle at the recital of whose name the axe moved. See DIVINATION. (Gael. Chaoil-clhirnz,'the narrow cairn ), built in I440, and (Gael. -Chaoi-chuirn,' the narrow cairn'), built in 1440, and Ax'iom (Gr. aximima, lit., what is thought fit; hence what garrisoned by royal troops till I745. The river A., 7 miles long, Asbiou e (Gr, a a, lit., what is thought fit; hence what connects the lake in the N. with Loch Etive, an arm of the sea. should be accepted), a term used in scientific inquiry to denote Near the point where the river issues is the grand'Pass of A.,' what is already assumed as the basis of demonstration; and ht in mathematics is specifically applied to what is or seems to be a or Pass of Brander, above which Ben Cruachan rises to a height self-evident proposition. Geometry is based by Euclid on a few of 3669 feet. Loch A. abounds in salmon and trout, its chief se-evient feeders are the Orchy and Strae, and anglers can now find excel- axioms, or common notions, the truth of which is admitted as lent quarters at the inn of Port-Sonachan. soon as the terms in which they are expressed are understood, and which could not be made plainer by any attempted demonAwn, or Arista, the name given to the beard of corn (oat), stration. The distinction, now accepted, between postulates and or any such slender process. Examples of it are also seen in axioms, viz., that the former are assumed problems, and the latter barley, rye, and bearded wheat. assumed theorems, does not exist in Euclid. It was first adopted by Simson, but the author is unknown. Axioms, though uni. Axe, a form of fExe (Cymric, Vysg, Latinised into Isca, thence versally received, are not necessary truths Exe or Ax), the name of two small English streams, one of which rises on the southern slope of the Mendip Hills, not far from Wells, Ax'is, in geometry, is an arbitrary straight line which is conand flows N.W. into the Bristol Channel, near Weston-super- venient for reference with respect to any motion or other pheMare; the other has its origin on the sides of the Dorsetshire nomenon. Thus we have axes of rotation, co-ordinates, polarDowns, and flows S. through the eastern border of Devonshire, ization, inertia, &c. We have the magnetic A., the axes of a past Axminster, into Lyme Bay, on the English Channel. crystal, the A. of a lens and of a telescope, &c. For further information, the reader is referred to the special articles. Ax'el, or Ab'salon, Archbishop of Lund, one of the great promoters of Christian civilisation in the N. of Europe, was born Axis is the second vertebra, and forms a pivot on which the at Finnestoe, in the isle of Zealand, in I 28. He was a kinsman atlas and head rotate. The body of the vertebra supports the of Waldemar, afterwards King of Denmark, and on his return odontoid process which passes through the posterior part of the fiom Paris, whither he had gone to complete his studies, he was ring of the atlas. This process is kept in position by a powerful made Bishop of Roskilde, and a member of the king's council. transverse ligament, while too great an extent of rotation is preA., though a churchman, was also a strong patriot, and the vented by the action of two small ligaments passing from the Norse fire burned in his blood. He chased the Wendish pirates occipital bone to the odontoid process termed the check ligafrom the Danish coasts, and forced them to accept Christianity ments. Fracture of the odontoid process of the A. causes instant in the isle of Rugen, after burning the temple of their god Svan- death, bypressure on the medilla oblongata. tovit at Arkona. In II78 he became Archbishop of Lund. A tovit at Arkona. In 1178 he became Archbishop of Lund. A Axis, in botany, is applied to the stem and root, or any centre fortress which he erected on the Sound as a defence against thes Baltic pirates was the origin of Copenhagen. A. energetically round which leaves or othergans are arranged; thus the stem defended against the German emperor the rights of the Killr ngOf the A., the root the descefdA. Denmark over the Baltic provinces wrested from the Wends, and extended Danish authority over Mecklenburg and Esthonia. Ax'minster, a town in Devonshire, on the Axe, 25 miles S. The code of Waldemar was partly his work. A. was no less of Taunton. It has some manufactures of druggets and woollens, diligent in the affairs of the church than in those of the state. and was formerly famed for its carpets, but this industry has been He reformed the'rules' of the Danish monasteries. Literature removed to Wilton. A. is said to have been founded by King is also indebted to him. It was at the request of A. that Saxo- AEthelstan in 937, and has a very old church. Pop. (I87I) 2861. Grammaticus (q. v.) wrote his valuable History of Denmark; Ax and he is also believed to be the person who ordered the monks A outh, a fishing-village in Devonshire, at the mouth of of SoroE to draw up the annals of the kingdom. He died in the Axe, near which, in I839, occurred an extraordinary landslip, 1201. See Estrup's Absalon considered as a Hetro, a Statesmanz, forming a chasm nearly a mile long, 200 feet wide, and 250 deep. andn a Bishoyp (Soroj, I856). It resulted from the action of the sea on the greensand strata of which the coast consists. Axe'stone, a hard greenish-coloured stone, considered a olotl, a genus of Urodela, or'Tailed Amphibians, found variety of nephrite (q. v.), or jade. It is so named because the Aolotl, a genus of oea, or'Tailed' Amphibians, found New Zealanders, and the inhabitants of other islands in the S. possessing four limbs, the front pair each Pacific, fashion it into axes and other weapons. having four, and the hinder five toes. The Mexican A. (.Siredon pisciforne) is the best-known form. It is a pereznnzibranchiate Ax'holme Isle, a flat fertile tract in the N. of Lincolnshire, amphibian, retaining the external gills or branchiae of early life formerly a' river island,' completely encircled by the rivers Trent, throughout its entire existence, and possessing lungs in addition Don, Torne, and Vicardyke. It is I8 miles long, about 5 broad; to these branchiae. The gills appear as three external fringe-like contains seven parishes, also two market towns, Crowle and Ep- processes borne on each side of the neck. In confinement, the worth, and abounds with gypsum and beds of peat. It was a Axolotls may lose their gills; one species-Siredon lichenoides marsh till I634, when it was drained by Cornelius Vermuyden, a of Western America-exemplifying this change. These animals Dutchman, at a cost of /56,ooo. Many Dutch and French possess dorsal and caudal or tail fins. They average 8 or 9 inches Protestants having settled here, a tedious lawsuit (I69I) estab- in length, and are eaten in Mexico. lished their right to 2868 acres, the original residents receiving. Axme) in the p Io,532. The name is a hybrid, the first syllable being the Celtic A-um (anc. Auxame) in the province of Tigre', Abyssinia Ax,'water,' and the second the Danish ol,'an island.' To formerly the capital of the Ethiopian empire of A., which s, wIsler' has been superfluously added in later times. included Abyssinia, and portions of S.W. Arabia. The empire this,'Isle'has been superfluously added in later times. formed the southern boundary to the power of Rome, com. Ax'il, in botany, is applied to the angle formed between the manded the commerce of the Red Sea, traded with India. axis and any organ that grows from it; for example, buds are Greek philosophy and Christianity were introduced from Egypt, formed in the A. of leaves. the first bishop being Frumentius, and A. contained probably the first Christian community in Abyssinia. A. incurred the enmity Axill'a is the armpit. When the arm is extended at the of the Arabs in the 6th c. by interfering on behalf of the Arabian shoulder-joint, the A. is a pyramidal space, the apex of which is Christians, the result of which was a succession of contests, situated between the clavicle and first rib, while the base is formed which culminated in its fall, and the dissolution of the empire. by the skin. It contains a large quantity of loose areolar tissue, The modern A. is a place of from 2000 to 3000 inhabitants, and fat, lymphatic glands, the axillary artery, veins, and numerous is rich in remains of antiquity, obelisks, altars, catacombs, tablets, nerves. It is frequently the seat of abscesses and tumours. inscriptions, &c. It is even yet a holy city for Abyssinian Christians, where all feuds must cease. Axi'nomancy (Gr. axine, an axe; and manteia, divination), a Greek mode of divination, by which a guilty person was pointed Ayacuch'o, the capital of a department of the same name, out by the motion of an axe balanced on a pole, or by that of an Peru, famous as the place where the Colombian and Peruvian 4 30 03 v AYA THE GLOBE ENVC YCLOPDIA. AYR allies defeated the Spanish forces, 9th December I824, and so one of three commissioners appointed for the preservation of the ended the Spanish rule on the continent of America. The battle papers in the new State-Paper Office, on its establishment in field is called La Puerlt de los zuerlos ('The Gate of the Dead'). 1763, In 1772 he printed Calendars of the Ancient Charters, The town of A. has 24 churches, and carries on considerable &c., in the Tower of London, and also edited Leland's Collectrade. Pop. 28,000. tanea (9 vols.), Hearne's Curious Discourses, &c. At his death, Aya'la, Perdo Lopez de, Spanish historian and poet, born I9th April 1781, he was engaged on a work on Sepzulchral in Murcia I332. A cadet of one of the best Castilian families, Monumes, afterwards completed by Gough. he filled high offices of state under four successive monarchs. In Ay'mon, the surname of Alard, Richard, Guiscard, and I367, at the battle of Najera, he was captured and imprisoned Renaud, sons of Aymon, Count of Dordogne, favourite heroes by the English; and again by the Portuguese at the battle of of the chivalric literature of the middle ages. Their exploits Aljubarota (1385). His Cr6nicas de los Reyes de Castillas, Don are mainly mythical, forming part of the marvels attributed to Pedro, Don Henrique Iz., Don _Jnan I., y Don H-enrique II. Charlemagne and his followers. Huon de Villeneuve, a French (2 vols. Madr. I779-80), is the first Spanish work in which a poet, who flourished in the reign of Philippe Auguste, makes philosophical review of events, and not a mere simple narra- them. the heroes of a novel, Les Quztre Eils Aymon, and Ariosto's tive of facts, is attempted. His poem, El Rimrado de Palacio Roland treats chiefly of the adventures of Renaud, traditionally ('Rhymes of the Court'), is a satirical poem, in which for the the bravest of the brothers. Tieck's well-known work on the first time the popular early ballad form is abandoned, and a more exploits of the brothers, and of their horse Bayard, is drawn modern style of composition attempted. A. was also the first apparently from a different source. translator of Livy into Spanish. iAyo'ra, a town in Valencia, Spain, 5o miles S.W. of ValenAyamou'te, a fortified town in Spain, province of Huelva, A a town in Valencia, Spain, 50 miles S.W. of Vale Athyamonzte, a fortified town in Spain, province of Huelva, cia, on the river A. Husbandry and the manufacture of oil are on an acclivity near the mouth of the Guadiana, where it sepa- the chief industries. The ruins of an old castle crown the sua rates Spain from Portugal. Fishing is the principal industry. mit of a hill in the vicinity. Pop. 5412. Boat-building and lacemaking, formerly largely engaged in, have much fallen off, and there are unimportant manufactures of soap Ayr, the capital of Ayrshire, on the left bank of the A., 33 and earthenware. Pop. 5500. mniles S.S.W. of Glasgow. The riveris spanned by the'Auld Aye-Aye (Cheziromzys Maadagascariensis), a Quadrumanous Brig' and'New Brig' celebrated by Burns. The town is mammal or monkey, belonging to the Sresirine ('twisted- ancient, its charter, granted by William the Lyon, dating from nostrils') section of the Quadrumana about 1202. During the wars of Edward I. it was (according (q.ostrils') section of the Quadrumana to Blind Harry) the scene of some of Wallace's earliest exploits, 6. \R\ v.), and found exclusively in Mada- but no earlier Scottish writer associates the hero with the place. gascar. The nostrmils are curved, and The modern town is clean and well-built, and many handsome placed at the extremity of the nose, villas have been erected to the S. and W. A. exports annually bThis animal resembles a large squirrel, about 200,oo0 tons of coal, and the trade will be much increased the tail being bushy. No canine teeth when the wet dock, at present in course of construction, and exist, the molars and incisors being estimated to cost 40,000ooo, is completed. Pop., including widely separated, and the latter teeth Newton-upon-Ayr (87), I7,954 A., in conjunction with growing throughout life as in Rodentia. Campbelton, Irvine, Inverary, and Oban, sends a member to All the feet have five toes, ut the thumb parliament. The town and the county receive their name from is hardly opposable to the other fingers, is hardly opposable to the other fingers, the river A., a name which is probably a survival from the old the hind toe being opposable. The times of the Strathclyde Britons, signifying in Cymric'the gentle middle finger is as long as the ring water. finger, and the second toe is'terminated by a long claw-like nail. The ears are Ayr'shire, a maritime county in the S.W. of Scotland, area large. The A. is of nocturnal habits, 149 sq. miles. The surface undulates, reaching no great elevase and feeds on insects and frtiits. tion except in the S. and S.E., which are somewhat mountainous, Ayesh'ah, the favourite wife of Mo- while there are a few hills on the N. The principal rivers, all Aye-Aye. hammed, to whom she was married hort, are the Ayr and the Doon, traversing the centre of the when only nine years old, was eorn in county, the Girvan and Stinchar the S., and the Irvine anti io or 6i AD. As she was then only one of the Prophet's orives Garnock the N. Coal has been long worked extensively and Sho or v i he wa s th 67 therod's n ame ws c anged fromd who was a virgin, her father's name was changed frofm Abdalla profitably, freestone and limestone abound, and there are rich to Abu-Bekr,'the father of the virgin.' In his last illness Mo- beds of ironstone. The soil on the coast is sandy, clayey in the hammed had himself carried to her house, where he died in her terior, and on the are extensive moorlands. Agriarms. An accusation of adultery having been brought against her, cultue is in a flourishing condition, and the farms, generally Mohammed composed the twenty-fourth chapter of the Koran to small, are in a high state of cultivation. Dairy-husbandry predemonstrate her purity, and declared that every calumniator de- ils, Dunlo cheese being still deservedly famous, though served eternal damnation. After the assassination of Othman cheese-making by the Cheddar process is carried on to a large she opposed the accession of Ali, who had at first believed in her extent; and A. much-cows are unsurpassed for dairy purposes. guilt. Ali, however, defeated her troops, took herself prisoner, In I874 there were 311,529 acres in crop or pasture. Woollen but dismissed her with permission to reside anywhere in Arabia and cotton manufactures, ironworks, and engineering, are carried she pleased, as long as she kept aloof from affairs of state. As on largely at ock. There are cotton-wors at Catrie a prophetess, her interpretations of the Koran were authoritative. and there is a pottery at Cumnock. Extensive ironwors have She died at Medina in 677 A.D. been erected at Muirkirk, Kilwinning, Dairy, Ardeer, Hurlford, and Dalmellington. Fancy woodwork, in the shape of snuff. Ayles'bury, a town in Buckinghamshire, to the S. of the boxes, card-cases, &c., employs numerous hands in Mauchline and Thame, 40 miles N.W. of London by rail. It overloolks the Old Cumnock. Anciently A. was divided into Carrick, S. of picturesque vale of A., through which a rivulet flows to the the Doon; Kyle, between the Doon and the Irvine; and CunThame. The occupations are chiefly agricultural, but there are ningham, N. of the Irvine. The district between the Ayrand the also strawplait,'bone-lace,' and silk manufactures. The rearing Doon was sometimes called Kyle-Stewart. Pop. (1871) 200,809. of ducks for the London Christmas market is largely carried on. A. returns two members to parliament, one for N. A., and A. was a stronghold of the Britons, and was not taken by the one for S. A. The chief towns are, Ayr, Kilmarnock, Irvine, Saxons till 57I, when it was called Aeglesbyrlig, perhaps in Ardrossan, Maybole, and Largs. A. is famous for its struggles honour of Eigil, the hero-archer. It sends two members to par. and sufferings for the Covenant. liament. P ~OP. (I872) 28;~760. Ayrshire Cattle. The characteristics of these cattle are a Ay'loffe, Sir Joseph, a meritorious English antiquary, was plentiful flowof milk; varying from twenty-four to thirty-fourquarts born about 1708, near Framfield, Sussex. In I73I he was daily. The head of a pure Ayrshire should be broad, gradually chosen a fellow of the Royal Society; in I732 a fellow of the tapering downwards to the nostrils, which should be expanded, Society of Antiquaries, and ultimately vice-president. He was and dark. The colour of the animals varies much, from white, 234 ~, ——, A. —------— ~ AYT THE GLOBE ENiCYCIOPEDIA. AZI with light-brown and yellow patches, to dark-brown with white drons (q. v.). There are about twenty-five species, natives of spots, and from orange to dark-brown with marled flecks. N. America and Asia. A. po-ontica is a yellow-flowered, fragrant The butter-colour, other things being equal, is preferred. The species, found in the countries around the Black Sea, and being eye should be full, the shape wedge-like, the shoulders being the quite hardy in Britain, is common in gardens. It possesses danthin edge. Thence to the tail the body should gradually deepen gerous narcotic qualities, which poison cattle and sheep which to the loins, and width across the backbones is essential to sus- chance to eat it. It has been stated that it was from the flowers tain the udder, which is the most important point in this breed. of this plant that'the bees of Pontus collected the honey that The udder should be so distended as to fill out the whole produced the extraordinary symptoms of poisoning described as space between the hind legs, and tapering thence towards the having attacked the Greek soldiers in the famous retreat of the belly. The legs should be straight, tapering gradually. The Ten Thousand. Xenophon says that after eating it the men horns should curve slightly upwards. Tail long and bushy. fell stupified in all directions, so that the camp looked like a Bulls should be broader in shoulders, deeper round the heart battlefield covered with corpses.' A. Indica is a beautiful greenthan cows, and rounder in the quarters. -The milk given by house shrub when in flower; there are several varieties of it, of Ayrshires is much esteemed, and is mostly devoted to cheese. various tints of colour. A. procusmbens is a small trailing species making. found on the Scotch mountains, as well as on the Alps of Central Europe and in N. America. Ay'ton, Sir Robert, poet, born at Kinaldie, Fifeshire, I570; studied at St Andrews, and graduated there in I588; and Azegl'io, Xassimo Taparelli, larchese d', a celecompleted his studies in France. He held in succession impor- brated writer, artist, and statesman of Italy, was born at Turin tant positions in the courts of James I. and Charles I. His in I798. His father, of a noble family of Piedmont, having gone poems are written in pure and elegant English, and Burns has as ambassador to Rome, A., when fourteen years old, followed paraphrased several of them, one of which at least he has not him. He devoted himself with much enthusiasm to the study improved. A. seems to have been an accomplished scholar, as of painting, music, and belles-lettres, but his studies were cut he wrote verses in Greek, Latin, and French. He enjoyed the short by his being appointed an officer in the Piedmontese friendship of the wits of his day, among others of Ben Jonson. cavalry. Still his passion for art and literature continued unaHe died at Whitehall in March I638. A.'s poems have appeared bated, and the severity of his studies was so great that he fell in part in several publications. Ten are to be found in Watson's seriously ill, and was obliged to leave' the army. On his recoCallection of Scottish Poems (I7o6-II). His Latin poems are very, he proved himself to be more than an amateur in the fine given in Johnston's Deliicei Poasarum Scotorsum, i. 40, et seq.; and arts, for his picture representing the Origin of the Sforza Family a collected edition of his poems was edited by Dr Charles Rogers, is reckoned a masterpiece. Italian politics also engaged his from a MS. in his possession and other authentic sources (Edinb. earnest attention; and his novels Ettore Fieraomosco (I83I), and I844)- pfNicoso di Lapi (I84I), did much to fire the national spirit of Italy. A. is understood to have had an influence in determining Aytoun, William Edmondstoune, poet and humourist, Pio Nono in favour of that liberal policy that marked the beginwas born at Edinburgh 18I 3, studied there, and subsequently in ning of his pontifical rule, and it was at this period he published Germany. He was called to the Scottish bar in I840, was his important pamphlets on the Laws of the Press, the Emanciappointed professor of Rhetoric and Belles-Lettres in the Uni- pation of the Jews, &c. In 1848 he marched from Rome at the versity of Edinburgh in I845, and Sheriff of Orkney and Shet- head of the Papal troops charged to co-operate with Charles land in i852. A. is joint au.thor with Theodore Martin of a Albert against the Austrians. He commanded a legion at the volume of clever parodies and humorous pieces called the Boss battle of Vicenza, where he was somewhat severely wounded. Gazslier Ballads (1854), and of a volume of translations of In I849, after the battle of Novara, Victor Emanuele made hiln Goethe's minor poems (Lond. i859); and in I849 he published President of the Cabinet. At the close of the war in I859 he the work on which his reputation as a poet rests-Lays of the received the temporary office of Military Commissioner ExtraScottish Cavaliers, and other Poems. Firmiiian, a S.pasmodic ordinary for the Roman States. In these high offices the influ. Tragedy, a caricature of the school of poets of whom Bailey, ence of A. was always exerted in an unselfish and patriotic Dobell, and Alexander Smith were the chief representatives, spirit; and on his retirement his advice-ever temperate, but was published in I854, and Bothwell in I856. Not the least never weak-continued to be of infinite benefit to his country. valuable of his works is his Ballads of Scotland (2 vols. Edinb. He died 15th January I866. His first wife was a daughter of i858). A. was one of the brightest journalists of his day. Of Manzoni. His Memoirs appeared in I867 (Germ. transl. I869); his tales, published in Blackwood, of which he was long a valued and his Political Correspondence (I847-65) was published by contributor, the best known for their broad and robust humour Rendu in i866. See Ratti's Vita e Meriti di AI A. (I868). are The Glenmutchkin Rlaileoay, and How I Became a Yeoman. His professorial lectures were a series of admirable readings, Azerbijan' (anc. lledia Atroyatene), a fertile province in the remarkable for their graceful and picturesque style. His latest N. of Persia, bordering on Turkish Kurdistan on the W., and work was a novel entitled Norman Sinclair (Edinb. i86i). A. on Russia on the N., intersected by many mountain ranges rising died at Edinburgh, August 4, i865. See Memoir of W. E. A., from 7000 to 9000 feet high. It yields rice, wheat, barley, maize, by Theodore Martin (Edinb. I867), flax,'hemp, cotton, saffron, and tobacco; iron, lead, copper, sulphur, salt, and saltpetre are found; and the chief manufactures Ayuntamien'to, the name given in Spain to the municipal are velvet, silk stuffs, woollens, and leather. Many camels, council, or governing body of towns. During the long wars with horses, cattle, and sheep are reared. The largest rivers are Aras the Moors, when it was necessary for each town to hold itself or Araxes, the Kara Su, the Kizil-Uzen, and several others constantly prepared to resist sudden attack, the A. rose to great which fall into the Urumiyah, the largest salt lake in Persia. influence and power. During the last three centuries its The alternations of temperature are extreme, but the climate is influence and efficiency flourished or waned with the vicissitudes healthy. Tabriz (q. v.) is the capital. The highest peak in the of the national liberty. By a statute of I837, the A. is declared province is Savalan, 13,000 feet, and on the N. W. frontier rises a body freely elected by the people, presided over by the alcalde, Mount Ararat. Area, 30,000 sq. miles; pop. estimated at and having full control of municipal affairs-police, taxes, local 900,000. funds, &c. A subsequent Act (I840), which proposed to deprive the A. of all political power, led to insurrection, and the expul- Azimabad', or Tirow'li, a fortified town of Sirhind, India, sion of the queen, Maria Christina; but in i844 an Act similar 9 miles N.W. of Kurnal, with a spacious caravanserai within an in its provisions was passed. embattled wall, and surrounded by a ditch to which water can at any time be admitted. Pop. some 6000ooo. Azadirach'ta Indica, an Indian tree belonging to the order imghur' or A Meliacece. An acrid oil is obtained from its fruit, which is used Az zim's Fort, a town in a dis of the same in India for burning as well as for dyeing cotton. Its bark is name, NW. Provinces, division of Benares, India, on the Tons, a branch of the Gogra, 1o9 miles N.W. of Allahabad. The a tonic, and its root has been used as a vermifuge. abranch of the Gogra, io9 miles N.W. of Allahabad. The a tonic, and its root has been used as a vermifuge. river, which is navigable, is here crossed by a bridge of boats. Aza'lea, a genus of shrubby plants belonging to the order During the mutiny the sepoys revolted at A., and on July I8, Ericacee, or Heath family. Many of them have showy, sweet- 1857, an engagement with a small English force took place, in scented flowers, and bear a general resemblance to Rhododen- which nearly 200 rebels were slain. Pop., apart from the garri. iN'"i 4 -4 AZI THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPZEDZA. AZU son (1872), I4,543. The district of A. is 2550 sq. miles in extent, a place of wealth and importance, but the gradual deposit of with a pop. in I872 of 1,531,4IO, chiefly employed in the manu- mud at the mouth of the river has greatly reduced its trade. facture of cotton and silk. Pop. Io,945. Az'imuth of a heavenly body, is the angular distance of that Azov, Sea of (anc. Panus Maeotis), a large gulf in the N. point on the horizon directly under the body from the N. or S. of the Black Sea, from which it is almost cut off by the peninsula point of the horizon. The word is probably a corruption of the of the Crimea. It is about I4,000 sq. miles in extent, receives Arabic as-sumit,2 signifying the way, path, tract, or quarter. the river Don at its N. end, and communicates with the Black The A. circle is a circle all of whose points have the same A., Sea by the narrow strait of Kertch. Its waters are shallow, that is, a vertical circle. and from its abundance of fish the Turks call it Baliik-Denis or Fish Sea. At the time of the Crimean war it was occupied by an expedition of the allies (I855), which stopped the supplies Azores' (Port. I/has Alores, i.e.,'hawk islands,' called also for Sebastopol and stormed the ports. Along the coast of the Ilhas Terzeiras), a cluster of nine islands in the N. Atlantic, Crimea extends a series of swamps, broken by shoals and sandbetween 36' 50' and 39~ 5o' N. lat., and 24~ 30' and 3I~ 20' W. banks, called the Putrid Sea (Siwash), separated from the Sea of long., about 800 miles W. of Portugal, of which kingdom they A. by the Tongue of Arabat, a long sandy spit. form a province, not a dependency. Their names are: St Mary, St Michael, Terceira, Gracioso, St Jorgo, Pico, Fayal, Flores, Az'tecs, the dominant tribe in Mexico from the beginning of and Corvo. Their total area is 999 miles, the pop. (I871)the 13th c. till the Spanish conquest in 15I9. See MEXICO. 258,933,and Corvo. Their tcapital area is 999 miles, the pop.islands are In i853 two children, a male and a female, said to be descended 258,933, and the capital Angra, in Terceira. The islands are volcanic, and much loss of life and property has been occasioned from the A., were exhibited in Britain by an American, who by eruptions, especially by that of May I808. The islands are in affirmed that tey had been brought from Iximaga, an ancient city of Central America, where they had been venerated as deities. general mountainous, the highest elevation (Pico Alto), which is His story was a transparent fabrication. The children, who were in Pico, being 7613 feet. The soil is fertile, and produces abun- less than three feet in height, and of low intelligence, especially dantly vines, oranges, and lemons; and wheat, Indian-corn, and the male, werepronunced b Professor Owen to be mere dwarfs. pulse are exported in considerable quantities. There is also They were doubtless mere Indian cretins. The Aztec children, some export trade in coarse linens, corn, cheese, and salted meat. for a time popular attractions, soon ceased to excite interest. The purity and mildness of the climate attract many persons affected with pulmonary complaints. That the A. were known Azu'a, a town 6o miles W. of St Domingo, island of San to the Carthaginians is proved by the Punic coins found in Domingo, W. Indies. Pop. 6000. Corvo. The Arabs and Normans also appear to have visited them, but it is to the Portuguese Gongalo Velho Cabral that Azua'ga, a town of Spain, province of Badajos, the centre of Europe owes its first definite knowledge of them. He redis- a grain-producing country, diversified by oak forests. Pop. 6400. covered them in I431-32, and in I436 we find them laid down in Azuni, Dominico Alberto, an eminent jurist, born at a map of the world by the Venetian Andreas Bianca. Alfonso V. Sassari, in the island of Sardinia, August 3, 1749. His special gave Fayal to his aunt Isabella, Duchess of Burgundy, in I466, study was maritime law, which he attempted to reduce to fixed who peopled it with Flemish colonists. Hence the name 1/has udy was maritime law, which he attempted to reduce to fixed Flamengas which was often given to the A., though some erro- Marit in his Sstema (Flor. 1795) which he subsequently neously suppose that this name arose from the islands having turned into French under the title of Doit Mritie de Eulop turned into French under the title of Droit M ar/ime de PEurope been first discovered in I439 by a Flemish captain, Vanderborg (Par. i8o5). The ministry of Napoleon charged him with the of Bruges. preparation of the maritime portion of their new commercial Azote', the name given by Lavoisier to nitrogen. code. He was appointed President of the Court of Appeal at zotsed Bodies are literally those which contain azote or Genoa in I807. Some time after the fall of Napoleon he retired Az~~otised' Bodies are literally those which contain nzot~ orto Sardinia, and was made by King Carlo Felicio judge of the nitrogen, but the term is usually employed in a more limited to Sardinia, and University Librarian at Ca liari, where he died sense to designate nitrogenous substances of animal or vegetable 23d January 1827. Among his other writings may be mentioed origin only. The chief A. B. are fibrine, albumen, casein, gelatin, Dizionario Uniy eAe Ragionato dc Gwritings may be mentione urea, uric acid, hippuric acid, gluten, &c., and many alkaloids. (Legh. i786-88); Mve oile Glograde u Paoiliague eln?aliee Detailed information concerning these bodies will be found under de Sardag786-88); (Par. 182) Mei Goires hour Se aitiue eHistatece de Sardaigne (Par. I802); Mimnoires pour Servirh / H'istoire des their respective headings. Voyages Maritimes des Anciens Navigateu)rs de Marseille (Genl. Azo'tus, the Ashdod of the Old Testament, and the modern I813); Recherches pour Servir a l/'istoire de la Piraterie (Gen. Esdud, on the Mediterranean, midway between Gaza and Joppa. I8i6). Though nominally a possession of the tribe of Judah, it was held, blue colour, from Pers. by the Philistines, and was one of the seats of the worship ofe er Dagon. A. is mentioned only once in the New Testament seen in lapis lazuli, the sapphire of the ancients), in heraldry, (Acts viii. 40). In the 7th c. B.C., the Egyptians under Psam- signifies one of the colours used in blazonry. In the engraving metichus captured it after a blockade of twenty-nine years. The of arms it is represented by horizontal lines. Romans, on their conquest of Judaea, restored A., which had A'zurine (Leuciscus caru/eus), or'blue roach,' a species of been lying in ruins since its destruction by the Maccabees about fishes belonging to the family of Carps (Cyprinidac), and nearly the middle of the 2d c. B.c. It is now an insignificant village. allied to the chub, dace, and roach. It occurs in the Swiss Az'ov, a fortified town in the government of Jekaterinosslav, lakes, and also in certain fresh waters of Lancashire ( Yarrell). Russia, on the most southern of the thirteen arms of the Don A'zurite, the blue carbonate of copper, or blue malachite, a delta, 20 miles from its mouth. Until recently it was supposed valuable ore of copper. It occurs in very beautiful azure-blue to be the place founded by Greek colonists as Tanais, but un- crystals at Chessy, near Lyon, on which account it is sometimes doubted remains of Tanais have been found near Nedvidovka, known as Chessy copper or Chessylite. It is found in the on the N.E. arm of the Don delta. In the 13th c. it was occu- Cornish and Devonshire mines, at Matlock, and in the Leadhills, pied by the Genoese, under the name of Tana. Timur took Scotland, besides many foreign localities, associated with other it in 1395, and in 147I it was seized by the Turks. After a pro- forms of copper ore. The name A. has also been given to lazu. tracted struggle it was ceded to Russia in 1774. It was formerly lite, a mineral composed of phosphate of alumina and magnesia. 235 ]3B STHE GIOBE ENCYCIOPiEDIA. BAB B. the second letter in the Hebrew or Phoenician Seleucidae, is a translation into Greek of B., the'city of Baal,' l ~ )~ jalphabet, and in all alphabets which have been the sun-god, doubtless the original Semitic name of the place, derived from it. In Hebrew it is called beth, and which it probably recovered after the Arab conquest of of which the Gr. beta is only a modification, a Syria. The chief ruins are the Temple of the Sun, a smaller word signifying house, and entering into the com- building known as the Temple of Jupiter, and a mixed Ionic position of many Scripture names, as Bethel, and Corinthian edifice, at one time used as a Christian church.'house of God;' Bethlehem,' house of bread,' Although a flourishing city at an early date, and an emporium of &c. The name points back to a time when the trade between the Levant and Inner Asia, next to nothing is language was hieroglyphic or pictorial, and when known of the history of B. previous to the time of Julius Caesar, a rude outline of a house or tent was the symbol who made it a Roman colony. The Emperor Trajan twice conused to represent the letter. In the classification suited an oracle at B. in the 2d c. A.D., and the great temple of consonants, B belongs to the order of labials was rebuilt by Antoninus Pius. This temple is said to have been or lip-letters, so called from the organ by which converted into a Christian church in the reign of Theodosius. they are pronounced; and in the subdivision of la- The Arabs sacked B. in 748. In I40I it was pillaged by Timur, k bials it ranks as a medial or flat. On examining the and in I759 was reduced to ruins by an earthquake. Pop. (I873) Aryan family of languages, it is found that the English 500. SeeWood and Dawkin's A'zins osof. (Lond. I757), Volney's B is represented in Latin byf, as Eng.'bear,' Lat.'ferre,'-Eng. Voyave en Syrie (5th ed. Par. I822), and BHdeker's Syrietn unrt'be,' Lat.'fui,'-Eng.'beech,' Lat.'fagus,' &c.; in Gr. by_ p PlaaesJtinza (I875). or p, and in other members of the family by other labials. The AB/'b, the Tulkish form of papf (comp. Syr. Abba, q. v.), phonetic law which regulates this change will be explained under an onomatopceic word framed by children in their first attempts the heading GRIMM's LAW. As a sign of abbreviation B. is to speak. It is prefixed as a title of honour, both in Turkey and not much used; the most frequent case is the compound L. B. Persia, to the names of eminent ecclesiastics, particularly to suck for lecGor benevaols,'gentle reader,' or for beatzs,'blessed,' as are famous for their ascetic mode of life-e.g., B. Nasibi (a Perapplied to the dead. sian poet who died I537)-and also as a title of courtesy in other B, in music, is a note at the distance of a'major seventh' cases. In Hindustani bdbz2 signifies'prince,' but in ordinary from C. When truly in time, its vibrations are as fast as life has the force of the English'sir.' those of C below it; upon the pianoforte they are slightly faster. Baba, Cape (anc. Lectum), a rocky promontory forming the In Germany Bb is called B, while our note B is called H. most westerly point of Asia Minor, 86 miles N. of Smyrna. On Ba'al, the supreme male deity of the nations of Hither Asia. the headland stands the small town of B., near which is the As a proper name (Heb. master, owner, lord), B. means'the ruined city of Assos. lord' (i.e., of heaven); in the plural (Baalim) it denoted the Babadag', or Babatag, a town of Turkey, in the province different modifications under which he was worshipped by the of the Danube, situated near the mouths of the Danube, 280 various nations, all being called by the common name B., only miles N. of Constantinople. It is the chief place of trade in the distinguished by a particular epithet, and was synonymous with Dobrudscha, and has a port on the Black Sea. Pop. (1871) the phrase' other gods,' as opposed to Jehovah (Jud. viii. 33). Io,ooo. In most of the Russo-Turkish wars, B. has been the He was the sun-god; as distinguished from Moloch (q. v.), the rendezvous and headquarters of the Turkish force. B. is also the sun in his fertilising operations, the generative and reproductive name of a peak in the S. E. of the Caucasus, 12,640 feet high. power of nature. With regard to the nature of the worship of B. into which the Babb'age, Charles, F. R. S., an eminent mathematician, was Israelites fell, according to the Book of Judges, soon after the born December 26, 1792, at Teigamouth, in Devonshire, took his death of Joshua, it is evident, e.g., from the ephod made by degree of Bachelor at Cambridge in 1814, was Lucasian Professor Gideon, which was of the same nature as that used in the wor- from 1828 to 1839, and died October I8, I87I. Of his works, ship of Jehovah (cf. Jud. viii. 27, and I Sam. xxiii. 9, io), that it the principal are the DiEfmeentia and Ifntegral Clculus, the did not imply distinct opposition to the worship of Jehovah, but Decline of Science (T830), On the Econosy of Mnbfacures and was simply an intermingling of the two. To the early Israelites Machinery (1832), Tables of Logarithrmzs (I834), bes various Jehovah was probably one of many gods, and they imagined other treatises and papers read before scientific societies. B3.'s they could worship the Baals of the other nations along with great inventions are his Calztin Mlachines (q. v.). him: in Jud. xi. 24, Jehovah and Chemosh are put upon the Babb'lers ( 7imzalin), a sub-family of Perching or Insessorial same level; and the worship of B. and Ashera was carried on in birds, included in the Dentirostral section of that order, and the very temple of Jehovah (2 Kings xxiii.) without any intention distinguished by the long bill with the ridge of the upper mandible of ousting him. This explains the frequent lapses of the people curved, by the slightly-notched tip of the bill, by the nostrils into what the later advocates of a spiritual monotheism regarded being situated in a groove at the base of the upper mandible, by as idolatry. The sensuous worship of the Baals of the neigh- the rounded form of the wings, by the tapering tail, and by the bouring nations (Num. xxv.) was more agreeable to human nature larger size of the claw of the hinder toe. The B. are all of small than the Jehovah religion with its demands for sanctification of size, and are confined to India, Australia, and the islands of the life.-B.-berith (Jud. viii. 33)='covenant-B.,' i.e., in covenant Eastern Archipelago. The best-known species are the laughwith the worshippers.-B. -peor (Num. xxv.) =' B. of the open- ing thrush (Pterocyclus cachinnans) and laughing crow (Garruing,' i.e., of the hymenemn virgineum, a practice in his worship lax leucoloplhus) of India, the Indian blackfaced thrush (G. forbidden (Lev. xix. 29).-B.-zebub. See BEEL-ZEBUB. Chinensis), the Australian Cinclosomaznj5ctatuzm, &c. Baal'bek, formerly one of the largest, richest, and most Ba'bel, Tower of, according to the IIth chapter of Genesis, strongly fortified cities of Syria, now noted only for its beautiful was a structure of brick on'a plain in the land of Shinar,' and the ruins, situated near the base of Anti-Lebanon, about midway ruins of which are probably those at Birs Nimrud, to the S. W between Damascus and Tripoli, and distant nearly 40 miles of Hillah, near the Euphrates. The most accurate measurement from each. It lies at the entrance of a small valley, through of the tower, supposed to be identified with it, makes the circum. which runs a streamlet, divided into numerous rills for the pur- ference 762 yards, with a conical elevation on the western side pose of irrigation. The name Heliopolis, given to it by the of 198 feet. The bricks, which are fire-burnt, bear inscriptions, 237 *3~ —............. _. BAB THE GLOBE ENCYCILOPEDIA. BAB and even at this day are so firmly embedded in the mortar, that Bab'ington, Antony, a Derbyshire gentleman, who with to extract one is an affair of difficulty. The top of the cone has thirteen other young Catholics, most of them connected with the been vitrified by the action of fire, conjectured to have been light- household of Elizabeth, conspired to kill the English queen, and ning-a fact singularly in accordance with the tradition of its release Mary Queen of Scots. The murder of Elizabeth was original destruction, though the mode of this is not indicated in undertaken by one Savage, while B. entered into correspondence Genesis. Mr George Smith has deciphered among the Assyrian with Mary, and received in return letters that bore to be from tablets of the British Museum the legend of the building of the her, and approving of the entire plot. But plot and approval T. of B., and has described it in his C/zacidean Account of Genesis passed alike through the hands of Walsingham, Elizabeth's sec(Lond. I875). retary, who had B. and six of his accomplices brought to trial, Bab -el - Man'deb,'the Gate of Tears,' so called from the and condemned on their own confession. They were executed, dangers to light craft attending its navigation, the strait which September 20, 1586. The correspondence was held to reveal connects the Red Sea with the Indian Ocean; also the name of Mary's guilt, and the justice of her execution four months later a lofty cape (the ancient Palindromos) in the vicinity, opposite the was based mainly on her implication in B.'s plot. To the last Abyssinian coast, at a distance of 20 miles. Perim (q. v.), an she denied all knowledge even of the letters ascribed to her, island in the strait, on which the English have recently erected and many have thought that Walsingham forged them himself, a fort, separates the channel into the Little Strait, on the that he might with some show of justice dispose of one whose Arabian side, and the Great Strait on the African. The Eight life was a standing menace at once to Elizabeth and to English Brothers are eight small islands, or rather rocks, situated near Protestantism. the W. coast. the W. coast. Baboon' (Cynocephalus), the name applied to a genus of Ba'ber, or Babur (in full Zuher'e-ed-dtn-Mohamnmed-Boaber- monkeys included in the section Cai/arhiia of the order QuadruPadiszha), founder of the Mogul dynasty in India, was the son of mana. The baboons are confined to Africa and Arabia, Omar-Shaikh-Mirza, a descendant of Timur, who ruled the petty the latter country being zoologically'African' in its charkingdom of Kokan or Ferghana, in the N. E. of Transoxiana, and acter. These monkeys are regarded as the lowest or most who died about I493. B. had a severe struggle with the neigh- brute-like forms of the true apes. They possess a short or bouring princes to retain possession of his paternal dominions, rudimentary tail. The nostrils are oblique and set closely tobut in the end he was successful, and in I497 found himself gether. The head is of large size; the jaws being prolonged to master of Samarcand. More formidable enemies then appeared form a dog-like muzzle, from the possession of which the generic in the Usbeks, led by their Khan Shahibek, who crossed the name Cynocephalus (' dog-headed') has been derived. The facial Oxus and wrested Samarcand from B. Although this important angle in the baboons is about 30o. The skin of the nates or hips city was recovered by him in I5oo, B. was again defeated and forced is destitute of hair, and assumes a horny consistence, constituting to seek refuge in Persia. He then made himself master of Cabul, the so-called natal callosities, ald these in some baboons (e.g., and after an unavailing attempt to win back his native state, turned mandrill) may be brightly coloured. In the mandrill the cheeks his attention to India-by celestial inspiration says the courtly his- are also striped red and blue. The teeth correspond in number torian Abul-Fazl. First of all, however, he set himself to the re- to those of man, but the incisors, duction of Candahar and the rest of what is now known as Afghan- and especially the canine teeth, istan, and it was not till I524 that he'made a serious attack on are large and projecting. The the region E. of the Indus. The great battle of Paniput (q. v.), baboons are mostly of large size. fought on the 2ISt of April 1526, secured him possession of the They employ the fore-limbs in empire of Delhi. A second triumph over the Rajah of Oudipore running more frequently than any in 1527 obtained for him the title of Gkiazi or Defender of Islam. of the other quadrumana. CheekSubsequently he reduced the sovereigns of Malwa and Bengal; pouches, in which food may be but his intemperance, particularly in wine, shortened his life, temporarily stowed, exist in these and he died 26th December I530. The chief authority for his forms. Thebaboons are generally career is the Yakiati Baberi (Memoir of Baber), translated into fierce in nature, and more untam- Mandrill. English in I826 by Erskine and Leyden. The work is divided ablethan other species of monkeys. into two parts, the first giving, among other things, a variety of They live chiefly on fruits. They approach man's structure most sketches of those princes who were contemporaries and neigh- nearly of all the apes in the sigmoid curve of the spine; in the bours of B.; the second, which is in the form of a journal, con- concavity of the sacrum; in the convexity of the nasal bones; in taining the autobiography of B., with interesting details about the transverse breadth of the pelvis when compared with its Hindustan, Cabul, &c. depth from the sacrum to the pubis; and in the length of the Babeuf', Franpois Nobl, a French political writer, born in foot when compared with the length of the spine, &c. 1764 at St Quentin, department of Aisne. For his vehement The best-known species of baboons are the common B. (Cynoadvocacy of the principles of the Revolution in Le Correspon- cepkhals pa.5io), the derrias (C. hanladryas), the chacma (C. dant Picard of Amiens, he was tried at Paris, but acquitted, porcarius), the mandrill (C. mnainzon), and the drill (C. leuco. I4th July I790o. He was again tried at Paris in I794 for advo- pheus). The two latter forms occur chiefly in Guinea, and are cating in Le TSibun duz Peazpe, under the signature of Caius avoided as fierce and predatory in habits. Gr-acchus, the absolute equality of all men. A plot to which he had lent himself to re-establish the democratic constitution of Bab'rius, a Greek choliambic poet, who flourished probably I793 being discovered, he was seized, tried, and condemned, 24th in the 2d or 3d c. of the Christian era, and turned the fables of May I796. When his sentence _Esop into verse. His work formed the basis of succeeding colwas pronounced, he stabbed lections, that of Maximus Planudes, for instance, being evidently himself under the eyes of his a prose rendering of the work of B. Bentley (q. v.) first pointed judges. On the following day this out in his Dissertatio de Babirio, and it was still more clearly he was brought to the scaffold shown by Tyrwhitt in 1778. The edition of Knoche (Halle, 1835) in a dying state, and guillo- contained all of B. then known; but in I844 there was published tined. His communistic chi- at Paris, by Boissonade, a collection of 123 hitherto unknown mera was promulgated with fables of B. from a manuscript discovered in a convent on Mount tft the obstinacy of a fanatic, who Athos by Minoides Minas, a Greek in the service of the French UA was the slave of a single and government. Among the best of later editions are those of a senseless idea. See F. Lachmann (Berl. 845), Lewis (Oxf. I846-59), and Weise (Leips. Buonarotti, Consgiration lour I855). See also Eberhard's B. (1865). l'Agalite4 dite de B. (Par. Bab'ylon, Babylo'nia, a city and country of that flat 1828, 2 vols.). region of W. Asia watered by the Euphrates in its lower Babillard. Babillard, the term applied course, and by the Shat-el-Arab, the combined stream of the to an Insessorial bird (Curruca- Euphrates and Tigris. The city, known variously as Babylon gurrula), better known by the names of'white-breasted fau. and Babylonia, was in the days of its greatness of vast vette,''lesser whitethroat,' and'nettle-creeper.' size, and occupied a site at least near to the Babel (q. v.) 238 ~ —--— ~ ~ * B3AB THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPA3EDIA. BAGi of Genesis, of which B. is a Graecised form. The etymology scribes in the Anabasis, were large enough to carry provisionis disputed, some contending that Babel owes its name to ships; two others (according to Ptolemy, Arrian, and other the circumstance of the confusion of tongues having occurred writers) were used as outlets into the sea for the superfluous there, while others, with greater probability, interpret it as im- waters of the Euphrates. plying the gate or court of Bel, or Belus, the chief Babylonian The general depression of the country, traversed by two fulldeity. No mention is made in Scripture of Babel or Babylon flowing rivers, tends to the formation of marshes. These profrom the confusion of tongues till the reign of Hosea, about 730 duce luxuriantly reeds and rushes; are the favourite haunts of B.C., when the Samaritans were carried captive thither; and it buffaloes, and when partially dried in summer, furnish splendid is more than probable that it did not rise early into importance, crops of rice. As these marshes form natural reservoirs for the but was long tributary to Nineveh. The first who brought the waters of the Euphrates, they have the unusual effect of making city into prominence was Nabopolassar, the father of Nebuchad- its lower occasionally narrower than its upper reaches, diminishnezzar, and the conqueror of Nineveh, who transferred the seat ing in places from 200 to 60 yards of breadth, though they afterof government of Western Asia from Nineveh to B. But its wards resume their former proportions. One thing is noticeable glory was not of long duration. Though in the reign of Nebu- in connection with B., that the accounts of modern travellers, so chad'nezzar it was, perhaps, the most splendid city in the world, far from conflicting with those of the ancient authors, in almost yet in less than a century it was forced to surrender to Cyrus, every instance confirm them. and was shorn of all political greatness. The only trust- The Babylonians were members of the Aramaic branch of the worthy description we have of ancient B. is that of Herodotus, Semitic family. According to the writer of Genesis (x. Io), Nimwho speaks apparently with the precision and authority of rod, son of Cush, founded the kingdom of Babel, a distinction, howan eye-witness, though the magnitude he ascribes to it has ever, claimed by Greek historians both for the god Bel and for the caused some to question his accuracy. The form of the city mythical Semiramis. The early history of B. is involved in great was an exact square; the streets ran at right angles to each obscurity. The so-called Chaldaean period begins 2234 B.C., other; there were a hundred gates of brass; and among its most and closes I273 B.C. From this date till 747, B. was depenremarkable structures were the brazen-gated temple of Belus, the dent on Assyria. In 604 the seat of empire was transferred from royal palace, and the bridge over the Euphrates, with the castle Nineveh to Babylon; in 538 Cyrus took the city, and Babylonia forts at each extremity-structures, the erection of which, despite became a Persian satrapy. The downfall of the Persian monarchy the magnitude assigned to them, is not incredible under a des- brought B. under the dominion of Alexander the Great, who died potism where labour could be enforced by the monarch. The there 323 n. c. The Romans held it temporarily more than once. Scripture narrative of the capture of B. by Cyrus, and of the It came into the possession of the Arabs in 650, and since I638, slaughter of Belshazzar, is brief but picturesque. The city never when the Turks wrested it from the Persians for the second time, recovered its former splendour, though the reigns of Darius and it has formed part of the Ottoman empire in Asia. Xerxes were not without magnificence. Alexander the Great Under Babel, an account has been given of the vast brickfound the temple of Belus in ruins, and wished to restore it to its mound of Birs Nimruid; but the explorations of successive traancient splendour. But the task exceeded even his energy and vellers have brought to light others scarcely less important,-an resources, and he did not succeed in clearing away the rubbish, irresistible proof of the greatness of the early civilisation of the though he employed Io,ooo men in the work. As late as the reign' land of Shinar,' and of the magnitude of the works undertaken of Augustus, a portion of B. was still inhabited, the remaining and completed by its rulers. Among the writers on this subject area being under cultivation. The ruins of Babylon were de- are Rich, Babylon and Persepolis; Porter, Travels, vol. ii. scribed by Mr Rich in 8SII, and by Sir Robert K. Porter in Ainsworth, Researches inz Assyria; Chesney, Exyedition for I818, with no substantial discrepancy. Mr Rich's narrative was Survey of the Euphrafes; Rawlinson, 7ournal of te Asiatic questioned by Major Rennell, but in a reply published in I817, Society, vol. xii.; Rawlinson, Herodotus (Lond. I858); Oppert's Mr Rich was considered to have vindicated his accuracy satis- Expedition ScientiXfiue en Me'sopotamie (Par. I863), whose book factorily. marks a new era in the discussion of the subject; and Menant's The boundaries of the province of Babylonia, which is generally Babylone et Chaldee (Par. I875). termed in Scripture the land of the Chaldees, cannot be strictly Babylo'nish Captivity. In B.C. 588 Nebuchadnezzar, determined, as at different times they varied considerably. But after the capture of Jerusalem, carried off to Babylonia Zedeab, the geographers of Rome described it as separated on the N. King of Judah, the chief inhabitants of the city, and indeed all from Mesopotamia by the Median wall, and bounded on the E. Judah except the poor of the laud' (2 Kings xxv. 12). Their by the Tigris; on the S. by the Persian Gulf, and on the W. by captivity, which lasted only fifty years, seems to have been the desert of Arabia. The inhabitants, though for the most part attended by many ameliorating circumstances, for the captives designated Babylonians, are not unfrequently termed Chaldnans, lived according to their own law, and were indulged in the exbut it is probable that these did not represent a distinct nation- ercise of their religion. Their hopes of the Messianic kingdom ality, but simply a superior native caste. B., in consequence ere also raised and confrmed by the prophetic tteraces of of its position between two large rivers, and its flatness (there Ezekiel (Ezek. xxxvii. 20-28). On the conquest of Babylon by being no elevations of consequence), was from the earliest Cyrus in 538 B.c., liberty was given to all the Jews to return to times celebrated for its fertility, producing grain yielding in ordi- their country. This applied also to the descendants of the ten nary years two-hundred-fold, and in the best years three-hundred- tribes of Israel, who had been carried off long before (B.c. 722) fold. Trees were scarce. Of these, the date-palm was the most by the Assyrian king Salamanassar, but only the'Jews' proper, abundant, and from this the natives manufactured a heady wine, of that is the tribes of Judab, Benjamin, and Levi, availed themwhich Xenophon makes mention in the Anabasis; indeed, the selves of the privilege. The other tribes, though frequent serviceable qualities of the date-palm were evidently exaggerated, attempts have been made to identify them with existing races Strabo describing it as supplying the natives with bread, honey, (Kurds, Afghans, American Indians), have not as yet been diswine, and vinegar, and even textile materials. The weeping- covered. willow (Salix Babylonica) is, despite its name, not only not ae native of B., but is not grown there. An incontrovertible proof Babyroussa Hog (Sus Bobyrussa), a genus of the Swine of the fertility of the district is presented by Herodotus, when he family (Seidt) inhabiting the islands of the Eastern Archipelago narrates that it furnished a third of the produce of the whole and the Malayan Peninsula, and allied dominion of the Persian king. This excessive fertility was in to the wild boars (Sues scrofa) of great measure due to the excellent means of irrigation furnished Europe. The upper canine teeth in by the two great rivers and their connecting canals. These were this form are of very large size, and not formed by depressions in the land, but were contained in are curved backwards, those of the aqueducts constructed on the surface, the water being forced into males piercing the upper lip. The e.. them by dams, as into modern mill-races. Canals were also con- legs are elongated and of slender make. verted into means of defence against enemies, and to prevent Bacchiglio'ne, a river of Venetia, Babyroussa Hog. invasion; of these, the most celebrated was that constructed by N. Italy, rises in the Alps, passes Queen Nicotris, which consisted of a diversion of the course of Vicenza and Padua, and enters the Adriatic 3 miles S. the Euphrates, and of which Herodotus has given a particular of Chioggia, after a course of 9go miles, of which 30 are description, The canals so formed, and which Xenophon de- navigable. ^__: 2_9 ^ - 2 BAC THE GLOBP NCFCZLOAPDLZA~ BAC Bac'chus (the Gr. Dionysos), the god of wine, and according zealous law-reformer. His determined opposition to the recogto the most popular version of the varying myth, the son of Zeus nition of the independence of Hungary, made him so much an and Semele. Before his birth, his mother, artfully instigated by object of suspicion and dislike to the democratic party, that he the jealous Hera, requested Zeus to visit her in the full splendour deemed it prudent, in I848, to retire temporarily from public of his godhead. The god, who had sworn by the Styx to grant notice; but a change of government having occurred, he became her whatever she should ask, reluctantly consented, and Semele Minister of Justice; in May I849 he was made Minister of the was consumed by lightning. B., then six months old, was en- Interior, in which office he carried on the work of centralisation closed for three months in his father's thigh. and some time after begun by Stadion, organised the political administration of the his birth he was consigned to the charge of the nymphs of Nysa, crown lands, and took part in drawing up the Concordat with the in Thrace, where he first taught men the cultivation of the vine. Pope. From I859 to I870 he was Austrian plenipotentiary at He afterwards travelled as far as India to disseminate his dis- Rome. covery, and was everywhere hailed as the benefactor of mankind. Bach, Johann Sebastian, the greatest of the older GerHis worship, introduced into Greece by Melampus, was cele- man composers, belonged to a fanily originally Iungarian, but brated with music and song, and those who opposed it were settled in Thuringia since the beginning of the I7th c., and was punished by the god with madness and metamorphosis. Hisenach, Saxe-Weimar, 2Ist March x685 (the year also type in works of art varies much. Sometimes he is represented of Handel's birth), became court-organist at Weimar in I708, as an effeminate youth; sometimes as a man in years with a concert-master in 17Ib5 and cantor and musical director at sweeping beard, and known as the Indian B.; sometimes as a Leipsic in I723. B., who never left his native country, died 28th wrarrior, having for his shield a panther's hide; and sometimes July I750. He had four sons, all of them eminent for their even with horns. It is in the youthful form that he is essentially musical gifts. Much of B.'s finest music was written for the the god of wine. The chief seat of his worship in Greece was German Protestant Church, his compositions for which inBceotian Thebes, the offering consisting of goats and oxen, and ude fe entire series of cantatas for all the Sundays and especially rams. He was associated with Demeter in the cele- holidays in the year, numerous motets, and at, least two sets bration of the Eleusinian mysteries, and his worship was also of' Passions-musik.' His greatest choral work is his' Matthewoccasionally conjoined with that of Apollo. His festivals, ob- Passion,' for performance in the Lutheran Church on Good Friserved at the vintage season, were occasions of excessive hilarity. day evenings. It is a kind of oratorio, at once most dramatic Of these, the lesser Attic Dionysia, one of the most striking and most solemn, and describes the events related in the 26th amusements of which was the Askolia, or leaping of the young and 27th chapters of Matthew in the words of the text, interon full smeared wine-skins, were accomnipanied with dramatic spersed with comments upon them in the form of hymns and entertainments, and a banquet at the expense of the state. The chorales. Nowhere does Bach's genius appear greater than in great Dionysia were distinguished by the representation of new his treatment of the chorale, the German hymn-tune.'These old comedies and tragedies, whence B. is sometimes mentioned as melodies, as harmonised by him, seenm to be transfigured. In the god of the theatre. The Triateric Dionysia, celebrated, as appearance the under parts are as formal and heavy as the chorale the name imports, every third year, are first met with in Beotia, itself (which is in the soprano); but when once they are heard, and were always distinguished by the nocturnal orgies of all the formality disappears; you are unconscious that what you Maenades or Bacchantes, clad in the skins of fawns, and swing- listen to is written in conformity to a hundred artificial rules; ing the thyrsus with the wildest excitement and gesticulation. you hear only the great soul of the most religious of musicians The worship of B., introduced from Greece into Rome, 496 B. c., pouring out its noblest thoughts, and are lifted unresistingly into where after a time it grossly degenerated, and at last was accom- some calmer, serener atmosphere, above all the littleness and panied with rites so impure, that the senate, i86 B.C., after strin- commonplaces of life.' gent inquiry, prohibited the Bacchanalia under severe penalties. The most widely known of B.'s works are his forty-eight 3Baccioc'hi, Ma~rie - Anne - Elise Bonapart~e, born at preludes and fugues for the pianoforte (entitled Das Wohlteme erir e K'avier), and the gavottes, bourrees, and other dances Ajaccio, Corsica, in I777, was the eldest sister of Napoleon I. perrte laver), and the gavottes, s, and other dances from some of his orchestral suites, &c. Mendelssohn was an enAt Marseille, when twenty years of age, she married Felicio At Marseille, when twenty years of age, she married Felico thusiastic admirer of B., and did much to revive his music; and Pasquale Bacciochi, a Corsican in the service of France, and rising his endeavours have been well followed upoby the living reprewrand11 his endeavours have been well followed up by the living repre. with her brother's good fortune, in 1809 she was made Grand sentatives of the more advanced school of music. See the bioDuchess of Tuscany; but her administration was arbitrary and graphy of.B. by Bitter (a86u). unpopular. She left Florence in I814, on the fall of Napoleon, and died at Villa Vicentina, near Trieste, August 7, I82o. Her Bach'arach (Lat. Bacchi Ariz), an old town in the division husband died 28th April I841. Their daughter, Napol~one of Coblenz, Rhenish Prussia, on the Rhine, with some river Elise B. (born I8Io), was remarkable for her devotion to Napo- trade. Blucher here crossed the Rhine, Ist January 18I4. The leon's son, the Duke of Reichstadt, whom she is said to have vicinity is noted for its wine. Pop. (1872) I687. nearly carried off from Austrian custody. In June I825 she Bach'elor, a man who has never been married. The etymarried Prince Camerata, from whom she was separated in I830, mology of the word is uncertain, most probably it is connected and died in Normandy, February 3, I869. with the Latin baculus, a stick, and conveys the notion of a Baccio della Porta, otherwise Fra Bartolomeo di San transition or shooting forth (like a branch or twig), from a lesser Marco, from his having resided some time in the monastery of to a more advanced condition. Ducange in his Glossariun St Mark of Florence, born in 1469 at Savignano, Tuscany, was ad Scriptores Mediy et Ifint ne Lainicatiiis (3 vols. Par. 678) a distinguished painter of religious subjects. From Leonardo da enters very fully into its various applications It as given Vinci he learned the art of effective colouring, and he acquired to ecclesiastics, scholars, and knights in the first grades of their just notions of perspective from his younger contemporary, professional discipline. As an academical title, B. appears TRaphael. B. died in 1517 at Florence, and in the Pitti Palace to have been first used in the theological classes of the in that city his finest works are preserved. His'St Sebastian' University of Paris in the 13th c. The condition of bacheloris much esteemed. ship was in ancient times viewed with disfavour by the community, the laws of Greece and of Rome imposing penalties Bach, Alexander Anton Stephan, Baron von, an and disabilities on unmarried men; and latterly, the laws of Austrian politician and statesman, born 4th January I813, at Rome imposed penalties on unmarried women also. Widows Loosdorf, Lower Austria. After completing his education in were allowed but one year to mourn; and the legatee was law he entered the imperial service, and soon perceived the obliged to marry within a hundred days of the testator's death, necessity of organisation of the empire. During the disturbances or else he forfeited his legacy. However inexpedient. it may that followed the French revolution of February I848, his known seem to us that men and women should be obliged to marry integrity and ability procured his election as one of the repre. under the penalty of disabilities, it will probably be generally sentatives of Lower Austria in the central commission of the admitted that there is at least a strong argument in favour of an provincial states. While strongly opposing the entry of the extra taxation of bachelors relatively to that of married men, Austro-Germanic provinces into the German confederation, he the latter having usually several to provide for, while the former advocated the recognition of their right to exercise a greater par- has commonly but himself. And this principle has in times not liamentary influence on public affairs. He also proved himself a yet old been recognised in England. In the reign of William 24. BAC TSHE GLOBE ENVC YCl OPA9EDIA. BAC III. bachelorship and widowhood were taxed for the purpose of kinds of victory-a hit and a gammon, two hits reckoning equal carrying on the war against France; and the servants of bachelors to one gammon. To win by being the first to play the men off were put under extra taxation by Mr Pitt in 1785. Yet there is the points is a hit. When the other player has one man out, another side to the question. The tendency of human nature is to win before he gets it replaced is a gammon. As in whist, not towards undue delay in marriage, but the reverse. There two games won out of three is a rub. can be no doubt that the enormous infant mortality which pre- Backhuysen, or Bakhuysen, Ludoif, a famous Dutch vails in the civilised world generally, is mainly owing to mar- marine painter, born 1631, at Emden, died at Amsterdam, riages in which the couple have not means properly to, support a 1709. He was remarkable for the devotion and assiduity with family. The mortality registers, and the labours of our actuaries which he studied from nature. Storms called him out to sea, in and other men of science, give useful and interesting evidence of his small boat, to sketch and observe. The result was, that for the varying force of the prudential check to marriage in different truthfulness his pictures took the first rank. His best work was countries and places. See VITAL STATISTICS; LIFE, MEAN bought for 1300 florins and presented to Louis XIV., and this, DURATION OF.' together with seven other examples of his manner, may still be Bachelor, Knight. Those who have the dignity of knight- seen in the Louvre. His grandson, also named Ludolf, first a hood conferred on them, without being placed on' any order, are merchant, then a soldier, and' finally a painter, has executed called K.B. I(nighthood of this kind is now only conferred in some fine battle-pieces; Great Britain. The honour is not hereditary. See KNIGHT. Back-Stays, the name given to the long ropes reaching from Back, a maritime expression of many technical meanings and the topmast-heads to the sides of a vessel, and so attached as to applications. To back anzd fill, is- a mode of tacking with the be a support to the masts. tide, and against the wind. To back t/e sails, is so to arrange Backwardation. See EXCHANGE. them as to make the ship move stern first; and when any msail is back, the eect is to slaclr the sh opeeert at wvhicln tlaen Bacolor', the capital of the province of Pampanga, in the E. vesseail is progrbacked, the effect is to slacken the speed at which theng. vessel is progressing. Indian island of Luzon, on a canal connecting it with the river Pampanga, 38 miles N.W. of Manilla. Pop. 8737. Back, Sir George, born at Stoclkport in i796, and for five aaga 38 miles N. of anilla 8 years a prisoner of the French in the wars with Napoleon, was Ba:con, the cured or salted flesh of the domestic pig. Its associated with Franklin in his voyage in the Trelet (I818), his ex- composition and properties as an article of food will be described pedition to Coppermine River and Fort Chippewayan (iI8i9), and under PORK, which is the same meat in a fresh state. in that of 1825-27, when B. was left in charge of Fort Franklin. Bacon, John, an able sculptor, born in London, I740. He B.'s most important voyages were those of 1833-35, when, was trained as a porcelain painter, commenced to model I763, starting in search of Ross, he discovered Artillery Lake, and fol- won the Royal Academy's first prize I769, and died I799. He lowed the Oot-koo-hi-ca-lih (Great Fish River, called also after is best known for his monuments of Lord Chatham in Westminster him, Back River) to its mouth, and of 1836'-37, when he brought and Guildhall, and his fine statues of Howard and Dr Johnson the Terror through terrible difficulties off Northampton Island, in St Paul's. obtaining for this the gold medal of the Geographical Society. B. Bacon, Sir Nicholas,. father of Lord Bacon, was horn at has been successively made post-captain, knight, and admiral. Chiselhurst, Kent, in 5c5o. After an education at Cambridge, He published in 1836 an account of his voyage of 1833, which which he improved by foreign travel, he studied law, and, in was translated into German in 1839. See Leslie and Murray' 537 w mde Soliitor to the Court of Agmentations. In Polar Seas and Regions, for voyage of Terror in i836 I537, was made Sot;lcitor to the Court of Augmentations. In Poar Seas ad Regios, for voyage of Teror in 836 1546 he was appointed by Henry VIII. Attorney of the Court Backergunge', a town in the province of Bengal Proper, of Wards, an office which he retained under Edward VI., but India, on a branch of the Ganges called B. Creek, I2 miles S. of was deprived of it by Mary, because he had adopted the ProBurrisaul, and I25 E. of Calcutta. It was capital of the district of testant faith. Elizabeth, however, intrusted him with the Great the same name till i80o, when the seat of government was re- Seal (December 1558), making the appointment by letters-patent, moved to Burrisaul. Pop. 5000. The district of B. is intersected by and consequently permanent. Three months later he was called many streams of the Ganges and Brahmaputra, has a temperate on to preside over the abortive conference held at Westminster climate, and produces abundance of rice, sugar, cotton, ginger, to discuss several differences between Protestants and Roman mustard, limes, and guava. Area, 4935: sq. miles;' pop. (1871) Catholics. He experienced a transient eclipse of the royal favour, 2,377,433. from having been supposed accessory to the writing and pubBaclk~gam'mon (Welsh, back-, little, c~ammeon, battl~e or lishing of a book questioning the title of Mary of Scotland to preferably, earliest English, bcac, back, gamen, game), a game of succeed to the English throne on Elizabeth's death. B. died chance played by two persons, upon a table divided into twelve 20th February 1579, leaving behind him the reputation of a wise points, coloured alternately, six white and six black. There are councillor, a sagacious statesman, and an honest Englishman. two sets of fifteen pieces or men, one set white, the other black; Bacon, Francis, Lord Verulam, Viscount St Albans, also two dice and two dice-boxes; the dice common to both, known generally by Pope's characterisation as'the wisest, while each player uses his own box, and the throws are alternate. brightest, meanest of mankind,' was born in London, Janualy 22, The sides of each die are marked with dots, counting from I to 6, I56I. His father was Sir Nicholas B., his mother was Ann and called ace, deuce, Ire, or trois, qualre, cin'zue, size; at each' Cooke. From a very early age he showed' a keen love of knowthrow of the two dice any number may turn up, from 2 to I12- ledge, and this, taken with his precocious gravity, is said to have doublets counting double; that is, both dice being the same made Queen Elizabeth playfully style him her'young Lord number, each is twice its value, two deuces, for example, counting Keeper.' He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where, it not 4, but 8. The numbers uppermost on the dice refer to points is said, he acquired his hatred of Aristotelianism, and began to on the tables, on which the men are placed in an order prescribed sketch his own scheme of philosophy. Leaving college, he went by the rules of the game. The object of a player is to get his to' Paris,: under the care of Sir Amias Paulet, ambassador at the set of men, white or black, round into the half of the table which French court. There he occupied himself with diplomacy and contains the ace-points, removing them from point to point scientific investigation until I58o, when the death of his father according as the dice turn up; the dots may be reckoned sepa- recalled him to England. After an unavailing attempt to obtain rately or collectively-that is, a tre and a cinque would warrant a sufficient provision from government: to enable him to purthe moving of one man 3 points, and another 5; Or, provided a sue his studies- in science and literature, he sought to obtain prepoint be open to suit the move, one man may be advanced 8 ferment by studying for the law and taking part in court intrigues. points. No point can be moved to if it is covered by two' men His professional promotion was slow. His bright talents excited belonging to the other player. If the point indicated by tie dice the alarm of his uncle, Lord Burleigh, then Premier, who saw in is a'blot' —that is, if it is covered by only one man-the man him- a most formidable rival to his own son Robert. Although can be removed and its place taken by the one which has secured B. then paid court to Burleigh's rival, Essex, the latter was not it; and the removed man remains out of the game till the dice powerful enough to prevent him from being defeated in his conturn up a point corresponding to one which is open on the other test in 1594 for the Attorney-Generalship. To make up for this player's table. When restored, it has to be worked round like defeat, Essex presented B. with an estate at Twickenham worth the other pieces in the set to which it belongs. There are two 200ooo a year. Yet B. is found as the chief persecutor of Essex, a 31 24I *F 4 BAC' THE GLOBE ENCYCL OP~DIA. BAC both by pen and tongue, for conspiracy against the queen, and the nature and composition of gunpowder. It may be added that although various attempts have been made to explaini this. away,, his linguistic knowledge was also extraordinary. He had a it is impossible to acquit him of ingratitude. B.., who had en- profound knowledge of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic, and tered Parliament as member for Middlesex in I59S5, rose rapidly ransacked the treasures of antiquity in pursuit of scientific truth. in the reign of James I. He was knighted in I603, became The Opus Minzts, Opus Tertium, and other writings of B., were Attorney-General in I6I3, in which office he also shows himself published by Brewer (Lond. I859). See also Siebert, R. B., in an unfavourable light, as countenancing the torture of an old sein Leben und seine Philosophie (Marb. I86I); Charles, R. B., clergyman of the name of Peacham by the rack; Keeper of the sa Vie, ses Ouvrages, ses Doctrines (Bruss. I86I); and Green's Great Seal in I617, and in I619 Lord Chancellor, with the title Shzort History of the English People, pp. 133-36 (Lond. I875). of Lord Verulam. Next year he was made Viscount St Albans. Bacon-Beetle. See DERMESTES. It seems undoubted that B. abused the high position he had now attained, by taking advantage of his judicial functions to increase Bacsan'yi, Jidnos, a Hungarian novelist and poet, born his revenues, which, although he had married the daughter of May I I, r763, at Tapolcza, became known at first by his A a wealthy alderman, were not large enough to meet his extrava- /ffagyarok Vitezsege (' The Valour of the Magyars,' Pesth, 1785). gances, and there seems to be no doubt that he took bribes from o Heworkled on the pMagyr Museuz (which he assisted in foundsuitors. The scandal became so great, that neither the king nor ing) from 1788 to I 795, and took part later in editing the Mthghis favourite Villiers, to whom he had truckled in themost abject yar Minerza. In 1805 he married Gabrielle Baumberg, the manner, could shield him from popular indignation; a parlia- German poetess ('Amor und Psyche,' Vienna, 1807). On the mentary inquiry was instituted in I621; B. confessed to twenty- capture of Vienna by the French, B., having translated Napothree acts of corruption, and was sentenced to a fine of 6Ioo,oo3, leon's proclamation into Hungarian, was obliged to flee to Paris. to be confined in the Tower during the king's pleasure, and to He died' at Linz in I845. B ) published a collection of his works be banished for life from the court and from public employment. at Pesth in I827, which reached a secoid edition in I835. Although the fine was remitted, and' the imprisonment only Bacte'ria, the name applied to' certain microscopic rodlike lasted two days, B. never returned to' public life, but on a pen- bodies, which appear in infusions of organic matter, and in fluids sion of ~I200 a year devoted himself to literature and' science, exposed to. the air. Some naturalists maintain that they are HIIis death took place in i626, the common story being that he formed by the union of the organic molecules or minute parcaught a chill while endeavouring to test the power of snow to tides of the fluids. B. exhibit independent movements, and propreserve flesh. His debts amounted to C22,000.'bably represent stages: in the developnt of soment of the lower Considering his lamentable failure in public life, it is to be forms of plant-life. They are interesting in connection with the regretted that B. did not devote himself absolutely to literature subject of SPONTANEOUS GENERATION (q. v.). and science. As it is, his intimacy with every department of human knowledge except mathematics is marvellous; while few Bac'tria, or Bactria'na, the ancient name of the district writers have been more eloquent, more imaginative, or more which, though its exact boundaries are uncertain, coincided in witty. The titles of some of his books, his Essays, a moral the main with the modern Balkh or Afghan province of Turtreatise, his Advancement of Learning, considerably enlarged kestan. See BALKH and TURKESTAN. It was to a large in its Latin form, De Augmentis Scientiarum, his Wdzisdom of the extent mountaincus, with intervening steppes and sand tracts, Ancients, his Novum. Organum, meant, like the De A ugmentis, to and fertile vales along its numerous diminutive streams. Hence form part of a Magna Instauratio, or Great Restoration of Philo- it was well peopled. B., the capital, was the cradle of the old sophy, which, was, never completed, and the Theory of the Reigd n religion of Persia, and the principal seat of the Magi. Zend was of Henry VL%, themselves show the extent of the- field over the language of the Bactrians, and being akin to the Sanskrit, it which he tnraveiled. But great as are his claims to' fame as a is not surprising that on the coins of the Greek kingdom of B moralist, an historian, a writer on polities, and a rhetorician, he ther are not only Greek characters, hut characters of an Indowill be best known as,'"if not absolutely the father of Inductive Scythian dialect, which have been happily deciphered by PrinPhilosophy, in the sense of the inventor of the method of inter- sep After the death of Alexander, B. became a province of the rogating nature by experiment and observation, the populariser Grnco-Syrian kingdom of the' Seleucidn, but secured its indeof that philosophy.' Mr Spedding says that British Philosophy pendence under Diodotus I. (B.c. 256). See Wilson's Ariana'was born about B.'s time, and B.'s name (as the brightest which A(tinua (Lond. 184I) and Lassen's Indischen Alterthmus/unde presided at the time of its birth) has been inscribed upon it:- (Bonn, I849). "Hesperus, that led Bactrian Camel (C(amelus Bactrianus), a species of camel The starry host, rode brightest." distinguished from. the Arabian calllel or dromedary by the Not that Hesperus did actually lead the other stars; he and they' ",, were moving under a common force, and they would have moved just as fast if he had been away; but because he shone brightest,.i i he looked as if he led them.' Various editions of B.-'s works have been published; by far the best is that of Messrs Spedding,: Ellis, and Heath (Loud. I858=74). See also. Macaulay's -Zssay on Bacon. Bacon, Roger, an English monk of the 13th c., remarlkablef for his great scientific and philosophical knowledge, and conspicuous as one of the earliest assertors of the true experimental nature of physics, was born at Ilchester, Somersetshire, in 1214. _= After studying at Oxford and Paris, he entered the order of St Francis in I240, and thenceforward ardently devoted himself to chemical, physical, and mathematical science. His experi. - ments and discoveries excited the jealous suspicions of his brother' = - monks, which feeling deepened into one of implacable hatred on P, actrian Camel. his denunciation of their ignorance and immorality. Accused of being a magician, he was confined in his cell, without the privi- possession of two humps on the back. The native regions of lege of seeing even his friends. He enjoyed a brief space of thisspecieslieto the S.E. of Arabia, and extend over Central tranquillity while Clement IV. was pope, but in 8 he again sia and China even to India. In Asia, its northernmost limit appears to extend' to the 60~ of latitude. It occurs in the Crimea, suffered imprisonment for ten years. B. died at Oxford, June appears to extend to tle 60 oflatitude. It occrs i the Criea II, 1292. His great w~orlk is his Opus lajus (Jebb, Oxf. I733).| and extends from Arabia westwards to the territory between the According to Whewell, it is'at once the encyclopedia and the Caspian and Black Seas. See also CAMEL. novuze organumt of the 13th c.' He had a knowledge of the Bactri'tes, a genus of fossil Cephalopods or cuttlefishes, nature of lenses, and is held by some to have been the inventor belonging to the family Atizmmoniitiae. The shells of these forms of the telescope; he was extensively acquainted with astronomy occur in strata ranging from the Lower Silurian to the Devonian and geography; and is supposed to have been acquainted with formations. 242 *_ BAG THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPkEDIA4. BAD Bac'ulites, a genus of extinct' cuttlefishes included in the Besides the Bodensee, the largest and the finest of German lakes, family Ammonitida, the shells forming simple, straight, elongated there are in the Black Forest numerous small lakes or tarns, as cones. These forms are found in strata ranging from the Lower the Zellersee, Titisee, Feldsee, and Mummelsee. Greensand to the Cretaceous rocks, and are most abundant in Owing to the great variations in altitude, the climate of B. the latter formations. presents considerable variety; and consequently there is a great Bac'upt, a flourishing town of Lancashire, 12 miles S.E. of diversity in the produce. There are vegetables and cereals of all kinds, including maize; also tobacco, hemp, succory, &c., Blackburn, and I5 N. of Manchester, with large cotton factories, from which a large revenue is raised annually; chestnuts, alfi'om which a large revenue is raised annually; chestnuts, walbrass and iron foundries, and dye-works. It is the centre of a nuts, amonds, apples, pears, and other fruts, gro in aunnu1ts, almonds, apples, pears, and other fruits, grow in abunrich coal-mining district, and in the vicinity are extensive woollen dance; about i6,500,000 gallons of wine are produced yearly. factories. P~OP. (~87) 17,~99. Of minerals, there are silver, lead, iron, gold, and several Badag'ry, a town on the Gold Coast, 315 miles W. of Cape kinds of precious stones. B. is also rich in mineral springs, Coast Castle, formerly a centre of the slave trade. It now and there are consequently numerous favourite watering-places, belongs to Britain, and has some export trade. Pop. Io,ooo. such as Baden-Baden, Badenweiler, Rippoltsau, Ueberlingen, Griesbach. The principal manufactures are cotton fabrics, Badajoz' (a corruption of the Moorish Beleldaix,'land of trinkets, tobacco, chicory, paper, leather, beer, and articles of health,' and the Pax Augusta of the Romans), the capital of the straw. The chief exports are wine and timber; the imports are province of Estremadura, Spain, about 5 miles from the Portuguese colonial goods, horses, wool, cotton, silks, iron, &c. frontier, on the Guadiana, here spanned by a bridge of twenty- In 187I the pop., two-thirds of which are engaged in agriculeight arches. It is a fortress of the first rank, and the seat of a tural pursuits, numbered 1,461,562; of which 64'6 per cent. bishop, with a cathedral containing a magnificentorganand several were Roman Catholics, 33'53 per cent. Protestants, 1'76 per fine paintings. It lies in a fertile region, and, as one of the keys cent. Jews, and the rest Dissidents and Mennonites, or Baptists. of Spain, has suffered much from war. The French besieged The estimated expenditure for I875 was /r,5Ioo46, and revenue it thrice (iSo8, 1809, and I8ii), and on the last occasion it /,r,494,824. The general debt in 1874 amounted to /2,468,962; surrendered. It was also invested three times by the English the railway debt to /,I2,465,665. The government of B. is a under Wellington, twice in i8II, and again in the following monarchy, constitutional and hereditary, based upon the charter year, when it was taken by storm (April 6, 1812), after a fierce of August 22, 1818. Two chambers compose the Parliament, conflict and great loss of life, the killed and wounded on the which meets every two years, thefirst chamber consisting of reBritish side amounting to about 5oo000. B. has manufactures of presentatives of the nobility, of the landed interest, of the Church, coarse woollens, soap, and leather, and carries on a considerable and of the universities; the second of 22 deputies for certain contraband trade with Portugal. The celebrated painter'El towns, and of 41 for the country districts. The army, which Divino' Morales, was born here in I509. Pop. 22,895. is under the control of the state, amounts in peace (1875) to Baahhnasaei ukstn eta sa ish-1~~4,228 men, in war to 25,843. Badakhshan': a state in Turkestan, Central Asia, lies be- The Alemanni, the original inhabitants of B., were conquered tween the Hindu Kush mountains and the river Amu-Dariaepe tween the Ox ihindu 8ush mountainsN and nthe river Am-Daria by the Franks; and owing to their repeated endeavours, espeac. Oxs), within lat. 36- 38 N., and long. 69 E. It cially under their'Duke' Gottfried, from whom the present is a well-watered, richly-cultivated hill country, abounding in rulers of B. claim descent, to regain their freedom, Pippen the beautiful valleys, and covered with extensive woods. The mouoneautifl valleys, and covered with extensive woods. Te moun- Little abolished the dukedom in 748. Still the family did not tain chains contain ruby-mines, and occasional deposits of lapis- become extinct, and in an obscure way struggled to maintai a I-become extinct, and in an obscure way struggled.to maintain a lazuli, a mineral chiefly found in this region. The pop. is esti- kind of bold on the land in that region. We read of Gerolds mated at 500,000, principally Tajiks, an Aryan people, professing and Gebhards who dimly figure as counts there. At last, in the Mohammedan religion and speaking the Persian language. the ith c., one of these, Berthd, favoured by the Emperr the i Ith c., one of these, Berthold, favoured bY the Emperor B. is ruled by a'Mir,' and may be regarded as an independent einrich III., establishedhimself as a'D e,' and from him, Heinrich III., established -himself as a'Drake,' and from him, kingdom, although it -has frequently been annexed to Afghans- at ay rate, through his second son, -erman, we have an at any rate, through lhis second son, Hermann,,we have an tan, and is still (I874) struggling for independence. B. is also unbroen seriesof rinces of the Badenese house of Zringen; the ame f te chef own.SeeYules Mrco ol~(newed.unbroken series of.princes of the Badenese house of Ziihringen; the name of the chief town. See Yule's M7arco Polo (new ed. but the family vicissitudes were numerous, and every now and Lond. 1875); Quarerly ie, April 73; and Enug again the main line died out, and recourse was had for princes Review, July I873. to subordinate branches. The Markgraf Christoph (died 1527) BVideker, Karl, whose name at least is known all over the united all the Badenese lands; but divided them anew among Continent, belongs to an old publishing family originally from his three sons. The family of one of these soon became extinct; Bremen, andwas born at Essen, 3d November I8oi. In 1827 he the other two founded the houses of Baden-Baden and Badenstarted business for himself at Coblenz, and in 1839 published Durlach; but in 1771 the former died out, and the family posthe first of his admirable series of handbooks of travel (now trans- sessions were again reunited. Karl Friedrich, who began to lated into English and French) under the title of Rheinuandee(i8th rule in 1746, greatly increased by his policy the influence and ed. 1874). It was followed by his Brelgien und Holand(I3th ed. importance of B. His reign is one of the longest on record1875), his DeutschTland und Qesterreich (i6th ed. 1874); Schweiz 65 years. Karl favoured the policy of Napoleon, and was (16th ed. 1875); Paris undNord-Frankreich (9th ed. 1874); lta- raised to the dignity of Grand-Duke when he joined the Conlieu (3 vols. 4th ed. 1875), &c. B. died 4th October 1859. The federation of the Rhine. Hi-s grandson, Karl Ludwig Friedrich, business of the firm is now carried on by a younger son, who has went a step further, and married (1806) Stephanie Louise continued the series in his Syrien uundPaalestina (1,875). Adrienne Napoldone, an adopted daughter of the French Emperor, but after the battle of Leipsic abandoned the ConBa'den, a grand duchy in the S.W. extremity of Germany, federation of the Rhine, and in i8I5 joined the national Fund. al)out 150 miles long, and from 1o to 97 miles'broad, with an From i8I5 to 1848 the history of B., like that of most other area of 591o sq. miles. It is bounded on the N. by Bavaria and German states, is the history of parliamentary struggles to Hesse-Darmstadt; on the E. by Wiirtemberg and Bavaria; and secure a liberal administration, to which, as a rule, the sovereigns on the W. and S. by the Rhine, which separates it from Rhenish and their advisers were obstinately opposed. But in 1846, it Bavaria, Alsace, and Switzerland. With the exception of the became necessary to call the Liberal party into power to quell western portion along the right bank.of the Rhine,,the country the agitation in the country, and a number of wise and conciliais mountainous, the most prominent range'being the.Schwarz- tory reforms were passed. The outbreak of the French revoluwald or Black Forest (q. v.), which extends from the Swiss tion, however, in 1848, stirred up discontent anew. The left frontier northward through B. and Wiirtemberg. The portion wing of the Liberal party became clamorous for a republic, the lying to the N. of the Murg, as far as the Neckar valley, is troops fraternised with the insurgent democracy, and the Grandknown as the Neckar highlands. The principal rivers are the Duke fled (May 1849). But Prussia was resolved that Germany Rhine, flowing out of the Bodensee, with its tributaries the should not dissolve into political chaos. By her help the GrandWutach, Wiese, Elz, Kinzig, Adher, Murg, Pfinz, Salbach, and Duke recovered his dominions in a couple of months, and Neckar, one of the most beautiful of purely German streams; although numerous executions took place, many important on the N.E. the Main, on the Bavarian border, with the Tauber, reforms were introduced, and B. gradually abandoned both an affluent from Wiirtemberg; and in the S.E. the Danube. reactionary and radical politics, and settled down into a mode243 4- 4~ BAD THE GL OBE ENCYCL OPIDIA. BA rate Liberalism, which ecclesiastical conflicts have disturbed, Badger (Meles), a genus of Carnivorous mammalia, forming but not destroyed. In I870 B. took an active part in the Franco- the type of the family Melida, the members of which are planti. Prussian war, and became a member of the German Empire, grade-that is, apply the whole November 15, I871. See Bader, Badenia, oder das bad. Land sole of the foot to the ground und Volk (new ed. I858-62, 2 vols.); Hennisch, Das Grossher- in walking. The body in the zogthum B. (I857); Pfliiger, Bad. Vaterlandskunde (I866); and *badgers is elongated. The legs Friedberg, Der Staat und die Kathol..Kirche in B. (I8.7I). are shortened. The carnassial tooth-the last tooth but one in Baden, a Swiss town, canton of Aargau, with warm baths the upper, and the last tooth in (the Zhermez Helveticer of the Romans), and the seat of the the lower jaw-of the badgers Swiss Diet till I712. Pop. (I870) 3412. has only a part of its edge sharp and cutting, and it is-only partly Baden-Baden, a town in a valley of the Schwarzwald, tbeculatein, or provided partly Badger. Grand Duchy of Baden, celebrated for its hot springs, the salu- surface with small points or tubercles. The common B. (Metes brity of its atmosphere, and the picturesque beauty of the sur- axs inhabits Britain, Europe and Central Asia It averages rounding scenery; hence from May to October it is crowded 2- feet in length, and in height measures from Io to 12 inches. with visitors in search of health. Its famous, or rather infa- It is coloured greyish-brown on the upper, and black on the mous, gaming-tables were closed in.I872, with the other licensed under parts. The head is white, and marked on the cheeks by gambling-houses of Germany. In I860 there were as many as,.a longitudinal black band. The fur is of coarse texture. It is 46,842 visitors to B3., but the number has since declined. Pop. nocturnal in habits, and appears to be of inoffensive disposition, (I873) Io,o8o. although when attacked-as by dogs, in the sport formerly Baden bei Wien, the Therms Cetzie or Pannonice;of the.pursued and known as'badger-baiting' —it can bite very Romans, an Austrian watering-place, I5 miles S.'of Vienna by severely, and defend itself with pertinacity and courage. It rail, which has sometimes over I5,00ooo visitors. The baths, feeds chiefly on roots, but also eats fruits, and all kinds of animal from being used by both sexes in common, are called'society- substances. It burrows in the ground, and lives within the baths.' Pop. (I869) 7590. excavation. The flesh, though coarse, is eaten, especially in bChina. If taken young, the B. may be domesticated. The Badenoch (the derivation of the word is uncertain), a dis-'Siffleur' (Meles Labradoricus), or American B., occurs in Canada trict in the S.E. of Inverness-shire, traversed.by the Spey, is and the United States. It is an expert burrower, and hunts the chiefly notable as having been for a time held by the house of smaller mammalia. It is of a grey colour in winter, and Comyn, on whose forfeiture it was bestowed by Bruce on his yellowish-brown in summer. The Indian B., or Balysaur nephew Randolph. In I37I it was given by King Robert II. to (Metes collaris), inhabits the mountainous districts of Hindostan. his son, known as' the Wolf of B.,' reverted on the failure of This latter species much resembles the common B. in size, but his descendants to the crown, and in I456 was granted to the it possesses a muzzle-like snout, and the tail is small and destiEarl of Huntly. The greater part of it is covered with forests. tute of long hairs. A Japanese species (Al armakingna), Temminck, has also been described. Badge. Emblems denoting titles and dignities in general are The honey-badgers, or ratels (Met/ivora), found in Southern called badges; and in certain orders the word is used especially and astern Africa, c.., ae so named from their partiality for to denote the pendant which forms part of their insignia. In all honey. They resemble the common B. in appearance, but prethe affairs of life, mankind love the emblems of rank and pomp; sent certain structural differences from that form. The Melithe quality and quantity of them frequently forming the subject vora Capensis of the Cape and the Indian ratel (A Indica) are of serious dispute, even of bitter conflict, political or ecclesias- familiar species. tical; a fact which might almost lead us to acquiesce in the satire conveyed in Swift's account of the Big and Little Endian Badi'a-y-Leblich, Domingo, an African and Asiatic trawarfare of Lilliput. Recently, the throne of France was de- veller, born at Barcelona, Ist April I767. Being early smitten dined on account of a B. While it is often difficult to see, or with the love of travel and adventure, he departed for Africa in even to conjecture, what is the virtue, prowess, or legend of I803 disguised as a Mussulman, having previously acquired a which badges are meant to be emblematic, the subject is never- competent knowledge of Arabic, and of the manners and habits theless generally interesting, and not without special value to of those he meant to visit; and to give colour to his pretence of the archaeologist. The following are a few of the most famous being descended from the Abbasides, assumed the name of Alibadges:- Bei-el-Abbassi. The Emperor of Morocco invited him to his France-The fleez -de-lis and the imperial eagles. court, whence he set out in.1805 for Mecca, which he reached in Eng6land —The red rose and the white rose, with crown. JI807. After travelling for a short time in Palestine, he reached Scotlaed —The thistle with crown. Constantinople, where the genuineness:of his faith was suspected, Ireland —The harp and crown, and the shamrock and crown. and he retired to Spain. Here his patriotism yielded to his inOrder of the Garter.-A dark-blue terests, and he submitted to the sway of the French on their conribbon edged with gold, bearing the quest of Spain. After the English had expelled the invaders motto Honzi soit qui rmal y iense in from the Peninsula, B. retired to Paris, where in 1814 he pubgolden letters, with buckle.mand B. of lished a narrative of his travels: -Voyages a Ali-Bei en A1frique gold. The collar is of gold. The* et een Asie pendant les AnneXes I803 1 I807. During a second George-which is the figure of StGeorge journey in the East, of which no rfcord has been preserved, he and the Dragon-is worn to the collar, died suddenly, August 30, i8i8,,alfAleppo. TXhe star isslver, with thecrossfSt Bael or Bhel Fruit, the fruit of Aegle ezarme/os, a plant the garter. See GARTER, ORDiER OF closely allied to the orange. The fruit, which possesses a very THE. garter. See GARTERORDER OFdelicate taste and a fine odour, is the original source of marmalade. Order of the Thistle.-A star, with the The rind of the unripe fruit is astringent, and is an officinal remedy V) A p motto Aeemo meee imune lacessit; also for diarrhcea and dysentery. * r:. collar and B., with the cross and "figure Baer, Karl Ernst Von, a Russian naturalist, born in Esof St Andrew. See THISTLE, ORDER thonia, I7thFebruary 1792. After studying medicine at Dorpat XO F THE. from I8,Io to I814, he proceeded in the latter year to Germany to Order of St Patrick. -A collar of gold,'complete his scientific education; thence to Kbnigsberg in I8I7, ~,4 with a crown in the centre, within which where, besides exercising the functions of professor of zoology, he'~3bz~.a band of blue enamel, with the motto organised the zoological museum. In I834 he was called to St Order of the Garter- Qeis separabit, MI)CCLXXXIII. Attached Petersburg, and in I837 he was sent by the Czar on an arctic Insignia. to the crown is a harp of gold, from expedition. On his return he published an interesting account which hangs a golden B. or jewel. of the fauna and flora of the northern coasts of Russia. In I858 See PATRICK, ST, ORDER OF. he was:elected a corresponding member of the French Academy 244...4 a vf BAE THE GLOBE ENVC YCIOPADIA. BAG of Sciences. In addition to valuable researches in embryology which are constructed of brick. B. has been built on no regular embodied in his De Ovi ManmaZlium et Hominis Genesi (Leips. plan, and the narrow, tortuous, unpaved streets teem with imI827), B. has published A History of the Development of Animals purities, which would greatly endanger the public health were (Kbnigs. 1828-37), and Studies on the -Russian Empire and the they not speedily removed by the troops of hungry dogs, which Neighbouring Countries of Asia (St Petersb. I856). During swarm here, as in the other cities of the East. The meanness of i851-56 he devoted his attention to the Russian fisheries in the the exterior of the houses is frequently compensated for by their Baltic, the Caspian, and Lake Peipus, and the results of his in- gorgeous internal decorations. The public buildings are mainly vestigations are contained in 4 vols. (St. Petersb. I857-59). the mosques, the caravanserais, and the bazaars. The mosques, Numerous valuable papers of B.'s are contained in Helmersen's Ioo in number, are distinguished by massive and lofty minarets, Beilridgen zur Kunde des Russischen Reichs (vol. i.-xxii., St but the bazaars yield in magnificence to those of many Eastern Petersb. I839-6I). cities. The principal trade of B. is with Aleppo and Damascus; and its chief manufactures are of leather, and stuffs of silk and Bag'na, a town of Spain, province of Cordova, on the river B. founded Marbella, 24 miles S.S. E. of the city of Cordova, has consider- enlarged and beautified by his successor, arun-al-Rshid, has enlarged and beautified by his successor, Harun-al-Rashid, has ab)le trade in oil and grain. It is built on the site of a Roman been ccessively conuered by Sejukide Turks Tartars Pertown, many remains of which have been discovered. Thettoman Turks, to whom it has been subject since sians; and Ottoman Turks, to whom it has been subject since climate, water, and fruits of the district are delicious. Pop. (1873) 60,ooo. Thevilayet of B., 550 milesby 350 I,fioo. area about 93,doo sq. miles, supposed pop. 2,ooo000,0ooo, compreBae'za (anc. Bealia, or Biatia), an old town in the province heads Khuzistan, Kurdistan, Algesirah, Irak-Arabi, and a barren of Jaen, Spain, near the Guadalquivir, 22 miles N.E. of the waste W. of the Euphrates; products, maize, rice, tobacco, dates, city of Jaen. It was the scene of the defeat of Hasdrubal (B.c. &c.; and is notorious for the lawlessness of its inhabitants. 209) by Scipio the Elder; became an important place under Baggage. According to the marching regulations of the the Moors; but in 1239 was sacked by St Ferdinand, and has British army, a private soldier is allowed to carry nothing except never flourished since. There are, however, some noble build- what his knapsack can hold. Married men!have a small extra ings of the I6th c., chief of which is the cathedral, modernised allowance. See CARRIERS, LAW REGARDING. in I587. The sculptor Gaspar Becerra was born here in I520.ar Danish poet, well known also B. also claims to be the birthplace of'the Irooo virgins of B. aCologne.' claims)to be the. birthplace'the,000virgin in German literature, was born, February I5, 1764, at Korsir, in Cologne.' Pop. 13,400.. the island of Zealand. He went to the University of CopenBaf'~a, a small seaport of Cyprus, on the S.W. coast of the hagen in 1782; and, while a student there, gained some reputaisland, occupies the site of the New Paphos, which was destroyed tion as a writer of songs, odes, and comic tales. B. published by an earthquake in the time of Augustus, but was soon rebuilt. at Copenhagen, 1790, in Danish, Holger Danske, an opera; in To the S.E. stood Old Paphos, the chief seat of the worship of I803, at Hamburg, a collection of poems in German; in I8o6, Venus, with innumerable splendid temples. I~t was believed to also:in German, Parthenais oder Alpenreise, an idyllic epic be the favourite residence of the goddess, and the point where written in hexameters, which was very successful. In I8i I he she first landed when she rose from the sea. Under the Venetians was appointed professor of the Danish language and literature B. was a flourishing place, but it is now a decayed town with an at Kiel; but never fairly settling down to the work of this chair, inconsiderable trade. he went to Copenhagen in I8:I4, where he received a pension of I500 dollars (,i65) a year. Here he criticised with unseemly Baffin's Bay, so called from its discoverer, William Baffin, severity the works of Oehlenschlidger, a younger dramatist, whose who in 6i 16 sailed along its eastern fringe, and believed it to-be a brilliancy and popularity had put B. considerably in the shade. bay. During the 17th and I8th c. the honesty of Baffin was dis- This created a literary quarrel between the two poets and their believed, and his discoveries expunged from the charts. In i818 partisans, which lasted till I820, when B. finally left his native Sir John Ross sailed over the track of Baffin, and verified his country. His Danish dramas have little merit; but the lyrics discoveries. Arriving, however, at the extreme N. of B. B., Ross and comic epics are highly esteemed by his countrymen. He imagined he beheld the land closed in this direction by a line of shone at his brightest in the serio-comic treatment of a theme. mountains running E. and W. In the following year Sir Edward In Der Vollendete Faust, left by him in MS., he satirises the Parry sailed over these supposed mountains into Smith's Sound, scientific and political follies iof his time; and in Adam und Eva, thus proving that what is generally termed B. B. is really a great oder die Geschichte des Siindenfalls, published shortly after his inland sea extending between the W. coasts of Greenland and death, he treats a very grave subject rather gaily. He died at the shores of the most easterly of the islands forming the Arctic Hamburg, October 3,.1826. H{is lasting monument in literature Archipelago of N. America. Length about 6oo miles, breadth is an edition of -his Poetische Werke in Deutscher Sprache (Leips. about 300. It is open and navigable only for about two months 5 vols. 1836), edited by his son, who contributes a biography. in the year. His Danish writings in 12 vols. were published at Copenhagen Bagar'ia, or Bagher'ia, a town of Sicily, 9 miles E. by S. (I827-32, new ed. I845-48). His correspondence with Reinhold from Palermo by rail, beautifully situated between the'bays of and Jacobi appeared at Leipsic in 1832, and some posthumous Palermo and Termini, and a fayourite resort of tihe Sicilian. fragments edited by his son August at Copenhagen in I855. nobility. Pop. 12,950. Baglivi', Giorgio, an Italian physician, born at Ragusa, September I669; studied at Padua and Bologna; removed to Bagasse, the refuseof sugar-canesaftertheyhave been passed Rome in i692 and was there made -professor of anatomy by through crushing-rollers and the saccharine juice extracted. It me is used as fuel in the concentration of the juice by boiling, and Clement XI. He advanced medical science by dscardig Xhumoral pathology, which made the fluids of the body the orithe ash left after burning is returned to the soil as ma~nure. ginal source of disease, for'solidism,' which maintains that the Bagatelle' (Fr. a trifle), a game in some respects like billiards, solids are first affected, and the fluids only secondarily-a doctrine but played on a small board or table, circular at one extremity, which has since his time gradually gained ground, Hoffmann where a series of nine cups are arranged for receiving the balls. and Cullen having further elaborated it. B. died at Rome in The game is usually played with nine balls,-four white, four 1706. There have been several reprints of his complete works, red, and a black'tee' ball. — The methods of playing and the Opera Omn'ia Medico-Practica, since their first publication at rules of the game vary considerably, but being chiefly a~domestic Leyden in 1704. or family amusement, players have much liberty to please them- Bagna-Cavallo (' the horse's bath'), a town of Italy, proselves as to regulations. vince of Ravenna, I2 miles W. from Ravenna by rail, has a Bagdcad', the chief town of the vilayet of B., Asiatic Tur- cathedral dedicated to Michael the Archangel, and was the key, 220 miles S.E. of Aleppo. Originally built on the right birthplace (1484) of Bartolomeo Ramenghi (better known as bank of the Tigris, it is now intersected by the river, the Bignacavallo),afamous artist. Pop. 4000. two portions being connected by a bridge of boats, which is Bagna'ra (Lat. Portus Orestis), a seaport in the province of defended by a citadel on the left bank. A wall of brick and Reggio (Calabria), S. Italy, situated near the extremity of the mud, 5 miles in circumference, encloses the town, the houses of peninsula, in a rich wine country. Pop. 85I7. 245 BAG TIHE GLOBE ENCYCLOPEDIA. BAII Bagnbres', the name of two well-known watering-places in Preuss-Eylau and Friedland in the war of 1807. The following the S. of France. —I. B. de Bigorre (Lat. Aquae Bigerrionum year, in accordance with the provisions of the Treaty of Tilsit, he and Aquensis Vicus), in the department of Upper Pyrenees, at occupied Friedland, defeating Doebeln and Lowenheim, and in the mouth of the fine valley of the Campan, overhung'by Mont- 1809 -commanded the Moldavian army against the Turks at Silisalivet, has over 40 saline springs from 200 to 600 R., which tria. After a brilliant retreat before Davout upon Smolensk attract about 20,oo00o visitors yearly. B., known as'the French in the Russian campaign of 181 2 (in the course of which, however, mvlrogaole des eaux thernmales,'has also some manufactures of he was defeated at Mohilev on the Dnieper), B. was mortally woollens, linens, and bareges. Pop. (i872) 7239.-2. B. de wounded on the retreat to Moscow after the battle of Borodino, Luchonz (Lat. Agqes Convenarulm), in the department of Upper and died October 7, I812.'His grandson, Prince Peter RoGaronne, at the junction of the rivers Pique and One, near the manovitch B., is a major-general in'the Russian service, and entrance to the Vald'Aran. It has 54 sulphurous springs, from since 1862 has been governor of Tver. He recently discovered 16~ to 580 R., and'is one of the most pcturesque and floushing in the mines near Slatoust an unknown fossil species, which has bathing-places in France. Pop. (1872) 3750. been named after him Bcarationit. 1Bagnes, the name given to the convict prisons of France. In Bag'shot Beds, so called because first examined on Bagformer times, labour at the galleys was the severest punishment shot Heath, Surrey, belong to the strata of the Middle Eocene, short of death inflicted on criminals. The Galley:(q. v.) was and are:met with in a full state of development in the Isle of worked by the convicts, or galley-slaves, chained to the oars. Wight. The upper division consists of thick sands, generally This system was abolished in 1748, and labour in the B. put poor in fossils; the middle division comprehends the Barton in place of it. In these establishments, in later times at least, and Bracklesham beds, consisting of clays and sand, and rich the plan and discipline appear to have been good. Under the in fossil remains, such as Nummulites, with reptiles, fishes, and Code NlapoleonZ, convicts were employed in work profitable to mollusca,-which also occur in the Calcaire grossier of Paris. the state, and various handicrafts were taught under the superin- The lower division consists of various co!oured sands and pipe. tendence of skilled teachers. Good behaviour was rewarded clays, and forms the basis of the Middle Eocene formations. with relaxation, and the industrious were allowed to retain a por- The maximum thickness of the B. B. is about 120oo ft. tion of their earnings. In 1852 the B. were suppressed by the Bag'ul, or Baghul, a native -state in the N. W. of India, deimperial government, and transportation to Guiana put in place pendent on the Punjab government. It pays an annual tribute of them, the choice being left to those in prison at the time to of,/36o, and maintains a force of 222 men, haying a revenue remain or be transported. of about /f6ooo. The country is mostly mountainous. Area, Bagnes-le-Chable, a village on the left bank of the Dranse, 50 s. miles; pop. (1872) 22,000. canton of Valais, Switzerland. It has suffered much from inun- Baha'mas, a chain of British W. Indian islands, extending dations. Pop. of the village, 4254; of the parish, 9ooo. from about 50 miles off the N. American peninsula of Florida Bagno (pr. hagni), the Italian form of bath,' enterin in a S.E. direction to within about 0oo miles of the N. coast of Haytiaa distance of 700 miles. The average width of the into the name of numerous'places in Italy noted for their salinege width of the chain is over 0oo miles. The basis of the islands is coralline, or other springs. Among these may be mentioned ~ i.:Bagni Yr "ther spring A' ~y'e d -— I. B and they have the usual configuration of the reef —long, narrow, di Lucca, a village'in:the province of Lucca, and a favourite and te a te nft n of ther resort on account" of its hot springs and the amenity of'its and'low. About twenty of the B. are inhabited, and of these neighb ts prosperity dspeings mucthe on its foreignthe chief are New Providence, with the capital and seat of neighbourhood. Its prosperity depends much on its foreign government, Nassau, Eleuthera, Harour Island, Exuma, St government, Nassau, Eleuthera, Harbour Island, Exuma, St visitors, who constitute a great part of its population. GamSalvador, Andros, Great Bahama, Crooked Island, and Rum bling, formerly a favourite pursuit here, was suppressed in I846. ay. The islets (called kes) are very numerous, and the coral Pop. o commue (i~i 8238-. Bagn a Ripli, aCay. T he islets (called keys)'ar~e very numerous, and the coral Pop. of commune (i86'I) 8238.-2. B1agno aP Ripoli, a rocks of the chain are countless. Area, 3021 sq. miles; pop. fashionable bathing-place in the province of Florence, a few rcso 62. The soil is not deep, but-the porous rocks miles E.N.E. from Florence. Pop. 14,385.-3. Bagno in (i871) 39, Romagno, 35 miles E. by N. from Florence, with hot springs forming magazines of moisture-is very fertile. Chief productions, coffee, sugar, indigo, Brazil wood, cotton - since the and an old church. Pop. 7i65. The sur'rounding country is and an old church. Pop. 765. The srounding counry Is American civil war-guineacorn, maize, pineapples, lemons, fertile, and the mast of the forests on the neighbouring mouno. Climate ranging from 3 to 930 F. summer, but in tain suport numrousswie.-4 Bagi d S.-iulinooranges. Climate ranging from 73~ to 93~ F. in summerbut in rains supports numerous swine.7-4. 13agnil di Si.-qriulianzo, ilgs teainPisamuppo frtnume ineay B i di S iansPop. winter delightfully temperate-the islands being much resorted near Pisa, muck frequented in early times by the Romans. Pop to in this season for pulmonary diseases. The B. were the first x1~~~~~~~~6,777. ~American discovery of Columbus, who landed on what is now Bagno'lo, the name of a town of Piedmont, province Cuneo, called Watling's Island (October 12, 1492): the native Carib 12 miles N.W. from Saluzzo; also of a small town near Brescia; population disappeared before the Spaniards, who did not coloand of another in the province of Lucca, in S. Italy, besides of nise the island. In 1629 they were acquired by the English. many small Italian villages. See A. Trollope's Travelling Sketches (i866); Bacot's Bahamzas Bagpipe, one of the oldest musical instruments, which seems ( i869); and Kingsley's At Last: A.ChZristnzas in the W. Indies to have been used at some time in its history by almost every (I87). nation. As now used in Scotland, it.consists of a -leathern bag Bahar', or Behar, the chief town of an old Mohammedan inflated from the performer's lungs,.and the wind by the pressure province of the same name, situated in the British commissionerof his arm is expelled through several pipes. One of these is ship of'Patna, near a branch of the Ganges, 34 miles S.E. of called the chanter, and is provided with a reed and with eight the town of Patna, and 159 W. of Benares. It was sacked by finger-holes for playing upon; the others are called drones, and the Mahrattas about 1742, and was afterwards in great part deposound continuously the same note. The effect of its music de- pulated,by a famine, but of late years it has gradually recovered, pends more upon the nationality of the listener than upon its and is now a place of some importance. Pop. (1872) 44,295. intrinsic qualities. Although rude and harsh in the extreme, The old province of B. was formerly part of the empire of Delhi. there are few Highlanders who do not feel it exciting and in- Area, 42,417sq. miles; pop. (i8.72) 19,736,1 io. In 1765 it passed spiring. under English rule, and was portioned into the two divisions Bagration, Peter, Prince, born in 1 765, entered the of Patna and Bhagulpore, and again into ten executive districts. Russian service as sergeant P in782. He distinguished hinself This entire region, lying in the valley of the Ganges, is fertile in Suwarrow's Caucasian, Turkish, and Polish campaigns, being and populous, but is subject to inundations, and has bad roads. made colonel on the critical field of Oczakow (I7th December The British district of B., named officially Gya, has an area of 1788). He also followed Suwarrow in the Italian campaign of 4718 sq. miles, and a pop. (1872) of 1,949,750. 1799, taking Brescia (ioth April 1 799), and contributing to the Balhi'a, or'San Salvador, the capital of a province of the decisive defeat of the French at Novi. Falling into disgrace same name, Brazil, on a promontory forming the northern side with Paul I., he was restored to command by Alexander, and of All-Saints' Bay. Next to Rio de Janeiro it is the largest searendered important service during the retreat of Kutusow before port of the empire, and has a splendid harbour and strong forMurat, which was shortly followed by the battle of Austerlitz tifications. It was founded in 1549, and is the oldest town in (ISc5). As lieutenant-general under Bennigsen, B. fought at Prazil, of which it was capital till 1763. In 1874, by the con246 BAH THE GZL OBE ENC YCLOPZ)-4IA. BAI tinuation of the cable from Pernambuco, B. was placed in tele- Baise,. anciently a town on the coast of Campania, famous for graphic communication with Europe. The trade of the port has its warm springs, became towards the close of the republic a recently declined very much. In the financial- year 1872-73 the favourite resort of the wealthy Romans, who, with insolent ostenvalue of the imports was /,z,367,oo3; of exports, I,871,212. tation of wealth, sometimes built their villas out into the sea. The exports are chiefly sugar, tobacco, coffee,.cotton, rum, Brazil Julius Caesar, Pompey, and other distinguished citizens, had wood, diamonds, and piassava; imports, manufactured goods, country seats here; and it was a chosen retreat of the Emperors drugs, wines, flour, coals, and hardware. Pop. (according to the Nero, Caligula, H1adrian, and Alexander Severus. Horace preofficial report of I874) I52,000. ferred B. to every spot of earth besides. As the resort of the idle and the wealthy, it soon acquired the fame of being ahotbed Bahia, a maritime province in the S.E. of Br~azil, is inter- of the vices. Some ruins of temples, baths,. and villas still mark sected by lofty sierras,. and watered by the great river San Fran- the site of. SomThe name is of templeserved inbathe modern villastill ma cisco. It is covered with forests of valuable timber, and is rich B, built in the reign of Charleserved in the modern CasV. in metals and precious stones, but the country is almost inaccessible for want of roads, A railway to the interior, however, Baikal (Turk. Beikuls'rich lake;.'. Mongol. DaZai Aor, is now almost completed. The diamond-mining of B. was'holy lake'), the largest fresh-water lake in Asia, lies in the nearly ruined by the discovery of the fields at the Cape of Good Russo-Siberian government of Irkutsk, and sweeps S. and S.W. Hope, but in I874 large deposits of amethysts were found near in the form of a sickle, from I03~ to IIO~ E. long. Length, 400 the town of Caetite, and the extensive digging operations beguil miles; area (estimated), I4,000 sq. miles. It is surrounded by are yielding promising returns. B. exports more sugar row than the Baikal Mountains, is fed by the Selenga, 700 miles in length, all the rest of Brazil taken together, and the cultivation of coffee and many other streams, and has an outlet in the Lower Angara is rapidly increasing. Area, 127,9II sq. miles; pop. (official to the Yenesei river, which, however, carries off only a tenth return i873) 1,450,000, of whom 280,000 are slaves, of the volume of Water received from affluents. Its height above the s-arface of the sea is r793 feet. Fisheries, espeBahia-Honxda (Port.' deep bay'), a seaport of Cuba, on the cially of sturgeon and seal, are important. There are two ports; N. coast of the island, 6o miles W.S.W. of Havana, formerly steamers ply in summer; and from November to April, when much resorted to by privateers. Pop. 4000. the lake is frozen over, traffic is carried on over the ice. Bahna'sa, or Behne'seh (anc. Oxy-yncihu.s), a small town in Bail is a term of English and Scotch law; but in England it Central Egypt, on the Bar Yusef ('Josepli's Canar'), containing applies both to criminal and civil procedure, in Scotland only some interesting ruins of the old Greek city. In Christian tines, to the former. In England, the justice before whom a prisoner Oxyrynchus became the seat of a bishop, and numerous monas- is brought must after examination either discharge him, commit teries once existed here, of which tle ruins are still visible. him, or require him to give B.; by which is meant, that he must find sufficient sureties for his appearance in court at a specified Bahr, an Arabic word, signifies a large body of water, and is time. The accused is- meanwhile at liberty. In former times applied to both rivers and lakes. For instance, the two chief all felonies were bailable, but many are now excepted by statute. branches of the Nile are called Bahr-el-Abiad (' the white river'), No justice of peace can take B. on a charge of treason, murder, and Bahr-el-Aztak ('the blue river'), while Bahr-Assal means arson, or manslaughter, unless the case against the accused be a Lake Assal, or'salt lake.' very flimsy one. The Court of Queen's Bench may B. for any crime;' but the accused cannot demand that it should do so as his atqBahr, Johann Christian e Felix, a German philologer and right. Two sureties are required to B. for felony, and the amount antiquarian, was born at Darmstadt, June r3, 17o98; educated at of B. will depend on the circumstances of the accused and on the Heidelberg; appointed (I826) ordinary professor of philology nature of the offence. In a civil process, one surety is legally in the same university; and died November 27, 1-872. His sufficient; but the sheriff may require two, or, under certain cirprincipal writings are an- annotated edition of Plutarch's Alci- cumstances, even more;. and by accepting one he may incur perbiades (Heid. 1822); Philotiemene, Flaminius, and Pyrrhus sonalliability. (Leips. I826); the fragments of Clesias, with careful elucidations; In Scotland, the law as regards B. in criminal cases is essen. and above all, a Geschichte der Rlbm. Literatur (Karls. I828,: tially the same as in England; a t least it is so practically. The 4th ed. m869). To this clear and comprehensive history three Court of Justiciary may take B. even in capital cases; but it supplements were added-iDie Christl.-R Dic/ter und Ges (83 ict- would certainly be only in very extraordinary circumstances that scAreiber tems (1836); 1 Die Cristl.-Rinm. Tizeoiogie (r837); and this would be done. The Lord Advocate may do so also, and Geschichlte der P?&n. Literalur im ay-orlingiscZhe Zeitalter (I840). may fix the B. at any sum he pleases. The analogous term to Another very valuable work was his version of 5revootus may fix the 3. at any sum he pleases. Another very valuable work washe i his Deversion of Herodots B. in a civil process in Scotland is caution. See CAUTIONARY, (1832-35, 2d ed. 1855-6i). In 1835 he published his De Uni- CAUT. versitate Constantin'oyoli Quinto Seculo Conditd He was a frequent contributor to Jahn's yahrbiicherfir Philologie. Bail Court, the naie of a court at Westminster which may be held by any one of the puisne judges of one of the courts ot Bahrdt, Karl Friedrich, a German theologian, born August Common Law when' his court is sitting. The judge sits apart, 25, I74I, at Bischofswerda, Saxony. He studied at Leipsic, and and hears and decides on questions of special bail, administering.was a professor successively at Leipsic, Erfurt, and Giessen, but oaths, &c. Hitherto this court, constituted under William III., became unpopular from his heterodox preaching, and undertook has only been used as an adjunct by the Court of Queen's Bench. in 1755 the direction of a Phil'anthropin in the Grison country. Bailee'. See BAILMENT He then went as general superintendent to Diirkheim, Leiningen- B I Dachsburg; established another Philanthropin at Heidesheim ai'ley, Philip James, an English poet, born at Basford in I777; but being declared by the Aulic Couhcil; on account of Notts, in r8I6, attended two years at Glasgow University, the gross frivolity displayed in his translation of the New Testa- began to study law in 1833, became a member of Lincoln's Inn ment, incapable of holding any ecclesiastical office, he withdrew in I835, and was called to the bar in i840. His most remarkin I779 to Halle, where he Suffered two years' imprisonment for able poem, Festus, was begun in i836, and published in I839. his writings entitled Dizs Relzignzstdikt and Die Deutsclze Union, In 1868 it had reached its eighth edition in this country, and in and where he died, 23d April 1792. In addition to his theo- America it has been even more admired and read than in logical works, which are all of a deistical tendency, B. wrote England. With this poem Tre Anges World was incorporated Gesc/cchte seznes Leens, seinerd.einnzrgen fund seif er SchiciSsale in I850. Later works by B. are The Mlystic, 1855; The Age, (4 vols. 1790). See Leyser, sE E. B. (i867).I 858; and The Universal Hymn, i867. B. has outlived the 4SeeLeyser,.F.(867). fame of thirty years ago. Festus took the popular ear by its Bahrein' Islands, or AvAl Islands,- a groatp of islands boldness and its philosophic pretension; but much of its boldbelonging to Arabia, and lying in the Persian Gulf, with a pop. ness is unbridled extravagance, and much of its'thinking' is of about 40,000. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in the aimless vagary and puerile speculation. Still the work has its pearl-fisheries, which are estimated to yield nearly 300,000ooo memorabilia. Its imagery is often strangely original, and unmisannually. The largest of the islands is 27 miles long and IO takably marks a new mind, which, unhappily, never ripened broad. It gives its name to the group, and its capital is Me- into fulness of life. The lyrical scenes are frequently fine, and nama, a centre of considerable trade, with a pop. of 3500. contain songs which the world will not willingly let die. 247 ---------— ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A BAI Tv.E GLOBE ENCYCLOPiZDIA. BAI Bailey, Samuel, an eminent writer and thinker, particularly intervals to publish such volumes till I836. The most powerful on metaphysics and political economy, was born ill I791 at and popular of her dramas is De Montfort, which was brought Sheffield, where he followed the profession of a banker, and died upon the stage by Kemble. When an attempt was made to January I8, I870, leaving:9o,ooo to his native town. He wrote revive it in I82I, however, Kean said it was a fine poem, but a number of books, essays, and pamphlets, those on the Pursuit not fitted to be an acting play. Besides dramas, Miss B. of Truth, Parliamentary Reform, and yoint-Stock Banks, making published a volume of miscellaneous poetry, including songs, in a very considerable impression at the time they were published. I84I. A new edition of her Dramatic and Poetical Works apThe most important of his philosophical works are his three series peared in 185I, and Fugitive Verses in I 860. Her pieces are charof Essays on the Philosophy of the Human Mind, published in acterised by softness of diction, unaccompanied by maudlin senI855, i858, and 1863. B., who was a Lockian in philosophy and timentality; and she is at her best when she is quietly playful, a Utilitarian in ethics, was an able thinker and a clear writer. as in The Kilten. She was much esteemed by her literary contemporaries, particularly by Sir Walter Scott; and it was to her Baleyass (Fr. baile, ed. Lat. vbalsium, a corruption of the that, as we learn from the late Archdeacon Sinclair's Old Times Class. Lat. valium, a rampart), was the space enclosed within a; d Distant Places (1875), that- the author of the Lay of the the outward walls of a castle, except the portion covered by the astd instrea communicated the somewh at curious fact, that keep. The entrance was generally by a drawbridge over the ast Mnstre communicated the somewhat curious fact, that ditch. The B. usually held accommodation for the soldiers, with although he had written a description of Melrose Abbey by moona well, chapel, &c. uu h cona t le hlight, he had not himself seen it under such circumstances. a well, chapel, &c. Bail'ie, a magistrate belonging to a municipal corporation in Baillie, Matthew, M.D., brother of Joanna B., and Scotland is so called. The office is analogous to that of an alder- one of the most eminent physicians and anatomists of his time, man in England. By common law, a B. is held to have the was born in the manse of Shotts, Lanarkshire, 27th October same power within his territory as the sheriff has in his county. I76I. His father, Dr James B., removed first to the pastoHe has also statutory powers. In a Scotch corporation, the rate of Bothwell parish, and then to the professorship of divinity chief magistrate or Provost (q. v. ), and bailies, are ex offcio i in the University of Glasgow; his mother was the sister of the the commission of the peace. The B. of. the Abbey is appointed celebrated anatomists and physiologists, William and John by the Duke of Hamilton, as hereditary keeper of the Palace of Hunter. After the usual curriculum at Glasgow University, he Holyrood. He has jurisdiction in civil debts contracted within to Baliol College, Oxford, as a Snell exhibitioner. the sanctuary. B. formerly denoted a functionary required ill There he took degrees in arts and physics. At the same time Scotch conveyancing, but under the Titles to Land Act the that he was attending Oxford, he commenced, in I780 anaoffice has become unnecessary. tomical studies under his uncle Dr William Hunter, in London, being frequently employed by him as demonstrator in his theatre Bailiff, according to its etymology (Med. Lat. ballivos, from at Great Windmill Street. So successful was his career, that, the Class. Lat. bajulus, a burden-bearer), means an overseer on the death of his uncle in I783, he was appointed his sucacting for a superior. This word, which is the same as the Fr. cessor. In I784 he began to lecture, and, from the clearness bailli, Sc. bailie, Ital. badio, had an extensive application during of his style and his power of rendering intelligible abstruse the middle ages. In France, the royal baillis at one time exer- and technical points, he gained a very high reputation as an cised supreme military and civil jurisdiction in the districts expounder of anatomical science. As a medical practitioner he allotted to them. Among the Knights of St John we find the became after a time highly popular, and from his quick percepword used to denote the eight members of their chapter. In tion of the seat of a disease, and of the proper remedy to apply England, under William the Conqueror, the superintendents of to it, as well as from his kindly manner, he was in especial counties were called ballivae. request as a consulting physician. So great was his practice, that Bailiff, is a legal officer in England under the sheriff, whose in one year his fees amounted to io,ooo. Appointments and orders or decrees it is his business to execute; the sheriff him- honours flowed in upon him. In I8Io he was made physician self being the Queen's B.; his county is called his bailiwick to George III., and was offered a baronetcy, which, however, he Bound bailiffs are so called because the sheriff being to a con- declined. Incessalt labour wore him out, and although he residerable extent responsible for them, he binds them annually in tired to his seat at Duntisbourne, in Gloucestershire, he died a legal obligation, with sureties. The special B. is appointed by September 23, I823, in the sixty-third year of his age, His will the sheriff on application of the plaintiff in a suit. There are showed a personalty of 83,oo000, much of which was directed also officers connected with royal castles, lordships of manors, by him to be given to medical institutions and public charities. &c., called bailiffs. Dr B., wrote many works, the most important of which, published in I795, is The Morbid Anatomy of some of the most JitBailiff, Hrigh, is an officer of the law in England who portant Parts of the Hiruman Body. This book, containing a executes the duties of bailiffs in districts exempt from the large amount of valuable information, and also the results of a ordinary supervision of the sheriff. The term is now generally number of experiments made by his uncle and himself, had a applied to the superior classes of the bailiffs. Eunopean fame, and marks an era in medical science, showing Baili'wick. See BAILIFF, the value of induction as not only a scientific, but a professional process. Bailleul, a town in the department of the Nord, France, with tanneries and manufactures of thread and lace. Its church Baillie, Robert, one of the most learned, influential, and of St Vaast is very ancient. The neighbourhood is celebrated moderate of the Scotch Presbyterian clergymen of the I7th c. for its cheese. Pop. (1872) 6348. -was born at Glasgow in I599. On the father's side, he was connected with the Baillies of Lamington, on the mother's, Baill'ie, Joanna, a poetess of the last and present centuries, with the Gibsons of Durie, both old and well-known Presbyterian who may be said to have prepared the way for the psychological families. Educated at the university of his native city, he, in poetry and fiction of the present day, for Browning on the one I622, received episcopal ordination from Archbishop Law (Epishand, and George Eliot on the other, was born in 1762, in the copacy being then the established religion in Scotland), and was manse of Bothwell, Lanarkshire, her father, a Scotch Presby- shortly afterwards presented to the parish church of Kilwinning. terian minister, being descended from the celebrated family of Although he had become not only an Episcopalian, but an advoB. of Jerviswoode. She removed to London at an early age, cate of the doctrine of passive obedience, the discussions of the lived there a happy, peaceful, and retired life, dying at Haump- stormy years between I630 and 1636 on Arminianism, and the stead, 23d February I85I, at the age of eighty-nine. In 1798, ecclesiastical regulations introduced into Scotland by Archbishop Miss B. published'a series of plays, in which it is attempted to Laud, made him change his views, and he became a keen chainmdelineate the stronger passions of the mind, each passion being pion of the Presbyterian cause. In I638 B. sat as a member of the subject of a tragedy and a comedy.' It is now generally the General Assembly which met in Glasgow to protest against admitted that the principle upon which the authoress proceeded Episcopacy being thrust upon the people of Scotland, and in was an erroneous one, as human beings are ruled not by one I640 he was chosen one of the commissioners sent to London to passion, but by a variety of often conflicting passions. But her press on charges against Laud on account of his tyrannical conplays are interesting as careful psychological studies. A second duct. Although he had now become an earnest champion of volume was published in I802; and, indeed, she continued at the divine right of Presbytery, and even accompanied the army 248 BAI THjE'GOBE EIVC YCL OPEDA. BAI which defended the national faith in the capacity of preacher to Bailment, an English law term, denoting the delivery of one of the regiments, he was known as one of the most temperate goods on trust for a special purpose, with a contract, expressed of the Scotch clergy, and especially showed that he was so when or implied, that they are to be returned when the special purpose he went to London in 1643 as a delegate to the Westminster is fulfilled. See BORROWING. Assembly of Divines. B. was one of the commissioners sent by his Church in I649 to ask Charles II., then in Holland, to accept Baily, Edward erodgest, a famous English sculptor, born the Covenant and crown of Scotland. In 1642 he was appointed 1788 at Bristol; repaired to London in I8o7, and studied for two joint professor of divinity in Glasgow University with Mr David years under Flaxman; gained the silver medal of the Royal Dickson, and, after the Restoration, became its Principal. He Academy in I8o9, and the gold medal in 8 i8; produced during died, July 1662, at the age of sixty-three. Besides writing theo- his long lifetime an immense number of busts, portrait statues logical works and controversial pamphlets, he left behind him, for the metropolis and the provinces, and many exquisite fanciin Letters and Yournals, an account of his public life, which is ful groups. He died 22d May 1867. Of his statues, the bestpreserved in the archives of the Church of Scotland, and con- known is that of Nelson in Trafalgar Square, London. The tains valuable material for a history of the critical period in chief of his imaginative works, which are remarkable for their which he played a by no means inconsiderable and an uniformly originality, as well as for their simplicity and sweetness, are his prudent part. He was a man of great learning, wrote Latin with prudnt art He as ma ofgrea lernig, roteLatn xit~' Eve at the Fountain,'' Eve Listening to the Voice,'' Girl Premuch elegance, and, it is said, understood thirteen languages. paring for the Bath,' and'The Graces Seated.' Baillie, Robert, of Jerviswoode, a celebrated Scotch patriot Baily, Francis, a celebrated English astronomer, was born of the reign of Charles II., was the son of George B., of St April 28, I774, at Newburgh, Berkshire, and died August 30, John's Kirk, Lanarkshire, a cadet of the Lamington family, who I844, at London. Retiring from business as a stockbroker in had become proprietor of the estate of Jerviswoode in the same I825 he devoted himself wholly to science, organising the Astrocounty. He distinguished himself from an early period by his nomical Society, revising the NVautical Almanac, publishing a attachment to the cause of civil and religious liberty, and'his star catalogue, besides writing a Lizfe of Flamsteed (I835). See resistance to the tyranny of the Duke of Lauderdale. In 1676, Sir J. Herschel's Memoir before the Astronomical Society in having rescued his brother-in-law, a Nonconforming minister of I844. the name of Kirkton, from illegal capture by an informer in the Bain, Alexander, an acute, original, and singularlylucid employ of Archbishop Sharp, named Carstairs, he was prosecuted philosopher, was born at Aberdeen in iiS, and entered Marifor this interference, and an antedated warrant was furnished schal College in I836, where he graduated in I840. From I84I to Carstairs signed by nine of the Scotch councillors of the time, to i8 he acted as deputy for the Professor of Moral Philosophy, of whom, by his own confession to Bishop Burnet, the Marquis and taught the Natural Philosophy Class during the session of of Ahol wasone B.was ine, 6oo mrks(,/i8),and onand taught the N~atural Philosophy Class during the session of of Athohl was one. B. was fined 6ooo merks (/3 iS), and, on I844-45. For some time he, was assistant secretary to the refusing to pay, was sent to prison. Such was the indignation Metropolitan Sanitary Commissioners, anafterwards to the Metropolitan Sanitary Commissioners, and afterwards to the throughout Scotland at the time, however, that at the end of four GeneralBoardof Health. From 857to 862hewasExaminer months he was released, on the payment of half the fine to in Logic and Moral Philosophy in the University of London. Carstairs. In 1683 he engaged in the promotion of a scheme Between i858 and 1870, he was seven times Examiner in of emigration to S. Carolina as a means of escape from the Mental Philosophy at the India Civil Service Examinations. In tyranny at home. The same year he entered into communication i8fo he was appointed by the crown Professor of Logic in the with Russell, Sydney, and the other leaders of the Puritan party University of Aberdeen. From 1864 to 1869 he again acted as in England, and having gone to London, was cognisant of, if not Examiner in the University of London. Professor B. commenced a prcyto,'a ropsalforan nsrretio asa mansof btan-Examiner in the University of London. Professor B. commenced a party to, a proposal for an insurrection as a means of obtain- his literary career in I840 as a contributor to the Westminster ing reform. When the Ryehouse Plot was discovered, hewas Review. His first great work was The Senses and the Intellect arrested, and sent down to Scotland. After a long imprison- (i855) which was followed in 1859 by The Emotions and the ment, which completely shattered his health, he was, in the end Will (3d ed. 1875), completing a systematic exposition of mental of 1684, brought to trial before the Court of Justiciary in Edin- mena. Like Hartley, he bases his psychology on phyburgh on the charge of conspiring against the life of the king, eno ing, siology, but his analysis is much more accurate, subtle, and and of being hostile to monarchical government. After extra- exhaustive. Later publications are, A Manual of English Conordinary and insufficient evidence, he was condemned to death, psiti and Rhetoric (i866); Logic, Deducive and Inductive and underwent sentence 24th December I684. Throughout all his troubles, particularly his last, he comported himself with t te Ai er English Grammar (I872); and Companion y ~~~~~~~~~~to the H~igher E~nglish Grammnar (1x874). Roman dignity and fortitude. By his contemporaries, and, apparently, with justice, he was credited with high administra- Baini, Giuseppe, an Italian musician and author, born at tive abilities, which, unfortunately, he had but little opportunity Rome in I775. He early applied himself to musical art, and of displaying. became director of the pontifical chapel in 1814. His great Bailly, Jean Sylvin, first an artist, then astronomer was composition was a Ziserere, written for the Sistine Chapel by Bailly, Jlean Sylvain, first an artist, then astronomer, was born in Paris, September 15, 1736, and devoted himself to order of Pius VII. Among his works, the Essai sur l'Identite order of Pius VI. Among his works, the;Fssai sur~ dl'dentitd' science until the Revolution broke out. In the earlier and innodu Rhythme Podique et M/usical.(Flor. i820) is curious and sciente snto the Revolution he w cns ealike b his interesting, while his Memtorie Storico-Critiche della Vita e delle cent stages of the Revolution he was conspicuous alike by his loyalty to the king anrl his love of liberty. Chosen President of Oere di G. P. da Palestrina (2 vols. Rome, 1828) is one of the best works of its kind. B. died ioth May i844. the National Assembly, June I7, 1789, and Mayor of Paris, best works of its kind. B. died oth May i844 July i5, he laboured with incredible energy and assiduity to keep Bairaktar' or Bairak-dar (standard-bearer), the title of the the citizens from starvation and revolt. After the flight and re- grand vizier Mustapha, who was born in 1755. His valour as capture of the king his difficulties increased. Discords showed a soldier was early conspicuous, and in i1oG, being then Pasha themselves in the Assembly and throughout the nation. Finally of Rustchuk, he opposed the Russians who had taken Bucharest. itbecame his duty to order the National Guard to fire on the In I807 the janizaries having revolted and deposed Selim III., insurgent rabble in the Champs-de-Mars. The'Irreconcilables' B made peace with the enemy, and marched on Constantinople. never forgave him. In November 1791 he resigned his office,never forgave him. In November It79 ihe resigned his office, There he found that Selim had been strangled by order of Musand withdrew to Nantes, but when the Revolution grew more furious arid hysterical, he was arrested and guillotined amidst the tapha IV., who had seized upon the throne. B., deposing Mustapha (July 28, i8o8), made Mahmoud II. sultan, himself becomimprecations of delirious fanatics, November Io, I793~ His ing grandvizier. He now attempted to disband the janizaries, pricipl wrksare Su laTheore. es atelits d y'upiering grand vizier. He now attempted to disband the janizaries, principal works are, Sur la, Thdoie des Satellites de.7uiie (ri76)'lisoire de lstron orie (7587e vols.), a really but they rose in arms, attacked the Seraglio (I5th November 01766), L'Histoire de T4stronom~ie (1775-87, 5 vols), a really g8o8), and called on B. to restore Mustapha. B. defended getwork, full of teeming and ingenious speculation, and writtenioSanclednB.trsoeMsapa B.efdd great work, full of teeming and ingenious speculation, and written himself valiantly till the palace was in flames, when he ordered in a charming style; Leltres suir l'Oqigine des Sciences (I777), Mustapha to be strangled, and his head thrown to the besiegers. besides two posthumous works, Essai sur I'Orziine dues Fables He was found in an underground apartment, with his favourite et des Religions Anciennes (I779), and igemoires d'un Temoin slave and a faithful eunuch, all suffocated. oculaire de la Revolution (804, 3 vols.). See Arago's Biogra. phie de B. (Par. 1852). Bairam. SeeBEIRAM. 32' 249 *~ —----— ~-~ BAI THE GLOBE ENCYCZOPADZA. BAJ Baird, Sir David, a British general, born 6th December passed to Bavaria. See Lang's Geschich/e des Furse/nthums B, 1757, at Newbyth, Scotland. He joined the army in 1772; in (2 vols. Gitt. I80o). 1779 he accompanied his regiment to India, and on the Ioth of Baitul', or Beitool, a fortified town in India, in the Saugor September in the following year he was captured by Hyder Ali d Nerbudda territory, B engal presidency, about in the Saugor at Perambucum, and detained as a prisoner for nearly four years W. from Nagpore. Pop. 4466. in the fortress of Seringapatam. His most memorable military achievement was the capture of this fortress, 4th May I799. At Ba'ja, a town in the district of Bacs, Hungary, situated on the his own request he was intrusted with the command of the storm- Danube, 25 miles N. of Zombor. It lies in a rich vine-growing ing party, and his gallantry and humanity were equally admir- region, has an increasing trade, and is the site of a great yearly able. For his distinguished services on this occasion he was pre- swine-fair. Pop. (I869) I8, II0. sented with the state-sword of Tippoo Saib by the commander-in- Bajan. See BEJAN. chief, General Harris, in the name of the army. After eminent Bajazet' (Bajasid), or Bayezid I., called Ilderim or the services in Egypt and India, he returned to Europe in 1803, and Lightning, ascended the throne of the Ottoman (Osman) empire was knighted in June of the following year. B. was sent to Spain on the death of his father Amurath (q. v.) or Murad (the founder in I8o8 with o,0ooo men to assist Sir John Moore, and did dis- of the janizaries), who perished in conquering the Servians at tinguished service at Corunna, January I6, I8o09, for which he Kossova, A.D. I389. At this time the Ottoman empire comreceived the thanks of Parliament for the fourth time in his life. prised, besides what was originally allotted out of the Seljuk He then retired from active service. In I814 he was raised to empire, the districts known as Khorasi, Kermian and Hamid, the rank of a general, became governor of Kinsale in Ireland in and also large portions of modern Turkey, the capital having I819, and of Fort-George in 1827, and died at his seat of Fern- been successively transferred from Prusa (Broussa) to Gallipoli tower in Perthshire, August I8, 1829. and Adrianople. B. renewed the treaty made by his father with Baird, a Scottish family that has acquired extraordinary John V., the Byzantine Emperor, by which the latter acknowwealth during the present century. The father, Alexander B. of ledged himself a vassal and tributary. He also removed, by Lockwood, Old Monkland, began the celebrated mineral enter- strangling, his only brother Yakub Chelibi; a crime which beprises of the family in I809: a lease of Gartsherrie was taken in came customary with later Ottoman sultans, and was defended I826, and the first furnace was put in blast in 1830. Coal and by Turkish historians by the text in the Koran that' commotion iron were near each other, the new railway system passed con- is worse than strangling.' Philadelphia, the last independent veniently through the field, and skill, talent, and energy did the Greek community in Asia Minor, and the Seljuk districts of Munrest. The works now include Eglinton, Blair, Portland, Lugar, tesha, Aidin, and Sarukhan, were soon added to B.'s empire. and Muirkirk. The father died in 1833, leaving two daughters Wishing to make his supremacy nominal as well as real, B. inand eight sons, William of Elie, Douglas of Closeburn, George vested Constantinople in the reign of Manuel. The siege was of Strichen and Stitchel, David and Alexander of Urie, James raised by the advance of Sigismund of Hungary and other Chrisof Cambusdoon, Robert of Auchmedden, and John of Lock- tian princes, whom B. defeated at Nikopolis in Bulgaria (28th wood. James of Auchmedden and Cambusdoon, the only one November I396). This victory was followed by expeditions to of the eight that survives, was born in I803, and sat as M.P. for Thrace, Thessaly, and Greece, Wallachia, and Hungary. In Falkirk from i851 to 1857. He is the munificent founder of the spite of the bravery of Marshal Boucicault and his fleet, B., now B. Trust. Fresh force and energy have been imported into the master of nearly all Asia Minor, would have reduced Constan vast business of the Bairds by a nephew, Alexander Whitelaw of tinople, had he not been called to the defence of his Asiatic Gartsherrie, who was elected M.P. for Glasgow in I874, in the possessions by the appearance of Timur, or Timur-leng (the lame Conservative interest. The ]B. family have become extensive Timur), who, after reducing Mesopotamia and Syria, was now landowners, the total rental of their estates reaching /8i,ooo threatening the borders of Asia Minor. The armies of B. and a year. Timur met 20th July 1402, at Angora, when, in consequence of Baird TDust.-James B. of Auchmedden and Cambusdoon, the disparity of numbers, the former were utterly routed, B. himfounded, July 24, I873, this trust, with a fund of,5soo,ooo self being taken prisoner and dying the next yearin his captor's sterling. Its objects are to help in the work of spreading the camp. The immediate resultwas, that several provinces in Asia gospel in connection with the Church of Scotland, of building Minor revolted from the Ottoman empire, and John Paleologus, churches, endowing parishes, augmenting stipends, spreading whom B. had placed on the Byzantine throne, retired in favour sound literature, promoting religious education, assisting divinity of Manuel to Thessaly. B.'s sons, Suleiman, Isa, Musa, and students,. and maintaining the'B. Lecture.' The trustees Mohammed all claimed the empire. must be members of the Church of Scotland, only one to be a Bajazet II., born 1447, became Emperor of the Turks in clergyman; and the general design of the trust is to promote I48I on the death of his father, Mohammed the Great. After the territorial work of the National Church, and to maintain the getting rid of his brother, Prince Jau or Zizim, who fled to Rhodes great truths of the gospel as declared in the standards of the and afterwards to France, B. checked the advance of the Mamluk Church of Scotland. sultans of Egypt, assisted the Moors of Spain against Ferdinand Baird'ia, a genus of crustacea belonging to the order Os/ra- of Aragon, and in a successful campaign on sea and land forced coda, and represented by living as well as by extinct species. The the Republic of Venice to relinquish all claim to the mainland of fossil forms occur in the silurian, carboniferous, and permian Greece. After this he seems to have become a voluptuary, and rocks, and in the mesozoic and cainozoic formations also. See was forced, chiefly by the janizaries, to resign in favour of his son, also CRUSTACEA. Selim I., the Severe, who had previously made an unsuccessful Baireuth, or Bayreuth, on the Red Main, the capital of revolt against his father. Three days afterwards B. died (A.D. Upper Franconia, Bavaria, and 126 miles N. of Munich. It is I512). (See Von Hammer, Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches; well built, well paved, with many objects of ornament and in- and Finlay, Byzantine and Greek Empires.) Racine's play of terest, including promenades, fountains, and groves; two palaces, Ba/aze/, of which Corneille said:'These Turks are very much the old and the new; a monument to Jean Paul Richter, Schwan- Frenchified,' refers to the brother of Amurath IV. and Ibrahim thaler, &c. A grand new opera-house for the performance of I., who ruled in the 17th c. Wagner's music was completed at B. in I875. B. has manufac- Baj'imont's 1Roll. This is the name of a valuation of the tures of porcelain, leather, and linen, woollen and cotton stuffs. benefices of Scotland. It was called after an Italian ecclesiastic Pop. (187I) I7,84I. The history of the principality of B. named Baiamund di Vicci, who was sent by the Pope ini the I3th (originally Kulmbach) is from the earliest times blended with c. to collect tithes in Scotland. A copy of a portion of the that of Ansbach or Anspach (q. v.). After the death (I603) of original roll, applying to lands S. of the Firth, is preserved at the Markgraf Georg-Friedrich of Ansbach, the Franconian prin- Durham; and there is a copy of the whole, as adopted in the cipalities fell to the younger sons of Johann Georg, Elector of reign of James V., in the Advocates' Library in Edinburgh, in a Brandenburg. Joachim Ernst got Ansbach, and Christian got B. MS. of the 17th c. Previous to the making up of the B. R., the The latter removed his residence from Kulmbach to the town of Scotch clergy had been assessed according to a valuation roll B., which under him and his successors attained its greatest called the Antiqua Taxatio, copies of which still exist in MSS. prosperity. In I791 both principalities were sold to Prussia, of the I3th c. In the Durham MS. the valuation in the B. R. is from whom Napoleon wrested them in I806, and in I8Io they nearly 50 per cent. higher than in the A4ntiqua Taxatio. 250 BAJ THE GLOBE ENC YCLOPADIIA4. BAK Baj'mak, a town in Hungary, about I6 miles S.W. of Maria. of the equator) to Egypt. B. has written a number of works Theresiopol by railway. Pop. (I869) 56I0. descriptive of his adventures and discoveries in Africa, of which 3Bajoc'co, a copper coin, the iooth part of a scudo (4s. 31d ) the chief are the Albert N'yanza (I866); the Nile Tributaries of 4 Abyssinia (I871); and Jlsmail4 (1874). and therefore equal to about an English halfpenny. The B. was A4yssin (I87I); and Ismaila (1874). a coin of the Papal States, but a Sicilian coin, of somewhat Bakeries, Army. Arrangements for supplying the British smaller value, has the same name. army with loaves instead of biscuits have only recently been Bajus (a Latinised form of the French De Bay), Michael, made. The French and other Continental nations took a long a Belgian theologian, born at the village of Melin, near Ath, in lead of us in this respect. The Crimean war, in which British the province of Hainault, in I5I3. He studied at Louvain, was and French soldiers had excellent opportunities of learning lessons appointed professor of theology there by Charles V. in I550, and of friendly rivalry, occasioned the securing of this as well as many represented his university at the Council of Trent in 1563-64. other comforts, and even luxuries, for our troops. In the calamiHis views of free will, original sin, and divine grace, in which tous winter of IS54 before Sebastopol, British soldiers would he was a follower of Augustine, being thought to have a fatalistic sometimes willingly barter for one pound of the bread served out tendency, eighteen of his propositions were censured by the Theo- to their French neighbours three or four pounds of biscuit. This logical Faculty of Paris in I560. Seven years later, seventy-six and other similar occurrences during that war led to the great impropositions were condemned by a bull of Pius V., when B. sub- provements which are now apparent in the B., as in all the other mitted. He again defended his doctrines, but was again con- sanitary aspects of the British army. On the field large supplies demned, and once more retracted. The Jansenists revived his of excellent bread are now produced, being baked in portable views, which were known as Bcaianism. In 1578 he was made ovens. In the large garrison towns, and at camps-as in Lonchancellor of his university, and later was appointed General don, Portsmouth, Dover, Dubln, at Aldershot and the Curragh Inquisitor of the Netherlands. His works in 2 vols. were pub- of Kildare-the system pursued in the field is, as nearly as poslished by Gerberon at Cologne in I696. B. died December 6, sible, adopted. At almost all the small garrison towns of the I589, with the reputation of great learning and worth. United Kingdom, loaf bread is supplied to the troops by contractors, who are under the superintendence of the Control Bajza, Anton, born at Sziicsi, 3Ist January 1804, belongs to Department. The supply branch of the Army Service Corps, a the group of native Hungarian authors who in the period I830-48 subordinate part of the Control Department, is appointed to look contributed in the most powerful manner to the political cause of after the bread and other articles of food for the troops. This a national language. The foundations of this literature had been corps is made up of bakers, butchers, &c., selected from the regilaid by the MIagyar Museum of Kazincry and by the two Kis- ments, or enlisted for the sole purpose of provisioning. See faludis. It was carried on by Josiha and Ei3tv6s, and other COOKERY, ARMY. novelists; iV6rsmarty and Pet6fi, romantic and political poets; Bake'well, an old town of Derbyshire on the Wye, near where and by the Academy of Sciences, founded in 1830, in science. it joins the Derwent, 25 miles N.W. of Derby, and 145 from B. was not only a lyric poet of high order, and a critic, in the London by rail. It lies in the heart of the fine scenery of N. tiendustrious translator and elsewhere, of the native literature, but also an Derbyshire, has chalybeate springs, and is a favourite resort of incdustrious translator and compiler of historical and dramatic anglers. Near it are quarries of black marble, the polishing and collections, chiefly from the German. His Thr7lneti Zsbdnyvtdr inlaying of which is the chief local industry. The Duke of Rut(Historical Library, 6 vols.) appeared at Pesth in 1843-5. There land is proprietor of B., and has a seat in the neighbourhood. also he for some time directed the National Theatre, and edited B. has an ancient cruciform church in various styles of architecKossuth's Hirlalja, the organ of the Independent Nationalists, ture, which was restored in 1846 at great cost. There are also fiom the meeting of the'Long Parliament' in July 1848 till remains of a castle, built in 924 by Edward the Elder. Pop. Windischgriitz took possession of Pesth. B. died March 3, I858. (1871) 2283. Baker, Sir;Richard, a miscellaneous writer, born at Sis- Bakewell, Robert, a famous English agriculturist, born at singhurst, Kent, about I568; educated at Oxford; knighted in Dishley, Leicestershire, in I726. He devoted himself to improvi603; sheriff of Oxfordshire in 1620; died I8th February I644 ing the breeding of cattle, aiming principally at producing the in the Fleet, in which he had been imprisoned for debt. His greatest weight of carcase with the smallest amount of feeding, Chronicle of the Kings of England, the favourite reading of and is to be regarded as the initiator of that system of scientific Addison's Sir Roger de Coverley, though destitute of historical breeding which has made British cattle everywhere renowned. authority, was once very popular. Sir Richard also wrote seve- B. died October I, I795. ral theological treatises, and translated Malvezzi'$ Discourses on Bakhtegan, a salt lake in the province of Farsistan, Persia, Tacitus, and Balzac's Letters. which is nearly dry in summer, when the bottom becomes enBaker, Sir Samuel White, X.C.B., F. R.S., a distin- crusted with a very fine salt. Circumference, according to Kinguished African traveller, the son of Samuel B., Thorngrove, Wor- near, 70 miles. cestershire, was born in 182I. Educated as an engineer, he went Ba'king, the process of drying and consolidating the parts of to Ceylon at an early age. He soon showed himself to be fond of a body by exposure to heat in an oven or other closed chamber. sport and adventure, and in I854 and 1855 published two works, Bread (q. v.) is baked in an oven; bricks, terra-cotta, pottery, The Rife and Hound in Ceylon (new ed. 1874), and Eight Years' and porcelain are in like manner hardened in a kiln; for a deWanderings in Ceylon (new ed. I874). In I86o he married a scription of which processes see the various heads. young Hungarian lady, daughter of F. Von Sass, who has been the brave associate of his arduous wanderings. In i86i he pro- BakoTny Wald, a mountai range in Hungary, stretching jected an expedition to Africa with the view of meeting Captains from the Platten See northwards to the Danube, and occupying Speke and Grant at the sources of the Nile. After preliminary region 50 miles long and 20 broad. The highest point is explorations he reached Khartum, and then organised his expe- I6rshegy, N. of Bakonybel, 2238 feet, and the average elevadition to the Great White Nile. Starting from Khartuim with a tion is about 2000 feet. Only the central part is now covered long train of attendants, he arrived at Gondoroko (I863), where with timber (chiefly beech and oak), the lower flats are cultihe was joined by Speke and Grant, whom he relieved, and who in- vated; the hill slopes are clothed with vines and other fruitformed him of the Victoria N'yanza, which they had discovered, trees, and the valleys contain numerous villages. Still vast numand told him also that the natives had described to them another bers of swine are brought here annually to feed on mast, though great lake. B. and his undaunted wife set out in search of this, and, the herdsmen are no longer the wild robbers of Hungarian song. after a number of remarkable adventures, arrived, March I4, I864, Bak'shish, a Persian word signifying a present, has acquired at cliffs from which they obtained a sight of this other inland sea, in Turkey, Egypt, and Syria a peculiar meaning in modern times. which they named the Albert N'yanza, and which constitutes the It is a fee which might be styled a compulsory gratuity. If a chief reservoir of the Nile. B. in i864 obtained for his relief of traveller in any of these countries receives any service, down Speke and Grant the medal of the Geographical Society, and in even to the most trifling, he is not allowed to forget B., if the November Io, I864, was knighted. In 1869 he led an expedition noisy shouting and repeating of the word can serve to remind of 1500 picked troops, under the auspices of the Khedive, and him of it. Even when an ambassador at the Sublime Porte with the title of Pasha, to put down the White Nile slave trade, obtains an audience of the Sultan, or any of the high digni. and succeeded in annexing Bari and Unyoro (within two degrees taries, he has to pay B. to the menials in waiting. a~>~~~~~~~~.......k~~~~~~~~~ 251 — s 7-....+ — - - - - - BAK ZTHE GLZOBE lNC YCL OPED!A. BALl Baktshi-Serai' ('the palace of the gardens'), a town of longer than the other, the B. is false; but we may obtain the Russia, government of Taurida, Crimea, near Simferopol. Pop. true weight of a body by means of it by two methods-either by (I867) II,448, mostly Tartars. The most remarkable building, double-weighing, i.e., by replacing the body, previously counterthe Khan Serai, or palace of the ancient Tartar khans, has balanced by some material in the other scale, by known weights, been restored by the Russian government. There are some until the equilibrium be again restored; or by weighing the body trifling manufactures of silk and of Turkish saddles. first in the one, then in the other scale, and finding the geometric Baku', a fortified town of Russia, government of B., Trans-mean of the two apparent but false weights, which mean is the Caucasia, on the S. side of the peninsula of Apsheron, Caspian true weight. Sea. Pop. (I867) 12,383, mostly Mohammedans. B. has a An important desideratum in a delicate B., such as the common chemical B. employed universally in laboratories, is its trade in naphtha, with which the soil of the surrounding district m o n chemical B. employed universally in laboratories, is its is impregnated. It exports besides salt, saffron, linen and wool- sesblty to the addition of a small weight to one of the scales. len goods, &c. There is considerable trade carried on through This sensibility in the first place obviously depends upon the the port of B. between Russia and Persia. B. has some fine friction at the point of support of the beam and the points of suspension of the scales. Accordingly, it being desirable to mosques and bazaars. The town was founded by the Sassanidm suspension of the scales. Accordingly, it being desirable to mosques and bazaars. The town was founded by the Sassanidm lessen this friction as much as possible, the beam is poised upon in the 4th c., and has been successively conquered and possessed ssen this friction as much as possible, the eams poised upon by Arabs, Tartars, Turks, Persians, Caucasians, and Russians. a knifeedge working on anagate, and the scales are suspended in a similar manner. Again, by increasing the length of the Ba'laam, a prophet and poet of the Midianites, introduced arms, we increase the leverage at the extremity of the arm, and in Numbers xxii. 5. He was the son of Beor, and dwelt at thus make the B. more sensible; and this same effect is also Pethor, a city of Mesopotamia, whence he was summoned by the produced by raising the centre of inertia, since by decreasing the messengers of Balak, King of Moab,. to curse the Israelites, who distance from the fulcrum of the point at which the weight to be were encamped in the plains of Moab. Though a Gentile, B. moved is applied, the leverage at the other extremity is proporhad a certain knowledge of the one true God, and a prophetic tionately increased. There is, accordingly, in the finer balances, gift, which he seems to have exercised for gain. Whence had an arrangement for varying the sensibility, by altering the position he this prophetic gift? It has been supposed that he was among of the centre of inertia, consisting of a vertical screw surmounting the last of those belonging to the patriarchal age with whom the beam at the centre, along which a weight may be moved God held direct communion. The miracle of the ass has been either up or down. Generally a bar with projecting pegs is explained in various ways. Leibnitz and Hengstenberg suppose added, which is capable of raising the beam and scales, so as to the event to have occurred in a trance; but Peter (2 Pet. ii. 16) leave the knife-edges free, and thus keep them in good condition. seems to refer to it as an historical incident. B. seems to have In commercial life, however, such a B. as above described practised divination, for in Numbers xxiv. I it is said that'he would be practically useless, on account of the long time it would went no more to seek for enchantments.' In a battle between take to come to rest, its stability being small. As the conditions the Israelites and Midianites, he sided with the latter, and was for stability are nearly opposed to those for sensibility, it is slain with five kings of Midian (Num. xxxi. 8). obvious that one of these must be sacrificed to the other. Bala Beds, a local deposit, near Bala, N. Wales, referred Of other kinds of balances, we may mention the Roman B., to the Lower Silurian of Murchison, and composed chiefly of or steelyard, the Dnise B., the bent-lever B. The steelyard hard crystalline limestone, ia which trilobites and cystidee is a lever of unequal arms, the weight being applied at the predominate as fossils. shorter arm, and the power movable along the longer arm, which is graduated usually by experiment. The Danish B. differs from:Balee'na. See WHALE. this in having the fulcrum, not the power, movable. In the bentBaleenop'tera. See RORQUAL. lever B. again, the body to be weighed is, as above, attached to Balaklava, a land-locked harbour in the S.W. of the Crimea, the shorter arm, but the weight is shown by the distance de6 miles from Sebastopol, the Symbolon Limen. of Strabo. It is scribed before a graduated are by the longer arm, to which the 6 miles from Sebastopol, the S),lbolon Zi~nen of Strabo. It is chiefly memorable for being the principal station of the English power is permanently fixed. fleet during the Crimean war, I854-55. England is not likely Balance, and Balance-Spring, are those portions in the to forget the shameful exhibition of mismanagement and inca- mechanism of a watch which regulate the beat and secure unipacity displayed by her commissariat, in consequence of which form motion. The B. is a delicately poised wheel or ring, with supplies of food, clothing, and medicine, stored in abundance most of its mass accumulated in the rim, and so connected at B., were for a time unavailable, while her soldiers perished with the spiral or helicoid spring that, when displaced from its by the hundred of needless privations. The cavalry charges of position of rest, it acquires an oscillatory motion, from the alter. October 25, I854, on the heights between B. and the Tchernaya, nate contractions and expansions of the spring. With the same rank among the most disastrous and the most heroic achievements length of spring, the time of vibration is directly proportional to of the English army. Pop. (I867) 742. the distance of the centre of gyration (see CENTRE OF GYRABal'ance (derivation possibly from the middle Latin TION) from the axis, and consequently varies with temperature. word~aleia (denotiong doubtful, The compensation B., however, meets this difficulty by taking ord vleti, denoting price or value), is an instrument for advantage of the unequal expansion of two different metals. ascertaining the The ring is divided into two or more segments, one extremity of weight of any each of which is connected with an arm of the B., while the body, and is com- other extremity, which is quite free, has attached to it a weight. posed essentially Each are consists of two lamine of different metals fused together, of a rigid lever, with the more expansible to the outside. Upon a rise of temcalled the beaam, perature, the radii of the wheel expand, but at the same time the movable in a ver- weights at the free ends of the arcs are brought nearer the centre, tical plane round since the arcs become more curved owing to the greater expansion C a central fixed of the outside ring. With a point. A true B. fall of temperature exactly the must fulfil the reverse takes place; and by r'following condi- this method very exact comtions: The arms pensation may be obtained. of the beam must be similar and Balance-Fish. A name Chemical Balance. equal in size and applied to the Zygaena malweight, and the leus, or hammer-headed shark, whole apparatus must be symmetrical with respect to the vertical so named Iromthe shapeof the Balance-Fish. axis through the point of support, and must have one, and only nead, the eyes being placed one, position of stable equilibrium. We thus see that the centre at the extremities of the elongated head. See SHARK. of gravity, or the centre of inertia of the B., must be belo, and in Balance of Power, an expression much more used in diplothe same vertical line with the point of support. If e arm be may in the th and beginning of the th c. than it is now, 2 5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ BAL THIt GI OB3E RYC YCI OPADsI. B3AL denotes a state of matters in which no one of a community of Cirripedia of that class, and represented by the familiar'seanations is allowed to possess such power as to interfere with the acorns,' which stud over the rocks at low-water mark around independence of the rest. The idea of such an arrangement pro- all our coasts. These forms are sessile or unstalked, and are bably existed from a remote period of antiquity, and in Greece fixed directly to rocks by the base of the shell. The shell of in particular caused alliances against the paramountcy of in turn each B. is conical in form, and is developed by limy secretions Athens, Lacedemon, and Thebes. The idea was first, however, formed by the first three segments of the body of the animal. formally recognised in Europe as a sound one, and in its name The animal is situated head downward within its shell, and is those wars originated which humbled the power first of Spain attached to the flat plate or' basis,' forming the floor of the shell. after the time of Charles V., and of France during the reign of This latter structure is composed of six pieces, and opens Louis XIV. It may be said to have been the B. of P. that superiorly in an aperture guarded by a movable lid, the operwrested Europe from Napoleon I., and in I854 waged the clumrn. The joints of the chest or thorax bear six pairs of Crimean war, and saved Turkey from the aggressions of the Czar appendages, each of which is divided into two filaments; and Nicholas. Since the Treaty of Paris (1856), however, the idea the twenty-four ciliated filaments, or cirri as they are termed, of the B. of P. seems to have to some extent lost its hold upon representing the limbs of other crustaceans,, are capable of being the European, and especially the English mind. Three wars protruded from and retracted within the shell. These filaments which have taken place since that date, between Austria and constitute the' glass-hand' of the'sea-acorns,' and being conSardinia, aided by France, in 1858, between Austria and Prussia tinually protruded from the shell, serve by the currents they in i866, and between France and Germany in I870-7I, have create in the water to bring particles of food to the mouth. very materially altered the power of Europe, and yet the changes From the presence of the cirri the name of the order-Cirrithat were made were effected without any great consultation on pedia (' cirrous-footed')-is derived. The young first appear as the subject of the B. of P. by the five great powers. The last free-swimming, locomotive larvae, known as Nauzlii; which event suggestive of the old idea was the agreement in I87I of moult, and become pupae. In these states eyes are present, as the powers consenting to the Treaty of Paris, by which the also are limb-like appendages. Finally these locomotive forms clause in it prohibiting Russia from maintaining a naval power settle down, attach themselves to fixed objects, and each, developon the Black Sea was practically rescinded. Something very ing a shell, loses the eyes, has the limbs converted into cirri, and like the European B. of P. is at present maintained in Asia by becomes an adult B. B. sulcatus is a familiar species; as also arrangements between the two dominant powers, Britain and are B. jperforatcs, B. porcatus, B. crenzaus, &c. B. tintinnaRussia, and the weaker states, such as Persia and Afghanistan, blulum and B. psiItacus, both large species, are eaten, the former by which the independence of the latter is guaranteed. in China, the latter in Chili. The ancients esteemed the flesh Balance of Trade. The difference between the money highly. (See also CIRRIPEDIA, BARNACLES, &c.) value of the exports and imports of a country is called the Balasinore', or Balasinur, the capital of ajagdire or petty' balance of its trade,' and this balance is said to be'in favour' Indian native state of the same name, district of Rewa Kanta, of the country or' against' it, according to the excess of either is situated on the river Mahi, about 51 miles N. of Baroda. the former or the latter. The expressions quoted indicate igno- The state lies in the E. of the province of Guzerat, and the rance as to the causes and sources of the wealth of nations; and native ruler (the Nawab) pays a tribute of fIooo to the British seem to proceed upon the notion that trade is like a game of government. B. has an area of 400 sq. miles; pop. (Governcards; at which, if one gains, another must lose correspondingly. ment Report, I873) 4I,984. The B. of T. regulates rate of exchange (see EXCHANGE), but no conclusion can be drawn from it either as to the positive gain of Balasore' ('high dwelling'), the chief town of a district of a country, or as to its gain relatively to that of the country with the same name in the province of Orissa, Bengal presidency, which the balance arises. If England takes the value of a not far from the mouth of the Boorabullung, I23 miles S.W. of million sterling of raw cotton from America, manufactures it, Calcutta. The Portuguese, Dutch, and Danes successively had sends it back and sells it in America for ~I,250,000, America factories here, and it was not till I846 that it passed under will then owe England ~'250,0oo, but it will not follow that English rule. It has a brisk coasting trade. Pop. (I872) England is 250,00ooo richer by the transaction, nor that America I8,268. The district of B. has an area of 2066 sq. miles, and a is poorer. England may have made a bad speculation, and the pop. (1872) of 770,232. quarter of a million may not pay the costs of production and Balata Gum, the milky juice which exudes from Sapola transport. Were this so, it would arise from over-trading-from Miilleri, a large tree which grows in tropical America. The England having sent to America more manufactured cotton than juice quickly hardens on exposure to the air, and, in its solid can be disposed of at a remunerative price. Suppose, however, state, in appearance, properties, and uses it is similar to guttathat the transaction is a good one for England, and that the percha, for which it can be used as a substitute. ~250,000 is a gain to us, there will then, no doubt, so far as this one transaction can be supposed to have influence, be a ten- Bal'aton Lake, in Ger. Platten-See, the most important dency of gold to drift from America to England; but there will lake in Hungary, and the largest in the S. E. of Europe, lies to be an increased demand for raw cotton, and labour in -America the S.WV. of Pesth. Its greatest length is 46 miles; its average is thereby stimulated to the production of real wealth. The breadth, 7 miles; its area, with that of the frequently inundated debt of ~C25o,ooo of America to England will be largely utilised marshes, variously estimated at from 250 to 420 sq. miles; and in paying for this by bills, and will thus never cross the Atlantic; its greatest depth from 36 to 39 feet. B. abounds with fish; and to the extent to which it does cross, it will be employed by and iron-sand, containing small garnets, rubies, amethysts, &c., manufacturing England in stimulating production in other foreign is found in it. The hills surrounding its N. sides are clad with countries; which countries may again, in consequence, increase woods and vineyards. When frozen in winter it forms a valuable their demand for American cotton. It is thus that the creation means of intercommunication. The most interesting places on of wealth in one country tends not to impoverish another country the lake are the Abbey of Tihany, the town of Fiired on the with which it has commerce, but to enrich that country. The N. shore, and the village of Keszthely on the W. shore. B. is more that France takes of the cottons of Manchester, and of the often mentioned in the Magyar legendary ballads of the dark woollen goods of Bradford, the more of French wine will be ages and the later Turkish wars. consumed in Manchester and Bradford. Balaus'ta. See BEa. Balanophoraceae, an order of peculiar leafless plants found growing parasitically on the roots and stems of trees, principally Balbek, or Balbec. See BAALBEK. intropical countries, and having a fungus-like appearance. The Bal'bi, Adriano, a celebrated geographical writer, was born Vunzgus Melitensis of Malta (Cynomorium coccineuzn) is celebrated at Venice, April 25, 1782. He was made professor of geography for arresting bleeding. The famous Rafflesia (q. v.) of Java be- in I8o8 atMurano; in I8II was appointed professor of physics longs to the order. The genus Balanozphora is the type of the at Fermo, and received a call to the chair of statistics at Padua in order. Cytinus hypocistis is a common parasite on the roots of I815, which, however, he declined. In I82ohemarried an actress species of Cislus in the S. of Europe, and contains gallic acid. and retired to Portugal, where he collected the varied and valuSome authors make B. a sub-order of Rhizanthe e. able materials given to the world in his Essai stalistique sur le Bal'anus, a genus of crustaceans included in the order Royaume de Portzugal et d'Algarzve, compare aux autres Ltas de _ _.~~~ _ - _ _ _ _ _ ~~~~~~253 k._,.,:.. en _ _ _ _ _.=v... A —----— 9 BAL THE GLOBE ENC YCL OPzEDIA. BAL I'ERurope (z vols. Par. 1822), and Vanrietes poalilsues et statis- the New World at an early age, and completed his studies for tiques de la Mozonarchie Portugaise (Par. 1822). In 1822 he went the Church in a college of Mexico. Returning to Spain in I6o8, to Paris, where he produced his chief works, the Atlas ethno- he was soon after appointed provost of Jamaica, and in I620 gra5/ique du Globe, ou Classifcation des Peuples anciens et mto- Bishop of Puerto Rico, where he died in 1627. Of his works dernes d'apres Zeurs Langues (I826), and the Abrege de Geographie we possess only three-La Grandeza lMejicana (Mex. I6o9; Madr. (Par. 3d ed. I850; Ger. translation by Arendt, I870), which has I829), a poetical description of the Mexican capital; El Siglo been translated into the principal languages of Europe. B. de Oro (Madr. I6o8), a pastoral novel in prose and verse; and received a grant from the French government, and in I832 El Bernardo, la Vittoria de Roncesvalles (Madr. I624, best retired to Padua. He died at Venice, March 14, I848. His ed. I8o8), an epic poem in 24 books, the great merits of which son, Eugenio B., collected his Scritti geografici (5 vols. Turin, have only recently been recognised. It is full of originality of 1841-42). design and execution; yet amidst all its fire and fancy there is a Balbi, Gasparo, a Venetian jewel-merchant, who visited wonderful simplicity and naturalness. India (I579-88), and on his return published a singularly inte- Bal'cony (It. ba/cone), a gallery thrown out from a building, resting account of his travels, under the title of Viaggio nelle and usually placed in front of windows. The B. originated from bzidie Orientali (Venice, I59o). A Latin translation of this work the projecting galleries on fortified buildings used for throwing appeared in the Descrnigtio genera/is totius Indice Orientalis by boiling tar or offensive missiles on besiegers. Balconies were not the brothers Jan Theodorus and Jan- Israel de Bry (Frankf. applied to private houses before the I5th c. I598-I628). Balcony, in nautical language, is a gallery outside the stern Balbi'nus, Decimus Crelius, one of two Roman emperors elected by the senate and invested with equal power, on the death o a large ship. In three-deckers there are two-the lower connected with the admiral's state-cabin, the higher with the of the elder Gordian and his son, to resist Maximin advancing on captain's. Italy with the legions from Germany. But though the choice of the senate, B. and his colleague, Clodius Pupienus Maximus, Baldachin, or Baldachino, in ecclesiastical language the were not the choice of the Praetorians, who cherished the most dome or canopy which is stretched over the high altar. It is implacable resentment against both. While Maximus, who was a usually a highly ornamental structure, made of marble, wood, severe, but brave soldier, went to fight Maximin, B. remained at bronze, or precious metals. In early times the B. was known home to govern the empire, but proved himself incapable of as the ciborium, and used as the receptacle for the consecrated quelling the factions of the city. On the return of the victorious host. The name is also to some extent used, like the English Maximus, the two emperors tried hard to govern wisely and term canopy, to distinguish any overarching covering, and so well, but military insolence and insubordination proved too much applied to the projecting niches over doorways, windows, to for them, and they were murdered by the Przetorians in a savage outburst of rage and disloyalty, A. D. 238. Bal'bo, Count Coesare, a distinguished Italian politician and author, born at Turin, 4th November I789. When only eighteen he was appointed by Napoleon I. auditor of the Council of State in Paris. In 1812 he acted as commissioner for the Illyrian provinces that fell to France by the Peace of Vienna. On the fall of Napoleon he devoted himself to literature, his first work being a history of Italy to the time of Charlemagne. His reputation was established beyond the limits of Italy by his Speranze d' talia (i843), which did much to create the monarchical Piedmontese party, in opposition to the republican party, of which Mazzini was the leading spirit. 13. also wrote a compendium of Italian history, Della Storia d' Italia dall' Origine Vino al I8I4 (1ith ed. i859), and other works of less moment. He died 3d June 1853. B. was a man of pure and sterling character, who loved his native land, with its great history and its famous Church, and who had a profound dislike of the destructive spirit of Continental liberalism. See Ricotti, Della Vita e degli. Scritti del Conte Cesare Balbo (Flor. I856). Altar with Baldachin, from St Denis. Balbo'a, Vasco Nun'ez de, the discoverer of the Pacific manteIpieces, and to the tops of old tester-beds. Baldachins Ocean, and one of the famous Spanish conquistadores, was born are also erected over tombs, and the canopies which Italian of a noble but poor family, at Xeres-de-Badajoz, in 1475. He bishops place over their ecclesiastical chairs are so termed. volunteered in the expedition of Bastidas to the New World in Portable baldachins were carried over monarchs in their corona1501, established himself shortly afterwards as a planter in St tion processions; and in the East, such a canopy is a necessary Domingo, became involved in debt, and, in order to escape the adjunct to all state processions law, had himself rolled in a barrel on board a ship bound for the Gulf of Darien. 13. soon rose to the command of the expedition Balder, Baldur, or Balldr, a Scandinavian di'inity, with which he had thus joined, and landing on the Isthmus of Darien, whose name are associated the ideas of brightness, beauty, peace, he marched into the interior, and on the 29th September 15I3, and purity. He is the son of Odin, and brother of Thor, and having crossed the isthmus, after travelling a month, he first be- falls a victim to the spirit of evil contention and fraud, repre. held the immense expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Davila super- sented by Loki, the foster-brother of Odin. How this happens seded him in the rule of the newly discovered territories in I5I4, is related in the 49th chapter of the Prose Edda. Before the and although B.'s enterprises were rewarded with success, and arrival of Loki in Asgard, the Aesir (q. v.) had lived in his services to his country were great, the new governor con- peace. B. in particular, living in Breidablih, the mansion tinued to persecute him, and at length, having subjected him to into which nothing unclean can enter, is the subject of praise a form of trial for rebellion, had him condemned and beheaded from all mankind: like those of his son Forseti, living in Glitnir at Castile d'Or in 1517. (the house of justice), the judgments of B. can never be altered: Balbrig'gan (Gael.' city of:Brecan'), a seaport and water- rays of light issue from his person: the whitest of plants is ing-place in the county of Dublin, 22 miles N.E. of Dublin, called Bader's-broze (theSwedish Balldurstraor Ant/emis cetua). I3. has dreams of evil. His mother Frigga exacts from all with some manufactures of linen and cotton embroidered goods. B. has dreams of evil. His mother Frigga exacts from all B. hosiery is famed. The town is a station on the Dublin and nature an oath against injuring B., but she omits the mistletoe Drogheda Railway. Pop. (871) 2332. growing on the eastern side of Valhalla. Loki, who has already shown his cunning in the recovery of Thor's hammer, discovers Balbue'na, Don BernYardo de, one of the most distinguished this, and, when the Aesir are amusing themselves in the Peaceepic poets of Spain,,was born at Valdepeiias in s568, sailed for stead, by hurling darts at B. in sport he persuades HIdur (the ^ 254~ A ----- -— _ —----------- BAL THE GI OBRE IENCYCOPIADZA. BAL strong, but blind, god) to cast a piece of mistletoe at B., whom it His brother Amaury, who succeeded him, died in I73. —B. kills, his wife Nanna (the Maiden) dying of grief. Hermod the IV., son of Amaury, born II6o, was king from II73 till his Nimble then rides to Hel, where all those not dying in battle go, death in I I83. During his feeble rule Saladin made rapid pro. to ask from Hela (Death), a daughter of Loki, that B. may return gress, wresting from the Christians large portions of their terri. to Asgard. This is granted, provided all things weep for him: tory. He was succeeded by his nephew, B. V., who died in a proviso taken advantage of by Loki, who, disguised as Thauht, 187 of poison, administered, it is said, by his mother Sybilla, refuses to weep. In the meantime the funeral of B. takes place, that she might secure the throne for her second husband, Guy the pyre being placed on board his ship. The frost-giants, as of Lusignan. well as the gods, are present. The gods then pursue Loki, Baldwin I., first Latin Emperor of Constantinople, a dewhom they finally capture and confine in a cave under torments scendant of Charlemagne, and acousin of the French king, like those of Azael and Prometheus. This will endure until was the son of B., Count of Haina and of Marguerite, the catastrophe of Ragnarijk and the renovation of the world, Countess of Flanders. Born at Valenciennes in II7I A.D., he when B. is to leave Hel and come to Ida, where Asgard for- took the cross in 1200, and in 1202 assisted Alexins, son of the merly stood. There probably is in this legend a mixture of merily stood. There prohaly is in thkis legend amixture of Emperor Isaac II., to recover Constantinople from his uncle, iphysicaller and morlackwell's translation ofl allegory. See the wors of Thorpe anAlexius Angelus, who, after blinding Isaac II., had usurped the government. The crusaders dethroned the usurper, and finding Bald'ness. See ALOPECIA. Alexius unable to give them the reward agreed on, turned their arms against him. They sacked the city, and B. was crowned Bal'do, oLake Garda, mountailes N. of Ve ronetia,. Italy, on the emperor, 9th May I204. He received, however, only a fourth E. shore of Lake Garda, o8 miles N. of Verona. It is 7 I0o f the empire, the Venetians, and the other French and Lonfeet high, is notable for its petrifactions, and also for its fine bardian barons, retaining the remainder. The discontented green-coloured'sand of Verona.' bardian barons, retaining the remainder. The discontented green-coloured'sand of Verona.' Greeks, assisted by the Bulgarian king Calo-Joannes, having Baldrick (Fr. laudrier, from Low Lat. baZter-ariuts, deriv. made an insurrection, and massacred the Latins who were disof ballezus, the' belt' of the Roman soldier), a broad belt which persed throughout Thrace, B. besieged them in Adrianople, but in mediaeval times was worn from either shoulder diagonally being defeated and taken prisoner, he died a captive in 1205. across the body, either as an ornament or for carrying arms, horn,'The manner of his death,' says Gibbon,' is variously related or other implement. The custom is alluded to by Spenser:- by ignorance and credulity. The lovers of a tragic legend will'Athwart his breast a baldrick brave he bare, be pleased to hear that the royal captive was tempted by the That shined like twinkling stars with stones most precious rare.' amorous queen of the Bulgarians; that his chaste refusal exposed him to the falsehood of a woman and the jealousy of a savage; The B., as indicated in these lines, was frequently highly orna- that his hands and feet were severed from his body; that his mented, and decorated with precious metals, gems, &c. The B. bleeding trunk was cast among the carcases of dogs and horses; is often confounded with the military belt or belt of knight- and that he breathed three days before he was devoured by the hood, whiclh, being a waist-belt only, Is quite distinct. birds of prey.' See The Decline and Fall of tSe Roman Empire, Baldung, Hans, or Hans Griin, born at Gmiind, Swabia, chap. 6I. in 1470, died at Strasburg in 1552, a painter and engraver of Baldwin II., fifth and last Latin Emperor of Constantinople, much merit. His chief works are the pictures in the nunnery of was born in I2I7. He was the son of Pierre de Courtenay, Lichtenthal, Baden (1496), and the altarpiece in the Minster of Count of Auxerre, the brother-in-law of B. I. Pierre was sinFreiburg (1516), which are splendid specimens of old German gularly unfortunate. After being crowned by the Pope as the art. Other pieces by B. are to be seen at Aschaffenburg, Basel, successor of Constantine, he set out for the East, but was seized Berlin, Karlsruhe, Ludwigsburg, Niirnberg, Vienna, &c. and put to death on his journey by the despot of Epirus. His Baldwin (Fr. Baudouin), the name borne by nine Counts second son, Robert, a pusillanimous youth, was chosen in his of Flanders, the first of whom, Baldwin Bras-de-Fer, married stead, but his reign (1221-28) was an era of calamity and disJudith, daughter of Charles le Chauve, and died in 879; and the grace. The third son, B. II., was still too young to rule, and last, a contemporary of Philippe Auguste, took the cross in I20I. Jean de Brienne, the hero of the Egyptian crusade, and the By far the most notable of the nine, however, was Baldwin V., titular King of Jerusalem, a veteran of fourscore years, was insurnamed of Lille, or le Debonnaire, who died in I067. He vested with the dignity of an interim emperor. On his death in carried on a bloody strife with the German emperor, Heinrich I237, B. II. received the purple. But the foreign empire had lost III., made the famous canal Fosse-Neuf, which separates Artois its vitality, and B. was no more a hero than his brother. Of the from Flanders, was Regent of France from Io6o, during the twenty-four years of his reign, the greater part was spent abroad minority of the French king, Philippe, and assisted the expedi- in mendicant visits to the European princes, on whose bounty he tion which placed the crown of England on the head of his was glad to live. At last he was driven from his capital by kinsman the Duke of Normandy. Michael Palkeologus (q. v.), and in July 126I the Latin empire of Constantinople came to an end, after a duration of fifty-seven Baldwin I., Latin King of Jerusalem, was born in Flanders years. The remaining thirty-three years of B.'s life (he died in in Io58. He was descended from Baldwin, fifth Count of Flan- I274) were spent in vain attempts to induce the Catholic powers ders, and shared in the first crusade under his famous brother, to join in his restoration. Godfrey of Boulogne. But he was thoroughly worldly and ambitious, and having obtained the principality of Edessa, left the Bale. See BASEL. crusaders to conquer the Holy City. In I Ioo he succeeded his Bale,,John, Bishop of Ossory in Ireland, was born at the brother Godfrey as King of Jerusalem, and fought with great village of Cove, in Suffolk, 2Ist November I495. Although orivalour and success along the Syrian coast, capturing Acre, Beir- ginally educated as a Carmelite monk, he became an extremely out, Sidon, and other places. He died on his march back from violent Protestant at the University of Cambridge. His languEgypt to Palestine, at a spot in the desert called Laris, I 118.- age on this point is amusingly vivid.'And that I might never B. II., cousin of the preceding, and eldest son of Hugues, Count more serve so execrable a beast (the wicked Antichrist) I took of Rethel, was King ofJerusalem from I I IS to 1131. After defeat- to wife the faithful Dorothy.' In I54o he thought it prudent ing the Saracens in several engagements, he was taken captive in to remove to Holland, where he lived for eight years. On the 1124, and was a prisoner for six months. Though not always accession of Edward VI. he was presented to the living of successful in his wars, he left the kingdom of Jerusalem much Bishopstoke in Hampshire, and in 1552 to the bishopric of Ossory. enlarged at his death. During his reign the Knights of St He was so much hated by the Catholics, that, on the death of John and Knights Templars were instituted. He died August King Edward, his house, he tells us, was attacked, and five 21, 1131, and was succeeded by his son-in-law, Foulques of of his servants killed. He again fled to the Continent, and Anjou. —B. III., King of Jerusalem II43-62, son of Foulques lived for a time at Frankfurt-on-the-Main and Basel. On Elizaof Anjou, born II30, was the beau ideal of a knight. On several beth's accession he returned to England, and was appointed to occasions he fought successfully against the Sultan of Aleppo, a canonry in the Cathedral of Canterbury. He died in 1563. and was popular at once with Christians and Moslems. His A list of his works, ninety in all, is to be found in Cooper's death, occasioned it is believed by poison, took place I162. Athena Canabrizgienses. B. was probably the last Englishman 255 4 < VBAL THE GLOBE ENCYCIOPEDIZA. BAL who wrote miracle-plays, which he used as an instrument in his Meshhedi-Ser to B., which is the great market between Russia rancorous warfare with Roman Catholics. Even the Protestant and Persia, and has a splendid bazaar, a mile in length. The Fuller nicknames him' Bilious B.' (Biliosus Balevus). His most principal products of the fertile plain in which B. stands are important work is a collection of British Biography, written in sugar, rice, and cotton. The pop. is said to range from 50,000ooo Latin, and entitled Iliustrium Majoris Britannics Scriptorum, to 200,000. hoc est, Anglia, Camnbria, et Scotlia, Szumma7riumn (best ed. Basel, Ba'li, or Bal'ly, an island E. of Java, 70 miles long and 35 1557-59). The great value of this work arises from the use B. miles broad. The soil produces two crops annually, and supports made of the monastic libraries just before their dissolution, a pop. of 450,000, among whom are many Chinese. Area, 1530 Balea'ric Isles, comprising Mallorca (Majorca), Minorca, sq. miles. B. is volcanic, one of the loftiest mountains having Iviza, Formentera, Cabrera, and some islets, lie in the W. part been active as late as I843. The island has belonged to the of the Mediterranean, and to the E. of Spain, in lat. 38o 4'- Dutch since 1846. 40~ 5' N., long. I~ —5~ E. They now form a Spanish province; Bal'iol, Edward, son of John B. (q. v.), accompanied by a area, 1753 sq. miles; pop. (i867) 284,398, a large number of few English knights, landed at Kinghorn in I332, during the whom are employed in the tunny, anchovy, and sardine fisheries, regency of Donald, Earl of Mar, whose forces he routed with and in the olive culture. The coasts are rugged, but there are immense slaughter at Dupplin Moor in Perthshire, and was excellent harbours. Capital, Palma, from which to Inca, a dis- crowned at Scone on September 24th. Three months after, tance of 25 miles, a railway was opened in I874, and is being being surprised in his camp at Annan, he fled to England, and continued as far as the Port of Alcudia. The name is generally died at Doncaster in 1363, after an ignoble, spiritless, and unforderived from the Greek ballein, to throw, the natives having tunate life. been expert in the use of the sling; but Strabo gives it a Phcenician origin, which is substantially of the same import. Aulus Baliol, John, Lord of Galloway, grandson of Margaret, Caxcilius Metellus (who took the name of Balearicus) annexed eldest daughter of David Earl of Huntingdon, brother of William the B. I. to Rome in I23 B.C. They s~ubsequently passed under the Lion, and one of the competitors for the Scottish crown on the rule of the Vandals (426), Visigoths, Arabs (798), and the the death of the Maid of Norway in I290. The arbiter, Edward Almohades (o208), and were finally united with the crown of I. of England, previously acknowledged by the Scottish Estates Aragon in I343. See B. I., by the Tuscan Archduke Luigi- to be overlord of Scotland, decided in favour of B., who was Salvatore (vol. i. I869). enthroned at Scone, 3oth November 1292, and did homage to Edward at Newcastle on the 26th of December. In 1295, inBaleen', the term applied to the horny plates attached to dignant at finding himself merely a nominal king, he concluded the palate of the Balenidae, or whalebone whales, and which an alliance with France. For this Edward, after a three months' constitute the'whalebone' of commerce. The baleen-plates are campaign in Scotland, in the course of which he subdued nearly arranged in a double row on the palate, and depend into the the whole country, compelled B. to surrender the crown, July 2, cavity of the mouth of the whale. The length of the largest plates I296, and imprisoned him in the Tower for three years, after averages from Io to 14 feet; whilst in number about 200 plates which he was allowed to withdraw to Normandy, where he died exist on each side of the mouth. This huge fringe acts as a kind in I314. of sieve or strainer in serving to prevent substances of large bulk Balis'ta, or Ballis'ta (Gr. balein, to throw), a military from gaining access to the throat, and also in entangling the engine for propelling weighty missiles, for the working of which minute forms upon which the whale feeds. ~engine for propelling weighty missiles, for the working of which minute forms upon which the whale feeds. two men were required. The machinery consisted either of Balfe, Michael William, a British musician, was born in strong elastic cords, or a peculiar arrangement of levers. The Dublin, 15th May I8o8. He displayed remarkable musical talent statement of the ancients, that the B. could propel a weight of as a boy, and when only sixteen conducted the orchestra at 360 pounds, must be received with caution. During the middle Drury Lane Theatre. He afterwards studied music in Italy, ages, and before the use of gunpowder in war, various analogous and devoted most of the rest of his life to composition. In contrivances were known, as the mangonel, trebuchet, petrary, I845 he was made conductor of the Italian Opera, Covent &c. Garden. His principal works are operas, of which he wrote Balis'tes, or File-Fish, a genus of fishes included in the a great number. The best-known are The Bohemian Girl Plectognathous section of the order'eleos/ei, and popularly known (I844) and The Rose of Castile (1857); but neither these nor the as' file-fishes' from their possessing strong spines in connection others possess any great merit or originality. His latest pro- with the first dorsal fin, these spines bearing teethlike processes, ductions were Satanehla, The Puzrltan's Danzghter, Blanche de and thus exhibiting a filelike conformation. The skin is covered Nevers, and The Sleefing Queen. B. was an ardent disciple of by rough, hard, granular scales, the skin itself being of tough Pair and Rossini, an imitator of Auber, and a rival of Adolphe consistence. The filelike spine in some species is articulated Adam. He died 22d October I87o. See Memoir of B. by C. upon a bone belonging to the head, and in such cases can be L. Kenny (Lond. I875). retracted at will within a special groove of the supporting bone. Balfour', Sir J~ames, Lord President: of the Court of Ses- When erect and protruded, the spine is fixed by interlocking sion, and son of Sir Michael Balfour of Pittendreich, in Fifeshire, with a projection on the adjoining spine, whist it is released by was one of the most dubious politicians of the Reformation period the depression of the interlocking and smaller spine. A second in Scotland. He at first took part in the conspiracy against and complete dorsal fin exists. The ventral fins may be spiny. Cardinal Beaton, and was even sent to France along with John Cutting teeth exist in both jaws. The body is short and comKnox. H-e subsequently, however, changed his religion, and was pressed, and often brilliantly coloured. B. caprisczus is found in consequence called by Knox'Blasphemous B.' He was inBritish seas; B. pecihigerucsandB. eograhicus, more typical an accomplice in the assassination of Darnley and a friend of species, occur in the seas of the tropics. Bothwell, then threw over both Bothwell and Mary, giving up Balistra'ria, narrow apertures in castle walls, having the certain letters to the confederate Scotch lords upon which Mary's lower terminations generally circular, but sometimes in the form guilt was founded. Similarly he curried favour with Morton of a shovel, through which the crossbowmen shot their arrows. when he was made regent, and yet he was instrumental in obtain- They are not known to have existed earlier than the I3th c., ing Morton's death by producing the deed compassing the death and correspond to the loopholes subsequently used by sharp. of Darnley. During this strange political career, B. succeeded shooters. See LOOPHOLES. in achieving considerable personal and professional success, attaining in the end the Lord Presidentship of the Court of Session, Bali'ze, or Belize, better known as British Honduras, a terwith a pension of 500~. He received a commission from Regent ritory in the S.E. of the peninsula of Yucatan, Central America, Morton to make a general report of the law of Scotland, and his bounded on the W. by Guatemala, with some 80 miles of coastPraclicks of Scots Law is still recognised as a very able work line along the Gulf of Honduras in the Caribbean Sea. Area, B. died in 1583. 3500 sq. miles; pop. (i870) 24,7Io, of which 24,333 were coloured, about half the entire number belonging to the capital. Balfrush' (properly Barfurush!, i.e.,'lading mart'), a town It is exceedingly fertile, in part mountainous, and is watered on the river Bahbul, province of Mazanderan, Persia, 12 miles by several rivers, the chief of which are the Balize, Rio S. of the Caspian. There is a good road from the port of Hondo, and Siboon. The climate is hot and humid, but is 256 w ---- - - -----. —-— A BAL THE GLOBE E1NC YCCAIEDLDi. 1BAL tempered by the regular sea-breeze. The capital, B., stands at Pall Mall. I{1 England, Cricket (q. v.) may be called the national the mouth of the navigable river of the same name, and is an game with a B., and in Scotland it is Golf (q. v.); but cricket is important depot for goods destined for the interior. The chief now much played in Scotland. Football (q. v.) is an amusement exports are mahogany, sugar, logwood, coffee, and indigo. Ex- common to both countries, and, though a somewhat rough game, ports (I873), 20oo,869; imports, /'I6I,I9I. After many years' has greatly gained in popularity of late years. America has its occupation of B., the English possession was formally recognised particular game of Base-ball, which is played by nine persons, by the Spaniards in 1783. and resembles cricket in so far as one side bats and the other Balkan' (Arab.'high ridge'), anciently Ho'mus (the win- fields. It was first exhibited in England by two American try or snowy mountains: comp. Gr. cheimza, and Lat. hziems,'teams' in I874. See also POLO. winter; also Sansk. Himalaya,' abode of snow'), the most eastern branch of the great alpine system of Central Europe, extends Ball, a dancing entertainment, whose nature is so generally understood that it would be superfluous to attempt any descripfrom the plain of Sophia to the Blackl; Sea, separating Bulgaria tion of it. Perhaps the most charming amusement of this kind from Rumili, and forming the watershed between the Danube in England is the county ball: but all are popular, from' the and the Maritza. Tchar-dagh (9700 feet), in the western part, is court ball of London to the subscription ball of the provinces. its highest peak. The B. is crossed by six roads, over as many Fancy balls, to which those ho go are expected to be in fancy passes, the most important of which is the Porta Trajani, which or peculiar dress, are not now so common as they used to be forms the overland route between Vienna and Constantinople. and masked balls or masquerades are, in England, entirely gone Balk'ash, or Tengiz', called by the dwellers on its shores out of fashion. There have been one or two balls which, all Ak-Denzgis (white sea), or A/a-Denzfois (speckled sea), lies on the undreamt of by those who gave them, have become renowned.frontiers of the W. Siberian territory of Semipalatinsk and the in history. There was, for instance, the Duchess of Richmond's steppes of the Kirghis. After the Caspian, Aral, and Baikal, famous gathering of beauty and chivalry at Brussels, when the it is the largest lake in the Russian empire, being I50 miles long,'sound of revelry by night' was suddenly hushed by the tidings with an extreme breadth of 75 miles, and is fed by numerous that Napoleon had crossed the Sambre, quickly followed by the streams, of which the Iii is the most important. From Nov- cannons' thunder on the field of Waterloo. ember to April it is frozen. The waters are salt, and the fish few. Shipbuilding is carried on by the Russians at the mouts Ballachu'lsh (Gael. -n-colis,'the dwellin of the Ili, the I(aratal, and tihe Lepsa. Inarrow strait'), a village and parish on the S. shore of Loch Leven, Argyleshire, celebrated for its slate and marble quarries. Balkh (anc. Pers. Bakafri,'the high town;' Zend, Bachdlni, About Io,ooo tons of the blue roofing clay-slate are produced whence in middle ages Pac/zl, in mod. Pers. Balc/), the capital annually, the quarries employing some 200 men. Pop. of parish of a province of Afghanistan, formerly called Balkh, now Turke- (I87I), 944. stan, Io5 miles W. of Kunduz, and 23 S. of the Oxus, near the divergence of the Rudi Haaj into seven streams. It lies in a Ballad (Fr. bal/ade, It. ballala, a dancing song; Mid. Lat. fertile region, and was a place of importance in the overland ba/llare; comp. Gr. ballizein, to dance), a species of poetical comcommerce between India and Europe. B. is now the residence position, in which the mtater is Epic (q. v.), or narrative, and the of an Afghan' sirdar,' with a garrison of Io,ooo men, but has form is so far lyrical as being suitable to be chanted or sung, with little trade. Pop. I6,ooo, but in summer much less, most of the or without musical accompaniment. The words ballad and ball, inhabitants removing to Muzar, a hill-town distant some Io miles. though now entirely distinct in meaning, are the same in derivaB. is said to be one of the oldest cities in the world, and is still tion; and the earliest ballads, properly so called, of which there known among Orientals as Amnz'-al-bzuldd, i.e.,'the mother of is authentic notice (though the practice of combining dancing cities.' See BACTRIA. with song was a function of the Greek chorus, and has been pracBall, in military art, formerly a comprehensive name for alltised by most nations from the days of'Miriam the prophetess, Ball, in military art, formerly a comprehensive namejfor all the sister of Aaron'), were the ballistea or'songs accompanying kinds of spherical projectiles discharged from firearms of any the sister of A aron'), were the azise or' s ongs accompanying calibre, now only applied to a few peculiar illuminating or i in- of the Romans. In the Life of the Eaperor Areli cendiary shells. The steady application of mechanical invention by Fln. Vopiscus, two specimens of these ballads are given as cendiary shells. The steady application of mechanical invention sung in honour of the emperor's great deeds in the Sarmatic war sung in honour of the emperor's great deeds in the Sarmatic war to the improvement of firearms has led to the adoption of by a corps of boys'skipping and dancing' ( Vopisc. Azel. 6). elongated or cylindrical projectiles with elliptical or conical The praise of heroes continued to be the chief aim of balladpoints, spoken of as Shot or Shell (q. v.), according as they are writers but, i the later developments of the the primitive, solid or hollow, in place of'those of a spherical form. For the writers; but, i the later development of the B., the primitive, projectiles of portable firearms, see BULLET. The ground-light seded by the more artistic and spontaneous accompaniment s B13. and Boxer's parachute-light B. are employed chiefly to illu-sededby the more artistic and stirr ing harp-accompaniments minate the area occupied by the enemy, in order to discover his of the bards or minstrels whose of their descendants, or t inmrations. The lattdeeds of heroes in the palaces of their descendants, or to operations. The latter consists of a thin wrought-iron shell,s enclosing two wrought-iron hemispheres, the lower carrying an legends in verse in the castles of nobles. Ballads have been the inflammable composition, and the upper a calico parachute at- naturalmedium for the transmission of national or individual tached by chains to the lower hemisphere. Thle B. is fitted natural medium for the transmission of national or individual tached by chains to the lower hemisphere. The B. is fitted with a fuse timed to explode at its maximum elevation in the history among all nations prior to the diffusi on s of air. The explosion liberates the two hemispheres from their learning and th ies, states in reference to the earliest ballads of metal envelope, and the lower with the now ignited composition, which we have any knowledge, that'the songs mentioned by being the heavier, falls more rapidly than the upper, causing the Tacitus in his account of the Germans, those collected by the calico to open up; when this occurs, the whole apparatus slowly order of Charlemagne, and those which the Goths brought with settles down over the area which it is designed to illuminate. them out of the East, are now not to be found; yet it is more The smoke B. is composed of a paper skin filled with com- than probable that much more of them is preserved (in however bustible materials, which when ignited give off a dense and suf- altered afor than we are aware of the elder Northern and focatinlg smoke, intended either to repel an enemy from munes, altered a form) than we are aware of, in the elder Northern and focating smoke, intended either to repel an enemy from mines, or to conceal the operations of the user. Teutonic romances, the Danish and Swedish, Scottish and English popular ballads, and those which are sung by old women Ball. As we may presume that every one knows what a B. and nurses, and hawked about in Germany.' The cultivation of is, we need not describe it. As an implement of amusement it B. poetry, and the patronage of the minstrels, who in many is valuable alike to the infant and to the man. Many of the games cases composed the ballads they recited, commenced in the played with balls are of great antiquity. The Greeks and the countries of Europe at a very early period. Among our own Romans were particularly fond of this mode of exercise. A Teutonic ancestors, and especially among all the Danish tribes, favourite game in England two centuries ago was the French the office of the minstrel or Skald (q. v.) was held in the highest game of' Pale Maille' (It. Jalla, Lat. Jiba, a ball; and Fr. estimation, and the art of reciting or singing metrical romances mnail/e, It. mag'lia, Lat. mallezts, a mallet), in which the endea- to the accompaniment of a harp, the effect of which depended vour was, in as few strokes as possible, to strike with a mallet a wholly on the skilful improvisation of the musician, rose, perB. through an arch of iron. This game used to be much played haps, to the highest eminence it ever attained. That the same in the long alley near St James', London-hence the name art was simultaneously practised with much success in Britain i 33 257 ~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~a BAL THE GZLOBE ENVC YCLOPEDIA. BAL may be readily believed from the circumstance that when Alfred, It usually consists of broken stone or gravel well beaten down the great English king, penetrated the Danish camp in 878 in the and packed. disguise of a minstrel, such was his skill in the estimation of his Ballast is the name given to any substance placed in the Danish hearers, whose competency to judge was undoubted, hold of a vessel when she is empty, or carrying only a partial that he was introduced to perform before the king, and allowed cargo, in order to give her sufficient stability under sail. In to remain in the Danish camp as long as he pleased. To the ballasting a ship, both the quantity and the distribution of the effect of ballads in lighting the martial fires and fanning the B. has to be considered. If it is placed too high, it is apt to patriotism of a country, no sterner testimony was ever given than cause the ship to heel over too much under the action of the in the edict of Edward I. to destroy the bards of Wales as a wind or water; if too low, she does not move freely enough, and necessary preliminary to the conquest of that kingdom. The B. is said to be st77. The substances chiefly used as B. are iron, may be taken as the earliest form of poetical composition. It may be taken as the earliest: form of poetical composition. It gravel, sand, and water. Of these, iron has the advantage that is probable that the two famous epics of Homer, and it is certain gaesnadwtr ftee rnhsteavnaeta is probable that the two famous epics of Homer, and t n it is certai it has great specific gravity, and can be obtained in a form easily that those of the Spanish idd the German NibelZnge (see Car- stowed. Water has the advantage that it does not require to be lyle's Essayson German Literature), had each its origin in a cycle hoisted on board (as it can be admitted by merely opening a of original ballads, which, moulded, connected, and extended, valve), and can be discharged without a crane (by a pump) at by one or by successive master-minstrels, assumed by a process the same time that the vessel is receiving its load of cargo. of accretion and development the complete epic form in which they are now known to us. However ancient this kind of poeti- Ball'ater, a village in Aberdeenshire, on the Dee, 36 miles cal production may be-and it doubtless dates from the time W.S.W. of Aberdeen, with a pop. (I87I) of 69I. It is noted when mankind first began to live in communities and to recog- for its chalybeate springs. nise natural leaders-it was not known by the name of B. until, Ball'eny Islands, a group of five small volcanic islands in the 12th c., the Italians applied that title to short, lyrical pieces, lying in the Antarctic Ocean, lat. 66~ 44' S., long. 1630 ii' E., usually of the amorous sort. Since that period compositions containing peaks some I2,000ooo feet high. of the B. class have been produced by every civilised nation, Ball'et means literally a dance, but was first applied in though the quality of these compositions has been unequal in modern Europe to the magnificent spectacles at the courts of different countries and at different epochs; for in France in theTiF a rn cn the i.adn the e of middle of the 17th c. the artificial and tasteless B. of the period Turin, Ferrara, France, &c., n the th c. and in the end of the had to be extinguished by the ridicule of Moliere-a service 15th, in which symbolical scenes, dealing with various subjectwhich Gifford performed with equal effect for the vapid Della matters, were represented by actors in dumb show, assisted 9 y ~~~~~~~~~matters, were represented by actors in dumb show, assisted wCruscan (qi. v.) at the closed of the ieqth c. e o the S o e, by music and occasional dancing. In France the B. seems to h In the S. of Europe, have become a favourite danserie by the time of Charles IX. the B. has, perhaps, been most successfully cultivated in Spain. Baltvgebec, musician to Catheriee of Medicis, develope the The S.paniss Ballads, translated by J. G. Lockhart (1824), Bcomiuein there were alCtherine of M edicis, devel and ethe familiarised British readers with these. But the true home of B Ie tr eral h isoie n hi the B. in its highest form is the N. of Europe. Among the most Henry III. strongly encouraged such compositions, in which eminent modern writers in which the examples of the true B. there was often no very definite dramatic meaning, the actors may be found are, in German, BUirger, Schiller, Goethe, Uh- sometimes speaking, sometimes sgng, but pantomime still land, and Heine;and in English, Scott, Coleridge, Longfellow, prevailing, and appropriate music being played for the occasional dances. B3altagerini in deed said.:'J'ai toutefois donnd Poe, Browning, and Tennyson. In England, and especially in sional dances. Baltagerini indeed said'J'ai toutefois donn Scotland, the B. as we know it in its highest form has been pro- le premier titre et honneur la danse but in the following duced. Of the English ballads, the Lyttel Geste of Robin Hood, century, when Sully wrote music for the works of Moliere and Chevy Chase, William of 6'loudesley, are among the best-known Quinault, the dance is in a subordinate position, a part of a examples. But it was not until the appearance of Scott's Min pantomime interlude. (See Ballet dE.Boi or Le Mariage Forc4 srlsy of te Sotti Border in 02 that we were made familiar danced by Louis XIV., 29th January I664, vol. i. of Moliere's strelsy of the Scottish Border in i8o2 that we were made familiarcoltewrk. enhemdropa osteBws with the B. in its highest form. The Scottish ballads of Tam collected works.) When the modern opera arose, the B. was Lane, Clerk Saunders, The TWie of Usher's Well, Helen of Kirk.- retained, and in some cases, as in Gl's iei i Tars, connel Lea, _ohnnAie Armst~rong, Edom. o' Gordon, &c., are un- used successfully to increase dramatic effect. If Macbeth were equalled in clear and vivid conception, truth, simplicity, and ever made the subject of an opera, Lock's witches' dance would directness of expression, the profoundest pathos, and the charm be an instance of an effective ope5ra-ballet. This, however, has of an art that knows not art, which place them at the head of the tended to become little better than the modern ballet-dvertslist of all compositions of the same class. See Percy's Reliques sement, an entre-chat or entr'-cte of mere dancing, unconnected ofAncient English Poetry (ist ed. 1755; new ed. 3 vols. Lond. with the rest of the performance, and often more remarkable for ); Motherwell's istrely Anent and oden (Glag muscular dexterity than grace or decency. The true modern B., i844); Motherwell's Minstrelsy Ancient and 2~odern (Glasg. Y ~~~~~~~~as a systematic expression of the drama, was revived by Noverre 1827); Aytoun's Ballads of Scotland (2 vols. Edinb. 1858); as a sstematic expression of the dama, was revived by Noverre Whitelaw's Book of Scottish Ballads (Glasg. 1845); Child's n English and Scottish Ballads (Bost. U.S. 8 vols. 185 7), &c. Shakespeare of dance;' and has left in his Lettres szur les Arts Imitateurs (Par. I8o7) an account of his system. He treated Ball'arat, a city and goldfield of the colony of Victoria, the such lofty subjects as Hamlet and Med-ea, and succeeded in some former being 96} miles W.N.W. of Melbourne. B. was the cases in producing a conerent and intelligible effect. That scene of one of the earliest gold discoveries in Victoria, in June human feeling has a large field of energetic expression in musx85r, and is still the principal gold-producing district of the cular movements is the fact on which the ancient'orchestric' colony. At the beginning of I874 there were 11,388 miners in drama and M. Noverre both proceed; but there are well-defined the district, employing plant of an aggregate of 9314 horse-power, limits to the range of such expression, and these limits vary and valued at /'494,668. Quartz-mining is now the leading fea- extensively in different nations. A Conservatoire de B. (trainingture of the district, and auriferous reefs are remuneratively school) is still regarded as a necessary part of the modern worked at a depth of go900 and iooo feet. The town of B. con- opera-house. sists of two distinct municipalities, B. East and B. West, with an Ballina' (Gael. originally Bel-ath-an-fheadha, pron. Bellaaggregate pop. of (1871) 40,705. B. is a well-built city, con- hain,'the ford-mouth of the wood'), a seaport in county Mayo, tainng many handsome edifices. The public buildings, in addi- Ireland, on the Moy, five miles from its entranice into Killala Bay. tion to several belonging to the municipal authorities, include a It has an active trade in flax, cured provisions, and salmon, but hospital, orphan and benevolent asylums, free public library, the river is only navigable to within a mile and a half of the theatre, ten banks, and fifty-six churches. B. has also eight town. In 1798 the French landed here and took B., but were iron-foundries, thirteen breweries and distilleries, several flour- defeated at Killala. B. includes the suburb of Ardnarea (Ardmills, and other factories. It is connected by railway with Mel- na-riagkad,'the hill of execution'), which lies on the right hank bourne, and communication will also be opened shortly between of the river, within Sligo county. Pop. (187) 4307, of whom it and Ararat (56 miles) and Maryborough (45 miles). B. West 3644 are Roman Catholics. is a see of the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches. Ballinasloe' (Ga originally Bel-ata-na-suaigeadh, pron. Ballinasloe' (Gad. originally;-el. atha'n a-shtaig - le a - -, pron. Ball'ast, in engineering, is that portion of the permanent Bellanaslooa,'the ford-mouth of the hosts'), a thriving town of way of a railway immediately under and between the sleepers. Ireland, on both banks of the Suck, in Galway and Roscommon 3BAL THE GLOBE ENCYCIOPDL4A. BAL counties, 8S miles W. of Dublin, on the Dublin and Galway numerous ascents were made by such men as Blanchard, Morveau, Railway. It is the headquarters of the Galway constabulary, the Lunardi, Jeffries, Romain, who was killed with M. de Rozier in seat of a poor-law union, and is noted for its October wool and 1785, at the very commencement of their projected journey across cattle fair, which is one of the largest in Ireland, and to which the Channel. In I802, General Money narrowly escaped drownthere may be some allusion in the name of the place. Pop. ing; and in the same year Garnerin descended successfully from (I871) 5052, of whom 4307 are Roman Catholics. a B. by means of a parachute. On the 23d of August I804, Ba~llinrobe' (originally Baile-azn-Rodiba, pron. Rba,'the Gay-Lussac and Biot ascended to a height of 13,000 feet; and town on the Robe'), a town in county Mayo, Ireland, othe on the 15th of September, Gay-Lussac by himself reached an Robe, 3 miles E. of its entrance into Lougl Mask, and 15 S.S.E. elevation of 22,977 feet. Hitherto hydrogen or heated air had of Castlebar. It is the seat of the general sessions, contains a been employed as the means for rendering balloons buoyant, but barrack, and has two annual fairs. Pop. (187I) 2048, of whom these have given place to coal-gas, which was first introduced by Mr Green. The longest journeys hitherto undertaken are the 2172 are Roman Catholics. remarkable voyage of Messrs Green, Holland, and Mason, on Ball'iol College, Oxford, founded between I263 and 1268 November 7, I836, from London to Nassau, a distance of 500 by John de Baliol, and enriched in I34o by Sir William Fienton miles in I8 hours, and the still more remarkable one of the and Sir Philip Somervyle, has since had numerous benefactors, American aeronauts, Wise and La Mountain, who travelled II50 among others, John Snell, in I677. The Snell Exhibitions, at miles in less than 20 hours. present fourteen in number, and tenable each for five years, in The most celebrated of recent aeronauts is Mr Glaisher, who, the gift of the University of Glasgow, attract annually to IB. C. on September 5, I862, accompanied by Mr Coxwell, rose to a the best Latinists among Scottish students. Adam Smith and height of about seven miles, on which occasion he became inSir William Hamilton were Snell Exhibitioners. The college sensible; and Mr Coxwell, having lost the power of his arms, has the presentation to nineteen livings. The society in I875 opened the valve by pulling the rope with his teeth. Of late consisted of a master, thirteen fellows, and twenty-four scholars, years, balloons have been used for strategic purposes, notably including three mathematical scholars; the number of under- in the recent Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71. M. Gambetta graduates was I79, and of members on the books, 543- escaped in one from Paris, when the city was surrounded by the Ballist'ic Pendulum, an instrument invented by Robins Germans, and organised a further resistance of the French on towards the close of the I8th c. for the purpose of measuring the banks of the Loire; but the best services which they can the velocity of cannon-balls and musket-balls. The pendulum render are in the interests of physical science. M. Tissandier, consists of a rigid rod, to the lower end of which is attached a a Frenchman, has recently made some important meteorological large cubical piece of woodwork, at which the shot is aimed. The observations in the higher strata of the atmosphere. In one of momentum of the bullet at the moment of concussion is imparted his most recent ascents (1875), such a height was obtained that to the whole apparatus; and, from the angle through which the the three occupants of the car became insensible; and when he pendulum moves, the velocity of the bullet is easily calculable. himself regained consciousness, he found both of his companions dead, owing to the bursting of blood-vessels. Numerous but futile attempts have been made to devise some method of steerBalloon' (Fr. balldon, a large ball), consists essentially of a ing, so as not to be dependent upon the direction of the wind; globular or pear-shaped integument, filled with a gas specifically and in I872 Professor Helmholtz of Berlin gave it as his opinion lighter than air. Its object is to that a B. could be steered if only moving at a slow rate through render possible aerial navigation; the air. See Travels in the Air, by Glaisher, Flammarion, Fonand its buoyancy depends upon the vielle, and Tissandier (Lond. i870). /7~~ ~ principle of Archimedes (q. v.), that a body will sink or rise in a fluid Ball'ot (Fr. ba/lotte,'a little ball'), a mode of secret voting of varying density until it reaches by means of little balls of different colours, but sometimes by a point at which the fluid is, bulk tickets having some mark of assent or dissent appended to the for bulk, of the same weight as the name of the candidate. Whether secret voting be desirable is body. The B., as at present em- clearly a matter of expediency; for what may be expedient in ployed and fitted up, consists of a the case of voting for persons wishing admission into private pear-shaped bag of silk, coated with societies, may not be so as regards aspirants for public offices. a layer of varnish, in order to render What may be proper in the former case to preserve social harit air-tight. A car is attached by mony, may be cowardice and a public danger in the latter. In cords to a net which covers the ancient Athens voting was generally by show of hands, but the whole of the upper hemisphere, and B. was resorted to where secrecy was desirable, as in judicial prosometimes extends even as far as the ceedings and in the court of Areopagus. At Rome the B., conBalloon. mouth or neck of the B. By this fined at first to the enactment or to the repeal of laws, was by the means the weight of the car and its Lex GabinJia (B.C. I39) employed in the election of magistrates. occupants is distributed as uniformly as possible. Another At Venice the B. is said to have operated beneficially. In most important apparatus is the valve, which consists of a France and America, and generally in new countries, as Auswooden clapper fitting over an aperture in the upper surface of tralia, magisterial elections are made in this way. Secret voting the B., and which is regulated by means of a rope hanging down in legislative assemblies, introduced into the French Chamber of into the interior of the car. Deputies in 840o, was abolished in I845, having been found The first B. capable of sustaining any considerable weight was productive of abuses. The election of Louis Napoleon, first invented by the brothers Montgolfier, papermakers at Annonay, as president (I848), then as emperor (I852), and again the in France, towards the close of last century. The envelope was Plebiscite (q. v.) of approval of his policy (I87o), by means of of paper, and was filled with heated air. After the success of the B., are among the most striking examples of secret voting June 1783, when a spherical B. of packcloth, covered with on record, and gave occasion to the adversaries of the general paper, and 35 feet in diameter, rose to a height of I500 feet in principle to maintain that, in the hands of a well-organised desthe presence of a large concourse of people, at a place near potism, the B. was a most efficacious instrument of tyranny. Annonay, the Academy of Science appointed a committee to No question has been more keenly discussed by politicians than report upon the experiment. A few weeks later, Professor the B.; one party maintaining that it was essential to the inte. Charles, assisted by the brothers Robert of Paris, managed to rests of electors and candidates alike, as it would annihilate the fill a B., I2 feet in diameter, with hydrogen gas. The first per- influence of threats, and remove the inducements to bribery; sons who ventured to ascend in a free B. were the Marquis while the other, regarding the franchise as a trust, maintained d'Arlandes and M. Pil]atre de Rozier, and this feat they performed the duty of open voting, as necessary to preserve in the voter a at the Chateau de la Muette, near Passy, November 21, I783, due sense of his responsibility to the community. The value of in a Montgolfiere or fire-B., remaining aloft about twenty-five the B. also, in its operation in other countries, was represented minutes. On December Ist of the same year, MM. Charles and in different aspects, according to the politics and prejudices of the Robert ascended in a hydrogen B., and after coming down, M. advocates. But much of the interest attaching to the question Charles reascended to a height of nearly two miles. After this in Britain has disappeared since the passing of the Ballot Adc, I B —-~ —-----------------------------— ~~~259 W +~~~~~~~ BAL THE GL OBE ENCYCI OP.EDIA. BAL 35 and 36 Vict. cap. 32, I8th July I872, under which both muni- liquid, glutinous, aromatic, and acrid to taste; by exposure to cipal and parliamentary elections are now conducted. the air, they gradually thicken, and ultimately become solid, Ballot for 1lIilitia. See MILITIA, darker in colour, and in some cases odourless. They are mixtures Ballo'ta. See HOREHOUND. of resins and volatile oils; some of them, however, contain cinnamic or benzoic acid in addition, and advantage is taken of:Balls, th ollow, are projectiles used in military operations circumstance to divide them into two groups —(I) those of for the purpose of giving lighlt, producing a dense smoke, or purely oleo-resinous character: and (2) those in which cinnamic emitting an intolerable odour. There are accordingly three or benzoic acid is present together with volatile oils and resins. kinds of such projectiles, known as light, smoke, and stink B., The first group embraces Copaiba B., Mecca B., Canada B., and the respective effects are produced by the ignition of the and other Turpentines (q. v.) of coniferous plants; and to the combustible material composing the ball. second group belong the balsams of Peru and Tolu, liquidamBal'ly, or Bal, properly Baile, a Gaelic word signifying bar, and storax. They dissolve in alcohol, and yield volatile originally a place, a home, then a fort or town, and allied to oils on distillation with water. the Greek polis. It is frequently prefixed to names of places Canada Balsam is procured from the Balm of Gilead fir, Abies in Ireland and Scotland, e.g., Ballyshannon, Ballymena, Ballin- balsamea, which grows in Canada and the United States. It is trae or Ballantrae, Ballycastle, Balmoral, Ballachulish. -See transparent, colourless, or slightly yellow, mobile, with an acrid Blackie's Etymzological Geography (Lond. I875), and Joyce's If-ish penetrating taste and agreeable odour. It hardens in thin layers, Names and Places (Dub. i869, 2d ser. I875). retaining its transparency, and is employed for mounting microsBallycas'tle ('the town of the castle'), a seaport of Antrim copicai objects, and is valued as a cement for optical instruments county, Ireland, lies picturesquely on a fine bay, at the base of on account of its refractive power being nearly the same as that Knocklayd Mountain, 88 miles N. of Belfast. It is divided into of crown glass. an upper and lower town, standing a quarter of a mile apart, and Copaiba or Copaiva Balsam is abundantly yielded by several has considerable linen manufacture and salmon-fishery. The S. American species of Cojaifera (Leguminzose). Of the three erection of the harbour, which is now filled with sand, and of a different varieties of this B., the Brazilian is the most common. fine pier, cost I15,ooo. Near B. is the'Grey Man's Path,' a It is a light-yellow transparent liquid, possessing a peculiar remarkable opening in the face of a greenstone cliff. Pop. (1871) aromatic odour, and a nauseous hot taste. It is used in the pre2102. The B. of Mayo is a somewhat different name. It was paration of lac varnishes and of tracing paper; also in miedicine originally Baile-an-Chaisil, the town of the cashel, or circular in arresting discharges from the mucous membrane of the urestone fort; but the Irish cashel is probably connected with the thra. An unsophisticated variety of copaiba B. was a few years Lat. castellZn. ago introduced into this country from the Brazils. It possesses Ballyme'na (originally Baile-mneadhonach,'middle town'), greater mobility and more essential oil than the ordinary B., and resists a certain chemical reaction which had hitherto been a town in the heart of Antrim county, Ireland, on the Braid, and resists a certain chemical reaction which had hitherto been 18 miles N. W. of Belfast, with which it is connected by railway. adulteratioi. It is one of the largest Irish markets for linen and flax, and its or Balm of Gilead, is said to chief industry is bleaching. Pop. (I87I) 79kI, of whom 6I97 Mecca Balsam, Opobalsamumt, or BZnam of Gilead, is said to chiare Proteindustantry is bleaching. Pop. (871) 7931 of whom 697 exude from a tree of the genus Bazsavmodendroln, growing in Arabia, and is also obtained by boiling the branches in water. The:Ballyshann'on (originally Bel-afla-Seanaigh, pronounced finest kind is extremely fragrant, and is highly esteemed by AsiaBellashanny,'the mouth of Seanach's ford'), a seaport in the tics; but it is scarce, and little of it reaches the British market. S.W. of Donegal county, Ireland, stands at the entrance of the Peru Balsam.-Three varieties are known, the produce of river Erne into Donegal Bay, 26 miles N.W. of Enniskillen. It nMyr)os5ermum or Myyroxylon Pereirc,, growing sparsely in Central has a valuable salmon-fishery on the Erne, which is here crossed America, and chiefly imported into Great Britain from the B. by a bridge of fourteen arches. Next to the Shannon, this river coast of San Salvador. The white kind is extracted from the is the most voluminous in Ireland, but a bar at its mouth has fruit, and when hardened by exposure becomes the dry Peru B. hindered the trade of the town. B. is the headquarters of the Both of these varieties are scarce. The black viscid variety is county militia. Pop. (187I) 2958, of whom 2372 are Roman common in commerce, and is obtained by bruising the stems Catholics. of the plants. It has an acrid bitter taste and agreeable odour, Balm of Gilead. See BALSAM. and is employed medically as an expectorant and for external Balmor'al Castle, in Braemar, Aberdeenshire, 48 miles W. application, and as a substitute for vanilla in confections and of Aberdeen, a residence of Queen Victoria, was built by the perfumery. Prince-Consort, who purchased the estate in 1852 from the Earl Tolu Balsam closely resembles the commercial Peru B., and of Fife. The castle, which is in the Scottish baronial style of is obtained in large quantities by incision of the stem of MZhyroarchitecture, is built of granite, and has a square tower 80o feet spermzm toluiferunz, which grows on the banks of the Magdalena high. There is an extensive deer-forest, comprising 30,000 and other localities in Colombia. When fresh, it is soft, yellowacres, belonging to the estate. The name B. signifies in Gael. ish, translucent, has a lemon-like odour and a sweetish irritating'the majestic dwelling.' taste; by keeping, it changes to a thick consistence of a dark-red Balnaves', Henry, of IHalhill, born at Kirkcaldy, Fife- colour, and ultimately to a dry friable condition. It is used in shire, in the reign of James V. He was educated at St Andrews perfumery, and medicinally as an expectorant. Tolu lozenges, and at Cologne, where lhe adopted the principles of the Refor- valued for troublesome coughs, owe their efficacy to the presence mation, and on his return to Scotland studied law. In I583of this Ba James V. made him a senator of his new College of Justice, and Storax Balsam, the produce of a shrub, Siyrtex oicintGe, growing in Syria, Greece, &c., was formerly imported into Great under the regency of Arran he was appointed Secretary of State, but was imprisoned in I543 on account of his Protestantism. On Britain chiefly from Asiatic Turkey, in the form of reeds envelthe capture of the castle of St Andrews, in which he had taken oped in leaves, Styrax calamzita, and in compact masses with refuge in 1547, he was, along with Knox, sent to France as a white tears, hence Amygdaloid styrax. It is now extremely rare, fprson er of -war. Returning o Scotlan in I554,he was apand the liquid and solid varieties of the druggist are frequently pointed one of the commissioners who in I559-6o4, he was ap- factitious compounds, of very variable composition and character. pointed one of the commissioners who in I559-6o concluded the treaty of Berwick, which established the Reformation in Scot- Liquidamzbar Balsam is found in considerable abundance be. tween the bark and the wood of Liquidambar s/y-raciyua, which land, and was one of the commission appointed to revise Tetwe en the ark and the wood of iidabar stycla, which Book of Discisline. B. died in I 579. is common in Louisiana, Florida, Mexico, &c. It exudes through cracks in the bark as a clear slightly yellowish liquid, possess. Balot'ra, a town in the state of Jodpore, or Marwar, Raj ing a very fragrant odour. An inferior kind is procured by boiling putana, Hindostan, is situated on the river Luni, to the W. of the small branches and leaves, and skimming off the balsamic oil the Aravulli mountains, 49 miles S.W. of the city of Jodpore. as it rises to the surface of the water. In France it is employed ~~~~~~Pop.- ~ 7275.-~ ~as a perfuming agent. Balsam. This term is applied to many varieties of oleo- Under the name of Artifcial Balsams is grouped a diversity resinous exudations, commonly procured by incising the stem of pharmaceutical preparations, of varied character and constituand branches of plants. When fresh, they are liquid or semi- tion, principally used externally. 260 BAL THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPDIa. BAL Balpamina'ce~o, a natural order of dicotyledonous plants, is a prominent object, and the interior contains some fine paintincluding only two genera, and about ings, gifts of kings of France. 130 species. Many of them have showy B. was founded in I729, has had a steady growth, and is now flowers, but their properties are unimpor- reputed to be the third trading city in the U.S. It is healthy, tant. They are herbaceous, succulent with a fine climate and sky, and it is famed for the beauty of its r%-~ ~ 2~ plants, chiefly found in the E. Indies. women. It is the seat of the Maryland University, and has an Their seed-vessels, when ripe, usually open excellent public school system. In the vicinity of the city is with considerable force, and scatter the Druid Hill Park, a fine public ground of 600o acres, with many seed. Imp-atiens bamsanzinza, the common noble trees. garden balsam, and Ibnpfaliens noli-tangere, B. has a monument to General Washington, and one to the or Touch-me-not, a native of Britain, be- memory of those who fell in the battle of B., I814, hence it is long to this order. popularly called the'Monumental City.' It derives its name from Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore. The original B. is a Balsamoden'dron, a genus of dicoty- a small village near Skibereen, Ireland. Pop. (I870) 267,354, ledonous shrubby plants, belonging to the of whom about one-third are Germans. order Amyridacece. They are mostly fur- 9 te, nished with spines, and have little foliage. Baltimore Bird, or Oriole ( YPianles or Icter's Bailimore), % They yield a fragrant balsamic substance, a genus of Perching or Insessorial birds, belonging to the Densuch as balsam or balm of Gilead, myrrh, tirostral section of that order, bdellium, and elemi. and found throughout the United States. Its northern. Balsam of Sulphur, an ointment United S tates. Its norther a most limit appears to be about /.~ Balsam. composed of two parts of sulphur to eight the 55~ of N. latitude. It is v of olive oil. In Germany it is made by the sf i adding one part of sulphur to three of turpentine. It is used as included in the sub-family of Icterinza, or American staran application to foul ulcers. lings. These birds possess a Bal'ta, a prosperous town on the Kodima, a tributary of the straight, acute bill, an elonBug, government of Podolia, European Russia. Pop. (I867) gated wedge-shaped tail, and I4,528. pointed wings. The B. B. Bal'tic Provinces (Russia), comprise the governments of possesses a plumage of bright Courland, Livonia, Esthonia, Petersburg, and the Grand Duchy orange and black colour, and Batimore Bird. of Finland. Area about 200,000 sq. miles; pop. (I867) it has reqeived the names of,903,808. bCourland one belonged to Poland the others to golden robin and'fire-bird,' from its brilliant hues. It builds a pouch-like nest, composed of hemp and flaxen strands deftly Sweden. Their constitutions vary much, but are being gradually interwoven, and suspended of hemp an forked branch.trand deftly shaped after the Russian model. In enumerating the B. P. theom a forked branch. last two are sometimes omitted. Baltic-Port is the name of the Baltisthn', or Little Tibet, once an independent state, haven (pop. 466) in Esthonia, 25 E. of Revel, which forms the now a province of Cashmere, lies on the Upper Indus, and is terminus of the St Petersburg Railway. separated from Chinese-Turkestan by a range of mountains. Its inhabitants are of Tibetan origin, but profess MohammedanBal'tic Sea (Ger. Osi See, or East Sea), a large inland sea, ism. Their number is unknown. The capital, Iskardo, or bordered by Denmark, Germany, Russia, and Sweden, separating Skardo, called also Sargarchud, is a wretched place, composed of central from northern Europe, and communicating with the N. about 150 half-ruined houses. Sea by the Sound and the Great and Little Belts. Its length is 900 miles, breadth i38 miles, area 156,6I2 sq. miles. It is Baltschik', or Baldjik, a town of European Turkey, Dan. throughout shallow, the average depth being from fifteen to ube province, on the Blacl Sea, I8 miles N.E. of Varna, with twenty fathoms, which, combined with the sudden changes of the the safest harbour on the Black Sea, and a considerable trade. wind, makes sailing dangerous. The water is of a lower tem- Its yearly market for horses, cattle, and sheep is important. perature than that of the ocean; is comparatively fresh, owing The country round about produces wine, fruits, and honey in to the large influx of river-water, and to the small evaporation abundance. From B. and Varna, the Franco-English army to which it is subjected; and the tides are scarcely noticeable. sailed for the Crimea in September I854. Pop. 4000. Near it The navigation is stopped from three to five months annually are the ruins of Tomi, to which Ovid was banished. by ice. Branching off from it are the Gulf of Bothnia on the Bal'uster (corruptly bannister; from the Ital. balausto, N., between Sweden and Finland; the Gulf of Finland, between through the Fr. baiustre, the remoter origin of the word being unFinland and Esthonia; the Gulf of Riga, between Livonia and certain), a small column used in railings called balustrades, which Courland, &c. More than 250 rivers run into the B. It contains may be either employed as an architectural ornament, or for protecnumerous islands, the principal of which are Zealand, Fiinen, tion on the ledges of stairs, balconies, outside of windows, or in and Laaland (Danish); Gottland and Oland (Swedish); the arcades. The B. varies in form and proportions according to the Aland, Dago, and Oesel (Russian); and Riigen (Prussian). order of the building to which it is attached, and the purpose to There is a large commerce, the chief exports being timber, which the balustrade may be devoted. The shaft is generally Ilides, tallow, and grain. The coast in the S. is flat and sandy; bulb or belly-shaped, and sometimes double belly-shaped, and in the N. it is for the most part rocky and precipitous, but there the section, though generally round, is sometimes quadrangular. are many important harbours, as Copenhagen, Kiel, Danzig, Bal'ustrade, an ornaMemel, Riga, Cronstadt, and Stockholm, and trade is further mental railing or patra- - facilitated by the Slesvig-Holstein Canal, near Kiel, connecting pet, composed of a series -- -—' the B. with the N. Sea. There is said, to be a gradual vertical of balusters, surmounted subsidence of the coasts in the S. of Sweden, and further N. a by a coping. Statuary gradual uprising, at the rate of three feet in a century. figures are frequently Bal'timore, a city and port of entry in Maryland, U. S., and. placed at short intervals capital of the state, on the Patapsco river, 12 miles from the on balustrades. Chesapeake Bay, 178 from the Atlantic, 37 from Washington, Bal'zac,Jean Louis and 98 from Philadelphia. The site is sloping and undulating, Guez de, a celebrated l and gives a very pleasing and picturesque effect to the general French ltraibteurl who r view. The harbour is deep, safe, and commodious. The chief contributed much to rearticles of trade are fruits, tobacco, flour, coal, and oysters. In fine his native language, 1874 the vessels, native and foreign, entering from foreign ports though, singular to say, were III7, tonnage 558,599; clearing port, 1026 vessels, ton- he was equally destitute Balustrade. nage 524,847. B. is the see of the Roman Catholic primate of of genius and taste. He the United States. The granite cathedral, with its lofty dome, was born at Angoulbme in 594, and acquired the favour of Riche | 26| 4- A BAL THE GLOBE ENCYC5cOPZorDA, BAM lieu, who even flattered him. When his first work appeared in Bambocciades (Ital. bamboccio, a diminutive of bambo, I624, it was received at first with universal applause; but gra- meaning simple or stupid), the name given by Italians to dually a suspicion arose in the minds of some that the grandiose paintings in which subjects from common life, such as pennystyle of B. concealed a paucity of ideas and a puerility of taste. weddings and fairs, are treated grotesquely. They are named His critics became his enemies. One of them, Le Pere Goulu, in after the Dutch painter, Pieter van Laar, whom the Italians a violent diatribe entitled Phyliarque, passed from animadversion called Banboccio on account of his simple and childish character. to calumny. At last B., wearied of controversy, retired to his He was not the first painter of such, but he was the first to make ancestral estate on the banks of the Charente, where he wrote them popular in Italy. most of his works, corresponded with kings, and died I8th February 1655. Among his once famous writings are, Aristigpje, Bamboo', the popular name of a genus (Bambusa) of plants Leitres Czoisies, Lettres F namizires 2 C/aaspewizi, Le Socrate Cre'- which belong to the natural order Grzaminacene or the Grasses, but lien, Pensees de B. See iEuvres Choisies de B., by Malitourne which differ very much in appearance from the ordinary grasses (Par. 1823). of temperate climates. The bamboos attain the dimensions and Balzac, Honor6 de, a distinguished French novelist, born at appearance of trees, some of them growing to a height of I00 ursa, 2 Mnay I 799' acommencedhis studries at.the ollegn..feet. The stems are woody, hollow, and jointed, and from the Tours, 20th May 1799, commenced his studies at the college of joints they shoot out numerous lateralbranches. They are Vendfme, and completed them at the pension Lepltre, Paris. natives of all tropical parts of both the Old and New World, and He was then placed in the office of a notary, but devoting him- are among the most useful of plants in the lands of their growth self to literature, he had published numerous volumes under The grains of Bamosa arundincec and other species are lig e various names, among others, that of R'hoone, an anagram of oats in appearance, and are used an oats in appearance, and are used as HonorS, but with no success, before he became, in 1826, the food, and the tender young shoots partner of the printer Barbier. He was still unsuccessful; but, are occasionallypicked for table use. though burdened with debt, he persevered heroically, till, in The stems of species which attain 1829, Le Dernier Chouan, to which he put his own name, secured considerable diameter are used as for him public recognition. Some of his best-known works are timber in the construction of houses, Physiologie du Mariage, (2 vols. Par. 1831); Scnes de la Vie for the masts and spars of vessels, privde (5 vols. 1831); Scines de la Vie de Province (1832); Scnes and general purposes. Sections of de la Vie parisienne (1832); Le MeJdecin de Campajgne (I835). them are used as water vessels, the The publication of this last led to a correspondence between B. septum of a joint forming the bottom, and the Countess de Hanska, whom he subsequently married. and part of the neighbouring joint He was cut off by hypertrophy of the heart, 20th August i850, being left as a handle, or when both and Victor Hugo pronounced an eloquent eloge over his grave. joints are left entire, a barrel is L'Histoire intellectuelle de Louis Lambert and Eugenie Grandet formed. The smaller stems are are the most artistically complete of his works, which, though used for an endless variety of purfull of interest, especially for females, are overstrained, some- psesCut into proper lengths, and pu what pretentious in their analysis, and not altogether so philoso- with the septa bored out, they form phical as their imaginative author supposed. A collected edition admirable telescopic fishihg-rods. rm of his works appeared under the title La Comrndie Humaine (45 They are extensively used throughout vols. Par. i856-59). See Sainte-Beuve, Portraits Contenmtorains the world for walking-sticks and Bambusa Nigra. (vol. ii.), and Gustave Desnoiresterres, Vie de Honord de BaLac umbrella- stalks, and the Chinese (I85I). form out of lengths of one joint useful pencases or manuscript Bambarr'a, a native state of Sudan, W. Africa, bounded holders. Excellent, light, and durable chairs, and other articles S. by Guinea, N. by the Sahara, W. by Senegambia, and ex- of furniture, are made from bamboos, the frames being made tending E., it is supposed, to the I5th meridian. It is partly of whole pieces overlaced with basket-work of strips of the same mountainous, with a hot but not unhealthy climate, and is inter- material, and the Chinese and Japanese excel in the manufacture sected bythe Niger, on whose banks are the chief towns, Sego, Bam- of B. baskets. A siliceous concretion termed tabashseer, posmaku, Yamina, and Sansanding, the first of which is the capital. sessed of peculiar optical properties, and highly valued as mediThe rainy season is from June to November. In many parts cine in the East, is formed in some species of oriental bamboos. the land yields yearly double crops of corn, rice, maize, and yams. The cotton-tree, oil-palm, date, and butter-tree are indigenous. Bambouk', a hilly country of Senegambia, W. Africa, The chief wild animals are the lion, the leopard, the elephant, bounded on the N. by the Senegal, and extending from lat. 12~ 30' and the panther; there is also a good supply of domestic ani- to I4~ N., and long. Io~ to 12~ 30' W. It is chiefly noted for its mals, including excellent horses. The inhabitants, reckoned at gold-mines, but its valleys are exceedingly fertile. The inhabi. 2,ooo,ooo, are chiefly Mandingoes, and are a warlike race, partly tants are a savage race of Mandingoes, who are mostly pagans. pagan, and partly Mohammedan. They were governed by a Since 1857 the land has been much devastated by the'holy war' king of their own till I86i, when El-Hadj Omar, known by his carried on by the zealous Mohammedan El-Hadj Omar, so that struggles with the French in Senegal, made himself master of both the gold-mining and the trade in ivory have seriously fallen the country. See Vignon's Le Royazine de Segovz et ces Bamnbaras off. B. abounds in almost all the wild animals of Africa, and in Nouv. Annales des Voyages (i857). its climate is unhealthy. Mungo Park and Major Houghton Bam'berg, a city of Bavaria, circle of Upper Franconia, on contributed much to our knowledge of B. in the early part of both sides of the Regnitz, near its confluence with the Main. the century, and, latterly, the French. See Raffenel, Voyage dans Pop. 25,738 (1871). It is the seat of an archbishop. The most l'Afrique Occidentale (Par. 1846), and Pascal in the Revue remarkable of its public structures is the cathedral, in the By- Aigenienne et Coloniale (Aug. i86o). zantine style, founded by the Emperor Heinrich II. in oo002 (re- Bambrough, or Bam'borough (originally Bebbanbueh, stored since I827), and containing the monuments of the founder,'the town or port of Bebbe,' the wife of the Bernician king, Ida), and of Kunigunde, his wife. The library contains 6o,ooo volumes, an ancient castle on the coast of Northumberland, perched on a and there are several scientific collections of great value. See perpendicular rock I50 feet above the sea-level, and accessible |Jack.'s Besciseibeng tien BibliothekzB. (Nurnb. 183 I-34 The only on the S.E. side. B. was a fortress in the days of Penda educational institutions are numerous and excellent. B3. has (7th c.), the heathen king of MvIercia, whose attempt to storm it cotton mills and breweries. Horticulture is carried on exten- th c the heathen king of Mercia, whose attempt to storm it sively, and tlherl e is a large export trade in garden-seeds On an was frustrated (says Bede) by the prayers of St Aidan. It passed seminence not far from B. are e rin gasees Ona to the crown in I095, when the wife of the great Earl Mowbray eminence not far from B. are the ruins of the castle of Altenburg, s forced to surrender it to save her husband's life. In the originally the seat of the ancient Counts of Babenberg. See I5th c. it again became private property. The castle and manor, Ji ck's Geschiczte B. (4 vols. 18o6-9). forfeited by Thomas Forster in I715, were purchased by Lord Bambi'no, the figure of the child-Christ in swaddling clothes, Crewe, Bishop of Durham, who had married Forster's niece. frequently seen in Roman Catholic altar-pieces. A splendid He bequeathed them, at his death in 172I, for charitable purspecimen is to be seen at the Ara Cceli (Rome), to which many poses. The charity has been since much increased, and in 1874 make pilgrimages at Epiphany. amounted to about xio,ooo a year, devoted to various humane 262 1 >6z I~~~~~~- { BAM THE GLOBE ENC YCLOPSDIA. BAN purposes, such as keeping up lifeboats; maintaining signals to race-jealousy sometimes inclining him to adopt the imperial warn vessels in thick and stormy weather from the dangerous against the national cause. In 1723 the B. became directly sub' cluster of rocks known as the Farn Islands; dispensing medicine ordinate to the Hungarian palatine, holding a place in the and advice to the poor gratis; educating and clothing poor council, while the territories were represented in the national children, &c. B. village, near the castle, was once a royal burgh. diet. In I849, on the erection of the vassal lands into crownBamnbu'sa. See BAMBOO, lands, the B. ceased to have political connection with Hungary. Zriny and Erdody in the I7th c., and Jellachich in the Ig9th, are Bam'ian Valley, the only practicable pass for artillery among the best-known of the Bans. In the insurrection of the over the Hindu Kush from Cabul to Turkestan, is 8496 Herzegovina (I875), the B. appears in the Dalmatian Assembly feet in height. Besides being strategically important, the B. V. as the mere mouthpiece of the imperial cabinet. is remarkable for the colossal statues and ancient monuments it contains. Ghulghula, a hill in the valley, 35 miles N.W. of Bana'na, a tall herbaceous endogen belonging to the natural Cabul, is carved so as to form statues in alto-relievo of a male order uzsacetv, which, amid the luxuriant vegetation of tropi. and female figure, the former I6o and the latter I40 feet high. cal countries, is much adIn the interior of each of these great statues is a stair winding mired for its elegance and Am upwards to the head of the figure. In the hill also a series of the beauty of its flowers cells, ranged in irregular tiers and covered with carving, have been and foliage. The i/Vusa excavated. The ruins of tombs, mosques, and buildings, at an sqpzientum of botanists, it is early period consecrated to the Buddhist religion, which is sup- now generally considered posed to have had one of its chief centres in the B. V., abound in to be only a variety of the the vicinity. Plantain (q. v.). Both of these trees administer in Bamp'ton (' tree-town,' the first part of the word being thel masy ways totheicomfort Eng. beam, comp. Ger. baznt), in the N.E. of Devonshire, 22 of the natives of hot cli miles N. of Exeter, has manufactures of serge and of pottery, mates, but chiefly from the and valuable limestone quarries. Pop. (I87I) IIII. abundant nutriment afford3Bampton in-the-Bush, a village in Oxfordshire, with a pop. ed by their fruits, which (I871) of 764. There is here an old cruciform church with a Nor- are produced in enormous man tower. As a specimen of pointed Gothic it is almost unique. quantities. The B. fruit is from four to eight inches;Banmpton Lectures, founded by the Rev. John Bampton, long, and of a pale yellow Canon of Salisbury. These lectures, eight in number, are de- colour; before maturity it < livered annually at Great St Mary's, Oxford, the foundation being contains a lacteous starchy vested in the University of Oxford. The subjects of the lectures c which with maturity Banana. are mainly connected with the Christian evidences, and the liquires a saccharine charpreacher must be an M.A. of Oxford or Cambridge. From acquires a saccharine char I780, when the first course was delivered, up till the present acter, and forms a delicious refreshing beverage. The fruit has been preserved for years by drying it in the sun, when it becomes time, there has been no interruption of the annual delivery, with coseed rvative efflorescence sugar; the skin is the exception of the years I834, I835, and I84I. Some of the coated with a preservative efflorescence of sugar; the skin is series have excptitedmuchattentionand caused much cntroversy. usually stript off before the efflorescence appears, as it gives the seDr White's have lectures on Chris atianity and Mohammedanism, deli- fruit a disagreeable flavour. The blades of the large oblong B. vered in 1784, were said to owe much of their value to the assistance leaves ace employed in thatching, and the petioles, being formed of Dr Parr and Dr Badcock (De Quincey's Essay on Dr Parr, vol. v. of his works, Edinb. I863). Among the lecturers have been Banana Bird (Ic/erus xanthornis), a genus of Icterince Heber (I815); Whately (1822); Milman (I827); and Dr Hamp- or American starlings, occurring in the W. Indies and tropical den (I832). Dr Hampden's lectures, of which the subject was America, and allied to the Baltimore Bird (q. v.). The plumThe Scholastic Philosopfhy considered in its Relation to Chris- age is a darkish brown, the wings being striped with white. It is tian Theology, were attacked by the Oxford Tractarians, and the readily tamed, and builds pendulous nests like others of its group. author charged with Rationalism and Socinianism. Great but unavailing opposition was made to his appointment as Regius Pro- Ban-ArriBre. The heer-ban or heriban (summons or professor of Divinity in I836; and on his elevation to the see of clamation of the army) was first'defined by the capitularies of Hereford in I847, thirteen bishops protested against the appoint- Charlemagne of 807 and 812. All benefices were held on conment. Mansel's series on The Limits of Religious Thought, de- dition of military service in public and private war (Wehr and livered in I858, gave rise to much interesting discussion; and so Fehda). Ban was, therefore, applied to the levy of the barons did Rawlinson's Historical Evidences of the 7z-uth of the Scripture proper, or peers of the court, who were the immediate vassals of Records Stated Anewz (I859). Canon Liddon's lectures on our the crown, and carried their own banners to the field; B.-A. Lord's divinity (I866) form a valuable contribution to theological to the secondary levy of vavassors, chatelains, &c., who were literature. The lecturer for I875 was the Rev. Williamn Jackson, sub-tenants. This B.-A. must be distinguished from the service M.A., of Worcester College. The original endowment, /;I20, of allodial proprietors (heerman arimanni), who were also now produces ~200, and the lectures are published at the expense bound by the capitulary of 813 to furnish soldiers according to of the estate, within two months of their delivery. the extent of their lands. These probably served under the Bampu'ra, or Bawampura, a towen of India, in the counts of their neighbourhood. There were complete feudal e levies at Bovines under Philippe Auguste, and at Courtrai under native state of Holkar,'I70 miles E. S. E. of Baroda. Its palace Philippe the Fair. Permanent troops on ity were not estune and fort were begun by Jeswunt Row Holkar, whose fine marble li in Frnce Permanent troops on pay were not estabstatue adorns the former. Pop. about IOed. se in France till I444. See Meyer, Esprit, Origine, et Progr&s statue adorns the former. Pop. about 0,0ooo. des Zstitut. 7udic. (ISIS et se2. 5 you.). des Inslitut. Yudic. (I 8 I 8 et sew. 5 vols.).;Ban, or Banus (a Slavonic word signifying'lord'), was Ba'nas, or Bunas, the name of three rivers in India. The the name originally applied to the governors who were ap- largest rises in the Aravulli mountains, Rajputana, flows N. E. pointed to districts on the S. and E. frontiers of Hungary ad E. to the Chumbul, and so to the umna and Ganges. for purposes of national defence, and was therefore equivalent Another rises in the same range, and so ows S. to the um n nd Gnges. to the Marke6raf or Border Earl of the old German empire. Another rises in third, in Bundelcund flows S.W. to the RuSone, of Cutch. The third, in Bundelcund, flows N.W. to the Sone, The government of the Bans was really military, a regular an afunt of the Gages. civil establishment being impossible during the Turkish wars. The districts were consolidated towards the end of the I6th c., Banat', a frontier province in the S. of Hungary, consisting the Sultan Selim undertaking to recognise the imperial power of the counties of Temesvar, Krasso, and Torontal, with an area of in Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia, in consideration of the re- 8648 sq. miles, and a pop. (I869) of I,028,263. It is one of the cognition by the Emperor of the Turkish vaivodes in Transyl- richest portions of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, yielding vania, Moldavia, and Wallachia. The B. of Croatia and Dal- various grains, tobacco and millet, and wine equal to the best matia speedily became an important figure in Hungarian history, produce of Burgundy. There are also mines of iron, copper, _ _A~~~~~ _ _t~~~~~~ _ _ _ _ ~~~ 263 B3AN TI-HEI GLOBE fNC YCL OPhD IA. BAN coal, gold, silver, and zinc. Besides steamboat communication on as a statesman, he was a very fierce opponent of the Purithe Danube, B. has now the advantage of several lines of railway. tans; and in the Hampton Court Conference under James I. The capital is Temesvair (q. v.). Originally a Hungarian terri- was foremost in the discussions that took place on the side of the tory, B. formed an Austrian crown-land from I849 till i86o, Church of England. In October 1604 he succeeded Whitgift as when it was restored to Hungary. The B. derives its name Archbishop of Canterbury; next year he was sworn one of his from having been originally governed by a Ban (cq. v.). majesty's (James I.) privy council; and in i6o8 he became Chancellor of the University of Oxford. He died November 2, 7Banawaram, an ancient town in Mysore, India, 8I miles of Msore. Ali rmoved a reat numbe8r of theI6io, leaving his library to the see of Canterbury for ever. His N.W. of Mysore. Hyder Ali removed a great number of the literary work consists of a sermon and two tracts against the inhabitants to the neighbouring town of Nagapuri; but o lier wokcnist fasro ndtorcsagaish inhabitants to the neighbouring town of Nagapuri; but owing Puritans, and an unpublished letter on pluralities. The tracts to the unhealthiness of the latter place, they were allowed to are, A Svrvay of the Pretended Holy Discile (593), and return to their former homes. Pop. about xiooo0. Hz I9) return to their former homes. Pop. about,. Davngerovs Positions and Proceedings, published and practised Ban'bridge, a town of Down county, Ulster, Ireland, on the within this Island of Britain, unlder Pretence of Reformation, left bank of the Bann, 76 miles N. of Dublin, with an important and for the Presbiteriall Discipline (I593). manufacture of linen. There are also large thread factories and Bad, ilitary, is a body of musicians attached to a regichemical works. B. is connected by railway with Belfast and ment of soldiers. The members of the B. are selected mainly Dublin. POP. (IS71) 56oo. ~~~ment of soldiers. The members of the B. are selected mainly ~Dublin. Pop. (I8;7~) 56oo. from the ranks, but the bandmaster is commonly a civilian. Ban'bury, an old town of Oxfordshire, on the right baik of The regulation number of instruments is very small, including the Cherwell, 21 miles N. of Oxford, and 38 S.E. of Birming- only fifes, bugles, trumpets, and drums; but it has long been the ham, and a station on the Birmingham and Oxford Railway. It invariable custom that the officers of a regiment should, princilies in the fertile'red land' of Oxford county, and has manufac- pally at their own expense, render the B. more effective by the tures of implements of husbandry, plush and girth webbing, introduction of other instruments, the chief of which are cheese, and the celebrated'B. cakes.' In the beginning of the clarionets, oboes, flutes, bassoons, and a great variety of brass I2th c. a strong castle was built here by Alexander de Blois, instruments. Modern improvements in the mechanism of the Bishop of Lincoln, which sustained several sieges, and was instruments, and the growing taste for music, have wonderfully finally dismantled by the parliamentary forces in 1646. Ii 1469 increased the strength and efficiency of military bands. Those the Yorkists were defeated at the battle of B., fought on the of Austria especially, the finest in the world, play as perfectly as neighbouring plain of Danesmore. B. returns one member to an orchestra (the clarionets representing the violins), and often Parliament. Pop. (1871) 4122; of parliamentary borough, number seventy or eighty performers. Among our British 11,72-6. military bands, those of the Grenadiers, Coldstreams, and Scots Fusiliers are the most distinguished. Banc is an Italian word meaning a seat or bench. The expression'sitting in B.,' or in banco, as applied to the law- Ban'da Isles, a group of ten volcanic islets, belonging to the courts, means the sitting of the judges in their respective courts, Dutch, lying between the Moluccas and the smaller Sunda according to statute. islands in the Indian archipelago, with a mean lat. of 4~ 30' S., and long. of I290 50' E. The chief trade is in nutmeg, the yearly Ban'ca, an island in the E. Indian archipelago, belonging to export of which is about 60,0ooo lbs. Banda-Neira is the chief the Dutch, lies E. of Sumatra, in lat. I' 3' —30 5' S., and of the group, and the residence of the Dutch governor. Total long. Io050 io' —io6" 53' E. Its products are gold, iron ore, area, I70 sq. miles; pop. (1872) 56oo0. silver, tin, and amber. In 1872 the exports amounted to;533, I37. The capital is Minto. Area, 6883 sq. miles; pop.rien'talS. America. SeeU A (1872) 62,216, the natives and Chinese numbering about 62,000. Ban'dages are used by surgeons for the twofold purpose of Banco, a commercial term, denoting the standard money applying compression and keeping a part in position. We have which a bank keeps its accounts, as distinguished from local an example of the former when wcurrency. abnkesisacnsasdtnusefolc a pad and bandage are applied to a bleeding part to arrest the Ban'croft, George, a leading American historian, was born hiemorrhage, and of the latter 3d October i8oo, near Worcester, Massachusetts, being the son when a bandage is applied to of Dr Aaron B., a Unitarian minister, and author of a Life of keep.a broken limb in position. George WIashington, Sermons on the Doctrines of the Gospel, &c. B. are generally made of cotton, Young B. studied at Harvard College; went from thence to linen, flannel, or carbolic gauze, Gbttingen and Berlin, coming in contact with Hegel, Goethe, but any kind of cloth may be Varnhagen von Ense, Schleiermacher, Von Humboldt, and used. The cloth is cut up. into Bandage across foot. others. On returning to America, he threw himself into histo- strips of variable breadth, fromt. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~srips literatribe brandacodgtothe purpose rical literature and politics, declaring himself a keen democrat; a fraction of an inch to a foot or more, according to the purpose filling, under President Polk, the offices of Secretary to the Navy, for which the bandage is required. They are generally wound and Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to England. up like a roller, which enables them to be more easily applied. He wrote several historical works, which, in the end, he incorpo- Very narrow B. are required for the fingers and toes, broader for rated in his History of America (ioth vol. i869), one of the best the limbs, and the broadest of all when the whole body is to be written, and, at the same time, most substantial and accurate his- encircled in a bandage, as in the case of a fractured rib, when a torical works of the present time. It has been translated into flannel bandage is wrapt round the chest. Special B. are required several continental languages. In 1855, his contributions to the for special purposes, and for particular parts of the body. In apNorth American Review were published under the title of 31is- plying B., care must be taken to have them so applied that they cellaneous Essays and Ieviezws. From 1867 to 1871 B. was will maintain sufficient pressure without unduly interfering with Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court at Berlin. Another the vitality of the part. When applied too tightly, B. are apt American author of this name, Hubert Howe B., has writteli to cause death of the parts. In bandaging the limbs, it is well a history of The Native Races of the Pacifce States of N. America, to begin at the extremities, and bandage upwards. By so doing, of which 3 vols. have already (1875) appeared. the risk of interfering with the venous circulation is avoided. Bancroft, Richard, Archbishop of Canterbury during a Bandajan' a Himalayan pass, on the S. boundary of Kunacritical period of the history of the Church of England, was born cicprdfhhty ofthChu o war, at a height of I4,00ooo feet, is covered with perpetual snow. at Farnworth, Lancashire, in September 1544;' his father, John B., being a gentleman of the place, and his mother the niece Banda'na, a variety of printed cotton goods originally made of Hugh Curwyn, Archbishop of Dublin. B. was educated at to suit the taste of oriental nations, where cloth with the same Christ's College, Cambridge, and after a distinguished career as kind of patterns had long been manufactured by native artisans. a clergyman, was consecrated Bishop of London May 8, I597, The B. style consists in discharging the colour from a Turkey-red and in that capacity attended Queen Elizabeth on her death- ground by the action of a strong solution of chlorine, brought to bed. Although of high repute as a man, a scholar, and even'bear on the particular portions to be discharged, by specially ax- 264 A._ _ _ _ _ |BAN THE GIOBE EIVCYC'LOPiAWDIA. BAN constructed machinely. The pattern on the oriental cloth which Bandie'ra, Attilio and Emilio, two brothers, descended the European B. has supplanted was produced by tightly tying from an aristocratic Venetian family, who were among the up the portions of the cloth before dyeing, by which the con- earliest victims to the cause of Italian liberty. In I842, while stricted parts were kept free from the dyeing agent when the lieutenants in the Austrian navy, they began a correspondence piece was immersed in the dye-vat. with Mazzini, and in the following year made an effort to stir up revolt, which proved abortive. After seeking refuge for some Bande Noire (black band), a title of reproach given to those time in Corfu, they were seized in Calabria, tried in secret, who bought the property of the Church and of the emigrants and, along with seven companions, shot in the public square of during the first French Revolution, after it had been confiscated by the dominant party in the state. They unquestionably de- Cosenza, July 25, 86). See Ricciardi, Sori stroyed many objects of historical interest; but it is affirmed that the subdivision of the large estates into small holdings has pro- Bandinell'i, Baccio, an Italian sculptor, born at Florence duced a large class of peasant-proprietors, a thrifty and indus- 1487, died there I559-60. Unfortunate in his proud and jeatrious race, forming an important element of the national strength lous temperament, he was also unfortunate in his contemporaries, of France. Michael Angelo and Benvenuto Cellini, whom it was his vain Ban'del, Joseph Ernst von, German sculptor, born at ambition to rival. He is best known for his bassi-relievi of the Anspsach, Bavaria, I7th May I80. He studied at the Academy prophets, apostles, virtues, &c., in the cathedral of Florence; of Munich, and resided in that city for fourteen years. HisAcade and his figure of Christ at the tomb, in the church of the Annunof Munich, and resided in that city for fourteen years. His Mars lReposinzg, an early work, won him a high reputation. HIis ziata, Florence —which figure he is said to have completed for statue of Charity, upon which he worked for ten years, is one of his own tomb shortly before his death-is a work of very rare the most beautiful pieces of modern Germ an sculpture. His excellence. greatest work, however, is the colossal statue of tertmann, the Ban'dit (Ital. banditto, comes from the Teutonic ban, a ancient national hero, situated on a hill overlooking Detmold, proclamation, which, though it generally conveys the idea of in Lippe, unveiled in I875. This statue, in copper, is 40 feet outlawry, as in the phrases'ban of the Empire,''ban of the high. B.'s statues are distinguished for their nobility of style Church,' yet does not necessarily do so, as we see from the still and ease and command in execution. His busts are full of ex- more familiar phrase'banns of marriage'). The name B. is given pression and movement. in Italy to an outlawed robber. The Italian banditti formed Bandell'o, MnIatteo, an Italian writer of fiction, born at communities or corporations, and submitted themselves to be Castelnuovo, Piedmont, about I480. Abandoning his early r regulated by stringent laws. They were long the scourge of fession of a monk, he devoted himself in Rome and Naply pro- Italy, but in 1820 the Papal troops succeeded in partly breaking festudy. After the battlesion of Paa monk, he devoted himself in Rome and ranapleois to up their haunts. They are still to be found on the frontiers of study. After the battle of Pavia (I525) he followed Frangois I. Naples, where they combine the occupations of husbandman and to France, and in 5550 Henri II. appninted him to the bishopricNaples, where they combine the occupations of husbandman and to France, and in I55o Henri II. appointed him to the bishopric brigand. In 1812 the Neapolitan government was under the of Agen, but he devolved his episcopal duties on the Bishop of necessity of concluding a treaty with'Peter the Calabrian,' a Grasse, that he might have leisure to complete his Novelle in formidable. chief; and sometimes the banditti were so numerhis native language, which were published at Lucca in 3 vols. in able B. chief; and sometimes the banditti were so numerI554. B. died in I562. A posthumous volume was added in ous and daring that it was necessary to send regular troops I5573. There were numerous editions of the aoNvee in the i8th against them. Sicily is still infested with robber bands, and at c. The latest is that of Turin (I853). B.'s tales, like those of one time they were so powerful there that it was deemed politic to treat them with confidence. The disturbed state of Italian the Decameron, are unaffectedly simple, and pure in style, but society in 848-49 swelled the rans of the banditti with refugees the morality is not of a lofty tone. Other writings of B.'s are the Cancti dieZle Lodi dela S. ucr~exiz Gonzaga, and Rime (Tur. I8I6). and desperate men of all kinds; and under the command of Bellino, whose death occurred in I85I, they were strong enough to Ban'derole, a small streamer or banner on a crozier, a mili- engage the Austrian troops of the army of occupation. The tary weapon, or the mast of a vessel. Also, in architecture, an Italian banditti, though by no means so formidable as they were, inscribed band on Renaissance buildings, similar to those now still occasionally succeed in procuring large sums for the ransom used for mottoes on coats-of-arms. of rich captives. See BRIGANDS. Ban'dicoot, a genus of the order Marsupialia or' pouched' Bandoleer', or Bandaleer', was a belt worn by musketeers mammals, forming the type of the family Perameidc& of that two centuries ago over the left shoulder, and having attached to order, and found in Australia. These forms are of small size, it twelve small boxes, each of which contained sufficient gunand are included in the Enotmo pagous (or insect-eating) divi- powder for one charge. sion of the order. They represent in Australia the moles, hedge- Ban'doline, a preparation made by hairdressers for stiffening hogs, and small insectivora of the Old World generally. The and fixing stray hairs in toilet operations. It is said to be prehind-limbs in the bandicoots are longer than the fore-limbs, the pared from Iceland moss, which it sometimes may be, but more latter members possessing five toes each; of which, however, commonly it is made from gum tragacanth, perfumed with some the outer and inner digits are rudimentary, only the three central essential oil.-A B. is also an obsolete form of a musical inones being fully developed. They are nocturnal in habits, and tement burrow with great ease. They progress by a series of running s me leaps, in consequence of the greater length of the hind-limbs. Ban'don (Gael.' the brown lea-field'), a town in the county Six incisor teeth exist in the lower, and eight or ten in the upper of Cork, Ireland, on a river of the same name, I9 miles S.W. of jaw; large canines exist; the preemolars number six, and the Cork city, with manufactures of linens, camlets, coarse woollens, molars eight in each jaw. The total number of teeth is about and leather. There are also distilleries, dye-works, flour-mills, forty-six or forty-eight. The marsupial pouch in the B. opens and bleaching-fields. B. returns one member to Parliament. backwards in some species, instead of forwards as in other mar- Pop. (I87I) 6I31, of whom 4186 are Roman Catholics. The supials. These forms are represented by the Perameles lagotes, river B. rises in the Carbery mountains, and enters the sea at or native'rabbit' of Australia, so named from the size of the Kinsale, after a course of 40 miles. This is Spenser's'pleasant ears. P. nasuta and P. Gunnnii are other species of the typical Bandon, crowned by many a wood.' genus. The allied genus C/zurrotpzus wants the two outer toes of |Bands, a portion of clerical dress in the Presbyterian Church, the fore-feet. are a relic of the ancient Amice, which was derived from the Bandicoot Rat, or Great Indian Rat (AMus giganteus), Jewish Ephod, and in primitive use was nearly a counterpart of not to be confused with the marsupial bandicoots described in the modern white neckcloth, but falling down so as to cover the article Bandicoot, is a true rodent, included in the rat and the neck and shoulders. mice family (Muridae). This form is the largest of the rats, Beberry. S A averaging 2 feet in length including the tail, and weighing 2 or 3 lbs. This rat occurs in India and Ceylon, and inhabits dry Banff, the capital of Banffshire, a royal burgh (since 1372) places, burrowing to great depths. It is very destructive to and seaport at the mouth of the Doveran, on the Moray Firth, plants and fruits, and is also said to attack poultry. It is 45 miles N.N.W. of Aberdeen, connected by a bridge of seven coloured black in the upper, and grey on the under parts. arches with the town of Macduff. The harbour is occasionally 34: 265 4- 4. BAN THE GLOBE ENiVCYCL OPADIA. BAN silted up with sand. B. exports cattle, corn, salmon, and her- named probably from a hill near the town), a seaport of Down rings. It is one of the Elgin burghs (the others are Elgin, Cullen, county, Ireland, on the S. side of Belfast Lough, I2 miles Inverury, Kintore, and Peterhead) which return a member to E.N.E. of Belfast, with manufactures of linen, cotton, and Parliament. Pop. (I87I) 7439. B. is the birthplace of the not- muslin embroidery. It also exports cattle and provisions. B. able Archbishop Sharpe. is connected by rail with Belfast. Pop. (I87I) 2560. There Bansff'hire, a north-eastern Scottish county, bounded N. by still exist the ruins of the great abbey of B., founded in 555 by the Moray Firth; E. and S. by Aberdeen; and W. by Elgin St Cungall. and Inverness. Area, 686 sq. miles. It has a seaboard of Bangor, a flourishing city of Maine, U.S., on the right about 30 miles, the surface bordering on which, for several bank of the Penobscot river, 230 miles N.E. of Boston, with miles inland, is for the most part level. In the S. and S.E which it is connected by railway. It lies 60o miles from the the surface is mountainous, but has numerous fertile valleys. mouth of the river, at the head of the tidal water, and is accesBen-Muic-Dhui, 4296 feet, once thought to be the loftiest moun- sible to vessels of I4OO tons burthen, with full cargoes. B. tain in Scotland, is partly in B. The highest peak in B. is has a larger timber trade than any other city of New England, North Cairngorm, 4090 feet. The chief rivers are the Spey this single article of export amounting in I874 to 645,000. and the Doveran, the former the most rapid of British rivers. There are many fine public buildings, including the customBoth granite and the old red sandstone abound, and the' Port- house and post-office, a theological seminary, and a large orphansoy marble,' a richly variegated species of serpentine, has long age erected in 1872. B. has two daily and four weekly newsbeen celebrated. The metallic treasures are small, though papers. Pop. (I870) I8,290. lead and iron are found, as well as small quantities of antimony Bangor Iscoed' (' Bangor below the wood'), a village on and plumbago. Agriculture is in an advanced state, and about the Dee, on the borders of Flint and Denbigh shires, N. Wales. a third of the soil is cropped. Large quantities of cattle are It was the seat of a monastery said to have contained 2400 bred; weaving, tanning, and distilling are important branches monks in the 6th c., but no traces of the building now exist. of industry, and herring and salmon fishing support a large pro- Pop. (187I) 554. portion of the inhabitants. The principal towns and villages Bangor'ian Con'troversy, the name given to a once are Banff, Macduff, Portsoy, Keith, and Cullen. B. returns famous controversy provoked by a sermon of Dr Hoadley, one member to Parliament. Into the walls of the old church of Bishop of Bangor, on the text,'My kingdom is not of this Gamrie, which was discontinued as a place of worship only in world,' which gave much offence to the defenders of ecclesiastical I830, the bones of the Norsemen slain at Bloody Pots were authority. See HOADLEY. built, hence its popular name,'the Kirk of Skulls.' Pop. Bangweolo, or Bemba, one of the largest lakes of Central (1871) 62,023. Africa, lies about 200 miles S.W. of Lake Tanganyika, in lat. Bangalore', a fortified town of Mysore, India, and the II~ —I2~ S., and long. 28' 20' —30 35' W. It is of somewhat chief military station of the country, I8o miles W. of Madras, oval shape, and extends in an E. and W. direction, being I50 with which it is connected by railway. It stands 3000 feet miles long and 80o broad. Many rivers enter it on the N. and above the sea-level, and has an excellent climate, with an E., the chief of which are the Chambeze (q. v.), Lopopussi, abundant supply of good water. In 1791 it was stormed, and Luela, and Lolotikira. It is also fed by innumerable smaller taken by the British under Lord Cornwallis. B. was founded streams, and by the waters which in the rainy season flood the by Hyder Ali, and one of its finest buildings is the palace of surrounding country to a distance of 40 miles. This margin Tippoo Saib. The neighbourhood is exceedingly fertile, and of morass or'sponge' is inhabited by numerous small tribes, and there are important manufactures of cotton and silk. Pop. covered by aquatic vegetation, including the papyrus, armus, (I872) 142,513. The executive district of B. has an area of 29I4 lotus, rushes, and ferns. The lake is 3688 feet above the seasq. miles, and a pop. (I872) of 828,354. level, and abounds in fish, while its waters are sweet, and of a:Bangkok', capital of the kingdom of Siam, on the Meinam, dark sea-green colour, probably due to the reflection of light by and 20 miles from its mouth. Pop. 500,000, half of whom, the fine white sand forming the bottom. It is drained by the forming the commercial community, are Chinese, who, for the great Luapula or Webb's River (q. v.). B. was discovered in right to trade, pay three dollars each on entering the kingdom, I868 by Dr Livingstone, who revisited it for the purpose of and are taxed to the same amount triennially. The tax is not further exploration, and died on its S. shore at Chitambo's onerous when the extent of the commerce is regarded. In village, May I, I873. I874, 484 vessels of I31,676 tons entered the port-IO3 ves- Ban'ian, or Banian' (Hindustani, bani', a merchant, from sels being British. In the same year the exports from B. a Sansk. root, pan, to sell), a term applied to the merchants in amounted in value to FI,225,864, the chief articles being rice, the W. of the Indian peninsula, particularly those in the seaports sugar, pepper, teak planks, tin, teel-seed, rosewood, and car- Bombay, Surat, Cambay, &c., who, in the way of business, damums; while the imports amounted to /964, I28, the chief penetrate Asia as far as the borders of China and Russia, and articles being cotton, linen, woollen, and silk manufactured visit Africa as far S. as Mozambique. They form a division of goods and opium, of which alone the imports amounted to the caste Vaisya, wear a peculiar cloak, also called B., observe /'9o,o89. The situation of the town is picturesque, and its en- fasts rigorously, and abstain from eating flesh, though a sect virons are beautiful, its appearance having gained for it the name of them-the Bhattias-are, on the other hand, notorious for of the' Venice of the East.' Many of the houses are afloat on'having reduced philosophical epicureanism to practice in forms rafts on the river or the canals, and the land houses are raised more hideous and degrading than almost any which the Hindu six or eight feet from the ground on piles, and are reached by Pantheon could furnish.' See Sir Bartle Frere's article on the ladders. There are few streets, and traffic is carried on by the Banians in Macmillan's Magazine, October I875. numerous canals. B. is the residence of the two kings of Siam, theay, a nautical phrae denoting the day on which palace of the first being about a mile in circumference, and con- no flesh-meat is allowed to a ship's crew. The term is derived taining the hall of the sacred white elephant. There are from the usage of the Hindu Banian. numerous temples. See Bowring's Kingdom and People of Siam. Ban'gor (Cymr. Ban-choir,'the high choir'), a burgh and Ba'i, John, an Irish novelist, born at Kilkenny, April seaport, Carnarvonshire, and an episcopal see, dating, it is said 3, I8oo, commenced life as a portrait-painter, but subsequently seaportom 550, is Carnarvon the Menai Straitire, and about 6 miles W. of Ches betook himself to literature. His earliest production, his Tales from 550, is on the Menai Strait, and about 60 miles W. of Ches- of t~ e O'- ara Fatify (Lend. I825), was followed by'oyne ter. The scenery in the neighbourhood is singularly beautiful, of the O'Hara Family (Lond. 1825), was followed by Boyne tIeater (I826), The Croi520 (1828), ile Denounced (1830), The and B. is in consequence much resorted to. It has also been Smger (1831), The Mayor of Wi8ndga ande nater Connell greatly benefited by the opening of the Chester and Holyhead 842). Havingbeenattackedbyanincurablediseasepension Railway. The principal industry is slate-quarrying, the slates from the civil list of /i50 was awarded him. He died at of Llandegai being sent everywhere. Along with Carnarvon, Windgap Cottage, near Kilkenny, Ist August 1842. B. has never Conway, Criccieth, Nevin, and Pwllheli, B. sends one member been excelled as a depictor of the peculiarities of the Irish peasant, to Parliament. B. cathedral contains the tombs of a few Welsh and it can hardly be said with justice that imitation of Scott has princes, and several eminent ecclesiastics. Pop. (1871) 9859. to any serious extent compromised his reputation for originality. Ban'gor (originally BeaRnchar in Gael.,' the pointed hill,' See Murray's L/e and Corresondence ofB. (Lond. (Lnd. 857) 266 4 BAN iiHE GLOBE Er~C YCZOP1DIA. BAN Banish'ment, the punishment of legal exile from one's coun- on other securities, such as mines and manufactories. These try. It is a penalty which has partly been abolished by statute, securities, however, are seldom taken from free choice. When and, in so far as this has not been done, it has fallen into de- taken, it is generally because when the bills fall due, either they suetude. Transportation also, by which was legally understood have not been paid, there has been visible difficulty in paying B. accompanied by the other penalties of felony, is also now them, or the banker has had reason to suppose they have been abolished, with the substitution of PENAL SERVITUDE (q. v.). paid by means of discounting Accommodation Bills (q. v. under BILL OF EXCHANGE). The banker has then but had the choice of anister, a corruption of BALUSTER (q. v.). two courses-either to make a bad debt, by making the defaulter Banjalu'ka, a strongly fortified town of Bosnia, Turkey, on bankrupt, or that of taking such security as the trader has to the left bank of the Verbas, a branch of the Danube, in the N. W. give, which may be that of a mine, manufactory, or something angle of the kingdom. It has a gunpowder factory, several hot equally hazardous. If he take the latter course, the banker is springs, and many Roman remains. Pop. 15,00ooo. plainly going out of his legitimate path of business, by becoming Banjermassin', a Dutch residency in the extreme S.E. of himself a mining master or manufacturer. There have doubtless Borneo (q. v.). It is in great part a fiat country, but is inter- been many cases in which, by taking this course, a B. has not only sected by a lofty mountain range, and is watered by the Banjer, retrieved a debt which would otherwise have been bad, but has Nagara, and other large rivers. The chief exports are gold-dust, made immense profits by so doing; nevertheless it is a course diamonds, coal, ratans, gutta-percha, cotton, edible nests, and severely to be reprobated. The most cautious banker must run benzoin. There are several weapon factories, where highly orna- some risk, and he must consequently occasionally make bad debts, mented arms are produced. Area, 5880 sq. miles; pop. (1871) nevertheless, cautious banking in the United Kingdom is on the 326 Europeans and 847,846 natives. The capital, B., is situated whole safe as well as lucrative; and the failures of the last twenty on the Banjer, 15 miles from its mouth, and is almost entirely years have all been the result of infatuation which might seem built on piles. There is considerable trade, the chief imports incredible, were it not for the fact of universal application, that being sugar, rice, silks, and gunpowder. Pop. (1871) 35,000. the first fatal step once taken, the road to ruin is easy. Banjoemas', a port-town of Java, 22 miles inland from the The second class of B. has a source of profit besides those ItanYjoemasa', a port-town of Java, 22 miles inland from th~e of its subscribed capital and deposits —that is, on what is called S. coast, the residence of a Dutch governor, and the capital of its bscribed capital and deposits-that is, on what is called itzssue. This is its Promissory Notes (q. v. under BILL OF a rich and productive province of the same name. Pop. 9ooo. EXCHANGE); that which rye call a bank-note being simply a EXCHANGE); that which we call a bank-note being simply a Bank, Banking. In the wide meaning of the word, any promissory note by the B. which issues it to pay the Bearer on place where a money-dealer, or a company or corporation of demand the sum written in it. Now, if any one discounting a money-dealers carry on their business, is a B. In this sense bill with a B., or otherwise taking a loan from it, agrees to take alone was the word understood when it first came into use. It the loan in the B.'s promissory notes instead of in coin, it is is derived from the Italian word banco, a bench; the early money- plain that, so long as it is not required to give coin for these dealers of Italy having been in the habit of sitting on benches in notes, the interest paid to the B. on account of the loan is almost the market-places of the chief towns. The B. of Venice was wholly profit. A trifling deduction must be made for the exestablished in II7I, the B. of Amsterdam in I609. The latter penses of making and maintaining the note circulation and was simply what we call a B. of deposit; that is, it took charge general cost of the establishment; but this is all. of money and valuables for the public, but did not lend. To The interest, then, which a B. gets on its note circulation may receive money on deposit and to lend it have for long been the be said to be virtually clear profit. Suppose, then, a B. to make radical functions of a B.; and in England we should hardly a loan for a fixed period, in its own notes, does it necessarily speak of any institution or company by this name which did not make a clear profit of the interest agreed to be paid for the receive money and lend it. A public B. in Great Britain is con- period? It lends say /JIoo in its own notes for a year, agreeing stituted by Act of Parliament or by royal charter. Its consti- to take /'5 of interest for the year's loan, does it make /5 of tution, amount of capital, and the rights of its partners, depend profit? It may do so in one transaction, but there are limits to on the laws and powers so conferred on it. A private B., again, the possibility of its doing so. There is a natural limit, and our is under the laws which regulate private trading companies. See legislature has imposed an artificial one, we suppose from the JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES. belief that the natural force was insufficient. The natural limit In considering how a B. conducts its business, this distinction to a B. issuing notes is simply that the public, not requiring between a public and a private B. need not be kept in view. For them, will not keep them. Every householder keeps a certain this purpose, we must keep in view the distinction between a amount of money for daily requirements in his desk, and if he B. of deposit and loan only, and one which is also a B. of issue. keeps this in B. notes, this is so much profit to the B. But Under each of these divisions, the first requisite of success is whenever he gets a sum in excess of this requirement, he pays it public confidence. The B. must borrow before it can lend, and into the B. with which he keeps an account, from which it is rebefore the public will intrust its money, it must feel confidence turned for gold to the B. whose promise to pay it bears; banks that this money will be at once repaid when required. This con- periodically exchanging notes, drafts, cheques, &c., and paying fidence can only be gained by those answerable to the public for in gold the balance that arises on the account. Thus the /5 the solvency of the B. having a reputation for wealth and com- will be diminished by the interest paid to the depositor on so mercial prudence. Hlaving more or less gained this confidence, much gold. In London, the exchanges are effected through the the B. has its subscribed capital, that is, the money which its Clearing House (q. v.), and there are similar establishments in shareholders have paid on their respective shares, and its deposits some of the provincial towns. with which to work for profit. For deposits some banks give The legislative check upon the issue of banks imposes on interest, others do not; but none give a rate of interest to deposi- them the necessity of keeping in their vaults an equivalent in tors nearly so high as they charge to those who borrow from gold for every note issued beyond a certain amount, which them. Plainly no B. could afford to do this. The profit of the amount is called the B.'s'fixed issue.' This limitation proB. will now plainly depend upon the interest which it receives ceeds on the theory that an unlimited right of issue would be upon its working capital, diminished by the interest, if any, followed by an increase of issue, which, by augmenting the which it pays to its depositors, by the expenses of manage- quantity of money in circulation, would artificially raise the ment, and by bad debts. Upon economy of management, there- prices of commodities in general. At least, it was a general fore, and upon the avoidance of bad debts, will mainly depend belief that the banks were by their issues causing this effect the success of the B. The latter is in a mercantile community, which led to the restrictive B. Acts of I844 and 1845. even in fairly good commercial times, a matter of great diffi- The author of these acts, however, Sir Robert Peel, according culty. The manager of a B. and his directors-that is, a body to Mr Gladstone, who was then a member of his cabinet, was chosen by the shareholders to counsel and assist him-must be largely influenced by his faith in another principle-namely, that thoroughly versed in mercantile affairs, cautious even in the best the whole business of B. issue ought to be in the hands of the times, as knowing that seed then sown may bring forth its fruit state.'Sir Robert Peel,' says Mr Gladstone, in his speech on in evil times. Above all, must they be firm; and the successful Mr Goschen's Bankers' Act Amendment Bill (I7th March 1875), banker must have commercially neither friend nor foe. The chief'proceeded steadily on the principle, that where the law imposed point of the business of our bankers consists in the discount of restrictions on issuing banks, these restrictions ought to be mainbills. See BILL OF EXCHANGE. But loans are frequently made tained; and, moreover, Sir Robert Peel did that with reference to,~, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~267, B ~ ~~sAN -THE GLZ0BE ENC YCLoZ OPD!iA. BAN a wider principle still-namely, the principle that the state The issue account is credited with thefixedsecurities, together ought to get into its hands the whole business of issue.' 5,oo000o,ooo, and debited with their constant equivalent, the It would lead us quite beyond the necessary limits of this'notes issued.' These notes, it will be seen, are to the extent of article to discuss these questions. An issue in the hands of the 6 9,360,330 in the banking department. This is called the'note state would presumably give the public the profits of the B. reserve.' The remainder of the -35,023,450, that is, ~25,663,I20, issue of the country, which at present goes into the pockets of is in the hands of the public, and is called the'active circulaprivate bankers and of the joint-stock B. shareholders; but may tion.' The banking department is debited with the fixed capital, not the same be said of the state taking to itself any other ~614,553,00ooo, with the'rest' or surplus, ~;3,424,835, with public lucrative field of business, which it has hitherto been considered deposits, and with -'other' deposits, being those of individuals, wise to leave open to British commercial enterprise? Then, as firms, London bankers, &c. On the credit side are government to the wisdom of legal restriction on issue, seeing that there is a securities, a safe and readily convertible investment;'other' natural law of restriction, may it not be, as has hitherto been securities, composed of bills discounted, bonds on which advances found in all connected with trade, that the unfettered operation have been made, &c.; and the reserve of notes and coin imof the natural law is best? mediately available for advances. The figures (~9,360,330) Giving all due weight to the authority of Sir Robert Peel, we denoting the notes in the banking department are simply an may fairly recall to mind the fact that, at the date of his B. arithmetical expression for the bullion in the issue department Acts, he had but newly awakened to belief in the principles of available for the banking department. The'reserve,' then, of free trade; and it is not unreasonable to suppose that he may the B., by the above account, was ~9,36o,330 +;839,542 not then have been fully awake to the whole detail of these prin- = ~'IO,I99,872. Since i844, the reserve stood highest ciples. Issue is not free now, and some banks in the United ~'I7,861,747-on June 21, I871, when the private securities were Kingdom are under different laws as regards restrictions from ~1I6,816,887, and the discount rate 2. per cent. It stood lowest others; the result being, what is sure to happen under so ano- -— ~,552,686-on November I8, 1857, when the private securimalous and unnatural an arrangement, that there is general dis- ties were 26, I I3,453, and the discount rate Io per cent. content. Generally, gold tends to leave the B., and reduce the reserve, The Bank of -Englana.-This, the largest banking establish- when the short exchange of London or Paris falls to 25f. Ioc., ment in the world, was projected by William Paterson, a while an opposite effect is produced by the exchange rising to Scotchman. It received its charter of incorporation on 27th 25f. 33c. It is when this all-important reserve is seriously dimiJuly I694. Its original capital was'I,200oo, ooo, which it lent at nished that commercial panic is prone to arise. Till it does interest to the government of William and Mary. Its original arise, restriction of issue is unnecessary, and then the restriction charter has from time to time been renewed, the last renewal can no longer be maintained. Thrice since the Act of I844being under the Act and' charter of I844. Under these, the B. during commercial panics in I847, I857, and I866-the governis divided into two compartments, the Issue and the Banking. ment of the day has taken the responsibility of authorising an Previous to the Act of 1844, the government debt to the B. extra issue of notes. was I I,o015, Ioo. This was, by the Act, declared to be a debt 7oint-stock and Private Banks in England andZ Wales. —There due to the issue department, which was accordingly allowed to are at present I I4 private and fifty-four joint-stock banks in put in circulation notes to that value, without holding any gold. England and Wales. By 1844 the value so authorised to be issued had, in considera- The total fixed issue of the private banks is,. 3,845,594 tion of certain securities, been raised to 14,000,0ooo. An addi- The total fixed issue of the joint-stock banks is, 2,652,993 tional million of issue was authorised by the Act, on account of the lapsing of the right of issue of some country banks. Thus, Total fixed issue of private and joint-stock ~698,58 the total auth6rised issue, without holding gold, was by the Act banks of England and Wales,. 6498,587 ~1I5,o0,0oOO, which is the present authorised value. The B. must pay to government the profit which it makes on the extra Banks in Scolland.-The earliest established B. was the B. of million. And the profit of the issue department is the interest Scotland, instituted by charter of incorporation from the Scotch at 3 per cent. on therI4,ooo000,000ooo of government debt, which is Parliament in I695. It gave the first impetus to Scotch industry, ~420,000, less ~i8o,ooo paid for stamp duties, and ~i6o,ooo which has since had such an immense development. It was of expenses; the deductions together amounting to ~340,000, followed by the Royal B. in 1727, and the British Linen leaving a net profit of ~8o,ooo. Bullion and foreign coin are a Company in I746. The object of this institution was specially source of profit to the B. Being worth ~3, I7s. io-d. per ounce, to encourage the linen manufacture of Scotland, but it gradually the B. buys them for notes at ~3, I7s. 9d. Holders can have fell into the course of common business. The failure of the them coined fiee of charge at the mint, but the delay causes a Western B. in 1857 has been the greatest Scotch commercial loss of Ild. per ounce. disaster of this century. It is, however, to be observed, that the In its banking department, the B. of England differs only company was not properly speaking insolvent, for it paid its from other banks in its having the custody and management of creditors-that is, its depositors and note-holders-in full. Since the funds of the state. For managing the public debt, the B. then, the prosperity of Scotland has been unexampled, owing receives about ~Z247,00ooo, against which there is about ~i24,oco greatly to the excellence of its banking system and management. of expenses. The other profits of the B. are derived from em-'I know,' says Mr Gilbert (Banker's Mfagazine for March I1875), ployment of its deposits, on which it allows no interest, and of'of no better illustration of'the beneficial action of banking in its capital. The following is a copy of the weekly account of promoting the development of natural resources than the present the B. of England, on I7th February 1875:- advanced condition of Scotland.' The total authorised circulation of the Scotch banks is IssUE DEPARTMENT.-February 17, 1875. ~2,749,271. On January 23, I875, their total actual circulation Dr. Cr. wasNotes issued,. ~ 35,o023,450 Government debt, - ~oo05,1oo Of~5 and upwards, -~1,996,453 Other securities,. 3,984,900 Under~5, 3,865,759 Gold coin and bullion, 20, o23,450 Silver bullion T,2 Total,;/5,862,2 I2 ~;35,0o23,450 ~ 35,023, 450 —' —- ~At the same date the Scotch banks held, in round figures, BANKING DEPARTMENT seventy-seven millions of deposits, while their total working Dr. Cr. capital, exclusive of note circulation, was fully ninety millions. Proprietors' capital, ~ ~14,553,ooo Government securities, ~23,595,034 These facts, we think, show that in any question of right or Rest, -. -3,424,835 Other securities, - x8,800,24I power of competition, the right of issue exercised by Scotch Public deposits, 6,196,010 Notes, 9,360,330 banks is not extremely important. It is the force of the ninety other deposits, z8,o65,3o8 Gold and silver coin, 839,542 Seven deoisay and other 2,6,0 Gosdilecin 83 millions, not of the;2,749,27 1, which the advocates of protection bills,..355,924 in the banking trade have to dread, though no doubt the issue ~642,595,147 ~ E42,595,147 helps to collect the deposits. Over the United Kingdom, there 268 ~~~42,595,17 _4;455 can be no doubt that the important part which banks play ~3P — Is —-— ~- 68 —-~ —~ ------ -~ —----—;~ BAN THE GLOBE RNC YC1LOPkDIA. 4 BAN is not by their issue, but as the recipients of deposits and Such was the position of matters in both countries in 1854, makers of advances. At the same time, to deprive the Scotch when it occurred to Lord Brougham that it was highly desirable banks of the right of issue would be an unquestionable injury that the B. law of England and Scotland should be made the to them, and to the commerce and general prosperity of Scot- same, and that this end should be carried out by the repeal of land, which they have done so much to promote. the Scotch statute, and the substitution of the English Act of.lish Banks.-The authorised circulation of these is /6,354,494. I849. His lordship grounded his view on the general principle The actual circulation on January 23, 1875,- was /6,882,942. of its being most desirable that the mercantile law of the two The B. of Ireland is a national B., lending /2,630,769 of countries should be the same. While the general principle was its capital to government. It was established in I783. Its universally granted in Scotland, the special application was all capital is /2,769,230, and its rest /1,o77,ooo. It allows no but universally objected to by the legal and mercantile community, interest on deposits. on several grounds. In the first place, the English were still in Bank-Note Circulation ofthe UzitedKingdonm. -For the week a state of chronic discontent with their own law. Then the ending January 23, I875, this was- machinery of a B. court was held to be cumbrous, and out of Bank of England (2oth January), 2. /26,313,715 harmony with the legal institutions of Scotland; while the Private banks of England.2,612,932 English system was statistically proved to be considerably more Joint-stock banks of England,... 2,328,482 expensive than the Scotch. An indignation storm from the London press, whose fury was -'31,255, I29 directed against'Scotch provincialism,' then burst over Scotland. Scotch banks, 5,862,212 It was productive of good, however, stimulating inquiry in ScotIrish banks,.6,882,942 land, till the fact came to light that, while the provisions of the 44,00ooo, 283 Scotch Act were generally excellent in the care which they took of the interest of creditors, these provisions were almost wholly Bank-Note, XIanufacture of. The chief object in this ignored by trustees and all concerned in the management and manufacture is to make forgery as difficult as possible. Peculiar supervision of the B. estate. Accounts of the trustees' intropaper and ink, and intricacy of design, have all been brought to missions (see INTROMISSIONS), instead of being made up at bear on this end by men who have made it their special study. statutory periods, were often hardly made up at all. CommisBut the ingenuity of the forger has sometimes been not less in- sioners signed without auditing; returns to sheriffs were never dustriously exerted. Of recent years, however, there has been made; dividends were indefinitely postponed pending petty law. no extensive forgery of bank-notes. Since 1855 the notes of the suits, which only ended when there was nothing left to divide. Bank of England have been produced by the electrotype. The results of the whole controversy were, first, the Scotch B3. Bank'ruptcy, in law, and in its general meaning, is the con- Amendment Act of 1856, which continued the main provisions of dition of one who is unable to meet the legal demand of a the law as it previously existed, but made them efficient by the creditor, and who has by his act or omission (see ACT OF B.) appointment of an Accountant in B., an officer whose business it given legal proof of his inability. The condition of inability to is to see that trustees in B. make annual returns, in prescribed meet a legal demand, previous to legal proof of the inability, is form, showing the funds of the estate realised and outstanding, called Insolvency; and from insolvency there is, of course, the the dividend paid, the legal and other expenses incurred, and possibility of recovery without B. In Scotland, the condition of the position and prospects of the estate generally. Of the returns ofie who has committed an act of B. is called Notour B. so made, the Accountant must keep a register, open to all conOf late years the B. laws of England and of Scotland have cerned. Besides this, it is his duty to exercise a strict supervision been the subject of endless discussion, especially in England, by over the conduct of trustees, commissioners, and bankrupts, and parliament, chambers of commerce, and other societies interested he is bound to report any neglect or misconduct to the Court of in trade, and by the corporations of our trading cities. So long Session, or to the Lord Advocate, either of whom may censure, ago as 1825, the great mass of English statutes on this subject remove from office, or prosecute criminally. The second result were consolidated, and several new and salutary provisions in- of the controversy above alluded to was the assimilation of the troduced; amongst others, those which allowed an offer of com- English B. law to the Scotch, by the passing of the English position, and permitted a trader publicly to declare his insolvency, Act of 1869. Under it, the office of official assignee is abolished, and equitable measures to follow the declaration. The Act of and that of a trustee appointed by the creditors put in place of it. 183I established a Court of B., and the office of official assig- Both English and Scotch Acts contain Arrangement Clauses;. nee, corresponding to the office in Scotland of Trzustee under B. the former Act allowing a majority in number, and three-fourths But still the B. law of England proved wholly inadequate to in value, of the creditors to carry a composition without B., deal with this most difficult subject. By secret transfers, con- while the Scotch Act does not allow any majority to carry a cealment of property, and the enormous expense of the B. Court composition previous to examination under B. The Comptroller and the other machinery required for winding up, and by in B. in England and the committee of inspection discharge the endless delay, prospective dividends continued to grow smaller, duties of the commissioners and Accountant in Scotland. By the until not unfrequently they altogether vanished. The Act of Scotch Act of 1856, the judgment of the Sheriff is made final in 1849 for the first time introduced'arrangement clauses,' under competitions for the office of trustee. By a B. Amendment Act which the bankrupt, with the necessary consent of creditors, in I86o, power is given to the Scotch courts to recall a sequestrawas able to clear himself of debt without the stigma of B. This tion until three months after its date, on being shown that the was an improvement, no doubt; still, as it was difficult to get procedure ought to be in England or in Ireland. This provision sufficient value of creditors to consent, the great proportion of remedies the evil which formerly existed of English and Irish estates continued to be liquidated as formerly. debtors coming to Scotland for the purpose of sequestration, and In Scotland, during the same period, from the expansion of so getting quit of their debts without due notice of procedure to its trade, and consequently growing importance of the subject, their creditors. discontent with the existing B. laws had continued to increase. In a country whose commercial circumstances are ever varying, Yet some difficulty was felt in discovering where or in what the as are those of Great Britain, frequent repair and modification of error practically lay. Lawyers and mercantile men read the B. law will doubtless be found necessary; meanwhile the law as Scotch statute, and its provisions, with a few exceptions, really it at present stands in England and Scotland is on the whole, we seemed good. Its machinery was simple, the creditors from first believe, found to work satisfactorily and efficiently. to last keeping the management of the B. estate virtually in their Banks' Land, a large island in the Arctic Ocean, 70 miles own hands. They appointed their own trustee, twho was super- S.W. of Melville's Island, and Ioo from the[N. coast of British intended by a committee of their body called' commissioners. America, extending in lat. 74' N. and long 116' W. Trustees were, under the statute, called on to render an annual account to the Sheriff, showing exhaustively the past transactions, Banks' Penin'sula is situated in the province of Canterpresent position, and prospects of the estate. Yet, for some bury, on the E. coast of the Middle Island of New Zealand, reason, results in Scotland were nearly, but probably not quite, as between 430 37' and 430 55' S. lat., and 1720 40' and 1730 9' E. unsatisfactory as in England; dividends which originally seemed long. Its area is estimated at 250,oo0 acres. B. P. is deeply almost at hand and substantial, growing with the lapse of time indented with bays, the chief of which is the splendid inlet of more and more distant and visionary. Akaroa, on the S. The surface of B. P. consists of sharply 269 BAN THE G-LOBE ENWCYCL OPM.DI~A. BAN defined mountain ranges and peaks, containing abundant evi- Bank'sian Cockatoo' (Calyfporlynchus Banksii), a species dence of volcanic action, and covered with forests. These of cockatoo, occurring in Australia, the plumage being black or ranges end abruptly on the W. in the great Canterbury Plains, brown, variegated with spots of red or orange, with which colours and the curious Lake Ellesmere (q. v.). the tail-feathers are also banded. Banks, Savings'. See SAVINGS' BANKS. Bann (Upper and Lower), two rivers in the N.E. of Ireland. Banks, Sir Joseph, was born at London, February The first, rising in the Mourne mountains, passes Banbridge, 1743 (O.S.), of an ancient family, having possessions in Lin- Gilford, and Portadown, and falls into Lough Neagh; the latter, colnshire. He began his botanical studies while at Eton, by, flows through Lough Beg, divides reading.,rard's.e7~a~ _t Oxford,.ibthorp, >.^. p issumg from Lough Neagh, flows through Lough Beg, divides reading Gerard's Herbal. At Oxford, Sibthorp, the professor Antrim and Londonderry, and falls into the Atlantic near Portof botany, did not lecture, and B. had to hire a lecturer on that rush. A mile above Coleraine, where the B. falls over a ledge of subject. He succeeded to his father's estates in 1764, and was rock 13 feet high, there is a valuable salmon-fishery. Here the elected to the Royal Society in 1766. The same year he accom- Irish Board of Works have erected a lock and piers, to regulate panied Sir Thomas Adams to Newfoundland on a botanical the water-flow. expedition. In I768 he and his friend, Dr Solander (botanist), joined the scientific expedition sent out to Otaheite by Lords Bann'atyne Club, instituted in Edinburgh in 1823 by Sir Bute and Sandwich, to observe the transit of Venus of 3d June Walter Scott, for the purpose of printing scarce works bealing on 1769. They sailed in the Endeavour (Captain Cook), and on Scottish history and literature, is named after George Bannatyne the return voyage visited the Society Islands, New Zealand, (a Scottish merchant, born 22d February I545, died before I608), New'South Wales, and New Guinea. In 1772, with Solander the transcriber of the famous Bannatyne MS., preserved in the and a staff of assistants, B. sailed to Iceland, and examined its Advocates' Library. The works were to be printed uniformly flora, fauna, and physical geography. He made a collection of and handsomely, the club, or, as often happened, some individual Icelandic books and manuscripts, which he presented to the member, defraying the expense. The number of members, at British Museum. In 1778, B. was elected President of the first 31, was raised to Ioo, the annual contribution being five Royal Society, in 1780 he obtained a baronetcy, and in I795 the guineas. Its first president was Sir Walter Scott, and its first Order of the Bath. In I802 he was elected member of the Insti- and only secretary David Laing. The annual meetings of tute of France, and died Ig9th June I820. B. wrote two tracts the club, which were highly convivial, were held in December. on Corn Blight (I803) and Merino Sheep (I809), and several They were, however, ultimately discontinued, and the club itself papers in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society. His was dissolved 27th February I86I. Its publications, II6 in most important achievement was the introduction of the banana number, bring high prices at sales. In December I874 a comfrom Otaheite to the W. Indies. He left his botanical library plete set was bought for the Glasgow Public Library, at the sale and collection, which were of great extent, to the' British Museum. of the library of the Rev. Dr Stevenson, late Professor of EcclesiThe library was catalogued by Dryander; the collections have astical History in the University of Edinburgh, for /204, I5s. been made use of by Girtner, Brown, Broussonet, and others. Bann'er. By this word we generally mean to indicate a flag Banks, Thomas, born in Gloucestershire, 1735, was or similar device used for ornament on important occasions, or to trained as an architect, but devoted himself to sculpture in denote nationality or fraternity. early manhood, and in I770 carried off the gold medal of the Among all people there is a Royal Academy. He was sent, at the expense of the Royal veneration for the national flag, Academy, to Rome, and there produced his Caractacus Pleading which promotes the virtues of before Claudius, a noble work, and his Psyche withZ the ButteTfly, heroism and patriotism. Chiefly which in grace, symmetry, and classical elegance is held to rival is this found in nations which the works of the ancient masters. He went to Russia on the have long been great, and whose invitation of the Empress Catherine, who purchased his Psyche, colours have become the nucleus and commissioned him to carve a group of the Armed Neutrality round which historical and train stone. After two years he returned to England, where he ditional glory has gathered. continued to practise his art till his death, 2d February I805. From the earliest times we x Of his later works, the Nymphs Consoling Achilles, an oval alto- find that banners have been relievo, in which Thetis and her nymphs are seen rising from the used in war, for the purpose sea, is not surpassed in the buoyancy and spontaneous movement above indicated, and for directof the figures by any ing the movements of troops. work in ancient or The Roman standard was in modern art. the earlier days of Rome a spear Bank'sia, a genus with a bundle of straws. This K of plants of the na- was succeeded by the haughtier Banner. tural order Proteacea emblem of the eagle- since (q. v.), named after adopted by the Bonaparte dynasty, and by the American Sir Joseph Banks, and Republic. peculiar to Australia The ensign of the United Kingdom, or Union Jack, is formed and Tasmania. Only by a combination of the three national emblems-the crosses of two ofthefiftyspecies St George, St Andrew, and St Patrick. As a specimen of of which the genus heraldry it is not considered to be very successful; nevertheless,.; E, X A. Sty@,il Adis composed are tro- per mare, per terramn,'the meteor flag' has well sustained the pical. B. grandis has honour of the British name. In the navy the ensign is displayed been known to reach on flags of various colours-most commonly red, yellow, white, -:i~ ~.! Fa height of 50 feet, but blue, or black.!ii, $excepting some six Internationally, the white flag is the token of peace or surother arborescent spe- render; a red flag, of defiance. The black flag is the emblem cies, the genus con- of piracy. sists of shrubs, some Bann'eret, a knight who, for some deed of valour performed of which attoin a on the field, was entitled to bear a banner instead of a pennon. ____| height of from 1|5 to The act of elevating any one to this dignity consisted in cutting: j~ —~'~~ ~ O2f the et. iThe flowers or tearing off the ends of the pennon. According to Froissart, of the B. inltegragia Edward I. introduced this grade of knighthood; and the last contain a large quan- knight-1B. was John Smith, who received the honour from Banksia. tity of honey, whence Charles I. after the battle of Edgehill. it is called the honeysuckle by the colonists. Various species of B. are commonly Bann'ock (Gael. bonnach, a cake), a thick round cake com. grown in greenhouses in Britain for the sake of their flowers. mon in the rural districts of Scotland and the N. of England. 270 BAN THE GLLOBE ENC YC OPEDIA. BAP The Scottish B. is made by kneading barleymeal or a mixture of behind the neck. The Gaur-ox of India somewhat resembles barleymeal and peasemeal with water, only to a softer consistence this species, concerning the exact nature of which considerable than is requisite for the oat-cake, and firing on a girdle or circular doubt still exists. plate of cast-iron. Oatmeal forms the principal constituent of Bantry (named from the Beanniraighe, descendants of Ithe B. of the. of England. Beann, King of Ulster, who settled in the S. of Ireland), a seaBann'ockburn, a celebrated village in the county of Stirling, port town of Ireland, county Cork, at the head of the bay of the three miles S. S. E. of the town of that name, so called from the same name, 44 miles W. by S. of Cork. There is some fishing rivulet of the Bannock, which falls into the Forth. It derives carried on, but the principal trade consists in exporting agriculits fame from the battle fought 24th June I3I4, between the Scots tural produce. Pop. (1871) 2421. under Robert Bruce, and the English under Edward II., in Bantry Bay, a deep inlet on the S.W. coast of Ireland, which the former, although in numbers not more than a third of between Crow Point on the N., and Sheep's Head Point on the their opponents, were completely victorious. In the vicinity of S., Cork county, one of the safest and most capacious roadB., at Sauchie Burn, James III. was defeated in I488 by his steads in Europe, though but little shipping resorts to it. At the subjects, who had rebelled against him in the name of his son, and head of the bay are two harbours, B. harbour, completely landlater in the day was assassinated. B. is otherwise chiefly noted locked, being within Whiddy Island, and Glengariff harbour, as a seat of the woollen manufactures. also sheltered by an island, but small, and used chiefly by Banns of Marriage. Marriage according to the rites and coasters. The coast around the bay abounds in picturesque ceremonies of the Church of England requires one of three pre- scenery, and the magnificent cataract of Hungry Hill lies 17 liminary forms —;icense, Pzublication of B., or Registrar's Certjif- miles W. of the town of B. Admiral Herbert with the British cate. The publication of B. must, under statutes, be made audibly fleet engaged the French fleet that brought James II. to Ireland in church according to the rubric of the marriage service of the in I689 at the mouth of the bay; and some vessels of the fleet Church of England. It is to be made on three successive Sun- that carried the force intended for the invasion of Ireland anchored days previous to the marriage, in prescribed form. Marriage here, 22d December I796. without B., unless by license or certificate, is void by statute. If Banx'ring (Tzuiaia), a genus of Insectivorous mammals, ineither of those intending marriage is resident in Scotland, certi- habiting the Indian Archipelago, and adapted for an arboreal ficate of publication of B. in Scotland by the session-clerk of the life. The tail is longer than the body, and fringed. The feet parish in which it has been made is valid in England. In Scot- are plantigrade, and possess five toes each. The claws are land the publication of B. in church is required to constitute a curved. The snout is prolonged and slender, and the eyes are regular marriage. It is'directed to be done'in an audible voice;' a large. The best.- known species are the T. ferruginea, T direction, however, which is not always attended to. Marriage in nuvima, and T.?avanica. Scotland is, according to the essential principle of the law of that country, necessarily valid without publication of B., but the wit- Banya-Nagy ('great mine'), in Ger. Neustadt ('new nesses and celebrator are liable to heavy penalties. Strictly, the town'), a town in the E. of Hungary, county of Szathmar, proclamation in Scotland ought to be made on three successive near the borders of Transylvania, 85 miles E. of Debreczin. Sundays; but it is now allowed to make the three proclamations It has a royal mint, and is noted for its gold and silver mines, on one Sunday for a higher fee than usual. The object of the pub- fom which it takes its Hungarian name. Pop. 9082. lication of B. is to inform the public of the intended marriage, Ban'yan, an Indian tree (Ficuzs Indica) belonging to the so that if any one knows of any legal impediment, he may have natural order Moraceoe. It sends down roots from its branches, opportunity to state it. Keeping this as the object in view, the which, in their turn, become stems, and send forth similar law does not hold proclamation vitiated by an error in name, branches and roots, and in this remarkable manner the tree provided it appears that the name used was one by which the person proclaimed was known in the district in which he or she lived. A clergyman who celebrates a marriage, to which legal - objection has been intimated to him, incurs penalties under ecclesiastical law. But if he refuse to celebrate without sufficient cause, he may be found liable in a civil action. (See MARrIAGE, SPECIAL LICENSE, REGISTRATION OF BIRTHS, DEATHS, AND MARRIAGES.) Banquette' (Fr.), in fortification, is a raised bank or ledge running along inside of the parapet, and thus enabling the soldier to fire over the rampart without too much exposure to the fire of the enemy. Banshie. See BENSHIE. Banswarr'a, the capital of a protected state of the same Banyan. name, in the Mewar Agency, Rajputana, India, is 200 miles S. extends to a great distance, and often covers a large area with its of Ajmir. Pop. about 7000. The state, between Malwa and leafy arcades. The fruits are about the size of cherries, scarlet, Gujerat, has an area of I500 sq. miles, and an estimated popula- and produced in pairs. tion of 150,000. It became tributary December 25, I8iS, agree. ing to pay a sum not exceeding three-eighths of the revenue Banyuls-sur-Mer, a town in the department of the Pyrenees ing to pay a sum not exceeding three-eighths of the revenue, Orientales, France, situated in the districtwhere the Grenache and which is about /630,000. Rancio wines are produced. It was the scene of many fierce enBantam', the earliest Dutch residency in Java (I6o2), occu- gagements at the end of the I8th c., between the Spaniards and pying the western portion of the island, with 607,400 inhabitants. the French republicans. Near it are four ancient towers, one of The trade here has greatly declined. The seaport and capital, which marks the line of boundary between France and Spain. also called B., situated 40o miles W. of Batavia, is now an in- Pop. (I872) 2227. significant village. Banyuwan'gy, the chief town of a Dutch province of the Bantam Fowl, a variety of the common fowl (GalZus domes- same name, Java, and a thriving seaport. Pop. 45,000. ticus), so named from its being supposed to have been originally Ba'obab, the common name for Adansonia (q. v.). brought from B. in Java. This variety is of small size. The legs are generally more or less completely feathered. Several Bapaume', a fortified town in the department of Pas-dedistinct varieties of B. have been described. They are all dis- Calais, France, with manufactures of laces, and woollen and tinguished for their courage and vigorous disposition. cotton goods. The French army of the north was defeated here by the Germans under Von Gbben, January 2 and 3, I87I. Banteng' (Bos sonidaicus), a species of ox inhabitingJava and Pop. (I872) 2864. Borneo, coloured black with white legs, and unprovided with a dewlap. The muzzle is pointed, and the back is highly arched Baph'omet, a symbol in use among the Knights Templars, 27I 4 - a BAP THE GI OBE ENC YCZ OPAEDZAI. BAP the meaning of which has not been satisfactorily explained. It sacrament in the early Church was by immersion, the sick only is a small human figure in stone with two heads-one male, the being sprinkled. other female-and the rest of the body being female. It is sur- Besides immersion with the ordinary formula, various other rounded with serpents and astronomical signs, and furnished ceremonies were formerly connected with the administration of with inscriptions mostly in Arabic. One explanation of it is, the sacrament. The rite was regularly administered only twice that the name is a corruption of the word Mahomet, to whose a year, namely at Easter and Whitsuntide. Candidates made a faith the Templars were said to be secretly addicted. Another public profession of their faith and renunciation of the flesh and is that which derives the word from Gr. baphe, baptism, and the devil. After a course of fasting and prayer, the exorcist in metis, council or wisdom. According to this view, the Templars a solemn formula declared them free from the bondage of Satan. borrowed their symbol from one of the corrupt Gnostic sects, Before and after the B. they were anointed with oil as wrestwho were still to be found in the East, whose baptism of fire lers against spiritual enemies; after, they were signed with was regarded as a mode of spiritual illumination. For a full the cross, in token of being soldiers of Christ; tasted salt, milk, exposition of the latter view, see Hammer's Fundgruben des and honey, in token of receiving spiritual gifts and graces; had Orients. Specimens of the B. are to be seen in the archoeologi- their ears and nostrils touched with spittle, to signify they would cal collections of Vienna and Weimar. always listen to the truth and smell the odour of virtue. They returned home decorated with a crown and white robe, the one Bap'tism (Gr. ba5tizo, baplo, to dip, &c.). Washing the body to signify their victory over the flesh and the devil, and the with water, representing the removal of impurity and pollution other their freedom and innocence. in connection with religion, was much in vogue among ancient As to the persons by whom B. was to be administered, connations. In the ceremonial laws of Moses, as well as of Menu, siderable laxity prevailed at first, but as the hierarchy came to elaborate directions are given for purifying from various kinds of be established, the administration was confined to ordained defilement or uncleanness. B. also symbolised purification of the clergy. High views regarding the necessity of B. for salvation heart and life; and accordingly John the Baptist administered tended, however, to counteract this exclusiveness, and in cases of the rite of B. or ablution to those who, on hearing his preach- emergency a lay person could administer B. to an infant, as is ing, professed repentance and promised amendment. B. was allowed yet in the Church of Rome. adopted as an initiatory rite by the Christian Church, and exalted into one of her sacraments. The chief points of importance Baptism, Infant. The difficulty in the question of I. B. connected with the sacrament are included under the heads of is, that infants cannot make the profession of faith by which the subjects for it,-its efficacy,-and the mode of administering Christ is to be confessed before men, and hence cannot be memit, &c. bers of his Church in the same sense as adults. The justificaI. The first subjects for Christian B., as a matter of course, tion of the practice, therefore, must be based on an idea of the were adults. The converts from heathenism who professed their Church which includes the children of believers. The argument faith in Christ and willingness to live a holy life were immersed in favour of it is as follows:-I. The visible Church is a divine in water in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy institution. 2. The visible Church does not consist exclusively Spirit. The practice of baptizing the infants of believers was of the regenerate. 3. The commonwealth of Israel was the soon introduced, however; by the 5th c. it was fully established Church. 4. The Church, under the new dispensation, is idenin the Church, and has prevailed ever since, although it has been tical with that under the old. 5. The terms for admission into opposed by certain sects since the middle ages. 2. Regarding the Jewish Church were the same as are required for admisthe efficacy of B., the Church of Rome in her canons (Co. of sion into the Christian Church. 6. Infants were members of the Trent) anathematises those who teach that B. is a matter of in- Jewish Church. 7. There is nothing in the New Testament to difference and not necessary to salvation, and who deny the pro- show that the children of believers should not also be members priety, necessity, or efficacy of infant B. She also holds that of the Christian Church. 8. Children need, and are capable of, B. avails not only for the remission and removal of all sin, but receiving the benefits of redemption. For the other side of the also for the inward sanctification of the soul. The Reformed question, see BAPTISTS. doctrine denies-(I) that B.conveys grace' ex opere operato'(see Bap'titery (Gr. btsteio, a vessel used in baths, a SACRAMENTS); (2) that the co-operation of the Spirit always bathing-place). As soon a Church began to be attends its administration; (3) that B. is the ordinary channel of place). As soon as the Christian Church began to be conveying the benefits of salvation, so that those benefits cannot organised and established, for the more convenient administration be obtained without it. On the other hand, it affirms that B. is baptism, fonts were erected in the porches, or other venient -(I) a divine ordinance; (2) a means of grace to believers; (3) erected adjacent to the churches Then buidings called baptisteries were a sign and seal of the covenant of grace; (4) was intended to be erected aacent to the churches, in which thatecumens were instructed, and where were cisterns into which water was let at of perpetual obligation;- and (5) that the benefits signified by the time of baptism, and in which ates were baptized the sacrament will be conferred on all who receive it in faith the, tim of baptism, and in which the candidates were baptized and on all who receive it in faith, by immersion. They were generally circular or polygonal; and and on all infants who, on arriving at maturity, remain faithful the B. still forms an important architectural feature of some of to the vows made in their name. (See REGENERATION.) 3 the finerchurchesin Italyandelsewhere. There has been considerable controversy during the whole time of the Church's history regarding the proper mode of administer- Baptists generically hold the opinion-(I) that none ought to ing the sacrament, whether it ought to be by sprinkling or by be baptized but adults who can make an intelligent profession of immersion. It was one of the points on which the Eastern and their faith; and, as a rule, (2) that the rite is not valid unless Western Churches were divided; the E. holding to immersion, administered by immersion. Their chief arguments in favour of the W. to sprinkling. The modern practice of the Church of the first point are-(I) that repentance and faith are prescribed Rome is affusion or sprinkling. As a rule, those who oppose in the New Testament as conditions of baptism; (2) that the infant B. also hold sprinkling to be insufficient, the chief argu- apostles did not baptize any till they were satisfied on this ments brought forward in favour of this view being-(I) the point; (3) that infants are thus excluded (a) by their inaclassic usage of the word bafitizo, and the usage of the prepositions bility to comply with the required'terms, and (b) by their en and eis in construction with it in the New Testament, together baptism not being enjoined in the New Testament; (4) that with the use of such expressions as'buried with Christ in B.,' infant baptism was unknown in the early Church. Infant alluding to a typical burying in water; (2) that immersion was baptism was repudiated by the fanatical Anabaptist sects of the practice in New Testament times, as is indicated by such the i6th c., as well as by the, more moderate Mennonites; passages as Matt. iii. I6, Acts viii. 38. The arguments on the but the B., as the name is generally understood, are an offother side are —(I) an 2e priori one that the idea of purification shoot from the English Independents. The first congrega. is as clearly and frequently signified by affusion as by immersion; tion was formed under John Spilsbury, in London, in I633. (2) that the usage of the word ba2ptizo in the classics, the LXX., Another was formed in I639; and the'new baptism' was the Apocrypha, the New Testament, and the fathers, is by no effected by communication with!the Mennonites of Holland, means confined to immersion; (3) that the gospel is designed In I643 the sect was so far organised and established as to draw fQr all classes of persons and all parts of the earth-not merely up a Confession of Faith. In I646 they had forty-six congregafor the strong and robust, but for the weak, the sick, and the tions in London and neighbourhood, while they were also gaindying. At any rate, the ordinary mode of administering the ing a footing in the American colonies. In I647, for the help 272 BAR THEN GLOBE ENCYCLOPEDA,4 BAR they had given in the Civil WSar, they received from Parliament day, clergymen engaged on parochial duty, officers conveying a declaration of toleration, which, however, was reversed next criminals, officers of the army, or soldiers or volunteers on duty, year by Presbyterian influence. They acquired influence again persons going and returning from Parliamentary elections. Any under Cromwell, and thirty-five of their clergy were among the one claiming an exemption to which he is not entitled is liable first Nonconformists. to a penalty of ~5. Toll-collectors refusing to give their name, The original body of the sect have always held the Calvinistic or obstructing or injuring any passenger, or using scurrilous doctrine of'particular redemption,' and hence, as a distinctive or abusive language, are liable to a penalty of ~5. A table of title, receive the name of'Particular B.' There are, however, tolls, in large and conspicuous characters, must be put up by the two parties of them, though not two separate sects; the'Free trustees. Mile-stone and direction-posts must also be erected. Communionists,' who admit to the Lord's Supper those who Any one defacing the same is liable to a penalty of/io. have been baptized only in infancy, as well as adult B.; and the'Close Communionists,' who admit none but those who have Bar, Trial at. See BAR. been baptized as adults. Baraba', a steppe of Asiatic Russia, between the rivers Obi Bar is the name given to ally lengthened piece of wood, and Irtish, nearly 200,000 sq. miles in extent. In spring it is metal, or other solid substance. See IRON MANUFACTURE. partly under vegetation, but in summer and winter it is covered Bar, or Barr, in heraldry, is the principal diminutive of the ith snow and salt lakes. It is sparsely inhabited by a nomadic race (the Barabinzen), descended from the Tartars of Turkestan. Aonourable ordinary-the Fess (q. v.), which is a horizontal band See MiddendoBarabiffen), descended from the arabatars of Turkestan. in the middle of the shield, occupying one-third of it. The B. dendorW, Die Baraba (1870). occupies a fifth part, and may be borne on several parts of the Baraco'a, a seaport on the N.E. coast of Cuba, in the vicinity shield, while the fess is confined to the centre. of which is a singular mountain, called the Anvil of Baracoa. Bar, in hydrography, is a deposit of mud and sand at the Bar'aguay d'H~illiers, Louis, a distinguished French mouth of a river, preventing the passage of a vessel of any con- generalofNapoleonI., was born at Paris, Agust 3, 764 He siderable burden except at high water. served with distinction in the days of the republic, and in Italy Bar, in law, means the enclosed space in courts from which with Bonaparte. He accompanied his great leader to Egypt, lawyers address the judge or jury. It also means the enclosed and, after much distinguished service, he accompanied him in space where those accused of felony are placed during trial. In I8I2 to Russia. B. died at Berlin shortly after the retreat, Scotland, the Lord-Advocate and the Solicitor-General have a December I812. right to sit within the B.; the former by statute, the latter by Baraguay d'illiers Achille, son of the above, was born direction of the crown. A X7riac at B., in England, is one held at Paris September 6, before all the judges at the B. of the court in which the action at Paris, September 6, I795. In w832, after having served duly is brought. in the inferior military ranks, he was made governor in the military school of St Cyr, where he showed good practical capacity. He Bar, in music, is a line drawn perpendicularly across the stave served for several campaigns in Algeria. After the revolution of to indicate a certain quantity of time or a certain number of I848 he was chosen a member of the National Assembly. Adbeats. hering to Napoleon III., he was appointed to command the army Bar, EPleas in. In the law of England, a special P. in B. of Paris in I85 I. He distinguished himself both in the Crimean War and in the war with Austria in I859. Previous to the latis a plea stating some ground on which the indictment should ter he had n made a marshal of France. At the close of the not be gone on with; such as that the accused had been already Franco-Prussian war (i87i) he was made president of the comtried anco-Prussian war (I87I) he was made president of the contried or pardoned for the alleged offence. mission appointed to inquire into the causes of the disgraceful Bar, Toll. The original erection of toll-gates for the purpose capitulations, particularly that of Bazaine at Metz, and in I872 of levying a tax for the maintenance of roads excited violent he was also president of the special council of war which tried opposition in England, and' their continuance has led to serious General Cremer. riots in many parts of the country. While none deny that roads Barante' Amabe uillaue Prosper rugiere, must be kept in repair, and consequently that funds must be Barante', raised for doing so-how to raise the funds, and who ought to Baron do, a French statesman and author, born at Riom, in Auvergne, ioth June I782, entered the service of the state in contribute, have long been and continue to be vexed questions in A10ergne, Ioth June I782, entered the se the state in Elgland and in Scotland. Strange to say, Ireland seems to have I802, was a prefect under Napoleon opposed the reactionary taken the lead in an amicable solution of the problem. The policy of the restoration, and zealously supported the government of Louis Philippe. He was French ambassador at Turin system was abolished in Ireland in 1858, and a land assessment substituted forsupport of the roads. It maybeheld that nothing and at St Petersburg, but withdrew from public life after the subs.Itmaybeheld thatnothing revolution of'I848, and died in Paris, 23d November I866. His can be more fair than that he who uses a road should contribute revolution of p848, and died in Paris, 23d November ig66. His chief literary performance, Histoire des Ducs de Bozurgogne de la to its support; but, on the other hand, the T. B. system e Maison de Valois (1824-26, Sth ed. 1858), is a learned and pican wih iaisot de Valois (I824-26, 8th ed. I858), is a learned and pic. attended with immense expense. Besides the cost of erecting torial, but not very critical work. Other writings of B.'s are houses and gates, there is the cost of maintaining collectors, of isirede Cozveionation 85-53); istoire Dircwhom it has been calculated that there are over 600o employed toire deZa Con'enlione ationise (18553); e PistoiredZt irecin England and Scotland. Again, the opponents of the system, Fronde (1859). He a ranslated Schiller's dramas into in support of their view, point to the fact that it has been emi-859 He also translated nently unsuccessful, there being over four millions of debt on the turnpike trusts of England, and two millions and a half on Barb, a variety or breed of horses originally bred by the those of Scotland. In Scotland, the following counties have Moors of Barbary, and noted for their endurance, speed, and obtained abolition Acts —Dumfries, Haddington, Kirkcudbright, docility. The breed, introduced into Spain, has declined of late Wigton, Peebles, Aberdeen, Banff, Caithness, Cromarty, Elgin, years. Ross and Nairn. Orkney and Shetland, Sutherland, Argyle and Bute never had the T. B. system, having all along maintained Barbacena, a city of Brazil, in a productive district of the their roads either by assessment or by state assistance. The province of Minas Geraes, about Iao miles N.W. of Rio. It other counties continue the T. B. and Statute-labour system. M artiquivera, and has a d elightful above the sea, on the Sierra In England, under the Act of I864, the turnpike roads are placed Martiquivera, and has a delightful climate. Pop. and cotton to under the management and direction of certain bodies of trustees, engaged in gold-mining and in the export of coffee and cotton to who are usually named and appointed by the respective Acts of Parliament which are occasionally passed regarding the making Barba'does (Port.'island of pines'), the most easterly of and sustaining the particular roads specified in them. But the Windward Islands, and next to Jamaica the richest of the various Acts of general application have been passed for the British W. Indian possessions, in lat. 13~ 4' N., long. 590 37' W. regulation of turnpike trusts throughout the kingdom. Under It was discovered by the Spanish in the 15th c., and taken by these Acts the following are exempt from toll -horses em- the English in I624. B. is the residence of the governorployed in husbandr y, persons going to and from church on Sun. general of the group, and the see of a bishop. It is cultivated _ 35 -273 + + BieAR THE GLOBE ENCYCL5OPIEDIA. BAR almost to the utmost limit of its resources, and the impossibility in 15I6, and was slain by the Spaniards in I518. His brother of greatly extending its productiveness has given rise to fears for succeeded him, and surrendered the sovereignty to the Porte in the future provision of its rapidly increasing population. Sugar I5I9. In 1532, becoming master of Tunis, he gave this up also is the staple product, but there is also much cotton, wheat, and to the Turks; but Tunis was retaken by the Emperor Charles arrowroot. The climate is good; but there are frequent earth- V. in I535, and was not incorporated with the Ottoman empire quakes, severe thunderstorms, and hurricanes of unusual vio- till I575. Khair Eddin died at Constantinople in I547. lence. The island is of coral formation, and is nearly surrounded by reefs, there being no harbours. Bridgetown is the capital. Barbaroux, Charles Jean Marie, was born at Marseilles The exports in 1872 amounted to ~I,02I,444; imports, 6th March I767. An advocate by profession, he represented,25,032. Area, I66 sq. miles; pop. (w87Iho Marseilles in the Constituent Assembly. At Paris he became I125904 are back and 39,578 colouredr. See S)hombrg2, ks attached to Brissot and Vergniaud, discussed with the minister 0istoly of B. (Lond. I3848). cRoland the scheme of a Southern Republic, and brought the Federates to Paris. In the Convention he boldly denounced the Barbadoes Cherry, the common name in the W. Indies for Septembriseurs, opposed the forced loan and the grain-tax, and the fruit of Malpigh/ia urens, which is eaten. See MALPIG. supported the appeal to the people in the sentence passed on HIACEE. the king. The — leader of the Girondists, he was proscribed 3Ist Barbadoes Gooseberry, the popular name in the W. Indies May 1793, and after wandering through France for a year, was captured at Bordeaux, and guillotined 25th June I794. B.'s for Pereskia acureata, a plant of the order Cactacee, which yields captured at Bordeaux, and guillotined 25th June 1794. B.'s for PesKi acueat, a plant rof the order actace, which yields character stands high among the more moderate republicans: a pleasant fruit used for making preserves. he was a bold and skilful speaker. Besides a memoir on Barbadoes Leg, a name given to a disease which consists extinct volcanoes at Toulon, he has left an essay on the influence essentially of induration and thickening of the true skin, espe- of maritime war on commerce. Madame Roland mentions B.'s cially of the leg. The disease is met with occasionally in this singular beauty. See Me;noires de Chs. B. avec une Notice sur sa country, but is common in the W. Indies, Barbadoes, China, Africa, Vie, by his son, M. Oge B., and Eclaircissements Hisori-ques by &c., &c. It is a non-contagious disease, is not hereditary, and MM. Berville and Barriere (Par. I822). attacks rich and poor indiscriminately. Frequently the limb is Bar'bary, the northern part of Africa, extending along the swollen to double its natural size, so that the shape of the foot is shores of the Mediterranean from the Atlantic to Egypt, and as quite obliterated, producing marked deformity, causing the limb far inland as the Desert of Sahara, or between I0' W. and 25' to resemble the leg of an elephant; hence the disease is often E. long., and 25' to 370 N. lat. It comprises Barca, Tripoli, called Elephantiasis of the Arabians. There is no very satisfac- Fezzan, Tunis, Algeria, and Marocco, with their dependencies, tory treatment for this malady; when only one leg is implicated each of which is separately treated. The Atlas Mountains amputation has been practised sometimes with advantage. Bene- (q. v.) traverse a great part of B. in an irregular and double line, fit has also been derived from tying the main artery which sup- from Cape Geer on the Atlantic, to the coast of Tunis; while plies the lower limb, with the view of diminishing the nutrition an offset, stretching northward, terminates at Ceuta. B. is of the leg. In the early stage, rest, elevation of the limb, and naturally fertile, and in ancient times supported great and bandaging should be tried. This disease frequently attacks the flourishing colonies, and furnished supplies for large contending scrotum and parts in that region, and cases are on record where armies. In fact, Mauretania was once the granary of the world, the skin of the scrotum has so enlarged that when removed by and might still be so under proper rule. the knife it weighed upwards of 50 lbs. The patient often does The populations, exclusive of Europeans, are the Berbers well after this operation. (q. v.), called in Algeria, Kabyles, from whom B. takes its Bar'bara, St, suffered martyrdom at Nicomedia in Bithynia name; the Moors, Arabs, Jews, Turks, Kuluglis, and Negroes. under the Emperor Maximinus I., about A. D. 236, or according Of these, the Moors are the residents in the towns; the Negroes to others, at Heliopolis in 306. The legend of her life represents are slaves, chiefly from Sudan; the Berbers inhabit the mounher as a lady of good family; and her education was carefully tains and valleys of the Atlas; tne Arbs are nomadic; the attended to by her father Dioscorus, who had a tower built forKuluglis are children of Turks by native mothers. The Turks her in which she might pursue her studies undisturbed. She are dominant in Tunis and Tripoli; and the Jews prosecute embraced Christianity, through the influence, it is said, of Ori- lucrative callings in the towns. Pop. exclusive of Jews and gen. Her father was enraged at this, and handed her over to Christians, estimated at over II,o000,000, all Mohammedans, Martianus, the Roman governor, to deal with her according to with the exception of the Negroes, who are Pagans. law. Torture proving unavailing, Dioscorus offered to strike In Marocco, which is independent of Turkey, Arabic is the off his daughter's bead. He did so, and was instantly struck prevailing tongue, but Turkish is the official language in the rewith lightning. Hence St B. is prayed to in storms, and is the gencies subject to the Porte. The linzgan comnlznzis of commerce patron saint of artillery. H~ er image used to be placed on i s Arabic. arsenals, powder-magazines, &c. The powder-room in a French The history of B. is of engrossing interest. Leaving out of ship of war is still called Sainte-Barbe. Her day in the Roman view the narrative of HIerodotus, with the exception of his notice calendar is the 4th of December. of the Phcenician colonies, we know that after the third Punic War, when Carthage was sacked, the Romans gradually extendedr Barbar'ea, a genus of Cruciferous plants. See CRESS. their dominion over the whole of Northern Africa. Numidia Barbarell'i, Giorgio. See GIORGIONE. became theirs after the defeat of Jugurtha, and Mauretania after the defeat of Juba; while Cyrenaica, bequeathed to them by its Barba'rian (Gr. barbaros), originally one who could not King Apion at his death, B.c. 96, though at first declared free, speak Greek; then used especially of the Medes and Persians. was within thirty years also appropriated. Thus the Roman Plato divided mankind into Hellenes and Barbarians. The possessions in the N. of Africa, coextensive with the present B., origin of the word probably is, that the Greeks in imitating the received the benefits of Roman law and Roman civilisation. language of a foreigner said bar-bar, meaning thereby that it was The remains are still numerous of the towns they built, while a an unintelligible jingle. The secondary and contemptuous sense natural consequence of Roman possession was the construction of uncivilised, brutal, rude, now in use, arose after the Persian of aqueducts, amphitheatres, and other works for use or orna. war. The Romans were called barbarians till the Greek ment. language was cultivated among them, and then the term was Nowhere was Christianity promulgated with greater success confined to the Teutonic and Scythian races. See Roth, Ober than in Roman Africa, in which there were more than I6o dioSinn und Gebrauch des Namens Barbar (I814). ceses. The decline of Roman power under Honorius, and the Barbaross'a. See FRIEDRICH I. - temptations to disturbance and revolt inseparable from a weak rule at such a distance from the central power, operated baneBarbarossa, the name given to two brothers, Aruj or Ha- fully on the African provinces. The Vandals, under Genseric, ruj, and Khair Eddin, sons of a renegade Greek, who were landed in Africa, A.D. 429, and their sway was a series of atroborn in Mitylene towards the close of the I5th c., joined the cities, till it was terminated by Belisarius in 533. In 647 the Turkish corsairs, and soon became the scourge of the Mediter- Arabs found the country an easy prey; before the close of the ranean. IIaruJ, by treachery, made himself sultan of Algiers century they had annihilated what remained of the dominion 274 * BAR THE GL OBE, NCYCI OPESDIA4. BAR of the empires Eastern and Western; and with their usual rayin the dorsal fin is strong, and serrated or toothed. The flesh policy proselytised the tribes by means of the sword. Dynasty of the B., though coarser than that of the Carp, is still esteemed. succeeded dynasty with perplexing rapidity till near the close of It inhabits the deeper fresh-water rivers, and appears to feed on the I3th c., when independent states began to arise. The ex- worms, crustaceans, and other small animals, which it obtains pulsion of the Moors from Spain, not completely carried out by groping in the mud of the bottom. Its general colour is a till I609, now began to be partially effected. Those expelled greenish-brown on the upper portion, and a yellowish-green on resorted to piracy, and formed settlements in the N. of Africa. the sides; whilst the belly is white, and the tail purplish. The Thence arose fierce contests between them and the Christian common B. is the only British species; the Binny or Nile B. powers, especially Spain and Portugal, the greatest sufferers by (B. Niloticus) being a second species inhabiting the Nile, and their ravages. Marocco and Fez form an independent empire attaining a weight of 60 or 70 lbs. under the Sultan Muley Hassan; Algeria has been a French Barber. The business of a B. is of great antiquity; and in province since 1830; Tunis and Tripoli are nominally subject to oriental countries it still flourishes. In England and France, the Porte, and Barca is claimed by Egypt. again, private shaving has almost extinguished it, at least in Ba~rbary Ape or XLagot (Macacaus innuzs), a species of cities, though in villages and country towns we still occasionally Macaque monkeys, included in the C~ats-ine ('.oblique-nosed') see swaying from the end of a pole in front of some little shop section of the order Qnludemazna, and which inhabits the N. of the brass basin with semicircular gap, indicating that the onceAfrica. This species is also found on the Rock of Gibraltar, honoured profession is not wholly extinct, and recalling to us and thus represents the only monkey found in Europe in a wild state at the present time. The tail in the B. A. is rudimentary; else in that queer fossilised country-is in nearly the same posithe muzzle slightly elongated; the facial angle is much higher tion that he was in three centuries ago. His premises are than in the baboons, to which the B. A. is evidently allied; the thronged morning and evening with customers, who, for the face is destitute of hairs; the ears are prominent, and the eyes smallest possible consideration, enjoy the luxury of being shaved large. Cheek-pouches are present, and natal callosities are deve- or trimmed under the soothing influence of the cigarette. loped. These monkeys generally inhabit rocky places, and are Barber-Surgeon. In former times, in all countries, the gregarious in habits. They feed on fruits, but also appear to business of a B. and that of a surgeon appear to have been redevour eggs and animal matter. They rarely assume the semi- garded as having a natural affinity. In England, in the reign of erect posture, and progress chiefly on all-fours. They are intel- Henry VIII., the surgeons and the barbers were incorporated ligent, and can be taught tricks, if trained when young. into one company; but, strange to say, the very Act of Parliament. which does this, draws a very sharp line between the Bar, Bastard, the bar in heraldry is formed by two horizon- functions which each is to discharge, and they are strictly protal lines passing over the shield. The mark of bastardy is hibited from encroaching on each other's province. Barbers are generally spoken of as the bar-sinister; but incorrectly so. A not to draw teeth-surgeons are not to'exercise the feat or bend-sinister is also sometimes confounded with the B.-B., from craft of barbery or shaving.' Two centuries later, it was diswhich, however, it essentially differs. The real B.-B. is half of covered that the functions in general of barbery and surgery the scarp, which again is half of the bend-sinister. In England were as independent of each other as the art of tooth-drawing the B.-B. is called the baton-sinister. In the heraldry of our is of that of shaving. Accordingly, on the preamble that the time it is not generally fully insisted on. business of a B. was'foreign to and independent of the practice Barbastelle'. See BAT. of surgery,' an Act was passed in the I8th year of George II., dissolving the connection between the two bodies. In London, Barbas'tro, a walled town in the province of Huesca, Spain, the barbers still possess the hall which they had in common with on the Vero, with a cathedral containing some of Antonio Gal- the surgeons before the disunion. It is in Monkwell Street, in ceran's paintings. Pop. 6500. the City. Bar'bauld, ~Anna, Letitia, a delightful writer for children, Barberi'nli, a princely Roman family, originally called Tafani, the daughter of tne Rev. John Aiken, D.D., wras born at Kib but which took the name of B. from the Tuscan village from which the daughter of the Rev. John Aiken, D.D., was born at I(ibworth-Harcourt, Leicestershire, 20th June!743. Studious in her it sprung. The noted poet and philosopher Francesco da B. habits, she early acquired considerable skill in Latin and Greek, ho wrote in the first half of the fourteenth century Documenti and attained facility in writing English prose and verse. She d'more, is supposed to have belonged to this family, which at produced a volume of poems in 1773, and in the same year pub- an early period removed to Florence, Antonio B. (died at lished, in conjunction with her brother, a volume of Miscellaneous Florence I57I) had three sons, Carlo, Maffeo (born 1568), who Pieces itn Prose. In I774 she married the Rev. Rochemont Bar- became pope under the title of Urban VIII., and Antonio (born bauld, who shortly after opened a boarding-school for boys, in 1569, died I646), cardinal-librarian of the Church. The greatness the superintendence of which he was ably assisted by his wife. and splendour of the house of B. dates from the time of Urban, rs B.'s uper ns intendence osef Ce es, Early Lessons, &c., were who during his long pontificate of twenty-one years lost no Mrs B.'s Hymns in Prose for Children, Early Lessons, &c., were written about this time in the interest, in the first instance, of heropportunity of advancing the interests of his kinsmen. Of the own pupils. She edited Alkenside's Pleasures of Imagination three sons of his brother Carlo, the eldest,.Francesco (born in I795, and in 1804 a selection from the Spectator, Guardian, I597), was elected a cardinal in I623, possessed great influence Tatler, &c. She is also the editor of a Collection of Stt e British with his uncle, and died, 1679, dean of the Sacred College. The Novelists. Died gth March I825. Her collected works, with second, Taddeo, married Anna Colonna of Paliano, great-grandLife by Lucy Aiken, were published Lond. I825. daughter of the hero of Lepanto, and purchased from the elder Roman line of the Colonna the principality of Palestrina (anc. Barbed, in heraldry, pointed, as an arrow. The term is Proeneste), along with other possessions of the Colonna family. also applied to a heraldic rose with small green leaves, or barbs, The growing power and influence of the B. excited the jealousy surrounding it. B. and crested indicates that the comb and of the Medici, Este, and Farnese families, and during the pontifigills of a cock are tinctured differently from the body. Wattled cate of Urban's successor, Innocent X., Taddeo and his brothers and combed is the old English phrase for the same thing. were forced to seek refuge in France, where the former died in I647. Antonio, the third son (born I6O8), was a restless charBar'bel (Barbus vzulgaris), a genus of Teleostean fishes in- acter, fond of tournaments and display, but at the same time a eluded in the Moalacopfer-ous division of the order, and belonging patron of Latin and Italian poetry. In I63I he too was made a to the Cy15rinidz or Carp family. This fish is one of the most cardinal, and after his retreat to France received from Louis familiar and most esteemed of fresh-water fishes. Its average XIII. the bishopric of Poitiers, and in I657 the archbishopric of length is two and a half or three feet, and it may attain a weight Rheims. Subsequently he was reconciled to the Pope, and reof I6 or I8 lbs. The name B. is derived from the filaments, turned to Italy, where he died at Remi in i67i. Through him known as barbules, which fringe the mouth, and which are sup- the property of the Frangipani family came to the 13. About a posed to subserve the sense of touch. These tentacles, possessed century after the death of Urban VIII., the male line of the B. by other Cyprinoids also, are of great length in the Barbels, became extinct. Cornelia, the grand-daughter of Taddeo and and are four in number. The upper jaw is longer than the Anna, married in 1728 Giulio Cesare Colonna, Prince of Carbog! lower jaw. The dorsal and anal fins are short; and the chief nano and Duke of Bassanello (died I787), the grandson of that _ _ _ _ _ s- ~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~~~..~~~~~~~ ~~275 BAR' THE GLOBE ENVC YCL OPAPDI~A. BAR Colonna who had sold Palestrina to the B.; and in this way Barbou, the name of a French family of printers, famous for the whole estates and wealth of the latter house once more re- the elegance and correctness of the works issued from their verted to the Colonna; but Giulio Cesare was compelled to add press. Jean B. the name of B. to his own, and to leave unaltered the arms of published at Lyon, the family. Of the sons of this marriage, the elder, UrbaYn in I539, a valuable (born I733), Prince of Carbognano, became the founder of the edition of Clement house of Colonna di Sciarra, represented at the present day by Marot. In I58o, Prince Maffeo, born in I850; the younger, Carlo, obtained the his son, Hugues B. and Colonna property, and died in I8I9. He is represented B., published at by his grandson, Don Enrico B., Prince of Palestrina, who has Limoges, in Italics, married into the famous family of the Orsini. a beautiful edition of Cicero's Letter's Barberi'no di 1Xlugell'o, a town in the province of Flor- toAtticus. Joseph ence, N. Italy, on the Sieve, a branch of the Arno, I5 miles N. Gerard B., of the of Florence, with a large manufacture of straw-hats. Near it same family, com- is the royal villa Cafaggiola, the ancient residence of the Medicis. menced at Paris, in, i ~~Pop. iu. 1755, a nmo issue ~ol Vd of Latin classics, in II h Barberino di Val d'Elsa, a picturesque village about 4 continuation f a c ontinu ation of ad ue h miles from Florence, which has given name to the Barberini series begun in 743 series be gu n in IS743 l _ _ ts p w family (q. v.), who have here a palace. by Coustelier. In:Bar'berry, the English name for the Berneris vulgaris, a all, 6 volumes we e genus from which the natural published. In So [n pubithe.saoc In EwrII,''ofj E " ga ss'cnu order ierberidtacece is named. It te stock and busi c hess of the Barbous has bright green spiny leaves, n B yellow pendant clusters of were purchased by flowers, and in autumn is adorned August Delalain arbcan with racemes of bright scarlet frsom the heirs of berries. The bark, wood, and Hugues B., who had succeeded his uncle, Joseph Gerard, in roots furnish a yellow dye; the 1789~ fruit makes an agreeable pre- Bar'bour, or Barber, John, the earliest Scottish poet who serve, but are much too acid for used the English language, a contemporary of Chaucer, though use when raw. The leaves are somewhat older, was born probably a few years after the battle also acid. The popular idea of Bannockburn, but first emerges into the light of history in that there is a connection be- 1357, when Edward III., King of England, grants a safe conduct tween the red rust (Ecidiztt z to'John B., Archdeacon of Aberdeen, with three scholars in his Bereridis) that affects the leaves company, going to study at the University of Oxford' (RotufiScotise of the B. and that which affects i. h. 8o8). The same authority affirms that, in i364, he was percorn is correct, and farmers are mitted to pass through England to'study at Oxford, or elsewhere allied, to.:'. therefore right in removing the as he may think proper;' and in 1365 and 1368, he again obarrange ment," B. forom the vicinity of corn- tained permission to pass through England to pursue his studies fields. The species of B. are in France. B. was a member of the national council that, in }'edes' natives of the N. and S. tem- 1357, secured the release of David II. from an English prison; perate regions, and are much was thrice an auditor of exchequer, viz., in 1372, 1382, and 1384, planted in shrubberies and gar- and received from Robert II., by a charter dated 5th December Barterrv. dens., 1388, a grant of ten pounds sterling yearly for life, payable out of the customs of Aberdeen. The cessation of these paytah r'besf, amgenus of Scansoial or Climbing birds, forming meats enables us to fix the date of his death in 1395 —probably the sub-family Capitonino, included in the family of the Wood- the 3th of arch, as on that day his memory was religiously peckerst(Picidcs). The bill in the barbets is stout, the the p3th of March, as on that day his memory was religiously opeckers (Picid,). The bill in the barbets is stout, conical in celebrated in the cathedral of Aberdeen down to the Reformation. shape, and more or less expanded at the sides. The base of the The work that has given him an enduring place in Scottish bill is provided with bristle-like filaments -from the presence of literature is his poem entitled the tms, a metrical chronicle in which the name B. has been derived. The tail is short and even, octosyllabic verse, narrating the career of the great Scottish and the wings are also small. The species of the typical genus, ing, from the murder of Cumyn in Dumfries to the death of chapieo, inhabit South America. The Buccanirn, or puff-birds, Douglas in Spain on his way to Jerusalem with the heart of his allied to the Insessorial kingfishers, and possessing the same master in a silver casket. From the first it was regarded as a arrangement of the toes-nsamely, two in front and two behind- history, not as a romance; and is the only record of the hero of as seen in Scansorial birds, are by some authors included under Bannockburn that we possess. Both Wyntoun and Bower, the the designation of barbets. This latter family includes the genera continuator of Fordun, plead the sufficiency of the Brzs as a monasa (Barbacous), Barbicans (Pogonias), and puff- birds reason for passing over the story of the'Seven Years War' of (Tonatia). The fist and last genera are found in South America; independence (I307-14). When the character and position of the barbcans occurring in India and Africa. Thename puff- the author are considered, it will not be found difficult to believe bird has been applied to this genus from the distended appear- that the poem is in the main a veracious account of Bruce's life ance of their plumage. They are solitary in habits, from the unexpected disaster in Methven Wood to the brilliant day of Bannockburn. The style is simple and unaffected, but a 3Barbett' (Fr.), in fortification, is a raised platform inside fine patriotism and a chivalrous spirit animate the unrhetorical the parapet, of such a height that guns placed on it may be able verse. The dialect is the Lowland Scotch form ot northeri to ire over the parapet, instead of through the embrasures English, and the language is considerably purer than that of the Bar'bican, a watch-tower projecting before or rising above Canterbury Tales. The best edition of the work is that edited thegateof a castleor frtiedtown, from te Iaian ar- by Cosmo Innes for the Spalding Club (2856). If we may trust the gate of a castle or fortified town, from the Italian barbacane, regarded by Wedgwood (Dictionary of English Ety- Wyntoun, B. wrote another national poem on'the Stewartis mology) as a corruption of the Persian bdla khaneh, an upper chamber. The best examples of the B. are to be seen in the Barbu'da (Port.'the island of the bearded men'), one of the town of Carcassone; but Alnwick and Warwick in England Leeward Caribbees, 30 miles N. of Antigua. The castle is in also possess very perfect ones. The name is also applied 170 33' N. lat., and 610 43' W. long. Area, 75 sq. miles; and to apertures in the wall of a fortress from which to fire upon pop. (1871) 813. B. was taken possession of by Sir Thomas the enemy. Warner in 1628, and in i68o was given by the crown to the 276 -c. —— _.'_~... ______.___~_._____ _ B3AR THI- G OBE ENCYCLOPRADIA. BAR Codrington family, to whom it still belongs. The agricul- Caribbean Sea, I65 miles E. of Caracas. It has considerable tural operations are on a very limited scale; but stock is bred, trade, chiefly in maize, coffee, and indigo. Pop. (1873) 7674. and some corn, cotton, and tobacco are grown. B. was founded in I67I, thirty-three years after the establishment Bar'by, a town of Prussian Saxony, on the left bank of the of the first town of this name at the foot of the Cerro-Santo Elbe, i5 miles S.E. of Magdeburg, with woollen and linen mountains, and first rose into importance about the close of the manufactures. It was formerly the seat of a large Hernnhuter ISthc., through a smuggling trade carried on with the W. Indies. colony, whose' paedagogium' has been removed to Niesky, in Bar'clay, Alexander, was born (probably in Scotland) in Silesia. Pop. (I871) 5212, of whom 2oo are Herrnhuters. I476, studied at one of the English universities, became succesBar'ca, a country of N. Africa, the eastern division of the sively a priest at St Mary Ottery's, Devonshire, a Benedictine regencyof Tripoli, between the Gulf of Sidra and Egypt, lat monk at Ely, the vicar of Much Baden (Essex) and Wokey 26' to 33' N., and long. 20 to 25' E. Though much of it is bar- (Somerset), and died in I552. He was patronised by the Duke ren, in the N. and E. is excellent pasturage, on which a superior f Norfolk, and was possibly a friend of Dean Colet. His chief breed of horses is fed, and in the vicinity of the streams the land work is TseS/yp of Folys (Pynson, I509), adapted and translated is extremely fertile, producing in abundance rice, dates, figs, the Narrenschif of Sebastian Brandt, of Basel, the most olives, palms, and saffron. The name B. was anciently applied popular satire of society in Germany, Switzerland, and France only to a town, but under the Greek empire it was transferred at the end of the I5th c. B.'s version is remarkable (though to the provinces, and superseded the classical Cyrenaica (q. v.), directly translated from Latin and French) for the simplicity of with whose limits the country of B. nearly corresponds. The its English, and the absence of Latin forms, and is a valuable inhabitants are Arabs and Berbers, whose numbers are esti-illustration of English manners and morals, tern5. Henry VII. mated at from 300,000 to I,00,000. 00and VIII. B.'s Egloges are partly a translation of the Miseries of Courtiers by 2Eneas Silvius (Pope Pius II.). Besides some Barcello'na Po'zzo di Got'to, a haven in the province of prose lives of saints, a translation of Sallust's _geurt/zine War Messina, Sicily, 23 miles W. S.W. of Messina. It is divided by entitled Cronycle conzpyeed by Salust, and an introdzuctory to Wizte a small stream into two parts, and has a trade in corn, wine, and Pronounce Frenche (a work important to philologists, as one oil, and fruit. Pop. of commune, 20,246. of the signs that English pronunciation of Latin was moulded Barcelo'na (Lat. Barcino), a strongly fortified city, and on the French), B. wrote The Myrrour of Good Manzers, a transcapital of a province of the same name, Spain, situated in a lation from the Latin elegiac of Mancinus on the four cardinal beautiful amphitheatre on the Mediterranean, midway between virtues. B. is distinguished among early satirists for the purity of the rivers Llobregat and Besoss, and distant from each about 4 his thoughts. Though a good Catholic, he lashes the vices of the miles. It is the chief trading and manufacturing city in Spain, Church, and is especially severe upon the court. The woodcuts the see of a bishop, and the seat of a university, with a splendid published with The Shyyp of Folys from the German original cathedral (I298), large public libraries, a fine stock-exchange, are of great interest (see edition by Jamieson, Paterson, Edinb. an arsenal, and a cannon-foundry. The town is composed of I874). Those of the fools'that crs c'ras singeth with the crow;' an old and new portion, separated by a picturesque old river-bed'that will build before he count the cost;' that weigheth in one (the Rambla), now a garden and promenade. There is also a balance the heaven and earth, to know the heaviest,' are among maritime suburb (Ba;rceloneta), the corso of the famous B. car- the best. The satire on Predestination is singularly bold. nival, with Io,ooo inhabitants. It has a large harbour, and is Barclay, John, M.D., anatomist and physiologist, born defended by a citadel, and by the fortress of Montjuich or Mont- December Io, I758, at Cairn, in Perthshire, studied theology at juy, and carries on a large import trade, chiefly in raw cotton, St Andrews, but after receiving licence as a preacher, comcoal, cod-fish, coffee, cocoa, sugar, rum, hides, iron, timber, and menced the study of medicine at the University of Edinburgh, petroleum. The principal manufactures are cottons, woollens, from which he obtained the degree of M.D. in I796. He gave fancy silks, lace, and firearms. In I875 the harbour was extended, private lectures in Edinburgh on anatomy; wrote the article and its entrance improved. For several years return cargoes Physiology for the third edition of the Encyclopedia Britanhave been difficult to obtain at the port, and trade has suffered nica; published in I803 A New Anatomical 1Nomenclature, folgenerally from the Carlist war. The imports amounted in 1874 lowed in I812 by a description of the Arteries of the fumzan to /I,943,31o, and the exports to some 300,000oo. Pop. (I868) Body, and in I825 by an An inquiry into the Opinions, Ancient I67,o095. B. owes its origin to the Carthaginians, perhaps to and Modern, concerning Life and Organisation. He died, Hamilcar Barcas, father of Hannibal, from whom the name August 21, 1826, bequeathing to the Edinburgh College of Barcino, by which it was known to the Romans, is thought to Surgeons his valuable collection of specimens in comparative be derived. In the 4th c. the modern form of the name first anatomy. appears; but by the Arabs it was called Barschanuna. Eccle- Barclay, John, the son of William B., a Scottish professor siastical councils were held here in 504, 599, 906, and i064. of civil law at Pont-h-Mousson and Angers, was born in the During the dark ages B. frequently changed its rulers, and suf- former place, 28th January 1582. Educated in the Jesuit College, fered severely from the devastations of the Arabs; but under a he with difficulty escaped being pressed into the service of the dynasty of hereditary counts it grew and flourished in the IIth order. Going with his father to London, he produced in I603 and I2th centuries. At this time it was the'lord and terror and I6o6 two parts of his Euhormzionis Satyricon, dedicated of the Mediterranean,' sharing with Italy the rich trade of the to James I. and Lord Salisbury. This attacks the Jesuits, and East, and occupying a foremost place as a centre of learning, art, gives curious details about England. In I6I2 he defended and luxury. By the marriage of Count Raymund Berengar IV. against Bellarmine, the orthodoxyof his father, which was thought with the daughter of Rarniro II., King of Aragon, in II37, B., to have been compromised by a work on Regia Potestas. In together with the whole of Catalonia, was joined to the crown 164 appeared the Icon Anivmorum (translated into English by of Aragon. In 1493 Ferdinand and Isabella here welcomed Thomas May),which analyses the genius and manners of European Columbus on his return from the New World. B. threw itself nations, giving a high place to the Scotch. Leaving England in into the arms of France in i640, to escape the taxes and tyranny 1615, he settled the following year in Rome, where he composed of Philip IV., but again, in the War of Succession, it espoused his romance of Argenis, which has been translated into most the Austrian cause, and was taken by Lord Peterborough in European languages (into English by Le Gregs and May). It 1705. It was again captured in 17I4 by the Duke of Berwick, describes under fictitious names the secret politics of the time, after a murderous siege, and in I8o8, through a treacherous trick the monarchs of England, France, and Spain, the Guises, Pope by Napoleon, who declared that it'could not be taken in fair Urban, and John Calvin being mentioned. B. died at Rome, war with less than 8o,ooo men.' The Treaty of Paris restored I2th August I621. it to Spain in I814, and of late years it has displayed an occa- Barclay, Robert, son of Colonel David. B. of Urie, a sionally zealous interest in the Carlist war. The province of B. volunteer under Gustavus Adolphus, and Katherine Gordon, is a modern division of Old Catalonia, the most cultivated, was born at Gordonstown, Morayshire, 23d December 1648. fertile, and populous part of Espafia. Area, 59,824 sq. miles; Sent for education to his uncle Robert, the Catholic rector of pop. (1870) 762,555. the Scots College, Paris, he returned to Scotland in i664, and Barcelona, earlier Neueva Barcelona, earlier a seaport of Vene. soon after both he and his father and Jaffray joined the Society zuela, at the mouth of the Aragua, on an open bay of the of Friends. In I670 he married Christian Molleson, and in the _ 277 ~. *.~~~~~~~~~43 BAR THE GLOBE ENCYCLOkiFED!A. BAR same year published at Aberdeen Truth Cleared of Calumnies, sell a parcel of boilers and vats, but the potentiality of growing in reply to Mitchell's Dialogue betwixt a Quaker and a Stable rich beyond the dreams of avarice!' Christian, which was followed by William Mitchell Unmasked. Bar-Cochba, Simon, the leader of the ews in their revolt In 1673 appeared his Catechism and Confession of Faith, fol- ag the man u e adri hi b ot s ot I against the Romans under Hadrian, which broke out soon after lowed. by the Theses TPheologicre, in support of the fifteen proposi — tions of the Friends. For some time he had been exposed to the Emperor's second return from Syria. Simon applying to tions of the Friends. For some time he had been exposed to hmeftepohc fBla,'hr hl oeasa u persecution by the authorities of Aberdeen, his marriage having himself the prophecy of Balaam, There shall come a star out been declared unlawful, and thle absurd Acts against conventicles of Jacob' (Num. xxiv. I7), assumed the name of Bar-Cochba being enforced. B. startled Aberdeen by walking through its (son of the star), and about 132 A.D. took Jerusalem from b~ ~~(sno the Romars, ad abointuck i32 A.i. town Jeuamem from streets in sackcloth and ashes. This he was commanded to do the Romans, and had coins struc in his own name. The by the Lord. In 1675 he finished his famous Apology for the Jews soon possessed 50 towns and nearly iooo villages; but Trite christian Divinity, dedicated to Charles II., whom he ex- Julius Severus, Hadrian's general, arriving from Britain, retook horts by the remembrance of his own exile to protect Quakers. Jerusalem, and the last stronghold of the Jews, Bether, was It was published in Latin and English, and is an eloquent and stormed in August 135 A.D. On this day B. fell, and his head learned statement of the Quaker position. Like the Iizstitution was carried to the Roman camp. This was the last great of Calvin, it is read and quoted to the present day. His Anay struggle of the Jews, and from it dates their final dispersion over of Calvin, it is read and quoted to the pre sent day. His 2Inairchy teerh of the Ranters (1676), republished as Treatise on Christian Dis. cidline (I77s), deals with the outward ceremonies of the sect. Bard, the name given by various Celtic peoples to a class of B. accompanied Penn and Fox to Holland, and was a good deal literary men or public singers, having a defined status with cerin London. In I679 Charles II. granted him a barony charter tain duties and privileges. Their precise relation to the priest of Urie, and in 1682 he was offered the governorship of E. Jersey class on the one hand and to the judges on the other is doubt(New England). He died at Ury, 3oth October I6go. Modern ful, at least in the archaic times, but there is no doubt that they Quakers think that B.'s works'lead to Rationalism.' It is were gradually formed into a separate class, whose function was not the dogmatic contents, but the spiritual religion, of the to recite on great occasions in peace and in war, religious and Apology which makes it so powerful. Even the bigoted Brown secular, and which long survived the- decay of the Celtic reliof Wamphray admits that'the serpentine venome' of B. is gionswith which theywere connected by origin. Feasts, battles,'sugared over with fair speeches.' This, however, only makes treaties, funerals, popular assemblies, these were, the times at Brown the more angry with the'hellish neopaganism' of this which the B. spoke and sang; and, if they were the depositaries'devil in Samuel's mantle.' The collected folio edition of B.'s of the national music and verse, they must also have been' inworks (1692) is known as Truth Triunphant through the trusted with the great mass of oral tradition. A very large colSpiritual Wafafare, &'c., of that able andfaithful servant of Yesus lection of Welsh bardic fragments from manuscripts chiefly Christ, Robert B. A 13th edition of the Apology was published of uncertain date has been made in the Myvyrian Atrchceo. at Manchester in 1869. Particulars of B.'s life will be found logy of Wales (2d edit. s87o). These are divided into the in the Diary of Provost 7af'ray of Aberdeen, and in the unpub- earlier poetry before the beginning of the I4th c., when lished Reliquice Rarclaiance, lithographed by Walter & Bailey, the change of political conditions, through the annexation Lond. 1870. - of 1282, took away the ancient patronage of the B., and the poetry of the I4th, Isth, and i6th c. Prominent Barclay de Tolly, Michael, Prince, a celebrated Russian among the former are the ododin, or battle of Cattraeth, by general of the isth and early part of the igth c., was a descen- among the former are the'Gododinlz or battle of Cattraeth, by general of the 8th and early part of the 9th c., was a descen- Aneurin (5bo-56o), the historical, mystical, satirical pieces and dant of the Scotch family to which B. the poet and B. the odes and elegies of Taliesin (52o-570), the moraltriplets of Quaker champion both belonged, and two of the branches of lywarch en (550-640), and the Ocles by yrddin (530-). whic hadsetled n Mcklebur andLivnia espctivly.Llywarch Hen (5 5o-64o), and the Oracles by Myrddin (53o-6oo). which had settled in Mecklenburg and Livonia respectively. In the I2th c. Gwalchmai, Cynddelw, and Llyward ab Llywelyn, Born in Livonia in I759, he was trained to arms by his'uncle cmoi. ang i ndde t o ar a n and by Brigadier Van Vermoulen, a veteran of the Seven Years' composing, panegyrics and odes to historical persons and on,andy Biga wie h V Vrmoe bravetrn the R senk Yars' historical events, are the principal figures. In the I3th c. the War, and fought with great bravery in the Russia anks against elegies of Bledynn Vardd, Prydydd Bychan, and Gruffydd ab Turkey in 1788 and 1789, against Swede n impr790, and against Maredudd (who also treats a number of Christian subjects) are Poland in 1792 and 1794. He played an important part in the wars important. In what is called the Venedotian or N. Wales code against Napoleon, in spite of the hatred felt towards him by the of the laws of Howel Dda, which is assigned to the ith c., in the Russian national party, who called him a German; he com- book treating of the laws of the court, the position of the king's manded the advanced guard of Benningsen's army at Pultusk; bard (Teulwr) is very clearly defined, although he has sunk in lost an arm at Eylau, and was minister to the Emperor Alexander dignity beneath, not the priest and judge merely, but even the i8I0-I3. Losing the battle of Smolensko in 18I2, he had to chief falconer and groom. At the feast he is to sing first of give up the chief command of the army to KutusowG; but, on God, then of the king; at the division of spoil he is to sing the death of the latter, resumed it, holding it at the battles of of the British monarchy. His saraad' (or hurt-money and of the British monarchy. His' saraad' (or hurt-money). and Bautzen, Dresden, Culm, and Leipzig. Although on Napo- c'worth' (death-money) are much the same as those of the higher leon's return from Elba he was not able to take an active part officers. Among the prose remains of the B. may be menin the hostilities which ensued, he acted as commander-in-chief tioned the moral aphorisms of Catoc the Wise, the didactics of of the Russian armies in France, and was made a prince, re Bardd Gs o'r Gadair, the Blue Bard of the Chair, a contemBardd Gla.s o'r Gadair, the Blue Bard of the Chair, a contem ceiving also from Louis XVIII. the cross of Commander of the orary of Alfred, and the triads and institutes of the B. on Orde ofSt oui. Hedie atInserbrg i Prssi, Arilporary ~of Alfred, and the triads and institutes of the B. on 2Order of St Lounis. He died at Insterburg in Prussia, April various subjects.. The very interesting relics of ancient music 25, I818, while on his way, for the benefit of his health, to the of Wales (said to have been settled by a congress of B. be. Bohemian baths. He has the reputation of being at once one of fore Gruffydd ab Cynan in 040), are said to show, from there fore Gruffydd ab Cynan in I040), are said to show, from there, the bravest, the most skilful, and the most humane commanders being no fundamental notes added to the bass chords, and from of his time. ~~~~~~~~of his time. ~such technical terms as'the thumb choke,''the trill of the Barclay and Perkins' Brewery, one of the most exten- thumb,''the shake of the little finger,' that the music was sive industrial establishments in Great Britain, and, after that of meant for the crwth, a sort of flat violin of six strings, which might Messrs Truman, Hanbury, Buxton, & Co., the largest brewery be tuned as low as the modern violoncello, and might be used in London or the world, is situated in Park Street, Southwark, as a bass to the harp. The Welsh kings presided at the covers an area of eleven acres, and consumes in brewing 6oo00 Eisteddvod where the B. competed for the silver harp, and the quarters of malt daily. One of the numerous vats contains rules of harmony were discussed. After the annexation the 3500 barrels of porter, which at selling price would yield /9ooo. Eisteddvod was permitted by royal commission: it is now supThe water used in brewing is taken from the Thames at Ditton, ported by the Metropolitan Cambrian Institution. As regards and costs /2000oo. About 2oo horses, splendidspecimens, chiefly Ireland, we know from the Brehon laws that judicature and of the Flanders breed, are employed in carting the beer. The poetry were the most honourable professions, to which certain work was founded by Mr Thrale, the friend of Dr Johnson, and privileges were attached. Their close connection is seen in the on his death it was sold by Johnson and another executor on fact that Dubthach, royal poet of the 5th c., is said to have behalf of Mrs Thrale to Messrs B. & P. for /1I35,00ooo. On the given the award which forms the connecting link between pre. occasion Johnson said characteristically —' We are not here to Christian and post-Christian law. The Irish B., who were pro.,~.: 278 ~~ —-— ~~ —I~~ —` sss~~~ —~ —~~.~1.-~~. —-----— ~~ BAR THE GCOBE ENCYCZOP DIA. BAR bably hereditary, were like the Welsh historians and heralds: monks and nuns who go with their feet uncovered, either conthey are spoken of in the Leabhav na Cceart as giving legal stantly, like the Alcantarines, or for a fixed portion of the advice and instruction in science. The common division is year, like the nuns of our Lady of Calvary. Other discalinto (I) the Filhedha, who sang of religion and war (Rosg ceati wear sandals instead of shoes. They are not a separate Catha),, &c.; (2) the Breitheamhinn, or Brehons, who recited order, but are to be found among most of the orders, as ascetics the laws; (3) the Seanachaidhe, who kept annals and genealogies. of grades more or less austere. The most probable account of Fergus Fionbell, the sweet-voiced, and Torna Eigeas, the the motive of their origin is that which attributes it to Christ's learned, are noted among heathen B.: Amergin, Adamnan, Maol- command to the disciples (Matt. x. 10; Luke x. 4). more, and Flann among the later Christian B. The sacred Barlges' (Fr. cre de Barkges), a mixture of silk and odes and hymns of Donogh O'Daly, abbot of Boyle in the 13th worsted, or worsted and cotton, used for women's dresses. It c., and the crop of political B. during the oppression of Eliza- slight fabric for summer wear, of various colours. The best beth, should be noticed. Carolan, a miscellaneous poet, who is produced in France, not at the place of the same asle, but is produced in France, not at the place of the same name, but died in 1737, has been called the last of the B. Amatory at B res e orre, about 6 miles distant. sentiment marks the later Irish B. The English government Bafres eBigorre, about miles distant. felt the power of these B., and the statute of Kilkenny (I327) Baruges -les -Bains, a celebrated watering-place of the was intended to destroy it. The B. used the harp and the criut, Hautes Pyrenees, France, in the Bastan valley, with eight alka the most common type of ancient verse being a quatrain with line and sulphurous springs, from Ioo0 to I33a F., of great seven syllables to the line. The'Duans' of Scotland wer ere of rheumatism, wounds, and stiffness of probably sung by a class of B. attached to the clans. It should joints, and scrofulous complaints. It is much visited during be added that, although the existence of the four great Welsh summer, being one of the best points from which to exploe the B. of the 6th c. has been established, there is still controversy as Pyrenees, but is almost entirely deserted in winter. B. is in the to the genuineness of many pieces ascribed to them, the four commune of Betponey, which in 1872 had a pop. of 586. oldest collections of manuscript, viz., the black book of Car- Bareill'y, the chief town of an executive district of the same marthen, the book of Aneurin, the book of Taliessin, and the name, N.W. province of Rohilkund, on the left bank of the red book of Hergerst, being all later than 1150. Mr Skene, Jooa, a branch of the western Ramgunga, I30 miles E. of Delhi, the editor of selections from these books, observes that a large and I50 N.W. of Lucknow. It has extensive cantonments, proportion of the historical poems belongs to Cymfy, e.g., the and a considerable trade. There is also some manufacture of Cyvoesi Myrddiuz, an historical dialogue between Myrddin and ornamented house furniture. At the time of the mutiny all the his sister Gwendydd, composed partly in the reign of Cadwaladyr, European inhabitants of B. were put to death (3Ist May I857), the son of Cadwallawn. Under these monarchs (in the end of except the ladies and children, who had been previously conthe 6th and the first half of the 7th c.) a consolidation of bardic veyed to Nynee Tal in the Himalayas. The town was recovered tradition took place, and when the kingdom of y Gogledd (the by Sir Colin Campbell in I858. Pop. (I872) I05,649. The north) was destroyed by the Angles, the history of Nennius district of B. has an area of 3028, and pop. (I872) 1,506,80I. (circa 738) was carried to Wales, and with the introduction ofd, one of the chief orators the Armorican legends led to the composition of the Brits. arre' de Vieuzac, Bertrand, one of the chief orators Mhr Skene also calls attention to the revival of bardism on tle during the worst excesses of the French Revolution, was born at return to Wales of the lawful princes. Rhys ap Tewdwr and Tarbes, othSeptember 755, atrained to the profession of Prydydd Mawr at the end of the IIth c. (The Four Ancient an advocate. He became, however, first a member of the Books of Wales, vol. i. I870). So late as the end of last c., MrNational Assembly, and subsequently of the National Conven. Edward Williams, calling himself Iolo Morganwg, claimed the tion, in I792. Originally a Girondin, he seceded to the Mounhonours and titles of the Glamorgan bard's chair, one of four tain; and although naturally of a by no means cruel nature, the moment he tasted blood he craved for more. IHIe was chairs which were said to have existed at one time. We may President of the Convention when sentence of death was passed add the classification of B. adopted in Toland's History of the President of the Convention when sentence of death was passed add the classificationrdh of B.r prince of learningd's 2 Posvard of te on Louis XVI., and his florid harangues did almost as much as Druids:. Privstrar andh, or prince of learning;. ArrPosuyvardh, Robespierre's fanaticism to supply the guillotine with victims. Prydyddion, registrar and teacher of learning; 3. Arruyvardh, oespierres aatcsm ensign, genealogist, or herald. The Bardh Telyn was the doctor Although he was far-seeing and cunning enough to desert of players on the harp. Poets were divided into Pruddudh, Robespierre before his fall, he was one of those condemned to who treated of nations,, princes, and nobles; Tevlwyr, who transportation after that event. He shared, however, in the dealt in jests and pastimes; Clerwyr, who recited caricatures amnesty of the I8th Brumaire, and was even employed as a among the lower orders. The last may perhaps be the'votes' writer of reports and pamphlets, chiefly against Great Britain, mentioned by Strabo, and the'eubages' mentioned byAmmianus by the First Napoleon. During the Hundred Days of i8i5, he Marcellinus. The Ol1amh was a graduate in poetry. A tra- was a deputy to the Chamber, but was banished after the Bourdition exists of a parliament at Drumcat, in Derry, which bon restoration, returning, however, to his country in 1832, and (A. D. 597) ordained every king and lord of a cantred to keep a acting as a member of the administration of the Department of poet free, and to give him land. HIautes-Pyrenees till I840. His death took place January I4, I84I. Besides his political pamphlets, B. translated a good deal Bardesa'nes (Bar-Deisan), born in Edessa 154 A.D., founded, of prose and poetry from English and Italian. His MJnoires towards the close of the 2d c., a sect of Gnostics known as were published in 4 vols., 1842, under the editorship of M. Bardesanists. He first embraced the doctrines of Valentinus Hippolyte Carnot. B. has been severely branded by English the Egyptian, which he afterwards abjured, though ultimately historians and critics of the Revolutionary period, especially by he was partially reconciled to them. His Gnosis differed con- Carlyle and Macaulay; the latter, in one of his essays, saying siderably from the old Syrian Gnosticism, for he regarded evil as that'B. approached nearer than any person mentioned in arising from matter acting temporarily on spirit. He liheld further history or fiction, whether man or devil, to the idea of consumthat Christ had no material body, but only the semblance of one, mate and universal depravity.' Although Macaulay's criticism there being no resurrection of the body. Like some modern may be too trenchant, there can be no doubt that B. was dne Christian sectaries, he disseminated his views by means of of the most mendacious, cowardly, and sensual of the Terrorists. hymns, of which he is reckoned the first Syriac writer. His Barett'i, Joseph, known chiefly as the friend of Samuel adherents were always, though somewhat loosely, in connection Johnson, and tutor in the family of Mr Thrale, was born in with the orthodox Church. Hahn's B. Gnosticus Lyroreum Turin, I716. He became a teacher of languages in England in Primzus Hymnologus (Leips. 1819); Marx's B. von Edessa (i864); I750, and at that time was introduced to those persons, his and Hilgenfeld (I865). acquaintance with whom has gained him a certain immortality Bar'di, a small town in the province of Piacenza, Italy, in the pages of Boswell. B. was an industrious writer, pubsituated on the Ceno, 31 miles W. S.W. from Parma. A castle, lishing, among other works, an Italian dictionary, and Travels erected in the 9th c., upon a neighbouring hill, commands the throgh EFrance, Stoain, Portugal, and oaly (4 vols.). In 1780 town. B. was also formerly the name of a duchy. Pop. some he visited Italy, and published a journal at Venice called the 3000. Frusta Litteraria ('Literary Scourge'), which involved him in 3000. some trouble with the authorities. Having stabbed a man with Barefooted (Lat. discalceati, shoeless), applied to certain a penknife in a street brawl in London, he was tried for murder,.79 ~B —------- -----— O BAR TIIE GIOBE.ENCYCL OPDlIA. BAR but acquitted through the interposition of his influential literary Barill'a (Span. barrilla), an alkaline product obtained by friends. He died in London, 5th May I789. burning plants such as Salsola soda, cultivated on the coasts of Barfleur ('the summit on the channel;' Bar = summit or Spain, France, Italy, &c. That prepared at Brittany is called varec. stronghold, andfleur, a French corruption of the Low Ger. vlier B. was formerly the principal source of carbonate of sodium; or vliet, a run or flush of water), is the name of a French fishing which is extensively employed in glass and soap making and village, department of La Manche, I5 miles E. of Cherbourg. other industrial arts, and formed an important article of comIt has two lighthouses. About the period of the Norman con- merce, but its manufacture has greatly declined owing to the quest B. was a great seaport, and was the chief port of communi- stupendous development in the preparation of sodium carbonate cation between Normandy and England. Here Duke William from common salt. prepared his armament for the invasion of the latter country. It was from B. that the ship sailed which carried the son and daughter Farin. The founders of the firm of B. were of Henry I. of England, and by whose shipwreck, 25th November rancis and John B., sons of a German named John B., who II20, there perished, besides the prince and princess, upwards settled in England in the first half of the I8th c. The now of 140 members of the noblest houses of England and Normandy. celebrated house was established in I77o. Francis B., who was In 1342, at the beginning of the Hundred Years' War, Edward III. a strong adherent of William Pitt, was made a baronet by that landed at La Hogue with an army of 30,000 men, and captured minister in I793. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Sir B. among other places. Thomas B. Sir Francis' second son, Alexander, was in I835.a a tow of.r Iapvnofuc25ieN fcreated Lord Ashburton (q. v.). Sir Thomas died in I848, Barga, a town of Italy, province of Lucca, 25 miles N.E. of and was succeeded by his son Sir Francis Thornhill B., who Pisa, on the river Serchio. It is noted for the manufacture was M.P. for Portsmouth from I826 to i865. Under successive of gunpowder. Pop. 7215. Whig governments he held the offices of Lord of the Treasury, Bar'gain, in law, usually signifies a contract which may be Secretary to the Treasury, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and completed without writing, such as a sale of goods. In mer- First Lord of the Admiralty. In January I866 he was created cantile affairs, a B. of great importance may be proved by letters Baron Northbrook. He died in the following September. He of correspondence, or even by less formal writings. was succeeded by his son, the present Lord Northbrook. Thomas Bargain and Sale, is in English law an instrument by B., M. P. (born 800oo), uncle of the present Lord, devoted himself which lands and tenements are transferred. To be valid, the to commerce, and was universally known for many years as the transfer must purport to be for adequate value; but it seems to leading partner in the great mercantile firm of B. Brothers. He be unnecessary that this provision should be given any effect to. died I8th November I873. Barge, an old town in the province of Coni, N. Italy, on the head-waters of the Po, 30 miles S. W. of Turin, with some Baritone, or Baryton, the male voice whose compass lies trade in firearms and roofing-slates. Pop. 9191. between that of the tenor and the bass, and'Baegeneral name applied has generally the limits A to F. The B. voice Barge (Low Lat. barga), is the general name applied has a rich quality of its own, especially in the d ito certain flat-bottomed high chest-notes. craft, employed on rivers and canals; also Bar'iumn is a yellow malleable metal contained in the various'~-' X lto boats of pleasure' or compounds of B. or baryta. It was first isolated by Davy state, such as those used (I8So8) by the action of an electric current on its hydrated oxide, by the Commissioners baryla. B. is a metal of the so-called alkaline ear/zs, of which and Corporation of Lon- srontiunm, calcium, and magnesium are the other members. It don on ceremonial occa- rapidly oxidises in air, burns if heated, and decomposes water at |_ _______ sions. Besides these, the ordinary temperatures. Its symbol is Ba, and its atomic weight ____ name is also given to one I37. Its most important compounds occurring in nature are the of the larger boats of a sulphate or heavy spar,; and the carbonate or witlZerite. Salts man-of-war, usually be- of B. are readily obtained from witheri/e by treating it with tween 30 and 40 feet the corresponding acid. In order to prepare them from ieavy long, without sails, and spar, the mineral is roasted with charcoal, when sulphide of = intended solely for the B. and carbonic oxide result. use of the officers. In Common Barge. France, the name is ap- BaSo + 4C = BaS + 4CO plied to certain boats with square sails employed on the Loire. - Sulphate of Carbon. Sulphide of Carbonic:Barge-Board, in Gothic architecture, is an inclined board barium barium oxide. of Carbonic placed at the gable of a building to hide the horizontal timbers (heavy spar). of the roof. The phrase seems to be a corruption of vergeboard. The barge-boards, especially in the 14th and I5th cen- n treating the sulphide with an acid, sulphuretted hydrogen turies, were often richly ornamented. escapes, and a salt of B. is produced. The most important Bar'i, or Bari delle Puglie, the capital of a maritime pro- compounds of B. are the following:vince of the same name, S. Italy, on the Adriatic coast, I40 Chloride of barium, BaCl2H20. Prepared by the action of miles E. of Naples, and 73 N.W. of Brindisi. It is the ancient ydrochloric acid on witherite or sulphide of B. Barium, a place, as appears from its coins, of some considera- BaCO3 + 2HC1 BaCI2 + CO2 + HIO tion as early as the 3d c. B.C., but of whose origin there is no A_-.' __2 record. It did not rise to importance till the Ioth c., when it Carbonate Hydrochloric Chloride of Carbonic Water. was held by the Greek emperors, who made it the residence of of barium acid. barium. acid. thil governor of Apulia and capital of the province. The only (witherite). vestiges of antiquity are a few Roman inscriptions, and some It is a colourless crystalline substance, of much use to the chemist coins and painted vases of a Greek character. B. is now the see for detecting and determining sulphuric acid. of an archbishop; is strongly fortified, and is further defended NVitrateofbarium, Ba(NO3)2. Prepared as the chloride, sub. by a massive old Norman castle. The finest building is the stituting nitric for hydrochloric acid. It is used by fireworkpriory of St Nicholas, founded in Io87, and in which Urban II. makers as an ingredient of greenfires. If strongly heated it held a council (IO98) for the purpose of reconciling the Greek becomes converted into anhydrous oxide of B. or barlta, BaO. and Latin Churches. The chief manufactures are cotton, silk, Chlorate of barium, Ba(C103)2, is also used in pyrotechny. linen, and soap, and there is a large export of corn, oil, and Oxide of barium, or baryta, BaO. This -was the first comfruit. Pop. (I872) 50,524. The province of B. has an area of pound of B. recognised as such, and was discovered by Scheele 2282 sq. miles, and a pop. (i872) of 604,540. (1774). It was called by Bergmann /erraponderosa, on account Barigaz'zo, a small town in the province: of Modena, Italy, of its heaviness; and Kirwan gave it the name of baryta, from notable for the flames which issue from the ground in the Gr. pcapbs, heavy. It may be obtained by heating the nitrate vicinity, burning continuously for several days. alone, or a mixture of witherite and carbonaceous matter. 280 BAR THE GL OBE ENC YCL OPMDiA. BAR BaCO3 + C =- BaO + 2CO Jesuits' B.; Cusparia B., called Angostura B.; Strychnos or NV",~ 1, *.. Nux vomica B., called false Angostura B.; Cascarilla B., WinWitherite. Carbon. Baryta. Carbonic oxide. ter's B., &c. Some are used chiefly for aromatic properties as It is a grey powder, having a sharp alkaline taste, and a great Cinnamon and Cassia B., others for their astringency alone, as affinity for water and carbonic acid-in both respects resem- Oak B. Many of them owe their activity to the alkaloids conbling unslaked lime —with which indeed it is perfectly ana- tained in them. The most important B. is Cinchona B., from logous. It combines with water with so much energy that which quinine is obtained. the mass may become red-hot; the resulting compound is the Azydrate of B. or caustic baryta, BaH202, a crystalline sub- Bark, Tanning. The barks of a great variety of trees yield ydstance soluble in cold, b. or cautic ryta, BaH a crystallinets solub- tannin in sufficient proportion to make them available for the use stance soluble in cold, but more readily in hot water. Its solution has an alkaline taste and reaction, and is of great use to tanne s, but a few only are of such commer ce aeneral staples of the chemist as a test for carbonic acid; the smallest trace of them objects of int eratioal commerce ad geeral staples of oa that substance causing a milky precipitate of carbonate of y rich intanning and the common oak, Queus B. It is also useful in preparing other bases from their sul- the chief source in tannin and the common oak, Quecusak bark is the chief source of native British T. B. Oak bark is phates. also imported in large quantities from various Continental The soluble salts of B. are' extremely hurtful to the economy, countries for use in tanning, and the inner bark of the cork acting as cumulative poisons. In the arts, sulphate of baryta s oak, Quercus suber, is brought for the same purpose from the used to adulterate white paints (permanent white), and the carbo- S. of Europe. Quercitron bark, Quercus tinctoria, is a valuable nate is employed as a pigment, and in the manufacture of certain kinds of glass. All the soluble salts of B. are precipitated tannng and dyeing bark, imported from N. America, from whence by sulphuric acid and solutions of sulphates, insoluble sulphate also comes the most extensively used tanning barks. Under the of B. being formed. now one of the most extensively used tanning barks. Under the of B. being formed. name of mimosa bark or wattle bark, the Australian Colonies Bark. See BARQUE. export for tanners the barks of several species of Acacia, chiefly A. melanoxylon. The bark of the common larch, Larix Euroa'ca, Bark (cortex) surrounds the whole axis of plants, and is most is also largely employed in tanning, and among others less distinctly seen in trees and shrubs, in which it attains a consider- generally employed, there may be noted mangrove bark, R/izoable thickness. In early life it is entirely cellular, but later in p/ora mangle, from tse E. and W. Indies, and the bark of the life the innermost layer (or liber) becomes fibrous and vascular. sweet or Spanish chestnut, Castanea vesca. The imports of From within outwards the bark is composed of four layers-viz., tanning. barks into Great Britain during I873 amounted to (I) The liber, bast layer, or endop/zlcazum, composed of layers of 467,5r5 tons, of a value of rI76,997, but much of this is used by branching fibres which frequently separate from each, owing to dyers as well as by tanners. the interposition of layers of cellular tissue. On the inner side 0 of it are usually developed some milk (lactiferous) vessels. In an Bark Beetle, or Bark Chafer, the popular name apexogenous stem one layer of the endophlceum is developed for plied to various species of Coleoptera or beetles, which have the every year's growth of the tree. The liber of the lime-tree habit of eating and eroding wood. Thus the members of the (Tilia Europcea) forms Russia matting, that of the sack-tree tribe Xylophagi ('wood-eaters'), represented by the Tomicus of Coorg (Antiaris saccidora) is used to form bags, mats, &c. typograJphus, the Hylurgus piniperda, &c., are notable as destroyCuba bast is the liber of Paritium elatum, while flax is the liber ing wood; the larvae, as well as the perfect forms of these species, of Linium usitatissimum, that of Cannibis sativa, hemp, &c. (2) boring into the trees of the German pine-forests, and causing vast The mesopl hvum, or green layer; it is made up of superimposed destruction therein. In I783, these insects thus destroyed one layers of thin-walled globular or polyhedral cells, filled with and a half millions of trees in the Hartz Forest; and prayers are Chlorophyll (q. v.), and has usually a number of interspaces offered up by the clergy for the limitation of their ravages, The formed by the loose union of the cells. It sometimes contains Scolytus destructor of Britain similarly destroys elm-trees. vessel-shaped lacunae containing resin-e.g., in pines, junipers, Bark Stove is a stove in which there is a bed of tanner's and various other coniferze. (3) The epiphlceum, or corky layer, bark or some such substance, for the purpose of producing by which has no chlorophyll in the cellulose tissue composing it. fermentation a moist heat, which is necessary for the successful The cells are thin-walled, and are rectangular and elongated in a cultivation of tropical plants. In many nstances, however, the horizontal direction, being by these characters distinguished from cl. S. has been superseded by pipes or tanc es, however, th tlloseof the eB. S. has been superseded by pipes or tanks filled with hot those of the mesophlceum. It is also distinguished by remaining water, and laid beneath the bed n which the plants are placed. alive for a short time only, in wanting sap, and in its cells containing air. Unlike cellulose, it does not turn blue under the Bar'kal, or Teb'el Barkal, the name given to an isolated action of iodine and sulphuric acid. The suberous or corky sandstone rock, 5oo feet high, and about two miles in circulnferlayer is largely developed in the B. of some trees, and notably in ence, situated near the right bank of the Nile, in Nubia, lat. I8~ the cork-oak (Quercus suber), from which it is stripped to supply 3I' N., long. 31' 46' E. Near B. are the remains of several the Cork of commerce (q. v.). (4) Lastly, there is the general splendid temples, and the supposed site of the ancient city of integument of the plant, or Epidermis (q. v.). In annual dicoty- Napata. In I832 Lord Prudhoe brought hence the two red ledons the B. is more simple in structure, and varies in some granite lions now in the Egyptian Room of the British Museum. slight particulars. In the stems of monocotyledons (endogeznous Stems-q. v.), the B. is composed of (I) an epidermis; (2) cellular Bar'ker, Edmund Henry, a philologist of some note, was tissue; (3) bundles of fibrous vessels, which are sometimes born at Hollym vicarage, in Yorkshire, December 22, I788, and wanting, but never forming, as in the liber of dicotyledons, was a student at Trinity College, Cambridge. He made numerous leaf-like layers (hence the name liber, from the Latin for a book). contributions to philological journals, translated some works of The B. in endogenous stems.is firmly attached to the wood by German philologists, edited several Latin classics, and published means of the woody bundles which arch outwards from the in- his Classical Recreations (I vol. I812). In I816, he undertook terior of the stem. The B. of the root of dicotyledons has all the for Valpy a revision of Stephens's Thesaurus Linguqc Grcecc, anatomical elements arranged in the same order as in the stem. which was completed in I3 vols. (I816-28). The work was It differs, however, in the size of the fibres of the liber, in the severely criticised by Bishop Blomfield in the Quarterly Review'greater development which the cellular envelope often attains (No. 44), and this called forth B.'s Aristarchus Anti-Blomin the root, particularly of herbaceous plants, and in the stem fieldianus. His Parriana (2 vols.) consists of ill-arranged but possessing a much greater development of the suberous layers of interesting notices of the opinions, controversies, and peculithe B.' (Brown). There is no chlorophyll in the bark except in arities of his friend Dr Parr, contributed from many sources. B. that of aerial roots. died in London, 2ISt March 1839. Porson's remark gives B. the:Bark, in medicine. From the bark of trees many va chance of a painful immortality:'Sir, you have read a great able medicines are obtained. These arke -used as powdsvaun- deal, you have thought very little, and you know nothing.' able medicines are obtained. These are used as powders, infiusions, and tinctures. They are chiefly used as bitter tonics. Barker's 3Ytill is a kind of water-wheel, invented towards Many of them will be found under separate headings. The the close of the I7th c. by Dr Barker, the action of which most important are Cinchona B., sometimes called Peruvian or depends upon the law that, when a fluid is issuing from a vessel, 36 28x d~~~~p —---------------------------------— ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ BAR THE GLOBE ENC YCLOP/EgIA. BAR a pressure is applied to the internal side of the vessel opposite (first printed at Kanigsberg by Kbppke in I8i8, and again at the opening proportional to the velocity of emission, thus tend- Leipsic by Pfeiffer in 1845); one by an unknown author, fraging to push the whole vessel backwards. In its simplest form ments of which have been printed by Pfeiffer in his Forsckhung B. M. consists of a &-shaped tube, the cross-piece being below. und Kr1ilik auf dem Gebiet des Dzeutschen Al/te/rlhums (B. I. Vien. The lower extremity turns on a pivot, the upper is fixed to a I863); and a third, of which a complete MS. exists in the Solmswheel, which is capable of setting in motion other wheels, shanks, Laubach library. There is also a German prose translation ex&c. If the tube were filled with water, it would be in equi- tant in an undated Augsburg imprint, and supposed to belong to librium, provided there were no outlet. If, however, two open- the last decade of the I5th c. From the Latin have also come ings are made, looking in opposite directions, one at each a Spanish version (Madr. I6o8), a Bohemian (composed about extremity of the cross-piece, the momentum of the issuing water, 1470, printed at Prague in I593), and a Polish (Cracow, i688). which depends upon the height of the column of water in the The German is the source of the Icelandic Barlaam's Saga, and vertical portion of the tube, reacts upon the cross-tube, and the Swedish Barlaam och yosaphat. No version of the romance pushes the whole round in the opposite direction. There is exists in English. found experimentally to be considerable loss of energy due to the sudden change in direction of the water. This is to a certain Bar-le-Duc ('tlhe duke's citadel'), or Bar-aur-Ornain, extent obviated by making the arms curved instead of straight. the chief town of the department of Meuse, France, on the Ornain, I25 miles by rail E. of Paris.'It was founded in the Bar'king, a market-town in Essex, five miles N. E. of Green- Ioth c., was once capital of the Duchy of Bar (whence its name), wich, on the left bank of the Roding, a little above its junction contains a communal college and public library, and has manuwith the Thames. It has a trade in potatoes and vegetables, factures of cotton, calicoes, and comfits. Near it are large coal and timber. Pop. (I87I) 5766. The place is famous for smelting furnaces. Pop. (I872) 14,664. the ruins of a formerly large and rich abbey and nunnery, the Barlett'a, a seaport on the Adriatic, in the province of abbess of which was a baroness in virtue of her office. It Bari, S. Italy, trading principally with Greece, the Ionian was built in 677 A.D.'by St Erkenwald, Bishop of London; Islands, and the Adriatic ports. B. is a clean, well-built town, burned by the Danes in 870; and rebuilt by King Edgar in the with a cathedral, a college, an a very strong fortress. Te with a cathedral, a college, and a very strong fortress. The middle of th~e ioth c. harbour is approached by a magnificent gateway. Exports, 3Bark, or Barq.ue, a nautical term meaning strictly a three- wine, oil, salt, skins, corn, &c. Pop. (I872) 28 i63. masted vessel without mizzen topsail, Bar'ley (Hoardeum), a genus of Gramineac or grasses, of which or whosemizzen sails the two-rowed B. (H. distichum) is the species most commonly are fore-and-aft in- cultivated; the H. vungare (bigg), or four-rowed B., and H.,~/ Ad-1 hd steadofbeingsquare. h/exastich/um, or six-rowed B., being found in higher districts, But the term is some- and but rarely cultivated in Britain. The inforescence or arrangetimes applied simply ment of the flowers and their parts in B. is spicate or spiked. /A'I' IS3; V to a small ship, at IThe one-flowered spikelets are arranged in threes on each joint other times, to a (or rachis) of the inflorescence. In two-rowed B. the single broad-sterned vessel floret or flower of the central spikelet is alone fertile, the florets without a figure- of the two lateral spikelets being barren. In six-rowed B. each ihead. of the three spikelets contains a fertile floret. Two outer glumes or scaly bracts exist, and one flowering glume. There is one Bar'laam and pale, or innermost glume. Two lodicules or minute scales exist, Jos'aphat, a reli- and represent a perianth, or outer flower envelope.'The stamens gious romancewhich number three, and the styles or terminal points of the car7pels had its origin in the (pistil) number two. B. forms one of the cereals most extenEastern Church, but sively cultivated, from its being used in many forms in the induswhich attained its trial processes of civilised life. It is regarded as the first cereal Barque. greatest popularity brought under cultivation. It was grown in Egypt and Palesin the W. of Europe, tine of old, and is mentioned in Homer's works. It is remarked where it appeared in a Latin version early in the middle ages. frequently in the Old Testament; beer being made from it by It professes to be a history of the conversion of an Indian the ancient Greeks, Egyptians, and Germans. B. probably prince, Josaphat, by an Asiatic anchorite, Barlaam, and is originally came from Central Asia. It is cultivated generally as obviously composed in the interest of Christianity. No one an annual crop, although some varieties bear sowing in autumn, doubted that it was an original invention until Liebrecht (in and grow through the succeeding winter. It equally bears cold, the ya/zrbuch fiir Romanische Literatur, I862) made the inte- temperate, and warm climates, and is the favourite cereal of norresting discovery that the groundwork of the romance is derived them nations. Its general use in Britain is for making Malt (q. from Buddhist sources, and that the history of the imaginary v.), used in the manufacture of beer (see BREWING); but B., with Josaphat and his equally imaginary father Abenner is simply the husks or palere simply taken off, is used as food, under the a Christianised, but otherwise very accurate, picture of the life name of pot or Scotch B. With the seed further uncovered, it and spiritual transformation of Siddhartha (son of Suddho- becomes the finer pearl B. Other species and varieties of B., dana, king of Kapilavastu), who subsequently, under the name besides the principal ones already mentioned:-Siberian B. (H. of Buddha, became the founder of the religious system which celeste) is cultivated in Europe for its larger straws. In this and bears his name. The author of the Greek original is not in the Nepaul or Himalayan B. (H. trifurcatum) the seeds are known. It has been erroneously attributed to Joannes Dama- naked-that is, the palere separate readily from the seeds. The scenus and to Anastasius Bibliothecarius, but is more probably Chevalier, early English B., and Italian B. are the best-known the work of an Ethiopian Christian. Although the Greek varieties of the common two-rowed species. The battledore or text is the original, it was first published by Boissonade in sprat species, or German rice (H. zeocriton), is two-rowed, his Anecdota (Par. I832), and has only once been translated- and possesses prominent grains, with the awns spreading widely. viz., into German by Liebrecht (Miinst. 1847). The Latin ver- Other uncultivated species of the B. genus are the hi. msurinum; sion, on the other hand, has been the mother of a numerous the H. jubatum, or squirrel-tail grass of N. America; the meaprogeny. Besides being itself frequently printed towards the dow-grass (H,. pratense); and H. bulbosum of S. Europe. close of the I5th c., it gave birth to three French metrical trans- In Europe, B. is chiefly cultivated for export purposes in lations still unprinted, one by the Anglo-Norman trouvere, Denmark and Silesia; and in America, in Mexico, the United Chardry (I3th c.), another by Gui de Cambray, and a third by States, and Canada. Britain affords soils very favourable to Herbert, as also to several independent prose versions which the growth of B.; and Suffolk and Norfolk are the two chief were published at Paris in the i6th c. From a Northern French English B. counties. Throughout Scotland generally B. is or Provengal version came the Italian Storin de S. Bar/am, widely grown. B. crops generally follow root-crops conabout the beginning of the I4th c. In Germany, again, the Latin sumed by sheep on the land. Some take B. after wheat, to originated three native works in verse, that of Rudolf of Ems ensure a moderately rich state of the ground only, as B. does 282 ~~ *~~+ B 3AR THE GLOBE ENzC YCLOPED/IA. BAR school statutes, dated in 1558 (Carlisle's Endowed Gram. Schools, the case of the Protestants du Midi. In the Chamber of Depui.), and was enforced at the Edinburgh Iigh School in I595, to ties he was a foremost Liberal, and though not a Doctrinaire, the extent of killing a patron magistrate who was forcing an belonged to the Aide.toi Society. In I830, along with Maison entry, it would seem' that the custom was not an amusement, and De Schonen, B. presented the ultimatum to Charles X. at but a social institution, like flogging, probably not without its Maintenon. After holding office for a short time under Lafayette, uses, when schools were'places of weeping and flagellation.' he became the leader of the moderate'left' opposed to Casimir See Brand's Poy5. Antiq. by Ellis (3 vols. Lond. I849). Perier, voting for the abolition of the hereditary peerage. He Barrilng~tonia'cee, a. small order of plants allied to Mjyr- joined the coalition against Mole, supported Thiers, and opposed tacees, and by some authors considered a subdivision of it. They Guizot. On the eve of the revolution of 1848, B. attempted with are tropical plants, having large leaves and clusters of fine Thiers to form a ministry which would have accepted the Count flowers, with beautiful and numerous stamens. The fruit is of Paris and a regency. As president of Louis Napoleon's first fleshy, and the contained kernels have medicinal properties. ministry B. was succeeded by Baroche, and shortly afterwards withdrew from public life. He recognised the value of the right Barr'ister is the name given to the pleaders at the English of discussion on home and foreign affairs conceded to the and Irish bar. In Scotland the corresponding body are called Chambers in I86o, and pointed out that the right of censure imAdvocates (q. v.). The general rules of qualification to entitle a plied a responsible ministry. In I86I he published an imporman to be called to the bar in all the Inns of Court (q. v.) are tant work on centralisation and its effects. In June I872 he was - that he must be at least twenty-one years of age, have passed an chosen a member of the Council of State by the National Assemexamination in Roman and civil law, the law of real and personal bly, and vice-president of the Council on the 27th of July. He property, and common law and equity, and have been for five died August 6, I873, and a volume of memoirs appeared in years at least a member of the society. If he be a Master or I875.-Victorin Ferdinand B., brother of the foregoing (born Bachelor of Arts of either English university or of Dublin Uni- I8o6), has also had a political career, but not a conspicuous one. versity, it is sufficient if he has kept twelve terms, and has been He accepted the Empire, and after serving as ambassador at Turin, three years a member of the Inn by which he desires to be called became a senator in 1853, and was made secretary of senate in I865. to the bar. Serjeants-at-law (Serviens ad legemt) are barristersow, the Birgos of Ptolemy, a river so created by the crown. Formerly the common-law judges Barel ow, the BirS o s of Ptolemy, a river in the S.E. of were exclusively taken from the serjeants; but this custom has Ieland, after the Shannon the most importan the N. of Queen's been abolished by the Judicature Act of I873. Pre-audience, or t rises in the Slievebloom mountains, in the N. of Queen's right to'be first heard by the court, is held so important by mem- county, and after an easterly course of es miles, and a southerly bers of the bar, that we here give the order of precedence, asles, it falls into the estuary of Waterford harbour. settled by royal mandate-I. Queen's Advocate; 2. Queen's It is navigable for large ships up to New Ross, and for barges Attorney-General; 3. Lord Advocate of Scotland; 4. Queen's up to Athy, fully 60 miles from the sea. It has several tribuSolicitor-General; 5. Queen's Premier Serjeant; 6. Queen's taries, the most important of which are the Nore and the Suir, Ancient Serjeant; 7. Queen's Serjeants; 8. Queen's Counsel,which with the B. are named the Three Sisters. The Grand and counsel having patent of precedence prior to 24th April Canal connects the B. with the Liffey at Dublin. 1834; 9. Serjeants-at-law; Io. Recorder of London; II. Com- Barr'ow, Isaac, D.D., a celebrated mathematician and mon Serjeant of London; 12. Advocates of the civil law; I3. divine, was born at London in October I630. In I645 he Barristers generally, according to date of call to the bar. entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowA B. can maintain no action for his fees, these being held to ship in I649, and graduated as M.A. in I652. Though recombe given gratuitously. See FEES, PROFESSIONAL. In forensic mended by the retiring professor for the Greek chair, he lost pleading a B. may state anything communicated to him in his the election on account of his suspected Arminian views. This professional capacity, if pertinent to the matter at issue, without professorship, however, he obtained in I66o, a few months after examining whether it be true or false. But the observation his return from the Continent, where he had travelled for four must be strictly relevant to the point at issue; and a client's years. He occupied in succession the Gresham chair for geo. presumed ignorance of what is or is not relevant may excuse himn metry and the Lucasian mathematical professorship, which latter in an error before the court which would not be excused to the he relinquished in I669, in favour of his pupil Isaac Newton. In B., owing to his presumed superior legal knowledge. I672 he became the master of Trinity College, and in I675 viceThe bar of Ireland is subject to nearly the same rules, and is chancellor. B. died at London, May 4, I677. His sermons are on much the same footing, as the English, bar. Before Parlia- remarkable for their vigour, lucidity, eloquence, and length. On ment, the House of Lords, and the Privy Council, barristers and one occasion at least, a congregation, after listening for three advocates rank alike, and have the same rights and privileges. and a half hours, had recourse in despair to an organ, and Before the House of Lords, all cases, from whatever tribunal the' blowed him down.' B.'s theological works have been edited appeal may come, may be advocated by members of the English, by Tillotson (3 vols. Lond. I683; new ed. I74I). There is also Scotch, or Irish bar. The rank of Queen's Counsel has recently a Cambridge edition in 6 vols. (I8i8), a New York one in 3 (I868) been introduced into the Scotch bar. vols. (I845), and another by Napier in 9 vols. (I859). His best Barrister, Rwevising. See REVISING BARRISTER. mathematical works are his Zectiones Geometricae, translated by Barr'os, Jocio de, a Portuguese historian, formerly spoken of Stone (I735), and Lectiones Of icre, by Kirby (I734). The latest as the P'ortugzese Livy, born at Viseu, in 1496, was appointed page edition is that of Whewell (Lond. I86I). to King Emanuel while still a child, and afterwards became the Barrow, Sir John, born at Dragleybeck, Lancashire, companion of Dom Joao, heir to the throne. His romance of June I9, I764, was first engaged as clerk in an iron-foundry chivalry, Cronica do Emzperador Clarimundo (Coimbra, 1520; Liverpool, made a voyage in a Greenland whaler in I780, beand again in I791), written at the age of twenty, is remarkable came mathematical tutor to the son of Sir George Staunton, for its beauties of style. His great work is the Asia. Portuguesa, through whose influence he was appointed private secretary to a history of the conquest of the Indies by the Portuguese (3 vols. Lord Macartney in his embassy to China, and afterwards in the Lisb. 1552-63), continued by Diego do Conto (Lisb. I602-45). governorship of the Cape of Good Hope. He was appointed The latest edition is that of 1778-88; but there is an abridged secretary to the Admiralty in I8o4, held the appointment for translation in German by Soltau (Bruns. 5 vols. 182I). B. also forty years, and during the whole of that time laboured with en. wrote the first Portuguese Grammar (Lisb. I540; new ed. 1785). thusiasm and with much success in the interests of geography. He died at Alitem, near Villa-do-Pombal, 20oth October I570. To him it is mainly due that the spirit of arctic enterprise was kept in activity during these years, and the earlier polar Barromiles Na, of Algeciroas, whera village in the province of Caiz, expeditions of this century owed much to his superintendence. Spain, 4 miles N. of Algeciras, where Major-General Sir Thomas The idea of the foundation of the Geographical Society (1830) Graham gained a splendid victory over the French under Mar. Graham gained a splendid victory 3000over the French undere killed originated with him, and he remained its vice-president till his and 300 prisoners taken, with 6 pieces of cannon and an eagle. eath, 23d November 1848. He was a voluminous writer of 300,~ prison.~ travels, voyages, and the memoirs of naval heroes. His books Barr'ot, Camille Hyacinthe Odilon, born at Villefort are accurate and agreeable in style. He is chiefly remembered (Lozere), I9th July 1791, educated at Saint-Cyr and the Lycde now for his Chronological History ofArctic Voyages (Lond. I8S8). Napoleon, joined the bar in 1814, and distinguished himself in His Az4tobiographical Memoir was published in I847. 37 289 Sp —------------ *,,, at * _ +4 ka1 3AE GZLOBE iNCYCLOPAt ipZA. BAR Barrow-in-Furness, a thriving seaport and manufacturing These dome-roofed chambers are always provided with a pas. town in N. Lancashire, on the S.W. shore of the peninsula of sage leading to the exterior of the mound. The great chambered Lower Furness, and I8 miles W.N.W. of Lancaster. It is a B. of New Grange, on the banks of the Boyne, is the beststation on the Furness Railway, and is thus connected with the known example of this type. It is over 300 feet in diameter, London and North-Western and the Midland Railway systems. and 70 feet in height. The central chamber is upwards of 20 feet Its charter of incorporation dates from I867. B. furnishes the in height, and is approached by a passage 70 feet- in length. most striking instance of rapid growth of any European town In Denmark the oblong barrows called'giants' graves' are most of recent times. In I847 the population was 325; in I864 it common. They contain chambers of the first-mentioned form, had increased to Io,6o8; in 187I to I8,245; and in I875 to without passages, while the round barrows usually have passages 40,689. The borough is one of the largest in the country, con- leading into them, but they never have domed roofs like those taining no less than 9720 acres. This extraordinary prosperity of Britain. The long barrows of England and Denmark are is due to the abundance in its neighbourhood of rich hematite characteristic of the Stone Age, but the circular form was retained ore, yielding an average of 57 per cent. of iron, and which has in the succeeding periods, and some of the largest chambered converted a fishing hamlet into one of the most important centres barrows of this form in Scandinavia belong to the latest times of of the iron manufacture in the world. The ore, being almost Paganism. It is from the character of the sepulchral deposits, free from phosphorus, is well suited for the manufacture of steel, therefore, and not from the external form, or internal construcwhich is here produced by the Barrow Hematite Steel Company tion, that the age of a B. is to be determined. In those of the at the rate of Iooo tons weekly. The process employed is the Stone Age the deposits are usually of unburnt bodies, accom-.Bessemer (q. v.). Nearly 500,000 tons of ore are annually re- panied with rude, hand-made pottery-the remains of foodquired for the blast-furnaces, which, to the number of fourteen, vessels or cdrinking-cups-axes of polished stone, spear and are ranged along the shore. About 20,000 tons of slate, obtained arrow heads of chipped flint, and rude implements and ornanear B., are annually exported. Iron shipbuilding is now carried ments of bone or stone. Cremation, however, began in the on to a great extent.on Barrow Island. The principal proprie- Stone Age, and is found contemporaneously with the deposit of tors are the Dukes of Devonshire and Buccleuch, who have formed unburnt bodies, sometimes even in the same B. The cinerary a harbour and docks at a large expense. There are now three urns which accompany interments after cremation are often docks-the Devonshire, the Buccleuch, and the Ramsden. The larger vessels, and usually of coarser make than those found harbour is well protected by the island of Walney. The foreign with unburnt bodies. Special forms, however, are peculiar to trade is still inconsiderable, consisting chiefly of imports of the two styles of interment, so that the nature of the sepulchral timber from Canada. The steam-packets from the Isle of Man pottery is to a certain extent an index to the form of burial. and Belfast arrive and depart from Piel Harbour, 2 miles S. The barrows of the Bronze Age (in which cremation had largely of B. The most prominent structures are the steel-works (the superseded unburnt interment) are seldom chambered, and the largest in the kingdom) and the new jute-works. A handsome deposit is usually contained in small cists of slabs. The pottery bronze statue was erected by public subscription in Ramsden is of finer texture, and exhibits a greater variety of form and Square in I872, in honour of Sir James Ramsden, first mayor of ornament than that of the preceding period. Sometimes the urn the borough, and managing director of the Furness Railway. is found simply inverted over the deposit of burnt bones, without Barrow-on-Soar, a village on the navigable river Soar, in any protecting cist, at other times it is placed upright in a cavity the county of Leicester, Io miles N. of Leicester, and a station among the stones of the B. The deposits accompanying inter. on the Midland Railway. A fine blue lime found in the district d ornaments of the Bronze Age are weapons and gold, often of exquisite wormanis converted into a valuable subaqueous cement. The inhabi- ship. Towards the close of ronze and gold, oft en of exquisite workman tants manufacture lace and hosiery in their own homes. B. has ship. Towards the close of the Bronze Age in Central Europe, considerable charitable endowments, two free schools, and an the size of the B. was greatly reduced, and a custom prevailed considerable charitable endowments, two free schools, and an of burying in vast cemeteries like that of Hallstadt (containing of burying in vast cemeteries like that of Hallstadt (containing extensive union workhouse. Pop. of township (1871) 1963. upwards of Iooo graves), in which interments of burnt, unburnt, Barrow Point and Strait, the former considered the and partially burnt bodies are accompanied by weapons and most northerly point of continental N. America, in lat. 7I~ 23' implements of bronze as well as of iron, in which the forms pecuN., lat. I56~ 3I' W. (see BELLOT STRAITS); the latter being the liar to the Bronze Age were for a time reproduced. The barrows continuation westward of the passage called Lancaster Sound, of the Iron Age are most numerous in Scandinavia. The KongsS. of the island of N. Devon, and crossing the northern outlet of hoi at Upsala in Sweden, and the grave-hills of King Gorm and Regent Inlet, have both been named in honour of Sir John his wife Thyre at Jellinge in Jutland, are well-known illustrations Barrow (q. v.). of the enormous size of the barrows of this period. In the Viking time, the sea-king was placed in his B., seated in his ship, with Barrow, etymologically, is the modern form of the old Eng- his arms and accoutrements around him. Sometimes the B. lish beorh, first a mound for defence, then a heap or cairn for itself was made in the form of a ship, with great stones set for whatever purpose. The word is not derived, as commonly said, the prow and stern. The zVjal Saga and the old English poem from byrian, to bury, but byrian is derived from it. B. is now of Beowutf describe instances of B.-burial, and the funeral obse. exclusively used to denote a mound of earth or stones raised quies performed at the rearing of the barrows of the Homeric over the remains of the dead. Though this form of sepulture period are detailed in the Iliad and Odyssey. Consult Bate. was specially characteristic of the prehistoric periods, it con- man's Vestiges of the Antiquities of Derbyshire, London, I848; tinued in many parts of Europe down to the introduction of Worsaae's Primevial Antiquities of Denmark, London, 1849; Christianity. In countries that have been long under cultivation, Macpherson's Antiquities of Kertch, London, I857; Kemble's the smaller barrows have mostly disappeared. Yet the number Horre Ferales, London, I863; Stuart's Preface to The Sczuptured existing in the Orkneys has been estimated by Captain Thomas Stones of Scotland,, Spalding Club, I867; Thurnam's Ancient at about a thousand. In Scotland and Ireland they occur in British Barrows, in Archceologia, vol. xliii. 1872; Fergusson's groups, of which Clava, near Inverness, and Moytura, near Rude Stone Monuments, London, I872; the Proceedings of the Sligo, are examples. The Moytura group consists of upwards of International Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology, and of the sixty barrows, many of them chambered. Scandinavia and N. Societies of Antiquaries, passinz. Germany are studded with these grave-mounds. Upwards of Gerany are been enumeratstudded with these gin Frave-mounds.nce. They are numerous of Barr'ulet, in heraldry, a diminutive of the bar (q; v.), occu-, have been enumerated in France. They are numerous pies on the shield the fourth part of the width of the bar, and in Spain and Portugal. The magnificent chambered B. of Ante- half that of a Closet (q. v.), th other diminutive. quera, near Malaga, Andalusia, is one of the most remarkable in Europe. The mound exceeds oo00 feet in diameter, its chamber Bar-sur-Aube (' the stronghold on the Aube'), an ancient measures 80 feet in length by 20 feet in width, and Io feet in town in the department of Aube (Champagne), France, and a height. Ten stones on each side form the walls. The end is a station on the railway from Paris to Mulhouse, with considerable single stone, and the roof is covered by five stones, the largest of trade in wine, corn, hemp, wood, and wool, and some manufacwhich is 25 feet long, and 2I feet broad. When the chamber is ture of calicoes, brandy, paper, tablecovers, and vinegar. It not of this megalithic construction, the upper portion of the side- stands on the right bank of the Aube, here crossed by a bridge, walls is built so that each stone projects a little further inward from which, at a spot now marked by a chapel, the Bastard of than that below it, thus forming a rude dome-shaped roof. Bourbon was thrown into the river (1440) by order of Charles i, 290 BAR TifE GLOBE ENACYACLROPZDIA. BAR VII. On the 25th February 1815, the Allied Powers met at B., poverty, February 22, i8o6. A writer on art subjects as well as and fixed the plan of the war which resulted in the first over- a painter, his collected works with a memoir prefixed appeared throw of the Empire; and two days later Schwarzenberg gained in 2 vols. I809. a decisive victory here over the French under Oudinot and Mac- Barry, Martin, M.D., F.R.S., an eminent physician and donald. Pop. (1872) 4356. physiologist, was born at Fratton, Hampshire, in I802, and died Bar-sur-Seine (' the stronghold on the Seine'), a town in at Beccles, Suffolk, 27th April I855. His Researches in Embryothe department of Aube, France, on the left bank of the Seine, logy are published in the Philosophical Transactionzs of the Royal 15 miles S.W. of Troyes, with an extensive wine trade. The Society of London for I838, 1839, and I840. Allies, commanded by the Prince of Wiirtemberg, defeated the Barry Cornwall. See PROCTOR, BRYAN WALTER. French here, March I814. Pop. (I872) 2443. Barr'y, Marie Jeanne Gomart de Vaubernier, Con- Bars-Gemelles (Fr. jumeau, jtmelee, a twin, from the Lat. tesse du, the central figure for a time in the licentious court of gemelus, a diminutive of geminus), in heraldry, twin barruletsLouis XV. of France, was born at Vaucouleurs, the birthplace that is, barrulets disposed in couples, or borne in pairs. of Joan of Arc, Ig9th August I746. Her father was an excise- Bartan', a town of Anatolia, at the mouth of the Chati-su, man of the name of Vaubernier, her mother a dressmaker, named or Bartan-su (the ancient Parthenius), whose name still survives B6cu or Cantigny, who survived till I788. On the death of in that of the town. B. has a good trade with Constantinople. her father she went to Paris. There, as a nun, as a servant, and Pop. estimated at o,oo00. as a milliner, under the name of Mademoiselle Lange, she lived a Bar'tas, Guillaume de Salluste du, a Gascon poet, born chequered and disreputable life. At last she became the mistress at Montfort, Armagnac, in I544. His reputation, brilliant durof the Comte Jean du Barry-Ceres, commonly known as Le ing his lifetime, dimmed shortly after, and now extinct, was Rune, and one of the rakes of the period. Introduced by him based on a long poem on the creation and early history of the to Lebel, the valet of Louis XV., and by Lebel to the king, her world, a work of which thirty editions passed through the press youth, beauty, and somewhat coarse wit, fascinated the sexage- in six years, and which is thought by some critics to have influnarian voluptuary. She became his favourite, and having gone enced Milton considerably in writing Paradise Lost. La Prethrough the ceremony of marriage with Count Guillaume du Barry, mi/re Semaine or La Creation is considered the best part of the brother to Count Jean, she was in i 769 introduced to the court as work, while La Seconde Semaine, an enumeration of the deeds Comtesse du Barry. Till the death of the king in 1774 she ruled of primeval heroes, is admitted to be about the worst. 13. wrote France, and never was its court so corrupt and shamelesslyimmoral L'Urane in early youth, in praise of poesy. 7dith, L Batailie as under her rule. Although a woman of no refinement or taste in d'Ivry, and some pieces addressed to the Queen.of Navarre and any sense of these words, she yet patronised artists and men of to King James VI. of Scotland, were quite ephemeral. B. in letters, because she feared them. After the death of Louis XV. his poetry indulged largely in the use of compound words, and B. was dismissed the court, and sent to the convent of Port-aux- this led Sylvester (q. v.), his translator, to compound English Dames, near Meaux; and although she was subsequently allowed words, and thus to reduce the expressiveness of the English lanto live on a pension at the mansion of Luciennes, which the old guage. B. was also a soldier and a diplomatist, and died in king had built for her, she never attempted to take part in public 1590 of wounds received at the battle of Ivry. The most comlife. During the frenzy of the revolutionary period, she was, on plete edition of his works is that of I6II. the orders of Robespierre, arrested, tried on the charge of conspiring against the republic-chiefly because she was asserted to Barter is the exchange of a commodity for anything except have worn mourning for the king in London, whither she had money, the exchange for money being called Sale (q. v.). As gone to dispose of her jewels-condemned, and guillotined 7th civilisation advances, exchange of commodities increases. Each December I793. Of all the female victims of the revolution, B. one finds it more profitable to have some fixed employment, and alone showed a want of courage at the last, shedding tears on to exchange the produce of his labour for the produce of the her way to the place of execution, and imploring her life of the labour of others, than to endeavour to make everything for himself. Then the effecting of exchanges becomes itself a business. mob. The only works that can be consulted with confidence on self. Then the eecting of exchanges becomes itself a business. the history of Madame du B. are Lacretelle'sdHistoire de Francegen- This business ultimately splits, and we have the wholesale and the dnt he hdisx-huitiame Sicle, and Moufle d'Angerville's La ViePrivee retail dealer. While the price of the article is thus increased to deaLoluis XV. (Lond. 1781). The so-called d Memoires de Mieme. la the consumer, it is less than he could get it for without the interComtesse du B. (Par. I829-30; new ed. 1843) are believed to be mediate dealer. Yet in reality B. is not extinguished by this the fabrication of Pal Lacroix et La Mothe-Langon. process. The exporter, instead of getting a remittance of money Barry, Sir Charles, a celebrated E:nglish architect, born for the goods exported, probably imports a cargo of some other arryin London in Charl795, studied his art in Englishand under Messrs goods, with at least a part of the proceeds of the export; that is, in London in I795, studied hisart in'England under Messrs he exchanges on B. 0 Middleton and Bailey, and afterwards travelled over the Con- he exchanges on B. It used to be maintained that for the mer~Middleton and Bailey, and afterwards travelled over the Con- chant to deal in this way. was not conducive to national wealth, tinent and part of Egypt to improve and liberalise his knowledge. chant to deal n ths way was not conducive to national wealth, His first important work of a public character was the Church of and that a cash remittance for the whole value exported was St Peter at Brighton, which made so favourable an impression the proper thing. For an exposition of the fallacy of this view, impression see BALANCE OF TRADE. The simple commercial law is now that his design was chosen by the Church Building Com s see BALANCE OF TRADE. The simple commercial law is now that his design was chosen by the Chrch Building Commis- hapily generally understood, in England at least —hat what is sioners for their seal. Another fine work of B.'s was the Man bestfor the erchant is bestfor the community. chester Athenaeum, in the Greek style; and a still finer was King Edward VI.'s Grammar School at Birmingham, a Gothic Bart'feld, an old royal free town on the frontiers of Galicia, structure. The College of Surgeons, Travellers' Club, and the in the county of Saros, N. Hungary, on the Tepla, 95 miles N. of Reform Club were also constructed from his designs,, but the Debreczin, noted for its chalybeate springs. It was once an most splendid and enduring monument of his genius is the New important centre of trade between Galicia and Hungary, and its Houses of Parliament -'a dream in stone,' according to the archives are very rich in historical documents. Even yet it has happy phrase of the Russian Emperor Nicholas. B. received some trade in wine, brandy, and linen, and many thousands the honour of knighthood (1842) on the opening of the Victoria of bottles of mineral water are annually sent to all parts of the Tower, and died at Clapham, I2th May I86o. He was buried country. Pop. 4222. in Westminster Abbey. Barth, Heinrich, a celebrated African explorer, was born Barry, James, a painter, born at Cork, October Ir, I741, at Hamburg, February I6, 1821. He studied at the University displayed at a very early age a taste for drawing, and, before of Berlin, specially devoting himself to archaeology and philology, he was twenty-two years old, gained the patronage of Edmund and in 1844 took his degree and crossed to London, there to Burke, who supplied him with the means of studying art in learn the English and Arabic languages. In I845 he set out on Ireland. He went to England, and obtained a high reputation his first great African journey; explored the entire N. coast of by his historical paintings, which were characterised by power the continent, travelled through Arabia, Palestine, Asia Minor, if not by delicacy of finish, and of which the Victors at Oly)mpia and Greece, and returned in 1848 to Berlin, where he gave a was the chief. B.was made professor of painting at the Royal series of lectures on ancient geography, and published his Academy in 1786, but being a quarrelsome eccentric man, he Wanderungen durch die Kiisteniznder des Mittelmeeres in den was removed from the post in I799, and died in comparative yahren I845-47 (vol, i. Berl. 1849). The influence of the BAR TSHE GLOBE ENC YCcLOPEDI-A. BAR Chevalier Bunsen procured leave for B. and Dr Overweg to Villenave's Notice sur les Ouvrages de yean 7. BartZkdemy (Par. accompany the British political and commercial expedition to i82I), with a valuable atlas. B. died at Paris, 3oth April 1795. Central Africa, headed by Mr James Richardson. In I850 they Barth6lemy-Saint-Hilaire, Jules, member of the Instistarted from Tripoli, to which B. returned in 1855, after having tute, was born at Paris, 19th August I805. Before and after the explored 24 degrees of latitude and 20 of longitude, over I2,000 revolution of 1830 he supported democratic principles in Le miles, most part of which had been untrodden ground. He Globe and Le Bon Sens. In 1834 he became a tutor of French crossed the Great Desert, visited for the first time many native literature at the tcole Polytechnique, and in 1838 Professor of states in the Fellatah country, traced the course of the Niger for Greek and Latin Philosophy in the College de France. B. several hundred miles, and resided at Timbuctu for seven months. appeared in the Constituent Assembly of 1848, at first supThese results are given fully in his Reise und.Entdeckungen inporting Barrot and the candidature of Napoleon. On the INord und Cewranlrafaika (5 vols. Gotha, I855-58, English trans1r tin iC li 85 i (558) vos Gotha di 8 8 Egi trans Ger lidit dicoZip d'dtat he refused the oath to the new government, and relation in 1857-58), a work displaying true German solidity, signed his chair, to which he was not'reappointed till 1862. He excelling in a clear perception of things physical, historical, and was a member of the Corps Legishtif in 1869, and was elected ethnological. In I863 B. was made Professor of Geography in the in 1871 to the Assembly, where he supported Thiers. Between University of Berlin, and President of the Geographical Society. 1837 and 1846 he translated the Politics, Logic, and Psychology His other works are Reise von Trapezunt dcr6c/i dise nhdl. of Aristotle into French. He has also written on the AlexanLsidfte Kfeinasiens nach Skutari (Gotha, i86o); ]neise duntrch drian School of Philosophy, on the Vedas, on Mohammedanism, alads Innere der Europ. T'rkei (Berl. 1864); and an unfinished d on uddhism. See his works: Le Boudisme (855), Des Sammlung und Bearbeitung Centralafrik. Vocabularien (Gotha, ds (a854), Boonudh cm see elis on (1859, 3d ed. 1862), and I862-64). B. died at Berlin, November 25, I865. See Life by Mgakom(el59ce Coran (1865). Koner ~n the Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fiur Erdkunde zu Berlin (vol. i. pait I, Berl. I 866). Barthez', or Barthbs, Paul Joseph, a celebrated French physician, born at Montpellier, iith December 1734. After Barth, or Bart, Jean, the favourite naval hero of France, serving in the army, he was, in I 759, appointed to a professorship son of a fisherman, was born at Dunkirk in I65I. He first at Montpellier, which soon became one of the most famous served in the Dutch navy, was next captain of a privateer, and medical schools in Europe. In 178I, in consequence of diswas then commissioned to cruise the Mediterranean by Louis putes with his colleagues, he removed to Paris, where he was XIV., who shortly afterwards appointed him lieutenant of a named consulting physician to the king. The revolution deman-of-war. Being made prisoner by a superior English force, prived him of his places and emoluments, and he left Paris; he escaped from Plymouth, and reached France after a voyage of but he was recalled by Napoleon, who loaded him with wealth nearly 200 miles in an open fishing-boat. For this exploit he and honours. B. died I5th October I8o6. Of his works, which was made captain. Eluding the English fleet, which was blockad. are numerous, and on a variety of subjects, the best known are ing the French ports, he inflicted much damage on the Dutch; his Nouvelle Mecanique des ZMouvenzents de l'Homme et des Aniand for this he was appointed to the command of a squadron in maux (Carcassone, I798), and his JNouveaux Alemzents de la I697. His bluntness, as much as his undoubted skill and Science de l'Homme (Montpellier, 1778; 2d ed., much enlarged, courage, made him a favourite with the king. The peace of Par. I8o6). See Lordat's Exposition de la Doctrine Medicale de Ryswick deprived him of further opportunity of signalising him- P. 7. B., et Me'nmoires sur la Vie de ce Medecin (Par. I8I8). self, and he retired to Dunkirk, where he died, 27th April I702. Bartholin, the name of a Danish family, the members of See Richer's Vie de _7ean Bert (Par. 1780), Poirier's Eloge which have distinguished themselves in medical science and Historique de Yean Bart, &c. (1807), and Vanderest's Histoire de literature.-Kaspar, born at Malm6, 12th February I585, 7ean Bart (Par. 1841). studied medicine at Padua, was made Doctor of Medicine at Barth6l'emy, Auguste-Marseille, born at Marseilles in Basel in I6Io, became Rector of the University of Copenhagen 1796, studied at the College of Juilly, and early devoted himself to in I6I8, and Professor of Theology in I624. He died I3th July the composition of political satire in verse. Going to Paris (1822), I630. Of his forty-nine publications, the most important is his he produced, along with his fellow-townsman M. Mery, several Anstilutiones Anatomnice (Wittenb. i6ii). He left six sons, all powerful pieces, such as Les Sidiennes (I825), La Villeliade distinguished by their writings. Of these, the most celebrated (1826), Les 7esuiles (1826), all directed against the Conservative was Thomas B., born 20oth October 1616; became Professor Legitimists, and suggesting regret for the Empire. Le Pvils de of Anatomy at Copenhagen, I648; Physician in Ordinary to the e'Homme (i.e., Napoleon II., King of Rome and Duke of king, Christian V., in I670; Councillor of State, I675; and died Reichstadt), brought upon B. three months' imprisonment and 4th December I68o. Besides his works on purely medical suba fine, just on the eve of the revolution of July, which he and jects, he wrote valuable treatises on antiquities, and on natural Mery celebrated in L'Znsurrection, and the sentence itself in philosophy. He was an ardent defender of Harvey's doctrine of La Bourse et la Prison. A pension from the Louis Philippe the circulation of the blood. Among his works on biblical angovernment (speedily withdrawn) did not alter B.'s political tiquities are his treatises De Morbis Biblicis (Copenhag. i672), principles, or silence his active pen. The fifty-two satires known and his Disquisitio Miedica de Sanguine Vetito (Frankf. 1673). collectively as Nentesis and Nouvelle Neme'sis (i834), did not His sons, Kaspar B. (born i654, died 1704), and Thomas B. spare the successive ministers who tried to make a good con- (born I649, died i69o), were also distinguished-the one as an stitution out of a bad charter. Even the comparatively liberal anatomist, and the other as an antiquarian. Guizot was scandalised. B.'s latest poem was Les Deux JMarseilles Barthol'omew Fair, formerly an important market, asso(I858). He supported the Second Empire, and died librarian of ciated in various ways with the literature and history of England, Marseilles, 23d August 1867. His brilliant verses depend chiefly was first held at West Smithfield, London, in I 133, under charter on contemporaneous politics for their interest; but such sayings as granted by Henry I. to a monk named Rayer or Rahere, at one'L'homme absurde est celui yui ne c/hangejamais,' are more likely time a court fool, but subsequently the founder of St Barthoto live. B. translated the zEneid into French (4 vols. 1835-38). lomew's Church and Priory, and also of the famous Hospital of Barthelemy, Jean Jacques, known as Abbe B., was the same name. The fair continued to be held annually on born at Cassis, 20oth January I7I6. Educated for the Church, the 24th of August, the festival-day of St Bartholomew, and in he devoted himself to the study of oriental antiquities, especially addition to the usual buying and selling, soon became remarknumismatics. Appointed in I745 assistant to De Boze in the able for the miracle-plays, mysteries, and the later moralities cabinet of medals, he classified an immense number of these performed by the monks of the adjoining priory, for athletic antiquities, including those of the Petterin Collection. The sports and popular games, and for the public disputations and Palmyran alphabet and the mosaic of Palestrine were special rhyming contests of the scholars from the various London subjects of research. In 1788 he produced his celebrated work schools. In the 14th and 15th c. it was one of the most flourishVoyage du jeuneAnacharsis, in which, in the form of a narrative ing fairs in England, chiefly for cattle, cloth-stuffs, leather, and of travel through Greece in the 4th c. before Christ, he re- pewter, and was a great place for theatrical booths, shows, corded his immense stock of erudition relating to the ancient exhibitions, mountebanks, acrobats, &c. The priory was aboworld. The best edition of the Anacharsis (which was trans- lished on the suppression of religious houses by Henry VIII. lated into English in I794, and into German by Fischer and in 1546, and the hospital, along with the charter, was transferred Haupt I836) is that published by Didot (Par. 7 vols. I799). See to the London corporation. The fair now began to decline as a 292 BAR THE GLOBE N'C EYCOPAEDiA. BA place of traffic, and towards the end of the x6th c. a street of massacre, it must be remembered that a long civil war, marked houses was built on the site of the Cloth Fair, a name which by atrocious cruelty on both sides, had just been raging all the street still retains. Ben Jonson's play of Bartholomew Fair, over France. It is impossible not to connect it partly with the which was produced in I614, gives a vivid picture of the jun- rapidly-growing influence of the Jesuits, of whom Augier and kettings of the old gathering. In I593, the year of the great Maldonet had just become famous in Lyons and Paris. See plague, for the first time the fair was not held, and for various Audin, Histoire de la Saint Barthelemy d'airs les Chroigques et reasons it was also postponed in 1603, in 1625, in I630, in I665, les Manuscrits dn I6me Sikcle (Par. I829); Soldan, Hist. of Proand in I666. Hitherto it had usually lasted only three days, but testantism in France to Death of Chas. IX. (I855); and Ranke, after the restoration of Charles II. it was prolonged to a fort- Civilt Wars and Mo narchy in France in I6th and I7th Centuries, night. So much, however, had it lost its character for trade, translation by Garvey, 2 vols. Lond. I854. that it was found necessary to restrict it to three days in I691, Bartholomew's, St, Hospital, Smithfield, London, oriand also, its duration having again increased, in 17oo. It had ginally part of a priory for black canons, founded in IIO2 by been already represented as a nuisance in I70O, and the traffic Rahere, a jester at the court of Henry I., was established for a now rapidly declining, it soon became a yearly spectacle of master, eight brethren, and four sisters, who were to take charge riotous amusement and debauchery. The fair was removed to of those who needed its benefits. Henry VIII. granted it a new Islington in i840, where it feebly struggled for existence, till it charter, and the endowment was enlarged by Edward VI. There was finally abolished in I855. See Henry Morley's Memoirs of are now over 6o00 beds, and 70,000 patients are relieved annually. B. F. (Lond. I859, new ed. I874). The medical school attached to it is deservedly famous. Barthol'omew, St, one of the W. India islands, lies among Bar'tizan, a small, overhanging turret projecting above doorthe most northerly of the Lesser Antilles, about 25 miles S. of ways, as well as from the angles and other parts of mediaeval the British island of Anguilla. It exports sugar, tobacco, cotton, buildings. and cocoa, and is the only colonial possession of Sweden, to Bart'lett, William Henry, artist and author, born in which country it was ceded by the French in I784. Chief town, London, 2gth March 1809, became a pupil of the architectural Gustavia. Area, 35 sq. miles; pop. 2800. antiquary Mr John Britton, and after a time was employed to Barthol'omew, St (Heb.'son of Talmai'), one of the make finished drawings from nature for the Cathedral Antiquities twelve apostles, is conjectured to have been Nathaniel, because and the Picturesque Antiquities of English Cities, which have the latter seems to be ranked as an apostle in John xxi. 2; he made the name of Britton famous. B. supplied the illustrations was brought to Jesus by Philip (John i. 45-50); and in the from nature of a work on Switzerland, to which Dr Beattie, his catalogues given by the evangelists B. and Philip are always friend, and the companion of his travels, contributed letterpress. put together. Of his subsequent history there are nothing but Similar works, the result of the same copartnery, were subsevague traditions. In the Latin Church his festival is held on quently published with great success, the subjects being the the 24th of August; in the Greek Church, on the I Ith of June. Waldenses, Scotland, Ireland, Holland, Turkey, America, &c. A spurious gospel with his name was among the Apocryphal Later, B. wrote his own descriptive matter for his pictures, the books condemned by Pope Gelasius. See APOCRYPHA. chief of his works which he thus illustrated with both pen and Bartholomew's, St, Day (called by the French La St pencilbeing Walhs about erusalemt Forty Days in the Desert, Barthelemy), is the day which has given name to the massacre of The Overland Route, Footsteps of our Lord, Pictures of Sicily, and the Huguenots at Paris on 24th and 25th August 1572, and fol- The Pilgrim Fathers. He died 12th September 1854, on his lowing days. A great number of Huguenot noblemen and their passage by steamer from Malta to Marseilles. followers had come to Paris to celebrate the marriage of Henry Bartoli'ni, Lorenzo, an Italian sculptor, born at Vernio, of Navarre (a Protestant leader) with Margaret, youngest sister of Tuscany, in I777, studied in Paris, and at the beginning of the Charles IX.; which took place on I8th August. On the 22d an present century carried off the second Academy prize by his attempt was made to murder the Admiral Coligny. This may basso-relievo Cleobis and Biton, which in ideal purity and simhave caused disturbance among the Huguenots (the despatches to plicity is said to be unsurpassed by Canova. This work estabthe Protestant princes of Germany alleged this as an excuse for lished his reputation, and Napoleon, Denon, and others, gave him the massacre), but, from whatever cause, the King was, on the 23d, commissions. Among the works executed by him in France persuaded by Catherine of Medicis, his mother, the Duke of Anjou were the colossal bust of Napoleon now in the Louvre, and a (afterwards Henry III.), his brother, Tavanne, De Retz, Birague, magnificent statue of the Emperor, never delivered to governand Nevers, to consent to a general massacre. The instructions ment owing to the affairs of I815, and now in America. On were given to the French and Swiss guards, and to the civic the fall of the Empire, he returned to Florence, where he exeauthorities, by Guise, whose father had been murdered by Hu- cuted numerous busts, and the groups of Charity, Hercules and guenots. Besides Coligny, Rochefoucault, Teligni, Ramus the Lycus, &c. In I845 he produced the Nymph and Scorpion, a philosopher, and De la Place the jurist, all the leading Hugue- delightful picture in marble, proving in its beauty that age had nots, and all those in Paris, were murdered. The massacre was not dulled his genius. B. died 20th January I850. repeated at Meaux, Orleans, Lyons, and elsewhere, on a smaller Bartolome'o, San, a town in the province of Benevento, scale. In six weeks 50,ooo Huguenots are supposed to have S. Italy, on a branch of the Fortore, about 50 miles N.E. of been killed. On the 26th the King stated to the Parliament Naples. It stands in a hilly region, and has a pop. of 5400. that he was responsible for what had been done. Philip II.ar warmly approved of, and offered to assist, the process of exter- Bartolozz'i, Francesco, an Italian engraver, born at Flormination. Pope Gregory XIII. (following the traditions of ence in I730, came to Londoi in 1764, and was invited in I8o6 Pius V., who had opposed the Jesuits to the Huguenots), went to Portugal, where he obtained an appointment and a pension in solemn thanksgiving to the Church of San Luigi, and had a from the King, and died April 1813. Of great taste, invetion, medal struck in commemoration of the event. It was thought and talent, the fame of B. at one time eclipsed that of almost at one time that the massacre had been planned by Catherne all rivals. His engravings are very numerous (over 2000); but (the queen-mother) and Alva, at a meeting which took place at among the best known are his Didon, after Cipriani; Sierce, Bayonne in I564, shortly after the edict of Amboise; and that Barth of Pyrrhs, &c., after Carracci; Massacre of Znnocents, Charles, in signing the Edict of Pacification of St Germains- after Guido; and The Death of Chatham, after Copley. en-Laye (I570), and in receiving Coligny at Paris, was acting Barton Beds. See BAGSHOT BEDS. a part. The true view seems to be that a liberal Catholic Bar'ton, Bernard, an English poet, born in London, 31st party had been formed, consisting of L'Hopital, Montmorency, January I784, became a clerk in Woodbridge Bank in I8Io, and &c., who, along with Coligny, desired to break with Spain and continued in this employment till within two years of his death, assist William of Orange. It was Montmorency who arranged i9th February I849. He published Metrical Efusions (I812), the pacification. Charles, impatient of his mother's restraint, at Poems by an Amateur (i818), Poems (1820), and Napo5leon aand first sided with this party, made a treaty with England, and sent other Poems (I822), which gained for him considerable reputaGenlis to Flanders. Latterly he became jealous of the influence tion, and the friendship of Southey, Lamb, and Byron. Later of his brother Henry with the old Catholic party, and veered works are The Reliquary (I836) and Household Verses (I845). round at the last moment, in the hope of making his own posi- There is a sweet and gentle purity in B.'s verse which wins tion more secure. As regards the extent and ferocity of the respect, but his genius, though true, is not strong. Selections 293 * BAR LTHE GL OBE ENC YCY GOPZIEIA. BAS front the Poems and ZLeters of Bernard Barton were published that the rock affords direct evidence of its age, as it must have by his daughter in I849. See Gurney's Memorial of Bernard been formed later than underlying and previous to superimBarton (Lond. 1I847). posed strata. Basaltic rocks are especially characterised by their Barton, Elizabeth, or the Holy Maid of Kent, was in the tendency to assume a columnar form, magnificent examples of year I525 a barmaid at Adlington, and subject to epileptic fits. A which are afforded by the Giant's Causeway in Ireland, Fingal's priest named Master persuaded her that she had divine visions. Cave, off the west coast of Scotland, and Samson's Ribs, in the She joined a nunnery, where Fisher, More, and others, saw her neighbourhood of Edinburgh. The columns are sometimes and believed. In I533 she announced a divine message that, easily separable, and divided by transverse joints, as in the case unless Henry VIII. forbore from his divorce from Catherine of the Giant's Causeway; at other times they are firmly emand marriage with Anne Boleyn,'he should not be king one bedded in a rocky matrix. In chemical composition the B. of day, and should die a villain's death.' On arrest, B. confessed Fingal's Cave contains per cent. 47'80 of silica, I4'80 of alumina, her imposture, and was beheaded "(2Ist April I534), with five 13'o8 of oxide of iron, 12'89 of lime, 6'84 of magnesia, and small priests, her accomplices. She was probably as much sinned proportions of potash, soda, and manganese. Owing to its hardagainst as sinning. For opposite views, see Burnet's and Lin- ness and power of resistance, B. is well suited for street paving gard's Histories. and road metal, but it is not in any favour as a building material. Barton-on-Hum'ber, an ancient market-town in Lincoln- Some ancient Egyptian statues carved out of B. exist. Messrs shire, 6 miles S.W. of I-ull. Its ferry, referred to in Domesday Chance of Birmingham at one time made a dark-coloured glass Book, had its tolls fixed in the reign of Edward III., but the by melting the Rowley Rag B. altered conditions of locomotion have caused it to be disused, Bas'cinet. See HTELMET. and another to be established 6 miles farther down the river. ~B. hasatrdior ndmlt afctrsfbrcstle, Base, in architecture, one of the three parts of a column, B. has a trade in corn and malt; manufactures of bricks, tiles, which consists of B., shaft, and capital. It is divided into the pottery, ropes, sacking, and sailcloth; and quarries of oolite and which consists of B., shaft, and capital It is divided into the plinth and mouldings, the chief of the latter being the torus. chalk. The tower of St Peter's Church was built, it is thought, an Doric is the oly oe of the lassical orders which before the close of the IIth c. St Mary's is a large and beautiful he Grecan Doric is the onlyone classical orders which has no B13. The proportion of the height of the B. to the lower structure of the 14th c. Pop. (i871) 4332. diameter of the shaft varies considerably, but it is most frequently Baru, a woolly substance found at the base'of the leaves of about the half of that diameter. Saguerus saccharifer, one of the sago.-palms of the Malay Archipelago. It is used to caulk ships, stuff cushions, &c. Bar'uch (Heb.'blessed'), the friend and amanuensis of Base, in heraldry, the lower part of a shield or escutcheon, Jeremiah (Jer. xxxii. and xxxvi.), was thrown into prison along technidally' distinguished from the side and the chief. It is with that prophet, where they remained till the capture of divided into the dexter or right, the middle, and the sinister or Jerusalem by the Chaldoeans, B.C. 586.- On their release, he left B.-the right and left being those of the wearer of the shield, first resided with Jeremiah at Mizpah (_7s. 4Ant. x. ix. I), and not of the spectator. A change placed on any part of the B. is then accompanied him to Egypt (Jer. xliii. 6, 7). According to said to be in B. See SHIELD. one tradition, he died there; according to another, in Babylon. Base, in surveying, is a line very carefully measured, the Baruch, Book of, one of the Apocryphal books, professing length of which is used as a starting-point in the calculation of to have been written by B., the friend of Jeremiah, in Babylon, the lengths of the other liies in the survey by means of measured about B.c. 581, although it contradicts this itself (cf. B. i. 2, and angles. The original B. for the Ordnance Survey of Great Jer. xliii. 6, 7). It divides itself into two parts: the first (i.-iii. Britain was measured upon Hounslow Heath. Other bases have 8), from its style, seems to be a Greek translation of an original also been measured upon Salisbury Plain, at Belhelvie Links, Hebrew text; the second is in good Alexandrian Greek. The Lough Foyle, &c. book as it now exists probably dates from about B.C. I60. At Base-Court (Fr. basse-cour), an outer yard or court of a the end of B. in the Vulgate (6th chap. in English version) there feudal- mansion for stables and the accommodation of servants. stands a pretended letter of Jeremiah to the exiles in Babylon It was distinct from the chief quadrangle in front. against'idolatry, which may probably be assigned to the Ist c. In old MSS. of the LXX it stands after Lamentations. Base of Operations, a military term denoting a port, a stretch of sea-coast, a river, or mountain range, on which the Leguminous tree growing on the Btr, of hap~ia ciida,_a le general of an army can rely as a magazine for supply of food, Leguminous tree growing on the tropical coasts of W. Africa. forage, and ammunition; a place for retreat after disaster, and The wood is very dense, and of a deep-red colour. It is im- to which the sick and wounded may he sent; the end' of a line ported in considerable quantities from Sierra Leone as a dye- of open communication to which- fresh troops may be sent, and wood, yielding a bright, but rather fugitive red. woodBaryidtai See BARIUM. rather fugitive-red. from which they can safely advance through a hostile' country, or any other similar necessity to an invading army. Bar'yton (Ital. viol di Bardoni),- an obsolete musical instru-;Bas'edow,'ohann.:Bernhard, properly Johann Bement. It had a finger-board,' and seven strings played on by a red B.,'was born at Hamburg, 8th September 1723, studied bow, and under the neck were other strings which could be founded by the fingers. - -' philosophy and theology at Leipsic (I744-46), was first a private ~~~sounded by the fingers.~ ~ tutor in IHolstein in 1753, became a teacher in a Rilterschule at Bas, or Batz, one of many small French islands in the English Saroe, and in 176i was transferred to the gymnasium at Altona. Channel, lies 3 miles N. of Roscoff, department of Finisterre. The reading of Rousseau's'Enite (published I762) inspired him It is 3 miles long and 2 broad.''B. has a lighthouse standing Iwith a desire to revolutionise the methods of instruction followed 223 feet above the sea, and is strongly fortified. in the schools of Germany, and he issued the prospectus of an Basalt', a variety of igneous or volcanic rock of a dense Elementar- Werk, which excited much enthusiasm. The work compact texture, dark-green or black colour, composed of very was published, with pictorial illustrations, in I774. Called to minute crystals of augite, Labradorite;-and magnetic iron, with Dessau (i77i), he established there (I774) a Philanthropyin, or frequently crystals of olivine. The composition of basalts, how- boarding-school, the pupils of which were to be disciplined in ever, vary considerably, and the name is given to rocks more all studies-physical, intellectual, and moral, while the textaccording to' their external characteristics than on account of books were to be'-free from those theological peculiarities which their intimate structure."' To any compact, dark-coloured; igne- separate Christians from Jews, Mohammedans, deists, and disous rock of recent or Tertiary origin,' the name B. is frequently sidents, or, as they are called in some places, heretics.' In I778 applied, and rocks of similar appearance and structure of more he withdrew from the institution. The remainder of his life was ancient date are known as Melaphyre. Dolerite and anamesite devoted to the propagation of his educational ideas through are also rocks which differ only from B. in the size of the crystals numerous'writings. He died at Magdeburg, 25th July I790. of which they are composed. - Basaltic rock's occur fither in the It is difficult merely to praise so one-sided a man as B.; yet such form of intrusive dykes or narrow sheets shot up through pre- was his intellectual ardour that he often threw out ideas and existing deposits, of tabular sheets intruded horizontally be- suggestions the value of which has since been recognised. The tween beds already formed, or of contemporaneous sheets poured deeper study of the mother-tongue, the introduction of modern out over the surface of the ground. It is onily in the latter case languages, and the extension of realistic instruction, can be 294 -. BAS TIM. GLOBE ENCYCLORPiDM. BAS partly traced to this pedagogic Ishmaelite. B.'s idea that edu- union with the Greek Church (then under negotiation with John cation should be something real and living, something more than Paloeologus) could be more conveniently treated there. The the meagre fare of the old classicists, has been enforced anew in Council, which had previously renewed the declarations of Con. the present day, with more genius and learning, by his great- stance as to the necessity of frequent councils, and asserted its grandson Professor Max MUiller. See Rathmann, Beilrdge zur supremacy in questions of faith, extirpation of heresy, and reforLebensgeschzichte B.'s aus seinen Schriften und andern echten mation of the Church (even of its head), now passed their'caput Quellen (Magdeb. 1791); and Meyer, Charakter wnd Schriften Considerans,' declaring the dissolution null, which, like most B.'s (2 vols. Hamb. 1791-92). of their proceedings, was immediately notified to the Emperor Basel (Fr. asle, or Be), a canton and city of Switzerland Sigismund, Charles VII. of France, &c. In succeeding sessions The canton, bounded by Aargau, Solothurn, and Bern, by France they prohiited Eugenius from making or publishin carinals and hy the Rhine, has an area of 177 sq. miles, and was divided or promoting to cathedrals, directed him to recall his denunciain I833.into two half-cantons, Basel-stadt or Basle-ville (Basel- tions of Sigismund (who had threatened to refuse papal coronacity), and Bas-andscif or Bsl-camagne (Basel-cuntry), tion), and declared that, in the event of a vacancy, the election city), and B7asel-landschafl, or B~asle-cam~pagne (Basel-country), of a new Pope'Woul take place in the Council. They further the respective populations of which in I870 were 47,760, and smnew Pope would tae place in the Council. They further 54,127.:B.-city consists of the city and two small districts summoned Eugenius and all cardinals to B., pronounced tem N. of the Rhine, with a strip adjoining the city walls on the S., cotumacious on non-appearance, and finally, by thefamous while the rest of thecantonforms B-country The canton, caput -'Sancte Catholica, nisi intra 60 dies,' they suspended stretching on the N. slopesof the Jura, here called Hauenstein, and avocted all ecclesiastical causes to the Pope from'Office, and advocate'd all ecclesiastical causes to is, in the main, hilly; the district in the neighbourhood of themselves. Owing chiefly to the intervention of Sigismund, city is fertile in corn an wine, and much of the remainder is Eugenius at last (I433) issued his bull,'Dudum Sacrum,' recall. c~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~ity his ferissletinorn, and wofringhe, andmchs of the reounderil. rich in pasture-land. The inhabitants are employed in agricul- ing his dissolution, and confirming the acts of the Council. ture, the breeding of cattle, and in fishing; ribbons are largely This had been preceded by a'Formula of Adhesion.' In the manufactured, and there are besides manufactures of woollens, meantime the Council had granted the use of the cup to the linens, paper, and leather. Calixtine Hussites, and now proceeded to abolish the right of aThe city of B had its origin in the fortress Basilia (first nnates, and the right of presentation to non-Roman benefices, mentioned 372 A. D.), about 4 miles from Augusta Rauracorum, and to pass a number of reforming measures affecting the elecmeniond 3:2.D., bou 4 ile frm uguta aurcormtions and the internal administration at Rome. A strange whose name still survives in the two villages K~aiser-A.ugst and tions ad the internal administration at Rome. A strange Base/-Ang~st. In 406 3B. came under the power of the Alemanni'rivalry then arose between Pope and Council, each striving to in 500 under that of the Franks, and at the division of the Aconduct the Greek union affair. The Greeks naturally wished in 500 under that of the Franks, and at the division of. theametninIlyadEueuscorngyrnltdth Frankish empire in 843 it fell to Ludwig the German. It was a meeting in Italy, and Eugenius accordingly translated the rebuilt by the Emperor Heinrich I., after its destruction by the Coucilfom B. to Ferrar where, ad at Florence, he proceeded Magyars in 97; next belonged to Burgundy for a time, and in to transact business, declaring all subsequent edicts at B. to be 1032 again formed part of'the German empire. The burgesses, 1032 again formed part of the German empire. The burgesses, worthless, and especially attacking that by which the C. of B. had gradually restricting the power of the bishops and the nobles, pronounced their independence of the Pope as regards translation pronounced their independence of the Pope as regards translation gradall resricing he owerof he bshos an th nobesor prorogation to be' fidel catholicoe.') Several articles of union and conquering or purchasing adjoining districts, raised B. to the poogtion to be'fidei catholice.' Several articles of union were arranged with the Greeks, the difficulties being the power rank of a free city. In consequence of continual feuds with the wee arranged with the'Grees, the difficulties being the power house of Hapsburg, it terminated its connection with the empire, claimed by Eugenius of holding councils in the absence of and joined the Swiss'Confederacy in 1501. In 1527 it adopted emperors and patriarchs, and the appeals to Rome. The the reformed doctrine, and after some years the bishop and chap- C. at B. now formally deposed Eugenius as guilty of simony ter left the city, and the convents were suppressed. The burgess (this was the specified penalty of his refusing to recognise the ter left the city, and the convents were suppressed. The burgessabltoofaaesndeecdAmeuVIIofSvya element was now triumphant, and such of the nobles as did not abolition of nnaes), and elected Amadeus VIII. of Savoy, a emigrate, had no privileges over the simplest citizen. Occasional feeble recluse, who assumed the name of Felix V. He was refieeble Franclue, whraon ansmd Milan andeeame of Fhei.H a e disturbances, caused by the undue assumption of authority by cognised by France, Arragon, and Milan, and several of the gra niversities, but not by the N~irnberg Diet. Cardinal the magistrates, alone varied the orderly and industrious citizen- great universities, ut not by the Niirnberg Diet. Cardinal life. The city governed the whole canton, with little regard to Jlian went back to Italy, and Cardinal Allemand took his the wishes and interests of the country district, the natives of place. On the death of Sgismund, the new emperor, Friedrich which saw themselves systematically excluded from all the III., exerted himself against the Council, which held its last whic sa thmsevessysemaicaly eclued romallthesession i6th May 1443 at Lausanne. Eugenius died in 1447, higher offices, while proper educational appliances were denied session i6th May t 443 at Lausanne. Eugenius died in 1447, them. Hence there was continual, though abortive, rebellion ad chiefly by the intervention of Charles VII., the few remaning fathers were in 1 49rcnciled to the new Pope, Nicoa. and in I831 a civil war broke out, the result of which was the ing fathers were in 449 reconciled to the new Pope, Nicolas V., separation of the city and country districts into sovereign half- Felix immediately resigning. The decrees of this Council, sub cantons in 1833, as stated above. The capital of B.-country sequent to the'translation, were afterwards condemned by Pius is iestal. By the federal constitution, proclaimed th May II.; the earlier, or reforming decrees, though not accepted by r874, B.-city sends two, and B.-country three, members to the the Church universal, have been much deferred to in France and is Lestl. y te fderl cnstiutin, rocaimd 2th ay the Church unive rsal, have been much deferred to in France and National Council. B.to-city has 34,457 Protestants, I2,3e r elsewhere, Bossuet maintaining their necessary connection with Roman Catholics, 496 belonging to other Christian denomina- the decrees of Constance in his Defence of ties Calicne Decarations, and 5o6 Jews. B.-country has 43,523 Protestants, Io,245 tion of 1682. See Messenberg, DieAigemeinen Concilien des 15 Roman Catholics, 228 belonging to other Christian denomi- d 6 ar. (Const. 840); and Voigt, Enea Sivia, a/s P(st nations, and 13I Jews. The Protestant and Roman Catholic Pis. ndsein Ziter (Berl. 856) clergy are alike paid by the state. The population of B. has Basel, Treaties of, two, concluded at Basel, 5th April and gradually diminished, one of the causes assigned being the diffi. 22d July 1795; the first between the King of Prussia and the cultylexperienced by a stranger in becoming a burgher, and liberty French' Republic, by which Prussia withdrew from the coalition to carry on trade being restricted to burghers. B. is divided against France, and ceded to France her trans-Rhenane possesby the Rhine into Great and Little B. The cathedral, built in sions; and the second between France and Spain, by which IoI9, contains the tomb of Erasmus, and there is a bridge over Spain ceded to France her portion of St Domingo. the Rhine built in 1226. The University of B. (founded'459) Bas has a valuable library, and numerous paintings by Holbein. natural a genus of tropical climhing-plants allied to the There is also a public library containing 70,000 volumes. natural order Chenopodiaceae. One species yields a purple dye, another furnishes an edible root, while others are used as pot. Euler, and the three Bernouillis, were natives of B. See Ochs, herbs They are often grown as ornaments in greenhouses Geschichte der Stadt und Landschaft B. (8 vols. Bas. 1796-I822). Base'ment, Story. See STORY. Basel, Council of, called by Pope Eugenius IV., in accordance with the'caput Frequens' of the Council of Constance, Ba'ses are substances which-combine with acids to form salts. met 7th December 1431, the Pope being represented by the The aqueous solution of soluble bases, as a rule, restore the Cardinal Julian. (It had been originally called by Martin V., blue colour to litmus reddened by acids, change purple cabbage avowedly for the reconciliation of the Hussites and of the Pope infusion green, and yellow turmeric solution brown. Some with the Emperor.) In April 1432, Eugenius dissolved the bases combine directly with acids to form salts. This is the Council, and called another at Bonn, on the ground that the case with ammonia, strychnine, brucine, quinine, &c. Thus — ___95 ^ BAS THFE GLOBE ENC YCLOPAW/DIA. BAS H3N + HC1 = H4NC1 Basil, St, surnamed the Great, Bishop of Caesarea, was born at Caesarea in Cappadocia in 329, and was one of the Ammonia. Hydrochloric Chloride of most eloquent and spiritual of the Christian fathers. After Acid. Ammonium. studying at Antioch and Constantinople, he went to Athens, Others in combining with acids give rise to the formation of where he formed a friendship with Gregory Nazianzen. He water in addition to the salt. Potash, lime, baryta, and most was at one with the latter in his opposition to the Arians, for metallic hydrates belong to this class. which he was for a time persecuted by the Emperor Valens. KHO + HNO3 KNO3 + H20 He founded a system of monasticism, by the austerities of which J ~ N he probably shortened his life. B. succeeded Eusebius as Bishop Caustic potash. Nitric acid. Nitrate of potash. Water. of Cresarea in 370, and died Ist January 379. So universally was he beloved that pagans and Jews vied with Christians in Ban, an was part of ancient Palestine, to the excellence of its pastures. Jor- the expressions of grief; and in truth, the whole patristic age stretched from the brook Jabbok-the e border of f Gilead's does not show a finer nature, one in which wisdom, tact, tenderon stretche S.,d from the brook Jabbok-n the N. Thborder of Gileads its ness, toleration, and piety were more exquisitely blended. The on the S., to Mount Hermon on the N. The Jordan was its first edition of his works, in Greek, appeared in I532. Subsewestern boundary, and its eastern the Syrian plateau. Ash- first edition of his works, in Greek, appeared in I532. Subsetaroth and Edrei were the chief cities of B. under the Arorites, quent editions are those of Bale (I55I), Paris (both in Greek and taroth and Edrei were the chief cities of B. under the Arorites, Latin, i6i8), the Benedictine (Par. I72I), of which a new and whose last king, Og, with all his sons, was slain near the latter fine edition was published by the MM. Gaume (Par. i839). A city by the invading Israelites. The half-tribe of Manasseh complete translation of B.'s works into French by M. Roustan settled in this fertile country. In the Greco-Syrian period it was published at Paris in 12 vols. in iF47. was divided into four provinces, Gaulanitis, Auranitis, Trachonitis, Batanea-the name of the latter province, which belonged Basil'ica, from the Greek basilike, a royal residence, although to the tetrarchy of Philip, and afterwards to that of Agrippa II., there is no account of any' royal residence' in Greece specially being a Grsecised form of B. known by that name. The building in Athens called the Bashaw', a Turkish corruption of the Persian Pasha (q. v.). Basileios Stoa, or Royal Portico, seems to have been, as to the Bashi-Baz~ouks', irregulatr troops in the service of the purposes for which it was used, very mucli like a Roman B. ultan of Turkey, drawn principally from Asia. They formed a This edifice contained the court of the Archon Basileus, and the contingent during the RussianWar, r853-56, but though making Areopagus occasionally held its sittings there. The Romans, excellent light cavalry, their predatory habits made them as an object of historical importance, gave the name to public formidable to their friends as to their enemies. In I855 General buildings with spacious halls, of ten surround ed with wide porBeatson undertook to collect and discipline a corps of B.-B., ticos, many of which were built at different times in the vaous but peace being soon after concluded, their military capacity was forums of Rome, and which, in addition to their origina uses not tested. Dr William H. Russell describes them as. 4 pictur- forums of Rome, and which, in addition to their original uses noestue-stedrookin scoundrels.' H.Russelldescribesthes'pictur- as courts of justice, became market-places and mercantile exesque-looking scoundrels.' changes. They were usually named after the person who caused Bashi' Islands, some eight in number, form the most north- them to be built, as the B. zEmiliana: the B. Porcia, mentioned erly group of the Philippines, in the E. Indian Archipelago, and under date B.C. 182, is the earliest on record. The principal lie I20 miles S. of Formosa. Dampier discovered them in 1687, feature of the B. was a large roofed building, supported on and named them from an intoxicating drink (bashi) used by the columns. The roof, or testudo, rose high above the other parts natives. Since 1783 they have belonged to Spain. The exports of the structure, which consisted of two galleries, placed one are sugar, hemp, and tobacco. Pop. about 8000. above the other, and round the internal sides of the central Basidoh', an important British shipping station on the island building. Each gallery, orporticus, was covered with a lean-to of Kishm (q. v.), at the entrance to the Persian Gulf. roof, the upper part of which commenced below the capitals of the columns which supported the testudo. The earliest basilicas Basien'to, a river of S. Italy, which rises in the Apennines, were open, end and side, to the air; hence an instruction of flows in a southerly direction, and, after a course of 85 miles, Vitruvius that the B. ought to be built'on the warmest side of enters the Gulf of Taranto, near the ruins of ancient Metaapon- the forum, that those whose affairs called them there might confer tumn, and 25 miles W.S.W. of the town of Taranto. Bas'il, the common name for Ocymnum Basizicum, a dwarf plant belonging to the natural order Labiatre. It is generally cultivated as an aromatic pot-herb, and is used for flavouring dishes. Basil I., founder of the Macedonian dynasty of Byzantine emperors, was born in 813 or 826. Gibbon narrates with incredulity the story of his descent from the Persian Arsacidoe (q. v.). What is certain is that B.'s father was a small farmer near Adrianople, and that B. himself was carried off in infancy dur. ing an irruption of the Bulgarians, and was brought up as a slave in a foreign land. While still a youth he escaped with other Roman captives, and repaired to Constantinople, where in 854 he became chief chamberlain to the Emperor Michael III., whose concubine he married. He was created Augustus about 866, and having discovered that the Emperor had resolved on his destruction, B. caused him to be murdered, 24th September 867, and thenceforth ruled alone. His career as a sovereign is incomparably nobler than his life as a courtier. Gibbon (Decline anzdEial of the Roman ~Eng5ire, chap. xlviii.) finely expresses the difference:'His aspiring genius stooped to the arts of a slave: he dissembled his ambition and even his virtues, and grasped with the bloody hand of an assassin the empire which he ruled with the wisdom and tenderness of a parent.' To terminate -, religious disturbances, he removed Photius from the patriarchal. throne, and put Ignatius in his place. He reconquered Asia Minor from the Arabs, expelled their co-religionists from Italy, Basilica of St Agnese at Rome. and displayed the greatest skill in the civil administration of the finances and of the laws. In February 886 B. died of wounds together without being incommoded by the weather.' Latterly received while hunting the stag. There have been several edi. a wall, with the columns externally enclosed in it, surrounded the tions of his Capita Exhortationum, in sixty-six short chapters, building. Internally, a raised platform at the end of the central addressed to his son Leo. part of the building —that portion of it which was covered by the 296..*.,, _ _e BAS THE GLOBE ENC YCL OPEDIA. BAS testudo-served as the magistrate's tribunal, The light was ad- main. See Miller's P/idoso/hzumena (Oxf. I85r), and Hoofstede mitted between the spaces formed by the under line of the de Groot, Basilides (Ger. transl. I868). architrave of the tesztldo, the upper line of the lean-to roof of the porticus, and the perpendicular lines of the columns. The B. of Bas'ilisk (Basiliscus), a genus of lizards belonging to the family Trajan is the only one in Rome of which any considerable re- ZguanidE, and inhabiting mains are left. The most perfect B. of antiquity exists in tropical America. It wants the comb-like back ridge of Pompeii; it is built on the S.W., the warmest side of the forum.the co -lie back ridge of the true iguanas, but is proThe early Christian churches were constructed after the model of thvided with anas, broadut is pro-rsal these familiar buildings. The space under the tesludo became me wh the nave, the lateral galleries, ora5orticus, became the side-aisles, rane, which is conand the magistrate's tribunal the Apse (q. v.). There are several fold o churches in Rome each still named a B., the oldest of which, n the tail, and is sup that of S. Pietro, is said to have been built by Constantine on ported by the spines of the dorsal and caudal vertethe site of the circus of Nero. Throughout Italy, also, many of dorsal and caudal vebrte the principal churches retain in the name an evidence of the re. The'dewlap' of the Basilisk. original model after which they were built. The Roman B. iguanas is also absent, and the pores on the inner surfaces is, in fact, the form from which all Christian church-building of the thighs, seen in the iguanas, are also wanting. The top of arose. See LVibke's Geschich/te der lirchen Balukusnst des lit- the head is provided with a membranous sac, which can be alersZ (eips. 1865), translated. into English by Wheatley, with dilated by the admission of air. In habits, the basilisks are appendix and r84 engravings; 2d ed., Thos. C. Jack, Edinb. adapted for swimming, arid for an arboreal life. The teeth a1p73dix and r84 engravings;' 2d *d., Thos. C. Jack, Edinb. are attached to the inner surface of the jawbone. The common 1873' B. (B. Anmericanus) is a familiar species, and attains an average Basilica, a digest in Greek of the Latin Corpfs 2uris of length of 2~ feet. Justinian, made under the superintendence of three of the Greek Basilisk, from the Greek basiliskos, diminutive of basileus, a emperors at Constantinople-Basil I., after whom it is sup. king, was a fabulous creature of whom ancient and medieval posed to have been named; his son, Leo VI., the Philosopher; writers relate many wonders. It was found in the deserts of and Constantine VII., Porphyrogenitus, who reduced it to its Africa. Pliny describes it as a serpent, and says that all other present form in the early part of the Ioth c. From that time serpents fled at its approach; hence its name, rendered in the the B. was used as a code of jurisprudence in the Grecian Vulgate regulus, while in the authorised version of the Old Tesempire. Fabrot's edition (Par. 1674) and Heimbach's (Leips. tament the original tsiiponi is translated sometimes adder and 1833-50) are the best; but the latter contains various readings sometimes cockaltrice. Its breath scorched up all vegetation, and obtained by the collation of scveral MSS. not examined by broke stones in pieces; at its touch the flesh fell from the Fabrot. bones of animals, and its glance destroyed life. Many species had marks on the head which were supposed to resemble a Basilica'ta, a province in S. Italy, extends N. from the crown. If a man on horseback killed one of them with a spear, Gulf of Taranto, and is traversed by the Apennines. It is well crown. If a man on horseback killed one of them wth a spear, watered, and abounds in fertile valleys, but the roads are bad, bu the oison would run the middle weapons it wand kill not only the rider, but the horse. In the middle ages it was generally represented and earthquakes are frequent. The chief products are corn, as a lizard with eight feet. It is identified by many with the wine, tobacco, hemp, and liquorice. Area 4122 sq. miles; pop. cockatrice, which was believed to be produced from an egg laid (I872) 508,880. Potenza (q. v.) is the capital. by an old cock, and hatched by a toad. by an old cock, and hatched by a toad. Basil'icon Do'ron (Gr.'royal gift'), a prose work of James Ba'sin, in geology, the depressed surfaces seen in rock strata, VI., containing instructions to his son, Prince Henry, first which may be produced by subterranean. movements, by the soluprinted in I599; reprinted in London in I603; translated into tion and removal of underlying rocks, or by the action of glacier Latin verse by Henry Peacham, I604; paraphrased in English ice. Basins may be occupied by lakes, or may be filled up by forand Latin verse by William Willymat; and translated into mations of a more recent date-as in the London B., which is French by Villiers Hotman. It is divided into three books; occupied by clays and sands.-B. is also a term used in geography the first treating of a king's duty towards God; the second, of to denote the entire region drained by a river and its tributaries, his duty in his office; and the third of his behaviour in things or the space between two watersheds. Thus the B. of the Ganges indifferent. The Synod of St Andrews censured'the B. D. on is the area between the Himalayas on the N. and the Vindhya account of the doctrines it contained on church government. range on the S. We also speak of the B. of a lake or sea. Thus the B. of the Mediterranean includes all the regions in Europe, Basil'icon Ointment is a popular name for the officinal Africa, and Asia, the waters of which flow into that sea. ointment of resin. Its constituents vary in different countries. The chief ingredients are resin, wax, lard, and almond oil. It Ba'singstoke, an old market-town of Hampshire, 27 miles is employed as a stimulating application to foul and indolent N.E. of Southampton, and 46 W. S.W. of London by road, and ulcers. 48 by railway. It stands at the junction of four railways, and of five important roads, is also connected with London by two Basil'ides, one of the earliest Egyptian Gnostics, flourished canals, and has an active trade in corn, coal, malt, and timber. at Alexandria in the first half of the 2d c. His system of In I645 Cromwell stormed and burned to the ground Basing doctrine, by which he sought to account for the origin of evil, House, the castle of the Marquis of Winchester, after a defence was compounded. of materials borrowed from the Pythagorean of over two years. Near B. is an ancient camp, in the form of philosophy, oriental tradition, and the Jewish and Christian an embankment IIoo yards in circuit. B. is the election-town religions. The Supreme Being he did not venture to call by for the N. division of the county. Pop. (I871) 5574. any name, but indicated by a mysterious symbol, which represented the number 365 (in Greek numerals this was the letters Bas ervlle, John, well known for his services to typoabraxas). From the Supreme were created subordinate intelli.graphy, was born at Volverly, Worcestershire, in I706. In gences, of whom the angels, in 365 orders, were the lowest. I745 he engaged in japanning, into which art he introduced Each of these orders made a separate heaven, and by the lowest, improvements that became to him a source of considerable the chief of whom was the God of the Jews, the world was wealth; later, he turned his inventive talents to printing, and created. This chief wanted to subject all the nations to his succeeded, by cutting improved type, &c., in raising the art' chosen people,' but the other angels of the order leagued them- to higher perfection than it had ever attained in this country. selves against him, and the only result was strife, hatred of the His editions of a number of the classics, Bible, &c., are now Jews, and the loss of the true religion. To restore this, the very valuable as specimens of typography. B. was employed to Supreme sent the First of the Intelligences (Christ) to earth; print by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. He died at but he only took the appearance of a man under the figure of Birmingham, January 8, I775. Simon of Cyrene, who was crucified, while he returned to Bas'ket, a kind of domestic utensil made of interwoven osiers heaven. His followers maintained themselves till the 4th c., or willows, rushes, twigs, grasses, or other flexible materials. when they became extinct. Only fragments of his writings re- The art of B,-malking was probably one of the earliest arts 38 297 *6 —--------.4 —--— d BAS THSE GLOBE EXNC YOPSDIA. BAS practised by man, and at all times in the world's history un- a sotie of the Enfans sans Souci, was probably a favourite farce civilised nations have excelled in the art. Fragments of inter- of the B. The B. undoubtedly represent an original and fertile woven mats or other articles have been recovered from the tendency of the French mind, which did not get fair play under prehistoric Swiss lake-dwellings; classical authors tell us that the Renaissance. the B.-work of the ancient Britons was esteemed by the Romans; and natives of S. America at the present day construct Basque Provinces (Span. Las Provincias Vascongadas; vessels so closely woven as to hold water. The split-bamboo Basque, Enscaleria), the name generally given to the united prowork of the Japanese displays great taste and elegance of design, vinces of Alva, Biscayrenees, and Guipuzca, in Spain, situated at the and the minute wicker-work which occasionally encases their. corner of the Pyenees, and stretching W. along the Bay eggshell porcelain is unique. The most common materials for of Biscay. Total area, some 3000 sq. miles; pop. (1870) 47I,989. B.-making are osiers, which are extensively cultivated in the The country is generally mountainous, but is intersected by many fenny districts, and along, the river-banks of England. Those small rivers, and has numerous well-cultivated plains and valleys. of the Thames and the Cam are most valued. B.-work is a It presents a highly picturesque mingling of the pastoral and the coarse lkind of weaving, in which the warp is represented by Ihighland, a look of verdurous wealth being given to the landthe stout osiers, designed as main-ribs for the structure, and the scape by the oak, beech, and chestnut forests which clothe woof by the interwoven or wattled part. From the simplicity of elevated slopes. Agriculture is still in a primitive state, and the aoofthyetheintertoven is easil pacire, thers wl asoil is not rich. All the farms are small-the proprietor, his wife, the operations, the art is easily acquired, and is therefore well adapted as an employment for the industrious blind. and family being frequently the only labourers. Among the products are wheat, barley, maize, flax, hemp, fruit, and a Basnage', the name of a French Protestant family, several miserable wine called'chacoli' (Arab. chacalet, weakness), of members of which reached distinction in law, divinity, and which the Basques alone are fond. Corn only ripens in the more general literature.-I. Benjamin B. (born I580, died I652), favourable regions. The hills are rich in iron, copper, and tin, a theologian, whose treatise De l'Eglise (I612) was valued by and also in marble, porphyry, and jaspar. Besides farming, the his contemporaries.-2. Henri B. du Franquesnay, juris- chief occupations are commerce, fishing, iron-working of a rude consult, youngest son of Benjamin (born i615, died 1695), was kind, and smuggling. The Basques, or Euscaldunac, as they one of the most eloquent and able advocates in the Parliament of call themselves, make bad regular soldiers, but are celebrated Normandy, and, like his brother, was held in great esteem both for their obstinate valour in guerilla warfare. They form the by Catholics and Protestants. Among his writings are Coutumes backbone of the Carlist party, and it is amidst their rugged du Pays el D)uch' de Normandie (I678, I68I, I694), and Traite' fastnesses that the civil war which has long distracted Spain still des Hypthegques (I687, 1724).-3. Jacques B. de Beauval, (1875) lingers on. Long independent, they voluntarily submitted eldest son of the foregoing, and the most brilliant and accom- to the kings of Castile in the 13th c., but reserved many rights plished of the family, was born at Rouen, 8th August I653, (Jreros), privileges, and immunities, which they retain to the prestudied theology at Saumur, Geneva, and Sedan, and was or- sent day; as exemption from the salt and tobacco monopolies, dained to the ministry at his native town in I676. In 1685, on from conscription, &c. the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, he left France and settled The B. P. represent the Cantabria of the ancients, and, like our in Holland, first at Rotterdam, and afterwards at the Hague, Wales, form a corner of the land from which no power has been where he became minister of the Walloon Church. He also took able to dislodge the aboriginal inhabitants, who still preserve the an active part in state affairs, and gave himself to the cultivation marks of a distinct nationality in their government, language, of literature. He was largely instrumental in promoting the manners, and costume. Their origin is still a disputed question, alliance between England, France, and the States-General in but scholars generally favour the opinion that they are the descenI717. He died 22d December I723. Of his numerous writings, dants of the old Iberi, who occupied the whole of the peninsula we can only mention La Communion Sainte (Rotterd. I688), before the immigration of the Celts, and that they belong to a admired by Catholics as well as by Protestants; Histoire de stock or family of nations who peopled Europe before the l'Eglise (Rotterd. 1699); Histoire des 7cuifs (Rotterd. I7o6); advent of the Aryan races. (See ARYAN.) Their language Dissertation historique sur les Duels et les Ordres de Chevalerie (Euscara or Esquera) shows no trace of connection with any (Amsterd. 1720), a work full of curious erudition.-4. Henri Aryan tongue, and is probably Turanian. Four dialects are B. de Beauval, brother of Jacques, born at Rouen, 7th August in use, but their literature is unimportant, consisting chiefly of I656, was practising as an advocate there when the revocation of proverbs, songs, and popular plays on political and historical the Edict of Nantes forced him also to seek an asylum in subjects. See the Grammars of the Basque Language by Blani Holland, where he died, I9th March I7io. He is the author of (I854) and Lardizabal (1856), the Lexikon by Chaho (I856), Tolerance des Reelgions (5684), Hisloire des Ouvrages des Savants Humboldt's Untersuchunfgen iber die Urbewohzner iispaniens (1687), and Dictionnaire Unziversel (170o).-5. Samuel B. de (i821), Mahn's Denkmiiler der Bask Sprache (i857), and the Flottemanville, grandson of Benjamin (born i638, died at works of Michel (i857), Blade (i869), and Garat (I869). Zutphen, 172I), wrote, among other works, Annales politicoecciesiastici Annorumn 645 a Caesare 2Augusto usque ad Phocam Bas-Relief' (Ital. basso-rilievo, low relief). Figures which (Rotterd. I706), and De Rebus sacris etecclesiasticis Exercitationes project only in a slight degree from the ground on which they historico-critice. are sculptured receive this appellation, in contradistinction to those of middle and high relief. See ALTO-RILIEVO. Basoches' (a corruption of Basilica, the palace of the king), a corporation of law-clerks connected with the procureurs who Bass, or Base, in music, is, whether played or sung, the lowest attended the Parliament of Paris after it had ceased to be the'part'-the one which forms the foundation of the harmony. King's Council. Created by Philip the Fair about 1303, the B. Among stringed instruments the B. part is taken by the violoncelli had many privileges: a king, wearing a cap like that of the and double basses; among reeds, by the bassoons and contra-basFrench king, a blue and yellow standard, many officers, a legal soons; among brass instruments, by the ophicleide, bass trombone, jurisdiction in disputes of members, a right to issue currency, bombardon, &c. Among voices, that which sings the B. part is the curious right of'plantation d'arbre,' &c. Every July they called the B.: it is the lowest male voice, and its compass is in held a grand review, followed by a dramatic representation. This last was a species of morality, farce, or sotie, half-way be- ordinary cases all these notes being chest notes. tween the Religious Mysteries (played by the Brotherhood of the Passion), and the Feasts of Fools, and the modern drama. The B. began with abstract moralities, in which the characters had names, Bass'a, Great, a port of the Liberian Republic, Upper Guinea, such as Honte-de-dire-ses-Pch, Es rance-de-longue-vie, &c. Africa, with a considerable export trade in pepper, coffee, cotton, They soon introduced allusions to passing events, and being I They soon introduced allusions to passing events, and being and cocoa. The vicinity is rich in tropical fruits, such as lemons, found politically troublesome in the early disputes of the ISth and c oo a. The vicinitop. about l fruits, such as miles c., these farces or satires were suppressed till the reign of Louis bananas, i s a maritime village of some size. XII., who licensed their performance in the grand saloon of the Palais. They were again suppressed in 1540, but it is said Bassa'no, a town in the province of Vicenza, N. Italy, on the the B. received about the same time a royal grant of the Pre'- Brenta, 40 miles N.W. of Venice, with large silk and straw-hat aux-clercs. L'avocat Patelin, although sometimes described as manufactures, and a trade in wine, olives, and leather. It was 298 BAS TiHE GLOBE EIVC YCL OPXEDIA. BAS the scene of a victory of Bonaparte over the Austrians, under genus. The Indian butter-tree (B. butyr-acea) yields a useful Wurmser, September 8, 1796; and near it other battles took lardaceous oil, which keeps sweet for a great length of time. place, 6th November 1796, Ilth November i8oi, 5th November Some species are important timber-trees, and others yield, in 1805, and 3Ist October 1813. The French statesman Maret addition to their valuable oil, alcohol and medicinal products. was made Due de Bassano in 1811. Pop. 12,2o7. was made Duc de Bassano in i8i. Pop. 2,207. Bass'ompierre, Frangois de, a French marshal, diploma. Bassano, Giacomo da Ponte, an Italian painter, born at tist, and author, was born at the chateau of Harouel, in Lor. Bassano, 1510o, pursued his art in Venice, inspired by the master- raine, 12th April I579. A favourite at the court of Henry pieces of Titian, Parmegiano, and Tintoretto; retired to Bassano IV., he was appointed by the queen-mother (Marie de Medicis) on the death of his father, and died there in 1592. His Samson Col.-Gen. of the Swiss Guards, and fought bravely in the early Destroying the Philistines is, in parts, said to be not unworthy Huguenot wars of Louis XIII. Luynes sent him on embassies of Michael Angelo; and his Nativity and Flfijt into Egypt, in to Spain and Switzerland; and Richelieu sent him to England the style of Titian, compare not unfavourably with that master. to adjust the dispute about the dismissal of Queen Henrietta's After retiring from Venice, B. took to painting landscape, with household. B., who had become a marshal of France in 1622, animals and figures, and achieved great success in that depart- was present at the siege of Rochelle; but in consequence of his ment of art. He also painted many portraits of famous contem- attachment to the Guises, Richelieu, in 1631, threw him into the poraries-among them Tasso and Ariosto. His two eldest sons, Bastile, where he remained for twelve years writing his Meinoires Francesco (born 1541, died 1591), and Leandro (born 1560, (Cologne, 2 vols. 1665; Amst. 4 vols. 1723), which are valuable died I623), were also original artists of merit; the two younger, pieces of history for the period, 1598-I63i. B. died I2th OctoGiambattista (died I613) and Girolamo (died 1622), were chiefly ber 1646. He also wrote an account of his embassies (Cologne, noted for their skill as copyists. 166I). His Notes, written in prison on a copy of the Lives of Henri IV. and Louis XIII., are bold and bitter. They were Basse, or Sea-Dace (Labt-ax), a genus of Teleostean fishes published at Paris in i665. See M. de Puymaigre's Vie de B. incldedin he erc faily(Pecide).Thegens i rero-published at Pari~s in I665. See M. de Puymaigre's Vie de B~. included by the oPerch family (LPercidse). The genus is repre-f (1848). B. was brave and witty, but also licentious, and a fop. sented by the B. or sea-perch (L. luzpus), which is found chiefly on the southern coasts of Britain and in the Mediterranean. Bassoon' (Ital. fgotto), is a reed instrument, the bass instruAllied species-such as the striped B. of the United States ment of the Oboe (q. v.) family. It is made of wood, and furnished (L. lineatlts)-occur in American waters, and also in the Medi- with holes and keys in the usual way. A small S-shaped brass terranean Sea. The body of the common B. is elongated and tube is fitted to its narrowest end, and to the end of this a wooden perch-like, and measures usually from 12 to iS inches in length; reed is fixed, which is held in the performer's mouth. The combut may greatly exceed these dimensions, and may weigh 15 or pass of the B. is about three octaves down from middle-line Bb. i6 lbs. There are two dorsal fins. Teeth are borne upon the Its natural key, as commonly used, is Bb, but several varieties of jaws, vomer, palate, and tongue. The gill-cover terminates in the instrument are in existence, chiefly used in military bands. two'spines. This fish is valued as an article of food. The stone B. (Folyprion cerniozu) occurs in the S. Atlantic, in the Bass'ora, or Bas'ra, now Bussorah (Semitic,'fortress'), I also in old writers Balsorah, a town and river-port in the Mediterranean Sea, and on the coasts of America, but is rare writers Balsorah, a ton andriver-port in the on te ritish coasts. The dorsal fin is single, its front half vilayet of Bagdad, Asiatic Turkey, on the W. bank of the Shaton the British coasts. The dorsal fin is single, its front half e-rb omdb h ucino h irsadteEprts being spinous. This latter species feeds upon barnacles and el-Arab, formed by the junction of the Tigris and the Euphrates, other crustacea. T l si e o r s and about 70 miles from the Persian Gulf. It is a filthy and unhealthy town, and most of the houses are built of sun-dried Bassein'. Two towns in India are so named. —i. B., a clay, in some instances faced with burnt bricks. In the middle town and port of British Burmah, on the left bank of a river of of the i8th c., B. had a pop. of 15o,00ooo, which in 1824 had the same name, 6o miles from its mouth, with a pop. (1875) of sunk to 6o,ooo; after the pestilence and inundations of 1831, to 20,688. The B. district, one of the five into which the province 30,000; after the pestilence of 1838, to 12,000; and (according of Pegu is divided, has an area of 8o66 sq. miles, with 1485 to Schlifli) in 1862 was under 5000, chiefly Arabs and Persians. villages; pop. 322,689. Rice is the principal product of the The neighbourhood is naturally one of the most fertile regions district, which comprises most of the lower delta of the Irra- in the world, and with a little cultivation would yield abunwaddy. Over 9o,ooo tons of rice are shipped fiom the port of dance of the most various fruits; but the misrule of the Turk is B. annually.-2. B., in the presidency of Bombay, 50 miles N. ruinous to the land, and the date-palm is almost the only proof Bombay, a station on the Bombay and Baroda Railway, and duct of the region which is exported.'The date-groves' (Cononce an important city and fortress. It was held by the Portu- sular Report, 1874)'are of great extent and value: they form guese from I534 to 1765, when it was taken by the Mahrattas, an almost unbroken line, from I to 3 miles in depth, along both who surrendered it to the British in 1780. A treaty was signed banks of the Euphrates and Shat-el-Arab, from Medinah to the at B., December 31, 1802, by which the Peshwa, the head of the sea (i.e., for more than 140 miles).' In 1873 the yield amounted Mahratta power, received an English force into his dominions, to 35,754 tons. The fruit is sent to the ports of the Indian and prepared the way for his subsequent overthrow. The island seas, and thence transhipped to Europe. There is also a conof B., on which the city is situated, is separated from the main- siderable trade with India in horses, and caravans ply between land by a narrow channel, which affords safe anchorage for B. and the interior of Asiatic Turkey. At the time of the dateshipping. Pop. estimated at 5000. harvest, when all sorts of craft from the coasts of Arabia and Persia come to B., there is a short stir of life about the town. Bass'es, two groups of rocky islets, known as the Great and In 1862 the English Tigris and Euphrates Steam Navigation the Little B., S.E. of Ceylon; the former in hat. 60 8' N., long. Company put on a steamer to run regularly between B. and Bom81 30' E.; and the latter in lat. 6o-2o' N., long. 80~ 59' E., bay, and in I864 a telegraph wire connected B. with Kurachi in with a large granite lighthouse, erected in I875. India. According to the Consular Reports of 1874, the British and British-Indian shipping entered at the B. custom-house (for Basse-Terre (Fr.'lowland'), the capital of the English 1873) was 18 ships of 35,2o8 tons. The chief imports are coals island of St Kitt's in the W. Indies, was founded in 1623, and and piece-goods from England, tobacco from Persia, and coffee, has a good trade. The district was named B.-T. by the French, sugar, pepper, and wood from India. from its being the lower portion of the island, the portion occu- B was founded in 636 by the Calif Omar to cut off the Perpied by the French till 1713. Pop. of town 70oo.-[B.-T, is pied by the French till u POP Of town 7000 —B.-T o is sians from the sea, and to obtain the command of the Euphrates also the name of the capital of Guadaloupe, on the S.E coast and Tigris, and rose into great importance as the emporium of of the island. It is a handsome town, with a pop. of 15,000. Indian and Arabic wares for the califate of Bagdad, and as a Basse or(co di bsetto, an old reed instrument very seat of early Moslem poetry and scholarship. In the ioth c. similar to the clarionet in quality and compass. Ibn-Risaa instituted here one of the first learned academies of the middle ages, and in the 12th c. it contained 7000 mosques. Bass'ia, a genus of tropical trees of the order Sapotacece. Next to Bagdad it plays the most important part in the Ayrabian They have pulpy fruits, which enclose three or four seeds con- ights' Entertainmzents. In 1638 it fell into the hands of the taing a fatty oil. The shea butter-tree mentioned by Mungo Turks, and though it has firequently changed masters since, it Park has been referred, as B. P-arii, by some authors to this has finally remained in their possession. A great wall, 94 miles _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~299 BAS TE GLOBRE ENCYCLOPM]D4. BAS in length, has been built on the side nearest the desert, to guard The legitimacy or illegitimacy of the child of a married woman the town against the incursions of Arab robbers. living in adultery is a question of evidence for a jury to determine. Legitimacy is generally presumed unless it be shown to be physically impossible that the husband of the woman can be Bass Rock, a singular islet, some 2 miles off the Hadding- the father of the child. But access of the husband is not conclutonshire coast, near the entrance to the Firth of Forth. It is sive of legitimacy; and in the Banbury case, though access was precipitous and nearly circular, being about a mile in circum- clearly proved, the House of Lords decided that concealment of ference, and 350 feet high on the N.E. side, shelving down to birth of the child by the mother from her husband was enough the water on the S.W., where alone it is accessible, and where it to prove an adulterous issue. See FILTATION. was fortified at some uncertain date. The rock is of fine granu- A B. has no rights but what he acquires; being in the eye of lar greenstone, is traversed from N.W. to S.E. by an immense the law the son of nobody, he cannot be heir to any one, nor cavern, visible at low tide, and is the resort of vast numbers of have heirs hut of his own body. The law of England is especiaquatic birds, including annually, it is estimated, some 15,ooo ally harshas regardsbastards. Not only does it not allow a child solan geese. The Bass now belongs to the descendants of Sir born out of wedlock to be made legitimate by the subsequent Hew Dalrymple, and is rented by a keeper, so called. According marriage of its parents, but it has even been decided that when to vague tradition, it was tenanted by St Baldred in the 7th c.; a child is so born in a foreign country, and so made legitimate but the first authentic incident in its history seems to be that it according to the law of that country, it is still illegitimate in was the refuge of the son of Robert III., afterwards James I. of England, and subject to all the disabilities of illegitimacy. A Scotland, prior to his English captivity of nineteen years. It B. may make an effective will, but if he die intestate, his succeswas visited by James VI. in I58I, on which occasion'Lauder of sion falls to the crown. It is usual, however, for the crown to the Bass' stoutly refused to give up his property to the state. transfer its right to the nearest relative or relatives of the deIn I651 the Church of Scotland Registers were deposited here ceased B. In Scotland the law allows the legitimation of a B. in dread of Cromwell, to whom, however, they were surrendered by the marriage of its parents at any time. In both countries in the following year. Charles II. acquired the Bass for ~4000 the widow of a B. is entitled to the same legal rights as if her in i67i, and it was subsequently used as a prison during the husband had been legitimate. See LEGITIMATION. persecution of the Covenanters. It was afterwards seized by a chivalrous band of twenty-four Jacobites, who defended it with Bastard Eignf, in English law, is an eldest son, illegiticourage and pertinacity (I691-94) as the last stronghold in Britain mate, whose father and mother have been married subsequent to of the Stuart cause. Its fortifications were razed by order of his birth, and have had other children. William III. in I70o. See B. R., &c., by Hugh Miller, Dr Bastardy, Declarator of, in the law of Scotland, is the Thomas M'Crie, Rev. James Anderson, and Professors Balfour legal procedure by which the crown's donatory or donee asks and Fleming (Edinb. x848). to have it declared that the lands or effects of a deceased Barss Strait separates Tasmania from Australia. It runs bastard belong to him, in virtue of a gift from the crown. The E. and W., and is about 200 miles wide. Its centre may be said defender called in the action is the person who, had the to be at the intersection of the parallel of 40o S. and meridian of bastard been a lawful child, would have succeeded to him. 146' E. It contains many islands, the chief being King, Flinders, 146~ E. Itcontains many islands, thechief being Kirlg, Flinders, A D. of B. seems also to be competent during the life of Cape Barren, and Clarke islands. The strait bears the name of a bastard to any one who has a good title and interest to prove its discoverer, Mr Bass, surgeon of H.M.S. Reliance. After an the bastardy. (See under ACTION, Action of Dec/arator.) In unsuccessful attempt to reach it in a whaleboat from Sydney, England, the same objects may now be effected under the Bass obtained a sloop of 25 tons from Governor King of New Legitimacy Declaration Act, I858. South Wales, and in this vessel he not only discovered the strait Bastardy, Gift of. In Scotland the G. of D. conveys power (I798), but circumnavigated Tasmania. He was accompanied to institute a Declarator of Bastardy (q. v.), which is necessary in this voyage by Flinders, but to Bass himself the credit of to entitle the donee of the crown to the gift. discovering the strait entirely belongs. Bass Strait is now an important ocean thoroughfare. Basti'a, a fortress and seaport in the N.E. of Corsica, once the capital of the island, and still more important than the strictly speaking, many of the fmos t i mportant fibre s of' e, present capital, Ajaccio. A singular rock, resembling a lion strictly speaking, many of the most important fibres of commerce, couchant, and called by the natives'II Leone,' lies at the such as flax and jute, are the products of B. or liber, the term mouth of the harbour, which is defended by a mole. The is generally restricted to a few substances which retain much of chief Corsican courts sit at B. There are maufactures of leather their original bark structure in their industrial employment. chief Corsicand w ine, oil, and figs a rexported. B. has of leather Russian B., which is very largely employed by gardeners and s oa, rted. B. has regular for packing furniture, &c., is prepared from the bark of the steamboat communication with Ajaccio and Marseille. The lime-tree (Tiia Europaua), the B. being torn into strips -and town was founded by the Genoese Lomellino in I38o. The lime-tree (Ti/ia Europea), the B. being torn into strips and language spoken is Italian, but French is generally understood, very coarsely woven. The' tapa' cloth of the South Sea Islands language spoken 1$ Italian, but French is generally understood, is thvery coarsely woven. The'taro pa cloth of the South Sea Islands Corsica having come into the possession of the French in I768. is the B. of a tree (Broussonetia 2afyrifera), and this forms the Pop. about 20,000. chief paper-making material of the Chinese and Japanese. From the B. of the sack-tree (Anztraris saccidora) the Hindoos Bas'tiat, Fre'de'ric, one of the most brilliant, if not most and Singhalese prepare useful bags by beating the bark till it is profound, of political economists, was born at Bayonne,: 29th loosened from a portion of the stem, which is then cut out, and June I8oi. He became, like his father and uncles, a merchant, a plug of wood attached to the bark is left at the lower ex- and in his leisure hours studied political economy. An article tremity to form the bottom. In the W. Indies children's caps of his on English and French tariffs, in the 7yournal des Pcono. and small articles of dress are made from the inner bark of mistes, showed him to be opposed to protection in trade. He Lafgetta lintearia, the fibres of which interlace so closely that subsequently became the friend and ally of Cobden and the the material has a very lace-like aspect. In Brazil the papery English free-traders, whose speeches he translated into French. inner bark of the huge monkey-pot tree (Lecythis ollaria) is At the same time he opposed Prudhon and the Socialists. He used for wrapping up cigarettes; and under the name of Cuba died of pulmonary disease at Rome, 24th December 1850. B.'s B., the same part of Paritium elattum is employed for tying up works, one of which, the Harmonies Economigques, has been cigars. So-called B. brushes are made from the fibre of the translated into English (Lond. Murray, I86o) by D. P. J. Stirleaf-stalk of the Piacaba palm (Altalea exce/sa). ling, are written in an epigrammatic and sarcastic style, and are eminently readable. The best-known besides the one mentioned Bas'tard and Bastardy. By the law of England a child are osmes &onm igues (I846); ProSrieto et Loi, yustice el is a B. who is not born in wedlock or within natural time after are Soses 846); rri etoi sice e its determination. But if the child be begotten while the parents Fraternilte (I848); Protectionisme et Communisme (s849); Pain its et Liberte, ou le Budget ]eeaublicain (I849). The second edition are single, and they marry before its birth, the child is legitimate. of his UEuvres Coonx utes, in 7 vols., appeared in 5865. Again, though the usual course of gestation is nine months, the law is not strict on this point. See PREGNANCY; GESTATION, Bastide', Jules, a French publicist, was born at Paris, LAW REGARDING. - November 22, I8oo. He was one of the first members of the 300 52... -.......,|, __ __ A+ BAS THE GLOBE EVCYCLOPAEDIA. BAT French Carbonari, and fought gallantly in the revolution of July Bat, the name given to the members of the Manmmalian I830, after which he became conspicuous as a writer against order Cheiroqptera ('hand-winged'), the distinguishing characters the Orleans dynasty. In 1832 he obtained the command of of which group cona legion of artillery, took part in the insurrection of June 5th, sist in the elongation for which he was condemned to death, but managed to escape to of the fore-limbs, London, whence he returned pardoned in eighteen months. He and in the developafterwards established the National and the Revue Nationale, ment of the digits of special organs of republicanism, and at the revolution of i848, those limbs, which, held the office of Foreign Minister from May to December of with the exception that year. He contributed to M. Buchez's L'Hisloire a)arIia- of the thumb, are inentaire de la Revolution Francaise (5 vols. I845-47), and has remarkably long, published L'2dzccsation piublique en Fr-ance ( 847), L'Histohi-e de and serve to support I'Assezblee LZegislative (Ist vol. 1847), La Rg2 ublique Franfaise a patagiu, or fly-i el t'tlaiie enz 1848 (Brus. I858), Guerres de Retligion en France irgmembrane. This li (2 volS. I859, 3d ed. 1868). He has been one of the editors membrane, besides of the Revue de P]aris. stretching between the greatly elonBastille', also Bastide (Old Fr. baslir, to build). In the gated fingers, ex- Bat. I3th, I4th, and I5th centuries this word was used to denote a tends also along the Bat. camp surrounded by an enclosure of some kind, which gave it sides of the body, between the fore and hind limbs, and in many the character of a fortified work, having some resemblance to a instances between the hind-limbs and tail. The other characredoubt. The name was also given to any strong castle con- ters which distinguish the Cheiroptera. are included in the posstructed in masonry, and has acquired historical celebrity in con- session of one or two pairs of mammary glands borne on the nection with the work built during the reigns of Charles V. and breast. The third, fourth, and fifth fingers are destitute of VI. for the defence of Paris. Before their time the approach nails, the second digit generally wanting a nail also. The to the city, on the site now occupied by the Faubourg Saint- thumbs are always provided with hooked, claw-like nails, by Antoine, was defended only by two isolated towers. Hugues means of which these creatures suspend themselves from the Aubriot, provost.of the merchants, conceived the idea of erect- walls of their habitations. The bats are most active in flight, ing a fortress at this point. The works, begun in I369, were the patagium serving as wing-like organs, aided by the extenfinished in 1383, but additions were made at a later period. sion of the fore-limbs. They progress awkwardly on the During the civil wars in France, the contending parties often ground. When on the ground, the thigh-bones, from their posistrove for the possession of a stronghold that commanded the tion, are twisted backwards and upwards, the knee having the capital. From the first the B. was used as a state-prison. It is same position, and the toes being disposed outwards and slightly even said that Aubriot himself was its first inimate. In its later backwards; the fingers are also bent upon the palms of the form it had eight towers of five stories each, the rooms in which hands, the wing-membrane being folded upon the sides of the had no fireplaces. Larger apartments with fireplaces were con- body, the thumbs alone being extended. As thus placed on the structed in the walls connecting the towers, and were assigned to ground, the bats move with a shuffling, interrupted gait, by prisoners of inportance. The prisoners were first conducted to pushing themselves from behind with the hind-limbs, and pulling the governor, to whom the police delivered the lettre de cachet themselves forward with the thumb-claws. Besides suspending authorising their imprisonment. There was accommodation for themselves by the thumbs, the bats also attach themselves by about eighty prisoners. The capture of the B. by the Parisian the claws or nails of the feet, and thus hang head-downwards, mob, I4th July, was the beginning of the French Revolution. with the wing-membrane folded over the front portion of the Even the courtiers of the king recognised this. When the news body. The hind-feet usually possess five toes, which are all of was brought to Louis, he said,'Mais c'est une revolt.'' Sire,' proportional length, and are provided with strong hooked nails. answered the Duke of Liancourt,'c'est une revolution.' Its de- The patagium is generally destitute of hairs on both sides, and molition was decreed on the I6th, and with the materials the is of leathery consistence. The body itself is covered by a light, bridge of Louis XVI. was constructed. Not a vestige of the B. delicate fur. In the structure and disposition of the skeleton, exists, but its site is marked by a column in the beautiful Place the bats do not present many further peculiarities than those de la B. It has, however, occasioned a good deal of more or included in the elongation of the fingers. The neck vertebrae are less interesting literature. See Linguet's Mefizoires sur la B. large in proportion to the other spinal segments. The ribs are (Lond. 1873); Remnaryues historigues el anecdotes sur le Chdteou also large, and the chest is capacious. The breast-bone possesses de la B. (Par. 1789); La B. devoilee (Par. I789); Bojanowski's a keel-like crest or ridge, to which the muscles moving the wingErstiirmung der B. (I865); and Ravaisson's Archives de la B. like fore-limbs are attached. The collar-bones are strong. The (7 vols. I866-75). utna is most frequently of rudimentary description, the radius | Bastina'do (from the S~p. bastonado, the same as the bas. forming the chief bone of the fore-arm. The pelvic-bones are lonnade, from baston, now baton, a cudgel or stick), a Turkish long and narrow, and are not united in front at the pubis-a and Chinese mode of punishment, in which the culprit is beaten disposition of parts also seen in Insectivora. The fbsaiz, or I Olthe soles of the feet with a baton or cudgel. smaller bone of the leg, like the ulna of the fore-arm, is rudimentary. A special bone, known as the calcar, exists to the Bas'tion (Old Fr. bastir, to build), in fortification, is a part of inner side of the ankle-joint, and supports the wing-membrane. the main enclosure or'defensive works of a fortified town or other None of the bones are filled with air as in birds. Three position to be defended. It is a species of low, broad tower, kinds of teeth-incisors, canines, and molars-are present. In and the rampart by which it is formed is disposed on four sides those bats that eat fruit, the molars are tuberculate; whilst of a pentagon, two of which, technically called thefaces, are the they are provided with sharp-pointed cusps or processes in the outermost, and nreet in an angle, while the other two, termed the insectivorous forms. The stomach is most complex, and the tfanks, connect.the opposite extremities of the faces with the cur- intestine largest in the fruit-eaters. No caecum exists. The tain, which is that plain-wall portion of the rampart, usually a brain-surface is smooth, and destitute of convolutions, and the polygon, which is run round the fortified place. The fifth side of cerebellum, or lesser brain, is uncovered by the lobes of the cerethe pentagonal B. is generally unoccupied by the rampart, opens brum, or true brain. The senses of the bats are present in tolertowards the interior, and is called the gorge. The B. is mainly able perfection. The eyes are small. The ears are generally a mound of earth, capable of supporting heavy ordnance, and large, and these, together with the nose, may be provided with resisting the fire of the assailant; but it is faced and strengthened, folds of skin, of service in increasing the intensity of sound, and where the military engineer thinks needful, with stone or brick. in intensifying the sense of smell. The sense of touch is present When the interior of a B. is filled to the top with earth, rubble, to a high degree in the patagium. In habits, most of the bats are or other materials, it is technically called solid: it is a hollow B. nocturnal, and sleep by day suspended in the crevices of buildings, when its floor is level with the town. The detached B., or in caves, orin the recesses of trees. During winterthey hybernate. unzette, was devised by Vauban to enable the besieged to hold The food varies, some forms subsisting on insects, others on fruits, out after the main bastions were taken. whilst some (e.g., vampire bats) have attained a notoriety from 30o -W —- --------- -------- _ A —-- BAT THE GL OBE ENC YCZ OPEDIA. BAT their habit of sucking the blood of other vertebrate animals. The flowers, resembling those of a convolvulus, and large edible testes of the males are abdominal, but descend into the perineum roots, which are largely used as food in tropical countries. It at the breeding season. The uterus of the female may be horned, is cultivated throughout the globe wherever the climate is suitor present a rounded extremity. As an order of Mammals, the able, extending from S. America to the warmer parts of the bats present near affinities to the Insectivora (e.g., moles, shrews, United States in the New World, and from the Malayan &c.), and by most naturalists are regarded as insectivorous forms Archipelago to Japan in the Old. It is also grown in Spain. modified for an aerial life. Bat'avi, or Bata'vi (also Vatavi), a people first mentioned The Ctei-rojtera are divided into two sections. The Fr`tgivora, by Coesar, were an offshoot of the Chatti, a German nation, who or fruit-eaters, represent the- first of these. These forms are left their home, and, along with the Canninefates, occupied an distinguished by the number of incisor teeth, which do not the Rhine. This islandInsula atavor wa exceed four in each jaw. The nose and ears possess no foliaceous formed by the N. branch of the Rhine, by the Waal, and or leaf-like appendages. The hinder part of the stomach is thereafter the Maas, and by the sea. The B. were good horsegreatly elongated. With a single exception (I1ypodermza), all the men, and served as cavalry in the Roman army. In. D. 69 they Frugivorous bats possess nails on the second finger of the hand. rose in rebellion under Claudius Civilis, but were completely The crowns of the molar teeth are marked by a longitudinal subdued. They remained, however, exempt from taxation, and groove. These bats, sometimes termed'fox bats' from the fox enjoyed the title of brothers and friends of the Roman people. or dog-like shape of the head, possess elongated muzzles. The After the 3d c. they disappear among the Salian Franks. tail is short or wanting. Incisor and canine teeth exist in both The Batacian Republic was the name applied to the Netherjaws, and the molars are tuberculate. The Pteropidae, or fox lands after the change of their constitution by the French, I6th bats of the Eastern Archipelago, of which the Kalong B. (Pteropzs May 1795, and retained till 5th June I8o6, when Louis Bonaparte edulis) may be cited as an example, represent this group. This was declared King of Holland. family includes several other genera-such as lypaoderczo, Hfarpyia, &c. These bats do not refuse to eat birds, or even Bata'via, the capital of the Dutch possessions in the E. mammals of small size. They are chiefly inhabitants of Java, Indies, situated on the N.W. coast of Java, at the mouth of the Borneo, Australia, and Africa. They are not found in the New Tjiliwong, is the chief emporium of the Eastern Archipelago. World. Its proverbial unhealthiness has been considerably modified by The second group of bats is the Insectizvora, or insect-eating draining the marshes, by a better arrangement of the streets, and forms, whilst some suck the blood of mammalia. The second other sanitary improvements. The town is intersected by canals, finger of the hand is nailless in these forms. The molar teeth and the harbour affords anchorage for large ships. The Dutch are provided with cusps, and number more than six or less established a factory here in 1612, but when Holland became than four on each side of each jaw. The incisors may number subject to France, B. fell into the hands of the French. It was four on each jaw, or four above and six below, but are occasion- taken from them in ISII by the English, who restored it to the ally present in less number. The nose and ears are usually Dutch in i8I6. A telegraphic cable has been laid between B. provided with curious leaf-like appendages, giving to these bats a and Singapore, which threatens to divide with it the trade of the most singular appearance. The tail is long, and may be pre- East. A railway from B. to Buitenzorg has been worked since hensile. The Vesperti/ios dia form the first family, and are re- 3IstJanuary I873. Pop. (I872) 65,ooo.-The province of B., in presented among many others by the little Pipistrelle (V. p~ii- the N. W. end of the island, is in general flat, and owing to the strela), which forms the common British species; by the Long- scarcity of water, not quite so fertile as other districts of Java; eared bat (Plecotus aurilus), distinguished by the length of the but it produces rice, coffee, sugar, tobacco, rattans, tea, pepper, ears, which meet above the forehead; and by the Noctule (V; fruits, and vegetables. The forests in which it once abounded noct/ua), which measures 6 inches in length, and about I5 in have been cut down for the use of the sugar-factories. The expanse of wing. In this family the nose has no leaf-like ap- Chinese element is rapidly increasing, and the principal induspendages. The -Rhinolop5hid&, or horse-shoe bats, possess leaf- tries are now mostly in their hands. There are sugar-works like hasal appendages. In other respects they resemble the and distilleries, tin, copper, and dye works. The religion of members of the previous family. The greater and lesser horse- the natives is Mohammedan, and the language is a mixed tongue, shoe bats of Britain (Rhinaoloplus ferr m-equinun and R. hip- known as the Low Malay. Pop. (I872) 40I,563, of whom 4145 posideros) are examples of this group. Their popular name is are Euopeans, 4I,I37 Chiese, 943 foreign orientals, and the derived from the form of the nasal appendages. The PhyZlos- rest natives. torzide or Vampires form the last family of the order. The Batawa' Palm. See (ENocARPUs. ears in these latter bats are small, and the nose has foliaceous appendages. The canine teeth are large, and four incisors exist Bat'enburg, a small town in the province of Gelderland, in each jaw. The vampires are found only in tropical America. Netherlands, on the Maas, 26 miles S.E. of Utrecht, chiefly in eac jaw.The vmpire are ound oly intropial Amrica.notable as the Oppundm Balavom of the romclans. The typical vampire (Phyllostoma spectrum) measures about 21 feet in expanse of wing. These forms suck the blood of Bath, the largest city in Somersetshire, lies on the Avon, in birds and larger mammals-such as horses, cows, &c. —although the N.E. of the county, Io miles S.E. of Bristol, and Io6 W. of it appears they attack man only tinder exceptional circumstances. London by railway. It was long the gayest watering-place in Darwin mentions the fact of a horse having been bitten, the the kingdom, and is still one of the most beautiful cities of bite leaving no bad effects save a little inflammation, which soon Europe, nestling in a well-wooded valley, and built of fine white disappeared. freestone or oolite obtained from quarries in the vicinity. Its The bats are first represented as fossil organisms in the Upper principal buildings are the Abbey Church, with a tower I50 Eocene rocks by the Vespertilio Parisiensis of the Gypseous feet high; St James's and St Michael's Churches; an assembly, series of Montmartre, in France. In Miocene, Pliocene, and theatre, and concert-rooms; a museum, guildhall, club-house, Pleistocene rocks, other species of this genus occur. The andt the establishments connected with its baths. There are Rhinolophaidce are found in cave-deposits, and the vampires occur also two public parks, a philosophical institution, a mechanics' in similar deposits in Brazil. institute, a subscription library, and many high-class schools. B. has almost no manufactures, and owes its importance prinBatan'gas, the capital of a province of the same name, stands cipally to its hot chalybeate springs, of which there are four, on the W. coast of Luzon, the largest of the Philippines, 50 having a temperature of from 97~ to II7~ F., and discharging miles S. of Manilla. It was founded in I58i, and carries on 184,320 gallons daily. The complaints chiefly benefited by considerable trade. Pop. of town and province, I7,000. the waters are palsy, rheumatism, gout, scrofula, and diseases Batar'deau (diminutive of Old Fr. bastard, a dyke; per- of the nerves, bile, and skin. From the middle of the I8th c. haps from bastir, to build), a strong wall built across the ditch the time of the Regency of George IV. was perhaps the most of a fortification, with a sluice-gate to regulate the height of the brilliant period in the history of B., and it still continues to be a resort of the fashionable. It sends two members to Parliament. Pop. (187I) 53,704, greatly increased occasionally by Bata'tas, a genus of Dicotyledonons belonging to the natural visitors. The springs of B. were known as early as the Ist c. order Convolvulacee, embracing about twenty species. B. edulis to the Romans, who had here a station called AquiT Solis, or yields the sweet potato. The plant has handsome purple.|Aqu Ca/ine or SCuda/s. The present name was given to it 30o2 BAT THE GLOBE EINCYCL OPD IA4Z. BAT by the English conquerors, to whom it was known as Lat Empire the custom prevailed of men and women bathing indisBathan, also Acemannes Ceaster (' city of the sick man'). The criminately together. This was indeed forbidden by several first extant charter of the town dates from the reign of Richard emperors; but the baths became by degrees the scenes of unI. In Io9I the see of the Bishop of Wells was transferred to B., bridled debauchery. It was a common way of courting popular and since II1135 the bishopric has been styled after both places. favour to give the people the free use of baths. Agrippa carMany valuable Roman remains have been found, including exten- ried this so far as to erect I70 free baths; and he too was the sive remains of baths. first to cQnstruct the palatial edifices known as T7ermtc, where Bath. The practice of bathing has existed from the earliest the citizens thronged to enjoy the pleasures of gymnastic extimes. It seems to have had a moral significance, a connection ercises and of bathing, bnd which were splendidly adorned with being generally recognised between'the bodies washed with pictures and statues. The baths of Agrippa were far surpassed pure water,' and'the hearts sprinkled from an evil conscience.' by the baths of Titus, and they in turn by those of Caracalla, Among the Egyptians it was a religious rite. Among the Jews Diocletian, and Constantine. Indeed, the necessity for propitiatit formed part of the ritual of purification prescribed by Moses; ing in this and other ways the indolent and exacting populace and the reference to'pools,' as Hezekiah's and that of Siloam, of Rome was one of the earliest signs, as it was one of the chief indicate the existence of provision for public bathing. Among causes, of the decline and fall of the Roman empire. the Greeks, also, the practice was familiar. It is frequently The code of Mohammed enjoins frequent ablutions, and hence mentioned by Homer, as in the charming scene in the Odyssey the practice of bathing is common in all countries that have where Nausicaa and her companions bathed in the river. The adopted the religion of the Arabian prophet. Among northern cold daily B. in the Eurotas was a prominent feature of the nations the use of the B. was long unknown. Tacitus, indeed, hardy training of the Spartans; and their use of a chamber speaks of the cold river-bath of the Germans, but this, like the heated with warm air supplied the Romans with thle name plunge of the Spartan in the Eurotas, was designed to harden Laconzicsm. Very little, however, is known of the nature of the rather than to purify the frame. It is believed that the first baths of the Athenians. Among the Romans in early times the knowledge which the northern Europeans obtained on the subject B. was used sparingly, and only for sanitary purposes. In the dates from the period of the Crusades; but, as some one has days of the Empire, the appetite for it became immoderate, and wittily remarked, a great many ages of civilisation passed over it degenerated into an enervating luxury. We have abundant the nations of Western Europe before it occurred to the people means of forming a clear idea of the arrangement of the Roman that they ought to wash themselves. At the root of this baths from ancient writers, from the remains in existence, as the dangerous neglect were ignorance of physiological law, and Thermie of Titus, Caracalla, and Diocletian in Rome, and es- some superstition, originating perhaps in the coarser forms of pecially the public baths excavated at Pompeii in I824-25, and monachism (unhappily not yet quite extinct even among those also from the well-known picture, given below, found upon a who hate monachism), which led men to believe that to neglect wall in one of the rooms of the Thermce of Titus. The essential the body was to benefit the soul. The spread of the public B. in modern times is, therefore, to be hailed as a wholesome sign of the advance of morality. If it be true that a large share of the crime and disease prevalent in the lower classes of society is owing to dirt and untidiness, the institution of the public B.,o. dvamust be regarded as one of the most important social improvements of our age; and we may further feel encouraged to hope that it is as yet but begun, and that philanthropic and legislative effort will not pause until dirt, and foul drainage, and bad ventilation are banished to the realms of'chaos and ancient night,' until the humble home of the mechanic is as pure and wholesome as the country-seat of the gentleman. That this result is not an impossibility, the success of the efforts of the last thirty al]o cAt us Toi ntyears goes far to prove. The first public B. was opened at Liverpool in 1842, and was followed by the establishment of Roeat Bathsfrom tsimilar institutions in London and Edinburgh in I844. Taking advantage of the Act of Parliament passed in 1846, the parish of parts of a Roman B. were (I) the apaody/eraizm, or undressing St Martin's-in-the-Fields erected an extensive establishment of room, connected with the eiot/zesizum, or anointing room; (2) the public baths and wash-houses, and the example of this parish frio-idarium, an unwarmed room, having within it, or adjoining was soon extensively followed in London. In all these estabit, a cold B.; (3) the lepidariuem, a chamber heated with warm lishments arrangements are such as to ensure cleanliness and air, to obviate the danger of a sudden change of temperature, and propriety. One or two of the establishments add shower and sometimes containing a tepid B.; (4) the caldarium, the chamber vapour baths; others have swimming-baths; but plunge, cold, in which the hot B. was placed, was the most important part of and tepid are generally the only kinds provided. The compartall, and contained several objects of interest. The floor rested ments for washing clothes are fitted up with every convenience. on small pillars, and through the flues (sussensurel) thus formed The'wringing' is performed by machinery, and the clothes are the heat from the furnace (hyopocaustum) was circulated. The dried in apartments heated with hot air. There is an ironinglaconiczm was a vapour B., the temperature of which was raised room with all conveniences. In some of the institutions there by a pipe or hollow pillar, which communicated directly with the is an ironing-board and drying compartment attached to each fires, and from which the flames streamed out through the valve, or washing apartment. The charge is from Id. to 2d. or 3d. per clypezts. The labrziu was a shallow vase of not less than eight hour, according to accommodation and class. feet in diameter, containing cold water, with which the bathers Most of our great towns have now followed the example sprinkled themselves. The alveus was a hot-water B., "sunk of London; so also have some of the Continental towns, among in the floor. The water was heated in three vessels, placed at the earliest being Hamburg and Brussels (1852), Berlin (i853), different heights (the cold water being highest, and the hot and Vienna (I856). As early as I855 numerous public baths lowest), and connected by pipes with one another, and with the had been constructed in Paris, and in that year the Frdnch B. -rooms. The bathers took with them oil to anoint themselves, government voted i24,ooo to assist their establishment throughas well as linzea or towels and strigiies, to dry themselves out the country. It is satisfactory to be led, as we are, to with. The strzgiles were scrapers, made of horn or metal, believe that in England and Scotland at least these B. and by which oil and impurities were removed from the slkin. washing establishments have been so far appreciated by the The public baths wer.e frequented not only by the common community as to be generally self-supporting, or nearly so. It people, but by persons of rank, and latterly even by the is also satisfactory to note that wealthy philanthropists are emperors themselves,. They were opened at sunrise, and closed directing their wealth and philanthropy into this channel, and at sunset. The price of a B. was a 9uadrans, about half a that the truth is coming to be understood and acted upon, that farthing of our money. The B. was usually taken after ex- to benefit the human body is to benefit the human soul, and ercise, and previously to their principal meal. At first the that the welfare of the two is inseparable. Mr Bell, M.P. for women bathed in company, apart from the men; but under the TDerby, in June I873, presented the borough with a free bathing 303 *'- 3BAT YTHE GLOBE EVNCYCLOPZD9IA. BAT and swimming establishment. ~A large public B. on the Thames it is not to exceed twopence. Wash-houses of a higher class was also opened in I875. to be charged as the authorities think fit. Open bathing-places, Bath (in medicine). The term B. is used to denote the where several bathe in the same water, are to be charged, for one complete or partial immersion of the body in a fluid or gaseous person one halfpenny. substance, for the purpose of producing some beneficial effect on Bath-Brick, a yellow, friable brick of siliceous material, the patient. Baths may consist of water varying from 30~ F. to largely used for metal polishing, especially in domestic economy. II2~ F., according to the condition of the patient and the object It is manufactured at Bridgewater from a very fine siliceous to be gained. The effects of baths are very different, according sand. to their temperature, and the time during which the patient is sub-ate, a town of inlithgowshire, in the centre of a rich ject to their influence. The effect of a cold B., of a temperature Bath'gate, a town of Linlithgowshire in the cente of a rich below 60o F., is first a sensation of cold accompanied by oppres- mining district, 7 miles W.S.. of Edinburgh, and 24 E. of sive breathing in convulsive gasps. This state is due to the Glasgow by railway. Tbe barony of B. belonged to Robert the contraction of the cutaneous blood-vessels, and the retraction of Bruce, and passed to Walter the Steward of Scotland, who the blood to the internal organs, and also in part to the shock married his daughter; but in 1663 the charter of Charles II. upon the nervous system. This is soon followed by a feeling of made the town a free burgh of barony. The inhabitants are warmth, and unless the patient remains too long in the B., there chiefly engaged in the coal, iron, panaffine oil, and lime works is invigoration of the whole system. In a B. of this temperature in the vicinity. The famous Torbanelill mineral or gas-coal is the patient should not remain more than five minutes. This B. wrought here. Pop. (I87I) 6942. is useful in certain debilitated states of the system, but is to be Bath, Knights of the. The origin of this order is thought avoided by feeble persons, by those in whom there is a tendency to belong to the reign of Henry IV., who, it is said, at his coroto congestion of the heart, and by those in whom there is organic nation, made knights of forty-six gentlemen lwho had watched disease of the heart or kidneys. The waryn B. is specially useful all night and bathed themselves before the in the convulsions of children, inasmuch as it soothes nervous ceremony; but the practice of bathing as irritation, and relaxes muscular spasm. Baths, by removing me- an initiatory rite in knighthood reaches, chanical obstructions, tend to promote perspiration and restore back probably to the dawn of chivalry. a healthy action to the skin. A foot-B. consists in immersing the The order, which during the latter half feet and legs in water, generally used as hot as the patient can bear of the 17th c. had fallen into oblivion, it. It is valuable in the early stage of congestion of the lungs, was revived by George I. in I725. Its bronchitis, congestion of the heart, and allied diseases. Baths numbers were materially increased at the frequently contain some substance in solution, whereby their effi- end of the war with France in I8I5. It cacy is greatly increased, as mustard in the foot-B. A B. contain- was, however, still purely military; but in ing nitric and hydrochloric acids, in the proportion of one drachm I847 it was opened to civilians. There to two or three gallons of hot water, is specially recommended in are three classes: —First class, Knights torpid states of the liver. Various organic salts in solution often Grand Cross (K.G.C.), limited to 50 mili-'o. increase the value of a B., as common salt in sea-water. Soda, tary and 25 civil members, exclusive of iodine, creosote, sulphur, and arsenic in variable proportions, the royal family and of foreigners. Second have all been recommended with more or less advantage in skin class, Knights Commanders (K. C.B.), diseases. A mercurial vapour-B. has been highly recommended limited to I02 military and 50 civil memin syphilis. This is administered by placing the patient on a bers, exclusive of foreigners. The memchair surrounded with an oil-cloth lined with flannel, and under- bers of both of these classes are addressed Order of the Bath. neath the seat is burned a small quantity of some salt of mercury,' Sir,' and take precedence of Knights and thus the patient is soon exposed to the vapours of mercury. Bachelors. The first has precedence of all other knights except Many medicated baths exist naturally, as sea-water; so too with those of the Garter. Third class, Companions (C.B.), limited many mineral springs, as the baths of Switzerland, so highly to 525 military and 200 civil members. They are not of the recommended in chronic skin diseases. The Turkish B. (q. v.) rank of knighthood. consists essentially of a hot-air B. The wet-sheet packing, so advantageous in certain febrile states of the system, is just a Bad h tor, a famousnHungsria n family, which in the I4th c. modification of the cold B. As baths exert such a powerful divided into two branches, that of Ecsed and that of Somlyo, influence on the system, they should only be taken by invalids and for hundreds of years contributed men of consideration to for medicinal purposes, under the advice of a physician. the country. Stephan B. (died I493), of the Ecsed family, is best known by his famous victory over the Turks at Kenyermez6 Baths and Wash-Houses, Acts regarding. In the in Transylvania (1479). Another Stephan B. of the same health and welfare of the inhabitants of towns, the Act g and Io family was Count Palatine in I516, and was conspicuous by his Vict. c. 74 provides for the establishment of B. and W. and open unavailing antagonism to Zapolya, who, after the battle of bathing-places. The council of any incorporated borough may Mohacz (I527), sought to obtain the Hungarian crown. adopt this Act, and any parish not within an incorporated Stephan B. of Somlyo was appointed Vaida of Transylvania borough may adopt it, with the approval of the Secretary of State. by Zapolya, after the latter had been chosen monarch of HunIn parishes not forming part of a borough, the expenses of exe- gary. His son, Stephan B., elected Prince of Transylvania in cuting the Act are to be paid out of the poor-rates, and in I57I, was confirmed in that dignity by the Sultan Selim II., boroughs they are to be charged on the borough fund, or paid for and also by the Emperor Maximilian. He was elected to the by a separate rate to be levied for the purpose, the income arising throne of Poland, was crowned at Cracow in I576, and reigned from the B. and W. being applicable towards the expenses. In prosperously till his death in I586. His uncle, Christoph B. boroughs, the management of the B. and W. is vested in the of Somlyo, was Prince of Transylvania from I576 to I58I. council; in parishes not within boroughs, it is intrusted to com- He invited the Jesuits into his dominions, and gave them his missioners appointed by the vestry. The council, with the ap- son Sigismund to educate. The result was that Sigismund proval of the Lords of the Treasury, and the commissioners, became a mere tool in their hands, and after a restless career with the approval of the Treasury and vestry, may borrow money and a double abdication, died at Prague, 27th March I6I3. for the purposes of the Act. Corporate lands and parish lands, The last B. was Gabor (Gabriel), a son of Stephan, King of with consent of the Treasury, may be appropriated for B. and W. Poland, who was Prince of Transylvania from I6o8 to I613, A schedule of charges is appended to the Act; by it, a cold or but provoking by his cruelties an insurrection of theknobles, was shower bath for one person is not to exceed a penny; a warm murdered at Grosswardein, IIth October 1613. His purpose or shower bath, orvapour-bath, is not to exceed twopence. For was to have handed over the government of Transylvania to four or fewer children, not over eight years old, bathing together, Matthias of Hungary, but this scheme was frustrated by Bethlen these charges are respectively twopence and fourpence. For Gabor (q. v.). The name of B., however, is more likely to be higher-class baths, the council or commissioners may fix the remembered by the crimes of Elizabeth B., niece of Stephan charges at any price notexceeding three times the above charges. B., King of Poland, and married to Count Franz Nadasdy. Wash-houses are to be provided with all requisite appliances: She seems to have believed that the blood of young girls, used the charge for one hour is not to exceed a penny; for two hours, as a cosmetic, was effective in heightening and intensifying her 304 4 4 BAT HEr GL ObE ENZVC YCL OPl/a]4. BAT beauty, and on one occasion is said to have caused more than third Earl B., was a notable Tory statesman. He wxas born 22d three hundred young women to be murdered, and to have bathed May 1762, became in succession teller of the Exchequer, comin their blood. The urnour of her horrible deeds at length missioner of the Board of Control, Master of the Mint, President became public, and the Palatine Georg Thurz6 surprised the of the Board of Trade, Foreign Secretary, and (in 1812) Colonial Countess in her castle, and caught a wretch in the act of tor- Secretary. - This last office he held till 1828, when he was made turing a maiden. Two of her women servants were beheaded, President of the Council. Such was his popularity, that many and one of her male attendants was burned alive, 7th January localities in the colonies were named B. in honour of him. On If 6I. The Countess herself was immured in a castle, where she the accession of the Whigs to power, in 1830, he resigned office, died in I6I4. The'process acts' of the trial of this extra- along with the rest of the ministry. A man of integrity and ordinary character are still extant. good business habits, he was very highly esteemed by the memBat-Horse (Fr. t, a pack-saddle) ae horses used in mii bers of his own party, while outside of it his ansiability gained:Bat-Horses (Fr. Mdt, a pack-saddle) are horses used in military service for carrying the regimental baggage, such as books him many friends. he died July 26, 1834 His son, Henry tents, stores, medicine-chests, &c. Those who manage the George, who succeeded as fourth Earl, dd in i866, when the horses are termed bat-men, and the money set aside for provid- earldom passed to his brother, William Lennox. ing this commodity is known as bat-money. Bathyb'ius, the name applied to undefined masses of protoBa'thos (Gr. baos, depth), an unconscious descent from the plasm existing in the beds of the oceans, and having imbedded in their substance minute calcareous bodies known as coccoliths. elevated to the mean in thought or style. The ludicrous effect in their substance minute calcareous bodies known as coccoliths. produced by the essential absurdity of the transition is heightened These coccoliths are frequently found associated together in the by on the of the or writer Inorm o spherscal masse emdcco~rs h iigpoo by this unconsciousness on the part of the speaker or writer. In form of spherical masses termed coccosperes. The living protothe Art of Sinking, written conjointly by Swift and Arbuthnot, plasmic B. has been assumed to be a Foraminiferous or animal B. is opposed to the sublime.'organism allied to those which inhabit the sea-beds, whilst the coccoliths are presumed to be unicellular Algce or low sea-weeds, Bath-Stone, a limestone of a yellow colour much employed the coccospheres being the sporangia or seed-cases of these for building purposes, quarried from the great oolite beds in the Alge. Their presence in B. wduld in this view be of an accicountry around Bath. When taken from the quarry, the stone dental kind. It has recently (October 1875) been asserted that is soft and easily worked, but it quickly hardens on exposure. B. has no real existence as an organism; the protoplasmic apBath'up st, a town in New South Wales, on the Macquaie pearance being probably derived from the decomposing sarcode river, 122 miles W. of Sydney, with which it is connected by matter of other organisms. rail. Gold was first discovered in Australia 20 miles from B. in Bat'ides, a division of Elasmobranchiate fishes, represented I85i, and gold-mining is still very extensively prosecuted in the by the Skates and Rays, in which the mouth and gill-openings district. B. is the third town in New South Wales, and is well are situated on the under surface of the body, which is generally built and laid out. It supports three newspapers, and has greatly flattened and broadened. This broad appearance is numerous industries. It is a see of the Anglican and Roman given to those forms by the large size of the pectoral or breast Catholic Churches. Pop. (I87I) of city and suburbs, 5000; of fins, which are concealed beneath the skin, and thus add to the city and district, i6,826. breadth of the body. The upper surface of the body bears the Bathurt, the capital of the British posseyes and sjiracles or apertures of tubes by which water may be [bat~hurst, the capital of th~e British possessions on the amte otegls admitted to the gills. Gambia, situated on St Mary's Island, at the mouth of the river, and the residence of the lieutenant-governor. It was Bat'ignolles. See BAGNOLET. founded in I816. The pop., about 3000, consists chiefly of Batley, a town in the W. Riding of Yorkshire,'2 miles N. of negroes. Stores and private dwellings occupy the principal Dewsbury, and a station on the London and North-Western street, and African huts the others. There is a government Railway. It has a church, in the Perpendicular style, built in house, an hospital, and some schools. Exports, gum, hides, the reign of Henry VI., and also a handsome public hall. It wax, gold, ivory, tortoise-shell, rice, cotton, teak, and palm-oil. is the chief town in the kingdom for the manufacture of army -B., a district of Canada W., on the right bank of the Ottawa, cloths and coarse woollens. There are over thirty factories. admirably situated for trade, to the development of which the Pop. (I87I) 20,871. removal of the government offices to Ottawa in I858 has atn-ela'gar ('omb of ros'), a wild, stoney region [ batn-el-H~a'gar (I'womb of rocks'), a wild, stoney region materially contributed.-B., an island in the Arctic Ocean, in Nubia, traversed by the Nile, and lying S. of the second in Nubia, traversed by the Nile, and lying S. of the second lat. 75' N., long. Ioo~, discovered by Sir E. Parry. cataract, in lat. 2'-22 N., and long 30' 40-3'' E. It is cataract, in lat. 21~-220 Nq., and long. 3~o 4o'-3t~ Io' E.Iti Bathurst, an English family, several members of which, almost destitute of vegetation, beans and the fruit of the kerduring the last three centuries, have achieved distinction.- kedan, a hardy shrub, being the chief food of the inhabitants, Ralph B., theologian, physician, and poet, was born at How- who are chiefly Beduins. thorpe in Northamptonshire in 1620. He studied at Oxford, Bat'on, in heraldry, another name for the Bastard Bar took orders in 1644, and the degree of M.D. in 1654. He as- (q.) sisted in founding the Royal Society in 1658, but at the restoration returned to the Church, and ultimately became Bishop of Bristol. Baton, the name given to the short staff of a field-marshal, He died 14th June I7o4. B. wrote a good deal of Latin verse, a drum-major's long staff, the wand of the conductor of a besides several medical and theological treatises. See Warton's musical choir, and a policeman's truncheon. Life and Literaiy Remains of R. B. (Lond. I76 i). pf the four Baton Rouge, a town, and formerly the capital, of the State sons of his brother George, the youngest, Benjalmin B., was of Louisiana, on an eminence on the E. bank of the Mississippi, raised to the order of knighthood in the reign of Queen Anne, 5 miles by the river above New Orleans. Pop. (87) 6498. and died in I7o4. Hlis eldest son, Allenz, first Earl of B., was o ie t rv av N Olns p (80 4S and died in 1704. His eldest son, Allen, first Earl of B., ws The district is very fertile, and produces abundantly cotton, born in I684, and, after an education at Oxford, became, in sugar and maize B. R.was the scene of several important I705, member for Cirencester. He was an ardent Tory, and tios duringe American civil ar. was one of the twelve peers created in 1711ii to enable the ministers of the day, Harley and St John, to carry certain Batrach'ia. This term is used by Owen synonymously with measures through the House of Lords. Later on he was a AMPHIBIA (q. v.), to denote a distinct class of Vertebrate anikeen opponent of Sir Robert Walpole, on whose downfall he mals, represented by the frogs, toads, newts, land-salamanders, became a Privy Councillor. In 1772 he obtained an earldom, and allied forms. The name B. is used by Huxley to denote and died in I775. B. is best known as the intimate friend of the order of Amphibia represented by the frogs and toads. The Pope and Bolingbroke, and seems to have been a man of great B. were formerly, and in some systems of classification still are, good-temper, taste, arnt wit. His son 1Henry, second Earl, included in the class of Reptiles. But this arrangement is in. born in 1714, took to the profession of law, and reached great consistent with the structure and true nature of the amphibia, eminence in it. In 1754 he became Chief Justice of the Common which possess much nearer relations with the fishes than with Pleas; and in 1771 was created Baron Apsley, and was made reptiles. The fishes and amphibia are thus included to form Lord Chancellor. He died in 1794. He is the author of a the Branckiate vertebrata, or those which breathe by gills or Theom, of Evidence. H:enry, the son of the Chancellor, and branzcice at some period of life, or during their whole existence39 305 * 4 BAT THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP-ADIA. BAT and Huxley has included these two classes to form his province In the tadpole, or larval state, breathing is solely performed by of the Zch/ityopsida, or'fish-like' vertebrata. The B. are dis- gills, and the heart then consists of a single auricle and ventricle, tinguished, and of an arterial bulb as in fishes, and the purified blood from firstly, by the the gills passing to the body without returning to the heart. fact that in When lungs are developed, the pulmonary or lung arteries carry earlylife they a certain proportion of the blood to these new breathing-organs, all possess and thus the gills and lungs-in those forms in which both sets gills, and lat- of breathing organs exist-each participate in the respiratory terly become process. In those forms in which, like the frog, the gills of providedwith early life disappear, the pulmonary arteries grow larger and. Young or Larval Form of Triton. lungs. The in- larger as the lungs are developed, the gills being deprived of variable pre- blood, and thus shrivelling up; whilst the pulmonary arteries, sence of gills in early life, and lungs in adult life, is the or those which return the blood from the lungs, also increase first great characteristic of these forms. The gills in some in size, and develop a second (the left) auricle of the heart at amphibia (as in frogs, toads, &c.), disappear when the lungs of their lower portion. The circulation then proceeds by means of adult life are developed; but in other 1. (such as Proteus, the three-chambered heart as already described. Axolotl, Siren, &c.), the gills remain throughout life, and the The different groups and animals of amphibia are described in animals in their adult state thus breathe both by gills and lungs. articles relating to each group or animal. The limbs when present are not, as in fishes, converted into fins, and are supported, as in higher vertebrata, by definite Batrachlomyomach'ia (Gr.'the war of the frogs and appendages of the true or internal skeleton. The amphibia mice'), a Greek mock-heroic poem parodying the Iliad. The may possess central or median fins placed like those of fishes author was not Homer, as popularly supposed in ancient times; along the back or under the surface of the body, but such fins but probably (as stated both by Suidas and Plutarch) Pigres, are never, as in fishes, supported by fiz-rays. The skin of brother or son of the famous Carian queen, Artemisia. A good existing B. is generally destitute of any outside skeleton or edition is that of Barrmeister (Gbtt. 1852). external hard parts, such as scales or bony plates. Some forms Bat'rachus. See FROG-FISH. (e.g., Cdcilia, Oihi2ppifer) possess small scales concealed under the skin. In one extinct Batrachian genus (Labyriizt/zodon), an out- Batsch, August Johann Georg Karl, a German natuside armour of bony plates was developed on several portions of ralist, born at Jena, 28th October 176I, studied medicine under the body. The skin in amphibia is thus usually soft and moist, Gruner, Loder, and others, established himself as a physician at and greatly aids in the breathing-process of these forms. The Weimar in I78I, and devoted his leisure to researches in natural skeleton of amphibians is always formed of true bone. Ribs are history.'After I787 he successively filled at the University of either wanting or rudimentary in these forms; the place of these Jena the functions of interim professor of natural history and bones being supplied (as in frogs, &c.) by the long transverse medicine, titular professor of philosophy, and director of the processes of the vertebrae. The skull is joined to the spinal society for the advancement of natural science. He died 29th column by two occipital condyles-a feature highly distinctive of September I8o2. B.'s works are numerous and valuable. The the amphibia. The CaGciliada or amphibian blind-worms found principal are, Elenchus fiingoruzm (Halle, I783); Versuch einer in tropical regions, of all the B. alone want all the limbs. Anleitunzg zur JAenntniss unsd Geschiclte der Pflanzen (Halle, Siren, an American form, alone wants hind-limbs-and in all I787-88); Versucl eizer HistorischenNaturlehre(Halle, 1789-9I); other amphibia, both fore and hind limbs are developed, Blumezzer gliederung aus verschiedenen Gattungenz der Pftanzen although the limbs may be of a weak or rudimentary nature. (Halle, I790), a work remarkable for its new and original obSimple teeth generally exist, and are borne upon the other servations; and Tabulw Affinitatun Regni Vegetabilis (Weim. bones of the mouth besides the jaws. In some forms (e.g., s8o2), in which one finds the first attempts at classification by Surinam toads) no teeth may be developed. The tongue may be natural families. undeveloped (as in Surinam toads and D)acylet/era), or it may be Batshian', one of the island groups of the N. Moluccas, fixed to the floor of the mouth (as in newts, &c.); whilst in frogs, taking its name from the principal island of the group, which toads, &., the tongue can be protruded fiom the mouth,but is fixed lies S.W. of Gilolo, from which it is separated by the Patientia to the front of the lower jaw instead of to the back of the mouth. Salivary glands are wanting, as such, in B. The digestive b. Salivary glands are wanting, as ench, in B. The digestive Its chief products are rice, cloves, and sago. It also contains system is simple; the intestines ending in a cloaca, or cavity gold, copper, coal, and hot springs. A mountain range runs common to the digestive, urinary, and generative systems. The, p s. A o through the island, with many peaks from 2270 to 4o50 feet heart in all consists of two auricles and a ventricle. The impure high tese are cld by forests of ebony, nutmeg, and satinblood from the body is returned to the right auricle, and is sent hood, abounding in deer wild hogs, reptiles, and birds of splenthence into the ventricle. The pure blood from the breathing 0wood, abounding in deer, wild hogs, reptiles, and birds of splenthence into the ventricle. The pure blood from the breathing did plumage. Area 9oo sq. miles; pop. not known. The chief organs is sent into the left auricle, and thence into the ventricle, village Amassing, which lies on the W. shore of the island, at so that a mixture of the venous or impure, and arterial or pure the head of a deep bay The group, which is volcanic, consists blood tk plentvnrlaitem dthe head of a deep bay. The group, which is volcanic, consists blood takes place in the ventricle, from which cavity the mixed of some twelve other islands of which the largest are Kasiruta blood is circulated through the body. This imperfect circulation and andioi. These ae in great part mountainous and sterile. is one well calculated to serve the slow, torpid lives of these See Bernstein's Thesen in great pardlict mountainous and See Bernstein's Reisen in den gi0rdlich. Mo/luken (I873); and creatures, and is characteristic of adult amphibia; the younger Dr Petermann's Mittleilungen (vol. xix. part 6, 1873). stages, as will be presently noticed, possessing a different circulation. The eyes are small, and are covered by skin in Proteuts, Batt'a, an allowance made to British officers in India in Pipa, and the CGciliada. The nostrils in all open posteriorly addition to their pay. Dry B. is money given instead of into the mouth. The sense of touch is subserved by the skin. rations; wet B. is given in kind; full B. is given when the A urinary bladder and kidneys exist in all. A very important troops are in the field, or above 200 miles from the capital of and distinctive character of Batrachians is the occurrence of the presidency; and ha/f B. when they are in garrison or canmzetamoaphosis. The young (as in the frog) leave the egg as tonment within 200 miles from the seat of government. fadpoles. These larval forms soon develop external gills from the sides of the neck; these outside branchiae soon disappearing, Battal'ion, a division of infantry of variable size, comand being replaced by internal gills, borne upon the branchial prising at present, in the British army, about 8oo men, and arches. The hind-limbs then appear, and the fore-legs follow in seldom in any nation containing more than Iooo men even in order of development. Then the lungs are formed, and at this time of war. In the British army, regiments consist of one or stage the tail and gills disappear, the frog leaving the water, and two battalions, except in the case of two, each of which com. breathing throughout its future life by lungs alone. In other prises four. A B. is usually subdivided into twelve companies, forms (e.g., Proteus, Siren, &c. ), the external gills of early life are of which those placed at the extremities of the line formed when retained throughout the whole existence, lungs being developed the B. is drawn up in parade, and knoiwn as the'grenadier' in addition to the gills, and such forms are thus truly anmpfibiant, and'light infantry' companies, are designated the wings. See being thus provided with two sets of respiratory organs. REGIMENT. 3o6 BAT TIHE GLOBE ENCYCCL OPED4A. BAT Batt'as, a free people in the interior of Sumatra, neither of there be any intention on the part of the aggressor to injure or Negro nor Malay race, and without any kind of government. wound the person whom he assaults. The law does not permit They are industrious, friendly, and hospitable, claim to be the any one even to touch the person of another in a rude or insulting first settlers in the island, and have a primitive form of religion. manner; and any one so insulted has ground either for an action Cannibalism, however, is practised among them to a limited for damages, or he may proceed against the offender by a criextent. They have been described by Junghuhn in his Batta- minal indictment for a misdemeanour. It is essential, however, linder aufSurnatra (I847). to sustain either procedure, that the offence'complained of be Battaszek', properly Bataszeq, a town in the county of serious in its effect; and it may be a sufficient defence that no Tolna, Hungary, near the right hank of the Danube, lo miles harm was intended; or that the defender's position towards the W. of Maria Theresienstadt, produces excellent wine. Pop. plaintiff authorised the act complained of; as that the former (I87I) 6542. was the father, guardian, or master of the latter. When the B. is towards a man's wife, procedure and reparation are regulated Batt'el, Trial by. In former times, in civil and criminal by statute of i6 and I7 Vict. cap. 76. cases, the defendant had a right to appeal to this mode of deciding on whose side justice lay. It consisted in a battle Battery (Fr. ba/terie, from bat/re, to beat), a military term with baton and target between opposing parties or between of various significations. In the Army Regulations published in their champions. They fought from an early period of the day, 1873, it is applied to a number of artillerymen, corresponding to either till one was killed or till twilight; and whoever killed his a troop of cavalry or a company of infantry. There is afield-B., opponent, or had the best of the fight when the stars began to in which the men are on foot and the officers mounted; and the twinkle, was held to be victor, and consequently winner in horse-B., in which both officers and men are mounted. The numthe suit. In England, so late as I8S8, the defendant in a case ber of men and officers in each is proportioned to the weight of (Ashford v. Thornton) claimed the right of appeal to T. by B., the ordnance: a field-B. of six I2-pounder rifle-guns consisting and Lord Chief-Justice Ellenborough and his brother judges of I58 in time of peace, and of 277 in time of war.'In a wider sustained the appeal.'Whatever prejudices,' said Lord Ellen- sense of the term B. it includes also the pieces of ordnance under borough,'may justly exist against this mode of trial, still, as it the charge of these men, together with the horses, gun-carriages, is the law of the land, the court must pronounce judgment for ammunition-waggons, and other necessary mzat/rie/. In the Briit.' The combat did not however take place, and an Act was tish army a B. consists of 6 pieces of ordnance; in the French passed abolishing T. by B. In Scotland, and in the nations of army, 6-under the Empire it was 8; in the German army it may Europe, the legal doctrine is that a statute may become obsolete. be 4, 6, or 8 pieces; while in the Russian army it is I2. In England the legal doctrine is that a statute has force until it A third meaning of the term tB. has no reference to horses or has been repealed. The above incident should, we think, lead waggons. In this sense it denotes two or more guns placed in to some modification of the English doctrine. position for attack or defence, called the siege B. "and the B. far Batt'en, the swing-frame of a hand-loom that beats home the defence. There are many names for batteries in position, but weft or woof to the web, and along the- bottom of -which, on a there is a general similarity in their construction. The parapet ledge, the shuttle travelsr The saml e iinstrument in Scotland i is thrown up for shelter, and the guns are placed behind it. The called the shuttlay otravels. ThesameinstrumentinScatheotland iplatform on which the guns rest is the second general feature;.called the lay or lathe, the other is the ditch outside the parapet. According to the Batt'ens, in carpentry, strips of wood from 2 to 7 inches level on which the gun is placed, there is the cavalier B., which broad, and fiom ~ths to 2- inches thick, used in walls for securing fires over the enemy's parapet; the elevated B., which has its the laths before the plaster is laid on; on roofs the slates are guns on the natural level of the ground, the parapet being formed nailed to them; they are employed also as flooring. of earth dug up in front of it; the half-sunken B., which stands in Batter, in architecture, when used as a verb, denotes that a a shallow trench, the earth for the parapet being partly dug from wall slopes gently backwards; as a noun, it is the name given to behind; the full-sunken B. which is down in a ditch, the earth a backward slope in a wall, being all dug from behind. The kind of ordnance used gives name to the gun, the howitzer, and the mzortar B. According to Batt'ering-Ram, a military engine employed among the the direction or manner of firing, there is the breaching B., which ":8nn~i |i: a~ncients for the demo- fires straight against the enemy's works, or point blank as it is.it.on of stor'e walls. called; the enfiladinagB., which stands at right angles to the line A It consisted of a beam of the enemy's rampart, and sends its shot so as to graze the / iof wood, to one end of interior of his parapet in the direction of its length; the ricochet which was attached a B., which discharges its shot so that it makes low bounds along covdmetallic mass, usually the ground, with a view to its dropping over the parapet and dis/N~ ":~"~,resembling a ram's abling the enemy's gunners. In placing a siegel-., the guns are ehead. The force of the Tsometimes arranged parallel to each other, sometimes as portions I _ - ~ ~t~~~i ~'I!~'~~ the blow was derived of a triangle, at other times as portions of a polygon. See FoR-58.~ H1845, 2d ed. I867); kDitische Untersuchunzgen iiber die Kanon. two vols., Frankf. 1750-58. His Metachysica (Halle, I739, 7th Evngele; ir rtniss Zueinner, ien Uprg und ed 779 is til thoghthighy o Evangelien; ihr Verhe'llniss Zueinander, ihren Ursp2rung und ed. I779) is still thought highly of. Charakter (Tiib. 1847); Das Christenthum und die Christi. Baumgarten-Cru'sius, Ludwig Friedrich Otto, a dis- irrche der drei ersten 7ahrhunderle (Tiib. I853, 3d ed. x863); tinguished German theologian, was born at Merseburg, 3Ist July Die Christ/. Kirche vom Anfang. des 4 bis zum Ende des 6 yahrh. 1788, became Professor of Theology in the University of Jena, (Tiib. 1859, 2d ed. I863); Die Christl. Kirche des Miltelalters where he died, 3Ist May I843. B.'s chief works are Lehrbuch (Tiib. i86I, 2d ed. I869). See Mackay's Tiibingen School. der Dogmengeschichte (2 vols. Jena, I83I-32); Comnertalur der der Dogmengeshichte (2 vols. Jena, I83-32); Contendcium der Bautain, Louis Eug{ne lMiarie, a French philosopher Dogmengeschichte (2 vols. Leips. 1840-46); Handbuch der Christlich. Sitteniehre (Leips. 182,7); Grundzige der Biblisch. and theologian, was born at Paris, I7th February 1796. After Theologie (Jena, 828); Exegetische Schriften zum nezen Testament studying at the Normal School, he became Professor of Philo. (3 vols. Leips. I844-48). B. had a tendency to the pious ration- sophy at Strasbourg College, then Dean of Faculty of Literature, (3 vols. alism of Schleiermacher. and, lastly, Director of the College of Juilly. In i828 he entered the Church; was suspended for several years for heresy contained Baumgart'ner, Andreas Freiherr von, born at Fried- in his La Morale de /']'vangile comniparkte aux divers Systimes de berg, in Bohemia, 23d November I793, was educated at Linz Morale (I827), but latterly became Vicar-General or Promoter and Vienna, and published his first work, Ariomelrie (Vien. I820), to the Archbishop of Paris. He held for some years a chair in while a teacher in the Lyceum of Olmiitz. In 1823 he was ap- the Theological Faculty of Paris. B. is a mystic in philosophy, pointed Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Vienna Uni- but, like his master, Cousin, he is extremely eloquent. He died 3~9 BAU THE GIOBE ENCYCIOPEDIA. BAV October r8, I867. B.'s chief books are his Psychologie-Experimen- length of the Danube in B. is 270 miles, all of which is navigable. tale (Strasb. i839, 2d ed. I859), Phiosospkhie Morale (Par. I842), It receives 38 affluents, the chief of which on the right bank are and Philosophie du Christianisme (I835). the Iller, Lech, Isar, and the Inn; and on the left the Wirnitz, Baut'zen (Slav. Budissen,'the huts'), capital of the circle of B., Altmiihl, Kocher, Naab, Regen, and Ilz. The river Main rises kingdom of Saxony, stands on a height overlooking the Spree, 33 in the N., has many affluents, and flows in a S. W. direction miles E.N.E. of Dresden. Itiswell built; has several churches, joining the Rhine at Mainz. There are some fifty lakes a cathedral, with a tower 300 feet high, a palace, once the resi- mostly situated among the offsets of the Noric Alps, the chief of dence of the Markgrafs of Meissen, and an hospital. It has manu- which are the Ammer, Starnberger, Staffel, Kochel, Wacheln, factures of woollens, linens, hosiery, tobacco, &c., and is an im-Tegern Chiem, and Waginger. Lake Constance borders B. fo portant commercial centre. Pop. (I871) I3,I65. B. was already in nine miles. existence when the Emperor Heinrich I. founded the Markgraf- Climate, Products, &c.-Except in the valleys of the Rhine dom of Lausitz in 93I, but it first became a town and a fortress in and the Main, the general climate is cold and inhospitable for the time of his successor, the Emperor Otho. It suffered much Germany; but in summer again the heat in the plains and in the Hussite wars, the Thirty Years' War, and the Seven Years' valleys is extreme. The average temperature is 47' F., nearly War, but is best Iknown in modern times as the scene of the corresponding to that of the Scottish E. coast. B. is, neverthedefeat of the combined Russian and Prussian forces by Napoleon, less, one of the most fertile countries of the empire, the S. plateau May 20 and 21, I813. being called the German granary, on account of its productiveh ness. Cultivation is not in an advanced state; but besides wheat, ~Bava'ria (Ger. Bayeruz or Baiern), next to Prussia the largest rye, oats, and barley, the articles of produce include buckwheat, kingdom in the German empire, lies in Middle and Lower Ger-buck eat, makingd om in the German empire, lies in Middle and Lowerlong. 8. maize, rice, hops, tobacco, flax, hemp, linseed, beet-root, and many, between lat. 470 20'-50" 41' N., and long. 90130 48' E. liquorice. B. yields also some 9,00,0ooo gallons of excellent It is bounded N. by Hesse-Nassau, the Thuringian principalities, wine yearly. Thyields also some goooooo gallons of fir and pine and the kingdom of Saxony; W. by Wiirtemberg, Baden, and wine yearly. The forests are chiefly composed of fir and pine the Grand Duchy of Hessen; E. by Bohemia and Austria and trees, and much of the timber is exported. Cattle-rearing and Sythe Grand Duchy of Hesse; E. Iby Bohemia and Austria; and the breeding of sheep, goats, and other live stock, is one of the S. by the Tyrol. It also includes an outlying portion called chief occupations. Among the minerals that are mined are salt, Bayern Pfalz, or the Rhenish Palatinate, situated in an angle chief occupations. Among the minerals that are mined are salt, Bceyern Pfalz, or the Rhenish Palatinate, situated in an angle coal, iron, and a little gold; but in Rhenish B. a much larger between the province of Alsace-Lorraine and the left bank of coal, iron, and a little gold; but in Rhenish. a much larger the Rhine. The frontier has a total length of some I28o miles, variety is wrought, including copper, manganese, mercury, the Rhine. Tohe frontier has a total dength of some t280 miles, cobalt, quicksilver, black-lead, marble, gypsum, alabaster, lithoand the following are the divisions, areas, and populations, graphic-stone, and the finest porcelain-clay. There are famous graphic-stone, and the finest porcelain-clay. There are famous excluding the military:- mineral wells in Upper B. and in Middle Franconia.. Area in Manufactures.-The industrial products are mainly beer, linen, Circles. Square Miles. Pop.in i872. cottons, woollens, leather, paper, porcelain, glass, sugar, cigars, Upper-Bavria-6_49_8_70_ 7 and jewellery. Beer is by far the most important of these, Upper Bavaria. 6,493 841,707 yielding, it is said, nearly two-thirds of the revenue. In 1871 Palatinate (Pfalz)... 2272 65035 there were 5177 breweries, Swabia itself having IoI8, producing UJpper Palatinate, with Regensburg 3,679 497,86I at the rate of about I60 million gallons yearly. This beverage Upper Franconia... 2,632 54I, 063 is universally relished; and, while it is consumed in enormous Middle Franconiawith Aschaffenburg 2 3,409 5863,666 quantities within the state, it also forms one of the principal Swabia and Neuburg... 3,648 582,773 exports. The other exports are timber, wine, grain, wool, hops, glass, jewellery, scientific instruments, &c. Munich is famed for Total. 29,138 4,863,450 the manufacture of mathematical and optical instruments. As _ communication is developing, B. is profiting by the greatly Character of Pebple, Religion, and Education.-The principal increased transit trade between Italy, Switzerland, Austria, and towns are Munich, the capital, Niirnberg, Augsburg, Wiirzbul-g, N. Germany. Bayreuth, Regensburg, Ftirth, and Bamberg. The people in Canals, Railways, &'c.-The principal canal is Ludwigos, the N. are industrious, intelligent, and sprightly; the Swabians which links the Danube and Rhine, and thus connects the Ger. are sturdy, good-natured, and independent; but the Bavarians man Ocean with the Black Sea. It was constructed by the state proper are a heavy, taciturn, and superstitious race. In I872 at a cost of over /8Soo,ooo. In I873 there were over IIoo miles the Roman Catholics numbered 3,464,364, the Protestants of railway, 6000 of public roads, and 1500 of telegraphs. Munich 1,342,592, Jews 50,662, and the members of various other is the great railway centre. small sects 5453. There is the utmost religious toleration, but Government, Revenzze, &'c.-According to the fundamental the state of late years has shown itself opposed to Ultramon- state law of 26th May I818, modified by the electoral law of tanism by favouring the'Old Catholics,' and by its expulsion 4th June I848, B. is a constitutional monarchy, with the crown (I873) of the Jesuits. The system of education is compulsory, hereditary in the male line, and its domains remaining inalienand is under the direction of a Minister of Public Instruction, able. The executive belongs to the king, and the legislature who is assisted by several members of the provincial government, consists of two chambers-the one of senators or peers, the other under whom again there is a large body of regular inspectors. of deputies. The former of these chambers is hereditary, the Children are obliged to attend school until their I4th year, king, however, having a limited power of appointing senators and for two years longer are required to go to a Sunday-school. for life; the latter is elective by various orders and classes of the B. has three universities-(I) Munich, with (I873) 77 professors community, the landed gentry, ecclesiastics, burghers, university and I2I9 students; (2) Wiirzburg, with 43 professors and 803 councils, &c. By treaty of November 3, I87o, B. became an students, both Catholic; and (3) Erlangen, with 43 professors integral part of the German empire, retaining, however, among and 37I students, Protestant. other unusual privileges, the right of conducting its own postal Physical Features, Mountains, Rivers, &'c.-The country is for and telegraphic system. The estimated revenue of B. for I874-75 the most part hilly. The S. halfofB. forms the middle part of the was %'io,602,593, and the expenditure /6,842,329. In I873 Bavario-Swabian plateau between the Iller and the Inn, and is the national debt was /39,657,360, of which/Ig9,9I7,257 was hemmed in on the S. by the Noric Alps, from 3000 to I2,000 feet for railways. high; the Bihmerwald on the E. separates B. from Bohemia; The army of B. was organised in i871 after the Prussian system. and on the N. rises the Rhingebirge. The central area is inter- Every citizen requires to serve, and no substitution is allowed. sected by several low mountain chains, and consists alternately The term of service is twelve years, of which four years are spent of fertile valleys, wide plains, and extensive forest tracts. in active service, three in reserve, and five in the Landwehr. The Among the highest peaks are the Zugspitz, io, I150 feet high, in Bavarian army has an administration independent of that of the the Noric Alps; the Arber, 46I3, and Rachelberg, 4561, in imperial army, and is under the command of the King of B. the Bohmerwald; and the Schneeberg, 3481, in the Fichtel- in times of peace; but in time of war is under the control of gebirge. There are several ranges in the Palatinate, of which the Emperor. In I872 it consisted of 52,029 men, of whom the Hardt (2300 feet) is the principal. B. contains the stream- 32,602 were infantry, II,562 cavalry, 5528 artillery, and I2I3 system of the Danube from Ulm to Passau, while the Palatinate'technical troops,' or engineers. On a war footing this number is watered along its entire eastern boundary by the Rhine. The can be increased to 14%9538 men. During the Franco-Prussian 3IO *. _ X BAV THE GLO ~ BEC ECYCL OPiEDA. BAY war, the army of B. behaved with unsurpassable spirit and promp- Bax'ter, Richard,7one of the most eminent of Nonconformist titude under the leadership of the Crown Prince of Prussia. divines, was born November 12, 1615, at Rowton in Shropshire, History.-The present A4l Bayern, originally peopled by the of pious but poor parents. Circumstances did not allow him to Celtic Boil, was formed under Augustus into the Roman province have a university education, but he went through a careful course of Noricum. At the time of the great movement of the Teutonic of private study. A short visit to the court at Whitehall, folraces (sth and 6th c.), various tribes pressed into the land, and lowed by a serious illness, tended to deepen his naturally strong formed the confederated Bojoarii, who, although under chfefs of religious convictions. He was ordained at the age of twentytheir own, were dependent on the Frankish kings of Austrasias. three, and after being a schoolmaster, first at Wroxeter and then Foremost amongst these stood the Agilo/a6j&er (first mentioned at Dudley, he became, in 1640, parish minister at Kidderminin 556), one of whom, Odilo, assumed the title of king. Thas- ster, and soon earned a high reputation both as a preacher and silo II. was banished to a cloister in 777 by Charlemagne, on as a moral and social reformer. B.'s eminent conscientiousness account of his alliance with the Avars, and in 788 Charlemagne made him hold a peculiar position. After the outbreak of the entirely abolished the sovereign dignity in B., and appointed his civil war, although he acted as chaplain in the Parliamentary brother-in-law, the Swabian Count Gerold, as governor. After army, and held Presbyterian principles, he did not admit the the extinction of the Karoling dynasty in 91r, Arnulf II., unlawfulness of Episcopacy, upheld the monarchy, and was opwho had been Markgraf since 907, assumed the ducal dignity. posed to the execution of the king and the usurpation of CromUnder his successors the land suffered much through internal well. On the restoration of Charles II., B. became one of the discords, struggles with external enemies, and the perpetual king's chaplains, but declined the bishopric of Hereford when it change of dukes, until in ii8o the Pfalzgraf (Count-Palatine) was offered him. On the Act of Uniformity being passed, he Otto von Wittelsbach, the founder of the present reigning house, left the Church of England, and sided entirely with the Nonconreceived it as a grant from the Emperor. Otto, who died in 1183, formists. For many years he lived and wrote theological works as also his successor, Ludwig I., considerably increased their in retirement at Acton, in Middlesex, returning to London on the possessions. The latter (died 1131) received as a fief from the passing of the Act of Indulgence in I672. In I68 B. was tried Emperor Friedrich II. in I216 the Rhein5falz (Rhenish Pala- for writing sedition before Judge Jefferies, and, after being tinate), and though this was for a time lost, it was regained at the brutally insulted by him, was sentenced to a fine of 5o0 marks, Peace of Westphalia in 1648, as a reward of the enthusiasm or, in default, to lie in prison till it was paid. After eighteen and energy shown by Maximilian I. in the creation of the Catholic months' imprisonment, he was released. B. lived beyond the League. B. sided with France in the Spanish Succession War period of the Revolution, and died 8th December I695. He (I 7oo), and met with great loss. On the death of the Emperor was one of the most voluminous theologians and ecclesiastical Karl VI. in 1740, Karl Albrecht, Duke of Bavaria, opposed pamphleteers of his own or any other time, having produced in the Pragmatic Sanction, claimed the Archduchy of Austria as all about 545 treatises. His theology was a compromise between against Maria Theresa, seized the country in I74I, and was Calvinism and Arminianism, and his followers are known as chosen Emperor of Germany in 1742. He was soon after driven Baxterians. Some of his works, such as his Saint's Rest, have been out of his own territories by the Austrians, restored by Friedrich very popular. The last complete edition was published in I830. II. of Prussia in 1744, and died in the year following. In the war of 5805 B. sidled with France, and Napoleon rewarded the Baxte'rians, adherents to certain theological views advocated war f 105. sied ithFrace, nd apoeon ewadedtheby Richard Baxter, the two most distinguished of whom were Drs Elector (a title dating from 1777) with the dignity of king, receiv- by Ricard Baxter, the two most distinguished of whom were Drs ing in return important military assistance in his Austrian and J* Watts and P. Doddridge. The three salient points, regarding ing n rtur imprtat mlitry asisanc inhis ustianandwhich they tried to pursue a middle course between the Calvinists Russian campaigns. The territory and title thus gainedwas ratified which the rio pursue a middl)te oe between the Calvniss by the treaties of I854-15, the King of B. meantime having and the Arminians, were-(5) the atonement, general for all luckily abandoned the tcause of France. In iiB the new con- mankind, but special for the elect; (2) the rejection of the sutkioy wasndnesdthed o a inc5 L i I. beam kong- doctrine of reprobation; (3) the possibility of saints falling stitution was established, and in 1825 Ludwig I. became king. Enlightened and generous to extravagance, this monarch, when way from saving grace. advanced in life, formed a scandalous connection with Lola Bay, a name given to a number of trees and shrubs. For Montez, the famous adventuress, which did much to alienate instance, Laurues nobilis is the laurel or victor's B., out of which his subjects, already dissatisfied with various governmental the laurel crown of the ancients was made; the name B., abuses. At last the inhabitants of Munich arose, March 1848, originally only applied to the fruit, is now used for the whole captured the arsenal, and forced the consent of the king to the plant. The cherry or B. laurel, so common in our shrubberies, exile of Lola Montez, and to the passing of various reforms. is Prunus Laurocerasus. The red B. of the Southern United Ludwig I. abdicated, March 20, 5848, in favour of his son Maxi- States is Zaurus Carolinensis. The white B. of America is milian-Joseph II., who died March io, I864. In the same year Magknolia glauca, while the Loblolly B. of the same country is Ludwig II. ascended the throne, and during his reign the most Gordonia Lasianthuts. The Indian or royal B. is Lauzrus Indica, striking events have been the incorporation of B. with the empire, while the rose B. is E5ilobiumn azngustifolium, a plant of an the expulsion of the Jesuits in 5873, and his stubborn oppo- entirely different order. See LAUREL, GORDONIA, EPILOBIUM. sition to an Ultramontane majority (5875). See Buchner, B. leaves have been from the earliest times, and among widely difGeschzichte von B. (MUinch. I820-5r); Zschokke, Sechs Biicher ferent nations, associated with victory and rejoicing; or, as in this der Geschichten aes Bair. Volks (2d ed. Aarau, 1821); Mannert,* country, believed to be an antidote against the effects of thunder. Gesc/Zic~ite 27.'s (Leips. 1826); B~ttiger, Geschzich~te 2.'s (Eft. Gesc1832); Rudhart, B eLteste Gesite.'s (hamb. 184icte); Siegert, Bay, an inlet of the sea around which the land forms a bend, IG2 rundharet z aellesten Geschichle B.'s 27amb. i840;siaeges 582un)agen zuRhr aelteste Gescic/Ite des Bair. 584);stammes g and the opening to which is wider than its depth. A gulf is Gndle aeestn escIedeBar.VolItamessupposed to be deeper, but Baffin's B., Hudson's B., and the B. ~(M-~U~nch. 51~854).~~ ~of Biscay show with how little precision the word is used. Bavaria, Statue of, a statue of colossal dimensions erected Bayaderes' (Fr. from Portu. baiadera, a dancing-girl) at Munich by King Ludwig I. as a personification of his king- denote exclusively that very numerous class of women in India dom, and uncovered August 7, I85o. It represents a -German dom, and uncovered Auust 7, 85. It represents aGerman who follow the business of dancers and singers. These women female standing, with the Bavarian lion sitting by her side. The have different denominations in their different countries. They have different denominations in their different countries. They whole monument is 95 feet in height, the statue being 65 feet are divided into two great classes, each of which has several suband the pedestal 30. A door at the back of the pedestal leads, divisions. The first great class, that of the DevdEdassi, or servants by a stone staircase, into the lion, through the neck of which an of the gods, is consecrated to the service of the temples and of iron staircase takes up to the head, in which there are two sofas, the priests; the second, that of the Nautchis, comprises the B. and standing-room for thirty-one persons. The head bears the and standing-room for thirty-one persons. The head bears the who are not attached to a temple, and who travel the country in following inscription:-' This colossal figure, erected by Ludwig the exercise of their profession as singers and dancers. Among I., King of Bavaria, was designed and modelled byL. von Schwan- the Devadassis, those of the first rank are recruited from the thaler, and cast in bronze in the years i844 to 1845 by FerdinandVaisya caste. They dwell in the enclosure of the temple, and Miller.' ~~~~~~~~~~~Vaisya caste. They dwell in the enclosure of the temple, and Miller.' may not go outside of it without the permission of the chief Ba'vius are small faggots of brushwood, the bush-ends being priest. Within the temple they prepare the garlands of flowers dipped in some inflammable composition, and are employed to adorn the effigies of the gods, they dance before the sacred among the combustibles in fireships. statues, celebrate the praises of the gods in song, and form the ____ _ _ ___ — _ _ __~_~__~ _355 BAY THE GLOSS V.ECYCL OP~'DPZA. BAY principal ornamental figure of the processions and religious cere- B.'s is his ExpZicalio Caracterum wzneis Tabulis Znsculptiorum monies. Those of the second rank of the Devadassis are recruited (Augsb. I654). from the families of the Sudra or labouring caste. Their func-d episcopal town of France, department of tions are almost the same as those of the first class, but they Calvados, on the Aure, 6 miles from its mouth, and 17 miles are not obliged to dwell within the precincts of the temple, in N.N. W. of Caen. Pop. (1872) 7716. Its splendid cathedral,of which they take their turn of service. They are allowed to visit mixed Gotbic and Norman, begun in the 12th c. and completed the houses of persons who employ and pay them for dancing and in 1497, was destroyed by lightning in 1676, but was rebuilt in singing. They are engaged for fete-days, festivals, marriages, i7 In the Hd tel de Ville, the famous. tapestry is pre &c., by the rich Hindus. Female children enter the order of V7 5. In the Hotel de Ville, the famous B. tapestry is preDevadassis&c., b y th e rich Hindus. Female children enter the order of served. B. has manufactures of porcelain, linen, calicoes, serges, Devadassis shortly after the period of infancy, and physical leather, and hats, but is particularly famous for its lace. The beauty and faultless symmetry are the conditions of their admis. sion. From the day on which they are admitted, they cease to belong to their families, who, by formal contract, renounce all Bayeux Tapestry, a curious piece of needlework, a relic right to them. The Nautchis travel the country in bands. Like of the middle ages, preserved in the Hotel de Ville at Bayeux, in the Devadassis of the second rank, they are employed on festive Normandy. It is composed of a roll of canvas or linen cloth, occasions; they dance at the places of entertainment for travellers. about 220 feet long and 20 inches wide, on which is embroidered, Some associate themselves with musicians, with whom they share in woollen thread of eight different colours, a pictorial representatheir profits. Others are under the direction of a leading dancer, tion of the history of the Norman Conquest of England. Although who provides for them and receives the profits of their labours. its great age is undoubted, where and by whom it was executed Others are simply slaves, bought very young by the women who form matter of speculation. It is traditionally reported to be train them to their business, with a view of making a profit of the work of Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror, assisted by them. The dance of the B. is not so much a dance proper as her maids, and that she presented it to Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, a pantomime. in recognition of his services at the invasion. In length, however, it exactly corresponds to two sides of the nave of the present the left bank of the Cauto, 20 miles E. of its entrance into the ayeux Cathedral which was built early in the 12th c., and this circumstance renders it probable that the tapestry belongs to sea, and 65 N.W. of Santiago. It has an unhealthy situatioi, a subsequent period. Indeed, some critics contend that it is but carries on considerable trade. Pop. 7500. English work of the I2th c., executed, probably in London, to Bay'ard, or rather Bayart, Pierre du Terrail, Seigneur the order of three Bayeux knights who figure frequently in the de, the Chevalier sanspeur et sans rejroche, called also by his com- tapestry, and who shared in the apportionment of English land. panions'Piquet,' was born in I476 at his father's chateau near The entire web embraces seventy-two scenes, which collectively Grenoble in Dauphine'. Under the care of Carlo I., Duke of exhibit upwards of 1500 figures of men, horses, and various other Savoy, and then of the Count de Ligny, B. rapidly rose into animals, buildings, ships, &c. Each particular event is portrayed favour with Charles VIII. of France, whom he served faithfully in a distinct compartment bearing a Latin explanation, and the at Fornova and Novara in the campaign of I494-95 against the whole design illustrates in a graphic manner the history of the Italian League. In I503 Louis XII. sent him with D'Aubigne Conquest from Harold's interview with Edward the Confessor to Naples, where he long resisted the Spanish occupation. In previous to the former setting out on his mission to Normandy, 1507 he suppressed the rebellion of Paul de Novi at Genoa; and the events which transpired there, the sickness, death, and funeral in the campaigns of the Cambrai League against the Venetian procession of Edward the Confessor, on to the accession of Harold General Petigliano, at Aignadel, the siege of Padua, and the to the throne, the Norman invasion, the battle of Hastings, the occupation of Verona, he is the foremost figure. In I5Io his death of Harold, and flight of the English, which closes this rebrilliant actions before La Bastia decided the campaign of Pope markable work. Although the drawing is rude, with no attempt Julius II. against Alfonso of Ferrara. He was the hero of the at perspective, the B. T. has the artistic merit of preserving the storming of Brescia against the Venetians, fought under Nemours resemblance of individuals and classes throughout. It affords a at Ravenna (1512) when the Spanish general Don Pedro was curiousinsight into the manners and customs oftheNorman epoch, taken prisoner; and greatly distinguished himself at the Battle and it is peculiarly interesting and valuable for its costumes, of the Spurs near Terrouenne (I513). B. also enjoyed the con- warlike implements, military ensigns, regal pageantry, &c. This fidence of Francis I. who, after the battle of Marignano (I5I5), extraordinary piece of needlework was preserved for centuries in asked the honour of knighthood at the hand of his subject. B.'s the cathedral at defence of Mezieres against the Imperialists (1522), his taking of Bayeux, and exhiLodi from the Duke of Mantua (1523), and frequent campaigns bited at a particuin the Milanese territory, fill up the rest of his life. He was lar season of the killed 30th April I524, and was buried in the church of the year to the people Minims near Grenoble. B. was remarkable for chivalrous of the city; but I courage, military skill (especially in skirmishing), generosity French antiquaries towards his fellow-soldiers, the vanquished, and the poor, purity were ignorant of its of life, and devotion to France. His story is told in La tres existence till about joyeuseplaisante Histoire, by'le loyal serviteur,' published at I724, when their Paris I527, and rendered into English by Southey, Walford, &c. attention was di- See De Terre Basse, Histoire de Pierre Terrail, Seigneur de rected. by M. LanBayard; suivie de Rec/zerches gnJ alogiques, Pilces et Lethres inidils celot to an illumi(Par. 1826, 3d ed. Lyons, 1832). nated drawing of a portion of an obBayazid', a fortified town in the vilayet of Erzeroum, Tur- scure historical emuish Armenia, I5 miles S.W. of Mount Ararat, and 230 miles broidery, and the WV.S.W. of Trebizond. It was the scene of a Russian victory original work itself over the Turks during the Crimean War, August I854. B. was was found by Pere formerly a flourishing centre of trade, but has greatly dee-ined. Montfaucon in the Bayeux Tapestry-Harold on his Departure to Pop. 5000, chiefly Kurds. keeping of the Normandy takes leave of Edward. Bayazid. See BAJAZI4T. canons of Bayeux Cathedral. In 1730 Pere Montfaucon pubBagy'berrgy. See CANIDLEBERRY. lslished a reduced engraving of the whole in his Mllonumens de la Monarchie Franfoise, and an elaborate description of the needleBay'er, Johann, a German chartographer, celebrated for work is also given by Dr Ducarel in the appendix to his Anglohis star-charts, was born at Rhain in Bavaria in 1572, and died Norman Antiquities, published in London in 1767. The Society at Augsburg, Ith March I625. In his great work, Uranometr-ia of Antiquaries, in I8I 6, despatched MrCharles Stothardto Bayeux (Augsb. I6013; Ulm, I607 and 1633), which contained fifty-one to copy it; and the result of his labours is given in a coloured maps, B introduced the now universal method of naming the engraving in the sixth volume of the TVetzstla Monumenta. A fullstars i a constellation by the Greek letters. A second work of sized coloured photograph of the tapestry may also be seen in the 3I2 _, 112 —--------------------- BAY THE GLOBE ENC YCL OPkDB19A. BAY South Kensington Museum in London, where too a small but and even hostility to Protestantism. Additional calumnies of valuable fragment of the original is preserved. In 1803, by the an odious character were cleverly exposed in his Cabale chimedesire of Napoleon I., then First Consul, who at that time medi- rique; but it is always easy for ecclesiastical bigotry to secure a tated an invasion of England, the B. T. was exhibited in the triumph, and in I693 B. was deprived of his license to teach. But B. was a student of few wants, and he at once turned, with the fine fervour of a literary enthusiast, to the execution of his long-meditated Dictionnaire historique et critique. The first edi. tion was published at Rotterdam in i696, and the second in I7o02. It was attacked by Jurieu, by the consistory of the Walloon Church, and by other theologians, for its articles David,'ir~~~~~~ ]'~~~~Pyrrhonisme, Manich&ens, &c. The Dic onnaire was followed by his Rponse aux Questions d'un Provincial, and other controversial works. These had the effect of raising around the head /s j' ~~~~YX of their author a final storm of theological controversy, under.j which his health gave way. He died 28th December I706. The earnest conviction which B. mainly sought to impress upon his contemporaries was, that morality does not depend on religious dogma, and that good men and bad are to be found alike in Bayeux Tapestry —Harold takes Oath to William. Catholic and in Protestant churches. The result of this creed may have been to lead B. to a culpable indifference to all dogma National Museum at Paris, and afterwards in some other French -Protestant as well as Catholic; but it was necessary to the towns; it was thereafter consigned to the charge of the muni- evolution of the great doctrine of toleration, which established cipality of Bayeux, with which it has since remained. See The itself in France and England during the course of the century. Bayeux 7aestry Elucidated, by J. C. Bruce (Lond. I856), and The force of his thoughts ran in a destructive rather than in a The Bayeux.Tapestry Reproduced in Autotyje Plates with Historic constructive course. We do not find from his works evidence of Notes, by F. R. Fowke (Arundel Society, Lond. I875). his having a religious or philosophical system, or of his having Bay Islands, a small groupt. 10 in the Bay of Honduras, in any fundamental belief on which a system could be built:'My about lat. I6~ 30' N. and long. 86 W. The chief islands are talent,' he said,'is to form doubts, but they are only doubts. Ruatan (q. v.), Bonacca, Uti, and Burburet. Theybelonged to But this fact, though it proves him to have been a thinker only Spain till I82I, became a British colony in I852, but were ceded of the second order, does not detract from the value of his work to Honduras, 28th November i859. historically considered. And above all, his life and literature alike reveal him as, in the highest sense of the word, an honest man. Bayle, Pierre, a famous French critic and philosopher, was The best editions of the Dictionnaire are those of Bale (I 740) and born I8th November I647, at Carlat, in county of Foix, S. of Amsterdam (I740). An extremely interesting one is that by France. His father, a Protestant minister, educated the eager Beuchot (Par. I82o et seq.). See Maizeaux, Vie de P. B. (Amst. and intellectual boy with great care; but even in B.'s earliest 1712); and Feuerbach, P. B., seine Verdienstefiir die Geschichte literary preferences we can see the future character of his genius. der Philosophic (Amst. I838). The admirer of Montaigne could not fail to be sceptical. His studies at Toulon brought him into contact with the Jesuits, who Baylen', a Spanish town,' province of Jaen, 56 miles N. formed the teaching staff of the university, and the homage of Granada, situated in a mountain pass, where the Spaniards which his ardent nature paid to the zeal and talents of his won their sole victory in the Peninsular War, July 23, i808. masters was a temporary apostasy from the faith of his father. Some 20,0ooo men under General Dupont here surrendered, But he returned to Protestantism as rapidly as he had left it, and were sent to the hulks at Cadiz although permission to and to escape the penalty of perpetual banishment, imposed on return to France had been previously promised them. B. has manufactures of linen, tiles, glass, and soap. Pop. 7831L those who relapsed from Catholicism, he went -to Switzerland, where he pursued at Geneva, under wider and less mediaeval Bay of Islands, an inlet on the N.E. coast of the N. forms, his theological and philosophical studies. Descartes Island of New Zealand, situated in S. lat. 35~ I3', and E. long. supplanted the false Aristotle of the schoolmen. In I675 he I740 II'. On it are the settlements of Kororarika and Russell. was appointed to the chair of' philosophy in the Protestant Col- The former was the first place in New Zealand settled in by lege of Sedan, where he laboured with such rigour that he actu- Europeans. Russell is a great rendezvous for whalers, and from ally forgot to correspond with his friends. His first public it is exported the coal from the Kawakawa mines, which is appearances as an author were in harmony with the rational largely used in Auckland (q. v.). The B. of I. forms a magnicharacter of his intellect. When the Duc de Luxembourg was ficent harbour. It is the most southerly limit of the S.E. tradegravely accused by a learned tribunal (which included councillors wind on the New Zealand coast. of state) of having dealings with the devil, B., in a defence pre- Bayonet, a side-arm carried by infantry, and adapted for pared for the Duc, conclusively exposed the absurdity of the fixing to the muzzle of smal-arms. It s popularly believed.His next attempt to enlighten his age was a pamphet fixing to the muzzle of small-arms. It is popularly believed charge. His next attempte to enlhten his age was a pamphlet that the B. was invented at Bayonne about I640, but at that entitled Cogitaliones rationales de Deo, Animo et izalo, in answer time it was in general use among European armies, having reto an enthusiast called Poiret; and this was followed by a third in 1682, Penskes stur la Coimte crites d un Docteur de la Sorbonne. placed the pike in some instances, and so early as I570 it was known in France. In the oldest form of B., the blade had a Meanwhile Louis XIV., inspired by religious prejudices, had knowin ance. In the oldest form of B., the blade had a suppressed the College of Sedan in i68I, but B, found welcome handle which was inserted into the muzzle of the arque. and honour in the city of Erasmus. Appointed a professor of bus, but it was discarded for the socket-and-collar pattern, the history and philosophy in Rotterdam, hewas not slow toembroil existing form, which admits of shooting with the B. fixed. himself in honourable controversy. His Critique Generare (I682) Mackay, a Scottish general of the 17th c., has been credited with the invention of the latter weapon; an example of it, howand universally read. Even Maimbourg himself valued the ever, belonging to the end of the I6th c., is now in the Culmann Collection at Hanover. The 1British pattern B. of the present work, but it cost B. the friendship of a distinguished colleague, Collection at Hanover. The British pattern B. of th resent the theologian Juieu who had wished himself to refute the day is of steel, I 7 inches long in the blade, which has three fluted the theologian Jurieu, who had wished himself to refute the Catholic father. In I684 B. conceived the idea of a periodical sides. The adoption of ah arm which is at once a sword, saw, Caentitled Nouvelles de la e que des Leltres, whichi afIchieved a and B. has been suggested for the Martini-Henry rifle. entitled Nouvelles de la Republiqule des -Lettres, which achieved a great success, and made its editor a sort of literary dictator; Bayonne', a fortified town of the first-class in the department but it also involved him in thorny questions, and the im- of Basses Pyrenees, France, at the junction of the Adour and placable Jurieu was vigilant in his enmity.'t A work of B.'s, Nive, near their entrance into the Bay of Biscay. It consists of worthy of all praise, Commzentaire Philosophique szifr ces Paroles Great and Little B, and of the suburb Pont St Esprit, separated de l'Evangile: Contrains-les d'entrer, in which the author took by the two rivers, and exports ship-timber, tar, cork, chocolate, occasion to recommend the principle of toleration on philoso- and the celebrated hams; but the bar at the mouth of the Adour phical grounds, led Jurieu to accuse him of religious indifference, greatly hinders trade. The chief manufactures are glass, sugar, 40 313 4''4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I BAY THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP/zDZA. BEA liqueurs, and ropes, and there are also large shipyards and dis- Bdell'ium, a gum resin, allied, as well botanically as in its tilleries. B. is the see of a bishop, with a cathedral and schools physical properties, to myrrh. It is found to be produced by two of navigation and commerce. Pop. (I872) I7,977. B., the species of Balsaomodendron, B. Roxburg,Ii, and B. Mukul, and Lapurduiz of the Romans, was a fortress and a place of trade as in the E. Indies, where it is produced, it is known as Googul. early as the 3d c., the seat of a bishop in the 4th, and after the This is supposed to be the B. mentioned in Scripture. It is used Ioth c. shared the fortunes of Gascony. In I565 Catherine de in the E. Indies both internally and externally as medicine; it Medici here met the Duke of Alva, and arranged measures for is likewise employed in Hindoo incense, and it is much employed the destruction of Protestantism. Charles IV. of Spain abdicated in the East for mixing with plaster in walls to render it more (I808) at B. in favour of Napoleon. The British with great loss tenacious. forced the passage of the Nive, and in i814 invested B., from which (April 14) the French made a desperate but unsuccessful, whether raised earthquakes or l and dry by the sally. The convention of B., between the Duchy of Warsaw and sea, whether raised by earthquaes, or left high and dry by the France, was signed May io, I8o8. The inhabitants of the district receding ocean, is a question which has to e answered in each particular case. That they were formerly sea-B. is evident from are of Baspsie origin. the shells found in them peculiar to species which now are found Bay,rum, a spirit prepared in the West Indies from the in northern seas, the alternating sand and gravel beds, and their berries of Eugenia acris, used for toilet purposes and as a lini- levelness for considerable distances, generally in the direction of ment in rheumatic affections. the present shores. There are also produced by similar causes Bay Window, or Bow Window, a window forming a terraces of erosion, which supply evidence of the action of the recess, or bay, in a room, and projecting outward from the wall sea on the face of rocks, in lines somewhat parallel to those at in a rectangular, polygonal, or-in debased Gothic-semicircular present being formed, but elevated high above them. In Scotshape. The B. W. is peculiar to Gothic architecture. land, round the coasts of the Highlands and Islands, such terraces are to be seen 25 feet above the lines at present being Ba'za (the Basti of the Romans, and the Bastanis of the formed; in Lapland there is one declining from an elevation of middle ages), a town of Spain, province of Granada, in a rich 220 to 85 feet in a course of 30 miles; in Norway, behind Dronplain 53 miles E.N.E. of the town of Granada. Pop. about theim, there is one at the great height of 520 feet above the II,ooo, chiefly agricultural. B. is famous for the excellence of present level of the sea. its wines and the beauty of its women. On the Ioth of August I8Io, the French under Soult here gained a victory over the Spaniards. Under the Moors it was a large and flourishing headland'), a lofty promontory on the S. coast of England, in town, with 50,000 inhabitants, Sussex, formed of chalk cliffs, rising 564 feet above the sea-level. In I828 the Bell Tont Lighthouse was built here, with an elevaBazaar' (from an Arabic word denoting traffic or merchan- tion of 285 feet. - Its light is visible 22 miles off. Caverns have dise), a market-place, open or covered, where merchants in been cut in the cliffs as places of refuge for shipwrecked mariners. Eastern countries have their warehouses and meet to transact business. The term is now frequently applied in the West to Bea'con (Old Eng. beelcen, a sign), a fire-signal set on an places opened for the sale of fancy goods. eminence as a warning of impending danger. Such signals have been used by almost all nations; their antiquity is shown by the Bazaine', Fran9ois Achille, a French general not likely frequent allusions in ancient classical writings to the employment to be soon forgotten by his countrymen, was born I3th February of fire-beacons during war; and in Jeremiah vi. I, mention is I8I I. Joining the army in I831, he served in Africa in I832. made of a'sign of fire,' betokening approaching disaster. During In I837, having obtained a lieutenancy and the cross of the the reign of Edward III. pitch-boxes were lighted as beacons, Legion of Honour, he was engaged in the Carlists and Christinos and the expense of watching and maintaining them was defrayed war, and in I839 distinguished himself in Algiers. In theCrimea out of the Exchequer. At the death of Henry VIII., when he commanded a brigade of infantry. Appointed a General of England decided to prosecute the war with Scotland, the Scot. Division, he joined the Mexican expedition in I862, succeeded tish court ordered beacons to be lit on all the hills near the E. Forey in chief command, defeated President Juarez, and, in spite coast as a warning of the approach of the enemy's fleet; and of crippled resources, maintained his army till I867, when he when the' Invincible Armada' threatened descent on our shores, effected a retreat by VWra Cruz. He had in I864 been named beacons were placed along the coast from Land's End to LindisMarshal of France, and was now placed at the head of the Third fame to enjoin the people to watch and pray for succour and Army Corps and of the Imperial Guard. In the Franco-Prussian safety. Fire-pots and B.-grates are yet to be seen in many parts war, B., on the surrender of the Emperor Napoleon at Sedan, oc- of the United Kingdom, and they are generally turned to account cupied Metz, where, after a seven-weeks' siege by Prince Frederick on occasions of rejoicing. Charles of Prussia, he capitulated with an army of I75,000 men. For this act he was summoned in August I87I before the Military Bacon, p aritinge, a mark for the guidance of mariners Commission of the National Assembly sitting at Versailles' Commission of the National Assembly sitting at Versailles. placed on projecting headlands, tidal rocks, banks or shoals at After some delays he was, on the downfall of M. Thiers, tried an estuary or river mouth, or entrance to a harbour. Beacons by court-martial, and found guilty of having negotiated with the are usually of a conicalform, constructed of stone, wood, or castenemy before doing all that duty and honour required, and iron plates, or, in exposed situations, of an open framework of having surrendered a fortified place and laid down his arms cast-iron pipes, and are erected in places where it is not expedient to establish lighthouses. As beacons generally exhibit no light, before the enemy in open field. He was condemned to death to estabhsh lighthouses. As beacons generally exhibit no light and degradation, a sentence commuted to 20 years' seclusion in and therefore are useful only by day and in clear weather, buoys the Isle St Marguerite, his escape from which, shortly afterwards,or foating sea-marks, though less permanent, serve much the was probably connived at, B. has since resided in Spain. same purpose. Suggestions have been thrown out at various times for lighting beacons; and Mr Thomas Stevenson has introBazard', Amand, an ardent but mercurial French political duced with success a method of indicating the position of beacons thinker of the Ig9th c., was born at Paris, Ig9th September I79i. by transmitting from the shore a beam of light which is dispersed In I820, along with some others, he introduced Carbonarism by means of reflecting apparatus on the top of the beacon. Mr from Italy into France, but after a few years joined the dis- Stevenson has also proposed to light beacons by electricity; and, ciples of Saint-Simon; and in I825 became one of the editors of in I870, Mr Fleeming Jenkin patented a method of lighting beaLe Producteur, a Socialist and Communist journal, which did cons and buoys, by producing a rapid succession of electric sparks not succeed. B., however, made a great impression on those by alternate charges and discharges of a condenser placed on with whom he came into contact, and in the public conferences the beacon or buoy, communication with the shore being mainof the sect in 1828 he was one of the most conspicuous speakers. tained by means of submarine wires. But after the July revolution he quarrelled with a man far more subtle and powerful than himself, Pere Enfantin, who soon displaced him in the leadership of the Saint-Simonians. B. died signifies a prayer, and retained this meaning down to the close of the I6th c. As late as the age of Spenser we find it so used 29th July I832, from the effects of a stroke of apoplexy, causedEry Qeee, b. I, c. I, st. 30):'Bi is eds all day by the excitement of a public discussion (Faery Queene, b. I, C. I, St- 30) Biddisg his beades all day for his trespas,'-the explanation of which is given in the glossary Bazoche' See BAsocHE. published with the Shepheard's Calender by the same author: — 3I4 BEA TiHE GLOBE EN~C YCLOPEDIA. BEA'To bidde is to pray, whereof cometh beades for praiers, and so IBeak. See BILL. they say "to bidde his beades," sc. to say his prayers.' But at Beak'ed, in heraldry, means that the beak of a fowl is of a a very early date the word had come to denote also the roll of tincture different from that the body.'B. and iembere' tincture different from that of the body.'B. and membered' little balls made of gold, silver, ivory, glass, wood, &c., by means sinifies that the legs are of the same tcture as the beak. B. of which an account was kept of the number of prayers repeated. signifies that the legs of the same ticture as the beak. B. In Chaucer (Prol. Cant. Tales, i. I59) we have a peire of bedes otapplytobirdsofprey. gaudid al with grene; and in the RYomaunt of the Rose (7372) Bea'ker, a large cup or drinking-bowl, originally of beechboth uses together- wood, hence the name. The word does not occur in the oldest'Apeire ofbed's eke she bere English, but the analogous becher of the Germans suggests its Upon a lace, alle of white threde, derivation. The form in Lowland Sc. is bicker, which is still On which that she her bedes bede.' restricted in its application to a wooden cup or bowl. One who prayed for another was called a bedesmasn. The name Beam (same as Ger. baum, Dut. boom, a tree, hence timber), did not at first necessarily denote a pauper hired to pray for the in mechanics, denotes any piece supported at one or more points, rich, by whose alims he was maintained. It was applied to any and loaded at others, in such a way as to be subjected to a pious recluse or hermit whose life was devoted to prayer, and cross-breaking stress.-B. of a ship, a word used by shipwho might receive, though he would not ask, support from those builders, meaning the breadth of a vessel measured amidships. who lived near him; but gradually it came to denote mere dependents on the bounty of others, and the primary idea of prayer Beaming, the operation of winding weft-yarn on a beam totally disappeared. Edie Ochiltree in the Aniqzuary was a called the yarn-beam, preparatory to weaving. The loom conking's bedesman, but it may be doubted if the pawkie gaberlunzie tains two beams-the one which holds the unwoven weft-yarn was often on his knees for the safety of King George's soul. and the other, which receives the cloth as it is woven. Bead, in architecture, a small round moulding, seen chiefly Bean, a term applied to the seeds of many plants of the in Grecian and Roman architecture. It is sometimes cut into Pab zionaceh of the tegvainose (q. v.). The common embossments, resembling beads on a necklace, and is much used a remote pegaod. It is been cultivated in Europe and Asia from a remote period. It is perhaps a native of the borders of the in wood-carving~. It is often called, an astragal. Caspian. It is very nutritious, containing about 36 per cent. of Bead, a small ornament, usually globular in shape, of glass, starch, and 23 per cent. of legumine. The varieties most famous porcelain, or other material, and perforated so that numbers for garden cultivation are-the Windsor B., long pod, and early can be strung together into a necklace, or fastened with thread Mazagan. The roots of the B. are diuretic. The plant is apt to to the surface of any textile fabric. In the form of beads traces be injured by the Collier aphis, or black dolphin-fly (Ap4his Fabce), of the most ancient glass manufacture are found in ancient which destroys the leaves. The best remedy is to cut off the tops, Egyptian tombs, and glass beads yet continue to be made in which are usually first attacked, as soon as the fly makes its enormous quantities. Venice has long been the principal seat appearance. Kidney-beans, scarlet-runners, and haricots (all beof the manufacture of fancy glass beads, and there artistic com- longing to the genus Pkaseolus), lentils (Ervum), &c., though binations of the various colours and qualities of glass character- sometimes called beans, are entirely different from the above. istic of Venice are employed in bead-making. Imitations of The variety of B. cultivated is the common tick or field B., pearls, precious stones, and metals are also made in glass for closely resembling the horse or Scotch B. In England, an beads, the chief seat of this manufacture being in Paris. Large average soil will yield from 20 to 40 bushels per acre, but in quantities of plain beads are made in Birmingham, which are some of the good soils of Fife and the Lothians 6o bushels per used for embroidery and fancy work. Beads are universally acre, each bushel averaging 66 lbs., will be obtained. It is now prized among all savage tribes, and they form the readiest and little used as an article of food, though at one time generally most convenient medium of exchange in commercial transactions employed for making meal, out of which a coarse but nutritious with such races. Beads of more valuable materials are much bread was baked. It is an excellent feeding material for horses. worn in civilised countries as necklaces. In Westphalia amber Farmyard manure is the best, and indeed the almost essential one beads are much used for necklaces, and red coral is generally to be applied in the growth of beans. esteemed for like purposes. Ornamental fruits and seeds are Bean, Calabar. See CALABAR-BEAN and PHYSOSTIGMIA. also frequently bored for use as Necklaces and Rosaries (q. v.). Bean Caper. See ZYGOPHYLLACEM. Bea'dle (Old Eng. bydel, a crier or summoner, from bidan, Bean Goose. See GoosE. to command or summon), is an officer frequently attached to the Bean-King's Festival, a relic of the Roman Saturnalia, of church in England. He is appointed by the vestry. His busi- electing a mock-king by lot, which has lingered in some hess is to give notice when a vestry meeting is appointed; to countries; the use of the bean being also a relic of the superattend upon it when met; and to execute its orders. He is stitious veneration paid to beans from the belief that they also to assist the churchwardens, overseers, and constables in contained the'souls of the dead. On Twelfth Night there is distheir respective duties, and to make himself generally useful in tributed to each of the company a piece of a cake into which a vestry and parish business. bean (and sometimes a pea for a queen) has been baked, and Beagle (Gael. beag,'small'), a variety of dog, of compara- whoever gets the bean in his piece is made controller of the tively small stature, festivities for the night. and formerly much Bean, St Ignatius. See STRYCHNOS. employed in hunting Bear, a genus of Carnivorous mammals belonging to the hares. It is Io or ii Plantigrade section of that order-that is, to the section characin. high at the shoul- terised by the fact that the whole sole of the foot is applied to der, but the favourite the ground in walking. The bears form the types of the family specimens were of less Ursid'. These animals are less typically of carnivorous habits height. These dogs than their congeners of the order; many of the bears feeding are of an enduring, pa- on fruits and vegetable matter, on honey, &c. The molar or tient disposition; their grinding teeth are tuberculate, the carnassial or flesh-molar scent is keen; and their possessing a tuberculate crown instead of a sharp trenchant edge, cry may be described as in other and typical carnivora. The dental formula of the as pleasant or musical bears shows six incisors, two canines, eight proemolars in each jaw;'A in tone. The ears four true molars existing in the upper, and six in the lower jawl $ <= >>ah_ are long. The colour making a total of forty-two teeth in all. The foremostprxemolars is darkl-brown, with generally fall out as the animal advances in age. The feet are white on the fore- provided with five toes each, and the soles are generally destitute Beagle. parts; or the body- of hairs, although the Polar bears possess hairy soles. The frontcolour may be white limbs are generally shorter than the hind-limbs, and are very with red markings. The hair is short. The Harrier (q. v.) has muscular and mobile, a conformation of great service to these almost entirely superseded the B. in sport. animals in climbing. The toes are armed with strong claws, which W ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~315 *P BEA THE GIOBE ENCYCLOPEDIA. BEA are non-retractile, and which are used in digging and burrowing. discontinued in England, it used to be one of the entertainments The tongue is smooth and fleshy. The intestine.is destitute of a passionately frequented by all classes-royalty witnessing the csecum. The. ears are of small size, rounded and erect. The cruelty with as deep delight as the rabble. tail is short and rudimentary. The nose is prolonged slightly to Bearberry. See ARCTOSTAPHYLOS. form a truncated mobile snout. The pupil of the eye is of circular form. The body is covered by a thick, close-set fur, consisting Bear, Great and ittle See USA MAJOR and USA of shaggy hair. The gait is generally lumbering and clumsy; and MINOR. most of these animals hybernate during the colder seasons of the Bear Lake, Great, the most northerly of the large lakes in the centre of British America, lat. 650 to 67~ N., and long. 11 7~ to I23~ W. Its form is irregular, and its surface is estimated to be I4,ooo sq. miles in extent, and 230 feet above the sea. A river of its own name drains it into the Mackenzie river. /2-~ 2'.Bear-Pit, a circular pit in zoological gardens, about 25 feetin diameter and 20 feet in depth, with vaults around it for the bears to retire to. A thick pole with cross-spars rises from the centre of the pit, on which the bears are fond of climbing, and where they catch many various morsels of food from visitors. Bear's Grease. The solid fat of the white bear at one Wi"~~,time possessed an enormous reputation as an application for the human hair, and B. G. was in great demand. A factitious compound of hog's lard very frequently was substituted for the!~~ [~ri' ~ genuine article, and that fact may account for the decreased Polar Bear. popularity of B, G. as a preventive from baldness. year. In their distribution, the bears occur in every quarter of Beard, the hair upon the chin, cheeks, and upper lip, the world-Australia, however, proving in this, as in the case of which in the human family appears at the age of puberty as a other and higher mammals generally, an exception to this state- distinctive mark of the male sex. It is usually rather lighter in ment. The African continent is also somewhat exceptional, in colour than the hair of the head, and as a general rule its chathat bears exist only towards the northern portions, and these racter depends upon the nature of the climate. In hot and dry in limited numbers. countries, it is invariably dark, dry, and long; and, on the other The European or common brown B. (Usisus Arctos) is a hand, thick, curly, and fair in cold and damp countries. The familiar species. This form occurs in the forests of Europe from hair, being a bad conductor of heat, protects the face and throat the N. to the Pyrenees and Apennines, and in Northern Asia. from cold, and acts as a safeguard against excessive heat. The In recent geological times this form existed in Britain, and had B., particularly the mustache, or hair of the upper lip, is of a much wider European distribution than at present. Its food great utility in preventing dust of any kind being inhaled with consists of roots, fruits, worms, insects, honey, and more rarely the breath, particularly so to masons, bakers, glass-engravers, of flesh. Its average length is four feet, and its height about two and workers in metals, who in their avocations are constantly and a half feet. This species is hunted for the skin, fat, and exposed to an atmosphere charged with minute particles of the tongue. It may be tamed in a very complete fashion, and is by materials operated upon. Among some nations the B. grows in no means fierce or quarrelsome unless irritated. The black B. great profusion, and among others very stintedly; with the former of America ( U. Americanus) is a nearly-related form, and is found it is generally regarded as a graceful ornament, while some of throughout N. America. The fur is of a glossy black colour, and the latter thoroughly eradicate it. In Old Testament times it is chiefly hunted for the sake of its skin. Varieties of this spe- great respect was paid to the B., and special attention was given cies with lighter skins exist. In winter, the black B. approaches to it. Among the upper classes it was perfumed, anointed with human habitations, and may then carry off domestic animals. oil, and occasionally dyed. An uncouth and dishevelled B., or The American grizzly B. (U. ferox) is a much more formidable its entire removal, denoted a state of mourning or deep sorrow, species, inhabiting mountainous regions such as the Rocky and no greater insult could be offered than spitting on or pulling Mountains and the eastern plains to 61~ N. lat. It averages one's B. Slaves in ancient times were deprived of their beards, eight feet in length, and is of a ferocious disposition, although and with the Turks even now a state of servitude among the attenit generally subsists on roots and acorns. In other cases the dants of the seraglio is indicated by a shaven face. The Turkish grizzly B. may not only kill the large Bison of America, but husband and father is accustomed to have his B. kissed by his drag away the carcase with ease. All the foregoing species wives and children as a mark of affection. The intense love of hybernate in winter. The Arctic or Polar B. (Tkaiassarctos cleanliness on the part of the Egyptians would not suffer them to maritimus) is found exclusively in the Arctic regions. Its fur is wear a B., save, according to Herodotus, in times of mourning. of a white colour; the hair-clad soles of the feet giving this Though a shaving people, they had a singular custom of wearing form a sure hold upon the ice. The paws are very long, and upon the chin a false B. of plaited hair, which differed in shape the neck is also elongated. It swims well, and feeds upon according to the rank and position of the wearer. Kings wore dead whales, seals, &c., but is also an expert fisher. The long and square-bottomed beards, those of private individuals Syrian B. (U, Syriacus) found in Mount Lebanon is probably were very short, and gods were distinguished by their long beards the biblical Bi It is of a light-brown colour, the fur between curling up at the end. the shoulders being long and mane-like. The sloth or jungle Among the early Greeks a thick B. was considered a mark of B. of India (Prochilus labiatus) is distinguished by the protrusion manliness, and the Greek philosophers thought that a certain digor elongation of the lips. This B. is frequently tamed by jug- nity of character attached to its long growth. Shaving was inglers. The Malayan sun-B. (ela)arctas Malayanuzs) of Sumatra troduced into Greece by Alexander the Great, who ordered his and Borneo, and its variety of Borneo (H. euryspilus), possess soldiers to perform that operation, and the practice continued smooth glossy hair, and feed on fruits and honey. They are general till the time of Justinian. About 13.c. 30o, Ticinius much less fierce than the other members of the family, and are Meenas is said to have introduced to the Romans a Sicilian barber very playful when tamed. The cave-B. (U; s2ecus), the fossil who inaugurated shaving, and Pliny states that Scipio Africanus remains of which occur in Britain and elsewhere, in Tertiary was the first Roman who shaved daily. Later on, the festival deposits, is an extinct form which was of larger size than the which celebrated the assumption of the toga viriis by a young Polar B. It apparently survived the human epoch. Roman was made the occasion of the first operation of shaving, Bear. See E~X~CHANGE. and the hair then cut off was consecrated to some deity. The Bear. Bayeux tapestry shows that mustaches were worn by the English Bear, Berag, or Beer. See BARLEY soldiers prior to the invasion of the Normans, who shaved not Bear-Baiting, The provoking and harassing of a bear by only the entire face, but the back of the head likewise. This dogs used to be regarded as sport in various Christian countries. Norman custom caused Harold's spies to report that the invaders Although, like bull-baiting and badger-baiting, it has long been were all priests. Louis XIII,, of France, not being endowed 316 v —-'''' ~~~ BEA THE GLOBE E1VC YCLOPSEDIA. BEA by nature with a B., his courtiers revived the fashion of shaving, there be the intention and the power to do the injury. But that and soon after partial shaving, and trimming the mustaches the intention failed will not be held to excuse or even palliate and B. to an ornamental form, became general over Europe. In the offence. Afayhenm, or, as it is more correctly written, maihemt, the I6th c. the English clergy were noted for their beards of is a much graver offence than the other. It consists in depriving great length. In the beginning of the I8th c. the face was another of the use of a member of his body, useful in defence or wholly shaven, and continued so till early in the present century, attack. It has accordingly been decided that the loss of an ear, when the French led the van in again wearing the B. During the ear being valueless for either purpose, did not constitute the reign of Czar Peter the Great, a tax was imposed upon mayhem. But corporal maiming is now generally held to be beards, and collected at the gates of every town. Of late years a crime of equal gravity to that of legal maiming. These per. the British soldiers and sailors have been allowed, within certain sonal injuries are crimes against the public as well as private limits, to cultivate beards, and by the removal of what was an wrongs, and consequently render the offender liable to action at unjust restriction, the great extremes of temperature to which the the instance of the crown as well as to action at the instance of men are exposed may be endured with comparative impunity. the person injured. No words, however irritating, can constiBeard'ie, the Scotch name for the fresh-water fish belonging tute an assault; on the other hand, they may palliate one. It to the family Cyprinide, and known as the Loach (q. v.) (Cobitis). has been decided that any illegal act which ultimately causes personal injury to another may constitute a ground of civil Beard Moss. See USNIA. action. The essence of the offence is malicious intention or Bear'ing is a nautical term much in use. It denotes chiefly culpable carelessness. the direction in which a ship is sailing with reference to the There is a very wide range, indeed, in the criminality which points of the compass. But objects seen from the ship also are the law attaches to assault. What is called an aggravated assault said to have their B. ahead, astern, Jort (larboard) guarter, may render the criminal liable to penal servitude for life. Here starboard bow, as the case may be. Sailors also speak of B. again intention is the essence of the crime; assault, with intent off; in, away, z`p, &c. to rob, murder, or commit other felony, being an indictment Bearing the Bell, a phrase denoting excellence in any art which, followed by conviction, carries a greatly severer penalty or pursuit. The person who carries off the prize in a contest is ough thment without such allegation. At the same time, said to bear the bell away from his competitors. The phrase the ntention be not otherwise obvious, it be dates from the beginning of the 17th c., when it was customary inferred from the nature of the assault itself. Thus, if it be dates from the w inner of a horse-rae with c., when it was customary made with a loaded pistol, knife, or other lethal weapon, intent to gift tlv he winner of a horse-race with a small ell of gold to murder may be presumed. In Scotland the law is nearly the same as in England.with regard to these offences. What is B6arn' (Lat. Benearnzia), a former province in the S.W. of called hamesucken is, in Scotch law, a special aggravation of France, now included in the present department of Basses- assault. It consists in assaulting any one in his own house or Pyrenees (q. v.). It originally formed part of the Roman dwelling-place. To constitute the crime there must, however, Aquitania. In the time of Ludwig the Pious, son of Charlemagne, be premeditation. To assault any one in his own house, in imCentullus, a scion of the ducal house of Gascony, obtained the mediate consequence of a quarrel there, is not hamesucken. county or viscounty of B. One of this family, Gaston IV. (Io88- BeatingJudges is, in Scotch law, the title of the offence 1130), was a distinguished warrior in the first Crusade. In the of assaulting udge. To assault a judge on the bench is, under I4th c., B. passed by marriage to the Counts of Foix. Subse- of assaulting a judge. To assault a judge on the bench is, under 14th c., B. passed by marriage to the Counts of Foix. Subse- an old Scotch statute, a crime. quently the land, along with Foix and Navarre, belonged suc- capital cessively to the houses of Foix, Grailly, and Albret. Jeanne Beating the Bounds, is, in England, the popular expresd'Albret, the heiress of the lands, married Antoine de Bourbon sion for the ceremony by which a knowledge of the boundaries in I548. Their son Henri, surnamed the Bearnois, ascended of a parish is preserved. The legal term is Peramzbuation of the throne of France as Henri IV. in e593, but B. was first Parishes. It is done by the clergyman, churchwardens, and made a French crown-lalnd by Louis XIII. in I620. Its capital some of the parishioners going over and surveying the boundaries was Pau. The modern inhabitants of B., descended from the once a year, towards Ascension Week. The surveyors are entitled old ienearni, are the finest of the Gascons. Their proper lan- to over any one's land which it is necessary to traverse. It guage is Basque, but since the French revolution French has is said that boys used to be whipped at special boundaries, to been displacing it. impress the spot on their memories. See BOUND, BOUNDARY. Be'as (anc. HypAhasis), a tributary of the Sutlej, and one of Beat'on, Betoun, or Bethune', David, Cardinal and the rivers from which the Penjab ('land of five rivers') was Primate of Scotland, one of the most memorable of Scotch ecclenamed. It rises in the Ritanka Pass of the Himalaya, I3,200 siastics, and a keen opponent of the Reformation, was a son of feet above the sea, and joins the Sutlej 50 miles S.W. of Lahore, John B. of Balfour, in Fifeshire, and was born in 1494. Eduafter a course of 220 miles. cated at Oxford and Paris, he early entered the Church, under the auspices of his uncle, James B., Archbishop of Glasgow, Beat, in music, has two meanings: (I) a musical ornament and was made Rector of Campsie. His career, both as an eccleresembling a short shake; and (2) a subdivision of a bar or siastic and politician, was brilliant and rapid. In I5I9 he was measure. B. has also a third meaning, belonging more properly appointed by Regent Albany resident for Scotland at the French to acoustics. When two simple musical tones, differing slightly court; in I525, Abbot of Arbroath; and in I528, Lord Privy in pitch, are sounded together, the sound heard varies regulaily Seal. He was sent to France as ambassador to negotiate King in loudness. Each recurrence of maximum loudness is called a James's two marriages-the first with the French king's daughter, B., and it is these beats which are the physical cause of the sen- the Princess Magdalene, who died six months after marriage; sation we call discord. and the second with Mary, daughter of the Duke of Guise, himBeat of Drum, in military language, is a signal, order, or self solemnising the latter in St Andrew's Cathedral in I537. instruction given by a particular kind of beat. The best-known We once more find him in France, in which he was appointed of such signals are the reveille, the assembly, the march, the Bishop of Mirepoix. He was very much attached to this country, retreat, the call to arms, &c., some of which may be also given to which his family originally belonged; and, as Dr Hill Burton by the bugle or trumpet. says in his History of Scotland,'He was deep in Italian and French politics-more, indeed, of a Frenchman, and a servant of Beatifica'tio, an infereior degree of Canonisation (q. v.), by the Guises, than of a Scotsman.' This proved a great misfortune which the Pope allows religious honours to be paid to some one for his country, his Church, and ultimately for himself. Returnwithout pronouncing ex cathedra, as in canonisation, on the state ing to Scotland, he became coadjutor to his uncle as Archbishop of the blessed. ing to Scotland, he became coadjutor to his uncle as Archbishop of St Andrews, and on his death, his successor, with the addiBeat'ing and Wound'ing. The legal offences included tional title of Primate of Scotland. Prior to this he had been under this title may be held to include that of Battery (q. v.); made a cardinal by Pope Paul III. He now began a vigorous but B. and W. is rather held to express a graver offence than persecution of the Scotch reformers, carrying King James with would be included by battery. B. and W. is in law subdivided him in this. He also persuaded his master into a war with into assault and mayhemn. Assault is an attempt or offer to do England, which ended in the disastrous battle of Solway Moss, corporal injury to another; and it is essential to the offence that December I4, I542. After the king's death, which was the result 3I7 BEA THTE GLOBE EC YCL OPztDIA. BEA of this defeat, he endeavoured, by means of a forged will, to be- for alleged indiscreet use of documents confided to him as a come one of the regents of the kingdom; but the document was minister, and in I809 he was banished to Rheims, but was recalled rejected by the nobility, the Earl of Arran was made regent, and in I8I I, and again employed by the government on condition that B. was thrown into prison. In a somewhat suspicious manner he should publish nothing on contemporary politics. In I8I4 he he was released, and became reconciled with the regent, whom lost this place, but in I820 he received a pension, which, on his he induced to abandon the doctrines of the Reformation. On death, June 4, 1832, was continued to his widow. B.'s literary Queen Mary's coronation, in I543, B. again rose into favour, and activity was great, and he contributed largely to many journals; was made Chancellor. Ile resumed his persecution of the Pro- but the value of his historical writings is impaired by his evident testants, and among his victims was the celebrated preacher party bias, from which, however, his Hisloire de la Conqu&e et des George Wishart, who was burnt at the stake at St Andrews. A Revolutions dz Pe]rou (Par. I8o8), and -istoire du Brdsil depuis popular story that his sufferings were witnessed and gloated upon sa Coneudtte en 1500 jusqu'en I8Io (Par. I815), are free. The from a window by B. is now believed to be without foundation. Mevzoires printed (I824) under the name of Fouche have been B. had, by his persecutions, and his haughty conduct gene- ascribed to B. rally, made himself very unpopular; several conspiracies were Beaufort, the name of sixteen different towns and castles in formed against him, and at length he was assassinated by John France, of which the most important is B.-en-Vallte, a town and Norman Lesly in his own castle, May 29, I546. B., in his e t and Norman Lesly in his own castle, May 29, i1546. B., in his in the department of Maine-et-Loire (Anjou), 15 miles E. of character, resembled Mazarin, the French ecclesiastical states- Angers, with manufactures of sailcloth, leather, &c., and a trade man, and would probably have been both much more successful Angers, with manufactures of saicoth, leather. Pop. (72) 2623. and more popular in France than in Scotland. He was an im- in grain, hemp, nuts, prunes, and wine. Pop. (1872) 2623. B. moral as well as a cruel mpan, tand had by his mistress, Marion had formerly a strong castle, and gave title to the English Dukes moral as well as a cruel man, and had by his mistress, Marion of B. (q. v.). Ogilby, three sons and three daughters, of whom the former of. (q.v.). weegitima ted inhis lieimwhl three daugte latter were whell mar- B. is also the name of several places in N. America, of which were legitimated in his lifetime, while the latter were well mar- the bestknown are B., a port of N. Carolina, at the moth of ried. He is said to have written memoirs of his embassies, but the best-known are B., a port of N. Carolina, at the mouth of ned. He is said to have written memoirs of his embassies, but Newport river, in Albemarle Sound, with a pop. (I870) of 2850; nothing that may have come from his pen has been published. and B., in S. Carolina, on the Port-Royal river. Before the outBeatt'ie, James, a Scottish poet and philosopher, was born break of the civil war the place was prosperous, the wealthier of at Laurencekirk, Kincardineshire, October 25, I735. He studied the S. Carolinian planters living in the neighbourhood. at Marischal College, Aberdeen, with much success; and after The name is also given to a district in the S.E. of Cape Colony, being for a time one of the masters in the grammar school of that with an area of about I3,050 sq. miles, and a pop. of Iooo. It is town, became in 1760 Professor of Moral Philosophy in Mari- bounded on the N. by a lofty range of mountains, and in the S. schal College. In 1770 he published an Essay on Truth, a by the Great Fish River, and contains a great quantity of exceldefence of Christianity against Hume, which, although it is now lent pasturage. Fort B. is the capital, and stands on the Kat, admired more for the vigour of its language and the religious a branch of the Great Fish river, I I miles N.E. of Port Elizaenthusiasm displayed in it than for the accuracy of its reason- beth, on Algoa Bay. ing, made him very popular. The University of Oxford conferred on him the degree of LL. D., and he had a personal inter- Beaufort is the name of historical families in England view with George III., from whom he received a pension. France, and Belgium. He was also offered preferment in the Church of England, but x. TheEflth ish Beauforts.-Their origin dates from the second declined lest his motives should be misinterpreted. In I76I half of the I4th c., when Katherine Swynford became the mishe had published a volume of original poems and transla- tress of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and third son of tions, and during I771-74 appeared his beautiful poem of The offspring of this connection, both male and Mionstrel, which established his reputation, and which is still female, were afterwards legitimised on the marriage of Katheadmired by lovers of picturesque description and genuine emo-rine to the Duke after the death of her husband. Undoubtedly tion. Before his death, August I8, I803, which seems to have the most able was Ienry B. (the name was taken from a castle been hastened by the death of his son, a young man of much in Anjou, where they wereborn), who was born about I376, and promise, he produced several other works, the chief of which are educated in Germany. At the Council of Constance in I4I7 he Thte Evidences of Ate Christian~ eligion Briefy and Plainly supported the election of Martin V. as Pope, who in return Stated (1i73), and The Elements of Moral Science (1786). See made him a cardinal. When his nephew, Henry V., wished to Sir William Forbes's Life of B., accompanying an edition of the impose a new tax on the clergy to enable him to carry on his poet's works (2 vols. I805). war with France, B. boldly opposed the measure, but privately lent his kinsman /J28,ooo out of his own purse.. The Pope was Beaucaire' (ane. Ugernum), a town in the department of so pleased with his zeal that he sent him as his legate to GerGard, France, on the right bank of the Rhone, about 30 miles many to organise a crusade against the Hussites. The scheme N. of its entrance into the Mediterranean. It stands opposite did not succeed, and as B. employed the money he had received the town of Tarascon, with which it communicates by means of to assist in fitting out an English force against France, he lost a suspension-bridge 1354 feet long, and is a station on the rail- the papal favour. On the death of Henry V. (1422), he became way from Tarascon by Nimes and Montpellier to Cette. It is the virtual head of that great oligarchy of lords temporal and celebrated on account of its annual fair (held 22d to 28th July), spiritual who ruled the nation and directed its policy-persecutsaid to have been established by Count Raymund II. of Toulouse ing the Lollards at home, fighting the French abroad.' In 1431 in 1217, but first mentioned in a document of date 1315, and he caused the young King Henry VI. to be crowned in Paris, which formerly attracted immense numbers of merchants from and later on laboured hard in the English interest to bring about the most distant parts of Europe, and even from Asia. It is a reconciliation between the Dukes of Burgundy and Bedford, but still an important market for the sale of wines, oil, skins, drugs, withdrew from the conduct of affairs when the English cause in wool, cotton, and fruits. Pop. (1872) 7604. Under the Romans, France became desperate. He died at Winchester (of which see as a castrum and station on the great road from Nemausis he was bishop), 14th June 1447, suspected of complicity in the (Nimes) to Italy, B. was a place of importance, as the disco- murder of his chief political rival, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucesvered columns, statues, mosaics, and other relics of antiquity ter leader of the war party. B. was the only English member prove. In the middle ages it was a strong fortress, and is in the ecclesiastical court that tried and condemned Joan of Arc. prominent in the literature of the Troubadours. It favoured John B., elder brother of the cardinal, was made Earl of Somthe Albigenses, and shared in their misfortunes. Also in the erset by Richard II. in 1397, and Marquis of Dorset in 1398, the Huguenot wars of the ifth, and in Richelieu's wars of the 17th latter of which titles he resigned to his brother, Thomas, afterc. it suffered much. wards Duke of Exeter. He died in 1410. His son John was Beau'champ, Alphonse de, a8 French author, born at created Duke of Somerset by Henry V., and died in 1444, leavMonaco in 1767, entered the Sardinian service in 1784, was im- ing an only daughter, Margaret, who married Edmund Tudor, prisoned some months for refusing to serve in the war against Earl of Richmond, father of Henry VII. Edmund B., Earl France, and on his liberation repaired to Paris, where he was of Dorset and second Duke of Somerset, brother of the precedintrusted with the surveillance of the press by the Directory, a ing, is notable for his inextinguishable hatred to the Duke of position which supplied him with materials for his Iistoire de la York, who prevented him from becoming regent of France after Vendee (3 vols. Par. x8o6). Fouch- deprived him of his office the death of Bedford (I435). Having, however, obtained this 318 BEA TH-E GLOBE ENC YCLOP.i/DIA. BIA* office in 1445 by disgraceful intrigue, he conducted affairs so march from Poznan to Leipsic of the I2,000 famished spectres, badly that soon nothing was left to the English in France save the relics of the great host that had crossed the Niemen, seems Calais and Guines; and on his return home, in I450, the public the most heroic incident in the campaign, and one can appreanger against him was so great that for a short time it was neces- ciate Napoleon's words-,' We have all committed faults, except sary to keep him prisoner in the Tower. On obtaining his Eugene.' Before leaving for Italy he won the battle of Liitzen. liberty he soon reacquired favour and influence at court, and A-fter the Hundred Days he retired to Bavaria; and having worked with malignant zeal against his old rival. Once more purchased from the king, whose daughter, Amalie Augusta, he thrown into the Tower (I454), he was again pardoned, and had married, the landgrafdom of Leuchtenberg and principality appointed governor of Calais and Guines; but was slain at the of Eichstadt, became known as Duke of Leuclhtenberg. He died battle of St Albans in I455, in the beginning of the'Wars of 22d February I824. His two sons, Auguste Charles and Maxithe Roses.' His three sons-Henry, Edmund, and John-vainly milien-Joseph, succeeded in turn to the duchy. The former sought to revenge their father's death. The first two were married Queen Donna Maria of Portugal, and died 28th March executed (respectively I463, 147I) by command of Edward IV.; I835; the latter married the daughter of the Emperor Nicholas the third died childless, and with him expired the lawful'line of of Russia, was also well' known in the scientific world as a keen the Dukes of Somerset belonging to the house of B. But a mineralogist, and died November I, 1852. For the history of natural son of Henry, the eldest of the three, viz,, Charles, was the Viceroy, see Gallois, HIistoire de Prince Eugine de B. (Par. made Earl of Worcester in I514, and one of his successors, I821); Aubriet, Vie Politique et Mili/aire d'Ezg. B. (Par. 1824); Henry, fifth Earl of Worcester, was raised to the rank of mar- and Armandi, Vie Mililaire du Prince Eugene, &'c. (Par. I843). quis in i642, while his grandson, Henry, was made Duke of B. by Charles II. in 1682. From this last are descended the Beaumar'chais, Pierre Augustin Caron de, a French modern English Dukes of B., whose present representative is wit and poet of bright and lively genius, was the son of a watchHIenry Charles Fitzroy Somnerset, eighth Duke of B., maker named Caron, and was born in Paris, 24th January I732. born I st February 1824, succeeded to the title on the death of After a somewhat light and careless youth, he betook himself to his father's business with zeal; made a little invention, a new sort his father in I4953.. 2. The French Beanforts.-These take their origin from the of escapement; was appointed Horloger du Roi (I753); married mistress of Henri IV., Gabrielle d'Estrees, who raised into a a widow, Madame Franquet (I757), and from a little property duchy the little town of B., in Champagne, which belonged to of hers took the aristocratic name of B. In 1768 he married a her family. By far the most noted of this line is Frangois de second time, obtaining on this occasion a splendid fortune with Vendfome (q. v.), Due de B., the grandson of Gabrielle and his wife. Meanwhile devoting himself to literature, he produced, Henri. in 1767, Bugeenie, a drama in five acts; Les Deux Amis, ou Le 3. The Belgian Beauforts.-The Comtesoand Ducs of B. who Negociant de Lyon (1770); Le Barbier de Seville (I775); and belong to Belgium take their title from a castle in Namur. Le Maniage de Figaro (I784). On these last two well-known Their origin goes back to the dawn of the middle ages, and as productions his fame now rests. He lost largely by the publicaearly as the 13th c. the house had divided into four branches —B. tion of a complete edition of the works of Voltaire, for whose de Gones, B. de FaUais, B. de Celles, and B. de Spontin, the last manuscripts he had paid 200,000 francs. B. died May I9, 1799. of which in particular produced some eminent men, of whom M. de Lominie gave an interesting record of the life and times of we can only mention Frxddric August Alexandre, Duc B. in several papers in the Revue des Deux Mondes, which, in de B., who was appointed governor-general of Belgium by the I855, were published as a biography in 2 vols. An edition of Allies in 8I14.. his works, with an introduction by M. Saint-Marc Girardin, was published at Paris in I827, in 6 vols. 8vo. Beaugen'cy, a town of France, department of Loiret, on the right bank of the Loire, I6 miles S.W. of Orleans; pop. Beaumaris (Fr.'fair marsh'), the chief town of Anglesea, (1872) 3882. B., once strongly fortified, occupied a prominent N. Wales, on the W. side of the beautiful bay of B., near the N. place in the civil and military history of France, especially in entrance to the Menai Strait, 238 miles N.W. of London, by the that of the religious wars of the I6th c., and still preserves its Holyhead Railway. It is said to owe its origin to the castle built feudal appearance. It has manufactures of woollens, leather, here by Edward I. in I295, of which the ivy-covered ruins still sugar, and brands, and a trade in corn, wood, and wine. exist. B. is a favourite watering-place, has a good harbour, and Beauhar'nais, Alexandre, Vicomte de, a member of an exports marble, slates, copper, and other metals. The number ancient French family, was born in I760, in the island of Mar- of vessels that cleared the port in I873 was 2978, of 809, I8I tons. tinique. He served under Marshal Rochambeau in the American Along with Amlwch, Holyhead, and Llangefin, B. returns one War of Independence, proceeded subsequently to Paris, where, member to Parliament. Pop. (I87I) 2291. although his elegant figure and manners gained him the favour Beau'mont, Francis, poet and dramatist, best known by of the court, he espoused the popular side, was one of the few his literary partnership with John Fletcher (q. v.), was the third nobles who joined the tiers 6tat, voted on August 4, 1789, for son of Sir Francis B., Justice of the Common Pleas, and was the equality of citizens, and was in consequence appointed secre- born at Grace Dieu, Leicestershire, in 1586. He was ten years tary to the National Assembly. He served with distinction in younger than Fletcher, but predeceased him by ten years, dying the army of the north, but retired to his country residence on in I6I5 at the early age of thirty. B. wrote a number of misits being determined to exclude nobility from the service. Being cellaneous pieces of poetry, distinguished, some by lyrical sweetaccused of having participated in the surrender of Mainz, he was ness, and others by wit, one of the best being a Letter to Ben sentenced to death by the revolutionary tribunal, and guillotined yonson, of whom he was a friend and warm admirer. It was 23d July I794. He had married, at an early period in his career, about 1612 that he became acquainted with Fletcher, and so Mdlle. Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie, who, after his death, friendly did they become, that they lived in the same house till became the wife of Napoleon Bonaparte. The latter adopted B.'s marriage, in I6I3, to Ursula, daughter of Henry Isley of Eugeine and Hortense, the son and daughter of B. Hortense Sundridge in Kent. A mystery rests on B.'s share in the authorbecame Queen of Holland and mother of Napoleon III. ship of those plays which bear his name and Fletcher's; and for Beauharnais, Eugene de, son of the Vicomte de B., was long a vague belief prevailed that he wrote the graver and tragic, born in Paris, September 3, I78I. On his mother's marriage Fletcher the lighter and comic, portions. It seems, however, to with Napoleon lme threw in his fortunes with his stepfather, and be the general opinion, as expressed by Mr Minto in his recent never deserted him. By force of character and military ability Characteristics of English Poets, that'B.'s chief share lay in he rapidly rose to a high position, was made Viceroy of Italy, correcting the exuberance of Fletcher.' The character and merits of conJunct work will be considered in the art. FLETCHER. See and in i805 Prince of France and Venice, and declared by Napo- of conjunct work will be considered in the art. FLETCHER. See leon his adopted son, and heir to the crown of Italy. B. showed also Ward's English Dramatic Literature (Lond. I875). very considerable administrative ability; and throughout his life Beaumont, Gustave Auguste de la Bonnitre de, a had the character of being a man of probity and honour. French publicist and writer, was born at Beaumont-le-Chartre During the Napoleonic wars his talents as a commander were (Sarthe), December 2, 1802. In I83I he was sent with Tocqueof the greatest service to his stepfather; and it was he who, ville to America to study prison discipline. On his return he along with Ney, saved the French army from total destruction devoted himself to politics, and after the revolution of I848 was after the disastrous expedition into Russia. The fifty days' | appointed ambassador to the English court by Cavaignac. lIe 319 * I BEA THE GLOBE ENCY CLOPzLDIA. BEA suffered imprisonment for a time in I852, and died at Tours, La Hachette from the battle-axe with which she fought. There April 2, i 866. His chief works are Du Systine penitentiaire anux is still an annual fete in honour of the latter victory, when the Etats- Unis et de son Application en France (2 vols. 1832, 3d ed. Burgundian flag which was captured by La Hachette is borne 1845); and L'Irelande, Sociale, Folitique, et Reigieuse (2 vols. by a procession of girls' a monument was erected to her in 1839, 7th ed.' I863). —B.-Vassy, Edouard Ferdinand de i850. B. is the residence of a bishop (it was a bishop of B. la Bonniere, Vicomte de, a cousin of the above, born I813, who accused Joan of Are of sorcery and heresy), and has a has written several works of romance, as Une Marquise d'Autre- splendid Gothic cathedral, commenced about 1225, the choir of fois (Par. I839); besides the Histoire des Eta/s rusro~pens diuis which is said to be the loftiest in the world, rising 153 feet from le Congris de Vienne (Par. I843-53). floor to ceiling. There are celebrated manufactures of woollens, Beaumont, Jean Baptiste, bArmand, Louis Leonce shawls, carpets, and Gobelin tapestry. Pop. (1872) 13,532. (Elie de), a celebrated French metallurgist and geologist, was born at Canon, in the department of Calvados, 25th September Beaver, a genus of Rodent quadrupeds, forming the type of 1798; in 1832 became Professor of Geology in the Collige de the family Castoride of that order. The beavers possess dis. France, and Chief Engineer of Mines; in 1835 was chosen tinctly developed clavicles or member, and in 1853 secretary, of the Academie des Sciences. collar- bones. Each foot is He has written numerous works; among others, Mknoires pour furnished with five toes. The funihe wihfinder toes. arewebdan servir a une Description Gedologique de la France (I833-38); hinder toes are webbed, and Observations G'ologiques sur les diffdrentes Formations Sans le adapt these feet for swimming. Systime des Vosges (1829); and his chief work, Carte Geologique h inrcisor or front teeth —so de France (2d ed. I855). His name will probably remain most chacteristic in form, struc associated with his theory as to the separate periods of elevation tue, and growth in all Ro an of the terrestrial mountain systems. dentia (q v.)-are large; and th~e mlolars, numbering eight inl Beaune, a town in the department C6te-d'Or, France, near the molars, numbering eight i -- the source of the Bouzoise, 23 miles S.S.W. of Dijon by rail- each jaw, exhibit a complicatedDijon, ~folding of their enamel coverway. It is beautifully situated at the foot of the Cfte-d'Or, and iBeaver. contains many fine buildings, of which the chief are the colle- ing. The tail is flattened and giate church of Notre Dame, founded in 976, and a grand hos. scaly. The B. (Castor fiber) found in Northern Europe and pital of the 15th c. The clock-tower of the old town-hall (le Asia is the typical representative of the family. The American form, if at all different: from the European B3,, is at most a beifroy de B.) is singularly picturesque. In the arrondissement form, if at all different from the European B. is at most a of B. there is produced much first-rate wine of the kinds known variety, and not a distinct species, as some naturalists allege. In America the beavers live in social communities, but in N. as 17., ~omzmard, VoLlnay, Roman&;, Clos-Vourgeo6, &c. Pop. h as B, Ponard, Volnay Ronade, s Vougeo c POP. Europe and Asia they appear to live more or less singly. The 1872),. B, supposed to have derived its name from the B. averages about 2 feet in length, exclusive of the tail; the Latin Bellona, and to have had a Roman origin, was certainly a latter appendage being about inches long, and 3 inches in fortified town in the 7th c. It was long governed by hereditary breadth. In general shape the B. is thickly set, and broad at breadth. In general shape the B. is thickly set, and broad at counts, and was frequently the residence of the Dukes of Bur- the rump, narrowing uddenly towards the tail. The head is gundy.-B.ala-Rolande, a town in the department Loiret, 24 broad, and the snout abrupt. The ears are short and isrounded, milesN. E of rleas, wth apop.(IS7) of927.broad, and the snout abrupt. The ears are short and rounded, miles N.E. of Orleans, with a pop. (i872) of 927. the eyes being of small size. The outer fur is coarse and long, Beaune, Florimond, a distinguished French mathematician, the under fur being soft, silky, and closely set," The usual and a great friend of Descartes, was born at Blois in i6oi, and colour is a dark or chestnut brown, but lighter shades are not died 1652. He was the first to determine the nature of curves infrequently met with. In habits the beavers are aquatic, these by the properties of their tangents. His only extant work is De forms living in the neighbourhood of rivers and lakes. In a -quationumn Limitibus Opuscula duo, et Nolte breves, printed in social community, and when living together in numbers, the the Geomelrie Latine of Descartes. beavers build dams across the rivers on the banks of which they Beau'regard, Peter Gustave Tounssaint, a Confederate reside. The stems of trees are gnawed across, and thus broken general during the American War of Secession, born about I8I7, off, the lesser branches being woven together, and the entire near New Orleans. He entered the military college at West structure being plastered with mud. In the latter operation, the Point in 1834, graduated in 1838, distinguished himself under flat scaly tail is used. Their houses or'lodges' are built in the General Scott in the Mexican campaign; in 1853 was appointed same fashion. Much that has been written and told of the exsurveyor of the fortifications on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, traordinary habits and instincts of the beavers is utterly unworthy and in i86i superintendent of the Military Academy at West of credit, these animals exercising simply an ordinary amount Point, an office which he held only five days. IHe resigned his of activity and instinct in the formation of their abodes. Their commission in the U.S. army, February 20, i86i, and joining food consists of leaves, herbage, and bark, and it is alleged they the Confederates, commenced the war by bombarding Fort occasionally fish, although there is little doubt that worms, &c., Sumter, April 12. He inflicted a signal defeat on the Federal may form part of their dietary. The food is sometimes eaten troops at Bull Run, July 2I; was second in command at the by holding it between the paws, whilst the animal sits erect on battle of Shiloh, April 6, 1862, and held the chief command the hind-legs. From two to seven young are produced at a birth after General Johnston was killed; and in 1863 defended Charles- in April or May; the young beavers being horn with the eyes ton successfully against General Gillmore, After the capture of open. These animals are captured in traps. The winter geneRichmond he surrendered to General Sherman, April i865. rally drives them fiom their lodges, when they take refuge in Since the re-establishment of the Union, B. has been president holes or burrows excavated in the river banks, the entrances to of the New Orleans and Mississippi Railway; he was also for which are trapped. The beavers afford a valued fur, upwards of some time in the service of the Khedive. B., like not a few 8o,ooo skins being imported annually into Britain from N. others of the surviving generals of the South, has shown a won- America. The substance employed in medicine, and known as derful capability for adapting himself to the altered condition of Castoreum (q. v.), is also obtained from the B., and is secreted political affairs in his country. in glandular sacs placed in the vicinity of the generative organs, and named preputialglands. This secretion has probably some Bteauty. See -,STHETICS. ptagad.Ti erto a rbbysm ~Beauty. See s~STHETI~~c~~S. intimate connection with the reproductive habits of these forms. Beauvais', the capital of the department of Oise, France, at The American castoreum is alleged to be of inferior quality to the junction of the Avelon and the Therain, 40 miles N.N. W. the secretion of the Old World beavers. The fur has been used of Paris, formerly within the old province Ile de France. It in England, chiefly for the manufacture of hats, from an early was the chief town of the ancient Bellovaci, was called by the period-from the middle of the i7th c. at least. The flesh of Romans Ccesaromagus, later Bellovacuim, from its original occu- the B. is oily and strong-tasted. The Coypu (Myopotamus pants, and was known as Belvacum in the middle ages. The Coypus) of Chili, and the Musquash (Fiber Zibetlhicus) of N.. Norsemen sacked B. in 886 and again in i I 8o, when they had America, are also included in the B. family. The beavers are become Normans; the English unsuccessfully besieged it in represented in a fossil state in Miocene and Pliocene deposits. 1443; and in 1472 the Burgundians under Charles the Bold The Castor speleus, or cave-B., found in European caves and were repulsed, chiefly by the valour of Jeanne Laind, surnamed bone-deposits, is indistinguishable f-rom the existing B. The 320 BEA THfE GLOBE ENCYCIOPDPIA. BEC large [irogon/heriunm, found in European Post-tertiary deposits, Beche-de-Mer, or Trepang, an edible marine slug, promay be included in the same genus with the B. The Castoroides cured on the coral reefs of the Pacific, and cured in immense Ohioensis of N. American Post-tertiary deposits is a distinctly quantities for the Chinese market. There are many varieties specific or generic form from the existing American B. This of B., all species of Holothuria, of which ten kinds are marketlatter form attained a length of five feet. able in China; and of these, four are of a superior quality. They Beaver. See HELMET. are of an oval shape, dark-coloured on the back, and vary in length from 6 to 24 inches. Much skill and care is required in Beaver-Wood, or Beaver-Tree, Magnolia glauca, a native the operation of curing, which is performed by gutting and boilof Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Carolina, 15 to 20 feet in height, ing the slugs, and spreading them out on a perforated platform with beautiful fragrant white flowers. The bark is tonic and over a wood fire to dry. Sun-dried B. is esteemed a greatdeliaromatic, resembling that of Cinchona (q. v.) in its action. The cacy in China, and is in special request for making soups. unripe fruits of M. Frazeri and M. acuminata have similar properties. B. W. is also called White Bay and Swamp Sassafras. Bech'er, Johann Joachim, a German chemist and phyBeb'eerine, orBib'irine. Under this name an alkaloid was sicist, was born at Speier in I625. After a youth of great hardin I835 obtained from the Greenheart-Tree (q. v.), which was in- hip and laborious study in all branches of physical science, he troduced into medicine as an effective febrifuge, and a substitute became a professor at Mainz; was elected a member of the Impefor quinine. Recent investigations have demonstrated that it is rial Council at Vienna in I66o, but fell into disgrace, and returned for quinine. Recent investigations have demonstrated that it is identical with buxine, an alkaloid obtainable from the common to Mainz. Subsequently he lived in Munich, Wiirzburg, Haarbox, Buxus semper^virens. lem, and London, where he died in October I682. Though he.box, Buxus sem.e-virens. adopted many of the fanciful theories of the alchemists, yet his Beb'eeri, or Bib'iri. See GREENHEART. principal work, Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, seu Beccafi'co (Sylvia or Curruca hortensis), an Italian name Physice subteranne(e Libri duo (Frankf. 1669, and again 1675, applied to the garden warbler or pettychaps, a passerine bird with additions in I68I), was the first attempt to establish a included in the family of the Syeviade or Warblers (q. v.). It logical connection between physics and chemistry. His other occurs in Britain; but is more common in Italy and S. Europe, writings are numerous, but not valuable. where it is valued as a table delicacy. It is migratory in habits, Bech'uans, or Betjuans, a scattered people, occupying the wherever found. The upper parts are coloured brown, and the country S.W. of Lake N'yassa, and on both banks of the Zamunder parts white. besi, S. Africa, between I5~ and 280 S. lat., and from 23~ to 290 Beccamoschi'no (Sylvia cisticola), a member of the family E. long. They are allied to the Kaffirs, but are less intellectua' Sylviadee or Warblers (q. v.), so named by the Italians. It and less warlike, living chiefly by husbandry and cattle-rearing, occurs in Italy, and makes a nest like that of the tailor-birds, of and working with some skill in iron, copper, ivory, and skins. leaves and vegetable fibres curiously interwoven. The chief tribes are Batoka, Basunga, Bayeye, Baquaina, Bakatla, Basuti, and Barolong. There are several rudely-fortified Beccar'ia, Cesare Bonesana, Mrarchese de, a political villages, the largest of which are Kuruman, Shoshong, and Kolc and social writer of Italy, born at Milan in I735, was a pupil of beng. The Boers (q. v.) of the Orange River States and Transthe Neapolitan economist Genovesi, and afterwards a leading vaal Republic have settled in the S. of the country of the B., member of the literary society which existed in Milan for some whom they treat with great cruelty. time before the French Revolution. In 1762 he published a work on the currency of Milan, and in 1764 produced his noble Beck, the name of several eminent Germans, of whom the Trattato dei Delitti e delle Pene, which has been translated into following are the most important:-I. Christian Daniel B., nmost European languages. In I 768 he became a Professor of historian and philologer, born at Leipsic, 22d January 1757; bePolitical Philosophy at Milan, where he died, 28th November came professor of Greek and Latin in the university of uis native 1794. His lectures are published in a series of Rtalian Econo-city, anddiedthere, I3th December 832. Among his numerous mists (Milan, I804). A complete edition of B.'s Opere was pub-. editions of the classics may be mentioned his Pindar, Aristolished by Villati in i854. The main idea of his Essay on Crimes phanes, Euripides, Apollonius Rhodius, Plato, Cicero, and Caland Punishments (on which Voltaire wrote a short commentary purnius. Besides these, B. wrote an Alzeitusng ur u enntniss dein the 34th volume of his collected works) is, that in each case allgeneinen Welt- und Villeergeschichte (4 vols. Leips. 1787-I805); punishment should be adjusted so that the dread of it may coun- Grudiss den Archlogie zur Kentniss der Geschichte den alen terbalance the particular motives to crime, and should also be Kunst (Leips. I8i6), &c.-2. Johann Tobias B., an able immediate and certain, not depending on the discretion of the Protestant theologian, born at Bahlingen, in Wiirtemberg, 22d bench. The probability of prevention alone justifies the infliction February I804; studied at Ttibingen, became professor at of suffering. This principle leads B. to oppose capital sentences, Basel in 1836, whence he was called to Tiibingen in 1843, and torture, and many prevailing notions on judicial procedure and acquired a great reputation as a preacher and teacher. B. was criminal law. The essay is the work of a keen mind and a one of the first to oppose, on the basis of independent scholarwarm heart; it develops the suggestions of Montesquieu, and ship, the conclusions of the critico-speculative school of Baur, laid the foundation of many legal reforms. It concludes with the and endeavoured to introduce a more exact study of the New following general theorem:'That a punishment may not be Testament literature. His chief works are, Einleitung in das an act of violence, of one or of many, against a private member of System der Chndistl. Lehre (Stuttg. 1838); Die C8hist. Lehnsociety, it should be public, immediate, and necessary, the least oissenschaft nach den Bibeiscehe Uhusziden (Stuttg. 1841); Die possible in the case given, proportioned to the crime, and deter- Gebut des CGzristl. Lebens (Basel, I840); Umniss enr Bibiscaet n mined by the laws' (p. I35, Edinb. transl. 1778). Seelenlehre (Stuttg. I853, 2d ed. I862); Gedanken aus end nach der Schrift (Frankf. I859, new ed. I868); Christ/liche Reden (six Bee-fin. A common French name applied to many small collections since 1834).-3. Karl B., a lively, picturesque, and common Passerine birds, belonging chiefly, but not exclusively, to musical poet, born Ist May 1817, at Baja, in Hungary, was the the Warblers (q. v.), or Sylviade. son of a Jewish merchant converted to the Protestant religion;:Beche, Sir Henry Thomas de la, an Englislh geologist, studied at Vienna, and after some time settled in the Austrian capital. He has written N'chle. Genranzerle.Lieder (Leips. 1838); born in London, Ioth February I796, educated at the military capital. Hrenh Pot (Leips. en 838); Stile Lieder (Leips. I838) schools of Great Marlow and Sandhurst, entered the army in Su ende Poet (Leips. 1838); Stille Lieder (Leips. 1839); I814, founded the Geological Survey of Great Britain, which (Leips. i841); and 7anho, der Ungar. Rosshirt was afterwards taken up by Government, and of which he was (Leips. 8, 3d appeared. 8 n 844, and again in 854. esaince appointed director-general, and subsequently became director then BD has written, among other things, Lieden van anmen of the Metropolitan School of Science. He died 13th April 1855. B.wastheauthorofatreatiseOsiztheDiscoveryofaz7Vew AHanne (Berl. I846, 4th ed. I86I); Aus der Neimag (Dresd. 1852, 4th ed. 1862); Mater Dolorosa (Berl. 1853); Yadwiga Fossil Animal, the Pleiosauros (I823), Geology ofyamaica (x826), (Leips. i863); and Sill und Bezveg-t (I 870) Classification of European A'ocks (I828), a Geological anualeg (870). (1831), Researches in Theoretical Geology (I834), 7he Geology of Beck'er, Gottfried Wilhelm, a German physician and Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset (1839), and The Geological prolific author, born February 22, 1778, at Leipsic, where he Observer (i859, 2d ed. 1853). studied, took his degree, and practised medicine for upwards of 41 321 <~ —"-~ BEG THE GLOBE ENC YCL OEDlIA. BEG thirty years. He died January I7, 1854. Among his writings, Griechiscier Silte (2 vols. Leips. I840, 3d ed. I854). These which are literary rather than scientific, may be mentioned Be- works have been translated into English by Metcalfe. His sc.r-eiuizng von Leipzig (I8o6); Genid/de vonz Leijpzinr (1823); Handbuch der'mn. Alterthiimer (Leips. 1843-46) was continued Reisebider aus Siid-DPeu/tscland (i837); Andreas Hofer (I84I); after his death by Marquardt, and is in some respects his chief Egfypleen wie. es jetzt ist (1841); IVaioleon, daigeselltd nach den work. The Gallets and Chariklies display great powers of combes/en Quellenz (I846-47). B. left his fortune (53,000 thalers) to bination and research, and are exquisitely finished. found a blind-asylum in Leipsic. found a blind-asylum i eipsic. Beck'erath, Iermann von, a German politician, born at Becker, Johann Philipp, a German politician, born at Krefeld in Prussia, December I8oi. On the accession of FriedFrankenthal, Rhenish Bavaria, I9th March 18o9, and brought up rich Wilhelm IV. in 1840, B. resolved to work for the constito the trade of a brushmaker. The events of July 1830 turned tutional freedom of his country, and for several years was an his attention to politics, and he became an ardent advocate of influential member of the Provincial Diet. He was a deputy in radical opinions, for promulgating which he was several times the National Assembly which sat at Frankfurt in 1848, received imprisoned. Withdrawing to Switzerland in 1i838, he took a the portfolio of Finance at Berlin, but being unsuccessful in prominent part as a journalist; fought against the Sonderbund in constructing a cabinet, he returned to Frankfurt. Though a I847, and in 1848 organised volunteer corps among the German zealous advocate of German unity., he refused to promote it emigrants and Swiss radicals to aid the South German revolu- otherwise than by constitutional means. As a member of the tion. On the failure of Hecker's preliminary attempt, B. re- second Prussian chamber, he strenuously opposed the retrograde turned to Switzerland, and resolved to march with his corps to policy of Manteuffel, and withdrew from active politics in 1852. the help of the insurgents in Rome and Sicily. The outbreak Failing health decided him to refuse to sit again on his re-decin the Palatinate and in Baden altered his purpose. He has- tion in 1858. He died at Krefeld, 12th May I870. tened to the scene of action; reached Karlsruhe, 17th May I849, Beck'et, Thomas, the son of Gilbert B. (a London mercovered the retreat at Wagh.usel, commanded at Durlach (25th chant of Normn family), was born st December. He chant of Norman family), was born 2ist December II 17. He June), was present in several other engagements, and on the probably studied at Paris, and in 42 e attached himself to suppression of the revolution settled in Geneva. He reappeared Theobald of Canterbury, who in 5 made him archdeacon Theobald of Canterbury, who in II53 made him archdeazcon in the Franco-Italian war against Austria (i859-60), when he f Canterbury. During these years B. went to Rome about was employed to organise a German battalion to act under Gari- th legatine privileges of Canterbury, and the poposed succesbald; ad agin n i8 -6, wen te Sesvi-Hostei difi-the legatine privileges of Canterbury, and the proposed succesbaldi; and again in I863-64, when the Slesvig-Holstein diffi- sion of Eustace to ing Stephen. On Henry's accession (i 5) 3 ~~~~~~~~~sion of Eustace to King Stephen. On Henry's accession (~i 54) culties began, with a theory of a'People's Unibn,' which excited he was made chancellor a position of wealth as well as dignity. no attention. B. wrote in conjunction with Esselen a Geschichte ino attention. B. wrote in conjunction with Esselen a Gesicle He became a pluralist in Church and State, and lived magnifiderl Siid-Dentscken Maei-Jtevolu/ionl (Gen. 1849). cently on the proceeds of vacant benefices. In the campaigns Becker, Karl Ferdinand, an eminent German philologer, against Louis VII. he did service in the field, and defrayed part born i4th April 1775, at Liser, on the Moselle; became a medi- of the costs of the war by'second subsidies' from the clergy, cal practitioner at Offenbach in I8I5, and in 1823 converted his and by a scutage of 3 on the knights' fees. On 3d June 162 B. house into an academy. Devoting his leisure to linguistic studies, succeeded Theobald as primate, and resigned his chancellorship. B. was led by philosophical speculation rather than by historical He at once began a life of the strictest discipline and self-devoinvestigation to view language as an organism pervaded by ascer- tion to the Church. His claims to excommunicate at pleasure tainable logical laws. From this point of view he wrote his the king's tenants, and that priests guilty of murder and rape Ausfiihrliche Deu/sche Gramm a/ik (2d ed. 1843); an outline of should be amenable only to spiritual courts, were angrily opposed it, Schulg'rammaiak (8th ed. 1862); Oiyanism der Deutschen by Henry, who (after demanding at the council of Westminster Sfrache (1841-42), &c. B. died at Offenbach, 5th September that convicted priests should be'degraded') in ii66 submitted 1859. to his great council the celebrated Constitutions of Clarendon, Becker, Karl Ferdinand, son of Gottfried Wilhelm B. which, professedly codifying the ancient customs of the realm, Becke, Kal Fedinad, sn of ottfied ilhem B.provided not mnerely for the supremnacy of the king's courts in (q. v.), was born at Leipsic, 17th July 1804, received his early provided not merely for the supremiacy of the keing's courts in musical training from Schicht and Schneider, and became Pro- matters both civil and criminal affecting the clergy, especilly in t matters bothcii adosnd, crimal affecin the corlergy, especiayin o fessor of the Organ at the Leipsic Conservatoire in 1843, a post the matter of advowsons, but also for the control by the king of which he resigned in i856, to devote himself exclusively to ecclesiastical presentations, and the discontinuance in all cases study. He is a great, probably the greatest, authority in Ger- of appeals to Rome. After resistance, B. was forced to swear to obey these councils; but, althougch important. as a declaration of many upon the history and construction of that instrument, for obey these councils; but, although important.as a declaration of which he has composed excellent music. Ile is one of the best national feeling, the chief articles were annulled by Pope AlexGerman writers upon the history of music, and has written ander III. In the same year, at the Council of Northampton (in largely also upon the chorale, the hymn-tune of the L]utheran which Norman bishops sat), B. was tried for alleged failure to Church. Among his wors may be mentioned Syste isc- account for moneys received by him as chancellor. He declined chronologische Darstellung der nmusik/lschePz Literanur (Leips. to receive sentence, formally appealed to,Rome, and fled under 1836); Die Hensmussik in Dettschland in dent I 6/en, 17ten, tuzd the assumed name of Brother Christian to the Abbey of PonISn e r. (eips. 840); and Die orelseng n der tigny in Burgundy, and afterwards to Sens. Henry deposed iversckaiedenen Gkreistl. i8)ke nd (eips. 18 ru41nd). rhim from his see and confiscated his possessions, but B., supver'schiedenen. Chrisil. I~ir'chen (Leips. I84I).9 ported by Pope Alexander, who made hinm legate for England,;Becker, Ngikolaus, the author of the famous German Becker, ikolaus, the author of the famous German and by Louis VII., continued to assert his authority by issuing I/heidied, was born i5th January i8io, at Geilenkirchen, in from Vezelay sentences of suspension and excommunication on Rhenish Prussia, and in 1840, when the war-party in France English priests and laymen, e.., on Gilbert Foliot, Bishop of threatened the seizure of the left bank of the sacred river, set London, in ii67. In ii68, however, afteran attempt to mediate the patriotism of his countrymen on fire by his Sie sollen ihn through cardinal-legates, the Pope suspended B. for a time, nicthl haben, which, though not a wonderful poem, was every- bt next year te coronation of Henr's son by the Archbishop wher sun wih enhusasm.TheFrenh wre sirrd iio abut next year the coronation of Henry's son by the Archbishop here sung with enthusiasm. The Frencha were stirred into a of York, in defiance of a bull, improved the exile's position conjealous rage, and Alfred de Musset wrote a witty but rather siderably. Finally, in 170, a reconciliation was arranged beig~noble answer, JNous l'avons eu volre R~hin 2tilemand. B. died ignoble answer, Nnzs l'evons ci y/re I/kin Alemndt. B. died tween Henry and B. at Fereitville in Touraine. Returning after a lingering illness, 28th August 1845. A collection of his to Canterbury, where he was well received, B. put into force Gedichke was published at Cologne in 1841. sentences of excommunication issued by the Pope against three Becker, Wilhelm Adolf, a German archmologist, was born independent English prelates. This probably was the occasion at Dresden in 1796; studied philology and theology at Leipsic, of his murder on 29th December I 70. The murderers were at and travelled in Italy in I840. He was called to the chair of once excommunicated, but do not seem to have suffered any archemology at Leipsic in 1842, and died at Meissen, 3oth Sep- temporal punishment. In I174Henry performed penance at the tember 1846. B.'s knowledge of classical antiquity enabled him tomb of B., who had previously been canonised; he also underto reproduce private life at Rome and Athens in a series of com- took large obligations to the Pope's envoys. Until the Reformapendious but interesting portraitures, the former in his Gallus, tion pilgrimages were frequent to the shrine in which the saint's oder I/imische Scenen auts der Zeit Aunustzus (2 vols. Leips. 1838, bones were deposited by Henry III. So late as 1857 Pius IX. 3d ed. 863); and the latter in his Charikles, oder Bilder Alt- confirmed the celebration of an annual festival (a double of the 322 4~ -.- ~t___ 44* BEG THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPI~EDA. BED first class with anl octave) in memory of St Thomas. See Canon Bec'skerek', Nag'y (i.e., Great B.), the capital of the county Morris's Lfe and Milartyrdom of Saint Thomas B., Archbishop of Torontal, Hungary, 45 miles S.W. of Temesvar, lies on the of Canterbuzry, and Leate of the Holy See (Load, I859); Canon Bega Canal, here crossed by a fine bridge. It has an old ruined Robertson's B., Archbishop of Canterbury (Lond. 1859); and castle, several fine buildings, a Greek church, and a Roman Freeman's Historical Essays (Load. I872). The last-mentioned Catholic college. There is considerable trade in corn and cattle, is particularly valuable for the lucidity and breadth of its histo- and fishing and bee-keeping are carried on. Pop. (I169) 19,664. rical portraiture. It gives in all probability the most just esti- B., Xis, or Little B., is a village in the county of Temes, S mate, at once liberal and strictly critical, of a man who has been miles N.N.W. of Temesvar, with some trade in wool and honey. the subject alike of extravagant praise and unmerited blame. Pop. 3004. ]3eck'ets, the nautics! name for hooks, pieces of rope, or rBeck'ets, the nautical name for hookps s, pieces of rope, or Bed, the sleeping-place of mankind, which, in modern times, brackets on which to fasten ropes, tackles, oars, or spars. is an article of furniture consisting of bedding and B.-hangings, Beck'ford, William, an eccentric English author, was born with a bedstead or framework to support them. When man led in I760. He was the only legitimate son of the celebrated a nomadic life, he doubtless spread leaves or other materials on Alderman B. At nine years of age, B. succeeded to his father's the ground and slept thereon, the device of a bedstead belonging property, the income filom which, including the celebrated Font- to less remote times, when people aggregated in towns, and built hill, in Wiltshire, amounted to I0oo,ooo a year. In I7o80 he permanent dwellings. Domestic comfort increased with the procame before the public as an author, with an essay entitled Bia- gress of civilisation, and from mural paintings we know that the graphical Mfemoir's of Extraordinary Painters, which had the Egyptians used couches, ottomans, and other articles of furniture one merit of showing his powers of wit and sarcasm. The two which are now indispensable to ease and luxury. It would apsubsequent years were spent in restless travel. In 1783 he pear that the divan by day served, with the addition of some entered Parliament as member for Wells, and in 1784 married kind of bedding, as a B. by night, as is still the custom among Lady Margaret Gordon, daughter of Charles, Earl of Aboyne; Western Asiatics. Wicker bedsteads, similar to those of the and in the same year appeared an English translation (by Dr S. modern Egyptians and Arabians, formed of the mid-ribs of palm Henley, Vicar of Rendlesham) of his celebrated Arabian tale of leaves, are also figured in Egyptian painting, and early Egyptian Vathek, which he had written in French, he himself says,'in head-rests of wood and alabaster, of a crescent shape, are prethree days and two nights.' The original French first appeared served in the British Museum. There are frequent allusions in at Lausanne in 1787. Vathek obtained for the author, from the Holy Writ to the great luxuriousness of beds and B.-hangings extraordinary powers of sarcasm and description which it showed, among the ancient Jews. In the heroic ages of Greece, beds a great and almost unique name in British literature. The re- consisted of skins, or dried herbs spread on the ground. In later mainder of B.'s life was spent in travel and impulsive actions, times the wealthy Greek had his mattress and pillows stuffed and latterly in absolute retirement, except during the short with wool, and rugs, carpets, and linen sheets for B.-clothes; period in which he sat in Parliament. He erected a remarkable his bedstead was a magnificent object, being made of costly wood mansion at Fonthill, and then, in a freak, sold it for k/350,000 inlaid with tortoiseshell, or of ivory, and adorned with feet of to Colonel Farquhar. Similarly he bought Gibbons' library at silver; it always had a head-board, and sometimes a foot-board Lausanne, and then handed it over to his physician, Dr Scholl. also, in which case it would resemble a modern French B. He wrote nothing remarkable after Vathek, although in 1834 During the Roman empire, mattresses were stuffed with down ie produced a work upon Italy, Spain, and Portugal, and, in or swans' feathers, coverlets were formed of rich textiles of a 1835, Recollections of an Excursion to the Monasteries of Alcobaca purple colour, and embroidered with gold, and bedsteads even and Batalha. Always a hard student, B. finally shut himself up surpassed in splendour those of the Greeks. The use of B.with his books andfancies. He died 2d May i844. curtains by the Greeks and Romans is not distinctly alluded to by Beck'mann, Johann, a meritorious German author, born ancient writers, but the fact that the dinner-couch was adorned at Hoya, Hanover, June 4, I739. He was Professor of Natural with drapery, makes it probable that the B. was so also. The Philosophy at St Petersburg from 1763 to I765, thereafter travelled Anglo-Saxons usually slept on a sack filled with straw, laid on a:n Sweden to acquaint himself with the working of mines, and in bench in a recess at the side of the room; bedsteads were rare 1766 became a professor, first of Philosophy, and in 1770 of even among the rich, and the skins of goats and bears were used Political Economy, at Gdttingen, where he died, February 4, as coverlets. From ancient illuminated manuscript drawings, it arsI. B. was the first German who wrote scientifically on would appear that the Anglo-Saxon entered his B. in a nude agriculture and commerce. Among his numerous other writings state-this custom prevailed even till Queen Elizabeth's timeare Anleitung zur Technologie (5th ed. Gjtt. 1809); Physik- and, enveloping his body in a sheet, drew the coverlet over him. Oekonomzische Bidbiothek (33 vols. Gdtt. I770-1808); Beitrdge In early Norman tinmes the tester B., or B. with back and zurO ekonomie, Technologie, Polizei und Kameralwissenschaft (II roof, was introduced, and while the mattress was still of straw, a vols. Gbtt. I779-91); and BeilrgezurGeschichte, derErfindungen greater degree of taste characterised the B. coverings and hang(5 vols. Leips. I780-05), the last of which has been translated inlgs. A little later, straw was replaced by down, and sheets of into English by Bohn, and is still valuable. rich silks, and coverlets of green say or cloth, made of the hair C6sar, an eminent French physicist, of the badger, were not uncommon. The simple and unadorned ~~~~~~Bec'querel, b~An~~toin~e Cbedstead of the Norman period continued in use till the i5th c., was born at Chatillon-sur-Loing (Loiret), March 7, 1788. On when the ee or roof, and the teser or back, which wre indePoly ~~~~~~~~~~~when the etrie or roof, and the tester or back, which were indeleaving the Polytechnic School in a8o8, he became an officer of eangineers, and served in Scpain under General Suchet. n pendent of the bedstead proper, and attached to the wall and e'In IS, ceiling, were decorated with coats-of-arms and other carved ornahe quitted the military service, and subsequently turned his ments; canopies were also enlarged, and casters, or ornamental attention to electricity. Elected a member of the Academy of cloths for the sides of the B. now appear. At this period in 1829, he has sin~~~ce hnbe eyvluiouhs for the sides of the B. now appear. At this period Sciences in i829, he has since then been a very voluminous feather-beds were so valued as to be bequeathed like other prowriter on chemical and electrical subjects. Of his numerous perty. The large four-posted bedsteads were introduced in the works we may mention his T7aite'de Pl'Eectricide' et du Magne`z- 16th c. and had their origin in an arrangement like a square tent, tisme (7 vols. Par. 1834-40; new ed. 1855-56, with additions, in which the curtains were not suspended from the roof as i858); Traite' d'Electro-chimie (Par. i840); and in conjunction hitherto, but on a firame with four corner posts, inside of which with his son, Alexandre-Edmond B. (born March 24, 820o), the B was placed. Fine examples of the four-posters of this Ellments de Physique terrestve el de ele'lorologie (I847). The latter was made Professor of Physics in the Paris nservatoire period, with elaborate carvings, remain in some old mansionines ls ill1853, and has written a good deal on the solar spec- houses. The celebrated'B. of Ware,' still preserved in an inn drumes Arnts etism, and electricity. ddelontesoa s at Ware, Hertfordshire, was made in the reign of Queen Elizatrum, magnetism, and electricity beth. It is remarkable for its size-I2 feet square-and for its Bec'se, Neu, or Turkish B., a town in the county of Toron. curiously-carved back, which, rising at the head, supports, with tal, H1ungary, 40 miles S.E. of Zombor, on the Theiss, with a the aid of two massive pillars at the foot, a heavy canopy, beautrade in cotton goods and tobacco. It is also one of the largest tifully enriched with carved work. The richly-embroidered corn-markets in the Austrian empire. Pop. (1869) 7193.-B., counterpanes, and B.-hangings, display at this time a degree of Alt, or Servian B., on the Bacsa Canal, 5 miles W. of the above, unsurpassing splendour. The modern styles of bedsteads-Elizahas also a great trade in corn. bethan, French, and tent, are too well known to call for more 323 * ~~~~~~~~~~~~ —----- 4i BED THE GIOBE E~NCYCIOP~EDIA. BED than passing notice. In the march of improvement, feathers as a Bedchamber, Lords or Ladies of the, are officers of stuffing material have given way to curled horse hair, wood bed- the British royal household, appointed to wait upon the king steads are being replaced with those of iron or brass, or both or queen. In the reign of a king the head officer is the Groom metals, and other changes are being effected which tend to promote of the Stole. When a queen is regnant, the Mistress of the Robes conditions of perfect cleanliness and ventilation with softness and is at the head of the officers of the B. elasticity. Of late years mattresses of small coils of wire, wovenuts the fruit of a species of myrobalan (n. o. by an ingenious process of double weaving, have been made in Great Britain, and at Hartford, Connecticut, a similar industry has Combretacee, q. v.), Terminala Belerici, largely imported into assumed large proportions. See AIR-BEDs and WATER-BEDS. this country from the E. Indies for the use of the tanner and to produce a very permanent black dye employed by calico Bed, or Stratum, the term applied in geology to the layers printers. They are also called bastard and belleric myroba/ans. seen in sedinmentary, aqueous, orfossiliferous rocks, which result The seeds are eaten by the natives in some parts of the E. from the slow deposition in water of the soft sediment or mate- Indies, but they possess narcotic poisonous qualities. The fruits rials from which the rocks were formed. It is the arrangement of of 7. Chebula, under the name of Chebulic mlyrobalans, are also these layers or beds that give to aqueous or water-formed rocks used in dyeing. The flowers are used in Travancore as a dye, their regular and stratified appearance-a characteristic not seen and the fruits are purgative. in rocks formed by fire. Stratification or arrangement in beds is to be distinguished from laminatiozn, or that property whereby, Bedd'oes, Thomas, M.D, an English physician, was born in virtue of the thin nature of the smaller layers composing a at Shifnall in Shropshire, AprilI5, I760. At Oxford and EdinS., the B. or S. itself, may be split up into thin laminre or plates, burgh, where he studied, he soon distinguished himself for his as seen in many clay and slate deposits. Lamination generally acquaintance with both ancient and modern languages, but his results from the material of a S. having been deposited at short favourite studies were the natural sciences, especially chemistry, or appreciable intervals, which he regarded as of great importance in the treatment of diseases, In I787 he was appointed to the chemical chair in OxBe'da, or Bede, more properly Bseda, surnamed the Vener- ford, which he resigned in 1792; and six years later, assisted by able, was born near St Peter's Monastery, Wearmouth, in 673. his father-in-law, Mr Edgeworth, he opened a pneumatic hospital At the age of ten, he entered St Paul's Monastery at Jarrow, at Bristol, which was successful only in bringing out the talents where he was ordained priest in his thirtieth year. The life of of Humphrey Davy, who was superintendent to the chemical B. was that of a Christian scholar, not that of a Christian evan- laboratory. B. died 24th December i808. Of his numerous gelist, and it is therefore little broken by outward events-strik- works, may be mentioned A Popular Treatise onz Consumnplion ingly contrasting in this respect with the picturesque career of (I779) Chemical Experiments and Opinions (I790); History of Columba, the restless hero of the Scoto-Irish Church. B. Isaac Jenkins (I792); Hygeia, or Essays Moral and Medical attained a wide repute as a teacher, and many gathered to his (3vols. 802) and A Essy on Fever (1807). See Stock's Lfe monastery for instruction, besides the 600 monks who belonged of B. (Lond. i8IO). to the house. His years were spent in gaining knowledge, and in spreading it, both by his teaching and his writings. This he Beddoes, Thomas Lovell, son of Dr Thomas B. and of esteemed the labour most proper to him; and'so refused either wife Anna, sister of the novelist Maria Edgeworth, born at to leave his monastery, or to hold any high office in it. His Clifton, 20th July 1803, entered at Pembroke College, Oxford, life was passed at Jarrow and there he died in 735 in I820, went to Gottingen to study medicine in 5825, and conB. was the greatest scholar of his time in England, the tinued to live much abroad till his death, at Basel, 26th January'father of English learning,' and had a fame not limited to the I849. While still in his minority he had published Yhe Improisland. He was the first of moderns to grasp the true notion of visatore (1821), and The Bride's ra~edy (1822). B.'s ambition history. Although there is a liberal infusion of the marvellous was to be a dramatist; but though his verse was rich and musical, in his works, it can easily be severed from the narrative of and his imagery at once felicitously and surprisingly original, facts. He must always hold a high rank among English men his command of character and plot were too limited to render of letters as well as among English scholars; for, though he the realisation of that ambition possible; yet if single lines of wrote chiefly in Latin, yet the spirit of his writings is thoroughly Shakesperian quality could preserve the name of a writer, B. English, and the work on which he was engaged at his death might hope to be remembered. In a posthumous work, Death's was a translation of St John's Gospel into the mother-tongue. 7est-Booh, or e o's Tragedy (i85 there are things which His learning was truly encyclopedic, embracing all subjects no dramatic poet has approached since the Elizabethan age. See known in his own age and the ages before. Such science as the Ielsall's Mezoir of B. in his edition of the Poems, Postzhmous time possessed may be seen in his treatise On the zNatre of and Collected, of Thomas Lovell B. (2 vols. Lond. 1851). Things; and he was also a master of rhetoric, grammar, music, Bedeau', Marie Alphonse, a French general, was born poetry, philosophy, and medicine, on all of which he wrote. at Vertou, near Nantes, August I0, I804, and received his comBesides these, he composed books on Church matters and mission in i825, He gained military distinction in Algeria, and theology, commentaries, digests, homilies, and religious bio- was for a short time (5847) governor of the colony. He was graphies. But his great work is the Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis in Paris on leave of absence at the time of the revolution of Angltorum (Church History of the English Nation), the fifth and February I848, and Marshal Bugeaud gave him command of concluding book of which was finished in 731, three years before one of the five columns which failed to quell the insurrection. its author's death. B. was fortunate in his subject, because the The Provisional Government appointed B. commander-in-chief Church in England was at that time gaining a unity and organi- of the army of Paris, and he afterwards took a seat in the consation which the State did not possess till long after. The stituent and legislative assemblies as a republican deputy. On value of the Histosy as an accurate and trustworthy record of Louis Napoleon's coup adetat (December 2, i85I), he was arevents can hardly be over-estimated. Its sources were the rested with others of his party, and subsequently retired into chronicles of Roman and native writers, the records of the exile. He lived for many years in Belgium, but afterwards took monasteries, and-most valuable of all-the personal and con- advantage of the Emperor's amnesty, returned to France, and temporaneous knowledge of the historian. All that we know of died at Nantes, October 30, i863. that interesting and most important period in English history Bedell', William, a popular, learned and pious divine of the -the 7th c. and first half of the 8th-is derived from B.'s his- I7th c. was born in 1570 at Black Notley in Essex. After an tory. It was translated into English under the care of Kilng education at Cambridge, which ended in his taking holy orders, Alfred. A complete edition of B.'s works was published by he went to Venice as the chaplain of Sir Henry Wotton, made Dr Giles (6 vols. Lond. 1843-44). Translations of the History the acquaintance of the celebrated Father Paul Sarpi, who gave were published by Hurst (1814), Wilcock (1818), and Giles him the MS. of his History of the council of Trent, and other (1840). The Latin original has been recently edited with works, subsequently published in London. Hereturned to Eng. English notes by Moberly (Macmillan, 1869). land, but it was long before he obtained preferment, mainly on. Bedar'ierx, a thriving town in the department of Hdrault, account of his Calvinistic opinions. In i629, however, he was France, on the Orb, i8 miles N. of Beziers, with manufactures of appointed to the united bishoprics of Kilmore and Ardagh, Irefine and coarse cloths, hosiery, hats, leather, paper, oil, and soap, land. B. devoted himself with great energy and no little sucand a trade in wood and grain. Pop. (I872) 7374. cess to reform the abuses he found existing in his diocese, at the 324 BED TIE GL OBE ENrCYCZOPEDIA. BED same time that his virtue and amiability won him the esteem of Bedford Le'vel, a flat, marshy district on the E. coast of the people. When the rebellion broke out, in I641, the rebels, England, called also The Fens, situated to the S. and W. of the although they expelled him from his diocese, did not injure him, Wash, and comprising portions of the six counties, Lincoln, and when he died, February 7, I642, they followed his body to the Northampton, Huntingdon, Cambridge, Norfolk, and Suffolk. grave, and fired a volley over it, exclaiming,'May the last of the It extends from the river Welland, in the S. E. of Lincolnshire, to English rest in peace!' Among the literary works B. either the town of Milton, 3 miles N.E. of Cambridge; and from wrote or edited may be mentioned his translation of two volumes Peterborough, on the Nen, in Northamptonshire, to Brandon, of Father Paul's Hisftoy of the Council of Trent, a translation of on the Little Ouse, in Suffolk. Its length from N. to S. is the Old Testament into Irish, and a theological treatise on the about.40 miles, and its greatest breadth, the same. Area, about two following subjects not without interest W:here was our 400,000 acres. B. L. is divided into three levels: the N., lying Religion before Luther? and What became qf our Ancestors who between the rivers Welland and Nen; the Middle, between the died in Popery? His Life has been written by Bishop Burnet. Nen and the Old Bedford river; the S., lying to the S.E. of Bedes'men or Beadsmen. See BEAD. the Old Bedford river, and extending to Stoke, Feltweil, and Mildenhall. Writers of the 12th c. describe this district as', Bed'ford, a ducal title first borne by John Plantagenet, fruitful and agreeable country. In the I3th c. violent incursions third son of Henry IV. He was born about I389, and in his of the sea stopped up the outflow of the rivers, its natural drains, father's lifetime was governor of Berwick and warden of and left it a morass. In the 15th c. partial attempts were made the Scottish marches. He fought for his father at the battle to drain it. In the 17th c., Francis, Earl of Bedford, whose titleof Shrewsbury, and in 1422, by the will of his brother name the district has retained, undertook to drain it on conHenry V., was created regent of France. On his way thither, dition of receiving 95,ooo acres of the reclaimed land, and he destroyed a French squadron in the Channel; then rapidly obtained a charter to that effect fiom Charles I. Events conquered northern France, captured Meulan, made himself hindered the completion of the work, but the charter was conmaster of the line of the Yonne by a victory near Auxerre, and firmed to his son by Parliament in I649, and he fulfilled the at Verneuil (1424) routed with immense slaughter the united contract. In i688 the corporation of B. L. was formed, for chivalry of France and Scotland. But the blundering ambition the management of this peculiar district. The middle level has of his brother, the Duke of Gloucester, cost him, for a time, the always been the worst to contend with. In I862, St Germain's Burgundian alliance, and after it was restored, the devout heroism sluice, at the confluence of the great drain in this level with the of Joan of Arc, inspiring the French with fresh courage and a sen- Ouse, gave way, and the western bank of the drain burst, floodtiment of patriotism never known before, frustrated his efforts, ing about 600o acres of fertile land; but extensive new works though in military capacity he was hardly inferior to Henry him- have been sufficient to prevent any recurrence of extensive self. Though steadily and liberally supported by the Bishop mischief since. of Winchester (see BEAUFORT), he abandoned all idea of retaining possession of the realm of France, and only sought to Bedfordshire one of the midland counties of England, 37th secure his conquest of Normandy. He died at Rouen, Igth in respect both of size and pop., having an area of 463 sq. miles, September 1435, of vexation (it is said) on hearing that a treaty and a pop. (1871) of I46,257. It presents for most part a flat had been arranged prejudicial to English interests between the surface, but in the S. is invaded by a spur of the Chilterns, and Duke of Burgundy and Charles VII. Like all the family of John in the NW. is traversed by another low range of chalk-hills. of Gaunt, B. loved arts and literature, and while in Paris pur- None of the hills are over 900 feet. The Great Ouse and its chased and sent to London the library of Charles V. His widow, tributary the Ivel are the chief rivers, the former having a course jacobina of Luxembourg, married Richard Woodville, Earl within the county, including windings, of 45 miles. In the N. the Rivers, to whom she bore Elizabeth, wife of Edward IV. and geological formation is oolite, in the S. greensand and chalk, and ancestress of the Queen of England and of most European sove- the soil varies from the stiffest clay to the lightest sand, but is reigns. The title of Duke of B. was again borne for a short mostly under tillage. In 1873 there were I50,07i acres in corn. time by George Neville, nephew of Warwick, the'king- Onions, cucumbers, and other vegetables are extensively promaker,' and Henry VII. conferred it on his uncle, Jasper Tu- duced for the London and Cambridge markets. The princidor, Earl of Pembroke, who had given him important help on pal towns are B., Lutton, Polton, Biggleswade, and Dunstable, Bosworth Field (1485). Pembroke died childless in 1495, and all centres of the manufactures of straw-plait for bonnets, and the dignity lapsed for 200 years, when it was again revived pillow-lace, the only existing industries. The straw-plait of B. (I694) in the house of Russell (q. v.), whose chiefs had been rivals that of Tuscany. Two members of Parliament are returned Earls of B. since 1550. for the county. B. contains the remains of three Roman roads, besides several fine specimens of early English and Norman Bedford, the county town of Bedfordshire, on the Ouse, 65 church architecture. The Duke of B., the Marquises of Tavimiles N.N.W. of London by rail, situated in a rich arable dis- stock and Bute, Earl de Grey, Lords Holland and Carteret, are trict. It has important manufactures of agricultural implements, the chief proprietors. straw-plait, and lace, and contains also an extensive ironwork. The river, here crossed by a bridge of five arches, was formerly h ouse in London, the Hospital of St Mary, Bethleem, the name of a whii navigable, and the means of considerable trade with Lynn Regis, house in the Hospital of St Mary, Bethlehem, which on the coast, 74 miles distant. The town is first mentioned in was founded in the year 1246 by Simon Fitzmary, who had been one of the Sheriffs of London. It originally stood in Bishopsagainst the Britons aet Bedicanforda, i.e., at the ford of the be- gate Street Without, and, on the suppression of religious houset dyked or fortified place. The name Bedicanford became in suc- in the reign of Henry VIII., was handed over to the corporationcession Bedanford and Bedford. It is again mentioned, A. D. of London, since which time it has been an hospital for the cure IOIO, as one of the places burned by the Danes in their horrible of the insane. About i644 it was determined to enlarge the devastation of the S. E. of England. After the Norman conquest, hospital, but the situation had become close and confined, and a massive castle was built at B., which was frequently besieged a new Hospital of Bethlehem was built in Moorfiels 1675-76. in later times. In i56i, Sir W. Harpur, alderman of London, In i8I4 the'new' hospital gave way to a fitter building, in a founded a free school at B., and its endowment of 13 acres of more commodious situation, on the other side of the Thames, land has increased in value from /I50 to upwards of /I4,ooo in the parish of Lambeth. This building in turn was enlarged a year, with which sum a popularly-elected trust now maintains in I838. The patients of B. used to be exhibited, like wild a free grammar school, commercial, preparatory girls' and infant beasts, in cages, for so much a head; and convalescent patients schools, a children's hospital, and sixty-five almshouses. This were sent out to beg, with badges on their arms, and known immense charity is said greatly to prejudice the industry of the as'B. beggars' or'Tom-o'-Bedlams.' This practice, the object place. John Bunyan, who was born at Elstow, in the vicinity, of which was to raise funds for the institution, was put down in wrote his Pilgfrim's Progress in B. jail, and was for seventeen the latter part of the I7th c, years minister of the Baptist congregation in Mill Lane. The Bed'mar, Alfonso de Cueva, Marquis de, a Spanish Bunyan schools were transferred to a fine new building com- ecclesiastic and politician, born 1572, was appointed Spanish pleted in I867, and a bronze statue of Bunyan, by Boehm, was ambassador to Venice in i607, and in I618 (it is said) he united unveiled by Dean Stanley, June IO, I874. Pop. (1871) 6,850o. himself with the Duke of Ossuna, viceroy of Naples, and Don B. returns two members to Parliament. Pedro de Toledo, governor of Milan, in an infamous conspiracy _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~325 BED IIHE GLOBE EIVC YCI OPEDZA. BEE to destroy the city. A man of singular genius, penetration, know- Bed'uins (Arab. BeZawi, plural BedsJzn, i.e., children of ledge of men and of the proper conduct of affairs, daring enough the desert), the name universally given in the East as well as for the wildest ventures, yet perfectly tranquil under excitement, in Europe to the nomadic inhabitants of the deserts of Arabia, his conspiracy, which embraced the seizure of the arsenal, the Syria, Egypt, and N. Africa. Scattered over an immense area Doge's palace, and the senate, and afterwards the sack of the city, (from the Atlantic on the W. to Persia on the E., and from the was as ingenious as it was bold. It was to have been carried out Syrian waste on the N. to the borders of Sudan on the S.), on Ascension Day, and during the festal wedding of the Doge with and ungoverned in a strict political sense, they roam hither the Adriatic; but on the eve of that day, when all preparations and thither in families under kaids or sheiks, or in tribes under were complete, the plot was betrayed, the conspirators seized, emirs, and live by cattle-breeding, trade, and occasional plunder. tried in secret, and executed, and the Spanish ambassador dis- The religion of the B. is Mohammedan, and their habits are missed from the republic. Otway's fine play, Yenice Preserved, uniformly temperate. Polygamy is not prevalent. Their dress, is based on the conspiracy. After leaving Venice, B. went to which they themselves manufacture, consists of a haikhz, or white Flanders, where he was appointed president of the Spanish robe, forming a hood, and descending to the feet, and a burnuse, Council, and in 1622 obtained a cardinal's hat. He subsequently or large open mantle. Their horses are noted for fleetness and withdrew to Rome, and obtained the bishopric of.Oviedo, where docility. The B. are occasionally found intermingling with he died, 2d August I655. Some writers, notably Grosley, in other nations, and among the five N. spurs of the Abyssinian his Discussionz historique et critique sur la Conjurationz de Venise highlands a few villages of this restless people have been estab(Troyes et Paris, I756), have endeavoured to show that the lished. Suakin, a Beduintown, with over 3000 inhabitants, lies on so-called'conspiracy' was an invention of the Venetians, who the W. shore of the Gulf of Suez, where, during the dry season, wished to get rid of a hostile ambassador, but this view has not pasturage for camels and goats is procurable on the slopes exposed obtained much credence. to the action of the damp sea-air. The life in the desert, preBednore', or Nug'ur, a city in the division of Nugur, pro- carious and full of danger, has given to the B. valour, activity, vince of Mysore, India, situated among the luxuriant forests of and endurance. It cannot escape observation, however, that the Western Ghauts, at a height of 4000 feet, I45 miles N.W. modern travellers speak with contempt and pity of their present of Seringapatam. In I763 it was taken by Hyder Ali, and made starved, stunted, and harmless condition. The name B. was the seat of his government. Twenty years later it was captured originally applied only to the nomads of the Arabian deserts, by the British under General Matthews, but soon retaken by and especially to those of the plateau of Nejid, in contradisTippoo Saib. The division of Nugur has the oldest coffee plan- tinction to the IHIesi who were engaged in agriculture and tations in Mysore. trade. But at an early date Beduin hordes had passed into the Bed of Justice (Fr. Lit de _ustice), originally the seat occu- Syrian and Egyptian deserts, while with the decay of ancient civilisation they spread into Mesopotamia and Chaldea; and pied by the French king in Parliament, afterwards applied to a civiliation they spread into Mesopotamia and Chaldea; and session held by the king in presence of the princes, the estates, later, the Mohammedan conquests of the 7th c. led them into N. session he Presidents of the Chambers of Inquest and Chambers of Africa. It sometimes happens, as in the case of the Berbers of and the Presidents of the Chambers of Inquest and Chambers of N. Africa, that the name B. is applied to nomad peoples who Petitions, for the purpose of enforcing the registration of edicts. falsely claim an Arab origin, because they have adopted the The constitutional fiction was that the authority of Parliament falsely claim an Arab origin, because they have adopted the ceased in presence of the king. Thus, in I407, on the death of Arab speech and habits. the Duke of Orleans, a law regulating regencies during royal Bed'win, Great, a town in Wiltshire, 69 miles W. by S. of minorities was registered. The reign of Louis XIII. is marked London' by railway. It was a place of note in the earliest by repeated protests of Parliament against the registration of times of English history, and figures in the Chronzicle as Bedtaxation-edicts. In the following reign Omer Talon resisted the anheafd (the head stronghold?), and the scene of a battle in fiscal oppressions of Mazarin, but in 1667 an ordonnance declared 675 between the kings of Mercia and Wessex. To this battle that the Parliament held no absolute veto. In I787 the refusal there may be a reference in the later name Bedwin,'winl' meanof the Parliament to register the land and stamp taxes and the ing battle or victory in old English. Some Roman remains successive loan proposed by Calonne and De Brienne led to the were discovered in the neighbourhood in the end of last cen last B. of J. The popular contention was that only the States- tury, proving that B. had an existence even before the English General could grant supplies. came to the island, though neither its Roman nor British name Be'dos de Celles, Don Jean Franpois, born at Chaux, has come down. St Mary's Church, built at different dates 1714, died 25th November I797. He was a Benedictine monk, and in different styles, and not completed till about I3I2, has I714, died 25th Nome an97.nHe was a Benedictine monk, and member of the Academy of Sciences in Paris. As the authorsome ancient and interesting monuments. Jane Seymour, and of a great work on organ-building, L'Art du Facteur d'Orgzes Dr Willis, one of the first Fellows of the Royal Society, were (4 vols. 1766 and 1778), he was the most noted authority upon natives of B. Pop. (1871) 2068. that subject in the I8th c. Bee, a family of insects included in the order -Hymnenoptera, Bed-Straw (Gan'ium), a genus of plants belonging to the of the Holometabolic ('complete metamorphosis') section of the natural order Galiacece or StellaIte (q. v.). It possesses many insect class. These insects possess four membranous wings, the species, scattered over the temperate regions of the Old and New nervures or supporting ribs of the wings being few in number Worlds; is particularly abundant in Europe and Northern Asia, and not prominently marked. The mouth in bees exhibits a but is found also in the tropics, where, however, the species are combination of the suctorial with the masticatory form of oral chiefly confined to mountain regions. About ten species are found in Britain. Among them are some of the most common weeds, e.g., G. cruciata (crosswort or Maywort), G. aoarine (cleavers or goose-grass), the inspissated juice of which has been used with success in various skin-diseases, and its seeds as a substitute for coffee. The recurved spines on the leaves cause it to stick to clothing. G. verumv (ladies' bed-straw) is called also the cheese-rennet, because it has the property of curdling milk; and Bees the flower-tops boiled in alum yield a bright yellow dye, much used in Iceland and in the Highlands of Scotland. The roots apparatus. Thus the labrum or upper lip, and the mandibles or and bark have been long used to dye yarn red. The roots of larger pair of jaws, are well developed, whilst the maxillae or other species of Galiuzm, such as G. tinctoriunn of Canada, and lesser pair of jaws are elongated to form a tubular organ through G. septentrionale, another North American species, possess the which, together with the tongue, the flower-juices may be sucked same properties. Like Madder (q. v.), which they rival in dyeing up. The labrium or lower lip also exists in an elongated form, qualities, they impart a red colour to the bones and milk of and the palpi or organs of touch with which the labium is proanimals fed upon them. The extract of G. rigidumt and G. mol- vided are also lengthened to form a protective apparatus. The ut/o has been beneficially used in epilepsy. The roots of G. mandibles or larger jaws are thus employed by the bees in the tuberosumn are used in China for food. The name B. is said to execution of the multifarious tasks connected with the construcbe derived from the practice, at one time in vogue, of strewing tion of their abodes, whilst the suctorial portion of the mouth is beds with some of the softer foliaged species. devoted to the reception and prehension of nourishment. The 326 BEE TIHE GL OBE ENVC YCL OVEDIA. BEE four wings can be joined together during flight by means of the wings are shorter than in tile latter forms. The queens do hooked processes, the hinder pair of wings being the smaller pair. not possess wax-sacs or pollen-baskets. The legs of the queens The abdomen of the females is provided with a defensive or are not so fully provided with hairs, and the mandibles are offensive apparatus, forming in other insects an ovipositor or notched or indented, whilst the sting is curved. The drones or egg-depositing organ, but known in the bees, &c., as the aculeuzs males are larger in turn than the neuters. Their eyes are of or'sting.' This consists of a pointed process enclosed within a large size, and the antennae or feelers are slightly larger than in sheath-like structure. A poisonous or irritating fluid is furnished the workers. The latter possess bodies averaging about I an inch by a glandular structure placed at the base of the sting, and the in length. The antennae are I2-jointed, and end in a knob-like injection of this fluid into the wound causes the well-known and process. The abdomen consists of six joints; the four middle painful effects of the B.'s attack. segments bearing the wax receptacles, whilst they carry pollen, The basal or first joint of the tarsi of the hinder pair of legs as already explained, on the basal joint of the hinder pair of legs. in the working-bees or neuters is enlarged and flattened in the Concerning the number of individuals contained within each typical bees, and may be furnished with bristles-this structure B.-community, no exact estimate can be furnished, the number adapting these members for conveying the pollen of flowers, being subject to much variation at different seasons. The total The food of adult bees consists of saccharine and flower juices, number of bees in an ordinary hive has been said to vary from whilst the larvae are fed upon a paste known as'B. bread,' and Io,ooo,. or I5,00ooo, to 30,000, or even 6o,ooo. And of these which is composed of the pollen of flowers mixed with honey. numbers, from 6oo to 2000 may be males, the rest being neuters, It is notable that a difference in the food on which the larvae are only one-female or queen being found within the colony in ordifed appears to influence the development of the sex in young nary circumstances. The queen is said to deposit eggs at an bees. Thus, ordinary food, composed of honey and pollen, pro- average rate of 200 or 300 per day, although this number may duces'workers;' whilst larva fed on a special paste termed be greatly exceeded. The queen is also said to live for three'royal food' are said to be transformed into'queens' or' fer- years or mole; the average life of the neuters extending to about tile females.' Landois states that an insufficient or scanty dietary a year. The neuters, it is to be noted, are simply sexless indiviproduces male bees from larvae, a more generous food-supply duals, most probably females, in which the generative organs are producing females. Bees, undoubtedly, with many other insects, undeveloped. On the workers, or ordinary bees, all the labour play an important part in the fertilisation of many flowers, the of the hive devolves; and they not only construct the abode, pollen of one plant being carried by the bees to impregnate other but tend and feed the young, and otherwise wholly devote themplants. In their distribution, bees occur in all the temperate and selves to the care of the colony. The bees undergo a perfect warm regions of the world. Very many species are known- metamorphosis-that is, the young first appear as larvre, or over 200 species being found in Britain alone. The bees, as will grubs, then change to Iun>i, and finally, developing wings, presently be noticed, are divided by their structural differences become the imagos, or perfect insects. into several distinct genera and groups. The honey secretlion, for which the bees are famed, consists of In their reproduction, bees exhibit many interesting phenomena. the flower-juices drawn from the flower-receptacles by the B.'s The'social' bees, or those which, like the ants, live in com- proboscis, and elaborated within the honey-bag, which forms in munities, exemplify these phenomena in their most typical fact a part of the digestive system, corresponding to a crop or.aspects. A social B.-community consists of three kinds of first stomach. From this receptacle the honey is rejected, and Individuals-drones, or males, feimles, and neulters, or workers. is stored up in cells, or is used to feed the larva, as already A single female only-the queen B.-exists in each community. mentioned. The impregnation of the queen is effected in summer, at which The bees have been divided into the family or section Andtreseason only the drones or males are developed. The queen takes niaee, and into that of the A./id.e —this latter including the ner'nuptial flight' into the air, and is there impregnated by ordinary social bees. The Andrenide are distinguished by possexual union with the males. The latter are destroyed there- sesssing a short trunk with an obtuse blunted apex; the liula after by the workers, as being of no further use in the economy of or basal portion of the lower lip forming the proboscis in this the hive, which is thus for the greater part of the year tenanted group. The hinder legs do not carry pollen. These are solitary by the single queen, the neuters, and the larva. The seminal bees. They inhabit burrows which they excavate in the ground, fluid, or impregnating matter received firom the males, is con- or which they cut out of wood, &c., the eggs being deposited tained within the body of the queen in a special sac or receptacle, among masses of pollen and honey. Males and perfect females termed the seminal receptacle. This sac communicates by a only appear to be developed in this section, no neuters being special duct or tube with the oviduct, along which the eggs pass found. This group includes various genera of bees, among from the ovary where they are formed, to be deposited. This which Colletes is a familiar form. The better-known A.pixe communication between the oviduct and the seminal receptacle generally live in communities, and possess a mouth of the struccan be opened or shut at will; and it has been definitely ascer- ture described at the commencement of this article. Various tained that those eggs from which females or queens are to be genera, differing in form and habits, are included in this group. developed, are allowed to come in contact with the fluid of the Some of the best-known of these are solitary in habits. Familiar male; while those eggs which are to give origin to male bees or examples include the carpenter-bees (Xyljocoa), which excavate drones are allowed to pass from the queen's body without any cells and nests in wood; the mason-bees (Osmia and i/egachile), such contact. This curious phenomena appears, therefore, to which form nests of particles of sand, &c.; the upholsterer-bees constitute a case of Parl/zenogenesis (q. v.), or of that anomalous (e.g., 4/is fafoveris, &c.) or process seen also in other insects (see APHIS), by which the eggs leaf-cutters, which line their of a female can thus develop into new beings without being nests with leaves and plant-tisfertilised by the male animal. The larva which are to produce sues, &c. The latter bees are females or queens, as already stated, are fed on royal food, the so named from their habit of -'_males being fed on ordinary nutriment. The eggs which are thus cutting theleaf-tissuesof plants,. to develop queens, are further deposited after those which are and of forming and lining their - to produce males and workers, and are placed in cells of special nests with these tissues. The construction known as'royal cells;' and the cells containing the sharp mandibles or larger jaws larve, which are to become male bees are larger than tlhose furnish the means of carrying containing eggs which are to produce simple workers or neuters. on their operations. What is known as the swarming, consists in the departure The humble-bees (Bombi) from a parent hive of a large body of workers, accompanied by are socialin habits, and possess M6 a young queen B. This offshoot from the colony, determined males, females, and neuters in probably by its increase in too great numbers, is destined to their colonies; the females, found a new community, and contains therefore the necessary however, numbering more than UpholsteerrBee. sexual elements for that end. The queens, orfertilefe/males, possess in the hive-bees, taking part in fully-developed reproductive organs, and in this way represent the duties of the hive. Two kinds of females, in fact, are found the truly sexual part of an ordinary community. They are of in the colonies of the humble-bees-larger egg-producing larger size than the other individuals. The under parts of the females, and smaller ones, which assist in the labours of the body are of a yellower colour than in the drones or neuters, and hive, andwlich are believed to produce male eggs only These 327 BEE THE GLOBE ENC YC~OLkED4. BEE bees resemble the wasps, in that the continuation of the species Philosophy, Physiology, and Theology, with a view especially to is dependent upon the impregnated females, which lie torpid the higher culture of her own sex.-3. Rev. Charles B., son throughout the winter, and lay impregnated eggs in the succeed- of L. B., was born at Litchfield, I815. He was a minister in ing spring; the other and greater portion of the colony being Newark, New Jersey, and afterwards in Georgetown, Mass., killed by the winter's cold of each year. A colony of humble where he was tried for heresy. He travelled in Europe bees numbers from 6o to 200 members. They are of larger size with his sister, Mrs Stowe, wrote part of her Sunny Memories, than the hive-bees, and possess hairy bodies, coloured generally -edited the Life of his father, Dr Lyman B., and is the author of black with bright orange bands, various other works, which do not require mention.: —4. Edward The hive-bees (Apis mzellfica) are the most familiar and typi- B., son of L. B., born at East Hampton, L.I., in 1i804, graducal of the species. Many varieties or breeds of this one species, ated at Yale College in 1822, and studied divinity there and at as well as several distinct species of the genus Apis, exist. These Andover. He was pastor of Park Street Congregational Church, bees chiefly inhabit the warm and temperate regions of the E. Boston, 1826-3i, and afterwards President of Illinois College. hemisphere, although they have become acclimatised in America One of his books, T/e Cozftict of Ages, made some stir in also. In Egypt the A. fasciata is the most common species, and America when it came out. —5. Rev. Henry Ward B., son of in Greece the A. Liguslica occupies a similar position. A. uni- L. B., was born at Litchfield, Conn., June 24, I813. He color occurs in Madagascar; A. indica in India; and A. Adansonii graduated at Amherst College, Mass., in 1834, and settled at in Senegal. A genus Mlzdipona occurs in S. America, and presents Laurenceburgh, Indiana, in 1837, whence he removed to the species nearly allied to the Apidce. Presbyterian Church, Indianapolis, in 1839, and to the CongregaThe science of B.-culture, and the economy and functions of tional Church, Brooklyn, in 1847, where he still officiates. When the hive, form subjects demanding an extended notice, and such he came to Brooklyn, he soon made a national reputation by a breadth of treatment as can most satisfactorily be given in special style of preaching peculiar to himself. It was distinguished by treatises on the subject, whilst further details regarding the poetical description, emotional sentiment, sympathetic knowledge organisation of bees as related to insect structure in general of human nature, and censure of moral and public wrong; and it will be found in the article on INSECTS (q. v.). The parasites was also relieved or disfigured by dubious strokes of humour. B. that infest bees are noticed under the head of B.-PARASITE, has also devoted much time to editing and lecturing, besides attendwhilst information concerning HONEY, WAX, &C., will be found ing to his farm at Peekskill on the Hudson. In 1874 his former in the articles devoted to these subjects. protdgc and friend, Theodore Tilton, brought a criminal charge Beech, a genus of trees (Fag'us) of the N. 0. C'puliufemr (q. v.), against him, in reference to his wife, Mrs Elizabeth R. Tilton. containing few species, all of which are beautiful forest trees. The trial lasted from January 4 to July 2, 1875, but the jury The common B. (F. sylvatica) forms extensive forests in some were unable to agree, and no verdict was returned. B. has portions of Europe, such as the island of Seeland, in Denmark, written Norwood, a novel, and the Life of C/zhrist.-6. Harriet and more particularly in the vicinity of Copenhagen, and is also Elizabeth B. Stowe, daughter of L. B., and wife of Proa native of some parts of Asia. It will often attain a height of fessor Calvin E. Stowe, was born at Litchfield, June I5, 1812. from 10oo to I20 feet and a diameter of 4 feet. Its wood, though She was a teacher in Hartford; married in 1836 to Rev. C. E. hard and solid, is too brittle for the purposes of the carpenter, Stowe, Professor in Lane Seminary, Ohio. Her early literary but it is very durable under water, hence is employed in making efforts were confined to stories in the Mayflower and Sundaymill-sluices. In France, Denmark, and other countries, it is school books. In i85o her husband removed to a professorship extensively employed for making sabots or wooden shoes, and it in Bowdoin College, Maine, and in the following year she began is considered the best firewood. The ashes yield much potash, Uncle Tom's Cabin as a serial tale in the National Era, Washingand vinegar is prepared from the shavings. B.-mast (the seeds ton. After some difficulty in finding a publisher, it was brought and fruit-coat) is used for feeding cattle, and in France for the out in book form in Boston in 1852. In three and a half years purpose of obtaining B.-oil, a bland fixed oil which is used for 313,o000o copies were sold in the United States, and in all, a food, lamps, &c. B.-mast is also used for adulterating cocoa. million copies have been sold there, and it has been translated The red-leaved variety of the B., now so common in woods, into twenty languages. In 1853 Mrs Stowe travelled in Europe, is said to have sprung from a single twig which was acci- and on her return published Sunny Memories. She afterwards dentally found in a German forest. The American F. ferrugined wrote Dred, a slave story, which was on the whole reckoned a (the fruits of which are eaten) has leaves naturally of the same failure. She was, however, again successful in the Minister's colour. Among the other species of B. may be mentioned F. Wooing, 1859, a work which contains some of her best characterForsteri of the Tasmanian mountains and of Tierra del Fuego; painting. In 1869 Mrs Stowe brought out what she chose to F. antarlicd of the Straits of Magellan, and F. pracera of the consider the True Story of Lady Byron's Life, which made a Andes of Chili. This, with the two preceding species, would sensation on both sides of the Atlantic, but has not added to form beautiful ornamental trees in our parks and forests. The her reputation, at least in England. Her recent writings treat genus is also represented in the mountains of Java and of mainlyof New England life. Southern New Zealand. Beech'ey, Sir William, R. A., a portrait-painter of great Beech Drops. See CANCER ROOT, reputation in his own day, was born at Burford, Oxfordshire, December 12, 1753. He became a student in the Royal AcalBeech'er, the name of an American family, several members December 12, 1753. He became a student in the Royal Academy in 1772; was made an Associate, and portrait-painter to of which have attained considerable distinction in various ways. Queen Charlotte, in 793; was knighted by the king, and -i. he Rv. Lman., D D. bor at ewbaen, on- ueen Charlotte, in 1793; was knighted by the king, and ic. The Rev. oe 5yman B., s.D., born at Dwig hata en, Con- a elected a Royal Academician, in 1798, for his equestrian picture of necticut, October I775, studied under Dr Dwight, and settled as George III., the Prince of Wales, and the Duke of York reviewminister in East Hampton, Long Island, in 1798. For some in years he was minister of the Congregational Church, Litch- g the 3d an oth Dragoons. Henceforth till 1836, when ho retired from his profession, he was the favourite limner of the field, Connecticut, and in I826 was called to Boston, to Co necticutnd in 182 was called toBostontoaristocracy. Among others, he painted Lord Nelson, Lord St stem the current of Unitarianism. In i832 he was appointed Vincent, Lord Cornwallis, John Femble, and Mrs Siddons. B. Vincent, Lord Cornwallis, John K~emble, and Mrs Siddons. B. President of Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, and he also died at Hampstead, 28th January 839 took charge of the second Presbyterian Church there. Soon after he was tried for heresy, and his case helped to divide Beechey, Frederick William, an English admiral and the Presbyterian Church into'Old' and'New' School. He Arctic explorer, son of the preceding, was born in London, I7th returned to Boston in 1842, and died at Brooklyn in 1863. B. February 1796, and entered the navy at ten years of age. In was one of the great lights of New England in his day, and i818 he was appointed to the T-ent under Franklin, whom he was distinguished as a pulpit orator, advocating New School accompanied in his search for the N.W. Passage; and for his theology, or moderate Calvinism, temperance and anti-slavery. excellent drawings of objects in natural history received a parHe had six sons in the ministry (Autobiograqp/y and Correspon- liamentary grant of %'200. In I819 he joined the Hec/a and took dlelce, 2 vols. New York, 1864).-2. Catherine Esther B., part in another Arctic expedition under Lieutenant, afterwards daughter of L. B., was born September 6, i8oo. She has. de- Sir Edward Parry. In 1821, in the Adventurer, under Captain voted herself to the cause of education, was Principal of a female Smith, he surveyed the coast of N. Africa, and rendered special seminary in Hartford from 1822 to 1832, and afterwards filled service by his examination of the Greek antiquities of Cyrenaica, a similar position in Cincinnati. She has written much on of which he published a description, together with a narrative of 328 d~ -------------— ~- 4 BEE THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPZIEDIA. BEE the expedition, in 1828. In 1825 B.was appointed to the Blossom, Beef-Tea, a preparation from lean beef or other meat of great and sailed for the Polar Sea by way of Behring's Strait, to value for invalids and delicate persons, made by mincing the communicate with Franklin, who was to make the attempt over- flesh small, mixing it weight for weight in water, and slowly land from N. America; but returned in I828, without accom- heating up to the boiling point. The juice is then strained off plishing his object, though the expedition -rendered important and seasoned for eating. A more nutritive extract can be observices to geographical science by his -discoveries -of harbours tained by treating minced raw meat with distilled water aciduand channels. In less than three -years he sailed 7o-ooo.miles. lated withl hydrochloric acid and a little salt; the proportions His Narralive was published in -I83I. In I847'B. was requested being; lb. of meat, 14 oz. of water, and 12 or I8 grains of by Government to create and superintend a marine department salt. After digesting for an hour, the liquor should be strained of the Board of Trade, in which office he -remained till his death. off and the residue washed with 5 oz. of water, and thus about He was made Rear-Admiral of the Blue in I854, President of I pint of excellent extract is secured. See- also EXTRACT OF the Royal Geographical Society in;I855, and died 29th Novem- M-EAT. ber I856. hBeefwood. See CASUAR-INA. Beech'worth, a:town in Victoria, -I85 miles N.E. of Melbourne. It is the chief centre of population on the Ovens (q. v.) Beehive-House, in archeological nomenclature, denotes a goldfield, and is a thriving place. Pop. 3J,67; of the shire, rude, primitive dwelling, of which traces are abundantly found 6222. The mining plant in the B. district was valued in Janu- in Scotland and Ireland. A B.-H. is circular in plan, and ary 1874 at 50,I6o. -Oxide of tin.is found throughout the dis- its thick dry-stone walls converge as they rise, and give it a trict, and is worked to some extent. conical appearance, and at the apex.a small opening is left for light and ventilation. Their antiquity is unknown; Lubbock Bee'der, properly Bi.dar, capital of a district -of the same supposes that some of them belong.to the Stone Age, but there name in the feudatory state.of the Nizam of Hyderabad, on the are instances of very recent occupation:of such dwellings. right bank of the Manjera, an affluent of.the Godavery, -75 miles A group of them on the shores of Loch Resort in Lewis was N.W. of Hyderabad. It.was.at one time a flourishing.to.wn, tenanted so late as I823, and to this day they are sometimes but has fallen off of late years. Three fourths.of the population used as summer shielings by the inhabitants of the Hebrides are Hindus, and the remainder Mohammedans. B. has some and Skye. Their modern occupants know nothing of theirmanufactures in an alloy of one part of copper to twetity-four Qrigin. of tin. Pop. 20,o00oQ. Beel'zebub-(Heb. Fly-Baal) was worshipped by the PhilisBee-Eater, a genus of birds belonging to the Fissirostral -tines at Ekron. The origin of -this -rworship is probably to be section of the Insessores or Perchers, and forming the type of -sought in the scourge of flies to which the hot plain of Philistia the family Meropidw. The bill is elongated and curved. The has always been subject. It was Baal who sent it; it was Baal nostrils are partly hidden by short'bristles. The wings are long who could remove or mitigate it; hence his name of fly-Baal. and pointed, the tail being The name BEELZEBUL, applied in the New'Testament to the broad and long, and having prince of the demons (Matt. xii. 25), has prodbbly no connection the two middle feathers longer with B. Zebul in the Talmud means-(i) dung; (2) an idol, than the rest. The toes are an abomination. Now with the Jews all'idols.or false gods were also of large size, and the two demons; hence probably the name Beel-Zelbul given in the Tallateral toes are united more mud to Asmodeus, as if head of'idolatry.'But many other con/;~?,,or less completely to the flicting explanations are given. - - ~.,~middle digit. Thesebirds are confined to the Old World. Bee-Par'asite, the name given to the Slyloys, a curious in_ x g i,.. The common or European sect, distinguished:by possessing twisted filaments in place of the.f/'ad ~ m B. -E. (Merqos apiaslet) is rare front pair of wings, and forming of itself the,sole example of the'in Britain. It occurs.in Rus- order StrpsZpte-ra.'The males alone -are winged as above desia and in the S. of Europe, scribed, the females existing as soft maggot-like creatures, which:although its native region is live within the bodies of bees and wasps, and protrude their Africa. It is about Ir inches heads from between the abdominal segments of the infested Pee-Eater.:in length, and.is coloured animals. The young or larva are hatched within the body of brownish-red and yellow on the female, the young males developing wings and living a free the upper parts, the forehead being pale-blue. The head pos- existence, whilst the females pass from the body of their parent, sesses a black streak on each -side behind the eye, and a black and seek fresh.hosts wherein to reside. St3lo,s Daii and S. band also crosses the throat,;which is bright yellow underneath. Spencii are familiar species. The lower parts, wings, and tail are coloured green. Mero-s The lower parts, wgs, and tail are coloured green. rls Beer (Ger. bier) and Brewing, the fermented infusion of viridis is a familiar Indian species. They all feed upon insects, malted grain, or of any substance containing sugar or starch; and which they dexterously capture on the wing. They appear to be the art of making it, wich is of greatantiquity. The Egyptians social in habits, like.the swallows; the nests being excavated in the art of making it, uhich is of great anti quity. The Egyptians ~~~~~bans~~~~ks,~ ~were acquainted with it;' wine of barley' is frequently menbanks. tioned in.early Greek writings; and there is abundant evidence Beef. See FooD. that the Romans prepared B. from wheat, barley, and other cereals.'Tacitus, speaking of the customs of the Germanic tribes, Beef-Eater, a corruption of the French bqf fetier, an officer - refers to their great love of B., a disposition, by the way, which who attended the bzffet or sideboard. The term is popularlyi is not wanting in their modern descendants. The Gauls, Britons, applied to the Yeomen of the Guard, some of whom, since the and Scandinavians used B. on all festive occasions, and offered time of Henry VII., have been stationed at the table at royal libations of it to their gods. At the present day, while B. is in banquets, and attended the sovereign on solemn festivals. almost -universal use, the substances from which it is prepared, and the mode of preparation, vary with different nations or Beef-Eater, or Ox-Pecker'(BFu asga),,a genus of-Insessorial tribes. Maize furnishes some S. American tribes with a feror Perching birds, belonging to the section Conrsis-tes,:and so mented liquor called chica; the Russians prepare a thick, muddy named from their habit of alighting on the backs of oxen, buffa- kind of B., which they call kvas or quass, from a decoction of leoes, camels, &c., and of extracting therefrom the larvae of the rye-flour; from millet and kindred grain the Crim Tartars and EstZrido or'Bot-flies,' which infest cattle, &c. The common many African tribes obtain alcoholic drinks; and an infusion B.-E. (Bzlfaga 4fi-icana) averages about 8 or 9 inches in of rice is of equal utility to Eastern Asiatics. Fermented mare's length, and is coloured reddish-brown above and yellowish-white milk forms the kousziss or kztniz of the Central Asian tribes, the in the under parts. The bill is yellow, the legs brown, and the keban -of the Arabs is a similar product, and froin a species of tip of the beak red. These birds exclusively inhabit the warmer pepper plant the Polynesians, by a preliminary process of mastiregions of Africa. The cattle are said to rise when the birds fly cation, prepare their Ava. Barley is the material principally off or are disturbed. operated on in Great Britain. 42a v 329 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - BEE THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP/lE9IA. BEE In the manufacture of beer there are two distinct stages: (I) malt is thoroughly mixed with hot water to facilitate the conthe preparation of malt from the raw grain, called malting; and version of the remaining starch into grape-sugar by the soluble (2) the formation of a fermented liquor from the malt, termed diastase, the whole saccharine matter dissolving to form sweet brewing. In the process of malting there are four operations, wart. The mashing-tun is formed of wooden staves firmly steeping, couching, flooring, and kiln-drying; the first three are hooped together, and the malt, passing from a hopper above concerned with the germination of the grain, and when this is by means of the shoots, is led into the tun through the feeder sufficiently advanced, it is checked by the application of heat. and its trunk-like appendage. Hot water of the proper temSteepifng consists in placing barley into a large cistern, and cover- perature being run in upon the malt, the whole is thoroughly ing it with water to the depth of some inches; the grain absorbs mixed by means of strong wooden rakes fixed to an iron shaft, a portion of the water, and becomes swollen and soft, and after which rotates on its axis, and also revolves round the tun steeping for forty or sixty hours, the superfluous liquid is drained At the bottom of the tun are several pipes to convey the wort off. Couching.-The grain is next thrown into a heap or couch into a vessel called the' underback,' and also a false bottom peron the floor, and allowed to lie for twenty-four hours, during forated with a number of small holes. After mashing, the tun which time the barley rises in temperature, absorbs oxygen, is covered up for two hours to allow the wort to clarify by the and gives off carbonic acid. With the increased heat the couch settling of the malt, after which the liquor is drained off into the parts with a portion of its moisture, a process technically called underback. The unexhausted malt or'goods' remaining after sweating, and germination is induced, evidence of which is the first mash is again treated with water at a slightly higher afforded by the presence of rootlets or fibrils of the radicle, and temperature, and, after settling, this second mash is drawn off an incipient plumula or stem, the acrosy5ire of the maltster. and mixed with the first. Sometimes the operation is repeateC Flooring.-In this operation the barley is spread over the floor a third time to exhaust the saccharine matter of the malt. The to the depth of twelve to sixteen inches, in order to further the temperature which gives the best extract of malt is the range growth to a certain point; and to prevent unequal heating and between I58~ and I67~ F., and therefore, in mashing, it is usual too rapid growth, the grain is lifted with spades from time to to begin with water at the lowest of these heats (the tun havtime, and scattered over a wider area till its depth is not more ing previously been scalded with hot water), and to conclude than four inches. From fourteen to twenty-one days, according with the highest. It is also better to employ the water in to the temperature of the couch, are occupied in this operation, three separate portions; the first dissolves the more soluble and when the acrospire has reached the length of the seed, it is ingredients, and brings the dissolved starch into intimate connecessary to check further germination. This is accomplished in tact with the diastase and free sugar; the second and third porkiln-drying, by spreading-the grain, usually to a thickness of four tions remove the remaining starch, and extract all the availinches, over the kiln-floor, which is perforated with innumerable able products. The first and second mashes are used for supesmall holes to admit of the passage of heat from a fire below; rior beer, and the third is used for small beer, or for the while drying, the grain is frequently turned over. According to first mash of new malt. The exhausted grains or draf left the temperature of the kiln and the management of the drying in the mashing-tun is used for feeding cattle. In brewing the process, the malt acquires distinguishing colours, being either different kinds of pale, amber, brown, or black, the highest temperature producing beer, it is essential the latter. The pale:and amber varieties, produced by a heat of that the wort be 90g to Ioo0 F., are used in the manufacture of light beers; the maintained of a debrown, dried at from 150~ to I70o, is used for sweet ale; and the finite strength; and black, prepared by roasting in cylinders, heated to 36o-4oo0, for to ascertain the Porter (q. v.). Good malt should be lighter than water, full, amount of saccharplump, and unshrivelled, crisp and easily broken between the ine matter present X teeth, disclosing;a soft floury kernel with a sweet taste and the brewer employs agreeable flavoumr;'the plumula should also extend two-thirds of an instrumentcalled the length of the grain. Malt, though greater in bulk by' to a saccharometer, a A1, is lighter by I than raw grain-that is to say, Ioo parts raw form of Hydrom e- __ grain yield only 80 parts malt, an apparent loss of 20 per cent. ter (q. v.), then, if Raw grain, however, on being dried, parts with the water pre- necessary, he mixes sent in it, about I2 per cent.; this leaves the real loss of the wort of the difmaterial in conversion from raw grain to malt as 8 per cent., ferent mashes till /= including 3 per cen:t..of rootlets or comings, which drop off in the required dendrying, and are removed by a wire screen. During the malting sity is obtaine d _ process a remarkable change is effected in the substance of the Boiling the w ort -- grain. The glutinous or albuminous constituents of the graini wih hops. - The e/:_ in great part break up and disappear, passing partly, it is sup- wo rt is transferred ___%_ posed, into rootlets, producing ialso in the body of the seed a as quickly as possi- peculiar nitrogenous substance called diastase, which reacts on ble from the -under- x. the starch of the grain, and converts part of it into soluble back into the copdextrin and grape-sugar. Dr Thomson gives the following per a, to be boiled comparative analyses -of barley and malt, taking Ioo parts of with hops. The each:- object of boiling Barley. Malt. the wort is to coa- L Starch.,... 88 69 gulate the remainSugar,..... 4 1'6 ing albuminous matter, which is apt to cause putrid fermentation, Gluten,... 3 I to concentrate the wort, and convert any residuary starch into Gum, - ~ o 5 14 sugar or dextrin, but chiefly to extract from the hops certain constituents-a volatile oil, a bitter resinous principle called lupulin, 1o00 0oo and tannin-which preserve the beer, and impart to it an agreeBYrewving, the second -stage in thle manufacture of beer, em- able flavour. The quantity of hops added to the wort varies with braces six distinct operations, namely, crushing the malt, the kind of beer being produced, the season of the year, the mashing or infusing with hot water, boiling the wort with hops length of time the beer is to be preserved, and the climate for cooling, fermenting, cleansing, and storing. which it is destined. Export beer is always more richly hopped Cr-ushing the mnalt is sometimes done by grinding it like oat- than that for home consumption, and cold-weather produce less meal between circular stones, but a newer and preferable mode so thanbeer brewed in warm weather. For each quarter of malt is to pass the malt between iron cylinders, the space between 4} lbs. of hops are required in ordinary beer, for superior ales which is so regulated as to crush and not to pulverise'the malt. 8 lbs. are employed, and as high as from I4 lbs. to 20 lbs. for oAfshing.-This is a most important operation, for on it de- export beer. Boiling with hops is continued for from one to pends to a great degree the character of the B. It is con- three hours, during which time the wort clears by the coagulation ducted in a large vessel called a mashing-tun, in which the and subsidence of the nitrogenous matter; and to prevent the 330 4 BEE THE GLOBE ENCYC~LOPED[A. BEE hops adhering to the bottom of the copper and charring, the iron The amount of alcohol in the different kinds of beer varies shaft b, fitted at the bottom end with cross arms with pendant considerably, and is in proportion to the degree of attenuation. chains, called a rouser, is kept rotating. The cistern above the Ales, sweet and mild, for home consumption, possess more body, copper contains water,; for the purpose of condensing the steam and' or are richer in malt extract, and consequently poorer in alcohol the volatile oil of the hops that escape through the pipe c, and than bitter beer or ales for export. Professor Brand found that are forced down four pipes (two of which, d, are shown) into the the amount of alcohol in strong ales averaged between 6 and 7 water, which is used in the next mashing. The boiling completed, per cent.; in brown stout, a strong kind of porter, from 6 to 7 the whole contents of the copper are drawn off into the hop-bacK, per cent.; and in London porter, 4 per cent. Burton ale, a large square cistern of wood or iron, with a false bottom, per- according to the same authority, yields 8 to 9; Edinburgh ale, forated with minute holes. The hops and matter in suspension 6 to 7; and Dorchester ale, 5 to 6 per cent. are allowed to settle, and the liquor is then strained off into the In respect to adulteration of beer, the law allows nothing but coolers to the depth of 2 or 3 inches. malt and hops to be used in brewing, except burnt sugar as a Cooling the zoo~t.-The coolers are shallow vessels of wood colouring agent in porter; and the brewers of the present time or iron, with a slight inclination towards one end, where the are a law-abiding class compared with their predecessors of fifty fermenting tuns are placed. There is an exposure on all sides years ago. The adulterants of that period-for instance, quassia, to currents of air; and to expedite the work horizontal fans are wormwood, ginger, &c., to give bitterness and pungency, sulcaused to revolve rapidly, creating a powerful draught over the phate of iron, alum, salt, and molasses, to impart a head-are surface of the liquor, for it is essential to cool quickly to prevent now seldom if ever used; but picric acid and cocculus indicus acidity in the wort, termed foxing. An improved method of are sometimes added with hops to increase the bitterness; both rapid cooling is often practised: by it the wort is conveyed substances are highly objectionable, the latter specially so, as it through long tinned iron pipes placed in a stream of cold water, is poisonous. and the tendency to foxing is greatly diminished. Bee 32 and 33 Vict. cap. 27, and subsequent Fermzenting the wort.-This constitutes the most important and r Acts.. By most critical operation in brewing, and it is one that calls for amended Act, no license no r renewal for the sale of beer, cider, constant attention and special skill. At a temperature rior wine can now be granted, except upon the production of a fro 54 to F. the wort is introduced into themperaure ranging certificate granted under the Act. Every one intending to apply tuns, which are either squae or circular, of wood ofermenting to the justices for a certificate under the Act is to give notice in tuns, which are either square or circular, of wood or iron; and from I to Ii per cent. of Yeast (q. v.) is added, either writing, at least twenty-one days before he applies, of his intenall at once or in two separate portions. Among other things, tion to one of the overseers of his parish. Penalties were under the quantity of yeast is regulated by its quality, on which, to this Act imposed upon all the ordinary offences committed by a great extent, depends the success of the fermentation. Much the keepers of beer-houses; but the Act not proving adequately heat is developed during the fermenting process, and as a tem- stringent, its pro ons were largely supplemented by the Licenperature of 95~ F. is favourable to acetic fermentation, great sing Act of I872. Provisions for the granting or renewing of care is necessary to guard against the liquid heating so high; and in most breweries a simple apparatus, consisting of a coil of aue made for the closing of premises, with special regulations for metallic tubing through which cold water circulates, is placed London. Severe penalties are imposed upon illicit sales, and in the tun to keep down the temperature. In the manufacture, upon adulteration of liquor, and on those who knowingly sell of the finer pale ales, 720 F. is never exceeded in the fermenting adulterated liquor. Any one permitting drunkenness upon his tuns-a temperature which ensures the retention of the delicate premises is liable to a fine of iro for the first offence, and of flavour of the hops. The appearance of small bubbles of gas at /20 for the second. Any one who permits gaming or betting the sides of the tun is the first indication that fermentation has in his house is liable to a penalty of /o for the first offence, and of /20 for subsequent offences. Nothing in the Act is to begun, and these bubbles are gradually displaced by others anduent offences. Nothing in the Act s to driven towards the centre of the cistern, As the action becomes apply to privileges enjoyed by any university in England. more energetic a greater quantity of carbonic acid gas is libe- This Licensing Act of 1872 does not apply to Scotland, where rated, and the froth, which by this time has collected on the the sale of liquor and the regulation of hotels is under the Act known as the Farbes Uac/eezie Act. No liquor or refreshment surface of the liquid, swells and breaks up into rocks; then the mass, as yet colourless, gradually assumes a yellow or brownish- of any kind is allowed to be sold under this license on Sunday, yellow colour-the former colour indicating a siperior quality of at any hotel, inn, shop, or public-house, except to those resident beer to the latter. Soon thereafter the fermentative action lags, on the premises, or to travellers. It has generally been held by and the head is skimmed off before it subsides. In what way the magistrates that to be a bonafde traveller, the applicant for beer, asIn what way the or other refreshment, must have come from a distance of seven yeast acts is still obscure, but its province is to set up a visor other refreshment, mus miles. AFrmenztation (q. v.): that is, the grape-sugar is converted into alcohol and carbonic dioxide-each molecule of grape-sugar Beebeern. See GREENHEART, splitting up into two parts of alcohol and two parts of carbonic dioxide —thus: Beerbhoom, an executive district of the division of Burdwan, province of Bengal, British India, with an area of I344, C6H1206 = 2C2IH60 + zCO and a pop., (1872) of 695,92I. It contains 247I villages, but ~d ~the only place of any size is Soory, which has a pop. (I872) of Grape-sugar. Alcohol. Carbonic dioxide. gooI. This conversion is attended with attenuation, or a diminished Beer-Money. From the year I8oo till I873, the non-comdensity of the liquid, and by means of his saccharometer the missioned officers and privates of the British army received a brewer can ascertain when the required degree of attenuation is penny a day, while on home-service, in lieu of an issue of beer attained. The fermentation is seldom allowed to run its full and spirits. This allowance, called B.-M., is now incorporated course, for, when the proper strength is attained, the yeast is with their ordinary pay. Pourh-eoire, in France, and r-inkseparated and the liquor drawn off into casks, where a slow and ped, in Germany, each the equivalent of B.-M., are not applied to allowances to soldiers, but to gratuities given to almost insensible fermentation takes place owing to some par- servants &c. tides of the ferment remaining suspended in the beer. Cleansing and storinmg-Each of the casks or cleansing vessels Beer-she'b4 (Heb.' the well of the oath,' or' of seven;' is provided with an orifice on the upper surface, and as the yeast modern, Bir-es-Seba), the place on the southern borders of Carises to the bunghole, it is carried over into, a trough. After the naan where Abraham made a covenant with Abimelech, King beer is thoroughly clarified it is racked off into large store-vats, of the Philistines (Gen. xxi. 22-32, and another account xxvi. or into barrels to be sent to the consumers. Frequentlyfininffs, 31-33). It was always spoken of as the southern limit of the as gelatin or isinglass dissolved in sour beer, are employed to kingdom, and its position on the road to Egypt rendered it a assist the clarification by precipitating suspended matter. The place of importance, which it continued to be under the Romans saline ingredients in water materially assist brewing operations, and down to the time of the Crusades. All that remains of it and in particular lime plays an important part in clarifying pow is a heap of ruins, near which are two larger and five beer. smaller wells. 33I * BEE THEf GLOBE ENCYC'LOP~zEDIA. BEE Bee'sha, a genus of grasses, natives of the E. Indies, remark- masses, a sacred cantata (the Molcnt of Olives), and one opera able for the fleshy pericarp or wall of the fruit, which surrounds (Edelio); but beautiful and original as these are, they show he the seeds like a berry. is not at his best in choral writing. His fame rests upon his instrumental works, and chiefly upon his orchestral symphonies. Bees'wax, a hard solid fatty substance secreted by bees, and instrumental works, and chiefly upon his orchestral symphonies. Be es'wax, a hard solid fatty substance secreted by bees, ant Of these there are only nine in existence, for B. (although a employed by them to form the cell-walls of honeycombs. That wax is a substance truly elaborated within the animal body, and wonerful zovn sgtore) prepared the works which he intended not merely collected from plants, as has been supposed, is de- for publication wit great deliberation and care. To that ceafness of which mention has already been made have been monstrated by the fact that bees entirely fed on sugar yet produce ascribed the peculiarities and unintelligibility of some of his wax. In its natural condition it is a dull yellow unctuous body, later compositions, which are assigned to what is generally possessing a slight sweetish odour.- It is bleached- or whitened his'third period.' But a musician like B. would know for use by cutting it into thin slices and exposing it; to the influ- the ect of his scores just as well bylookig at them as by ellces of light and moisture, or by treating it wi the efi'ct of his scores just as well by looking at them as by ences of light and moisture, or by treating it with dilute nitric hearing them played, and the'third period' seems to have been acid. It can also be bleached with chlorine, but, as it takes up simply a convenient limbo to which his critics assigned the traces of this substance, such a: method of treatment is objection- works they could not understand. With the growth of musical able for many purposes. Purified wax contains three chemical the not understand. b ith the growth of lusical principles-myc, cern and ceoein forsa culture, the works covered by this period (including the wonprinciples-myricin, comperins, and' ceoeim Myricins forms about dderful ninth or'choral' symphony) are becoming better appretwo-thirds of the entire composition, and is insoluble in alcohol; ciated', because better understood. Of B.'s treatment of the cerin or cerotic acid is soluble. in boiling alcohol; and cerolein, symhony, the greatest of his successors-Richard Wagnerto which the odour and tenacity of wax is due, is soluble in cold has said.:-'B., developed the symphonic work of art to such alcohol. Wax is chiefly used in the manufacture of candles, and, as breadth of form, and filled this form with such notwithstanding the variety and excellence of other illuminating veousy various and entrancing weath of melody, that we now fats now available waxrcandl~ are still consumed. *.n enormousvellously various and entrancing wealth of melody, that we now fats now available,.waxcandles ae still consued, in enomus stand before it as before a landmark of an entirely new period quantities, chiefly in the Roman Catholic and Greek Churches. It is also largely employed in, modelling perishable fruits and n the history of art; for n. this symphony a phenomenon has flowers for the purposes of instruction and for ornament. It is arisen, the like of which has never existed in the art of any period or any nation.,' Biographies of B. are numerous. Among others, likewise useful in surgery, and it has many minor applications. ay nwtionw' Biograplies of B. are numerous. Among others, Wax is produced very generally throughout the world, but in the ed860, Marxid. t 6 R Nol W 64e r T( ayer (186 S1) ed. I86O), Marx (2d.. ed. I863), Nohl (I864), Thayer (i866-71). tropical forests of America and the East it, is found in, large quan- also Nottebohm zrenbc's (185), and the Letes of titie's, and forms aon important artile of commeree See also Nottebohm~ Skizzenbuch Bi's (I865), and the Letters of titdes, and forms an important article of commerce. B., published by Nohi (.1865-67). B., published by Nohl (.I865-67). Beet (Beta), a genus of plants of the natural order ChenojodiBeet (Bet), a genus of lnts of the natural order Cnoi- Bee'tle, the popular name of insects belonging to the order aces (q. v.), few in number, andmostly biennials and natives of the Celeote a. This order is distingished by the front pair of temperate parts' of the Old World. The common B. (B' vzdtgaris) wings being converted into: is a native of the shores of the Mediterraiean, and is now exten- horny ey ing-cases, bed sively cultivated: in Europe and: America for its fleshy carrot- nrath which the hinder and shaped roots, as an article of food for man and the domestic ani functionally useful pir ar mals, and as a source of sugar. The varieties grown for the folded when at rest. The purpose of obtaining' sugar are Betterave a' Sle;re and the white hinder wings are' therefore th or Sicilian B. (B; /C'icla), which latter is most esteemed'. onlypair useful for flight. The' In i868, about 8,00oo,ooo tons of B., yieldiing 650,000 tons mouth is eminentlymasticatory of sugar, was grown in Europe, chiefly in France. It might be or adapted for biting -- two successfully grown for sugar-maklting in many portions of eBritaitn. he The grated root (.'sugar-cake') and the molasses-both refuse il ille, or lesser jaws, existing. Beetle. products in sugar' manufacture —are also useful, the former for. feeding cattle, and' the latter, when slightly.acidulated with sul- greatry- in for a phuric acid, yielding, on fermentation, from 22[ to 30 per cent. of in. The l-egs may be doped for running or fo a coarse spirit used to adulterate brandy' with. Mangel-wurzerl s metamorphosis is of the holbmetabolic, or complete variety, the (B. v-lgaris macroi'a), probably only a. coarser' variety of the pupe being firee and quiescent, whilst the larvae, composed of common B., is extensively grown' as a food for'- cattle. B'. znri-., thirteen joints, are active~ grubs. This- order includes an imtinza, a native of our shores, is sometimes usedl as a substitute for teen o ints, are active gubs. This order includes an immense- number' of species, and is classified chiefly by a reference spinach or greens, a:s are also the leaves of B; Cicla, especially in to the number of joints h the tarsi or feet, as recomnended by early spring. The leaf-stalks and mid-ribs (ctards) of the lattei Latreille. The B. thus forms the sections Pentanzea, leero. species are also used as a table-vegetable. It is eaten like sea-, Tetramera, and ie, accord s the tarsi are fivem.era, Tet'-am;zera, and Tr-imeta, accordingly as the tarsi are fivekale or asparagus, and is a favourite of the French under the jointed the front tarse under four-jointed, all jointed, the front tarsus five, and the under four-jointed, all furnish a kitchen vegetable in the E. Indies. four-jointed, or all three-jointed respectively. See also COLEOPTERA, and the respective articles on the various kinds of Beet-Fly (Athonzyia, Beti), a Dipteros insect belonging beetles. to the Mluscidz or Fly family, and which deposits its eggs in the Beetling, a process largely employed in the finishing of leaves of mangold-wua'zel plants, and of other kinds of beet. bleached, dyed, or printed cloth, when it is not wished to give The larva eat the plant-tissues, and produce bulZc, or blister-like a flat or glazed finish to the texture. The process now employed structures on the leaves. The full-grown B.-F. resembles the on a manufacturing scale is to wind the cloth on a strong wooden common fly in appearance, but is not so large. or metallic beam, which is laid' under a frame containing a range of heavy falling piles. The beam is slowly rotated, and a toothed Bee'thoven, dwig van the greest of musicians, was roller causes the piles. alternately to rise a.nd- fall, striking heavily born at Bonn, I7th December I770. His father was a tenor on the cloth. singer in the service of the' Elector of Cologne, from' whose courtorganist he received his first lessons, and at the age of fifteen Beet'root-Sugar,, a saccharine substance identical with canewas himself appointed to the same office. In I 792 the Elector sugar residing in the juice of the beet to the extent of from 7 sent him to Vienna, where he studied hard successively under to I5 per cent. In I747, Marggraf, a Berlin apothecary, made Haydn, Schenk, and Albrechtsberger. Except a few brief ex- known its existence, and proposed the systematic cultivation of the cursions, B. spent the remainder of his life in this city. He did white beet for the extraction, of sugar, but owing, among other not hold any musical office, but devoted himself exclusively to causes, to the cheapness of cane-sugar imported into Germany, composition. At first, indeed, he appeared. as. a pianoforte-player,. iTo practical result ensued. About fifty years later Achard and but afterwards entirely withdrew from the world, and lived in a Hermbstd.dt called attention to the subject, and shortly after solitude that was aggravated latterly by total deafness. He died; the commercial manufacture of B.-S. was begun. The desire 26th March 1827. of Napoleon to render France independent of British colonial B, was esa'entially an instrumental composer. He wrote several produce gave tihe new industry a powerful impetus in France, 332 BEF -THE, GLOBE ENC YC OP.-lJ9IA. BEG c ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 and although it collapsed after his fall,. the B. — S. manufacture Cracow. Specimens of the other classes are the'Loreley,' was soon re-established on sounder principles than before, and' Girls under the Oak-Tree,''The Vine-Dressers,' &c. I-Ie is during the past thirty years it has prospered in a remarkable de- chiefly memorable as a master of light and shade. His three gree in that country, as well as in Germany,. Belgium, Holland, sons, Oscar (born 1828), Reinhold (born 1831), and Adalbert Austria, and Russia. An: idea of its enormous development may Franz Eugen (born 1836),. are also artists of merit. The first is be gathered from the fact that the total B.-S. produce in a professor in the Berlin Academy, and noted. for his skill in Europe in 15872-73 was 1,o025,ooo tons, of which. France fur- portraiture; the second is a sculptor; the third. was originally nished 375,000, and Germany 250,o000o tons, The ordinary pro- an engraver, but is now a painter. cess of obtaining the B.-S. is briefly as follows:-The washed Considered roots are macerated by circular saws making ten revolutions in a Berggar, one who asks for ims-a mendicant. onie second, and the pulp thus produced is placed in strong linen merely with regard to the weal of nations, te problem of how to deal with those who cannot, or who will not, support thembags, and subjected to hydraulic. pressure, averaging 500 to el i not o o w n, spo t - 700 lbs. per square inch.. The expressed juice is then. heated selves, is not very difficult of solution. If a- man, through mis70o lbs. per square inch.. The expressed juice is then, heatedfotnrevntrughiow-mpdnchagtitoir in a pan by steam. to 80 C.. (r8J F. ),. and milk of lime is fortune, or even through his own' imprudence, has got into cirin a pan by steam. to 85~ C., (i85~ F. ),, and milk of lime is added and stirred with the juice, thle mbture being raised to cumstances in which he cannot support himself, and there is reasonable-hope that assistance, will. ultimately enable him to do near its boiling-point; the albuminous constituents are removed reasonable hpthat assistance. will ultimately enable him to do b roubh so, the law of political economy sanctions our giving assistance. by the lime, and other impurities and colour by filtering, thogh Butif there is no hope of the man becoming self-supporting, then flanel nd niml caccal; a urret o ca~onc aid eutalsBut if there is no hope of the manl becoming self-supporting, then flannel and animal charcoal; a current of carbonic acid neutra tie ises the excess of lime; a density of 42' Beaum (sp. gr. I'412) the dictum of the law in question is that he should die. is acuired by evaporation in a vacuum pan; and after heating ere can be no doubt that the material prosperity ofa community is ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~acqiebyeaoainiavaumpnan tng ting on this law would be advanced. Mendicac w uld die out. in another vessel to. over 1 20' C. (24.8 F.),. stirring the while, the acting on this law would be advanced. endcancy would die out. Bis left for several days to drain off the molasses ut, plainly, to carry out the law to this stern extremity is not posmagma is left for several days to drain off the molasses from the sible. There are laws which affect human nature besides those of crystalline sugar. The molasses has a, disagreeable taste, and is not fit for sweetening,. but it yields spirit on distillation, and political economy. We could not see our fellow-mortals dying ix wnotfith e fo ddsweert. t is useldas fo t for csttround us for want of sustenance and refuse to give it, even though mixed with other fodder it is used as food, for cattle. The pro- the want arose wholly from their own fault, and however reatly duction of B.-S. has been successfully carried out in some parts t of England, but not on, a scale commensurate with the adaptation our refusal might ultimately conduce to national prosperity. But of English soil for the culture of the- sugar-beet. The rimports if political economists must keep in mind that the highest culture of B.-S. into Great Britain from the Continent amounted in I873 of human nature cannot be arrived at through political economy alone, another and a larger class will do well to remember that to over 220,000 tons. the laws of political economy cannot be infringed with impunity, Beffa'na, or Befa'na (a corruption of E~iihoaniza), accord- and that the excellence of the motive which led to the infringeing to tradition in Italy, is an old woman who has a great deal ment will abate nothing from the evil consequence. I to do with children on Twelfth Night, but who keeps, all the In dealing with the poor, then, the legislature should keep in year round, so sharp a watch over their conduct that her name is view both of these forces, and endeavour to assist in the difficult used as a scare-word, (like Kfzechi Ru/'recht in Germany, or the task of making them work in harmony. To the same end it is'Bowsy Man' (der B]se?) in Scotland), to awe them if they the duty of individuals to remember that to do good is the work are naughty. Her industry- as a housewife was so great when of knowledge, and that -the indulgence of feeling, without the the three wise men of the East were passing her house on their knowledge required: to guide it, may do, almost surely will do, xVay to make presents to the infant Saviour, that she had no time mischief and not good. It may indeed be questioned if malevoto go out and look at them, but she hoped to see them on their lence does as much harm in the world as nisdirected benevolence. way back. They, however, returned another way; and she, in By our law (see next article) begging is not allowed. Nevertheher ignorance of this fact, has been watching for them ever since, less it greatly prevails,, usually more or less disguised, but not busying herself about children, as they gave their treasures to the unfrequently without disguise-facts which,. did space permit, Child in the manger. On Twelfth Night youngsters are put early might lead us to consider the question of What constitutes to bed, a stocking of each being hung before the fire; into it she begging? The boy who. offers you a box of matches or a newsis supposed to put a: present, expressive of her sense of their. paper may be troublesome, but he is not a B., and should be conduct during the year-ashes being her rebuke for really bad spoken to encouragingly, because there is a reasonable probability conduct. In Florence, the name is given, both- to the festival of that one may want a newspaper; but the man who reads you a the Epiphany, and to a sort of puppet made up of bits of cloth, Scripture verse with the view of being paid for it is a B. under which on the eve of the festival is carried through the streets a very flimsy disguise. In some Christian countries, notably in with shouts of rejoicing. There is little doubt that the practice Spain and in the East, indiscriminate almsgiving is considered a is a'survival' from the mystery-plays of the middle ages, but it religious. duty. Hence these lands swarm with indolent and is not clear what the puppet symbolises. Perhaps the babe filthy beggars, and thus does the cancer of pauperism eat into the Christ. See EPIPHANY, BEAN-KING'S FESTIVAL. vitals of'the country till the whole body becomes diseased. Climate has unquestionably much to do with mendicancy. Where Beff'roi was a wooden tower constructed in several stages there is no winter, where soil and climate give the means of subor stories communicating with each other by ladders. It was sistence without labour, there are conditions favourable to it; used in siege operations in ancient and in mediaeval times. where the bulk of the population must work hard or starv&, there The B. was moved upon wheels close to the wall of the be- are conditions unfavourable-that soil and that climate being on sieged town. Its highest story was fitted with a hinger draw- the whole most favourable to man which award wealth to labour bridge, which was let fall upon the coping of the wall, and across and starvation to indolence. which the soldiers that crowded its different stages poured over [Beggars, Law, of Engl~and relative to. The Vagrant upon the besieged. This contrivance is, mentioned by C.esar, eggas, Lw of Englnd relatie to. The Vagrant escribed y Froissart, and was last seen, on the fieldi Eng- Act, 5 Geo. IV. c. 83, classifies B. first, as'idle and disorderly -adescribgted byw sars, ande Chasrlastsen o.n the fela BELR land during the wars under Charles I. Se BELFY. persons;' second, as'rogues and vagabonds;' and, third, as'incorrigible rogues. Beg, or Bley. See BEY. In the first class are every person able wholly or partly to maintain himself or family, neglecting to do so, whereby they Be'gas, Karl, a distinguished German painter, born at become chargeable to the parish; petty hawkers, or pedlars, I-Hernsberg, near Aix-la-Chapelle, 3oth September 1794, became without licence; prostitutes in the streets or highways; those a pupil of Gros (Paris) in 1812, studied afterwards at Rome, who in any public place, court, or passage, beg or cause any and was a Member of the Academy and court-painter at Berlin child to do so. All such are'idle and disorderly persons,' from I825 till his death, November 23, 1854. B.'s pictures punishable with one Amonth's imprisonment, or with being sent are- partly biblical, partly- romantic, and partly genre-pieces. Of to the House of Correction. the first may be mentioned his'Baptism of Christ' (I825), in'Rogues and vagabonds'are all convicted a second time of the style of the old Florentines, which was placed in the garri- being'idle and disorderly;' fortune-tellers; exposers of wounds son church at Potsdam, and his fine fresco of Christ and the four or deformities in order to get alms;. players or betters in the Evangelists surrounded by a choir of angels in thie churclh of streets;, loite.rers, or!?e:sons suspected of having picklock or 3'33 BEG THE GLOBE ENVC YCIOPEDIA. BEH other suspicious implements in their possession. All these are life, to form into these societies. There has been much discus-'rogues and vagabonds,' whom a justice of the peace may send sion as to the origin and precise significance of the word B. for three months to the House of Correction. Popular tradition has derived it from a certain mythical St Begga,' Incorrigible rogues' are those escaping from confinement who was supposed to have founded the order in the 7th c. It has before expiry of the period embraced in their sentence; those been also suggested that one Lambert le B1gue (or Stammerer), twice committed as rogue and vagabond; and those violently a priest, gave his name to a society which he instituted at Liege resisting apprehension as rogue and vagabond, and subsequently in II8o; and finally, some have conjectured that the title of convicted of being so. This class is liable to one year's impri- beguine, applied first to women of singular devoutness, was sonment, and male offenders may be whipped. afterwards restricted as the name of the sisterhood. The B. did The Act 34 and 35 Vict. c. IO8, makes some additions to the not live under any appointed rule, and were not bound by any first and second class. vows of celibacy. There was a lady superior at the head of Justices are under statutes enabled to give some small pecu- each society, and the time of the sisters was spent in devotions, niary assistance to prisoners on their discharge. See PooR and works of charity, and various suitable industries, such as weavPooR-LAws. ing and embroidering. The beguinage, or vineyard, as the habitation of the B. was called, consisted generally of a number Beghar'mi, or Baghir'mi, a kingdom of Central Africa, to of small dwellings clustered together; and each community had the S.E. of Lake Tchad, wateredthe She Shari and its tributary its chapel, hospital, and house for the accommodation of guests the Serbenal, with an area of 43200oo sq. miles, and a pop. of and strangers. In the I2th and I3th centuries, these societies about,oo,ooo. The country is flat, and moderately produc- spread over Germany, Holland, and France, till hardly any tive, but worms and ants abound, and are very destructive to the town of consequence wanted its beg6inage. Among the chief crops. The inhabitants, profess Mohammedanism, but are grossly were those of Aix-la-Chapelle, Hamburg, Brussels, Cambray, superstitious. Throughout the Sudan the beauty of the womenr Leipsic, Cologne, Magdeburg, Bruges, Ghent, Douay, Mons, is famed. Masenja is the capital. B. is- tributary to the ad- Namur, Tournay, and Valenciennes. In the I4th c. the B. joining state of Bornu, but is ruled by a sultan who is absolute became infected with the heterodoxy of the' Mystic Brethren within his dominions. and Sisters of the Free Spirit.' They shared the persecution Beg'kos, or Bei'kos, a small seaport in the Turkish vilayet which the Mystics met with from the Inquisition; and besides, of Scutari, on the Bosphorus, the scene (according to tradition) the wealth of the B., and certain suspicions of immorality, exof the pugilistic fight in which Kilng Amycus was killed by posed them to violence and oppression. Being disliked by the Polydeukes, the Argonaut. The allied fleets anchored here labouring class, particularly by the weavers, their houses were (1854) before the Crimean War began., broken into, and their goods plundered. Several of the Popes endeavoured to protect them; and in various places they joined Beglerbeg. See BEY. the regular monastic orders as a means of safety. But the decline of the B. commenced in the I4th c., especially in France; Begonia,'cee, a natural order of dicotyledenous plants, allied they continued longer to exist in the Low Countries and Germany. to Cucurabitacecx (q. v.}; herbaceous plants or low succulentser of the latter country are nothng more than shrubs, alatter country are nothing more lethan shrubs, alternate leaved, almshouses; but there is a beguinage at Ghent, and the order with long dry stipules; still survives at Amsterdam, Antwerp, Mechlin, and Bruges. flwers in clymes, unisthxual, Beghar-ds (Ger. beggehard begheren, to seek eagerly, to impunequal divisions in fourportune), the German name for a class of irregular monks, called m in France Bedgins, in Italy Bizachi and Bocasoti, but not con~ male flowers, and five to nected with the B. proper. They appeared first at the comeight in feale ones; sta- mencement of the i3th c., and soon swarmed over Europe.men s numerousur; fruit The B. were held in low repute, as is testified by the names popuwinged, dehcapsular, three- larly given, them —bons garons,'vagabonds,' &c. They were celled, dehiscing by slits at originally an offshoot firom the Franciscans, and were dlivided into -the base; seeds mindwtute, various sections, according to discipline and belief, but all innumerous, and without en- cluded under the one name. The fraternity was suppressed in dosperm. There are about the 14th c. on accodnt of its heresies, and was absorbed again 400 species and 42 genera, S into the Franciscan order. See Mosheim's Ecclesiastical Hislory natives chiefly of Indiea, (vol. iii. ed. Lond. I783), and his De Beghardis et Beguinabus, gent, bitter, and occasionally purgative properties. Behaim', Martin, a navigator and geographer, was born at Begonia discolor. Nearlyall have pink flowers; Niirnberg, 1459, and as a merchant visited Venice, Mechlin, and some are cultivated in Antwerp, and Vienna, and resided at Lisbon for four years from our hothouses. One, however, grows on the Himalayas, at the I480. Having here acquired a reputation for map-making, he height of I I,ooo to I2,000 feet. Some are used as pot herbs, was appointed by King John I. president of a ~senta de Mlttlimabut none are of particular importance. ticos, which was to form tables of the sun's declinations, and to teach pilots to navigate by the altitude of the sun and stars. He Beg-Shehr' Goel, a fresh-water lake in the tableland~ of Asia made an important expedition to the west coast of Africa with Minor, vilayet of Konia, 39 miles S.W. of Konia. It is about Diego Cam, and lived from 1486 to 1490 in the Azores, after 30 miles long, and from 8 to 12 broad. On its shores lie the which he returned to Nirnberg, where he resided for two years. towns of B. and Kereli, the ancient Caralio. In I492 he completed his famous globe or'world apple,' which Beg~tash'i, a Turkish religious order, founded in the isth still preserved in the B.-house at Niirnberg. B. returned to c. by Hadji Begtash, a famous dervish. It is a secret order, the Azores, and lived there from 1494 to I506. He died at memlbders of which are numerous, and many of them influential Lisbon, July 29, I507. See Ghillany, Geschic/te des Seefzhirers members of which are numerous, and many of them influential; itterlMartin B. (Nirnb. 1853). but it has not made itself felt either as a religious or political force in the Ottoman empire. Behaim, Michael, a German meister-singer of the 14th c., Beguines', Begui'nae, or Begutt'ae, the name given to a Fwas born at Stilzbach, near Weinsberg, in 1416, and died in German and Belgic religious order of women. The date of its 1475. By none of his contemporaries was he excelled in fertility. GeHis chief works are his Buch von den Wienern, on the insurrecorigin is somewhat uncertain, but it became prominent in the I3th tion of the Viewoks are his B Friedrich III. in I4e2 (iarajan, c. Of the causes which led to the establishment of the sisterhood, Vien. of the Vienese against Friedrich III. in 462 (arajan, one was no doubt the Crusades, since they were a constant drain unpublished); Leben ces Palzgrafen Fiedric I. bei s; Gein (i69, on the male part of the population. As another cause has been published); Gedt vn der iebabg Gottes; Geistic assigned the prevailing dissoluteness of the time, which caused Gedic/ite, &c. many widows and virgins, desirous of a peaceful and virtuous Behead'ing. See CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. 334 BEE TI.E GLOBE EXCYCLOP/EDIZA. BEK Behistun' is the name of a ruined town in the Persian pro- province. Viseu is the capital. The chief products are corn, vince of Irak-Ajemi, and of a sacred rock close by. On the wine, flax, honey, oil, and fruits, and the mountains are rich in perpendicular face of the rock, 300 feet from the ground, is iron, coal, and marble, which are, however, little wrought. Area cut the great trilingual cuneiform inscription deciphered by 8586 sq. miles; pop. (I87I) 1,294,282. Sir Henry Rawlinson in I839 and following years. The work Be in all the columns —Persian, Median, and Babylonian-is beau- Beiram', o Bairam, the Persian name of the only two festifully finished, the faults in the polished limestone surface being filled with new stones secured by lead, and the whole begin on the first of the month Shawal, at the end of Ramadan, inscription coated with siliceous varnish. The inscription gives the month of fasting-just as Easter follows Lent in the Christian a list of the nine Achogmenian monarchs of Persia, and of Church-and last three days. Sixty days later, on the Ioth of the victories of Darius Hystaspes, by whom it was erected, the month Shidji, the Lesser B. commences, and lasts four days; probably in I6 B. C. The five Persian columns, containing 400 it is called KTurban B.-i.e., the B. or Festival of Sacrifice, for during its rejoicings sheep and goats are slaughtered and distrilines, have yielded an alphabet of Persian cuneiform of forty during its rejoicings sheep amond goats are slghtered and disticharacters. Before I839 the value of a few characters had buted among the poor been ascertained; but the translation is substantially due to the Bei'rout. See BEYROUT. comparative analysis of Rawlinson, based on suggestions from the Zend and Vedic Sanskrit languages. There is also on the Beit is the Arabic form of the Hebrew beth, or more correctly rock-face a representation of Darius, his foot on the body of;bai/h, a house. Both are derived from verbs signifying'to Gomates the magian; before him stand nine captive rebels, viz., build' (like the Gr. domos, from demri); and enter into the comAtrines and another of Lusiana, Natitabirus and Aracus of Baby- position of numerous names in their respective languages: e.g., ion, Phraortes of Media, Sitratachmes of Sagartia,'V.eisdates of Arab. Beitllah ('house of Allah' or'God'), the name given Persia, Phraates of Margiana, and Sarukha, the:Sacan, whom to the sacred edifice at Mecca containing the Kaaba; Beit-alDarius in person defeated on the Tigris. Frequent reference is Haram ('the house of the sanctuary'); in Heb. Bethel ('house of made in the text to the rooting out of heretics by the help of God'); Bethany ('house of dates'); Betsa-oan ('house of caves'); Ormazd, to whom B. is sacred. The rebel leaders seem usually Bethlehem ('house of bread'); Bethsaida ('house of fish'); to have been crucified after mutilation of ears, nose, and -lips. Betkphage ('house of figs'), &c. In Palestine, where the Arab has displaced the Jew, we now find the Arabic form instead of 1Behn, Aphra, or Aphaar, perhaps the most licentious the Hebrew, as Belt Dejn (' house of Dagon'). dramatic writer of the most licentious English era, belonged to a Canterbury family named Johnson, was born in I642, resided Beit-el-Fa'kih ('house of the saint'), a town of Tehama, for several years, when young, in Surinam, returned to England, Arabia, 12 miles from the coast of the Red Sea and 85 N.W. and married Mr B., a Dutch merchant. She is said to have of Aden, formerly a great entrepat for the vast coffee trade of been introduced to Charles II., who deputed her to watch his Yemen. There is still some trade in gum, wax, coffee, and interests in Flanders. On her return to England she became a pearls. The ports are Lohaja and Hodeida. B. has an exwriter of letters, tales, poems, plays, which are happily now tremely hot climnate. Pop. 800o. remembered only by antiquarians. She died in London, April I6, I69. 1e Plalys w it'ten bt thee Aute Inreeniolcs Moos= B. were e'ja (a corruption of the Lat. pax,dlia), the name of a r eprinted in 4 vols. I87I. Sewere fortified town of Alemtejo, Portugal, on a small feeder of the reprintedin4 vols. 87.SGuadiana, -i8 miles S.E. of Lisbon, with which it is connected aby rail. It has a cathedral,,and contains many Roman and Behr'ing, properly Bering, Vitus, a famous navigator, was Moorish remains. Its chief manufactures are leather and born at Horsens, in Jutland, in I68o, and served with distinction earthenware. PQp. 5300. as a captain in the navy of Peter the Great during the Swedish Be'an, or Ba'jan (Fr. b4/wane, a greenhorn or ninny; Old wars. He was appointed subsequently by Catherine to explore Fr. bec-janne,' yellowneb'), a term still applied to junior students the Sea of Kamchatka, and in 1728 gave his name to ithe strait in the Universities of St Andlews and Aberdeen, and formerly in which separates Asia from America, although it is now believed many universities the Continent. s that the expedition did not sail so far north. Te coasts of Kam- many universities on the Continent. It was intended to convey, that the expedition did not sail so far north. The coasts of Kar- with mild irony, tle idealof their being still callow. Be'azniau, chatka and Okhotsk were investigated and the settlement of i i,., chatka and Okhotsk were investigated and the settlement of payments exacted from students on their entering college, and Petropaulovski founded by B., who afterwards led a second expe- corresponding to the' pay-off''of handicraftsmen now, were fordition along the American coast, which reached a point beyond bidden by statute in more than one French university about the lat. 60o N., but which was forced to return, and was wrecked on close of the 14th c. In the University of Vienna, the name B. B.'s (formerly Avatska) Island, where he died, December 8m assumed the form Beenus. I74r. 1741. Bejapmu' (Sansk.' the victorious city'), a decayed city in the Behring's Strait, the channel which separates Asia from executive district of Kaladgi, province of Bombay, about I55 America, some 50 miles broad at its narrowest part, between E. miles S. E.'of Poonah, on an affluent of the Krishna. For cenCape in the former and Cape Prince of Wales in the latter conti- ttries it was a great and splendid city, but after its capture by nent. It is nowhere deeper than 30 fathoms, and is therefore Aurungzebe in I686, it sank into comparative insignificance. It comparatively free from large icebergs. Deschnew, a Cossack, afterwards came into the possession of the Mahrattas; but after is believed to have discovered it in i648, but his story was tdis- the final destruction of the Mahratta empire in I818, the British credited till B.'s expedition in I728.-B. Sea is a nameoccasion- assigned B. to the Rajah of Sattara, resuming possession in I848 ally applied to the Sea of Kamchatka, which extends from;the on the extinction of the dynasty. In the height of its prosperity, Aleutian Islands N. to B. Strait.-B. Island, a Russian pos- it is said to have contained IOO,000 dwellings; and a succession session, is the westermost of the Aleutians, and the place of B. s of ruins, the principal of which are Mohammedan tombs, extends death. It has an area of 30 sq. miles. from the western gate for a distance of five miles. There is still Beilan', a pass and town in the N. of Syria. The pass preserved at B. a piece of brass ordnance, cast in I549, that carried shot weighing above a ton. Pop. (1872) 12,935. still forms, as it did in ancient times, the great highway from Asia Minor through Cilicia into Syria. The town of B., 1584 Bejet'lan, Langsat, Lanseh, or Ayer Ayer, the edible feet above the level of the Mediterranean, has a pop. of 5000. In fruits of the genus Lansium (natural order Ml/eliacec, q. v.), natives 1832 the Turks were defeated here by the Egyptians. of the E. Indian Archipelago. Bei'ra (Port. the'river-bank'), the most populous province Beka'a, or El-Beka'a (' the valley'), the Arabic name now of Portugal, bounded N. by the river Douro, S. partly by the given to the Coele-Syria (Hollow Syria) of the Greeks, the Plain Tagus and partly by the province bof Estremadura, and extends of Lebanon of the Old Testament, a remarkable hollow or valley, from the Spanish frontier to the Atlantic Ocean. It is for the extending for a distance of nearly Ioo miles from N. to S. bemost part mountainous, the Sierra d'Estrella ranging from N. to tween Libanus and Anti-Libanus. Though fertile and wellS., but the valleys are fertile, and there is abundance of good pas- watered, not much of it is under cultivation; but the Arabs avail turage. The rivers Mondego and Vouga water the centre of the themselves of its pasture grounds in spring for their cattle and 335 * 4.'~~~~~~~~-3 BEK THE GLOBE ENC YCYLOM/DIA. BEL young horses.'A screen, says Stanley (Sinai and Palestine, in the Golden Bull B. continued uniformly faithful, and he inp. 4II),'through which the Leontes breaks out, closes the S. curred the enmity of the nobility by his persistent attempts to end of the plain. There is a similar screen at the N. end, but break their power. In the midst of his struggles with the magtoo remote to be visible,-"-the entering-inof Hamath," so often nates the Mongols invaded Hungary, and defeated the royal mentioned as the extreme limit in this direction.of the widest troops on the Sajo in I241. B. took refuge with Friedrich II., possible dominion of the Israelite empire.' Duke of Austria, who ungenerously deprived him of his treasures and of the border counties of Hungary. The Mongols left the Beke, Charles Tilstone, the celebrated Abyssinian traveller, country -in the second year of their conquest, -when B. returned, was born in London, October ro,:I8oo, and for some time restored the towns and villages, possessed himself once more of studied at Lincoln's Inn. His taste, however, led him to other the border counties, and defeated Friedrich at Vienna in 1246. studies than law, and his first publication, Origines BibhSice (vol. His son Stepan headed a rebellion against him, which was not i. I834), displayed genuine.attainments in philology and.ancient suppressed in I270, the date of B's. death. There is also a history. In I836 he was made British consul at Leipsic, and in B. V., a grandson of B. IV. -by the mother's side, who reigned I840 joined a private expedition to Abyssinia, Which had for its over Hungary for a year. object to open up commercial relations with the countries S.,of Egypt. The result of his observations appeared in Abyssinia, a Belaying, a nautical term, denoting the fastening of a rope S/taterzen of Facts, &c. (Lond. 1846), an Essay on/ the Aile and by giving it several turns.round a cleat, kevel, or B.-Plin: the its Tributaries (I847), and On the Sources of the Nile:(I849), a latter, an ashen staff fully a foot long. MeNnoire 7ssti/Zcatif en, P1habiliation des Peres Paez et Lobo (Par. Blbeys', or Be-lbeis' a town of Lower Egypt, on the E. 1848), and in many contributions to journals. In acknowledg-side of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, 28 miles N.NE. ment of his services,;he received the gold medals of the Geo Cairo, with a pop. of.about goon..It.as once more important graphical Societies of London and Paris. Accompanied by his grphical Societies of London and Paris. Accompanied by his and populous than now, but it is still a station on the great wife, in i865, he made an ineffectual effort to release the European caravan-route between Egypt and Syria. About 0o miles captives in Abyssinia, and subsequently contributed greatly to the success of Sir Robert Napier's expedition by recommending quty, and about the same distance N. the ruins of anios, the landing-place, line of march, &c. He was granted a civil the Pitham of Exodus, which the Hebrews built for their Egyplist pension in I870. -In the last year of his life B. visited the tian masters. desert region N. of the Red Sea, where, in a peak to the E. of the Gulf of Akabah, he claimed to have discovered Mount Sinai, Belch'er, SiT Edward, 0C.B., F.R.S., and F.G.S., an which he contended had not been'identified by the Sinai Ord- English naval officer and explorer, born in 1799, and entered the nance Survey Expedition. He was preparing an account of this navy in I812. He was assistant-surveyor in the expedition journey when he died, July 31, I874. fitted out under Captain Beechey to explore Behring's Strait (I825-28'); in'1830 he was engaged on the survey of the coast B6ke's (pron. Bekesh), the -capital of a county of the" same of Africa; and from I836 to 1842 on that of the Pacific. On his name, Hungary, at the junction of the Whllite and Black Koros, return he published a narrative of the voyage, during which has a trade in cattle and corn, and is noted for the culture of b.ees. he had made the circumnavigation of the globe, and rendered Pop. (I869) 20, I25. valuable service to Lord Gough by his soundings taken in the Bekker Immanel an eminent German eenist born Canton river. It is entitled Narrative of a -Voya~ge Round the Bekk'er, Immanuel, an eminent German Hellenist, pbornerformed in H.M. Shi at Berlin in I785, studied at the University of Halle under F. 1843 hewas prformoted to the rank of Sulpt-catain, and knighte83). In A. Wolf, who considered himt his most distinguished pupil. 1843 he was promoted to the rank of post-captain, and knighted. A. Wolf, who considered him his most distinguished pupil. A., ~In 1846 appeared his Voyaae of 1he Sansarang to t/e Eastern Appointed Professor of Philology in the newly-founded'Univer- pe ared his Vo yaye of the Sa rang to the Eastern sity of Berlin (ISIo), he was almost immediately sent to Paris s sego. Fom 852 to 1854 eommanded the xpeditio to examine the Greek MSS. in the Imperial Library. Havin sent to sear chforSirJohn Franklin, and brought thecrews of oe at Berlin in ii the ice-bound vessels to England, October I854. He gave an become a member ofthe Academy of Sciences at Berlin in I5 account of this expedition in The Lastof t/e Are/ic Voyaoes he was sent by that body to Paris again to gather materials for (Lond. 855). B. was appnte rear-admiral in S86i, vicethe Coopus Inscriptioznum G8rearrum. Two years later he pro- admiralin B was appinted rearadmiral in 86, vice ceeded to Italy, and afterwards examined.the libraries in England and Holland. The fruits of his labour and intelligence Belchi'te, a town in the province of Saragossa, Spain, 220 both at home and abroad are seen in his Anecdota Grca (Berl. miles N.N.E. -of Madrid, famous as the scene of a decisive 1814-2I), and in his splendid recensions of the texts of class- victory of the French, under Suchet, over the Spanish, comical writers, the results of his careful examination of MSS. rnanded by General Blake, June I8, i809. Amnong these may be mentioned his Plato (i0 vols. Berl. I8421); The Attic Orators (:7 vols. Oxf.,823):; Aristotle (4 vols. Belem' (pron. Belenf, a Portuguese -corruption of Be/thehe/sz), Berl. 1831-36); Sextus Emsairicus (Berl. I842):; Thucydides (3 a suburb of Lisbon, Portugdl, formerlyan independent village, lies vols. Oxf. 182I); 7heeogzis (Leips. I815); Arislophanes (3 vols. towards the S.W., on the right bank of the Tagus. In NovemLond. 1825); Photius' Library (2 vols. Berl. I824),, &c. His ber I8qo it was tzaken by the {French, and the Portuguese court part in the preparation of the Coo-pus Sristoruvz Historiac By- sailed hence for Brazil.' B. has a royal. castle, a beautiful church, annie amounts to 24 vols. B. died June 7, I871. in which are the tombs of the kings of Spain, and a building formerly a monastery, now an orphanage. Bel and the Dragon, History of, one of the apocryphal additions to the Book of Daniel, which in the LXX. bears the Belem, or Para. See PARA. title' Part of the prophecy of Habakkuk.' In all probability it is a legendary exaggeration of the record of the deliverance of Bel'emnnites, a genus of fossil Cepha/ozodar (q. v.), or CuttleDaniel (ch. vi.), as the original story in the LXX. was further fishes, belonging to the family Be/ennitiacl, and to the Dibembellished in later times. ranchia/e,' or two-gilled section of the above class. The forms;known as B. are exclusively found in the rocks of the BBe'la. Four Hungarian kings of the Arpad dynasty were so Mesozoic Period,:and consist of the fossilised internal shells of named, of whom the first and fourth are the most important.- cuttlefishes allied to the Sepias and Lozigos, or Squids of our own B. I., son of Ladislaus, spent the greater part of his life in Poland day. The extinct genera B., Belemnnitel/a, Belemzno/testhis, and and Pomerania, and with some hard fighting made himself ruler XipAote/eutis, are included under the general name of B. The of Hungary after the death of his brother, Andreas 1. His B. were cuttlefishes possessing ten arms, furnished with suckers reign was short (Io06-63) but important; he suppressed the last and lateral fins. The perfect fossilised shell consists of a chamattempts to re-establish idolatry, confirmed internal peace, bered cone or phragmzacone, containing the ink/-sac, and prostrengthened the regal authority, fixed the standard of weights longed in front into a Jen dr pro-ostracun; whilst posteriorly and measures, and introduced the representative system into the the phragmacone is lodged in a conical cavity or alveolus, excadiet.-B. IV. (I235-70) was the son of Andreas II., who in 1222 vated within a cylindrical sheath, the g'uard. A tube or sipuncle had been compelled to sign the Bsla Azlurea (Golden Bull), the perforates the septa, or partitions of the chambered portion, at great charter of Hungarian liberty. To the principles laid down their ventral or lower margins. These fossils have received the 336 e- 4 BEL.TE GLOBE ENVCYCI OP/EDIA. BEL popular name of'thunderbolts,''arrows,''spectre-candles,' &c. placed in an arch constructed on the W. end of a church or Some specimens indicate the size of the living animal to have chapel, called the bell-cote or bell-gable, in which case a smaller been 2 to 4 feet in length. Familiar species are B. acuarius arch is sometimes formed on the E. gable, over the altar, for (Lias); B. clara/us (Lias); B. hastatzus (Oolite); Belemnitela the sanctus-bell. The origin of the term shows that the word mucronata; B. pleena, &~c. B. is a corruption. The Old Fr. berfroi, Low Lat. betefreduis, has etymologically nothing to do with bell. It is formed from Bel'fast (Gael., originally Bel-feilsdeI'the ford of the farset, the Middle High German berwvit, a watch-tower, in which a bell or sandbank'), the most important manufacturing city in Ire- would naturally be placed to ring an alarm. Then the name land, the capital of Ulster, and the chief seat of the linen trade, would easily pass over to the bell-tower of a church, and the is situated at the point where the Lagan enters B. Lough, I2 word be corruptly spelled to suit the new application. For a miles from the Irish Sea, and IOI N. of Dublin by railway. quite different use of the term, see BEFFROI. It is only 6 feet above the sea, and stands partly on a site reclaimed from the marshes of the river, which is here 250 yards Bel'ge, occupied one of the three great divisions of Gaul, wide, and is crossed by four bridges. Divis Hill (I567 feet) and being bounded on the W. by the ocean, and on the E. and N. by Cave Hill (II1185) form a picturesque background to the city, and the Rhine, and separated from the Celtae in the S. by the Seine the principal buildings are Queen's College, the Royal Acade- and Marne. Caesar sometimes uses the name Belgium, or B., mical Institution, the Wesleyan Methodist College, Ulster Bank, in a limited sense; for example, as the designation of the country the Harbour Office, Ulster Hall, the Post-Office, a Museum, a of the Beaovaci. The name, indeed, seems to have belonged to Linen Hall, Coemmercial and Corn Exchanges, and numerous a few powerful tribes bordering on the Seine, and to have been fine churches. There is a Botanic Garden of 17 acres. Queen's adopted by Caesar as a generic name for all people N. of the College, a fine building in the Tudor style, which cost 26,ooo, Seine. The B. were a Celtic people, though to some extent was opened in 1849, and has (1875) nearly 300 students and 8 mixed with Germans. They had a reputation for bravery beprofessors. The staple manufactures of B. are linen and cotton, yond all the other inhabitants of Gaul. Caesar found Belgic imthe former industry dating from I637; besides which there is migrants on the coasts of IKent and Sussex; and Ptolemy menextensive linen and cotton spinning, calico-printing, bleaching, tions a British population of that name in Wilts and Somerset. dyeing, iron-founding, and brewing. B, is the greatest ship-.The British B. seem to have belonged to the same race as the building place in Ireland, employing upwards of 2000 men in Gallic. iron-shipbuilding alone. In I874 there were five ships of I6,ooo tons built. There are also flour, oil, barilla, and alabaster mills, Belgaum', a fortified town, capital of an executive district several chemical works, rope and sailcloth yards, and sawmills. of the same name, province of Bombay, British India, 42 miles 1. will, on completion of vast improvements now in progress, be N.W. of Dharwar. B., taken by the British under General one of the first-class ports of the United Kingdom, having five Munro in I8i8, after the victory of Korygaum, in which. Sepoy new docks, and a tidal basin of 25 acres. In 1874, 7oI2 vessels and European rivalled each other in valour and fortitude, is now of 1,305,oI6 tons entered the harbour, and 3964 of 922,009 tons one of the most important military stations in India. An institucleared. The customs duties for I874 amounted to /640I,839. tion for the education of the native youths is liberally supported. Pop. (I87I) I74,394, showing an increase of 52,792 in ten years. Pop. of the town (I872) 26,947, exclusive of the cantonment, In the I4th c. Edward Bruce sacked B., and it may again be which at the same date contained 5330 more.-The district of said to have risen to importance in I6II, when its charter was B. has an area of 4591 sq. miles, with a pop. (I872) of 938,75o, granted. During the civil war it first supported the side of the of whom 814,65I were Hindus. The Mohammedans only musParliament, and then embraced the royal cause. A rupture be- tered 71,386; Buddhists and Jains, 47,564; and Parsees, 82. tween the Protestants and Catholics of B. led to one of the most The prevailing languages are Marathi and Kanarese. formidable and destructive riots of late years, August I5-2I, formidable asend d estructive riots of late yearsPaliament, and is under a Belgiojo'so, a town in the province of Pavia, N. Italy, with 1872. B. sends two members to Parliament, and is under a corporation consisting of a mayor, 9 aldermen, and 30 COU11-a pop. of about 4c0o. It has a magnificent aqueduct and a fine cillors. It is the northern headquarters of the military. The castle, in which Francis I. spent the night before his defeat and ratable property was valued in I864 at /270,930, and in I874 capture at Pavia. at /482,4I9. There are in B. (1875) 14 newspapers, including Belgiojoso, Cristina, Princess of, an Italian lady dis. 7 dailies. tinguished for her patriotism, the daughter of the Marchese Bel'fort, the chief town in the Territoire de B., in the N.E. Geronimo Isidoro of Trivulzio, was born 28th June 1808, marof France, on the Savoureuse, with a considerable trade in iron, ied in 1824 to Prince Emilio of 3arbiano and B. She took an leather, wine, and fruit. It was fortified by Vauban, was long active part in the revolutionary movement of 5830, and raised a a stronghold of the first rank, and commands the Troues de B., corps of volunteers at her own expense in I848. After the occuthe gap between the Jura and the Vosges. In October I870 pation of Rome by the French, she went first to Athens, and the Germans under Treskow besieged B., which showed a reso- afterwards to Constantinople, but returned to Italy on the pro. lute defence till I6th February 1871, when, on capitulating, the clamation of the amnesty of May 1856; received back her protroops were allowed to march out with all the honours of war. perty, and, abandoning the extreme views of the Mazzinists, PoP. (1872) 79IO. The 7er i/oihre de B. consists of those por- worked for Cavour's policy after i858. She died at Milan, 5th tions of the department of Haut-Rhin which were restored July i871. The Princess was also an authoress of some merit. to France by the Germans on the pace by the Gersailles Bel'gium, the most densely peopled state of Europe, bounded _February 26, 187.D AreaN. by the Netherlands, N.W. by the German Ocean, S.W. and February 26, I87I. Area. 234 sq. miles; pop. (872) S. by France, and E. by Dutch Luxembourg, Rhenish Prussia, 56,78q. ine a thre das 82 and Dutch Limbourg, lat. 49~ 3o'-5I1 30' N., long. 2~ 33'fight I ( a5th- 7the January 6 5' E. It is somewhat in the form of an isosceles triangle, with fiI871) General Werder here its base, 382 miles in extent, resting on France, and has a flat Gccessfully resisted Gene- and regular coast-line, only measuring 42 miles. On the whole -s r esstd en- a flat country, it is along the coast little raised above the highwater level, and has to be protected against the inroads of the Bel'fry (Old Fr. ber- sea by artificial dikes, where the natural barriers, consisting of X WSIIJ@. ii~s12 - froi), a bell-tower, usually sandhills, are either awanting or inadequate. The southern proattached to a church, but vinces slope gently towards the N., and those in the S. E. are trasometimes separate fromit. versed by a portion of the Ardennes, in which the greatest height '\A, f f l8BE08llW E The term is sometimes ap- is the peak of Stavelot with an elevation of 2000 feet. This tract plied to the frame onwhich of the highlands of Ardennes separates the basin of the Maas'ei OffA~ 25" gtlVv4b< the bell is suspended. B., from that of the Moselle. In the N.E. of B. a sterile, heathy meaning a tower, is syno- region (Peel and Campine) breaks the general prospect of rich, B el. fir y. lnymous with Camzianile well-cultivated country, abounding in villages, clad with vegeta(q. v.). Where there is only a single bell, it is sometimes tion, and intersected by canals. B. has an extreme length from 43 337 4''4 BEL THE GIOBE EAC YCOP.EDIA. BEL N.W. to S.E. of 173 miles; a breadth from N. to S. of Ii2 indigenous vegetation. The principal'forest-trees' are the oak, miles; and an area and pop. (I873) distributed as follows:- chestnut, beech, elm, ash, walnut, fir, and poplar, and among the'fruit-trees,' the vine, apple, pear, cherry, and plum are conArea in. spicuous. England is indebted to B. for the cabbage, lettuce, Provinces. Square Miles. Pop. in I873. clover, the gooseberry-tree, the carnation, aild the wallflower. _________________ _ ____ -.- For many years B. has taken the lead in agriculture, and has been Antwerp....,093 513,543 justly regarded in this respect as the foremost country in the conBrabant.....,267 922,468 tinent of Europe. The soil consists of either sand or clay, and E. Flanders. I,I6o 854,366 is not naturally fertile, but indomitable energy and skill have Hainault...... 436 932,036 brought seven-eighths of the whole surface under cultivation, and Liege..... I1I7 623, I65 forced from it twice as much corn as is required by the vast Limbourg...... 93 203,922 population of the whole country. Much attention is given to NaLuxemr bourg...... 1,43 36,33 the rotation of crops) and artificial manures are widely used. The general crops are wheat, rye, barley, oats, and buckwheat, Total,. II,372 5,253,82I and in the central provinces there is much beetroot (for sugar), chicory, and tobacco. Flax, hops, and clover are extensively The kingdom is further portioned out into 4I arrondissements, grown, and form valuable articles of export, and along the banks which again are subdivided into 303 cantons de milice, and 2568 of the Maas the vine is carefully cultivated, but the produce is communes, but the whole area so minutely divided is only about of inferior quality. To Flanders belongs a famous breed of large twice as large as Yorkshire. It is, however, extremely populous, horses, of which great numbers are sent to England and other having an average of 462 inhabitants to the sq. mile-a number countries. Of these, B. had in I866 as many as 283, I63; also of exceeded greatly in the northern provinces; as, for example, in horned cattle, which are usually stall-fed, I,242,445; and of sheep E. Flanders, which has 735 to the sq. mile. There are four towns 686,OI5. In the forests of Ardennes there is still much wild of above Ioo,ooo inhabitants (Brussels, Antwerp, Liege, and game, such as the bear, wolf, boar, and roebuck, while the moors Ghent). round Verviers are said to be the last asylum of the heathcock on fydrogfrasehy and Climate.-The only great rivers of B., the the Continent. The ordinary domestic animals of Europe are Scheldt and the Maas, both rise in France, and flow into Hol- reared everywhere in perfection, and the culture of bees and of hland before reaching the sea. They are both navigable through. the silkworm is pursued successfully. out B., in which country the course of the former is I35 miles, Manufactures and Commerce.-Even as far back as the Roman and that of the latter I o. Each has numerous tributaries, the invasion the Belgians were remarkable for the same love of principal of those belonging to the Scheldt being the Lys, Den- trading which has particularly distinguished them in later times; der, and Rupel; and of those joining the Maas, the Sambre, but it was in the middle ages that the foundations of the modern Ourthe, and Roer. Admirable means of intercommunication are prosperity were laid. In the I3th c. Bruges had become the thus afforded by nature, and these advantages have formed a great northern seat of manufactures1 and carried on a lucrative basis for the construction of an artificial water-system (300 miles) commerce with Italy. Bruges was soon to be outshone, howonly second to that of Holland. The Zelza rte and Deyenze canals ever, by Antwerp, which, after the discovery of America, rose to are the principal arms of this system, which links together the the rank of the wealthiest commercial city of Europe, and which various rivers, and brings the remotest town within the circle still continues to be the chief emporium of the Belgian trade. of communication. The climate of B. is chilly and humid, the Among the manufactures for which B. is chiefly celebrated are prevailing winds being from the S.W., the W., and the E,, and Brussels carpets, unequalled for elegance and texture; fine lace the annual fall of rain amounting to some 26 inches. There are and thread, made from flax so fine that it costs occasionally /400 on an average some I 50 rainy days in the year. A clear autumn a pound; and the rare lawn and damask fabrics of Bruges. There season is unknown, the cold spring giving place to a capricious are also extensive manufactures of various linens, woollens, summer, which is immediately followed by a long, dreary winter. cottons, lace, silk, leather, and metals. At Vpres alone some In summer the heat is sometimes extreme. The temperature 50,000 men are engaged in the woollen manufacture- and throughranges from I02~ F. to 23~ F.; the mean summer temperature out E. and W. Flanders vast numbers are employed in the cotton is 55~ F., and that of winter 360 F. industry. At Ghent and other places there are sugar-refineries; Geology and Alineralogy.-The N. W. and centre parts of B. are Waesland has great wooden-shoe factories; Boom and Rupelcovered with Tertiary formations, in which the different periods monde have extensive brick-kilns; throughout the country are are completely represented; the Pleiocene alone, however, con- scattered 2670 breweries; and at Seraing, near Liege, there is taining many fossils. In the E. and S. is the Palaeozoic region, one of the largest ironworks of Europe, producing chiefly locoin which Silurian, Carboniferous, and Devonian strata prevail, motives and firearms, and employing over 5000 artisans. B. and which contains vast deposits of coal and iron. B. ranks trades chiefly with France, Holland, England, Prussia, and N. next to Britain as the best coal-producing country of Europe, America; and her principal ports are Antwerp, Ostend, and the fields of Namur alone far exceeding in extent those of all Nieuwepoort. The merchant navy in I872 numbered 59 vessels France. As many as 83 coal-fields are enumerated in the three (I9 steam), of 32,346 tons; and in the same year the total entry provinces of Hainault, Liege, and Namur; and in 1874 there were at the ports was 6134 vessels of 1,878, o06 tons. In I873 the 193 mines, employing over'8oo steam-machines and 94, I86 men. imports amounted to /r96,992,320, and exports to /86,556,ooo; The average yearly amount of coal produced for the five years but these sums, it must be remembered, include the value of i868-72 was 13,662,945 tons; for the year I87I it amounted to' goods in transit;' the value of purely Belgian products exI3,733, I76 tons; value, /6,I52, I20. The'output' of Hainault ported being /46,344,ooo00; and of imports for Belgian consumpalone in I873 was II,652,953 tons, at I7S. 4d. per ton; the tion alone, /56,9o8,ooo. The chief articles of export are coal, number of men employed was 79,556, the quantity raised being corn, cattle, woollens, linens, silks, cottons, flax, hemp, cloverthus 146 tons per workman; and as the cost of production is seed, oak-bark, petroleum, lace, lawn, cambric, carpets, nails, estimated at /7,596,664, or 0o6521. a ton, the aggregate profits arms, cutlery, and refined sugar. were /2,614,396. The exp rt of coal from B., which is chiefly Railways and Kinzane.-The railway system of B13 is perhaps to France, amounted in i874 to /5,I30,883. The central region more complete than that of any other country of the Continent, of the iron trade lies between the Maas and the Sambre, where and the cost of permanent way and buildings is estimated at no there are numberless mines. About two million tons of ore are less than /I8,280 a mile. It was originally laid down on a some. produced annually, but of late years the iron trade of B. has what regular plan, having Mechlin as a centre, and radiating been considerably injured by the steel manufacture of Germany. thence to the N., the Wo, the S,W., and E., but with its growth The other important minerals of Bi are copper, chiefly in Hain- it has become an involved network of communication, stretching ault and Liege; lead, in Liege, Namur, and Luxembourg; in all directions. In 1874 there were 2ioo miles of railway in calamini or carbonate of zinc, in Liege; and black marble, at operation, of which 470 miles belonged to the state. The net Dinant. In various parts of the country there are also found revenue in the same year was about /1508 a mile. There were manganese, sulphur, alum, slate, and building-stone. also 7031, miles of telegraph lines, and 23,994 miles of wires, Botany, Areczullure, and Zool/ogy.-The botany of B. closely transmitting annually about 2,300,000 messages. The national resembles that of the N, of France, and presents a wide variety of expenditure in 1874 was /9,536,696, and the revenue was * * S.~ v T — BEL THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPzEJDIA. BEL /,9,185,720; and in the same year the public debt amounted to tivation of the vernacular, and not less in the opening of the /36,981,96o. The franc, as in France, is the unit of the mone- magnificent national theatre at Antwerp in 1874 for the protary system of B., which was one of the countries that accepted duction of Flemish plays. Among the celebrated names bethe decimal system of coins, weights, and measures in 1865. longing to the country in mediaeval and modern times are Government, Armly, &'c. —According to the constitution of Jacob van Maerland,'father of the poets of the Netherlands;' March 3, I83I, B. is governed by a hereditary monarch, and Philip de Comines, Schott, Strada, and Altmeyer, in history; by a Senate and a House of Representatives, both of which are Lipsius, Drusius, and Oudenarde, in philosophy and criticism; elected by the people. Electors must be born or naturalised Simon Stevin and Quetelet, in rfiathematics; Willems, the orisubjects above 25 years of age, and must pay /I, 13s. 4d. of ginator of the Flemish'movement;' and among the later Flemish taxes. There are some 60 senators, and double that number writers, Hendrik Conscience, and Tony Anton Bergmann, noveof representatives, elected by the same constituencies, the lists; De Geyter, Vervier, Rens, Hiel, and Antheunis, poets; former for eight, the latter for four years. The King alone and Boone, Heremans, and Sabbe, critics and political writers. possesses executive power, but in Parliament he is represented Founded by Hubert and Jan van Eyck, the old Flemish school by a responsible ministry, which controls the subjects of finance, of painting is famous for its scrupulous drawing and glories of public works, home and foreign affairs, war, and justice. Liberty colour, but in the choice of subject it often shows an indifference of the person and of conscience, trial by jury, and freedom of to dignity, and even occasionally a preference for the vulgar and speech and of the press, are secured by the laws. The ad- commonplace. Its chief ornaments are Rubens, Vandyk, Jorministration of justice is almost similar to that of France, the daens, and Teniers. A society of painters was in existence at statute-book being the Code Napoleon. In i868 the army was Antwerp as early as 1442, and the celebrated Academy in the remodelled and put on a compulsory footing, the period of ser- same city was founded in 15IO. In the modern art revival the vice being nominally eight years; several years are, however, principal names are De Keyser, Wappers, Gallait, De Biefve, and allowed for furlough. In 1874 the army consisted of 103,900oo Verboekhoven. Among the sculptors of B. are Geefs, Simonis, men, 12,894 horses, and 240 guns, and the civic militia num- Jehotte, and Fraikin; among the engravers, Calametta, Brown, bered I25,00ooo men, with a reserve of 275,000 men. Among and Meunier. In music it can also show a long list of distinthe fortified towns of B. are Antwerp, Charleroi, Philippeville, guished composers and instrumentalists. Ath, Menai, Namur, Ostend, Nieuwepoort, Ypres, Tournay, and History.-The earliest information concerning the country now Mons. Though still insignificant, the navy is increasing, and called B. is derived from the Romans, who found it inhabited recently several large steam-vessels have been constructed, which by Celtic and German tribes, whom they named Belgse (q. v.), proare equally adapted for war or commerce. bably thus giving a general application to the name of some partiEducatioz. —As regards education, B, is said to rank higher cular tribe. The territory, as Gallia Belgica, became one of the than France or Austria, but the system is still in many respects three divisions of Gallia, and remained under Roman domidefective. Since i830 attendance at schoolhas not been conmpul- nation till A.D. 409, when the Franks, who had been settled sory, and only of late years has the state succeeded to any extent there since the time of Julian, made themselves masters of the in preventing the clergy from controlling public instruction. The region. After the conquest of the rest of Gaul by Chlodwig, it sum assigned for education in the budget of i874 was /388,o64. shared the fortunes of the Frankish kingdoms which owed their There are four universities, at Brussels, Liege, Ghent, and Lou- existence to his sword, more particularly of the Neustrian kingvain, the last of which is Roman Catholic. There are also a dom, to which it mainly belonged. By the treaty of Verdun, large number of At/h/ne'es or national schools, for combined 843, certain parts (now Flanders and Artois) went to the Karoclassical and commercial instruction; upwards of 50 ~coles lings of the newly-formed kingdom of France; but all the N. moyenne -preparatory to these; two training-schools for teachers (including Brabant) was included in Lotharingia, a strip of at Lierre and Nivelle; numerous technical schools, gymnasia on land extending from the Mediterranean to Holland, and named the German model, and normal ateliers. Among high-class oesthe- after Lothar, a grandson of Charlemagne, who in the division of tical institutions are the Academies of Fine Arts at Brussels and the great empire of the West had obtained this region, together Antwerp, the Museum of Painting and Sculpture at Brussels, with Italy and the title of Emperor. Lotharingia soon lost kings and the Music Conservatories at Brussels, Liege, and Ghent. of its own, and its possession was often disputed between the Ethnography, Language, and Ieligion.-The population of Karolings of France and the kings of Germany. In the confiuB. is mainly composed of two distinct races-the Flemings, a sions that ensued, the land was broken up into various dukedoms, Teutonic people, of whom there are some two and three-quarter counties, earldoms, and other petty sovereignties. Of these, millions, and the Walloons, a branch of the Celtic family, of the richest was the County of Flanders, which, on the extincwhom there are about two millions. The former chiefly occupy tion of the line of counts ip I385, went to the house of Burthe northern provinces, and have a language ( VZmzish or F/emzish) gundy. Through marriage, inheritance, and purchase, the closely allied to Dutch, from which indeed it differs chiefly in rulers of Burgundy, by the beginning of the I5th c., had acpronunciation and orthography: the latter dwell in the S. and quired all the other provinces of the Netherlands, and, with the S. E., and their speech is a dialect of the French, or, more cor- view of raising up a great and undivided power between France rectly, it resembles the Northern French of the I3th c., and and Germany, had curtailed the privileges and violated the charcontains besides a large infusion of Spanish words, which ters of those growing towns, in which a republican spirit was of course date from the period of the Spanish rule. Flemish becoming too visible. This policy was pursued to an extreme is still the language of the majority, and of some forty news- of tyranny by Charles the Bold, till the busy communities found papers, as well as of the revived literature of the country, their wealth appropriated and their freedom crushed. Relieved though French has long been the adopted speech of the court from a centralised despotism only by the death of the Duke and the legislature, and therefore of society. B. is almost entirely (1477), they rallied round his only daughter, Maria, to rescue her a Roman Catholic state, there being only of other creeds some from the grasp of the crafty Louis XI, of France; obtained fi-om I3,000 Protestants and I500oo Jews. The smaller denominations, her a liberal charter; and finally selected for her the husband however, are not only tolerated, but a certain portion of the whom her father had opposed, the Archduke Maximilian I., income of ministers of all churches is paid by the state. The thus making over the Netherlands to the house of I-Iapsburg. head of the Roman Catholic Church in Belgium is the Arch- Of this union was born Philip the Fair, who married Joanna, bishop of Mechlin, and there are five bishops-viz., those of daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile and Aragon, Bruges, Ghent, Namur, Liege, and Tournay. in 5496, and who was succeeded by his son, the celebrated Literatzlre and Painting.-In B. there are two distinct litera- Charles I. of Spain, better known by his loftier title of Karl V., tures, Flemish and French, the one eminently a national growth, Emperor of Germany. In I555, Karl V., after a reign marked the other an exotic, and the favoured child of circumstance. A by gross extortion and cruel persecution of the early reformers, healthy revival of the former took place in the beginning of the pre- abdicated in favour of his son, Philip II., who by his marriage sent century, inaugurated by Jans Franz Willems, whose example with Mary Tudor (I554) had already become titular king of has been followed by some of the ablest writers of the country, England. Animated by the fiercest hatred of the new faith, the and at last there seems the prospect of a literature for B. which relentless cruelty of Philip stirred up the provinces (I56-I6o09) shall be a pure and independent counterpart of the national life. to a strenuous defence of religion and liberty. (See ALBA.) The This is seen in the formation of many literary societies, in the seven northern or Teutonic provinces were alone successful, howextensive publication of old Flemish remains, in the general cul- ever, in throwing off the Spanish yoke, a result chiefly due to 339 *~~ BEL TIlE GIiOBE ENC1VCZOPKEDIA. BEL the sagacious leadership of William, Prince of Orange. (See and a treaty ratifying the severance of the disputed territory NETHERLANDS.) The southern or more Celtic provinces, mainly was signed in London, April I9, 1839. Leopold I. died inhabited by Catholics, remained in the power of Spain, and December Io, I865, and was succeeded by his son, Leopold were ceded by Philip, in.I598, to his daughter Isabella, wife of II., who continues to abide by the wise policy of his father, the Archduke Albert, when they were formed into a separate holding himself entirely aloof from party strife. Although the kingdom. On the death of Albert (1621), the Austrian Nether- country in I875 was considerably disturbed by religions riots, lands reverted to Spain, and in the wars of the declining mon- there was the evidence everywhere visible of a national sentiarchy the counties of Artois,' Thionville, and other districts ment animating both Liberals and Ultramontanes, who honestly!I659), and of Lille, Charleroi, Oudenarde, Courtray, &c. seek the triumph of their opinions only by constitutional means. (i668), were wrested from her by the rapacity of France. Only At present, the great question in B. (as in many other countries) a small portion of these and other conquests was restored is whether education is to be controlled by the State or the to Spain at the Peace of Ryswick in I697. In I700oo, on the Church. See Juste, Histoire de Belgique (5th ed. i868); Oppelt, death of Charles II. of Spain, the country became a great theatre Histoire Gintrale et Chronologique de ela Belgique de I83o a I86o of the war of the Spanish succession, which was concluded by (iS86I); Malon, Notice Historique sur les'Finances de la7 Belgizque the Peace of Utrecht (1713-14) placing B. once more under (Par. 1868); Statistique Ginirale de la Belgiquize (7 vols. Bruss. Austrian rule, with, however, one very important condition 1865-74); Prof. Van Benmmel, Belgique Bolitique et Sociale annexed, known as the Barrier Treaty, in virtue of which, the (1874); and Paul Fred'rica, Essai sur le e Politique et Social right of garrisoning the fortresses along the French border, and des Ducs de Burgogne dans le Bays-Bats (Ghent, 1875). of closing the Scheldt, was vested in the States-General. During the Austrian war of succession (1744-48), the French, under elgorod' (Russ. Bigorod white town'), a tow in the Marshal Saxe, conquered nearly the whole of the country, but province of Kursk, Russia, on the Donez, founded in 1593, has ptrovne of les, usa, ntherDne, f o undedrnI53 as had to restore it at the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in I748. It then manufactures of leather, soap, candles, &c., with considerable mauatures in leaxtherstlsoa, candihesp&., w it cosierbl remained undisturbed throughout the reign of Maria Theresa, trade in wax, bristles, and emp. Pop. 13, and regained much of its former prosperity. But its peace was Belgrade' (Slav.'white fortress,' of which the Ger. name Belgrade' (Slav.'white fortress,'I of which the Ger. name again interrupted on the succession of Joseph II., son of the Weissenburg is only a translation), the capital of Servia, situated'Empress-queen,' who, in contradiction of his express promise, on the S. side of the confluence of the rivers Save and Danube, is withdrew the legal privileges of the states secured by the Barrier a strongly fortified and important town. To the N. of the citaTreaty. A revolt followed, the foreign troops were defeated, del which commands the Danube at that point, is the Water Brussels was captured, and in I790o the provinces of the Austrian town, to the W lies the Raitzen town, and to the E. and S. town, to the W. lies the Raitzen town, and to the E. and S. Netherlands proclaimed their independence. The differences the Palankta. B. is a great emporium for the exchange-trade between the aristocratic and democratic parties among the in- of Austria, Servia, Turkey, and Rumania. It imports for itself surgents encouraged the Austrians to attempt the re-conquest of and the Principality corn, horses, wine, beer, tobacco, leather, the andbefoe te cose f te yar. heywer sucessul;and the Principality corn, horses, wine, beer, tobacco, leather, the land before the close of the year. They were successful; dried fish, piece-goods from England (to the value in 1871 of but in a short time republican France fiercely challenged thedrefi epe-gdfr Enld(oevae in 1I -,3o,0ooo), coffee, rice, &c. Its great export trade is "in pigs monarchies of Europe. The Austrian Netherlands was the first (one half of the export trade of the country), wool, and salt. B. great battlefield, and B. was finally conquered by Pichegu in has manufactures of arms, cutlery, silk goods, carpets, and 1794. Later it was annexed to France by the treaties of Campo- similar materials. Theie were only two banks in the city in Formio and Luneville, and remained in all respects a province 1872. The pop., including the garrson of Turkish soldiers, i872' The pop., including' the garrison of Turkish soldiers, of that country under the Consulate and the Empire, until the of that country under the Consulate and the Empire, until the was, in 1872, estimated at 26,674. B., in virtue of its position, Peace of Paris (March 30; 1814), when, along with Holland has been the scene of many a fierce battle and siege, hence, (long since a separate state), it was put under the government probably, its Turkish name, al-id ('house of the holy of William Prince of Orange, who, on the 23d March 1815, tookprblyitTuksna.Dao a('ueo the ol the title of King of the Netherlands. The want of political and war'). We first hear of it in ancient times under the name of Singidunum, when it was the headquarters in Upper Moesia religious sympathy between Protestant Holland and Catholic of the 4th Legion (,Ravia Felix). Wrested from the Eastern of the 4th Legion (Flavia Felix). Wrested from the Eastern B. soon showed itself, and a breach of all good feeling was emperors in te 5th c. by the Huns and Ostrogoths, and again created by the one-sided character of the new constitution. All ad by the Magyars in the I~th and I2th centuries, it next passed its important provisions were in favour of Holland; the Dutch by the Magyars in the i ith nad 12th centuries, it next into the hands of the Bulgarians and Servians. The Turks language was adopted for administrative purposes; the clergy captured it in 121, the Imperial forces in i88, the Turks captured it in I521, the Imperial forces in i688, the Turks of B. were deprived of their privileges, and the poor were again in 1690, and in 77 it srrendeed to Prince E Geverely taxed; while the Belgians, although the more nume-agiiniondn17ritsreeedoPiceEene everely taxed; while the Belgians, although the more nume- By the treaty of B. (1739), known as the'Eternal Peace,' it was ous people, were almost excluded f-m ay share in the restored to the Turks, was again captured by the Austrians under government. Liberals and Catholics were alike dissatisfied, Loudon in 1789, and once more handed back to the Turks at and the French revolution of i83,o was a signal for an expresd the French revolution of 830 was a signal for an expres- the peace of 1791. Since then it has shared the fortunes of the sion of their discontent. After a peaceful attempt to gain a restless state of which it is the capital, continually regarding separate administration, which was foiled by the obstructive delay of the Dutch deputies, the exasperated Belgians rose in with a jealus and hostile glance the Turkish garrisolthat holds open iasurrection. The authorities of the state were speedily the citadel and overawes the city. overthrown, and on October 4, i83o, B. was proclaimed inde- Be'lial, properly Beli'al (Heb.?'good for nothing'), in pendent by -a provisional government. A national assembly the Old Testament, is not to be understood as a proper name; was summoned, and the Baron Surlet de Chokier was appointed man of or so of B. is simply a Hebraism for a worthless, lawrmgent, only Q3 votes out of 187 declaring for a democracy. On less fellow. In the New Testament (2 Cor. vi. I5) it is used as the zoth December the London Congress met and resolved to a proper name, and applied to Satan or Antichrist, and hence recognise the autonolmy of B.., and on the 4th of June following it came to be represented in this light in our translation of the Prince Leopold of Saae-Coburg was elected king by the Belgian Old Testament. Assembly. The selection was a happy one for B., and henceforth the peace of the country may be said to have been Belief' is a name given to a large class of widely-differing established, the constitution firmly securing the freedom of mental states, which, however, agree in implying an intellectual religious worship, of the press,, and of education. Meantime operation, more or less directly connected with some proposed Holland declared war against B., but was checked by the inter- action, and greatly liable to be influenced by the feelings. B. ference of England and France. On the i5th November 1831 was at one time (e.g., by Locke in chapter on Probability, Essay a conference of the five great powers was held in London, on the Human Understanzdinzg) applied to affirmative judgments and the ~ definitive treaty' was drawn up, the twenty-four which come short of demonstrative knowledge, and was described articles of which were duly accepted. The treaty provided as the purely intellectual assent of the mind to such propositions (Art. 24) that B. and Holland should divide Luxembourg and as conform to personal or reported experience. The retentive Limburg betwegn them. This Holland refused to do, where- analytic power of the mind, however, while it secures the truth, upon an English and French fleet having blockaded the or accuracy of B., is far frdm constituting B. itself. Hume perScheldt and the Dutch coasts, and a French army having ceived this to some extent when in his qzguily he pointed out that captured the citadel of Antwerp, Holland was forced to yield, B. was distinguished from imagination by some'feeling or senti340 ~ij~ —----------— * BEL THE GLOOBE ENC YCZL OPkEDIA. BEL ment.' As Locke had described the degrees of B. by names, Vitiges was captured, and the Ostrogothic kingdom subdued such as assurance, confidence, which includes an element of (539). After two years spent in the defence of the East, B. was feeling, so Hume resolves this'sentiment of B.' into'a more recalled, disgraced, and heavily fined by the emperor, whose vivid, lively, forcible, firm, steady conception of an object' than is baseness or jealousy induced him to lend his ear to the slanders afforded by imagination; and he gives some valuable illustrations of malicious rumour. Yet he was again despatched to Italy of the joint operation of the affections and the intellectual asso: to oppose Totila, the Ostrogothic kiig; and though he failed, ciations in producing B. Reid unfairly ridicules Hume as from inadequate supplies, to raise the siege of Rome, or seriteaching that B. depends on the intensity of ideas, offers no ex- ously to repulse the foe, he succeeded for five years (544-48) in planation of B. generally, and regards particular beliefs, e.g., in skilfully keeping their hostility in check. B.'s last victory was memory, causation, testimony, and an external world, as original gained (559) in repelling an invasion of the Bulgarians. In and undecomposable powers of the mind. It is ndw generally 563, B., for alleged complicity in a conspiracy against the life seen that, while we believe many things (e.g., as astronomical of Justinian, was again disgraced, and his fortunes were sequesfacts) which do not directly influence our actions, and while the tered; but in the following year his innocence was acknowledged, force of passion firequently leads us to act in opposition to our and his honours restored. He died A.D. 565. The statement, beliefs, yet the characteristic of B. is that we are prepared to act derived from a work of Tzetzes, a monk of the 12th c., that B. on the assumption of its truth. Hence, a large number of early was deprived of his eyes and reduced to beg his bread in the beliefs is generated by man's spontaneous and instinctive ten- streets, is generally discredited. The works of Procopius, the dencies to activity. Gradually, by a system of trial and error, secretary of B., are our chief authority for the events of this by an enlarged experience of the sources of pain and pleasure, period; and the more romantic though fictitious version of the these impulses to act, and in acting to believe, are in some close of B.'s life is embodied in Marmontel's Bdisaire, and dedirections starved out by disappointment, in others controlled fended in Earl Stanhope's Life of B. The fictitious incident in into habitual dependence on the observed uniformities of nature. B.'s life also forms the subject of a picture, now in the LeuchtenTo perceive the completeness of evidence, to draw a necessary berg gallery at St Petersburg, which was the first famous work inference, or to recognise a self-evident proposition, is, therefore, of the French painter Gerard, not to believe, but is only the intellectual part of accurate B. -The mind then throws itself into the active confident state of B., Belize'. SeeBAIZE. and according to the intensity with which an object is desired, Beljur'ie, a town in the British district of Moradabad, Rohilthe fulness of the connection established between the end and the khand division, N.W. Province, India. Pop. in 1872 (including means, the general vigour and elation of the system, proceeds ener- a part of Kashipur),'8253. getically to act out the ideas which have in many cases been for long the subject of intentions or resolutions. B. is therefore well Bell, Andrew, was born at St Andrews (I753) and educated defined by Professor Bain as'a growth or developmzent of the will at its university. After a visit to America he entered into holy under the pursnit of intermzediate ends.' This at once suggests orders, and officiated as Episcopal pastor at Leith. He subsehow powerful an influence the mere anticipation of pleasure, the quently settled in Madras, where, by lecturing and by filling shrinking from pain, abnormal excitement or normal tempera- various clerical offices, he made a fortune of nearly /26,ooo. ment of the individual, exercise upon:B. This psychological At Madras he organised, on the monitorial system, and adminisaccount of B., which corresponds with the pain, depression, and tered for six years, a military orphan asylum. In 1796 he fatigue which attend the opposite state of doubt, is wholly in- returned to England, and in 1797 published his Experiment in dependent on the metaphysical theories regarding the origin of dnztiolz. In 1798 Joseph Lancaster established a school in the most general and elementary beliefs. It is, however, closely London, which was soon crowded by free scholars, and where connected with the question of responsibility for B., of which it the education problem was solved by the crude expedient of exhibits the partly voluntary character. Were B. not so largely employing children to teach children. The scheme became coloured by feeling, and supported by being asserted in action, popular, and issued in the formation of the British and Foreign it would be foolish, as well as wrong, to attempt the propagation School Society. Lancaster, however, refused to admit into his of particular opinions by penalties and rewards. On the other religiotis instruction anything peculiar to any sect or party, and hand, the great security of science (which makes it independent this alarmed the Church of England. A rival society, the of patronage) is, that its results are constantly becoming the basis National, was formed, of which B. was the champion, and the of human activity,' country was divided into the followers of B. and the Church and of Lancaster and the Bible only. Both societies still exist, Belisa'rius (Slav. Beli-tazr,'White Prince'),'one of those and have done much good, though they have long outgrown the heroic names familiar to every age and to every nation,' was systems they were formed to promote. B. handed over to trusborn at Germania, in Illyria, about A. D. 505. On the accession tees'i2o,ooo to be devoted to education. Schools bearing his of Justinian (529), B, became general of his Eastern armies, and name were founded in Edinburgh, St Andrews, Glasgow, Leith, after almost unvarying success, made peace with the Persians on Inverness, Cupar, and Aberdeen. In 1874 B.'s trustees offered the death of Cobad. At this time he married Antonina, awoman ZIo,ooo to the Universities of Edinburgh and St Andrews to of low birth and profligate character, whose power over her hus- aid in the foundation of Chairs of the Theory and Practice of band has alone left blots on his fame, and who was alternately Teaching. B. died at Cheltenham, 28th January 1832. the favourite and the foe of the Empress Theodora. In 532 a B, Bjain, author of A System of Sury, or at 7Bell, [Benjamin, author of.4 System of Surgmey, born at sedition against Justinian was excited in Constantinople by the Dumfries, 1749, studied medicine at Edinburgh, where, after brief union of the rival factions, striped'blue' and'green,' isiting the medical schools of Paris and London in 77 he whose mutual hatred long destroyed the peace of the city; and estabigshed himself in 1772, and entered upon an extensive Justinian's life was saved by B., who displayed that unfaltering practice. B. died April 47, i8o6. His System f Surgey has loyalty to his sovereign which so conspicuously characterised passed through seven editions. him through life. In 533 Justinian despatched an expedition to Africa, ostensibly to assert the rights of Hilderic and punish the Bell, Sir Charles, an eminent surgeon, author of The True usurper Galimer, but in reality to restore to the empire the lands 7Theory of the VNervous System, was the son of the Rev. William which the Vandal, Genseric, had taken from it a century before. Bell, an Episcopal minister. He was born at Edinburgh in At the head of 15,000 men B. landed at Caput Vada, twice de- 1774, and received his education at the High School and the feated the Vandals, reduced Carthage, and in three months University of his native city. He studied anatomy under his achieved the conquest of Africa. In 534, with Gelimer as his brother John, whom heassisted in his lectures and demonstracaptive, he returned home, and the first triumph ever witnessed tions. In i8o6 he removed to London, where, in i8i i, he began in Constantinople was celebrated in his honour. The ambition to lecture on anatomy and surgery at the H-unterian School in of Justinian now (535) prompted him to attempt the recovery of Windmill Street. To obtain a knowledge of gunshot wounds, Italy. He took advantage of the dissensions of the Ostrogoths, he repaired to Brussels in i8i5, after the battle of Waterloo, and demanded the abdication of King Theodatus. B. conquered where he did great service in attending to the wounded. His Sicily, took Naples, entered Rpme, which he defended for a subsequent career in London was brilliant, his lectures being year (537-38) against the new king, Vitiges, and after the recall attended with great and deserved success. In 1831, on the of Narses, effected by stratagem the surrender of Ravenna. accession of William IV., he received the honour of knighthood. 34' 4 4 —---- BEL THE G O0BE ENC YCL OPMiDIA. BEL In I836 he was elected to the Chair of Surgery in the Edin- He published his Travelsfrom St Petersburg to Various Parts is: burgh University, for which class he published his Institutes of i Asia at Glasgow in 2 vols., I763, a work much admired for the Surgery (Edinb. I838). B. died suddenly at Hallow, WNorces- directness and simplicity of its style and narrative. tershire, on May 27, I842. He wrote numerous treatises and Bell, Robert, a meritorious critic and editor, was orn at wBell, R:obert, a meritorious critic and editor, was born at works, the more important of which are his Nervous System Cork, ioth January i8oo, became the editor of the Atlas in (i824); his Animal AMeczhanics (1828); the Anatomry of Expres- i829, and retired from it in 184I. He died April 12, 1867. B.'s sion (ste ed. i8o6; posthumous edition i 84); and the Bridge- services to contemporary literature were numerous and valuwater Treatise on the Hand (1834). An interesting worlk able, from the honest, careful, and discriminating manner of their recently published ( he Correspondence of Sir Charles B., Lend, performance. He is also a dramatist and novelist of merit. His I870) shows him to have possessed a keen, courageous, yet sensi- History of Russia (Lardaer) and Outlines of China are most usetive spirit. ful handbooks. But he will be best remembered for his annoBell, George Joseph, a distinguished Scottish lawyer, tated edition of the English poets, begun in I854 (the last brother of the foregoing, was born at Edinburgh, 26th March issue is that by C. Griffin & Co., Lound.), which is excellent for 1770. His knowledge of commercial law in general, but espe- the Elizabethan and later writers. His Chauceris not a good text, cially of the laws relating to bankruptcy, was exact and pro- nor does he seem to have been strong in the scholarship of the found. In 1822 he was appointed to the Chair of Scots Law in English language. B.'s series has nothing equal to the Chaucer Edinburgh University; he was appointed a member of the com- of Morris or the Gray of Mitford in the new edition of the Aldine mission for simplifying the mode of procedure in the Court of poets by Bell & Taldy, bat it is still a respectable monument of Session; clerk of the Court of Session in I831; and chairman honest industry. of the Royal Commission for inquiring into the state of the law Bell, Thomas, an eminent living naturalist, was born at in general in I833. He died 23d September I843. B.'s chief Poole, Dorsetshire, October II, I792; studied at Guy's and St works are, Commentaries on the Laws of Scotland, and on the Thomas's Hospitals, 1814, and passed as surgeon in 1815. He Principles of AMercantile 7urisjirudence (Edinb. I8io; 6th ed. by lectured at Guy's Hospital from I8I6 to I860o; was elected Shaw, I858); Princizples of the Law of Scotland (Edinb. I829; to the chair of Zoology in King's College, London, 1832; was 5th ed. by Shaw, I86o); Ilhustrations of the Principles of the president of the Ray Society from its institution in I844 till Law of Scotland (3 vols. Edinb. I838); Commentaries on the 1859, secretary of the Royal Society from i848 till 1853, and Recent Statutes relative to Diligence or Execution against the president of the Linnaan Society from 1853 to i86i. He is JMovable Estate, inmprisonnmeut, Cessio Bonorum, and Sequestra- also corresponding member of many foreign scientific societies. lion in Mlercantile Bankruptcy(Edinb. I84o). Among his numerous contributions to science are History oa Bell, Henry, who introduced steam-navigation into Europe, British Reptiles (1829); History of British Mammalia (1836); was born at Torphichen, Linlithgowshire, April 7, 1767. After History of Britis Stalh-eyed Crustacea (I853). These formed acquiring a knowledge of mechanics in Scotland, he went to portions of Van Voorst's series of British Natural History. A' London, and wrought with the famous engineer Mr Rennie. In monograph of the Testucdinata, folio, commenced in I833, is still 1790 he returned to Scotland, and commenced business as a car- uncompleted. B. has also contributed numerous valuable papers penter at Glasgow; removed to Helensburgh in I SoS, and kept to the Transactions of the several societies with which he is conthe principal inn there, but occupied himself with experiments nected. He is now (I875) engaged on an edition of White's in mechanics. In January 18I2 he launched the Coomet on the Nactural History of Seborne, to which much new matter is to be Clyde, the first steam-vessel on European waters. The engine, added. Lord Selborne is to furnish a chapter on the antiquities, at first of three-horse power, was afterwards increased to six. and Mr Curtis one on the geology of the district. Although Mr Miller of Dalswinton, in Dumfriesshire, in 1788, Bell'a, a rising town in the Italian province of Basilicata; and Mr Fulton on the Hudson river, New York, in I8o7, had pop. about 6000, each succeeded in propelling a boat by steam, it is really to B. Bella, Stefano Della, an Italian engraver, born at Florence, that the practical introduction of steam-navigation is due. He 8th May i, His works, upwards of e 400, embrace almost died at Helensburgh, November I4, I830. At Dunglass, on the I8th May I6IO, His works, upwards of I400, embrace almost aen erAt Dunglass, on th every subject, historical incidents, hunting-scenes, landscapes, Clyde, a monument has been erected to his memory. sea-pieces, animals, and ornamentation, and are distinguished no Bell, John, an eminent English sculptor, born in I8II, first less by delicacy of touch than by careful manipulation. Many exhibited in I832, and has produced numerous admirable works were executed in France by the order and under the patronage of in monumental, religious, and imaginative art. His first produc- Richelieu. On his return to Florence he was loaded with honours tions were classical in subject and style of treatment, but soon by the Grand-Duke. He died I2th July I664. abandoning the traditions of the ancients, he sought original Belladon'a (Atropa Belladona), a plant belonging to the inspiration, chiefly in the characters of Scripture and of the natural order Atropaceas (q, v.), is a herbaceous perennial, from national history. His Babes in the Wood and Andromeda were 2 to 6 feet in height, with the chief attractions in the I85I Exhibition; while among his bell-shaped flowers of a best-known statues are Sir Robert WValpole (St Stephen's Hall), luridpurple. The berries Wellinzgton (Guildhall), and the Guards' lMemorial. His last which are about the size great work was a group (The Unzited States Directing the Pro- ofcherries, are, when ripe, gress of America) for the base of the Prince Consort memorial. of a black, shining colour, i Bell, John, an eminent Edinburgh surgeon, brother of Sir and have a sweetish or Charles and of George Joseph B., was born in Edinburgh, May mawkish taste; but, like I2, I763. He studied under Black, Cullen, and Monro; began the rest of the plant, the lecturing in his native city on surgery and anatomy in I786; and flower has a disagreeable after a laborious and earnest career, died of dropsy at Rome,'heavy'smell. B. is anaApril 15, 1820. B.'s principal works are his Anatomy of the tive of the S. of Europe, uizman Body (3 vols., pub. in I793, 1797, 1802); Enraings and is narcotic and poisonof the Bodies, Muscles, and yoints (3d ed. 1794); Discourses on ous in all its parts, death the Nature and Cure of Wounds (I793-95); Principles of Sur- being precedbydryness gery (3 vols. i80o-8; new ed., edited by Sir Charles B., I816); of the throat, dilatation and Letters on Professional Chiaracter and Maanners. of eyes, dimness of sight, paralytic trembling, loss Bell, John, a well-known Scotch traveller in Asia, was born of sensation, stupor, and at Campsie in Stirlingshire in 1691, studied medicine, and went delirium. It is of use in to St Petersburg in 17I4, where he was appointed physician of medicine for soothing irri- Belladona. a Russian embassy to Persia. B. returned to Russia in 17I8, tation and pain, and is emand was sent by the Czar to China in I7I9, and in I737 to ployed by oculists for the purpose of dilating the pupil during Constantinople, where he became a merchant. In 1747 he examination of the eye, and for diminishing the sensibility of the returned to Scotland, and died at Antermony, July I, 1780. retina to light. It owes its activity to the alkaloid atropine, which 342 * cF BEL THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPzINJJA. BEL is also a powerful poison, and is used for the same purpose as the stands on a rock 450 feet high.-The district of B. has an area extract of the plant. The juice of B. is said to have been at one of II,007 sq. miles, and a pop. (1872) of I,.668,oo06, of whom time employed by ladies for staining their skins! hence the name more than I,500,00ooo were Hindus. It is the healthiest portion B. (beautiful lady). The other popular names-Dule (Fr. deuil, of Southern India, being sheltered by the Ghauts from the S.W. grief), and Deadly Nightshade, express the popular appreciation monsoon, and being entirely free from the N.E. one, owing to of its fatal properties. Its botanical generic name is from Atrojos, its distance inland. The yearly rainfall ranges from about 12 one of the Fates. There are several other species in S. America to 26 inches. B. is traversed by the Madras and- Bombay Railwhich possess similar properties. way. Belladona Lily (Amaryllis Belladona), a fine species of Bell-Bird (Arapunga alba), a genus of Passerine birds inAmaryllis, a native of the Cape of Good Hope and the W. Indies; cluded in the section Dentiros/res, and in the sub-family of commonly cultivated in English gardens. Gymnoderince or Fruit-Crows. The B.-B. is found in Guiana and other parts of S. America, and is so named from the notes IBell'ay, Jakob, a young Dutch oet, onre of the restiorers of its voice mimicking the clear tones of a bell. Waterton says of the national literature of Holland, was born in humble cir- this bird's notes may be heard at a distance of three miles, and cumstances at Vliessingen (Flushing), November 12, 1757. As- this bird's notes may be heard at a distance of three miles, and sisted in his education by friends, he went to the University of it is one of the few birds which sing during the heat of the day. A, peculiar tubular fleshy appendage springs from the base of Utrecht to study for the Church, but devoted his attention mainly the bill, which is broad and depressed in shape. The males are to poetry. His first effusions, Gezangen Mijner Yeu&gd (Amst. ofsnow-white plumage, and about twelve inches in length. 1782), were lively and amatory; the Vaderlandsche Gezangen (Utr. I785) breathed a thoroughly patriotic spirit. The Dutch Bell, Book, and Candle, a phrase used to describe a mode put great value on a poetical romance of his, Roosje (Utr. 1784). of the greater excommunication which seems to have prevailed A third edition of B.'s poems appeared in 1842. He died iI th in the Church of Rome as early as the 8th c. After reading the March 1786. sentence of exclusion against the person excommunicated, not only from the table of the Lord, and from other privileges of Berian animalcules, sci entifically knowname of a genus V oie Each Christian communion, as in the lesser excommunication, but from animalcule consists of a bell-shaped body or calyx, borne on a many social and political rights and privileges, the bishop and animalcule consists of a bell-shaped body or calyx, borne on a clergy extinguish their candles, shut the book from which the stalk, which is rendered contractile by the presence of a spiral excommunication is read, and cause the church bell to be tolled fibre. By aid of this structure the Vorticella can quickly contract as if for the death of the obstinate offender. See ExcoMbUNIitself upon its stem when alarmed or irritated. These animal- CATION. cules occur in groups, and are generally found attached to aquatic plants. The margin of the bell or calyx is fringed with Belle'-Alliance', a farm I3 miles S. of Brussels, where the vibratile filaments termed cilia. These animalcules reproduce French centre was stationed at the battle of Waterloo, June themselves by fission, by gemmation or budding, and by a process IS, I8I5. Each of the contending nationalities has named this of encystation, allied in many points to the sexual generation of battle differently: the British, Waterloo; the French, Monthigher animals. See also INFUSORIA and PROTOZOA. Saint-Jean; and the Prussians, B.-A. Bellar'min, Robert, Cardinal, a famous Roman Catholic Bellegarde' (the'fair guard'), a hill-fortress in the French theologian, was born at Monte Pulcianod Tuscany, October 49 department of Pyrenees Orientales, commanding the pass into 1542. He entered the order of Jesuits in 156o, and distinguished Spain over the Col de Portuis, on the road from Perpignan into himself by his study of all departments of theology. In I569 he Catalonia. It was first made formidable by Louis XIV., and was ordained priest, and was appointed Professor of Theology in has been several times taken and retaken in the Franco-Spanish the following year at Louvain, where he taught with such success, wars. that even Protestants came from England and Holland to hear Belle Isle, a small island about 15 miles N. of Newfoundhis lectures. After seven years spent in the Low Countries, he land, and the same distance E of Labrador, is known chiefly returned to Italy, and in 1576 was chosen by Pope Gregory XIII. to fill the chair of Polemical Theology in the new college founded as giving the name to the strait which separates Labrador and by that pontiff in Rome. In 1599 he was made a cardinal, and in I602 Archbishop of Capua; but honourably resigned this Belleisle'-en-Mer, the largest and most important island on dignity in I6o5 when made keeper of the Vatican Library by the S. coast of Bretagne, is included in the French department Paul V. IHe would probably have been Pope, but for the fears of Morbihan, and situated 34 miles N. W. of the mouth of the entertained by the cardinals that the order of Jesuits would be- Loire. Its greatest length from N, W. to S.E. is 12 miles, and come too strong, B. died at Rome, September 17, t62Id B. its greatest breadth 7. The inhabitants, who are chiefly engaged was the main defender of the Church of Rome against the attacks in pilchard-fishing, numbered in I872, 10,804. The chief town, of the Reformers, and according to Bayle, was the best contro- Le Palais, fortified and situated on the coast, with a population versialist of his age. A work in which he had advocated the of 5456, has steamboat communication with Nantes and L'Orient. supremacy of the Pope over kings (De Pd/estate Ponticis in B., which was known to the Romans as Vindilis, has some Tezmporalibus) was condemned respectively in Paris, in Venice,' Druidical' remains. By the I th c. Vindilis had changed into and in Mainz, But his masterpiece is the DLisputationes de Con- Guedel, and at a later period it received its present name. The troversiis Fidei, Adversus hujus Temzporis Heareticos (3 vols. island has belonged in turn to the Dukes of Bretagne, the Counts Rome, I58I; Ingolst. I587; Paris, I688; and Maifii, I842). It is of Cornouailles, the monks of Quimperld, Cardinal de Retz, the substantially his lectures as Professor of Polemical Theology, and finance minister Fouquet, whose grandson, Marshal Belleisle, exhibits method, moderation (in language), learning, and subtlety, finally sold it to the French crown. but is charged by Protestants with unfairness, and a determination to prove his point at all hazards. Despite his eminent ser aBelleisle, Chales, Louis Auguste Fouquet, Comte, vices to his Church, no Pope has as yet authorised his canonisa- afterwards uo de, a French marshal and diplomatist, was tion. The other works of B. do not require mention. A col- born at Villefranche (Rouergne), 22d September 1684. He lected edition was published at Cologne in 7 vols. I6i9, and entered the army at an early age, distinguished himself at the another at Venice in 5 vols. I721. B.'s life has been several siege of Lille (I708), took part in the Spanish campaign of I719, times written. See Fuligatti, Vita del Cardizal. Rob. Bellar- and in 1732 had risen to the rank of Lieutenant-General. Under mino (Rome, i624); Bartoli, Della Vita di Rob. Cardinal, Marshal Berwick he captured Treves and Tfarbach in I734, Bellarmino (Rome, i678) d Frizon) Aie du Cardinal Bellarmin and signalised himself at the siege of Philippsburg. The peace (Nancy, I708). of 1735, by which Lothringen fell to France, was mainly B.'s work. Cardinal Fleury had boundless confidence in his capaBellar'y, the chief town of a district of the same name in the city. Before the outbreak of the Austrian war of succession, B. province of Madras, British India, 270 miles N.W. of Madras, visited the chief courts ifn Germany in the interest of the Bavarian and 90o S.E. of Haidarabad. It is an important military station, elector, whom France desired to succeed to the imperial throne and consists of extensive cantonments, and a native town with instead of Maria Theresa. Along with Broglie, at the head of about 35,000 inhabitants. B. is overlooked by a fort, which a French army he invaded the Austrian territories, captured *cM -~ —-- - -- 3434 <~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..._.....__...._. BEL TI-FE GLOBE ENIVC YCLOPI DDIA. BEL Prague 26th November 174I, but, owing to the policy of Prus- he did by the aid of his winged horse Pegasus, which raised him sia, was forced to retreat to the Eger, 17th December 1742. beyond the monster's reach, when he killed it with his spear. He In 1744, while on a diplomatic journey to Berlin, he, was made was next sent to contend with the Solymi and the Amazons, prisoner at Elbingerode in Hanover, and sent to England, both of whom he defeated. On his return he destroyed an amwhere he was detained for a year. Appointed commander- bush of the bravest Lycians, and Prcetus, now perceiving that in-chief of the French army of Italy in 1746, he successfully B. was the son of a god, gave him his daughter in marriage, and defended the French frontier against the Austrians and Sardinians, as a dower the half of his kingdom. Three children, Isander, and was in consequence made a Duke and Peer of France. In Hippolochus, and Laodameia, were born to him; but just when I755 he was placed at the head of the war administration, and he had reached the pinnacle of happiness, the gods (according remained there till his death, 26th January 1761. B. was to Homer) deprived him of reason. Mars slew his son Isander, certainly a man of considerable gifts, but his reputation was and Diana his daughter Laodameia. There are other incidents more shining than his merit. Carlyle, in his Friedrich (vols. iii. in the myth recorded by ancient writers. The story was a and iv.), is grimly sarcastic upon this'sun-god' with his'efful- favourite one with Greek artists, and in recent times Mr Fellows gences' and'wide-winged plans,' &c., but his estimate is in the discovered in Lycia sculptures representing B. on Pegasus, and main just. conquering the Chimrera. Bell'enden (Ballantyne) John, the chief Scottish prose Bellerophon, an extinct or fossil genus of Gasteropodous author of his day. The exact place and date of his birth is Mollusca, representing the family At/antida (order Heterojoda) unknown; but he matriculated at St Andrews in I5oS, and of that class. The shell is symmetrical and convoluted, the coils afterwards entered the Church. He was a favourite at the lying in one plane. The whorls are few, and smooth or sculpcourt of James V., and wrote a Topograzphy of Scotland, Et'pistles, tured. A dorsal ridge or keel exists on theconvex or rounded and poems. His chief work in verse was his Prohenze of the margin of the shell. The aperture of the shell is wide, and is Cosmnograjlhie, designed for the instruction of the youthful notched or indented on its dorsal side. The Bellerophons-of monarch. It was at the king's desire that B. undertook his which B. Ar/o (Lower Silurian), B. di/aluzts (U. Silurian), B. principal work-the translation of Hector Boece's Scotorum Wenlockensis, B. exibansus, B. bisulcatus, and B. subolobalus Nisborio into the English dialect used in the Lowlands of Scot- (Devonian), may be taken as examples-range from the Lower land. This was printed at Edinburgh in I536-the very year Silurian to the Carboniferous formations. Bellerothina, found of Boece's death-under the title Hystory and Chroniklis of in the Upper Cretaceous rocks, is only doubtfully classified with Scotland. B.'s task was well executed; the translation, though the true Bellerophons. a free one, is spirited, and even elegant. B. also rendered into Belles-Lettre. In French, the phrase B. -L., when strictly the same dialect the first five books of Livy. These works used, embraces only'(Grammar, Oratory, and Poetry,' but both gained high repute for their author; he was appointed by theusdemrcsol GamrOtryanPer,'btoh gaied high repute for their author; he was appointed by the in France, and in the other countries that have adopted the term, kting Archdeacon of Moraly and Canon of Ross. B. became a king Archdeacon of Moray and Canon of Ross. B. became a its application is often extended so as to include mesthetics, and, Lord of Session in the reign of Mary; and was a zealous opponLord of Session in the reign of Miary; and was a zealous oppo- within certain limits, criticism, or, generally, all the departments nent of the Reformation. e died at Rome in 550 Aeprit of literature bearing upon the emotions and the arts. The use of his translation of Boece was published at Edinburgh in I82r, of theterm in English is co-ordinate with that of olite literature, and of the Five Books of Livy in 1822, both under the editor- a phrase which is no doubt vague as to its limits, but was obship of Mr Maitland. viously meant to embrace all kinds of literature that might be Bellenden (Ballendenr, Ballantyne, or Bannatyne), profitably read with a view to general culture rather than to Sir John, of Auchinvole, has been sometimes confounded with special scolrs; such as poetry, history, fiction, criticism, &c. the preceding. He was secretary to the Earl of Angus, and The diffusion of knowledge in modern times has necessarily alone stood by that noble when tried in 1528 for high treason. widened to some extent the application of the term, which in The Earl was banished, but restored in 1543, when B. was fact is rather falling into disuse; but it is still held to exclude knighted, and became Lord of Session, Director of Chancery, and science, metaphysics, and theology, however brilliantly expounded. Justice-Clerk of Scotland. Unlike his cotemporary, the Arch- Belle'ville, a suburb of Paris, in the arrondissement of deacon, B. attached himself to the Reformation party. Hewas Menilmontant, within the military works recently erected. It mixed up in the intrigues of Queen Mary, Darnley, and Bothwell; has several manufactures, among others, of polished steel, varbut the belief that he was concerned in the Rizzio murder seems nished leather, cashmeres, &c. Paris has long derived its waterto have been unfounded. B. died in the year I577. supply from springs at B., which is also noted as a great resort Bellenden, William, a Scotchman by birth, was a Profes- of pleasure-seekers. Recently it has acquired a sort of political sor of Humanity in the University of Paris, and an advocate in notoriety. It is understood to be one of the headquarters of the the Parliament there during the reigns of Mary and James VI. of Radical party in the metropolis, and its ouvniers, though disScotland. He was also engaged in diplomacy. His Ciceronis playing a singular absence of the national gallantry during the Princegs (a compilation of rules of government from Cicero's German siege of Paris, eagerly welcomed the bloody carnival of writings), or Be Sla/u P]rinceiis, was published in I6o8; his the Commune, Ciceronis Consul, Senator, Senalusque Romanus, or Be Statu Belleville, capital of St Clair county, Illinois, fourteen miles Reipuulicce, in 612; his De Stalu Prisci Orbis (an account of the S, E. of St Louis, possesses many manufactories and several good progress of ancient nations in religion, government, &c., from public buildings. Pop, 8146. before the flood), in 1615. These three books appeared again together as Bellendenus dBe Sta/u. A more important work was Belleville, the county town of Hastings, province of Ontario, his posthumous Be Tr~ibus Lurninibus Ronan~oru, in which the Canada, on the Bay of QuintS, Lake Ontario, 48 miles W. of his posthumous. De Tr'ibus _Luminibus 2Romanorum, in which the politics, morals, and science of Cicero, Seneca, and Pliny were Kingston, and a station on the Grand Trunk Railway, has exto have been digested. The work is confined to Cicero. (See tensive timber trade, also several large foundries and manufacDr Parr's edition, ptblished I787, and Parr's Works, by John- tories. Pop. (1871) 7305 son, vols. i. and iii.) Belley', a town' in the French department of Ain, is now Beller'ophon (slayer of Belleros), son of Glaucus, King of chiefly known for the excellent lithographic-stones found in its Cornt. Rparig t KngPrctu atArosto btinpurfia-neighbourhood. It is the seat of a bishop, has a cathedral, a Corinth. Repairing to King Prcetus at Argos to obtain purifica- public library, a museum of antiquities, &c. Pop. (1872) 3534. public library, a museum of antiquities, &c. Pop- (I872) 3534. tion from the murder of his brother, the wife of that monarch, Anteia, or according to Apollodorus, Sthenobcea, conceived a Bell-Flower. See CAMPANULA. criminal passion for him, which B, refused to gratify. On this Belli'ni, a famous family of Italian painters, who are generally she accused him to Prcetus of having attempted to violate her, regarded as the founders of what is known as the Venetian and demanded that he should be slain, Unwilling to slay his school, inasmuch as they were the first to abandon that poverty guest, Prcetus dismissed him to the court of Iobates, IKing of and sharpness of outline which characterised the works of the Lycia, with a sealed message requesting that monarch to have earlier Venetians, and professed homage to that splendour of him despatched. Iobates accordingly sent B. to kill the colour for which Giorgione and Titian, who were their pupils, Chimera, a monster composed of a lion in front, a goat (hence became so deservedly famous.-Giacomo, or Jacopo B., the its name, Chimcera) in the middle, and a dragon behind. This father, born in Venice, was one of the earliest painters in oil, 344 A A~~~ —---------- BEL THE GIOBE ENCYCLOPEDItA. BEL painted for the Church of St John the Evangelist, Venice, and Franklin's remains-first, with Captain Kennedy in the Prince excelled in portraits. Only a single authentic work of his, a Albert, when he discovered B. Strait (q. v.); and, second, Madonna, has survived. He died about 470. —Gentile B., with Captain Inglefield, in H.M.S. Phaezix, with which he his eldest son, born 1421, died I501, was employed with his never returned, having fallen through a crack in the ice, March brother Giovanni to decorate the council-chamber of the Vene- 2I, I853. His 7yornal of a Voyage to the Polar Seas moade in tjan Senate. His'Preaching of St Mark,' a work ranking Search of Sir ohln Fralnklin inz I851-52, was published with a among the finest of his time for colour and effect, is now in Milan. memoir of his life at Paris in I854 (Eng. transl. I855). -Giovanni B., born I426, died I516, was the most eminent artist of the family. His best works are altar-pieces in different plored y M'Clitock, is the narrow assage, about twenty miles churches in Venlice, and a Madonlna and Child, attended by plored by M'Clintock, is the narrow passage, about twenty miles churches in Venice, and a Madonna and Child, attende long, which separates N. Somerset from Boothia Felix, and angels, in the monastery of the Capuchins there. Giorgione joins Prince Regent's Inlet with Franklin Channel. and Titian were among his pupils, and carried to perfection the warm and brilliant style of their master. Bell'ows. See BLOWING-MACHINES. Bellini, Vincenzo, an Italian composer, born at Catania, Bellows-Fish. A popular name applied to those Acatnhopin Sicily, 3d November 1802, trained at the Conservatory of terous fishes known as sea-saipes, &c., from the extended pipeNaples, went to Paris in I833, and died at Puteaux, near that like form of the jaw-bones. The sea-snipe (Centriscus scolopax) city, 24th September I835. He wrote scarcely anything but exemplifies this group; this species being found in the Mediteroperatic music, his best-known works being La Sonoambula, ranean Sea. NVormza, and I Puritani. His style was to a great extent Belloy', Pierre Laurent Buyrette de, a dramatist and founded upon that of Rossini (who was ten years his senior), but member of the French Academy, was born at St Flour, Auwith an exaggeration of that master's defects. His melodies are v.ergne, November I7, I727. He was educated for the law at wanting in anything like vigour or originality, and his harmonies Paris, but a passion for the stage turned him aside from that proand accompaniments are generally thin and poor. See Pougin's fession. After pursuing his calling as a comedian for some time Bellini (I868). at St Petersburg, he returned to Paris in 1758, to see his tragedy Bellinzo'na, or Bellenz', a town in the canton of Tessin, Titus put on the stage. It was a failure. His next, Zelmcire, Switzerland, on the left bank of the river Tessin, 2 miles NE. had considerable success, but the play which brought about a of Ascona, and 8 from the head of the Lago Maggiore. It has brilliant epoch in the career of De B., was Le Siege de Calais, considerable transit trade over the passes of St Gothard and produced in I765. Not to admire it was considered unpatriotic. St Bernard, and is periodically the seat of the cantonal govern- Gaston et Bayard (I77I) procured him membeiship of the French ment. The finest building in the whole canton is the Church Academy. Pierre le Cruel (1772) was not a success when first of St Peter and Stephen, in B,, partly of marble, and possessing put on the stage, hut being revived after the author's deathput on the stage, but being revived after the author's deathgood altar-pieces. The town has still several monasteries. In which took place March 5, 775-it took well, and has kept a former times it was the scene of fierce and frequent conflicts good hold on the Fren stage. He died in comparatively between the Swiss and Italians. B. is protected from the over- straitened circumstances. Gaillard has published the ~Euvres de flowings of the Tessin by a great dam more than 2400 feet long De B. in 6 vols. I779-87.; and Firmin Didot UEdures Choisies The river is also here crossed by a granite bridge of ten archesdeDe B., with a memoir of the author, 2 vols. Pal. I8I. and upwards of 700 feet in length. Pop. (1870) 250o. Bell-Pepper, the frui't of Caesicuum grossum, a native of India. Bell'is. See DAISY. Bell-Rock, or Inch Cape, an old red sandstone reef, off Bell'mann, Karl MCikael, a popular Swedish lyrist, born the E. coast of Scotland, 12 miles S.E. of Arbroath, long a at Stockholm, 24th February I74i, became court-secretary in serious obstacle to the navigation of the Tay, and the cause of I775, and died Ioth February I795. The first effusions of his freuent shipwreck. It is 2000 feet long, 330 broad, and is muse were religious, but he was soon drawn away into a dissolute partly uncovered during spring-tides. A lighthouse, like that career, and his later and more brilliant pieces are chiefly bac- of Eddystone, was built here (1807-II) by Robert Stevenson, chlanalian, idyllic, or humorous songs, for which lie also fur- engineer to'the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses, which nished original melodies. The best specimens of his enius, ost over ~60,000. It is 115 feet high, and has a revolving white which is of a rare order, are to be found in the collections pre- and red light, visible at a distance of 4 miles. Two bells, of pared by himself: Bachanaliske Ordenskapillets 11anibibliothzek over half a ton each, are also employed during foggy weather. (Ir783), Eriedman'se piscarn(I7go), and enatetn'i s fSnger(I79I)o. The tradition of the bell placed here by the Abbot of Arbroath, Numerous editions of his Saneoade Skrifter have been published or Aberbrothwick, to warn sailors of the hidden danger, is well in Sweden, of which the most splendid is that by Carlen (4 vols. known through Southey's ballad of The lnchcope Rock. Stock. I86i). A monument was erected to his memory at Bells, as a nautical term, denotes a method of indicating the Stockholm, 26th July I829, and ever since the anniversary of its time of a watch oil board ship. A long watch lasts four hours, a erection has been kept as a popular holiday. B.'s German trans- short watch, two.. When the half-hour sandglass is run out, a bell lator, Winterfeld (I856), has happily described him as'The is struck; the number of blows increasing by one each half-hour Swedish Anacreon.' till the watch is over. Thus the B. reach eight in a long watch, Bello'na, the goddess of war (Lat. belunm) among the Romans, and four in a dog-watch. and the wife of Mars, before whose chariot she hurried. Her Bells have been employed in religious ceremonies from a worship (see Mommsen's History of Rome, b. i. ch. I3) was one very early age; and in this connection only they seem to have of the oldest and most sacred forms of the national religion. She been in use among the ancient Egyptians and the Israelites is represented as armed with a bloody scourge, and as inspiring a (Exod. xxxviii. 3). The Greeks and Romans, however, applied warlike enthusiasm impossible to resist. In her temple in the them to domestic and camp purposes; and from Pliny we learn Campus Martius the senate gave audience to foreign embassies that each of the pinnacles decorating the monument of Porsenna and to generals claiming a triumph. Her priests (Bellonarii) in was surmounted by B. They are said to have been introduced her worship used to cut themselves with knives, and to offer up, into Christian churches by Paulinus, Bishop of Nola in Campania, and even sometimes to drink, the blood thus shed. The act, about the year 400 A.D. It was not, however, till 550 A.D. that which became latterly merely symbolical, was performed on the they were first known in France; but after this date they were 24th of March, which hence was known as dies sanguinis (day rapidly introduced into all parts of Christendom. About the year of blood). 600, Pope Sabinian ordered that B. should be rung every hour; and Bell of a Capital, in architecture, is the vase or corbel of three centuries later Pope John IX. introduced them into all the a Corinthian or composite capital denuded of the foliage which churches as a defence against thunder and lightning. Up to the usually surrounds it. It is also called the drum. I3th c. the B. in use seem to have been merely small hand-B.; some have been preserved, and whether possessing the antiquity Bellot', Joseph R6n6, a distinguished French naval officer, implied in their names or not, are unquestionably very ancient was born at Paris, May I8, i826. He is specially celebrated -e.g., St Patrick's Bell, St Ninian's Bell, and the four-sided as an explorer in the Arctic Seas, to which region he went as a bell of St Gall, Switzerland. During the 15th c., B. of several volunteer in both the expeditions sent out in search of Sir John tons in weight began to be cast. The bell'Jacqueline' of Paris, 44 345 _ ____ __- i 4 BEL THE GLOBE ENCYCCLOPADUIA. BEL cast in I400, weighed over 6 tons; the bell at Cologne (i448) French. On its ringing at eight o'clock in the evening, all fires weighed I tons; the famous bell at Rouen (I50I), I6 tons; and lights were to be extinguished under pain of a severe penalty. and at more recent dates we have the Bruges bell (I68o), IoJ The term was retained long after the practice of putting out the lights had been abandoned, and is not even yet forgotten:'The curfew tolls'the knell of parting day.' In the Netherlands the ringing of chimes is a very common practice. Indeed, in many parts the air is perpetually resonant with their light and silvery melody. The custom has also made some progress in Britain. Many church-towers in the larger towns are provided with peals of B., one of the most celebrated of which is the'Bow-B.' of London. Eight B., forming the diatonic scale, give as many as 40,320 changes or permutations. (V ~0) Li 2 15 D 9o| The hanging of B. in private dwelling-houses is a modern invention, and was not known in England till the time of Queen Anne. The most approved manner of arranging the wires is to carry them from the communicators up to the top of the house,:and then bring them down again to their respective B. Electric B. have recently been introduced, and are likely to supersede all others. The circuit is completed by pressing a stud; a piece of soft iron is thus magnetised, and raises the hammer, which on ~JpZI ^ i \ falling strikes the bell. For detailed information regarding the:/ if \history, nature, and applications of B., the reader may consult Tintinnalogia, or the Azrt of Rnginzg; 7he Bellt, its Originz, L-]is/','a \tory, and Uses, by Alfred Gatty; and E. B. Denison's Lectures on _________________________ + ChuZrch Building, wZithZ some Practical liemairks on B. and Clocks. 7Bells, Blessing of, a ceremony as old as the 7th c., at which,.according to the Roman rite, a bishop in cope and mitre, after washing the bell in salt and water, which had been previouSly blessed, anoints it outside with the oil of the sick, and Bell of Church at Luhnde, Hildesheim, 1,278. with chrism inside. After being censed, the bell is considered blessed. According to the Parisian rite, in which the oil of tons; the Paris bell (I68o), I24 tons; the Vienna bell ('I7I.), catechumens is used, two persons, who stand as sponsors to the 171 tons;'(Great Peter' of York Minster (1845), IO, tons; bell, pronounce aloud under whose invocation it is to be named,' Great Tom' of Lincoln (1834), 52 tons;'Big Ben' of West- a circumstance which has led, by mistake, to the ceremony being minster (I856), 15 tons 81 cwt.; the Olmutz bell, I7.9r tons; called the'baptism of B.' and the great bell at Pekin, 532 tons. The largest bell in Belu'no, a city, province of B., N. of Italy, on the right the world, however, is the'Monarch' of Moscow, being over bank of the river Piave; the seat of a bishop, has a fine cathedral, 21 feet in height and diameter, and having a weight of 193 a rich library, numerous churches, two monasteries, a science tons. It was cast in 1736, the value of the metal alone:being at and art academy, a good gymnasium, and a fair theatre; carries the lowest estimate 66, 565; fell down and was injured in 1737 on silk manufactures, and has an active trade in timber. Marshal during a fire; remained buried to a certain extent till 1837, when Victor took fm the town the title of Du de B. Pop. 14,176. it was raised, and it now forms the dome of a chapel. Victor took from the town the title of Duc de B. Pop. I4, I76. it was raised, and it now forms the dome of a chapel. Bell-metal is an alloy of-copper with tin, zinc, or other metal. Bel'omancy (Gr. belos, an arrow; imanteia, divination), a In England, the proportions in which the metals are mixed vary mode of divining by means of arrows with written labels attached considerably; but generally the quantityof the copper present is to them, practised by various Eastern nations. The arrows, between three and four times that of the tin. Other metals,'such which are either drawn from a bag or discharged from a bow, as zinc, iron, lead, &c., if present at all, are in much smaller are supposed to indicate the future from the inscription on the quantity. Hand-B. are often made of brass, German silver, first arrow found in either of these modes. See AXINOMANCY, real silver, and gold. and DIVINING-ROD. The pitch of the note emitted by a bell depends on its size-the Belon', Pierre,an eminent French naturalist, was born at smaller the bell, the higher the.pitch. The quality of tone de- Soulletiere (Sarthe) in I5I7, travelled in the East (1546-49) pends much upon the material and the shape of the bell; and it and was murdered in I564 by robbers while botanisinog in the is found that the greater quantity of metal for the same note Bois de Bologne. He enriched the knowledge of his age by a produces a richer tone. As regards the proportional dimensions great number of-entirely new observations on the natural history of a bell, different English bell-founders have different rules, of the countries which he visited; and his descriptions of their derived from experience. The Germans, however, give the fol- antiquities, &c., are still interesting. His principal works are, lowing numbers: taking the sound(-bow, the thickest part, where Observations de plusieurs Singularitez et Choses A1iemnorables, the hammer strikes, as the unit-; the diameter at mouth I5, the trouvees en Grice, Asie, Indze, ~Efypte, Arabi et auttres Pays diameter at top 71, height I2, and weight of clapper the estranges, redigies en trois,.Livres (Par. 1553)r; Iistoire Naturelle weight of the bell. The sound-boo is usually made of wrought iron. dles estranges Poissons Mairins (Par. 55I), and Hlistoire de la From their almost universal'connection with religious'rites, B. Natnz -des Oyseaux (Par. 1553), all of which contain many culious came to be looked upon as possessing a sacred character, and thus details, and may still be consulted by naturalists with profit. arose various superstitious noti ons regarding their efficacy in ward. ing off diseases, misfortunes, and evil spirits, and in helping to hasten the souls of departing ones -to their rest. Hence the Beloo'chistan, or Beluchistan, the south-eastern part of custom of tolling the passinzg-bell, which was retained.at'the Re- the plateau of Iran, partly corresponding to the ancient Gedlrosia, formation, owing perhaps to its solemn'and tender associationsl lies between 24~ 50' and 30~ 20' N. lat., and between 57~ 40' but the people were'instructed that it was only intended to warn and 69~ r8' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by Afghanistan, the living of the lot common to all mortals, and to invite them on the E. by Mfltan and Scinde, on the S. by the Arabian Sea, to pray for the dying. The custom still prevails, but the tolling and on the W. by Persia. Average length, 600oo miles; average now takes place usually during the funeral, and more as'a mark breadth, 300 miles; area, from I50o,oo000 to I8o,ooo sq. miles; of respect for the deceased. The baptism of B., which is still pop. between one and two millions. B. is for the most part a practised in Roman Catholic countries, and which is supposed rocky, dry, and barren highland, bounded in the E. by the Brahui to have originated in the Ioth c., is another example of their mountains, and falling down to the sandy plains of the S. and W. sacredness. in a succession of terraces. The only fertile districts are GanThe coutfez-bell is said to have been introduced into England dawa and Kelat in the N.E. The climate in the stretches of shortly after the Norman conquest, and the name at least is low desert is hot, in the valleys moist and warm, in the high345 BEL TILE GL OBIE NC YCL Ok~EDiA. BEL lands sharp but healthy. The pastures are poor, hence cattle have been a form of fire-worship, and some of the doings conand horses are few; the ordinary draught animal being the nected with which continued to be practised in Ireland, Scotland, dromedary. Where water is found there are copious tropical and the Isle of Man down almost to the present generation. harvests; and in the more elevated regions the cereals and fruits That there is, however, any etymological connection between of the temperate zone flourish. Copper, iron, lead, and anti- the Celtic Beal and the Phoenician or Syrian oaal is impromony are found, and there are a few manufactures of carpets bable, though our knowledge is not such as to justify a dogand tent-covers made of the hair of goats and camels; but matic opinion. The great seasons for this nature-worship, the trade is trifling, and mainly in the hands of natives of India. one of the chief features of which was the kindling of huge B. is governed by the Kihan of Kelat, who, having broken faith fires, were the summer and winter solstices, and about the with the British in I839, had his capital taken from him in I840 spring and autumn equinoxes. On midsummer-day, and espeand 1841 successively. The sirdars, or chiefs, partly hereditary cially the Ist of May, which in Irish is called La Beal-tine, and partly elected, are under a species of feudal government, and in the Highlands of Scotland Beltein-day, bonfires were and have to furnish a certain quota of troops and attend the kindled; the company danced round them and leaped over or court. They are the real governors of B., the authority of the through them, keeping up various ceremonies, which pointed to Khan being more nominal than real, especially in the western the fact that, in a remote antiquity, human sacrifices had actually portions of the country. The inhabitants in the N. and W. are been offered to the sun-god. the Behlchees proper (a mixture of Persians, Hindu, and Semitic Of the ways in which the rites were observed in different parts races); in the E., Bra/iuis (a remnant of the original inhabitants, there seems to have been an endless variety. The following is with a peculiar language); in the S.E., the Lamri, Sunnite the description of how they were observed in Perthshire as given Mohammedans, following a pastoral life. The first are robbers, in Sinclair's Stat. Acct.:-" Upon the Ist day of May, which is the second and third peaceful and industrious. Besides these called Baltein-day, all the boys in a township or hamlet meet on there are Hindus, Tajiks, Armenians, and Jews in the towns. the moors. They cut a table in the green sod, of a round figure, The capital is Kelat (q. v.); the only seaport, Sommeanee, in by casting a. trench in. the ground of such circumference as to the S.E., on the Indian frontier. hold the whole company. They kindle a fire, and dress a repast Belpass'o, a town of Sicily, province of Catania at the of eggs and milk of the consistence of a custard. They knead a southernbaseof Mount Etna, 8miesN of the to of cake of oatmeal, which is toasted at the embers against a stone. southern base of Mount Etna, 8 miles N.W.- of the town of sCatania. PoP. 7500o. The old town, which was called Mel -fAfter the custard is eaten, they divide the cake into so many Catania. Porp. 7500. The old town, which was called Miel Pass, was destroyed by an eruption in 669, and belo the portions, as similar as possible. to one another in size and Passo, was destroyed by an eruption in i669, and below the twtheianxasolaaofrnasrkgcn shape, as there are persons in the company. They daub one present town there is an expanse of lava, offerig a striking con- of these portions all over with charcoal until it be perfectly trast to the richly cultivated country. black. They put all the bits of cake into a bonnet. Every one Bel'per (a corruption of Fr. Bcazu-i-eaire,'beautiful retreat'), blindfold draws out a portion..... Whoever draws the black a well-built market-town of Derbyshire, England, situated on bit is the devoted person who is to be sacrificed to Baal, whose the Derwent, 7 miles N. from Derby, and a station on the favour they mean to implore in rendering the year productive of North-Midland Railway. It has several notable buildings, the sustenance of man and beast; There is little doubt of these among which the union workhouse is a splendid specimen of inhuman sacrifices having been once offered in this country as Elizabethan architecture. Cotton is manufactured extensively; well as ih the East, although they now omit the act of sacrificing, also silk, hosiery, nails, and earthenware. The country is- rich and only compel the devoted person to leap three times through ~ in coal, iron, and limestone. Pop. (1871) 8527. the flames, with which the ceremonies of this festival are closed." Bel'sham, Thomas, a Unitarian. divine, horn at B edford Rites very closely akin to the above were observed at midsumin Aril 1750, educated in Calvinistic principles, and head o e mr; only the Church, with her usual policy, adopted the pagan the theological academy at Daventry till 1789, when he embraced fstiv-1; christened it St John's Day, and represented the fires, Unitarian views. After a few years he succeeded Dr Priestley torches, &c-, to he in commemoration of John the Baptist, who and in 1805 was appointed successor to Dr Disney in Essex was a burning and a shining light' (John v. 35). See Brand's Street Chapel, London-a position he retained till his death in POIU/7a Antiqzities. I829. His theological writings embrace nearly all the doctrines Beln'ga, the'white whale' ('Begozo'a leucas, or Catodor) of and evidences of Christianity, but his views on the person of the northern, seas, included, not in the genera of true Cetacea, Christ are entirely humanitarian. or whales, but in the family of the Delp/inirrd, or dolphins. Belshazz'ar (mod. form Balt/rasar), the last king of Babylon, The head of the B. is blunt-shaped, and not prolonged to according to the writer of Daniel and the historian Xenophon, form a eak. No dorsal fin exists, and there are nine teeth in both of whom record substantially the same story, viz., that the each side of each jaw. These teeth disappear as the animal adances side afgeac. Thfr aelocusei Brteeth dsapears. Ite aisa city of Babylon was surprised and captured at night by Cyrus, advan city ofathe anes in age. Thun form rarely occurs in British seas. It is the Persian, who put B. to death. On the other. hand, Berosus ly defined species of its genus-if we reckon the to theonlydeineda species of itsef Thenclus if whie, aeknd the b.oto (according to Josephus) and Herodotus diverge considerably in stitte a genus of itself. The colour is wie, and the body aveagstitut l ength fof1 itos eet. Thee foourms hie are thegbod points fi'om this account. Berosus calls the last king of Babylon veraes in length fro 12 to feet. These forms are gregat,~~~vrae in leghabi o m1tO1fet. hseom rege Nabonnedus (~Nabu-irit2 or -inril,'whom Neo prospers'), and rous in haits, and feed chiefly on fishes. The Greenlanders states that he was captured by Cyrus in thevalue its flesh as food, and manufacture oil from the blubber, and leather from the skin. Another form, accounted by some natuof Borsippus, and spent the remainder of his life a prisoner in leath fo te skin. Another form, accound by somern Persia; while Herodotus says that the king of Babylon was ralists to be of a distinct species (B. i found in southern called Labynetus, and adds, that though Cyrus took the city by seas. Two young ones are produced at a birth. A B. was capsueas w yong ones ai~re~ podue atlhIn 8 an birth. Aie B. wascapsurprise at last, it was only after a long siege. Sir Henry Raw- in the Firth of Forth in 1815, and in the river edway linson is thought by many to have solved the difficulty presented in I86. by these conflicting accounts, for in 1.854 he deciphered certain The name B... is also applied to a species of Sturgeon (q. v.) inscriptions found in the ruins of Ur of the Chaldees, from which (Accipser or St-io so) found in the Caspian and Black Seas, he ascertained that Nabonnedus had a son, Bel-shar-ezar, who and which attains a lengthof 12or 14 feet, and a weight of i1oo Bel-sh~~andzr whic tan eghof1 or 1fevetand 30eih0o1o was conjoint-ruler with his father; and he suggested that the ee 3000 lbs. son might have perished in the capital, while the father was Be'lus. See BAAL. captured in Borsippus. Belvede're (It.'fine prospect'), the name originally given Belt (Dan. B'&te, a'belt' or girdle), the name of two straits by the Italians to an erection on the top of a house for the purbetween the Baltic and the Cattegat. The Great B. separates the pose of enjoying a view of the surrounding country. It is also Danish islands Zeeland and Fiinen, and is about 7o0miles long, applied to a part of the Vatican which contains the famous statue and from 4 to 20 broad. The Little B. passes between Fiinen and of Apollo. The corresponding French term is Bellevue, which Jutland, and is 1o miles broad. The Sound (q. v.) is preferred is given to any place of refreshment possessing summer-gardens. to both these channels on account of their dangerous shoals and Belvedere, or Summer Cypress (ci soai), an Belvedere, or Summer Cypress (l~'ochia sco,,ai-ia), an currents. ~~~~~~~~~~currents. ~annual plant, a native of the middle and S. of Europe, and of Bel'tein, Bel'tan, Bal'tein, Bealtainn, &c., was a great temperate Asia, belonging to the natural order C/enojodiacece, festival among all the Celtic tribes of Europe, which seems to long cultivated in our gardens as an ornamental annual. 47 BEL THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP~EDIA. BEN Belvis'ia, or Napoleo'nea. See BELvlsIACEE. mammalia An4nplotherium (q. v.) and Paleotherizum (q. v.) are Belvisia'ces, a natural order of plants closely allied to the found, along with other less familiar fossil forms. The B. B. mangroveorder, or Rhizophoraclce (q. v.), or to Barrington- themselves rest upon the St Helen's Sands, or uppermost strata of mncegr (o v.), natives of tropical Africa. In addition to Belvisla the Osborne series, also developed in the Isle of Wight, and beiace~ (q. v.), natives of tropical Africa. In addition to Belvisia (or Npoeoe), there is only the genus Asterntos in the order, longing to the Middle Eocene formations. All the fossils of these (orz~aolenea, tereis nlythegens Aternths i th orerstrata are of estuarine or of fluvio-marine kind) and indicate the which comprises four species. The pulp of the fruits is edible, strat are of estuarine or of flvio-marine kind, and indicate the and the pericarp contains much tannin. formation of these rocks from brackish or estuarine waters. and the pericarp contains much tannin. Belzo'ni, Giovanni Battista, an Italian traveller was Ben, or Beann, the Gaelic word for a mountain-summit or head. Another form is Ceann. It enters into the composition born at Padua, November 5, I778, and educated at Rome for h Aot fm i e itns o t ecm in the priesthood, which he forsook on the capture of Rome by the of numerous names in the Hihlands of Scotland-esg, Ben French. After travelling through Holland, England, and Spain, Cevis, Ben Macdhui, Ben Lomond, &c. The corresponding for nearly fifteen years as an athletic performer, during which ymric for is Pen, seen in Pen-nine, Pen-rith, Pe-rhyn, Pentime he pursued in his leisure hours mechanical studies, he went maen-mawr, &c. In Ireland, according to Dr Joyce (Irish to Egypt in I815, where he executed an hydraulic machine for Names and Places, ist ser., pp. 349, 350), B. is not applied to Mehemet A. He then directed his attention to exploration high hills, but to moderate heights; and its different application In 1817 be opened the tomb of Psammetichus, and removed in Scotland suggests the possibility of its being a Pictish as In iI87 be opened the tomb of Psammnetichus, and removed, from it the splendid sarcophagus now in the British Museum. well as a Scottish, i.e., Irish word, especially since Dr Skene After opening the pyramid of Cephren, his greatest achievement (The Four Ancient Books of Wales, vol. i. ch. viii. and ix.) has he spent some time in searching for the temple of Jupiter Am- shown the likelihood of the Pictish dialect being more allied to mon, and in the course of his investigations discovered the eme- Gaelic than to Cymric. raid-mines of Zubara and the ruins of Berenice. In 1821, he Ben (Heb.'son,' in composition'son of'), forms the first published at London his Narrative of the Operations and Recent syllable of many Old Testament proper names, as Benjamin D)iscoveries, &'c., inEgypt and Nrbia. B. died at Gato Decegm (Gen. xxxv. i8). The plural, Beni, is found in several modern her 3, 1823, on a journey to Timbuctu, names, as Beni-Hassan. Among the Arabs, Beni (the sons of some one) is the designation of a tribe, just as the clans in the Bern, Joseph, a Hungarian patriot and soldier, was born at H Tarnov, in Galicia, in 1795, and for many years made a liveli- ighands of Scotland are Mac-Donalds, Mac-Duffs, &c. hood by teaching in France. The Hungarian revolution of 1848 Ben, Oil of, a fluid fixed oil obtained from the seeds of the brought him into prominence, and his courage, generalship, horse-radish tree (Moringa lterygosferma), a native of India and and power of organising rapid movements becoming known,. he Arabia, the seeds of which are called Ben nuts. It is sometimes was appointed commander of the Hungarian army in Transyl- used by perfumers, painters, and watchmakers. vania. In this capacity he inflicted several severe defeats on the Benar'es, the chief city of a district and division of the same Austrians, and ultimately expelled both them and the Prussians name, N.W. Province, British India, on the left bank of the from Transylvania. In the final stages of the gallant but hope- Ganges, 421 miles N.W. of Calcutta, and 74 S.E. of Allaless war, B. showed great bravery, and when at last he found habad. It is the chief seat of Hinduism, the Rome of India, himself unable to defend Transylvania, he escaped into Turkey. extends about 3 miles along the sacred river, and contains iooo There he became a Mohammedan, and entering the army, rose Hindu temples and over 30 mosques, including the splendid to the position of pasha. He died of fever, ioth December one of Aurungzebe. Broad flights of steps or ghdts descend to I85O, at Aleppo, whither he had gone to suppress a rising of the river, forming a magnificent terrace, which is used as a Arabs against the Christian population. See Czeca, B.'s Feld- sort of market-place. B. is visited by vast numbers of pilaug in Siebenbiirgen (I85o). grims, amounting on special occasions, it is said, to ioo,ooo. Bern'bo, Pietro, an Italian scholar and ecclesiastic, born The streets are everywhere narrow, and the houses generally of in Venice, May 20, 1470'; studied Greek under Lascaris at Mes- a mean description. - Sacred bulls and apes move at large, and sina, and philosophy at Ferrara. He then returned to Venice, are tended by the priests of Siva. B. (its Sanskrit name is Varaand was received into, the famous society of scholars that met nast) is a city of great antiquity; according to Hindu tradition, at the house of the publisher Manutius, for whom he edited indeed, it is coeval with the world. In Sanskrit poetry, where Petrarch's Italian poetry (I50I), and the Terze Rinme of Dante it figures as the seat of a half-mythical race of rulers, it is called (1502). From 1506 to 1.51z2 he resided at the court of Urbino; Kasi —i.e., the splendid-and is celebrated as the oldest seat of then repairing to Rome, he became secretary to Leo X. till the Brahmanical learning. Long subject to the Rajput princes of death of that Pope. Although a priest, he was something of a Kanoj, it first fell under Mussulman domination in II 93, when pagan in his manner of life, like not a few of the Renaissance it was conquered by the Ghuride Rut-bed-din. In 1529 it was scholars, and had a mistress who bore him three children. In seized by the first Great Mogul, Baber, and on the breaking up 1539 Paul III. elevated him to the cardinalate, and gave him the of the Mogul empire became the possession of the Nawab of bishoprics of Gubbio and Bergamo. He died January iS, 1547- Oude, whose grandson ceded it to the English in 1775. The His literary taste was very fastidious, and he subjected his writ- Sanskrit College of B. was founded in 1792, and now embraces a ings to numerous revisions, but, like their author, they are not modern department for literature, history, mathematics, political free from the licentiousness of the age. Of his Re-rum Venetica- economy, and the English and Persian languages. B. is also a rum, Lir-i XI. (Venice, 155 i), an Italian version was published rich commercial centre, and is connected by railway with Calcutta, the following year. A complete edition of his works in prose Bombay, and the Punjab. It has important manufactures of and verse, which embrace dialogues, letters, sonnets,, songs, &c., shawls, indigo, sugar, and cloth of gold and silver, and is the was published at Venice i 4q vols, 1729. principal jewel-market in the whole of Asia. Pop. (1872) Bempblished Bedsice siesn of straa I75,88, including the British cantonments of Secrole (q. v.). Bern'bridg~e Beds, a series of strata about ~ ~'5 feet in thickThe district of B. is watered by the Ganges, the Karamnasa, ness, belonging to the Ulpier Eocene formations of the Cainozoic the Gumti, and minor rivers, and yields abundance of rice, the Gumti, and minor rivers, and yields abundance of rice, period, and chiefly developed in the Isle of Wight. They in- opium, suga and indigo. Area, 996 s miles; POP. (72) clude (beginning with the lowest bedss)-Firstly, the B. Limestone, a pale yellow limestone, interstratifie with clay or marl, and 794,039, mostly Hindus. B. district has a permanent settlement a pale yellow limestone, interstratifieland-tax like Lower Bengal. containing siliceous or cherty bands in some cases. The thick- of the land-tax like Lower Bengal. ness of the first layer is from 20 to 2:5 feet. Secondly, the Oyster Benaven'te, a town of Spain, province of Zamora, 34 miles bed, consisting of a few feet in thickness of greenish sands con-. of the town of Zamora. It is surrounded by a mud wall, N. of the town of Zamora. It is surrounded by a mud wall, btamding the remaing s of goysters (Ostrc Vetensis), and of other and commanded by a half-ruined castle, formerly the seat of the marinn.te molluscs. Thirdyter Nosr-fossieeeo si) aotld cly ohrCounts of B. It was here that Moore's retreat may be said to marin mollscs.Thirdly, the Non —fossilifer~ous vwtded~z clays, hv cmecd n h atewsgte ySuto i alternating with fossil-bearing clays and marls, containing th e commenced; and the castle was gutted by Soult on his lamell-branchiate molluscs Cyrena pulchra. Fourthly, laiz-ls retreatfromOporto. Pop. about5oo. and laminated grey clays, containing Mfelania turritissima. Benbec'ula, a small island of the Hebrides, lying between Above this last series lie the Blackband and Marlas, which form N. and S. Uist, and included in the latter parish, Invernessthe lowest of the Hamspstead series of beds, this series overlying shire. It is low, boggy, and sandy, measuring 8 or 9 miles the B. strata. In the B. B. the fossil remains of the extinct each way. Pop. (1871) 1563, engaged chiefly in fishing. 348 4 ~ - - * —-- BEN THE GL OBE ENC YCL OPAD1IA. BEN Benbow', John, an English rear-admiral, born in Shrop- I2th c. the Genoese had an establishment here. The Russians shire in I65o. After distinguishing himself in the merchant- stormed it in I770; it was restored to the Turks in 1774; it was service, James II. gave him a commission, and William III. again captured by the Russians in I8o9; and after being once appointed him to an important command, and in a few years more restored to the Turks, it was again taken in I8I by the advanced him to the dignity of rear-admiral. A gallant exploit, Russians, in whose possession it now remains. There is a mixed rendered memorable by the bravery of B. and by the cowardice pop. of 22,448, employed in paper-mills, tanneries, iron-smithies, of his officers, an unusual occurrence in the British navy, was his and a saltpetre-work. After his defeat at Poltava, Charles last. On the Ig9th of August 1702, after a chase of several days, XII. of Sweden resided in the neighbourhood of B. fiom 1709 he came up with a French force under Admiral Du Casse. The to 1712. brunt of the engagement, which lasted four days, fell on B.'s Ben'digo, a county and leading goldfield of Victoria, situated ship, his officers refusing to obey his signals. On the morning between i430 50 and 144~ 40' E. long., and 36' Io' and 460 55' of the 24th his right leg was shattered by a chain-shot, but he S. lat. Its area is about 1400 sq. miles. See SANDHURST. continued the engagement till night. He then sailed to Jamaica, ~where he died on the 4th of NoveiberBe'ne' (anc. Aug-ustla Bagiennorun), an Italian town I8 miles where he died on the 4th of November. N. E. of Coni, in the province of Mondovi, Piedmont. Many inBench signifies ordinarily the elevated part of a court-room teresting remains of antiquity have been found in its neighbourin which judges sit to administer the law. The term is often hood. Pop. about 60oo00.. applied to the judges themselves; thus we say,'it was the opinion of the B.' So we speak of the B. and the bar. Benedek, Ludwig von, an Austrian commander, was born at Oedenburg, in Hungary, in I804. After a training Bench, Xing's or Queen's. See COURTS OF LAW; at the Military Academy of Neustadt, he entered the Austrian COURT OF JUDICATURE, SUPREME ACTS. army in 1822 as a cornet, and in 1843 had attained the rank of Bench'ers, the ruling bodies of the Inns of Court (q. ov.), colonel. He showed considerable military ability in quelling an Lincoln's, Inner and Middle Temple, and Gray's Inns. They insurrection in Galicia; and in the Italian war of I848-49 still are commonly Queen's Counsel or distinguished barristers. more distinguished himself, contributing considerably to the victory of Novara. In the war of I859, B. was almost the only Bench-mark, a mark of any kind (in the Ordnance Survey Austrian commander that showed generalship, his division being an arrow) made upon a stone, a wall, or in any other suitable the last to leave the field at Solferino. After acting for a time as situation, to indicate the position of a station in a survey. governor of Hungary, he was appointed, with the title of marshal, to the chief command of the Austrian armies in the war Bench Warrant is a warrant issued for prompt execution with Prussia in I866; but was utterly beaten at Sadowa, July 3, by justices sitting on the bench or in session. and was superseded by the Archduke Aibrecht. Bencoo'len (Dutch Benkoelen, a corruption of the native Benedett'i, Vincenzio, a French diplomatist, was born in Baonf kat/tu), is the name of a Dutch town on the S.W. coast Corsica in i85. He was first chancellor of the French consulate of Sumatra, at the mouth of a river of the same name, built on in Alexandria; in 1848 consul at Palermo; on the establishment piles of amboo in a swampy and unhealthy district, though the of the Empire, secretary to the French embassyat Constantinople; town has a fine appearance from the sea, on account of an over- and, after the Crimean war, director in the office of the Minister hanging mountain called the' Sugar-Loaf.' It carries on a trade of Foreign Affairs. In i86i he went as ambassador to Turin, and with the ports on the Bay of Bengal in the produce of the dis- in i866 arranged the armistice of Nikolsburg between the Austrict-pepper, rice, coffee, maize, sugar-cane, &c. B. was founded trians and Prussians. From this date he remained at Berlin as in I686 by the English, but ceded to the Dutch in 1824. Pop. extraordinary ambassador till the outbreak of the Franco-Prusabout I2,000. It is the capital of a residency, with an area of sian war of I870. During these years he carried on frequent 9567 sq. miles, and a pop. of I26,00ooo. conversations (if not negotiations) with Count von Bismarck, Bend, in heraldry, one of the Honourable Ordinaries (q. v.), concerning the rectification of the frontiers of their respective occupying, if plain, a fifth part of the shield in width; a third countries, in which the subtle Italian was completely outwitted by if clharged. It is formed by two parallel lines passing diago-the crafty Teuton, who got him to put upon paper proposals of nally athwart the shield-from the dexter chief to the sinister a highly unscrupulous character. At Ems, in July I870, B. debase for the B. dexter, or simply the B.; from the sinister chief manded of the Prussian king, in the name of his master, not only to the dexter base for the B. sinister. The diminutives of the B. the withdrawal of Prince von Hohenzollern from his candidature are the bendet, one-half of its breadth; and the cotise, a fourth.. for the Spanish throne, but also a promise that this German canA cotise is sometimes borne couped at its extremities, and then didature would never again be supported. King Wilhelm held it is called a ribbon or riband. The fact that a charge is placed it beneath his dignity to bind himself for the future. His rediagonally on the shield is indicated by the words in B., er fusal led to a declaration of war by the Emperor in less than a B., obendy, &c. week, and before two months had passed France was utterly crushed, the Napoleonic dynasty overthrown, and a republic Bend, a nautical term denoting one of the many kinds of proclaimed. B. has written a vindication of his Prussian diploknot by which a rope is fastened to another rope, an anchor, macy, Ma Mission en Prusse (I87I), which has not added to his cable, sail, &c. reputation either for ability or honesty. Ben'demann, Eduard, one of the best known of the Dussel- Benedi'cite, the song of the Three Children in the fiery furdorf school of painters, born at Berlin, 3d December I8I, studied nace, a Christian hymn as ancient as the 4th c. It is sung in at Diisseldorf under Schadow, exhibited his'Ruth and Boaz,' a the morning service of the Church of England when the Te picture remarkable for grace and natural treatment of details, in Deunz is not used. 1830; his'Captive Jews,' a work still more admired, in 1832; his'Girls at a Fountain,' and'Jeremiah at the Ruins of Jerusalem' Ben'edict, one of the great saints of the early Church, and -the latter won the gold medal of the Berlin Academy-respec- the founder of the first religious order of Western Christendom, tively in I833 and I837. Appointed Professor of the Academy was born at Nursia, in Central Italy, in 480. At the age of of Arts at Dresden in 1838, he was commissioned to decorate the fouteen he was sent to Rome to school, but becoming dis royal palace there with frescoes, and these works are the finest gusted with the dissipation of the place, and the sterile instruction efforts of his genius, which is exquisitely poetical. B. married of the ancient schools of literature and jurisprudence, he ran the daughter of Schadow in i838. Recently he has been much away and concealed himself in a cavern at Sublacum (Subiaco), engaged in painting portraits, that of his wife being a master- 40 miles from Rome. Here he remained in concealment for piece. He was appointed director of the Academy, Diisseldorf three years, but his hiding-place was at last discovered, and a in i86o.'numerous auditory soon came to listen to his preaching, and his cavern for some time was a place of pilgrimage. Some of Ben'der (Turk. a'market' or'harbour;' the Russian form those who came to hear him placed themselves under his is Bendery), formerly Zeckin, a fortified town in Bessarabia, guidance, and from 520 to 527, there were formed about him Russia, on the right bank of the Dniester, 48 miles from its I2 religious families, each composed of I2 monks under a head mouth. The origin of the town is unknown, but as early as the or abbot, who lived according to rules which they drew up for 349 BEN YHE GLOBE ENVC YCLOPEDIA.. BEN themselves. His popularity, however, excited envy, and even XIV., the son of Marcello Lambertini, a Roman senator of led to plots against his life. In 529 he left Sublacum, and estab- distinguished family, was born at Bologna, 3Ist March I675, lished himself at Monte Cassino, about 50 miles from Naples. studied first theology, then canon and civil law. B. was made Here he converted a body of pagan mountaineers,.and turned bishop of Ancona (1627), cardinal (1728), archbishop of Bologna their temple into a monastery. The rule he prescribed for his (I73I), and pope (I740). He took for his first minister Carnew society of monks shows that his aim was to have its mem- dinal Valenti, and otherwise displayed a remarkable knowbers spend their life in prayers, reading, manual labour, and the ledge of men. Strangers visiting Rome were treated with the instruction of youth. The fame of his piety soon, spread through sincerest kindness; and Horace Walpole was so impressed with the peninsula, and though the land was then in the throes of the this, that he wrote a splendid eulogium of him. B. died 3d May great struggle between the Ostrogoths and the generals of Jus- I758. The best edition of his works are those published at tinian, Totila, King of the Ostrogoths, found time to visit the Rome, in 12 vols. I747-5I; and at Venice, in i6 vols. in I777. illustrious ccenobite. The interview between the Arian monarch See Fabroni's Vi'ta de Benedetto XIV., and Vie du d-ape Benoil and the Trinitarian monk was equally honourable to both. B; XZV.. (Par. I775, and again I783). died in 543. What distinguished the ccenobitic life of B.. and his followers was the beautiful union of labour, religion, and Benedict Biscop, an English saint and churchman, who Benedict lBiscop, an English saint and churchman, who learning. They worked in~ the field and the garden, prayed in learning. They worked in the field and the garden, prayed in in. the 7th c.. worked with quiet energy for the ecclesiastical their cells, taught the young the rudiments of sacred and profane supremacy of Rome as against boa. Born in 628 of noble supremacy of Rome as against Iona. Born in 628 of noble' family (according to Bede, who was his pupil, and has written knowledge, and transcribed works of piety and the mester~pieces his life), he was till the age of twenty-five a courtier of Oswin, of the ancient literature. Before B.'s time the recluses of the is life), e was king of Southern Northumbria. Then, in company with WilWest had wasted their lives in barren inactivity; but this rational king of Soutern Northumbria. Then, in company with Wilfrit'h of York, he went to Rome, where he remained as a student reformer drew up a Y-egu vita (.'Rule of Life'). which even, yetfor ten years. In 665 he became a monk at Lerins in Provence, excites in many respects the admiration of Christendom, and can o ten years. In 665 he became a mon at Lerins in Provence, a land in 668 returned to England with Theodore of Tarsus, Archstill be praised, in the language of Gregory the Great, as discre- in 668 eturned to England with Theodore of Tarsus, rchtionejlncibua, ser-mone Zuculenla. B., who did for the West what bishop-elect of Canterbury, to whom in a supreme degree the Antony (q. v.) and Pachomius (q ) Church. in. England owed its advance from a missionary agency Atony for Egypt and Basiliu (q. v. fr theEswsueiri to an organisation for religious and literary culture. B. was tury for Egypt, and Basil (q. v.), for the East, wa superior in genius, wisdom, and humanity to any of the hree. We may be chosen abbot of the monastery of St Augustine in Canterbury, thankful that his earlier followers spread themselves with th and his life is simply one strenuous effort to introduce into Engspread of the Latin Church; for by their labours and their ex- land the graceful pomps and intellectual treasures of Roman Christendom. In all, he paid five visits to Italy, bringing back amples they everywhere gave the victorious barbarians lessons Cisteno. In all, he paid five isits to Italy, bringig back of -order, economy, instruction, and refinement which powerfully on each occasion a multitude of books, pictures, relics, palls, &c. ided to restore the civilisation of Europe. See BENEDICTNEs. He built the noble monastery at the mouth of the Wear, in his native Northumbria, and ruled it for years along with Ceolfrith Benedict, is also the name of fourteen popes, of whom the and other coadjutors. Here Bede received his early education, and amassed those stores of learning which have made his name ~irst seven flourished between the 6th and ioth centuries, and are avd amassed those stores of learning which have made his name historically insignificant. Of the remainder, the most notable are: ~venerable' to all succeeding ages. We may also ascribe to. I. B. VIII., who was born, at Tusculum, of the family of Conti, te introducon of the oman coral service into England, for and elected pope in 01o2. After being driven from Rome by it was he that brought over Abbot John, archchanter of St the antipope, Gregory, he was restored by the emperor, Heinrich Peter's, Rome, to teach first in the monastery at Wearmouth, II., in IoI4, who confirmed, the Church in. all. the rights. and II., in, who cofirmed the Church in all the rights and and afterwards in other parts of the island,'the order and manprivileges originally conferred by Charlemagne. With the aid nr of singing and reading aloud, and committing to writing all of the Pisans, B. took Sardinia from the Saracens, and induced that was requisite throughout the whole course of the year for of the Pisans, B. took Sardinia from the Saracens, and induced Heinrich to march with an army to Italy to oppose the Greeks; the celebration -of festivals' (is. Ecc Gent. An, lib. v.c. he died in 1o24. Four letters written by him were published xviii.) B. djed 12th January 690. See Bede's History of the at Paris in I667 —2. B. IX.., a nephew of the preceding, was Abots of Wearmout elected in 10o33, at the age of ten, and was maintained on the Benedic'tines are monks who follow the rule (regula vita) of throne by the power of the Emperor Konrad for nearly twelve St Benedict, although that rule, as drawn up for his monastery at years, but at last expelled for licentiousness in io44. Three Monte Cassino in 529, has been greatly departed from, notwithmonths after, he re-entered Rome, but proving still obnoxious to standing that he was thelfirst to make monastic vows irrevocable, the citizens, he sold the papal chair to the antipope, John XX., and a rule permanently binding. The order spread far and wide, and actually crowned him with his own hands. He again, seized probably owing to the rule being better adapted to Europeans than upon the pontifical power, when there were three equally unwbrthy the Eastern asceticism which had previously prevailed. Besides popes alive. From these John Gratianus purchased the tiara, and their social worship and private meditations, seven hours of each became'pope under the name of Gregory VI. At the Synod of day were devoted to labour, such as agriculture, gardening, and Sutri, Heinrich III. deposed Gregory for simony, and Clement II. various mechanical trades. Hence, wherever they settled, they was elected. After his death in 1047, B., IX. was again elected, were of great advantage in cultivating and civilising the country. but was finally displaced in Io049, when he retired to a convent, Furtier, their rule required them to read a portion of each day, where he is said to have lived an. exemplary life till his death, and to provide for this, part of their labour was transcribing the date of which is not known.-3. B. XII., a, native of MSS.; by which means many of the most valuable literary Saverdun, in the county of Foix, was elected pope at Avignon, remains of antiquity, both religious and secular, were preserved. I3th December I334, and held the office for eight years. Though Their learning, reputation for sanctity, and especially their eduliving away from the capital of Christendom, B. was a strenuous cation of the sons of many noble and even royal houses who reformer of ecclesiastical abuses. He compelled: the clergy who were entrusted to their care, all brought wealth and power to had the cure of souls to reside in their parishes, prosecuted the order. But after: wealth came luxury, idleness, and vice; simoniacs, reformed religious orders, sought out and. encouraged they became involved in civil and political affairs and the cabals good priests, and set his face against nepotism, He loved the of courts, especially in trying to advance the power of the popes. society of scholars, and his theological works attest his knowledge Among the branches of the order were the congregation of and his eloquence. B. died 25th April 1342-4. B. XIII. Clugny, founded about 927; of the Cistercians, og98; of Monte belonged to the Orsini family. He was elected in 1724, andwas Cassino, 14o8; St Vanne, 6foo; and St Maur,.629. In I354 a man of great simplicity of life and of high morality. He de- the B. had 37,000 (?) monasteries; in the 15th c., 15, 10o7, of dclared the bull Unzigenitus a rule of faith, but better deserves which 5oo000 only were left after the Reformation; at the present remembrance for his apostolic virtues. His heart wasin hospitals time there are about Soo. The B. were also called the'Black and prisons, among the poor, the wretched, and the lowly. His Monks,' from their dress, a black gown and hood. See Anna/es noble ambition was that Rome should be de facto as well as de Ordinzis Sancti Benedicti; the Acta Sanctorzuz (q. v.); Reyner's /ir-e the capital of the Christian world. A large number of Apostolatus Beneditinzoruzz inz Angzia (Douai, 1626); the Buzlnames was added to the calendar of saints during his pontificate. larizetn Cassinzense (Ven. i65o); Tarsin's lisltoire (de la Conuge — The political sagacity of B. was not equal to his virtues, and he gation de St N/auri (Par. 1770); Cronica de la Order de San' Benzito allowed his confidence to be abused by Cardinal Coscia.-5. B. (Salamanca, I609-15, 7 vols.); Regula Sancti Benzedicti et Conz350 * —------ -------- — 3 BEN TZEE GL OBE ENC YCLOPEDIA. BEN stittiones Conzgregationis Sancti izaur-i (Par. I77o); Montalem- Here we shall only treat of those whose scope is as indicated bert's fMoines de l'Occident depbuis Saint Benoit j/usq'ai Saint above, or similar to that. The principle of which a B. S. tries to Bernard (Par. I860-67); and the Church Histories of Mosheim avail itself is that of the ascertainable certainty of the operation and Neander. of the law of probability, when that operation can be noted over a sufficiently extensive field. See PROBABILITY, LAWS Ben 2edict, Sir Julius, a musical composer, was born at OF. Thus, as applicable to their purpose, while continuance Stuttgart, 24th December and 04, and studied music under of health and age at death are to an individual most uncerHummel at Weimar, and Weber at Dresden. He has been resident in London since I836, where he is a popular pianoforte tain, these events will occur we know in a multitude with resident in Londuton since 136, whe received th he hois a popar pianoforte of nearly perfect regularity. But, unluckily, in the earlier days of knighteacher and conductor. important cmpositions areived the his ororio B. S., there was no sufficient basis of observation and calculation knighthood. B.'s most important compositions are his oratorio' h to conduct their operations. To obtain sufficient on which to conduct their operations. To obtain sufficient of S't Peter,; written for the Birmingham Musical Festival (IS7o), statistics, and to work these statistics to bring out sound the opera of the Lily of Iitiarn'ey (1862),.and a recently produced results with.respect to sickness in different classes and at different symphony in G minor. As conductor of the'Monday Popular ages, was a work of difficulty, requiring much time and science Concerts,' he has done much to elevate musical taste, and bring for its successful performance. The earlier societies, therefore, the finest chamber-music within reach of the peqple. generally miscarried. One of their chief errors was not suffiBenedic'tion (Lat. benedicere, to speak well of), an invoca- ciently taking into account-or wholly leaving out of accounttion of the blessing of God on persons or things. The ceremony the fact that liability to sickness, after a certain age, increases dates from the earliest times, and the blessing of their children with increasing years. Another important element, with respect by the patriarchs before their death, and of the people by the to which, until recent times, there were no trustworthy data, was high-priest, are recorded respectively in Genesis and Numbers. the influence of occupation on-health, and the effect of exposure Before parting with his disciples at Bethany, Christ blessed them to weather, as combined with hard:and light labour. See VITAI, with uplifted hands; in the Roman Catholic Church the bishop STATISTICS. These important points have been ably investigated and the priest both bless the people, though each uses a Idifferent into and treated of by Mr A. G. Finlaison, in his Report onz F formula; and the blessing of the city and the world (urbi et or-bi) S., with tables and returns, printed by order of the House of by the pope on Easter Sunday is a most impressive spectacle. Commons, I6th August I853; by Mr Neison, in his work on The B. is conferred by the bishop at the coronation of kings and Vital Statistics (Lond. I853),.and by Mr H. Ratcliffe, in his queens, the confirmation of the dignitaries of the Church, and Observation of fate of Mortality and Sickness existing amolngo the consecration of churches, altars, &c., while the priest may F. S., "Mandhester I85o. pronounce it on church bells, priestly garments, churchyards, &c. By direction of Government, -tables have been prepared by The grace before-meat is a continuation of the old B. of the table Mr John Field Pratt, late Registrar of F. S. in England, and the viands. There are two benedictions in the English and by Dr Farr, actuary of the Registrar-General of England. liturgy; the service of the Scotch Church.has only one. So far, therefore, we may now consider that B. S. have trustworthyground on which to conduct their business. The Legislature Benedic'tus, a portion of the musical service at mass'in the also has strenuously endeavoured (see next article) to promote Roman Catholic Church. The music, with a translation of the thewell-being of these societies; yet it is to be feared, so great are words into English, has been introduced into the morning service the difficulties involved in their successful constitution, that there of the Anglican Church. are still great numbers in England either already insolvent or on Ben'efice. In the Church of England, vicarages, rectories, the way to insolvency. The inefficiency of state control to preand other parochial charges are so called. Ecclesiastical digni- vent this unfortunate condition is pointed out by Mr Pratt in his ties and offices-as canonries, deaneries, &c.-are called cat/hedral report, where he says, that though the legality of the rules of the prefesrments. B. S. has been duly proved,'it does not follow as a necessary Qualifications for holding a B. in the Church of England are- consequence that the constitution of the society is based on good holy orders, presentation bypatron, institution by bishop, induction, principles, or that the rates of payment are sufficient in amount which proceeds onamandate bythe bishop to the archdeacon. The to guarantee the promised benefits and allowances.' Act 23 and 24 Vict., cap. 142, makes improved provision for the union of benefices. Contiguous benefices may be united without Benlefit or esFriendly Soceietis, Laws regarding. Acts regard to aggregate population or yearlly value. Act. 6 and 27 of Parliament respecting these societies were consolidated and Vict., cap. I20, makes saleable the advowson of certain benefices amended by i8 and I9 Vict., c. 63. By that Act all previous in the gift of the Lord Chancellor, the proceeds to be applied to statutes are repealed, with some reservation respecting societies improve other small livings in his gift. See PLURALITIES. instituted under -ay of them. Three registrars are appointed, one for England and one for Ireland (both to be barristers), and Benefi'ciary, in England, means the holder of a benefice. one (to be an advocate) for Scotland, all to be of not less than In Scotch law, B. means one having an interest in real or per- seven years' standing. The objects for which such societies may sonal estate under a trust or will. The analogous term in the be established are set forth. These are mainly to ensure a law of England is Cestzui qzue trust (q. v.). See TRUST, limited sum to be paid to a member.on the birth of a child, or TRUSTEE. to the family of a member on his death, and for the relief of those dependent on a member during his incapacity for work. Benefi'cium Inventarii, in Scotch law, was ~a privilege The funds of the society~are to be invested according to the of an heir of heritage (real estate), who was doubtful -if his The funds of the societyare to be invested according to the inheritance was worth his predecessor's debts, for which it was deciion of the jority, in the savings banks, the public funds liable, and for which he, the heir, became personally liable unless he protected himself by taking the B. I. Ulnder it,'he was securities as the majority shall direct, but not in land nor in he protected himself by taking the - B. I. Under it,'he was houses e purpose of holding their meetings), nor in allowed a year to frame and lodge an inventory of'all lands, houses (except for thepurpose of holding their meetings), nor in houses, and annual rents,' &c., to the value of which his liability persona securities. became limited. But the privilege is now of little value, as a Mebe. are not allowed to belong to more than one such decree of special and general service now makes the heir liable society. No member is to contract for an annuity exceeding only to the value of the heritage which comes to him. /30, or for a sum payable on death or on any other contingency exceeding /200. No money is to be paid on an insurance on Ben'efit or Friendly Societies. Societies are so called the death of a child under ten years of age for funeral expenses which are formed for the common good of the members, by each without a certificate, signed by a qualified medical practitioner, paying a stated sum periodically, while able to work, and re- stating the probable cause of death. Provision is made against ceiving a periodical sum during sickness; and, in the event of a a trustee or officer paying any sum for funeral expenses above member's death, his funeral expenses are usually paid by the /6 for a child under five years, or /Io for a child between five society, and sometimes a pension, after a certain age, is pro- and ten years. Where the rules of any B. S. direct disputes to vided. There are, however, B. S. having great variety of be referred to justices, any justice in the neighbourhood of the scope. Some are established to facilitate the purchase of society's place of business may act. In the event of a dissolution houses. As these are institutions of special and growing impor- of a society, division of the funds may be referred to the registrar, tance, we treat of them separately. See BUILDING SOCIETIES., whose award is final. 4-~~~ ~~351 SX -' —----- BEN TEE GLOBE ENC YCLOPMDIA. BEN In England a secretary of state, and in Scotland the Lord sively the privilege of the House of Commons. See undes Advocate, may authorise the formation of a B. S. under the Act PARLIAMENT, Sug25Zies. for any suitable purpose, with the restriction above stated as toe ablest philologists of Germany, the amount of annuity or insurance to be contracted for. Be heodor, one of the ablest philologists of Germany, was born at Ndrten, 28th January I809. He attended the Benefit of Clergy. This termis of very frequent occurrence gymnasium of Gdttingen from I8I6 to 1824, studied classical in old expositions of criminal laws. The Privilegium Clericale, philology first at the university of the same city under the as it is called, shows the extraordinary influence and power of direction of Ottfried, Miiller, and Dissen, and afterwards at the clergy during the dark ages. Places consecrated to religious Munich under Ast and Thiersch. From I830 to I834 he solemnities were held as sanctuaries, in which no criminal could devoted himself at Frankfurt and Heidelberg to Sanskrit. In be arrested. The clergy were not amenable to the criminal juris- the latter of these years he was appointed a professor at GC;ttindiction of a secular judge. The first of these immunities was gen, where he has since remained. Excellent as are his iber abolished by 2I James I., c. 22. The second came down to our die Monaisnamzen eineger altenz Viilker (:erl. i836), Griechisches own time, not having been abolished till the passing of the Act tWurzellexikon (2 vols. Berl. I839-42), Uber das Verhdltniss der 7 and 8 George IV., c. 28. Originally B. of C. was only ac- gy/t. S 5rache zum Semit. Sprachstamm (Leips. I844), what corded to those in holy orders, but subsequently the privilege was has given him celebrity in the learned circles of Europe is his extended to every one who could read. When any one convicted profound series of works on the Sanskrit language and literature: of a felony, therefore, was about to receive sentence, a book was e.g., his edition of the Hymns of the Savmaveda (with translation put into his hand, and if he could read he was branded on the and glossary, Leips. i848); the Vollstandige Grammatik ter hand and discharged; if he could not read, he was punished Sanskritslrache (Leips. i852); a Chirestomathie (with glossary, according to his crime. In the reign of Anne the reading test Leips. 853-54); a Kurze Grammatik der Sanskritsprache (Leips. was abolished; and by the Act of George IV., above cited, B. 1855); a Practical Grammzar of t/he Sanskrit Lanoguage (in Eng. of C. was done away with. Now every British subject, peer or Berl. I863; 2d ed. I869); a translation of the Pantschatantra commoner, layman or clergyman, is amenable to the same crimi- (2 vols. Leips. 1859), the original of the' Seven Wise Masters,' nal procedure. The privilege of B. of C. never existed in the famous during the middle ages in Western Europe; a Sanskrillaw of Scotland. An interesting historical account of its origin -English Dictionary (1866); and a Geschichte der Spirachwissezwill be found in Blackstone, b. iv. c. 28. rschaft (Berl. I869).. Ben'eke, Friedrich Eduard, a German philosopher, born Bengal, Bay of, a portion of the Indian Ocean from Ceylon at Berlin, I7th February I798. After studying at Halle and and Sumatra to the mouth of the Ganges. It receives several Berlin, he commenced to lecture on philosophy in the University large rivers: the Saluen and Irrawady on the E., the Brahmaof Berlin, but had to discontinue from the opposition of his views putra'and Ganges on the N., the Mahanady, the Godavari, the to those of Hegel. After Hegel's death in I832, B. was ap- Krishna, and the Kaveri on the W. The ports of any historical pointed extraordinary professor. In March I854, he committed importance occur chiefly on the E. coast, such as Aracan, Negrais, suicide in the canal at Charlotteburg, but his body was not found Syriam, Martaban, Tavoy River, and King's Island. But since till June I856. His philosophy, founded on consciousness, and the conquest of Pegu in I852 gave the British the entire coast. his method, the Deductive, or Baconian, are allied to the British line, the growing coasting trade has called into existence new school of thought. B.'s Leh/rbuch der Psychoelogie als Natur ports, such as Moulmein(q. v.), Rangoon(q. v.), and Akyab (q.v.), wzisse/nschzaft (2 vols. I825-27), Systent der Logik (2 vols. on the E. or Burman side, Chittagong (q. v.) on the N. E., MoI842), Erzie/szsngs-und- Unter-rictislehre (I842), and Pragna- rellgunj and Port Canning on the N.W., and on the W. a whole tische Psychologie (2 vols. I85o), are among his most important series of roadsteads and harbours opened up by the British India works. Steam Navigation Company, which carries on a rich coasting traffic right round the bay and'the whole peninsula of India, to Beneven'to, the capital of a province of the same name, the head of the Persian Gulf, Aden, and Zanzibar. The Nidobar S. Italy, near the confluence of the Calore and Sabato, 32 miles and Andaman Islands lie in the S. part of the B. of B. N.E. of Naples, was one of the chief cities of Samnium, but came into the possession of the Romans about 274 B. C., and Bengal Presidency formerly denoted the whole of India was an important city under the empire. In 571 A.D. the N. of the Vindhya range, or of British India, except the Bombay Lombards conquered B., and made it capital of a duchy em- and Madras presidencies. But, in fact, the term'presidency' has bracing their entire southern possessions. The Normans took ceased to have any save a historical or military meaning, India it in IO53 and bestowed it on the Pope, under whose direct being now divided into IX provinces. The only remaining trace dominion it came on the death of the feudatory prince in of the three old presidencies is to be seen in the'Bengal,' 1077. In I806 it was taken by the French, and became a'Bombay,' and'Madras' armies, each of which is under a principality under Talleyrand, created Prince of B. by Napo- commander-in-chief of its own. leon; but in I8I5 it was restored to the Pope, whose it re- In I765 the soubah of B., Behar, and part of Orissa, was mained till i866, when it was annexed to the kingdom of Italy. ceded by the Great Mogul to the E. India Company, and shortly It gives name to an archbishopric (founded in 969), and has 8 thereafter the Presidency of Calcutta, which had been separated churches and I9 cloisters. It carries on a considerable trade in from that of Madras in 1707, was merged along with the above corn, and has some manufactures of gold and silver ware, leather, territories in the B. Presidency, the ruler of which was raised by and parchment. But it is chiefly memorable for its relics of Act of Parliament in 1773 to the rank of Governor-General of antiquity. Not only does it occupy the site, but in one sense it the Company's dominions. Many years of active annexation may even be said to be the ancient B. Almost every house is stretched the boundaries of B. from the Indus to the Irrawaddy, built out of the remains of Roman altars, monuments, columns, and from the Himalayas to the Deccan, but from 1854 to 186I beams, &c. Perhaps the most splendid relic of the past is the this vast territory was gradually divided into (I) the so-called Arch of Trajan (I I4 A. D.), which still serves as a gateway for the N.W. Province; (2) the province of B. as it now exists; (3) city, and bears the name of the Porta aurea. The inscription is the lieutenant-governorship of the Punjab; (4) the chief-comstill legible, and there are representations in bas-relief of scenes missionership of Oude; and (5) that of British Burmah. in the life of the emperor, and of the classic divinities. Pop. (I872) 20, I33. Bengal, the largest and wealthiest province of British India, is bounded N. by Nepaul, Sikkim, and Bhotan; E. by Assam; Benev'olence. A kind of forced loan exacted by some of the S. by the Bay of B.; S.W. by Gondwana or Central Provinces; kings of England from the people, was so called. The levying and W. by the N.W. Province. Area (including Assam), of a B. in the reign of Charles I. occasioned much excitement in 248,231 sq. miles; pop. (I872) 66,856,859, of whom I9,822, the nation, and the Petition of Right (see RIGHT, PETITION OF) exclusive of the army, are British-born-a greater proportion demanded that no tax shall be leviable in England without con- than in any other part of India. Till I874, B. comprised the sent of Parliament. This was already a right of the nation under divisions of Lower Bengal, Behar, Orissa, Chota, Nagpore, and Magna Charta. It was further established by act of the Legisla- Assam, with the adjacent hills; but in the February of that ture in the reign of William and Mary, and the crown has not year Assam (with Cachar and Sylhet) were taken from the B. since called the right in question. To levy a tax is now exclu- lieutenant-governorship to form the new chief-commissionership 352,.L —-----— ~~ BEN THE GLOBE ENVCYCLOPQEDIA. BEN of Assam, with Shillong for its summer, and Gowhatty for its its properties. In India it is used in tanning, in diarrhcea and administrative centre. Some two-thirds of the inhabitants of B. similar diseases, &c. are agriculturists. The country, which is extremely flat through- Benga' (Arab out, is intersected by a multitude of streams, and is partly covered Barca, regency of Tripoli, lies on the E. coas the province of Barca, regency of Tripoli, lies on the E. coast of the Gulf of by dense forest and impenetrahle jungle. Chief among the Sidra, on a sandhill which is separated from the mainland by a rivers are the Brahmaputra and Ganges, which unite about ioo miles from the sea, the former augmenting the volume of the lat- alt strand. The town has a dreary look from the sea, which is ter, which has already been diverted into a multitude of streams eating away the barren soil. At the extremity of the to form the most wonderful delta in the world. In this bewil- tongue of land stands the castle of the governor, a large ruinous dering network of rivers, the most important for navigation are building. The only notable building in B. is a Franciscan dthe Hoognlyk of Calcutta, formed of the hagarutti, the Jel- monastery recently erected. The harbour of B. is fast filling up the Hoogbly of Calcutta, formed of the shagarutt, the Jeel- with sand, and can only be entered by small ships, The bazaars linghi, and the Sunderbuns or Sunderbans Passage. The level surface of the ndelta is in great part inundated dung the rainy are still tolerably well provided, though the trade of B. has surface of the delta is in great part inundated during the rainy almost vanished since caravans have ceased to come from the months (July and August), sometimes the districts flooded hay- S, The people are engaged in agriculture, and export some ing an area of Ioo miles. Great destruction is also caused by corn and cattle to Malta. England, France, and Italy have still the streams when swollen changing their courses * but these corn and cattle to Malta. England, France, and Italy have still the streams when swollen changing their courses; but these here. Pop. dangers have been partially mitigated by the construction of consuls about 7000. dams and embankments of 2Ioo miles in extent. Above the B3eng'el, Johann Albrecht, a German theologian, born at delta the two great rivers have many tributaries; and so com- Winnenden, in Wiiirtemberg, 24th June I687. He studied at plete is the intercommunication of B., that almost no spot is 20 Tiibingen from 1703 to 1707; in the latter year he became miles removed from a navigable stream. Some 30,ooo boat- curate of Metzingen, and in I708 theological tutor in his college. men are employed on the Lower Ganges alone. B. has an In I7I3 he was appointed teacher at Denkendorf; provost at equable climate, the mean temperature at Calcutta for May Herbrechtingen (I741); consistorial councillor and prelate at I87I being 84'2~; for July, 83 2~; for December, 69 8~; and Alpirsbach, Wtirtemberg, where he died, 2d December 1752. the annual rainfall varying from 50 to 85 inches. Over the B.'s fame rests mainly on his recension of the Greek text of the maritime tracts of B. the monsoons prevail. The soil is richly New Testament, which paved the way for the labours of later alluvial, producing abundance of rice, various other grains, jute editors. Wesley's Notes on thle New Testament are for the most and rhea fibres, hemp, opium, indigo, silk, sugar, cotton, tobacco, part abridged from the Gnonon N.ovi Tesaomeznli of B3. (Tiib. I742). coffee, tea, and the quinine-yielding chinchona. An immense tract His prophetic studies, Erll/rte Oftgenbarzung St 7ohannis (Stuttg. of iron and coal is said to exist. There are various manufactures, I740-46, Reutl. I856), and his Ou-do Temporunt a Prinzcijio per of which perhaps cotton is the most important. Salt used to be Periodos fEconomia DZivince (Tiib. 174I, Stuttg. 1753), belong manufactured in great quantities, but the industry was aban- to that unfortunate department of religious literature the cultivadoned by the Government in I863, since' when it has nearly tion of which, in the long-run, is damaging both to the intellect ceased. In 1872-73 the salt imported, chiefly from England, and reputation of a scholar. See Burk, B.'s Leelen iznd Werlkeen France, Madras, Bombay, and the Persian Gulf, was 247,782 (Stuttg. i831), and B.'s Lilerarischer Briefzwec/sel (Stuttg. I836). tons, yielding 62,660, 369 of duty. Calcutta is the capital of B. P., as it is the metropolis of all India; and among other cities Bengue'la, a country of Lower Guinea, Western Africa, of importance are Serampore, Moorshedabad, Dacca, Burdwan, extending from Cape Negro on the S. to the river Coanza on Purneah, Hooghly, Midnapore, Bancorah, and Berhampore. the N. It is hilly, well watered, rich in minerals, and aboundThe great public works of B. are the Orissa Canal (q. v.) and ing in most of the tropical and sub-tropical plants and animals the East Indian and East B. Railway. B. has fifteen colleges (ten commonly met with along the W. coast of Africa. The climate government institutions and five private colleges aided) affiliated is very unhealthy on the coast, but healthier in the interior. to the university, the chief of which are. those of Calcutta, The inhabitants belong to the Congo race, and use the Bunda Hooghly, Dacca, Kishnaghur, Berhampore, and Patna. In I873 language. They are mostly fetish worshippers of a low order; they were attended by II63 students. B. was conquered from but perhaps the slave-trade, still carried on by the Portuguese, the Moorshedabad viceroy of the Great Mogul by the E. India who are the nominal masters of the country, has hindered their Comlpany (i757) in a single battle gained against immensely progress.-The capital, San Felipe de B., is situated on superior numbers, and was formally ceded in I765. Although the coast, near the mouth of the Catumbella, in a beautiful but prodigally fertile, B. is exposed to an occasional failure of crops, unhealthy vale, and has a pop. of 1500, of which three-fourths and is therefore liable to such visitations of famine as happened are free blacks, mostly converted to Catholicism, though still in I873. See Sir George Campbell's eports on Administhaption practising many heathen rites. The harbour is good, but not of B. for I87I-72; Annais of rzndia2n Administration for I872- much fiequented; and so utterly dull aid lifeless is the place, 73, edited by Dr George Snmith (Serampore, I874); T*ie 1M00al that the Portuguese themselves call it'Hell,' See Jams, Die anzd Material Progress and Condition of India during' 1872-73, Portzg. Besitzungen in Siidzoestafrika (Hamb. I84,5). an official report, by Clement R. Markham (Lond. 1874); De- Be'ni, a river of Bolivia, S. America, 645 miles long, flowing scriptire HEthnology of B., by Col. E. T. Dalton (Calcutta, I874); through the provinces of Moxos and B., and forming with the and Dr Hunter's zeRural h/ie in B. (.875). Mamore the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. Bengal Hemp, the fibre of Crotalaria jItncea, called also Sunn, Sun, Shunum, Taag, &c., used in Bombay and Madras Benicar'lo, a seaport town in the province of Castellon along with jute for making gunny bags. Jubbhulpore hemp is Spain, on the Mediterranean, about 85 miles N. E. of Valencia by obtained from C. tenufo~rjia, a variety probabIl-y of rC uncea rail. It carries on a considerable export trade in full-bodied wines,,obtaied from C. ten a, a variety probabl-y of C. jutnea. which are mixed with claret and other French wines. Pop. 6060. Benga'li, the name given both to the natives of Bengal Proper (q. v.) and to the language which they use. The former are Be'ni-Hass'an, a village in Upper Egypt, situated on the a mixture of the old indigenous Hindus and of the descendants right bank of the Nile, is chiefly noted for the fine grottos and of those Mohammedan conquerors who held the land for 300 catacombs in its neighbourhood, which were probably intended years. The B. tongue is a descendant of the ancient Sanskrit, as sepulchres by the principal families of the ancient Hermoand is allied to Hindi, but is mixed with Arabic and Persian polis, which stood on the other side of the river. The number words traceable to the Mohammedan conquest. It is spoken by of grottos is about thirty, cut out of the calcareous rock of the 36,ooo,ooo of people, and has been used for literary purposes district. On the walls are to be seen many interesting hierosince the I6th c. B. literature, however, for the most part con- glyphics and paintings. sists of translations from the ancient Sanskrit. See Long's Beni-Is'rael ('sons of Israel'), a remarkable race inhabiting Dcscrietive Cataloguze of B. W/orks (I855). The best grammars are the island of Bombay and adjoining coast, and numbering about those of Haughton (i82i) and Yatos (1847); the best lexicons 8000 or 0,000ooo. In appearance they are a little fairer than the those of Haughton (I841) and Gordon (I837). See INDIA, LAN- other natives of India of the same rank, and their physiognomy GUAGES OF. indicates a union of Jewish and Arabic blood. They are all cirBengal Kino, or Butea Gum, an astringent substance cumcised, and receive the whole of the Old Testament Scriptures obtained from Bzltea fronzdosa, and resembling Kino (q. v.) in as of divine authority. They have been settled in India for 45 353 X,> ~ ~ ~ ------------- r BEN THfE GLOBBE ENVC YCIOPLMPIA. BEN many centuries, and probably came thither from Arabia. See A W.N.W. of Stirling, forming the southern extremity of the Dr Wilson in Indian A ntiqgaay for November I874. Grampian range, and reaching a height of 3192 feet. Its N..Benin, a kingdom of Upper Guinea, Africa, bounded E. and side is precipitous, but on the S.E. it rises gradually. B. is clad with vegetation to the summit. It is formed chiefly of mica slate, N. by the Niger, S s by the Bight of B., and tV. by Dahnomey but quartz, greenstone, and felspar-porphyry also occur. The and Yariba. The coast is low and level, but the land rises view from the top in clear weather is remarkable for its singular gradually to the Kong Mountains. B. is watered by numerous beauty and extent, ranging from the fertile Lothians, the winding streams, and by some of the branches of the Niger. It is very Forth, and the Castle of Edinburgh on the E., to the Atlantic, fertile, and densely populated. Palm oil, salt, jasper, slaves, the Isles of Arran and Bute and the Irish coast on the S. skins, &c., are exported in considerable quantities. The language of B. belongs to the many-membered family of languages Ben lMacdhu'i (Gael, Beinn JMacduibhe,' the mountain of spoken by the B. peoples or the negro tribes in and about the delta the son of darkness,' or the'dark mountain;' others, less proof the Niger, as far W. as Dahomey, and as far E. as Bonny. bably, read it Beinn Muic D)uibhe,' mountain of the black sow'), The capital, B., on the river B., a branch of the Niger, has a one of a group of mountains, forming a spur of the Grampians, population of I5,ooo, and has still an active trade, though the in the S. W. of Aberdeenshire, and, next to Ben Nevis, the highest abolition of slavery has diminished its prosperity, peak in Great Britain, being 4296 feet high. Benin, Bight of, part of the Gulf of Guinea, on the WT. Bennett, James Gordon, one of the most successful jourcoast of Africa, extending from Cape Formosa on the E. to Cape nalists in the United States, and founder of the New York Heriald, St Paul on the W., a distance of 370 miles. The shore is low, was born at Newmill, Keith, Scotland, about the year I8oo. marshy, sandy, and intersected by numerous rivers. Palm oil He studied with a view to the priesthood at a Roman Catholic and ivory are the chief articles of trade, seminary at Aberdeen, but gave up this aim, and came to America in the year I8I9. B. first went to Halifax, N.S., where in Ceni-outral Egypt, thand one of theown of a provincipal place of the same in thame he taught a school; and afterwards became a proof-reader in in Central Egypt, and one of the principal places of trade in the country, on the left bank of the Nile, about 70 miles S. of Caro, ton. He soon returned to the North, engaged in Charleslies in a fertile region, and is the centre of business for the Fayirm paper-work in ork, and sometimes lectured. His earlier valley. It has cotton - mills and alabaster quarries. In the paper-work in New York, and sometimes lectured. His earlier valley. It has cotton-mills and alabaster quarries. In the neighbourhood a fair is held in spring, in honour of the saint attempts were not always successful, but at length he found his career when he started the New York Herald, the first number of Shilklni, which has greatly increased in popularity of late years, which appeared May 5, 835. The paper soon attracted notice and now attracts large crowds. Mounds of rubbish, but no dis- T and now attracts large crownds. Mlounds of rubbish, but no dis.- by its lively reports of the money and stock market, its startling atbiuctrinsou f an older town, are found all about tbe place. Pop. personalities, sensational descriptions, and fresh news; and it.about looo. ultimately yielded a large fortune to its adventurous editor and Benit'ier (Fr. benir, to bless), or Benatu'ra, the vessel in owner, who died June 2, I872, which holy water is held in Roman Catholic churches. It is either movable, for use in processions, or fixed near the door, Bennett, Sir William Sterndale, a well-known English convenient for the people to dip their fingers in as they enter musician, the son of a Sheffield organist, was born in I8I6. He or leave the church. studied at the Royal Academy of Music in London, and later on made the acquaintance at Ddisseldorf of Mendelssohn, to whose Ben'jamin (Heb.'son of the right hand,' —ie.,' of good for- made the acquaintance at Dsseldorf of Mendelssohn, to whose tune') was the youngest of Jacob's sons (Gen. xxxv. I8), and the inspiration his works show that he owed much. He died ist head of one of the tribes of Israel. When Jacob went down February I875. B.'s compositions are numerous-including overto Egypt the family of B. consisted of ten sons; at the first tures, concertos, sonatos, &c.-but although pleasing in themcensus i the wilderness the tribe numbered 35,400 men Sfit to selves, have scarcely sufficient originality to become permanently census in the wilderness the tribe numbered 35,400 men fit to bear arms; and at the second, 45,600. The territory of the tribe popular. lay between Ephraim and Judah. Along with the latter tribe it Ben Ne'vis (Gael. Beinn Niomhais,'the bright or clear formed the kingdom of Judah. mountain,' so called perhaps from the snow that lies long on its Ben'jawmin of Tude'la, a Spanish Jewr who lived in the 12th top, or from the light colour of the rocks that form its summit), c. If the title of his itinerary, which he wrote in Hebrew, could a mountain in the S. of Inverness-shire, the loftiest in Great be believed, he travelled (I 159-73) through Europe, Palestine, Britain, having a height of 4406 feet. It consists at the base ~M~esopotamia, the Indies, Ethiopia, and Egypt. His citation of of granite and gneiss, and in its upper part, which is entirely authorities and geographical errors show, however, that a great destitute of vegetation, of fine brown porphyry. B. is steep, deal of his materials must have been gathered from hearsay, if rugged, and difficult of ascent, and snow often rests on its top or he ever travelled at all. B.'s work has been often printed, and lurks in its clefts throughout the year. Niomhais is an Aryan translated into Latin, English, Dutch, and French. The latest word, the root occurring in Gr. nip-to, to wash; Gael. nig, to edition, that of Asher (Lond. I84I), contains a vocalised text, wash; Lat. niv-is, snow. The river Nevis, which flows round and aln English version with learned notes. the southern base of the Ben, is remarkable for the clearness of its waters. Benjamin-Tree. See BENZOIN. Benjamin-Tree. See BNOIN. Benn'igsen, Levin August Theophil, Count von, a Ben Law'ers (Gael. Belnn Laubhzair,'the resounding' or celebrated Russian general, born at Brunswick, February Io,'noisy mountain,' perhaps so called from its stormy situation I745. After spending some time in the Hanoverian service, he or roaring cataracts), the highest mountain of Perthshire, some entered the Russian army in I773, fought under Ruminlzov 32 miles W.N.W. of Perth, overhanging Loch Tay, and com- against the Turks (1787), and in I791 was intrusted by the Emmanding a splendid prospect. It is 3935 feet high, and rises so press Catherine with the execution of her designs against Poland. gently that its ascent can be made on horseback. On its summit Having fallen into disgrace with the Emperor Paul, he became are found the small gentian, round-headed cotton-grass, and one of the leaders in the conspiracy against that monarch, and other Alpine plants. his presence of mind contributed much to its success (I8oi). Ben Led'i (commonly read in Gaelic as Beinn-le-Dia,'hill Intrusted with the command of the Russian army of the N. in of God,' but more correctly Bein-Shleibkte or Shzleibhlean, the 1805, he obtained in I8o6 a slight advantage over Napoleon at'mountain of mountains,' or the'mountain girt with sloping Pultusk, commanded at Eylau (1807), led the Russian centre at hills'), a mountain in the S.W. of Perthshire, near Loch Katrine, Borodino (1812), and defeated Murat at Woronowa on the i8th and 4 miles W. N. V. of Callander. It is 2836 feet high, and is October following. A difference with Kutusov made him retire beautifully situated at the entrance to the Trossachs (q. v.). from the Russian service for a short time, but in 18I3 he oinmanded the Russian reserves in Saxony, and fought bravely at Ben Lo'mond (Gael. Beinn Leonan or Lean/zan,' the Leipsic, where the Emperor Alexander created him Count on the mount of the elm,' probably so called from the' elms' that grew field. In I8I8 B. retired to the paternal estate of Banteln in about its base; the name Leamnzan (Eng. Leven) is also given to Hanover, and died there, October 3, i826. B. wrote a work On the river that flows out of the loch), a mountain in the N.W. of t/ze Kzowledge Indispensable to a Cavalry Ogffcer (Riga, 1794 and Stirlingshire, on the E. side of Loch Lomond, some 27 miles I803). 354 d — -- -— l BEN THE GLOBE ENCYCL OPDDIA. BEN Ben-Nuts. See BEN, OIL OF. third son of Hendrik B. of Diessenhan, in Overyssel. From Ben-Rhyddi a celebrated hydropathic institution, beauti- his boyhood Johann was a friiend and favourite of William Ben-Rhydding, a celebrated hydropathic institution, beaut o of Orange, was repeatedly employed by him in affairs of state, fully situated on an eminence on the right bank of the Wharf, 16f ange, was repeatedly employed by him in affairs of state, and in I689 was raised to the English peerage as' Baron of miles N.W. from Leeds, Yorkshire. The building was erected Cirencester, Viscount Woodstock, and Earl of Portland. His in I846, and has considerable accommodation and extensive eldest son, Henry B., obtained in I7I6 the title of Duke of grounds. Under its late director, Dr M'Leod, who died in Portland and Marquis of Litchfield, and in 1721 was appointed January I875, this establishment acquired a great name. Governor of Jamaica, where he died, I4th July I726. His son Ben'shie, or Ban'shee (Irish Gael. ban or beanr, a woman, and heir, William B., born Ist March I7O8, married Margaret and si,oze, a fairy; but this derivation is doubtful), in the super- Cavendish, sole daughter of the Earl of Oxford, and heiress of stition of Ireland and the Scotch Highlands, is a female fairy, the Duke of Newcastle.William Henry Cavendish B. who wails and shrieks when a death is about to take place in any eldest son of the preceding, born 4th April I738, succeeded to the family whose interests are dear to her, dukedom Ist May I762. During the North American war he steadily adhered to the opposition. In 1783 he became first Bent Grass (Agrostis), a genus of grasses, more than I70 Lord of the Treasury, but on the 27th December of the same species of which are distributed over the world. In Britain there year had to give way to the Pitt administration, and remained are several species, some of which are called Beonts in some parts in opposition till 1792, when he began to support the Governof the country, a name, however, given by others more especially ment against the French Revolution. In 1794 he was appointed to the crested dogstail (Cynosurus cristatus). These are: Agrostis Home Secretary, and held this office till Pitt's resignation in alba, forming a large portion of our natural pastures, and having [8oI. On the dissolution of the Whig ministry in I807, lhe was several agricultural varieties, one of which, the Fiorn grass (A. again placed, in spite of his great age and mediocre abilities, stolonifera), is a useful grass for moist grounds; A. canina, of at the head of the Government, and died prime minister, 3oth heaths and moorlands; A. setacea, and A. Spica-venti (dog-B.), October I809.-William Henry Cavendish B., second son an annual grass, sown in grain. Herd grass (AS. dispar), a native of the preceding, born 4th September I774, entered the army, of the United States, was at one time cultivated in Britain, but is rose rapidly, and in I803 was appointed Governor of Madras. at the present time more highly esteemed in France than in this Recalled some years later, he was first employed in diplomatic country. service, and subsequently placed at the head of an English brigade in Spain. Later, heewas sent to Sicily as commanderBentham, Jeremy, the real founder of the Utilitarian in-chief of the English auxiliary forces, and plenipotentiary to the school of philosophy, and an eminent writer on jurisprudence court of King Ferdinand, where his high-handed conduct so and legislation, was born at London, I5th February I748. He offended the haughty Queen Caroline, that in I8II she went to was educated at Westminster School, and Queen's College, Vienna to conclude an alliance with her mortal enemy Napoleon. Oxford, where he graduated B.A, at the age of sixteen, and B. now interfered decisively in the affairs of the island, and M.A. at twenty. He studied at Lincoln's Inn for the bar at drew up, in I812, a constitution for the Sicilians, which was the request of his father, and was' called' in 1772, but practised abandoned after the fall of Napoleon. In I827 he was appointed only for a short time.' I found it more to my taste,' he says, Governor-General of India, and signalised his administration by'to endeavour to put an end to these abuses (i.e., in the Court of establishing the overland route, forbidding the burning of widowrs, Chancery) than to profit by them.' When a boy, he had been reorganising the finances, and establishing the liberty of the nicknamed'the philosopher,' fiom his tendency to speculation, press. To this day his name is venerated by the Hindus. He and he now devoted himself to the criticism of ethics and legis- died at Paris I17th June I839. —.William Henry Cavendish lation. His first works A Fragment of Government, which was Scott B., eldest brother of the preceding, and fourth Duke of an ingenious criticism of Blackstone's Commentaries, was pub- Portland, born 24th June 1768, was made president of the Privy lished in I776, and brought him into notice. It was followed Council in 1827, and died 27th March I854. By his marriage by a number of other works, such as his Pricizples of 11/ora/ls with a daughter of General Scott, a sister-in-law of George and Legislation, in 1780; his )efence of Ususoy, in I787; his Canning, he had four sons, of whom, owing to the death of the Introduction to thze Frinciples of Morals and Legislation, in 1789; eldest in I824, the second, William John Cavendish Discourses on Civil and Penal Legislation, in I802; A Treatise Scott B., born I7th September I8oo, succeeded to the ducal on 7udicialEvidence, in I813; and The Book of Fallacies, in I824. dignity, and still (1875) survives.-William George FredeM. Dumont,-who translated several of his works into French, rick Cavendish B., better known as Lord George. B., has done more than any one else to popularise his master's and once famous as a Conservative leader, was the brother theories. B.'s father dying in 1792, he. succeeded to property of the foregoing, and was born 27th February 1802. After to the value of from;65oo to ~60oo a year, and lived in cornm- being in the army for some time, he entered Parliament petence and comfort to the age of eighty-four, His works have in I826 as member for Lynn-Regis. He voted for the been collected and edited by Dr Bowrihg and Dr Hill Burton. principle of the Reform Bill, but ultimately became a memThe last has also given to the world Benthasnania (Lond. ber of the Conservative party which acknowledged Sir Robert 1838), containing a memoir of B., an essay on his writings, and Peel as its head. When Peel, however, became an advothe passages setting forth most of his leading doctrines. B.'s cate of free trade, B., along with Mr Disraeli and others, sepaviews have had a great deal of influence on the present time. rated from him, and formed themselves into the Protectionist Although lie did not invent, he was the first to popularise, the party. Of this party B. became the leader in the House of theory of the'greatest good of the greatest number,' which Commons, and the speeches which he delivered against the Peel is at the foundation of Utilitarianism. It is easy to criticise Government were believed to have contributed greatly to its B. severely as a thinker, and still more as a writer. He was overthrow in 1846. He died suddenly of heart-disease, 2Ist somewhat impatient, not a little eccentric, and latterly prolix September 1848. His biography as a politician has been written and vain; but he gave incontestable evidence of power by by Mr Disraeli, his successor in the leadership of the Consercreating a school of philosophy, and by educating disciples vative party in the House of Commons. Among the measures who surpassed their master. Utilitarianism as a system may which B. supported during his parliamentary career were those not be destined to finally triumph, but it has at least secured the for the emancipation of the Roman Catholics and the removal service of distinguished names-Mill, Romilly, Dumont, Burton, of the civil disabilities of the Jews. B. was much attached to &c. the turf, but was also strongly opposed to the dishonest practices Bentha'mia, a genus of plants of the natural order ('ornacc z frequently associated with it. See Disraeli's Lord George B., a (q. v.), named in honour of George Bentham, one species of Political Biogaihyy (Lond. I851). The younger or Oldenburg which, B. frugifera, of Nepaul, has ripened its fruits in the S. branch does not possess any historical importance, and has only of Enlgland. attracted notice from a wearisome lawsuit among its members regarding the ownership of property. Ben'tinck, the name of an historical family, which, as early as the 14th c., was settled in Gelderland, and was afterwards Bent'ley, Richard,'by far the greatest scholar that Enstransplanted to England and Oldenburg. The elder or English land has ever produced,' born at Oulton, near Wakefield, January branch was founded by Jan Willem van B. (born I648), 27, 1662. In I676 he entered St John's College, Cambridge, as 355 *8r —— ~ —-----— c 7 BEN THE GLOBE EIVCYCZ OkL'DIA. BEN a subsizar, and took the degree of B. A. in I68o. After acting for a Being at last driven from the island, he entered the Austrian year as head-master of Spalding Grammar School, he became tutor service. On the 25th of December I783, he made an unsucto the son of Dean (afterwards Bishop) Stillingfleet, and in I689 he cessful proposal to the British Government to found a colony removed with his pupil to Oxford, where both were members of in Madagascar. Receiving private aid, however, both in EngWadham College. B.'s first publication was a Latin letter to Dr land and America, he sailed from Baltimore, U.S., for MadaMill (I69I), containing notes on his edition of the Chironicle of gascar, arriving there 7th July I785, but was killed, May 23, ilMala or lkalelas. In 1692 and 1694 he was chosen to preach the 1786, by a party of French soldiers sent from the Isle of France. Boyle Lecture on the Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion. B. was a man of singular intrepidity, love of adventure, and During his long and active literary labours B. prepared notes and knowledge of character, who, on a wider field and with larger emendations to the texts of Callimachus, Horace, Terence, Ph - resources, might have made for himself a distinguished place in drus, Aristophanes, Manilius, Homer, &c., some of which were history. B. wrote in French Voyages et lkfimzoires (Par. 2 vols. published by himself, while not a few were contributed to enrich I79r). The year before, an English translation of this was pubthe editions issued by other scholars. Some of his most ambitious lished at London by Nicholson. schemes, particularly his famous proposal to restore the text of the New Testament to its condition at the time of the Council of Beer'ta, ae of, the ancient ponitis P an Nice, were never accomplished. The Phalaris controversy and Sis Pas, distnt from Tunis 30 miles N.W., the former his protracted college quarrel were the most prominent events in salt and the latter flesh. The fisheries are let by the Bey of B,'s life. Sir W. Temple, in his Essay on Ancient and Moder-n Tunis for /'4000 per annum. They are close upon each other, Learzninzg, had declared the Letters of Phalaris to be the best Let- and connected by a chaunel. ters in the world. Boyle issued an edition of the Letters, the pre- Benzo'ic Acid is a white crystalline substance, having the face of which contained a reflection on the courtesy of B.' as formula C711602 or C611s —COOH, and the properties of a King's Librarian. B. took his revenge by appending to Wotton's monobasic acid. It was discovered at the commencement of Reflectionzs an attack on the genuineness of the Letters. Boyle, the I7th c.; and was first obtained by subliming gzumt benzoinz, aided chiefly by Atterbury, issued a Reply; and in answer to from which circumstance it received the name offlowers of benzthis Reply there appeared, in I699, B.'s famous Dissertatiozn, the zoin or bengamlzz. It is contained in gum tragacanLh storax, Peru wit, learning, and sagacity of which secured its author's enduring and To/T ba/sama, in Botany Bay resin, &c. It is prepared comfame. In 17oo00 he was appointed Master of Trinity College, mercially either by the sublimation of benzoin, or from the urine Cambridge, next year Archdeacon of Ely, and chaplain both to of the Herbovera, which contains Hijputric Acid (q. v.). On William and Mary. His college reforms provoked the hostility allowing the urine (generally that of oxen) to putrefy, the hipof the Fellows, and a feud commenced, of which it may suffice puric acid is resolved into B. A. and other products. The urine, to say that it issued in a legal process which lasted for twenty-six after putrefaction, is neutralised with milk of lime, filtered, years, and during which B. repeatedly displayed the arrogance, evaporated to small bulk, and treated with hydrochloric acid; and even ferocity, by which his character was disfigured. He the B. A. is then precipitated, and may be purified by sublimadied July 14, 1742. Itis works, in three volumes, have been tion. B. A., when quite pure, has no smell, but it is usually edited by the Rev. Alex. Dyce. See Life of B. (2 vols. 1831) contaminated with a minute quantity of some substance, which by Dr James Henry Monk, and De Quincey's biographical and gives it a pleasant aromatic odour. It is readily soluble in critical essay. alcohol and ether, and also, though to a less extent, in water. e'turong, or Binturng (Aicis), a genus of canivor- When heated, it melts, and sublimes at about I45~ C. If further Ben'urog, r Biturng Ai-licls),a gnus f crnior-heated, it boils, and may be distilled unchanged at 239~ C. It ous mammalia intermediate in position between the Civets (q. v.) hbeated, it boils, and may be distilled unchanged at 239e C. It and Racoons (q. v.), and inhabiting India and the E. Archipe- combines with bases to form crystalline salts-ezoates-which lago. They are nocturnal animals, and possess long, hairy, premba me for the greater part soluble in water. Neither the salts nor lago. They are nocturnal animals, and possess long, hairy, prehensile tails. Two species are known. the acid itself have any practical importance. Taken internally, B. A. becomes converted into hippuric acid, which is excreted Ben'u6, or Birn'u, at one time also erroneously called in the urine. Tchadda, because it was supposed to have a connection with the great lake of Sudan, a large river of Central Africa, Benzoin, in chemistry, is he camphor o bitter almondoil, forming the principal eastern tributary of the Niger, which formng te pincial esten trbutry o theNigr, wichwhich deposits after the commercial essential oil has been kept it joins about 250 miles above the mouth of that river Dr for some time. The pure essential oil can be entirely converted Bath regars ibt as0 thes aboest means by whicht comuiaer.D Barth regards it as the best means by which to communicate iito B. by the action of a dilute alcoholic solution of cyanide of with the interior, seeing that the tract of land separating the potassium. basins of the B. and the Shari, which flows into Lake Tchad, is Benzoin (Gum), or Gum Benjamin, a firagrant resinous a flat alluvial region not more than 20 miles in breadth. Its exudation from a tall tree (Styrax Benzoin) round growing in Slamn sources are, however, stillunknown, although several expeditions and the islands of the E. Indian Archipelago. The pleahave been undertaken with a view to reach these, of which the sant odour of B. becomes powerfuid and distinct on heating, and most important are those of I833 (Laird, Allen, and Oldfield), when it is melted by heat it gives off a vapour composed of I85I (Dr H. Barth), by far the most fruitful in results, and 1854 B. acid. B. is a light-brown resin, mottled with patches of (Baikie), in which the steamship Pleiad penetrated as far as white somewhat opalescent matter, but in inferior varieties the Gurowa, and its boats still further to Dulti, about 280 miles firom white patches are small or altogether wanting. It burns with a the mouth of the B. This expedition ascertained that the name dull smoky flame, evolving a pleasant resinous odour, arid it is Tchadda was unknown to the natives. The expeditions of Vogel very largely used as incense in religious rites and for preparing in 1855, of Baikie in 1857, and of Dr Nachtigal in 1872, did not perfumer's pastilles, as well as for varnishes. B. contains, in addiadd much to our previous knowledge, p e rfumer's pastilles, as well as for varnishes.B.cnasiadadd much to our previous knowledge. -tion to a volatile oil, three different kinds of resin and Benzoic acid. B3enyov'sky, Moritz August, Count of, born at Vei- In commerce two varieties of the substance are recognised-Siam bowa, Hungary, in 1741. He entered the Austrian army at the B. and Sumatra B., the last of which is the purest and most age of fourteen, served in the Seven Years' War, where his cour- valuable. age and capacity were conspicuous, and afterwards made several Benzol', or Benzine', is a liquid hydrocarbon, having the voyages from Dantzic to Hamburg and Plymouth. In 1767 he composition represented by the formula C61-1. It was discovered joined the Polish Confederation, and as general of cavalry con- by Faraday amongst the products of the compression of oil gas, tributed much to gain several victories over the Russians. Taken and was called by him bicarburet of hydirogen. It is now preprisoner in 1769, he was banished to Kamtchatka, whence he pared in large quantities from coal tar. The tar is subjected to contrived to escape in May 1771, with ninety-six companions, a preliminary distillation, and the portion passing from 6o~and arrived in September of the same year at Macao in China, 2oo0 C. collected by itself (light oil). The light oil is then treated the fugitives having suffered incredible hardships on the passage. with sulphuric acid to remove nitrogen bases, and after washing From Macao he sailed for France on the 14th of January, arriving with water and a dilute solution of caustic soda, is again distilled there in August 1772. The French Government proposed to him -the liquid passing between 800-2oo0 C. forming the B. of cornthe founding of a colony in Madagascar. Reaching that island, merce. Pure B. is obtained from the commercial article by re14th February 1774, he was in 1776 elected king by the chiefs. peatedly subjecting it to the action of a freezing-mixture: the B. 356 4~ —----------- - ------- ---- -4 BEO THE GLZOBE ENCZCYCLOP#'LDA. BER crystallises out, leaving the impurities in the liquid condition. adventure that seeks peril as a commercial speculation-for B. It may also be obtained pure by distilling a mixture of benzoic is undisguisedly a tradesman in his sword' (Morley's n7oglis/ acid and lime- Literature). B3. is the valiant, rough hero whom Christianity and chivalry are to soften and transform into the ideal knightC6115 - COOH + CaO = C6H6. CaCO3 errant. He is noble and generous, and undergoes incredible Benzoc acd. Lie Bn Crbdangers for the sake of his fellow-men. So superhuman are his Benzoic acid. Lime. Benzol. Cirbonate of Calcium. exploits, that Mr Kemble is uncertain whether to regard him as a historical or mythical personage, although inclined to identify B. is a volatile liquid, lighter than water (sp. gr.'899), and pos- histoical or mythical personage, although inclined to identify sos him with a Norse god of agriculture, as the Saxons had a harvest. sesses a peculiar aromatic odour. It boils at So' C., and solidifies month named Beo. Mr Thorpe is disposed to regard B. as a to a crystalline mass a little below o~ C. It combines with Nord- t asen sulphuric acid to form B. suj ic acid, C6H63H. contraction of Beadowulf ('wolf of battle' or'slaughter'), hausn slphricaci to ormB. z~l/iu-ic cic, CHS3H. although it may, in the earliest version, have appeared in the It is readily acted upon by bromine and chlorine, part of its atough it may, in te earliest version, have appeared in the hydrogen becoming replaced by these elements. Nitric acid form Biae or Bave. But whatever disputes there may be as to hydrogen becoming replaced by these elements. Nitr-ic acid ll the origin of B., therecan be none as to the power of the poem. acts upon it to form n tra-B. or essnce of s irbcane (artificias om It is pervaded by a sombre melancholy, totally unlike the sunny, of bitter ahnonds),, C6H5(NO2) B. has become of immense imchanging animation of Homer, but its hero is, as Isaac D'Israeli portance as the source of Aniline, and Aniline Colours (q. v.). said, the true Achilles of the North. Although ostensibly ChrisIt is an excellent solvent of fats, resins, sulphur, phosphorus, tian, the present version of B. is essentially Pagan. The deity tian, the present version of B. is essentially Pagan. The deity some of the alkaloids, &c., and is much used for removing grease- referred to in it is simply Woden under another name, and the stains. It is very combustible monsters slain by the hero are simply the J/tuns or giants The study of B. and its compounds has developed a new field against which Thor warred. There is only one MS. of B. against which Thor warred. There is only one MS. of B. in theoretical chemistry, and is at present largely occupysng extant, which, according to Mr Thorpe, was executed in the the attention of'scientific chemists. Compounds derived from first half of the i ith c. See Kemble's B. (1833, 2d ed. 837); B. are known as aromatic substances, on account of their occur- emble's Tnsltin ofB. (Pickering, 1837); Torpes B., 7x rence in most aromatic bodies. ~~Kemble's Ti-alslation of B7. (Pickering, I837); Thorpe's B3., 7;'xi rence in most aromlatic bodies. and Translation (Oxford, I855); and the German editions by C. Beo'wulf, the oldest heroic poem in the Germanic languages, W. M. Grein (2 vols. Gdtt. 1857-59), and Moritz Hleyne (Paderand one of the earliest relics of English literature, was originally born, I863; new ed. I873). composed (according to Mr Kemble), about the time of the Bepur, a thriving seaport on the W. coast of India, in the Teutonic invasions of England, though the extant version is pro- diti bably not of earlier date than the 7th c. Mr Thorpe (Beowu district of Malabar, province of Madras, 6 miles S. of Calicut. 855) believes that the present version was paraphrased Fom Iron ore is found in the vicinity, and there is a considerable trade an) beroieve thagtcmosdi the pr.ofSesent vrion wataahraed fod'an heroic Saga composed in the S.W. of Sweden, in the old in timber. B. is the terminus of a railway across the peninsula common language of the N., and probably brought to this f Mds. Pop. about 6. country during the sway of the Danish dynasty.' Mr Oliphant Bequeath', to bestow personal property on any one by testa(Standard English, 1873, chap. i.), says-' B. is to us English ment. In so disposing of real estate the proper term to use is what the iliad was to tile Greeks. The old epic, written devise. In Scotch law also, B. is only applied to movable (peron the mainland, sets before us the doughty deeds of an sonal) estate. See LEGACY, WILL. Englishman, before his tribe had come to Britain. There is an unmistakable Pagan ring about the poem; and a Christian euest' is a legacy of personal poperty. See Ec, WILL. transcriber, hundreds of years afterwards, has sought to soften down this spirit.' But if the poem arose in Saeland, as is com- B6ran'ger, Pierre Jean de, called by Thiers the French monly supposed, the local colouring has been altered by a writer Horace, and certainly after Napoleon the most popular Frenchwho recast the epic in English metre. The scenery of B. is not man of this century, was born at Paris, I9th August 1780. Durthe scenery of Saeland, but exactly resembles the Yorkshire coast ing the Revolution he lived at Peronne, where his aunt kept an inn, betweenWhitby and Bowlby Cliff, and that cliff may be the ness on and where he was taught in one of the national schools conducted which B. was buried, and a corruption firom Beowulfes-by. (See on Rousseau's principles. Here he was taught history, geography, Morley's Eng'lish Liteirature.) The poem consists of 6357 lines, and composition, but no Latin. After helping his father for a few and, besides its philological value, is interesting from its wild years in a doubtful financial business, he adopted literature as a energy and picturesque glimpses of the old northern hero-life. It profession. Passing over his Hermal/Ihrodites, and various religious tells how B., nephew of the king of the West Goths, sails in a effusions, his Meditation and Pdlerinage, all of which were conm-'foamy-necked' ship over the'swan-path' to King Hrothgar, posed between the ages of sixteen and twenty-two, and are unripe, whose residence, named Hort, is ravaged by a monster of the imitative, and mediocre, we may note the first flashes of original race of Cain-'a grim stranger, Grendal, a mighty hunter in the genius in those incomparable chansons with which he solaced his marshes.' B. tells the king he will watch for Grendal by night early poverty in Paris. Till I8o3 he was, indeed, very poor; but alone. Grendal enters the hall, and, as he is impervious to steel, in Les Gueux and ]ogei'- Bontenmps we see the gaiety and courage B. tears his arm from the shoulder, and drives him into the fen- of his nature. From M. Lucien Bonaparte he got employment land. The conqueror is rewarded with praises and gifts; but (I8o5) on Landon's Annales du M]us&e, and an honorarium firom Grendal's mother devours a friend of the king's by night, and the Institute, which he afterwards generously gave to De Beauchanges joy to lamentation. This female monster dwells in a champs. In I809 he became a clerk to the university at /8o ghostly land, which is powerfully described. B. determines to salary, where he remained till 182i. By 1813 his Peitz Homnmoe seek her;'better'tis,' he says,'for every one, that he his friend Gris and Zmoi d' Yvelot were well known; he joined a literary avenge, than that he greatly mourn. Each of us must an end society called the'Caveau.' His first book of songs appeared in await of this world's life: let him who can, work high deeds ere 8I15, after which lhe is known as the poet of the Opposition. death.' He plunges beneath a gloomy flood, passes hideous Though a sincere republican, B. expressed frank admiration for monsters, and meets and slays'the she-wolf of the abyss, the the Emperor; and his disgust at some political conversions, and mighty sea-woman.' He is afterwards made king; rules for the irreverent expressions in his poem Le Ban Dzie, involved lhim fifty years; is slain in fight with a fiery dragon, and is buried in a prosecution, resulting in fine and imprisonment. He was deon a headland overlooking the sea, in accordance witlh his re- fended by the elder Dupin. In 1825 and 1828 he published quest that they should raise him a mound'at the sea's naze, more songs, and shortly before the revolution of July was again that seafarers afterwards may call it B.'s Mount, those who their imprisoned and heavily fined, the society'Aide-toi' subscribing foamy barks over the mist of floods drive from afar.' The a large part of the fine. B. was intimate with Manuel, Laffitte,'Goths' people' lamented his fall, bewailing him as the mildest Thiers, and Dupont, and also with Hugo, Sainte-Beuve, Laand kindest of kings and men. mennais, and Chateaubriand. He steadily resisted the advice'B. describes a hecroic age curiously similar to the heroic age of his firiends to enter political life, and even declined to put described in Homer. It brings before us the feast in the mead- himself in nomination for the Academy, on the ground that hall, with the chief and his health-sharers, the customs of the election would compromise the independence of a ciansonnier banquet, the rude beginnings of courtly ceremony, the boastful After 1833 he wrote little, but in 1848 he was against his will talk, reliance upon strength of hand, and the practical spirit of elected by 2oo,ooo votes member of the Constituent Assembly 357,^. - &,_ __ ~ __ ------ BER THE GLOBE ENC YCOLOPEDJA. BER for tile department of the Seine. He declined to act. He Ber'bers, the name generally given to the indigenous pop. of died at Paris, I6th July I857. B.'s fearless praise of liberty N. and N.-W. Africa. They occupy a vast region, stretching under the Empire, and of the Emperor under the Restoration; from the eastern edge of the Libyan Desert, as far W. as the his keen sense of national glory, and of the joys of wine and Atlantic, and from the negro states of Sudan to the shores of grisettes; his vivid expression of the freedom and gaiety pos- the Mediterranean. W.hatever differences have been made in sible for the poor; above all, his exquisite versification, have their fortunes by the course of history, under whatever different made him a classic. His character and philosophy may be seen names they have come to be known, they are essentially one in two expressions:'It is wealth to have few wants and many race, and conform to the same type, not only in language, but friends.''Those who are not selfish must be economical.' also in colour, features, and figure. Recent ethnographers and France has his songs by heart, and may read in them her own philologists have proposed to call them the Hamnitic, or, with strength and weakness. They are irresistibly charming, but in- Herodotus, the Libyic race, in opposition to the E/thioypic, or spire no heroism. Editions of his works are innumerable. One black population of Africa. Unquestionably they are of the same of the finest is the (Euvres conzli/es de P,. de B. (Par. 15835-36; stock as those nations of antiquity known as Mauri or Maurenew ed. I857). See also ra Biographie (Par. I857), Corre- tanians, Numidians, Getulians, Phazanians, Nasamoneans, the spondance de B. (4 vols, Par. I859-60), and Jules Janin's B. et Lybians of the Syrtes region1 of Cyrenaica, of Marmarica, and son Tenmps (Par. i866). of the desert oases of Augila and Ammonium. The Arab inBerar', formerly a Mahratta state, now under the British gov- vasion and conquest in the 7th c. was probably the most powerful ement of India, lies to the N. of the Nizams territory; also external influence that ever affected the B. It introduced among ernment of India, lies to the N-. of the Nizam's territory; als0 them a new language (Arabic), and a new religion (Mohamknown as the Hyderabad Assigned Districts. It is a fertile, them a new language (Arabic), and a new religion (Mhamwell-watered region, and has been called'the garden of India.' medanism), both of which have permanently established themThe chief natural product is cottond In 1853 it: was annexked by selves1 yet the native language of the 13. is still in use, and their The chief natural product is cotton, In 1853 it was annexed by acetcaatrsishv ntdsperId h otipr British rule, and consists now of an eastern and western division ancient characteristics have not disppearedm The most imporof the same name. The chief town is Ellichpore (q v.). Area, tat of the Berber peoples are-. The Anzir/i or Anas, 16960 sq. miles; pop. (1875) 2,231,565. properly MVasi/i, about 2~ millions in number, who inhabit 6',o s.ml;pp 81northern Marocco, the whole of the Rif (where they were formerly Berat', an Albanian town of some importance, situated on the dreaded for their piracy), and the northern part of the Atlas Beratina (ancient Apsus), about 92 miles S, of Scutari. Pop. range as far as the province of Tedla. They are for the most estimated at 9oo0. B, gives the name to a Greek archbish- part independent of the sultans of Marocco, and live either under opric. hereditary princes of their own race, or in small republican comBer'bera, one of the most important trading stations in E munities. They breed cattle, dwell in villages, and occasionally liler'ber~L, onre of the most important tradinrg stations in E. Africa, is situated on the N. coast of Somali, Ioo miles S. of (like Highland caterans) make predatory excursions into the Aden, at the head. of a deep and finely sheltered bay. The I Adlen, at the head of a deep and finely sheltered bay. The more fertile plains in their neighbourhoo'd. The Amazirghi are. in general, of a somewhat fair complexion ~ slender, but handharbour is the largest and best on the Somali coast. It belongs in genea o a s at rceI in sln ha some in body; and brave, but revengeftl in disposition. They are to a Soma'li people who dwell in the interior, and are rich in camels, oxen, and sheep. Two tribes of this people, the Ajdil- sworn enemies of all Europeans. 2. The S/il/ik or Sheila/, in southern Marocco, about I!} millions in number, who occupy 7rines and the Ajdl-Ac/imed, have the privilege of establishing southern Marocco, about millions in nuber who occupy a market here once a year, though not of directly buying and partly the great plain along the Omm-e-Rebiah and Tensift, selling. They act as protectors, landlords, negotiators, inter- and partly the southern Atlas, to its farthest spurs towards the preters, &c n cobrteycmednfo teinAtlantic. They follow industrial and agricultural occupations, preters, &c. In October they come down from the interior in small caravans, with all requisites for erecting bazaars and maga- trade in European manufactures, and live in large towns and zines; and by the end of November, when the N.. monsoon villages. In complexion they are darker than the Amazirghi, favours sailng from Arabia, Persia, wIndia, and E Africa and less powerfully built, but possess a higher culture. Offshoots favors ailng rom raba, ersa, ndia an E.Afrcaboth from the Amazirghi and Shiiluh have become nomads, and thousands of buyers and sellers come from the ports of the Red both from the Amazirghi and Shillub have become nomads, and Sea,, from Ade~n, Mauscat, Bassorah, Bombay, Zanzibar, &c., and wander about in Bedouin (q. v.) fashion along the great level Sea, great scene ofsbarte begs. Ia Marn barqs wastes south of the Atlas, such as the plain of Tafilelt (q. v.), a great scene of bart-ering begins. In March the barqlues which is even named after the Amazirghi tribe of the Filkli. gradually leave the bay, and early in April the last of the h s e nm aert a ti o e i Somali are gone, and the harbour and bay are left to solitude 3. The Kabyles (q. v.), in Algeria and Tunis, whose number is till the next season. Among the exports are hides, ostrich feathers, officially stated to be about 960,000. 4. The B. of Sahara, who gum-arabic, drugs-especially myrrh, odoriferous resins, coffee, inhabit the various oases scattered over that immense region. &cZn~~~. T pnam tri I ~~The most notable tribes are the Beni-Mezab or Mozabites, the senna, wax, honey, &c. The principal imports are rice, maize, B. of Gadames, of Sokna on the frontiers of Fezzan, of Augila, dates, cotton goods, iron, tin, zinc, copper, &c, of Ammonium, but above all, of the wide-spread and far-ruling Berberida'ce, or Barberry order, a natural order of Dico- nation of the Imosharh or Tuareg. These imosharh, the purest, tyledonous plants, herbs, or shrubs, with watery juice.'Leaves i.e., the most unmixed, of all the B., occupy the western oases alternate, compound or divided, usually without stipules. between Ghadames, Tuat, Bilma, and the Niger, and have Flowers perfect: calyx of three to nine sepals, imbricated in one almost exclusive control of the great caravan trade between the to several rows, often coloured. Petals as many as the sepals, and Sudan and the seaports of the Mediterranean. See Barth's in two sets, or twice as many, often with a pore, spur, or glandular Travels in Cenzral Afrifa (vol. i.); and Hanoteau's grammatical appendage at the base. Stamens equal in number to the petals, worlks on the Berber languages of the Kabyles and the Tuareg. and opposite them, or rarely more numerous. Anthers extrorse, Berbice the eastern division of British Giiana, S. America, the cells commonly opening by an uplifted valve. Carpels soli- has an area of 50 s miles, and a pop. of 30,00, of whom has an area of 750 sq. miles, and a pop. of 30,0o0o, of whom tary, often gibbous or oblique, forming a one-celled pod or berry over 400 are whites. It is watered by a river of the same name, in fruit. Seeds one, two, three in number, embryo (often minute) which is navigable for upwards of 50 miles. Tse chief prosurrounded by a fleshy or horny endosperm' (Gray). Found ducts are sugar, coffee, and cotton. Near the mouth of the ducts are sugar, coffee, and cotton.Nertemuhote in the temperate parts of Europe, America, Asia, and in the river B. stands New Amsterdam, the chief town and seaport, mountainous parts of India. There are about Iio species, and with considerable exports of rum, sugar, raw cotton, and timber. 12 genera, most of which have acid (owing to the presence of oxalic acid), astringent, and bitter properties. The Mahonias Beree'to, a town of Italy, province of Parma, and 26 miles are beautiful flowering-plants of our gardens; a decoction of S.W. of the city of Parma, on the edge of the Apennines (La the roots of one of them (Ol. aqznfoiia), of N.W. America, is Cisa Paso), with a fine Gothic church, and a pop. of 3000. used by the natives and backwoodsmen of that region as a bitter Berch'ta (old High Ger. Perahia,'shining,''white'), a tonic and in venereal diseases. The fruits of some are eaten, spiritual being regarding whom there are stories in S. Germany while the stem roots of others furnish a yellow dye. A large and Switzerland similar to those about Hulda ('gracious,' shrubby form (/. or Berberis Baifouriana) was discovered in'benign') in N. Germany. Originally, beyond doubt, a heathen Vancouver Island, and introduced into this country by Dr goddess, an embodiment of the kindly power of Nature, she sank Brown in I864. The Blue Cohosh (q, v.) and the Mandrake with the spread of Christianity into a bugbear for frightening of America (Podopylinum peltatulm) belong to this order. The children. Frau B. was also, in particular, a severe taskmistress of latter plant has drastic properties. spinners, and queen of the crickets, represented with a long iron 358 4~ BER TIZE GLOBE ENC YCIOPIDIA. BER nose and very big foot. The Per/chten springs and brooks in Salz- and the emperor was forced in 956 to send an army against burg and the Tyrol, probably also the Fec/iteltag in Switzerland, him under his son Ludolf, who conquered B., but too generously are probably memorials of the fact that B. was once an object of gave him back both his crown and freedom. In 957 Ludolf worship. The name B. has in modern times become Bertha. died, it is said, of poison administered by Willa; and now B.'s B3erch'tesgaden, a market-village of Bavaria, on the Ache tyranny became so odious that Otho himself was forced to come or Albe. It is near the Austrian frontier, a little to the E. of to Italy (961) and put him down. In 964 he was compelled by which, at Frauenreuth, are the government saltworks, worked famine to surrender the mountain fortress in which he had taken since the year II74, and yielding annually about 7500 tons of refuge; and being sent as a prisoner to Balbel-g, in Bavaria, he salt. Pop. I900oo. died there in 966. Ber'cy, a place on the outskirts of Paris, within the fortifi- Berenga'rius, a famous schoolman, was born at Tours in cations, formerly a separate town, now part of the capital, has 998, became a canon of the Cathedral of Tours (1030), Archnumerous distilleries and sugar-refineries, with manufactures of deacon of Angers (Io40), and died in Io88. He rendered himself chemical products, but is best known as the chief deplot of the famous by his opposition to the Romish doctrine of Transubstantwines and brandies intended for the capital. tiation, which had been formulated, and, as B. affirmed, introduced into the Church, by Paschasius Radbertus in the 9th c. Berdiansk', a Russian seaport town, government of Taurida, He was induced, under successive popes, to sign three different on the N. of the Sea of Azov, is a place of great commercial statements of belief regarding the Eucharist, more or less of the activity, with mines of salt and coal in its neighbourhood. In nature of recantations. As far as his own opinion can be gathered I828 it was an insignificant village, but, by the efforts of Prince from his controversy with Lanfranc, he denied the doctrine of Voronzov, was raised to a town, and has since continued to Transubstantiation, but held as nearly as possible the Lutheran prosper. Pop. (I867) I2,465. doctrine of Consubstantiation. For a long time nothing was Berditchev', or Berdy Czew, an important trading town of known of B.'s writings save some letters, but in 1770 Lessing Russia, government of Kiev, on the Gnilopjat, 92 miles W.S.W. discovered at Wolfenbiittel the MS. of his reply to Lanfranc on of Kiev, and not far from the borders of Volhynia, to which the Eucharist controversy, which was, however, first published historically it belongs. It is the private property of Prince by the brothers Vischer, under the title B. Turo.ensis de Sacra Radzivil. B. has manufactures of tobacco, silks, perfumes, Cona adversus Lanfrazcum Liber Poslerior (Berl. 1834). tallow candles, oil, wax, leather, &c., and is besides the centre Bereni'ce, the name of several celebrated Egyptian and of the S. Russian trade with Germany. B. has two weekly and Jewish princesses. Ey~tian,-I. B., second wife of Ptolemy five annual markets, the most important being held on the I2th Soter, celebrated by Plutarch as the first in virtue and wisdom June and 15th August, when the chief articles of trade are furs, of Ptolery's wives.-2. B., daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus, silks, glass, ironware, woodwork, salt, fish, corn, sugar, cattle, and wife of Antiochus II., of Syria, by whom she was put away. and horses. Pop. (1867) 52,787, among whom are a con- B. was then murdered by the partisans of Laodice, the former siderable number of Jews. wife of Antiochus.-3. B,, daughter of Magas, King of Cyrene, Bere'ans, so named from those inhabitants of Berea men- and wife of Ptolemy Euergetes. She dedicated her hair in the tioned honourably in Acts xvii. rl; known also as Barclayans, temple of Venus for her husband's safe return from Syria. It fiom their founder, the Rev. John Barclay (I734-98); an unlim- was removed, it is said, to form a constellation, and was celeportant Christian sect in Scotland, whose doctrines, in the main brated by Callimachus in a poem, which was translated by Calvinistic, embrace such peculiarities as that unbelief is the un- Catullus. B. was put to death by her son, Ptolemy Philopator. - pardonable sin, that saving faith is accompanied by assurance, 4. B., daughter of Ptolemy Lathyrus, and wife of Alexander II., and that the Bible alone reveals to us the existence and character grandson of Ptolemy Physcon. She was murdered by her husof God. band nineteen days after marriage.-5. B., daughter of Ptolemy Ber'engar I., King of Italy, was the son of Eberhard, Dulhe Auletes, and eldest sister of Cleopatra, filled the throne from her of Friuli, and of Gisela, daughter of the Emperor Ludwig the father's expulsion, B.c. 58, till his restoration, B.C. 55 when she Pious. When the various Frankish kingdoms agreed to depose was put to death. She was the wife successively of Seleucus and Charles the Fat, and choose each a ruler for itself, B. was Archelaus. 7ewish.-I. B., daughter of Costobarus and Salome, crowned King of Italy at Pavia in 888*; but he never had a was married first to Aristobulus, and afterwards to Theudion. -2. B., daughter of Agrippa L, was thrice married': to Marcus, son secure hold over the country, and his career is nothing but a B., daughter of Agrippa I., was thrice married: to Marcus, son record of sanguinary struggles. By the aid of Arnulf, the Ki; to her uncle Herod, King of Chalcis of the Germans, or E. Franlks, whom he acknowledged as his and to Polemon, King of Cilicia, whom, howevel, she soon'overlord,' B. was finally victorious over a formidable com- deserted to return to ber brother Agrippa. After the capture of petitor, Guido, Duke of Spoleto. Guido dying in 894, his son Jerusalem, she went to Rome, where the indignation of the Lambert wrested from B. a share in the sovereignty of N. Italy, people alone prevented Titus fiom raising her to his throne. and retained it till his assassination in 898. Meanwhile, the Berenice (mod. Sakdyt-el-Kizbli), an ancient Egyptian town Magyars ravaged the N. and the Arabs the S. of Italy, and the on the Red Sea, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus; once a great Italian nobles, enraged with B. for not chastising the enemy, emporium of trade with the East, but now interesting only for called in Ludwig, King of Lower Burgundy, who was crowned its ruins, the chief of which is the small sandstone Temple of at Rome in 9oI. Four years later his nobles again revolted, Serapis, containing sculptured figures in basso-rilievo, and and invited Rudolf of Burgundy to help them, who inflicted so hieroglyphics. In the vicinity of B. are emerald-mines. B. decisive a defeat on B., 29th July 923, that the latter was driven was also the name of four other ancient towns, the most noleto solicit the aid of the Magyars. This brought upon him the worthy being B, Panchsyson (the'all-golden'), also on the hatred of all Italy, and he was assassinated in the following year. coast of the Red Sea. Here the Egyptians found their great B. left by his first wife, Bertila, two daughters, Gisela and Bertha, supplies of gold, employing prisoners and criminals in the extenof whom the first married the Marquis Adalbert of Ivrea. sive mines. Berengar II., son of the Marquis Adalbert, and grandson Ber'esford, William Carr, Viscount, one of the most of B. I., married Willa, niece of Hugo (Count of Provence), eminent of the lieutenants of the Duke of Wellington, was an then King of Italy, in 934. Threatened by Hugo for having illegitimate son of George De la Poer, first Marquis of Waterford, conspired against him, he took refuge at the court of the Em- born 2d October 1768. He entered the army in I785, served with peror Otho I., whence he returned to Italy with an army in 945. distinction in various parts of the world, and in I8o8 joined the In 950 he assumed the title of king, the interval being occupied British army in Portugal. He fought at the battle of Corunna by the rule, less real than nonsinal, of Lothar, the son of Hugo, under Sir John Moore, and, after covering the embarkation of whose death Willa is supposed to have compassed by poison. the troops, returned with them to England. In I809, B. was As a security for his power, he wished Adelheid, the widow of appointed commander of the Portuguese army, succeeded in Lothar, to marry his son Adalbert, his associate in the regal restoring discipline to it, and was rewarded with the honour of power. She implored the protection of the Emperor Otho, who Marshal of Portugal. The skill with which he rapidly transmarried her himself, and, in 952, reduced B. to the condition of formed swarms of rude peasants into active and intelligent soldiers a feudatory of the empire. But he soon took up arms again, was never surpassed. Under Wellington he played a brilliant BER THIE GLOBE EN1CYCLOPDJIA. BER part, winning the battle of Albuera, May I6, i8II. He was gave name to a Lombard duchy, accepted the protectorate of the severely wounded at the battle of Salamanca, took Bordeaux, Venetian republic in I427, and remained in this relation till the February 27, I8I4, and was present at the battle of Toulouse. conquest of Italy by Napoleon at the close of the I8th c. It is B. was created in I814 Baron, and in 1823 Viscount B. From the birthplace of Bernardo Tasso, the father of Torquato, and of January I828 to November I83o he was Master-General of the Tiraboschi, the historian of Italian literature.-The province of Ordnance under the Wellington administration. Many Spanish B., mountainous in the N., but belonging in the S. to the fruitful and Portuguese titles were conferred upon him. He died with- plain of Lombardy, has an area of 928 sq. miles, and a pop. out issue, at Bedgebury Park, Kent, 8th January I854. (I872) of 368, I52. The inhabitants, who are noted for the rudeBeresi'na, or Berezi'na, a river of Russia rising in the ness of their dialect, have the reputation of being fat and goodgovernment of Minsk, which, after flowing in a south-easterly natured, but cunning direction for about 240 miles, joins the Dnieper. It is connected Bergamot, the fruit of Citezws bergarzzie, an ally of the cornwith the Diina by the B. canal. Borissoev, about I70 miles mon orange, cultivated in the S. of Europe. From its rind is from its junction with the Dnieper, is the scene of the dis- obtained the B.-oil which is very largely employed in cheap astrous passage of the retreating French army under Napoleon, perfumery and as a flavouring essence in cookery. B.-oil is a on November 27, I812. yellow essential oil, with a strong citrine odour, obtained by Berez'na, a town in the government of Tchernigov, Russia, expression. It thickens considerably with age, and deposits a on the Desna, 24 miles E.N.E. of the town of Tchernigov. It solid white substance called B.camphor. contains several churches, and has some trade. Pop. 9678. Ber'gedorf, a town and territory between the Elbe and Berezov, or Beresof ('the place of birch-trees'), a town in the Brlye, belonging to Hamburg, Germany. The territory on the Sosva, a tributary of formerly belonged to both Hamburg and Ltibeck, but in i867 the government of obolsk, Siberia, the latter town resigned its share in the government to Hamthe Obi. It lies in the midst of wide cold wastes, but has an r important trade in skins and furs, and a great annual fair. Prince erg for 200,000 thalenr. Pop. of town (p872) 3600, chiefly Menschikoff andc Count Ostermann both suffered punishment engaged-in husbandry and cattle and poultry rearing. Pop. and died here during the rIth c. Pop. I570. There is another of territory, part of which is known by the name of Vierlinder B. in the eastern government of Perm, Russia, near which are many gold-mines. Ber'gen, the capital of a province or stift of the same name, and, next to Christiana, the chief trading town of Norway, Berg, formerly a duchy of Germany, was a distinct state as situated on the Vaagen, a deep inlet of the sea. It is early as the I2th c., but first became an independent duchy in the strongly fortified, and has a capital harbour, which is however, I4th c. After many changes of dynasty it came into the posses- somewhat difficult of access. It is the see of a bishop, and the sion of Bavaria, who ceded it to France in i8o6. Napoleon I. principal building is the cathedral; but there are various other enlarged it, raised it to a grand-duchy, and conferred it first on handsome churches, municipal and charitable institutes, besides Murat, and then on the Crown Prince of Holland. At the peace an inferior law court and public libraries. There is a naval of I815 it was given to Prussia. B. now forms part of the circles squadron stationed here, and the chief industry is the herring of Arnsberg, Cologne, and Diisseldorf, in Rhenish Prussia. trade; the export in this item alone amounting to some 200,000 Berg, in German, Dutch, Frisian, and Swedish, signifies a tons annually. B. also exports great quantities of dried fish,'hill,' and this sense the word retains, under all itS forms, in cod-liver oil, skins, and feathers. The imports are for the most the other Teutonic dialects: Bjerg in Dan., Bearg in Icel. and part brandy, wine, corn, cotton, woollens, coffee, and sugar. Norweg., Baing in Low Ger., and Beorh or Beorgin Old Eng., Pop. (I872) 30,252, including the suburbs of Sandigenndslel also mean a hill. But a hill is a natural'defence' or' protec- and Skudevizen, The town was founded by Olaf Kyrre in 1069, tion,' and so the word came to acquire the secondary meaning of and during the middle ages was the most important Hanse town a mound, rampart, fortification, or refuge, in which sense it sur- in Norway. The earliest foreign treaty ever made by England vives in mod. Eng. under the form of'Barrow' (q. v.). The was entered into with B. in I2I7. In I348 the black pestilence Ger. Bur7g and the Old Eng. Buri (mod.'borough,''bury,' broke out in B., whence it spread throughout the kingdom, and and' burgh') are only modifications of the original form to cle- it has frequently reappeared in the town.-The province of B. note particular applications of the idea of'defence.' A burg, or has an area of 9628 sq. miles, and a pop. (I872) of 242,914. biorh, is simply a'protected' place, walled, stockaded, or other- It extends along the coast, and has much fishing and cattlewise defended, as distinguished from an open and defenceless rearing. hamlet. Bergen-op-Zoom, a town and fortress in N. Brabant, HolBer'ga, a town in the province of Barcelona, Spain, near the land, on the small river Zoom, where it enters the E. branch of Lobregat, 52 miles N. W. of Barcelona. It is commanded by a the Scheldt, and I7 miles N.N.WV. of Antwerp. Its defences castle with a strong battery. The trade consists in the pro- are strengthened by its being situated on an elevation surrounded duce of the neighbouring country; cotton fabrics are also by marshes and sands, which are covered by the tide at high manufactured. Pop. 6333. water. It was a stronghold of the Netherlanders in their war Ber'gama, the ancient Pergamos (q. v.), situated about 40 with Spain, and withstood successfully many formidable attacks; miles N. of Smyrna, in the vilayet of Aidin, Asiatic Turkey, and after the works were added to by Cohorn it was deemed on the Bakur-Chai, has numerous and splendid remains of its impregnable. It was taken, however, twice by the French; former greatness-temples, palaces, amphitheatres, aqueducts, first in I747, and again in I794; but the British, who, under &c. PopI. about 15,000. nSir Thomas Graham, attempted to surprise it on the night of March 8, 184, were repulsed with immense loss. The French, Ber'gamo, an ancient and important town in the N. of Italy, gave it up under the treaty of Paris. The principal trade is in province of B., is charmingly situated on several small eminences, anchovies, and earthenware is manufactured. Pop. 9139. the highest of which is crowned by a castle, between the rivers Brembo and Sexio, 29 miles N. E. of Milan. Pop. (I872) 37,363. Ber'gerac, a town of France, department of Dordogne, in a B. is the seat of a bishop, and has an academy of painting and fetile plain on the right bank of the Dordogne, 26 miles S.S.W. sculpture, a museum, a lyceum, a public library of 50,000 vols., of Perigueux. It is ill-built, with narrow winding streets. Over and considerable manufactures of silk, cotton, and iron, besides the Dordogne is a bridge of five arches. The chief manufactures a large trade in grindstones made in the neighbourhood. Among are liqueurs, chemical stuffs, paper, serges, hosiery, and earthenits n~umerous churches the Santa Maria Maggiorie, the old Arian ware. Several brandy-distilleries, tanneries, iron-foundries, and church San Alessandro della Croce, Saln Bartolomeo, San Andres, smelting-furnaces are in the neighbourhood, and the department Santa Maria del Sepolcro, and Santa Grata, are distinguished by is noted for its wines. B. owes its ory their age, their beauty, and their pictures. The great fair or Martin, founded in Io8o; was originally a strong fortress, and festival of San Bartolomeo is held in August, in the suburb of San played an important part both in the English and Huguenot Leonardo, in a large stone building erected for the purpose, and warS. Louis SIII. demolished the fortifications in I621. Pop. containing 600 stalls or booths, where business is done valued at (I872) 8024. more than a million sterling. B., anciently Bergamum, was a Berghaus, Heinrich Karl Wilhelm, a celebrated geoRoman mzv.uicizpium, was destroyed by the Huns in the 5th c., grapher, was born at Kleve, in Rhenish Prussia, May 3, 1797, 360 4 _ _ + BER THE GLOBE ENVCYCL OPDItA. BER educated at Miinster, and held the chair of Mathematics in resembles a perch in general form, and possesses the head-plates the Berlin Architectural Academy from I824 to I855. His chief covered with scales. One long dorsal fin, having its anterior half chartographical works are Atlas von AsieJn (1833-43), the spinous, exists. The eyes are large, and the teeth small and famous Physikal. Atlas (90 plates, Gotha, I838-4~; 2d ed. very numerous. The B. inhabits the northern seas, and occurs 1849-51), and a Satmmiughydroog r..-physikal. Karten der Preuss. on the eastern coasts of Britain. It is coloured red, and is Seefahrer (Berl. I840-48). The principal of his many important lightest in colour on the under parts. Its average length is I2 geographical writings are his Allgem. Linder. und Vblkerkunde or 2 feet. Its flesh is nutritious, the Greenlanders eating it in (Stuttg. 6 vols. I837-41); Die Vdlker des Erdballs (BrUn. and both the fresh and dried states. Leips. 2 vols. 1845-47); Deuz/schlandseit hundert yahren (Leips. 5 Berhampore', a town of British india, province of Bengal, vols. 1859-62); Was man von der Erde weiss (BerI. 4 vols. district of Moorshedabad, on the left bank of the Bhagirathi, a I856-6o); and B.riefwechsel mi A. von fHumboldt (Leips. 3 branch of the Ganges, II8 miles N. of Calcutta. It is the seat vols. i863).-Hermann B., a nephew of the former, orn i6th of a government establishment, and one of the chief British November I828, is also well known as a geographical engineer, military stations in India, with a college and several churches having published a Karte des Qetlthaler Gletschergebiets (Gotha, and hospitals. B. enjoys as healthy a climate as any place in i86.i), a Welikale in _Mercator's Projektionz (Gotha, i859), ancBengal, great improvement having been lately effected in its together with Von Stiilpnagel the splendid Chart of the World great improvement having been lately effected in sts together with Von Stiilpnagel the splendid ChZart of the World sanitary arrangements. At the time of the mutiny this was one (8 plates, Lond. 1863). of the first places where disaffection showed itself, but before Ber'ghem, or Berchem, Nikolaas, a famous Dutch painter any decided action took place the native troops were disarmed. and engraver, was born at Haarlem, I624, and died there I8th Pop. (1872) 27, IIo.-B. is also the name of a town and miliFebruary I683. His works, chiefly landscapes with cattle, are tary station in the province of Madras, district of Ganjam, situvery numerous, a result both of his own industry and of the ava- ated in a wide plain, 525 miles N.E. of Madras, and 325 S.W. rice of his wife, who kept him close at his easel. The striking of Calcutta. Pop. 20,000. qualities of his works, the excellence of which has carried Beriberi, or Bad Sickness of Ceylon, is a name given them into all the good collections of Europe, are exquisite taste, to serious disease, unknown in this country, but not unfrequent and a quality of rich, truthful, and harmonious colour, which time o and India. The name B. is a reduplication of a word has not been able to sensibly deteriorate. B.'s larger works signifying an ess, and means greatB eakness.. is characterhave been sold in Paris for 24,000 fr. His etchings are much ised by great prostration, poverty of the blood, numbness of the sought after. surface of the body, and general dropsy, not only in the limbs, Bergk, Theodor, a German philologist, was born at Leipsic, but into most cavities of the body. The disease often breaks 22d May I812, studied under Beck, Hermann, and Dindorff, and out among troops and convicts. It is generally a fatal disease. after many changes of residence, finally settled as professor at Treatment consists in warm clothing, good diet, purgatives, and Bonn in I869. B.'s services to the criticism and elucidation of diuretics. It is stated that a residence of eight or twelve months the Greek poets are of great value. His chief works are the is necessary before the disease manifests itself. Poe&e, Lyrici Grrci (Leips. 1843; new ed. 3 vols. I853-67); Berie, a town of British India, province of the Punjab, exeComnmentationes de Reliqiis Comerdie- Atticae Anticqa (Leps. cutive district of Rohtuk, 36 miles W. by N. of Delhi. Pop i838); his edition of Aristophanes (2 vols. Leips. 1852; 2d ed. (1871) 9723;857), and of Sophocles (Leips. 1857); but he has also executed numerous smaller works displaying fine scholarship and fami- Ber'ja, a town of Spain, in the province of Andalucia, 22 miles liarity with all contemporary research. W. of Almeira, situated on the S. slope of the Sierra de Gador, in the lead-mines of which employ most of the inhabitants. There Bertgler, Joseph, a German painterd, born at Salzburg in is also some trade in wine and oil, and considerable linen, I793, studied in Italy, and exhibited his'Betrayal of Samson' leather, and hardware manufactures. Pop. 8000. at Parma, from the academy of which it obtained the first prize. He was appointed director of the academy at Prage in I8 Berke'ley, a small borough-town in Gloucestershire, on the and died there in I829. Besides a number of fine a ieces, Avon, a mile and a half E. of its junction with the Severn. The and died there in 1829. Besides a number of fine altar-pieces, B. executed numerous designs and pictures illustrative of events Vale of B., in which the town lies, is a rich pasturage, and noted B. executed numerous designs and pictures illustrative of events for its milk and cheese (the famous'Double Gloucester'). Dr in the history of Bohemia. for its milk and cheese (the famous' Double Gloucester'). Dr Jenner, the discoverer of vaccination, was born and is buried in Bergman, Torbern Olof, an eminent Swedish chemist, B. B. Castle, to the S.E. of the town, was the scene of the was born at Katharinberg, in the province of West Gothland, murder of Edward II. Pop. (1871) II6I. 20th March r735. He distinguished himself at Upsala Univer- Berkeley, George, Bishop of Cloyne, and one of the most sity, where, in I767, he became Chemistry Professor. Friedrich illustrious metaphysicians of the iSth c., was the eldest son the Great invited him to Berlin in 1776, but the love of his of William B., and born on the I2th March 1684, at Kilcrin, nativeland kept him at home. He died in his prime at Medevi, near Thomastown, Kilkenny, Ireland. He was educated at 8th July I784. Most of his dissertations are collected into six Trinity College, Dublin, where be made the acquaintance of volumes, entitled Opzuscula ToPrberni B. Physica et Chemica Swift. In 1713 he went to London, and became the esteemed (Upsala, 1779-94; Ger. by Tabort, Frankf. 178299). friend of Addison, Pope, and the other wits and literary men of Bergmehl, or' MEountain-MXeal,' a whitish powder, occur- the day. When the Duke of Grafton was made Lord-Lieutenant ring in various recent geological formations, and composed of Ireland, B. became one of his chaplains, and in I724 was prochiefly of the remains of the flinty or siliceous coverings of Dia- moted to the Deanery of Derry. In 1728 he sailed to America tomacee (q. v.), or low vegetable organisms. The name'B.' is to establish in the Bermudas a missionary college for the converderived from the Swedish habit of mixing this deposit with bread sion of the Indians, but not being supported by the governand other kinds of food, under the idea that it is nutritious. ment of Sir Robert Walpole, the scheme failed, and he Deposits of this substance occur in N. Wales, in Ireland, in returned to England, to become in 1734 Bishop of Cloyne. Mull and in the Hebrides in Britain, and in Norway and The duties of his diocese he discharged with zeal, and twice Sweden. Probably the remains of Foraminifera (q. v.) are also refused to give up his see. In 1752 B. removed to Oxford with mixed up with those of diatoms. Analyses of B. show that it his son-he had married in 1728 Anna Elvert, the daughter contains a certain proportion of organic matter-3 or 4 per cent. of the Right Hon. John Forster, Speaker of the Irish House of Commons —and on the i4th of January I754, he was seized Bergues', a fortified town of France in the department of Commons-and on the 14th of January I754, he was seized Bergues', a fortified town of France in the department of while reading with palsy of the heart, and died almost instanthe Nord, about 5 miles S.E. of Dunkirk, with which it is con- taneously. Besides being one of the heart, and died almost instantaneously. Besides being one of the most energetic churchnected by a canal. There are manufactories of soap and tobacco, men and amiable men of his day, to whom justly'every virtue also sugar and salt refineries. B. is an old town, and has the under heaven' was ascribed, B. was one of the subtlest thinkers ruins of a once magnificent abbey, built by Baldwin IV. Pop. that Great Britain has produced. In a series of works mainly that Great Britain has produced. In a series of works mainly (1872) 5774. intended to rebut materialism, scepticism, and atheism, of which Ber'gylt, or'Norway-Haddock' (Sebastes Norvegicus), a the most important are his Treatise concerning the Principles of genus of Teleostean fishes, of the family 5Triglade, which group Huntan KInozledge, published in 17I0, and Three Dialogzues is also represented by the gurnards, &c. This fish somewhat between Hiylas and Philonous, published in I713, he advocated 46 36I 4'- 4 '4 BER THiE GLOBE ENVCYCY (OPL DIA. BER absolute idealism, and denied the existence of the external world. the privilege of private feuds, as if they were important soveThis philosophy, laughed at when first promulgated, is now reigns. Gdtz was present at the Diet of Worms (7th August looked upon as one of the most complete schemes of meta- 1495), when the Imperial Council formally abolished this right. physics ever given to the world, although it is undeniable that Nevertheless, he always acted on the principle that on a just it paved the way for the scepticism of Hume. Among B.'s cause he was entitled to declare hostilities: as he did against other works are his Theoey of Vision (1 709), intended to demon- Niirnberg in I 5 I 3. At the siege of Landshut he lost his right strate the dependence of our perceptions of distance, magnitude, hand, which was supplied by an iron one. HIe was opposed to &c., on the sense of touch; and two books on the virtues of the Suabian league, and his friendship for Ulrich of Wiirtemtar-water. Various editions of his works have been published. berg made him an object of hostility to the Emperor, who twice The latest, and incomparably the best, is that by Professor Fraser put him under ban. When in 1525-26 the Suabian peasants rose of Edinburgh, who has also written his Life (I874). The lan- to demand freedom from certain taxes, and a free choice of guage used by Mr G. H. Lewes when speaking of B. is simply clergy,'G6tz put himself at their head. He was in consequence just:'There are few men of whom England has better reason imprisoned at Augsburg and Jaxthausen for a number of years; to be proud than of George B., Bishop of Cloyne. To extraor- but after the dissolution of the Suabian league he served under dinary merits as a writer and thinker he united the most exquisite Karl V. against the Turks (I541), and against the French (I544). purity and generosity of character, and it is still a moot-point He died at his castle of Hornberg, 23d July 1562. Gitz seems whether he was greater in head or in heart.' to have been a simple, brave, frank soldier, with the vices and Falkand prejudices of his class and time. He left an account of himself, Berkeley ~Soulnd, an inlet: on the N.E. of E. Falkland first published in I73I (best edition, Busching and Der Hagen, Island, much frequented by trading vessels on account of its Breslau, I813), which gives an interesting glimpse of contemgood harbour. porary life. The brilliant drama of this name by Gdthe, GerstenBerkhamstead, Great, or St Peter's, a matket-town of' berg's Ugolino, and Klinger's Sturmt und Drzng have been Iertfordshire, 22 miles W. of Hertford, and 28 miles N.W. ofi called typical works of the revolutionary literary movement London, on the North-Western Railway. It lies in a valley, on in Germany known by that name. The B. family still exists in the Bulborne, and on the Grand Junction Canal, and has some the two lines of Jaxthausen and Rossach, to the latter of which trade in timber, malt, and coals. TheGre are also manufac- Gbtz belonged, the representative of the former having been his tures of chemicals, straw-plait, and fancy wooden wares. B. brother, Hans von B. (born 1476, died I553). To the B.was a residence of the kings of Mercia, and was the place Rossach line belongs Friedrich Wolfgang G. von B., born where the English nobles and prelates obtained from William' 26th June 1826, a major in the Austrian army, and a member the Conqueror an oath that he would govern according to the of the Upper Chamber of WUrtemberg. In 1859 he was raised laws of Edward the Confessor. William gave the manor of B. to the rank of a count, and has written Urkszndzslicze Gesc/zichle to his half-brother the Earl of Moreton, who built on it a strong des Ritters G. von B. und seiner eaemitie (Leips. i86i). castle. The property, however, was seized by the crown in the reign of Henry I., and was conferred by Edward III. on his Berlin is the capital of the Prussian monarchy and of the son, the Black Prince, when lie created him Duke of Cornwall. German empire, the chief residence of the Emperor, and one of It has since belong-ed to the Princes of'WI~ales. The fr~ee the finest cities of Europe. It is situated near the centre of the grammar-school of B., founded in the reign of Edward, is still province of Brandenburg, on both sides of the Spree, an affluent in existence. There are several other charitable foundations. of the Havel, occupies a flat sandy plain, badly adapted for The poet Cowper was born here.'Pop. (I871) 3940. -B., sanitary purposes, covering an area of some 224 sq. miles, and Little, a beautiful village, four miles S.W. of Hertford. with a is divided into I6 quarters, of which Alt-B., on the right bank pop. (I8'7I) of 408. of the Spree, and A4l-AKdn, on an island, are the oldest, while Ateussere Friedrichsstadt has been built since I838. The Spree, Berkshire, one of the most picturesque counties of England, which cuts B. into two almost equal parts, and is connected by a lies between Hampshire and the Thames, and has an area of canal with the Oder, is here some 200 feet wide, and has a slow 752 sq. miles, and a pop. (I871) of I96,475. It is intersected current. The cityis built mainly on a regular plan, and comby a tract of chalk-hills or downs, and is formed in the N. of prises some 596 streets and squares, and some 33,963 buildings, coral-rag, in the S. of tertiary, and of chalk and greensand in of which over 70oo are public buildings, 80 being churches and the centre. The chalk range is a continuation of the Chilterns, chapels. Among the principal streets are Unter den Linden, 3605 and rises to a height of 893 feet in White Horse Hill, so called feet long, and I55 broad, which leads from the Schlossbrticke to from a rude outline of an immense horse on its chalky side. the Brandenburg Gate, and contains two double rows of lindenThe rich vale of Kennet lies S. of this range, and is watered by trees; Friedrichsstrasse, 8755 feet long, and having scarcely one the stream of the same name. Along the entire N. boundary, foot of slope throughout; Wilhelmsstrasse, stretching away to a course, with windings, of IOo miles long, flows the Thames, the new Luisen Gate, with a length of 8652 feet, and KInigsreceiving as tributaries the Kennet, Ock, and Leddon. In the strasse, noted for its trade and traffic. Of the squares, the most E. of the county is Windsor Castle'(q. v.), with its famous forest celebrated are the Opernplatz, containing an equestrian statue and park. The chief crops of B. are barley, oats, and wheat, of Friedrich the Great by Rauch (I85I); the Lustgarten (1828); and in I873, 370,3I7 acres were under tillage. There is much one side of which is occupied by the museum; Wilhelmsplatz, pasture, and an extensive trade in dairy produce, including with statues of Schwerin, Winterfeld, Seidlitz, Keith, Ziethen,' Double Gloucester' and'pine-apple' cheese. The breeding and' Leopold of Dessau; Belle-Allianzplatz, in the centre of which of horses, cattle, swine, and other live-stock is carried on; but is the Victoria column (I843); the Gensdarmenplatz, the largest there are no important manufactures. Two canals and the of the squares; and Leipzigerplatz, the site of the Brandenburg Great Western Railway are the chief means of transit. Three monument. There are several beautiful bridges, as Friedrichsmembers of Parliament are returned by B., besides two by the briicke, 235 feet long, having eight arches; Schlossbriicke, ornacounty town, Reading, and one each by Abingdon, Walling- mented with eight marble-groups of statuary emblematic of war; ford, and Windsor. B., originally Bearocscyre,'bare-oakshire,' the Kutfiirstenbriicke, built 1692-95, and the Alsenbriicke, built so called (according to Bosworth) from the polled oak in Windsor in I864. A few of the most important buildings are the royal forest where public meetings were held, is a county rich in castle, a massive quadrangular building; the Emperor's palace; British, Roman, and English antiquities, has many fine churches, the palaces of Prince Ludwig, of the Queen of the Netherlands, and several old castles. Prince Karl, the Crown Prince, and Prince Albrecht, and the Berleng'as, the name of some twelve barren islets off the royal chateau of Monbijou; the royal armoury and guardhouse, coast of Estremadtura, Portugal, 8 miles N. W. of Carvoeira. on the model of a Roman castrum; the school of artillery and Barlenga, by far the largest, is fortified, and gives name to the engineering; the university (formerly Prince Heinrich's palace), containing a large museum; the royal library (7Io,000 vols. and group. 15,500 MSS.); the Academy of Science and Art; the Academy of Ber'lichingen, GOtz von, born at Jaxthausen, near Horn- Music; the Royal School of Architecture; the chemical labora. berg, Wtirtemberg, in 1480. He was one of the many petty torium; the exchange; the mint; the state printing-office; the feudal lords in Suabia, who, holding their fiefs direct from the old museum, built by Schinkel in I828; the colossal new museum Emperor Maximilian, were entitled to Faustrec/zt (club-law), or (since 1843), with the fine portico frescoes of Kaulbach; the 362 BER THE GL OBE EIVC YCLOPkE9IA. BER national gallery; and tile new town-house, opened in I870. portance under the Marklgraf Albrecht II. (1206-20). In 1442 Some of the churches are as old as the I3th c., as the Nikolai the Elector Friedrich II. built his buro- (' castle') on the site or Hauptkirche, the Marien, and the Kloster; among the more of the present royal palace, and under Johann' Cicero,' towards modern are the Catholic St Michael's, the Protestant St Thomas's, the end of the 15th c. B. became the residence of the HohbenSt IHedwig's Kirche (the Rotunda), the new Synagogue, and zollern princes. The town was improved, beautified, and enlarged the beautiful Dominican Klosterkirche in Moabit, erected in by the great Elector Friedrich Wilhelm, and then by his son 1869. Notable among the monuments with which B. abounds Friedrich II., afterwards Friedrich I., first King of Prussia. T'o are the Brandenburg Gate, 82 feet high and 200 wide, built in Friedrich the Great, in the i8th c., is due its symmetry of plan imitation of the Athenian Propylha, crowned by a figure of and many of its finest ornaments. An Austro-Russian force Victory; the colossal equestrian statue of Friedrich the Great occupied B. from the 9th to the i3th of October 1760. It was by Rauch (1851); the national war-trophy in the Invalids' Park again taken by Napoleon in iSo6, and acknowledged French (1854); and the column of victory in the Kinigsplatz, in com- supremacy till the failure of the expedition to Moscow in I8z2. memoration of the recent campaign in Frrance, unveiled 2d Sep- In the present century a new epoch in the architecture of B. has tember 1873. The chief places of amusement are the opera- been marked. by the genius of Schinkel, who has contributed so house (1843) for I8oo persons; the new theatre (rebuilt by much to the stateliness and harmony of the modern city. See Schinkel, I8I7) for 1500; the Luisen theatre, formerly the palace Spiker, B. usnd seine Uvnzgebtlzagen im 5i9 a/srlzs (IBel-. 1833) of Princess Amalie; some eighteen other theatres; Kroll's Fidicin, Geschiiclte der Sladl B. (Berl. 1841); Streckfuss, B., famous'etablissements' (1852) for 5000 visitors; the new circus, seit 500 7ahren (Berl. 1864); Kapp, B. Jih- Ein/Leivl/sc/ze und and the well-known Orpheum. The Thiergarten, in the W. of Fremde (Berl. 1869); Schwabe, B. Volkssti/zl/un (Berl. 1869); the city, is the chief public park, but there are also the gardenof and Betrac/hzungen ilber die Vo/lesscala in B. (187). Bellevue, and the botanical garden of the Academy. Berlioz, Louis Hector, the leader of the romantic school In education B. has long held the place of honour among of music in France, was born at La CUte-Saint-Andre (Is're), Continental- cities. Its institutions comprise (1873) i-o gymnasia, s.ith December 1803, studied composition under Reicha, and with 5333 scholars, 54 real and higher schools,.9z public and later (I826).under Lesueux at the Paris Conservatoire, resided 96 private elementary and middle schools, 59 infant schools, in Italy for eighteen months, became librarian of the Conservaasylums for the deaf, dumb, and blind, and numerous technical toire in 1839, and a member of the Academy in.1856, and died colleges. The B. university was founded in Sio, and in 1870 at Paris, 9th March i869. As a critic in the Gaette /7hszsiale de had 3500 students. It has gained a high reputation, having Paris and the 7ournal des Dlbats, he exercised much influence. numbered among its professors such names as Fichte, IHegel, He was the composer of a number of orchestral works, as the Schelling, Savigny, Neander, Bekker, Bbckh, Buttmann, Strauss, Overtures for the Carnaval Romainz,- the Corsaire, the opera of Mommsen, Virchow, and Ranke. The famous Science Academy Benvenuto-Cei/ni, and the Flighlt iznto Egypt, &c., in which he of B. was founded in 1700, and the Academy of Art: in I699, the strove to express poetic ideas by musical sounds. In his attempts former being now allied with the new astronomical observatory. to do this he sometimes was led into extravagances which were B. has also a celebrated military academy for officers, and rather the result of his ideas having outreached his capacity for several departmental military schools. The city is rich in chari- executing them than of any extravagance in the ideas themselves. table institutions, of which the principal is the medicalhospital Besides these, he produced numerous symphonies. His books called La CharitY, now incorporated with the Clinical Institute, on. the orchestra and on orchestration are very valuable, the and receiving on an average 0o,ooo patients yearly. There are principal being his Traile' d',Insrunmentationz et d'Orch/zestration also the Bethany Hospital, founded 1847, with accommodation Modernes (844). See B.'S /l/notires (Par. 1870). for 350 persons; Iledwig's Hospital, established in 1852.; also Ber'mondsey, a parish, in the count of Surrey, forming a some sixteen other hospitals and houses- for the convalescent,exy -ors nine orphanages, twelve soup-kitchens, and two asylums for the. suburb of London, possesses extensive tanworks, wool ST E. suburb- of London, possesses etensive tanwoks wool nhomeless, opnetwvspkcnant ayu frestores, and wharves. It also carries on shipbuilding, rope and sail making, and has'manufactures of brushes, corks, glue, Despite its inland position, B. has become one of the leading a kcming, and hc.P. 8I8049 ThnaeB.commercial and industrial cities of Europe. Its communication pacment, vellum, &c. Pop. (1871) 80,429. The name B., with the sea has been improved by the construction of several in Old ng. Brnesea, the Isle of Burmun (perhps bur/hmund, the fortress?), points to a time when the Thames canals (the latest in 1858); and it is now the great railway centre b n the fortress, points to a time when the Thames of N. Germany, having (1875) no fewer than seven railway stations.'spread its sluggish waters over a broad lagoon, which was dotted with marshy islands.' The leading industries are iron-casting (ten imperial foundries) dottedwithmrshy islands.' and engine-building, which is almost entirely in the hands of Bermu'das, or Sommers's Isles, a group of small islands Messrs Borsig, Egel, and Wbhlert, of European fame, who have in the N. Atlantic, about 6oo miles from Cape Hatteras in N. here seventy-five works. There are also important manufactures Carolina, in lat. 320 20' N., long. 640 50' W. They belong to of silks, woollens, cottons, ribbons, tapestry, paper, tobacco, sugar, Britain, and number in all about 390, only z5 or z6 of which, leather goods, scientific and musical instruments, jewellery, and however, are inhabited; area of group about 12,oo000 acres fancy ware. A large quantity of spirits is made, and there are, pop. (1871) 12, 12I, exclusive of the military and their families. over fourteen largebreweries — Weiss bier being the favourite drink They take the name B. from the Spaniard Bermudez, who first of the population. There are also here royal porcelain factories. discovered them in 5527, and the name Sommers's Isles from The beautiful cast-ironwork of B. is called'B.-jewellery.' Sir George Sommers, whose shipwreck here in 5609 led to Not only in trade and industry, but in political life and intel- their colonisation from Virginia four years later. They are lectual progress, B. is eminently the metropolis of the empire.'the still-vext Bermoothes' of Shakespeare's7 TevznSest, and As the seat of government and the residence of the court, it their beauty has been celebrated by Waller in his Battles of the attracts inhabitants from all parts.of Europe, and it almost justi- Sumzner Islands. Their situation renders them a valuable po'sfies the name given it by the proud Berliners,'the Paris of the session; they constitute a natural' fortress; and their numerous future,' if not in point of architectural grace, at least as a centre bays afford ample protection to shipping. Hence they have of fashion and of brilliant society. For many years its increase been converted into the British naval station in W. Indian has been steady, and at the same time so rapid as to recall the waters. Both politically and commercially their importance sudden growth of an American'ligitning' city. From being a can scarcely be over-estimated, and towards the close of the first town of 20,000 inhabitants in r688, it had' increased to I88,ooo in American war Washington contemplated their capture and con. 1817; to 311,000ooo in 5840; to 436,000 in S851; and'to 524,945 version into a station for American men-of-war, with a view to in f86i. In August 1873 its population was go909,580, including cripple the British W. Indian trade. The four principal islands 21,448 soldiers, and of this number there were 732,657 Pro- are those of Bermuda, St George's, Ireland, and Somerset. St testants, 51,722 Catholics, and 36,0o5 Jews. The newspapers George's Isle is the military station of the B.; its harbour has and journals of B. embraced in I872 some 36 of an. official, 46 recently been greatly improved; a sandbank in flont of it has of a political and social, 24 of an ecclesiastical and religious, been lowered by blasting, and an extensive breakwater has been 207 of an artistic, scientific, and commercial, and z8 of a comic built to protect it. The climate is genial and salubrious, and character. there is an almost perpetual springi A refireshing sea-breeze The oldest parts of the city are the divisions K61n and B., modifies the heat, and the only climatic inconveniences are occaoriginally two fishing-villages, the first having risen to some im- sional hurricanes, and an excess of humidity during a S. wind. 363 *q0>_ BER THE GL OBE ENCYC OP~EDIA. BER The principal products are potatoes, garden-vegetables, maize, no taxes are levied for municipal purposes, and there is a surplus and tobacco. Fish are plentiful, and the fisheries constitute a sufficient to provide the citizens with fuel. B. is the birthplace valuable industry. Convicts are still conveyed to the B., and of the eminent physiologist Haller, of whom there is a statue are employed on harbour work or on the fortifications. A mail in the botanic garden. See Durheim's Historisch-topo~gr. Besteamer plies regularly between B. and Halifax, Nova Scotia. sc]reibung der Stadt B. (Bern, 1859), and Wattenwyl's GeThe islands have a representative constitution, there being a sc/hicite der Sladt und Landschaft B. (Schaff. 1867). governor, a council of nine, and an assembly of thirty-six mem- ernadotte. See CHARLES XIV. Bernadotte. See CHARLE~S XIV. bers. According to an official return of November I, i872, the garrison of B. consisted of i824 men, and the estimated military Bernal'da, a town in the province of Potenza, S. Italy, on expenditure for 1872-73 was /I96,273. The exports are few, the Basente, 31 miles W. of Taranto, and 15 miles inland from and the imports consist chiefly of breadstuffs from the United the line of railway. Pop. about 6ooo. States, and of manufactured goods from England. Hamilton, Ber'nard, Claude, a French physiologist, was born at St in Bermuda Island, is the capital. Julien near Villefranche, July 12, 1813, in early life went to Paris Bern, thle second largest canton of Switzerland. Except a with a tragedy, and there began the study of medicine. At the Colsmall portion on the N.W., where it touches France, B. is en- lege de France he was Magendie's assistant; he took his doctor's diploma in I843; a aldt h chair of General Phsysiogy tirely surrounded by Swiss territory. In the N. and N.W. the diploma in 843 was called to thechair of General Physiology, canton is hilly; in the S. is the famous Bernese Oberland, some just then instituted by the Faculty of Sciences, in 1854; and in of whose summits (the Finsteraarhorn, the Schreckhorn, and the same year succeeded Magendie as Professor of Experimental of whose summits (the Finsteraarhorn, the Schreckhorn, and Hsrptto ae Wetterhorn, and the Jungfirau) are the loftiest of the Bernese Physiology in the Colge de France. His reputation dates from his Rechev'ches sur /es VsaA-es du Pancre'as, in the Comj~e Alps. Enclosed by the mountains are beautiful and fertile f-m his e zes su es Uss Pncrs, i the Co les valleys, Hasli, Grindelwald, Lauterbrunnen, &c., which produce Rendus de'Academie des Sciences (1856), and perhaps his most corn, wine, and fruits. In these valleys, as well as on the more original and valuable contribution to physiology is La Fond/on original and valuable contribution to physiology is La Fonclion corn wie, nd fuit. I thse vlles, s wll a ontheoreGlyCogenique du ]roie (i856), which contains the results of many elevated Alpine pastures, numerous cattle are fed, and 150,000 ycoge nigzee du ofe (1856), o hich containso the results of many cwts. of cheese are manufactured annually. The Aar and its eI i L~n ePyi~ge-x'mnae l d cwts. of cheese are manufactured annually. The Aar and its years' investigation of the liver and its relation to the heart and tributaries rise in the Oberland, where also are situated Lakes nerves. In his Leons de Pysioogie Exrienle, pplique' Brienz and Thun. Watchmaking and wood-carving are the a Mcie 2 vols. 855-56), he raised many forgotten chief mechanical ndustries. The minerals are iron, lead, cop- questions as to the functions of animal organisation, and he has chief mechanical industries.' The minerals are iron, lead, copper, marble, granite, and freestone. Area, i87O sq. miles; popsince given a new bent to the study of experimental physiology (1870) 506,465, of whom 436,304 were Protestants, On the by his numerous discoveries. Among his other writings are decline of the Roman power, B. passed successively into the Mfmoire sur la Cha/er Animole (856), Les Effels des Substances 7'oxiques et Medicamenteuse (i857), Za Physiologie dzt Sylm hands of the Alemanni, the Burgundians, and the Franks. In xues Mcmentuses (857)a Pzysogie d Sste the s Ith c. it became part of the German empire; at the end Neveux (2 vols. 858), Epies Psiooqus sr a Ntriof the I2th c. Duke Berthold of Ziihringen fortified the capital, ion et veppeen (86o), Introduction / l'Atude de la p'dehz F 2dimentale (i865), Le~ons stir les Propridles des which was in 1258 raised by the Emperor Friedrich II. to the Midec ine ExJ' imentale (H865), Leaons sur Zes PofteAas des rank of an imperial city, after which the population rapidly in- Tissus Vints (865 He was made a member of the AcadLmH creased. Rudolf of Hapsburg was compelled to raise the siege of Medicine in i86, grand officer of the Leion of Honour in of B. in 5288. The fame thus acquired was enhanced by the 1862, commander in 867, president of theociety of Biology victory at Laupen, 2st June 339, over an amy of knight and in i868, and member of the French Academy in 1869. victory at Laupen, 2!st June!339, ovra ryo ngt and burghers jealous of its growing power. After Joining the Swiss Bernard, Great Saint, a mountain of the Vallais, in the Confederation (s353), B. increased its territory considerably Pennine Alps, 52,353 feet high, crossed at an altitude of 8648 both by purchase and conquest. It now sends 25 members to feet by the famous pass between Martigny and Aosta, over which the National Council. Napoleon led his troops into Italy, May s8oo. Near the summit Bern (in French, Berne), capital of the canton of the same of the pass stands the noble hospice which was founded by name in Switzerland, in 848 declared to be the political capital of Bernard de Menthon, a nobleman of Savoy, in 962, originally for the purpose of assisting the pilgrims to Rome, and which has the republic, and since 5849 the permanent seat of the government, the purpose of assisting the pilgims to Rome, and which has been of incalculable service in rescuing travellers from all forms It is situated an a peninsula formed by the Aar, which encom- e passes it on three sides, and has an elevation of fully 70o0 feet of Alpine danger. It is a massive stone edifice, with extensive above the level of the sea. The city is regularly built, and the accommodation, receiving on an average gooo travellers annually. There is snow here for nine months in the year; the houses on each side of the two principal streets rest on arcades ally. There is snow here for nine months in the ear; the mean winter temperature is 15~ F., that of summer 480 F. The which form covered walks. There is a magnificent bridge over mean winter temperature is 5 F., that of summer 48 F. The the Aar; the cathedral, founded in 1421, has a tower upwards institution is now chiefly supported by voluntary subscription. of 200 feet in height, and numerous interesting sculptures and It is in the care of fifteen monks of St Augustine, whose lives, tablets; there ai'e many fine public edifices, including a library tablets; there ae many fne public edifices, including a library from the age of twelve lto thirty-three, are devoted to the humane containing 40,000 volumes, and a museum; while sculptured containing 40,000 volumes, and a museum; while scuptued work, in which they are ably seconded by the faithful race of St fountains and fine public promenades, which command splen- B. Dogs ( -ittle Sait B. is a height of the Graian did views of the Bernese Alps, enhance the amenity of the city Alps, 7595 feet high, and has also a pass, most probably that Alps, 7I95 feet high, and has also a pass, most probably that and its enviroas. Other buildings are the church of the Holy crossed by Hanniba. Tere is another hospice here. Ghost, the church of the Dominicans, the Roman Catholic Bernard, Saint, the most influential churchman of the 12th church, the mint, the palatial hospital, and the richly-endowed c., was born in 5og9 at the Cha.teau de Fontaine, near Dijon. workhouse. The University of B., opened in I834, has some His father, whose name was Tescelin, was descended from the 30 professors, 2pZrivat-docenten, and an average of 200o students, Comtes de Chatillon; his mother, Aleth, or Elizabeth, was a In May 587I there were 250. students. There are also a gymna- daughter of the Comte de Montbard. Sent to Ch'tillon to sium, a veterinary school, and a school of design. A school of art study, he astonished his masters by the rapidity of his progress. was founded in 5871. B. has considerable trade in the produce At the age of twenty-two he resolved to embrace the monastic of the district, and there are frequent industrial and agricultural life, and so irresistible was the eloquence with which he urged shows. The manufactures, which are of no great importance, his resolution against the remonstrances of his family and friends, include watches, clocks, mathematical instruments, toys, gun- that his five brothers, his uncle Gaudry, and more than twenty powder, leather, and paper. Cotton-spinning has been recently other proselytes, followed him to Citeaux in 1114. Four abbeys, introduced. Pop. (S87o) 36,002, of whom 32,705 are Pro- daughters of Citeaux, were all founded about this period: La testants, 2664 Catholics, and 853 belong to other Christian Ferte in 1113, Pontigny in 5554, Morimond and Clairvaux in sects, or are Jews. B. is the old Suabian word for bear, and is Il 5. Clairvaux was a desolate and savage valley. Here the said to have been given to the town at its foundation in 5 9I by young Cistercians built with their own hands their first religious Berthold V., because he had killed a bear there. The arms of abodes. At the age of twenty-four B. was chosen abbot of the the city are bears, and some of these animals are still maintained modest community. The rigour of his austerities proved too by a special fund in the bear-ditch (Birengraben). B. was made much for the strength of his constitution, and on his recovery a free imperial city in May I218 by the Emperor Frederick II. from a serious illness, he began gradually to interest himself in The corporation is possessed of.so much valuable property that the general policy of the Church. Before long the solitary recluse, 364 BER THtE GLOBE EzVCYC'LOPA~LIA. BER by his exquisite art, impassioned rhetoric, exalted piety, and not bear out his reputation for oratory; his ideas are often subtle strenuous orthodoxy, made himself one of the greatest potentates without being profound, and his mystical interpretations of in Europe. In 1125 he was active in mitigating the miseries of Scripture are unfitted to secure the respect of the modern world. a national famine; in II28 he vehemently defended the Bishop The best edition is that of Mabillon (2 vols. Par. I69o, latest of Paris and the Archbishop of Sens against Louis le Gros; was ed. I839-40). During the last three centuries numerous lives of conspicuous in the same year at the Council of Troyes, where B. have been composed, among which may be mentioned, Chiere, the order of Knights Templars was forced to accept a monastic Vie de S. B. (Par. I6oI); Gros, Vita S. Beirnardi (Par. I645); rule, and again, in II29, took part in the deposition of the Bishop Gulielmus a Sancto Theodorico, Vita S. Bernar-di (Par. I690o); of Verdun. The death of Pope Honorius II., in I830, provoked Bourgoing de Villefore, Vie de S. B. (Par. 1704); Clemencet, a discord among the cardinals, which spread through the Church Histoire Litte'raire de S. B. et de Pierre le Vinerable (Par. itself. Two popes were chosen as his successor, Innocent II. I774); Neander, Der Heilige Bernhard und sein ZeitaZler (Berl. and Anaclete, the former of whom had to seek refuge in France, I813); and Ellendorf, Der Heikige Berwzhard and die Iierarciie while the latter remained in Rome, where his party was domi- seiner Zeit (Essen. 1837). nant. The great prelates and seigneurs assembled at Etampes declared (under the direction of B.) in favour of Innocent. Louis Bernar St, a breed of dogs deriving their name le Gros received him as head of the Church at Saint-Benott-sur- from the Hospice of St B., where they have long been bred and Loire, while B. hastened to Normandy and Liege to secure the taied for the purpose of seeking out travellers who are in support of the English monarch and the German emperor. In danger of perishing ill te snow. These dogs have been variboth journeys he was more than successful. In I 13I B. paid his osly described as arising by breeding from the Alpine shepfirst visit to Italy. Pisa, Genoa, Milan, vied with each other in herd's dogs, from a Spanish breed, and fiom Danish hounds. the depth of their homage and the splendour of their offers. Two breeds are known-one of a white colour, spotted with The austere saint, who was equally proud of his power and his black, and covered by rough hair; the other with smooth, close poverty, refused all ecclesiastical honours, but he could not hair, of grey or blackish colour. The latter breed is the most hinder his return to Clairvaux from assuming the character of a valued, and furnishes by far the greater number of these dogs in triumphal procession. As he marched over the Alps into the the present day. The head is massive, and the ears long, like valleys of Burgundy, the peasants of the' mountain-villages and those of spaniels. These dogs possess a remarkably acute scent, the inhabitants of the cities poured forth to'do him reverence.' and when they discover a benumbed traveller they scratch away But active work was indispensable to B. While a larger monas- the snow, and by barking, call attention to the spot. A flask of tery was being built for the reception of his disciples, he travelled brandy or other spirit is hung round the neck of each dog. Very through the S.-W. of France in company with Geoffroi, Bishop many remarkable achievements, in which a display of instinct of Chartres and legate of the Holy See, detached Guillaume Du-c approaching to reason in its nature has been exerted, are related d'Aquitane from the party of Anaclete, and secured the re-estab- as having been performed by these dogs. lishnment in their sees of those bishops who had been expelled for Ber'nardin, Saint, of Siena, an Italian theologian and their fidelity to the legitimate pope. In I I37 B. was again sum- preacher, was born at Massa-Carrara, 8th September I380. He mnlaed to Italy to sustain the still uncertain cause of Innocent. belonged to the illustrious Sienese family of Albizeschi. B. Once more his eloquence proved victorious. The Pisan cardinal, first distinguished himself by his zeal and courage during the who was one of the warmest partisans of Anaclete, yielded to the destructive Italian plague of 1400. In I404 he withdrew into ascendancy of B.'s genius, and denied the anti-pope, who soon solitude, joined the Franciscans, was sent to the Holy Land, after died of chagrin. It was in vain that the schismatics elected and on his return preached with success for fourteen years, reanother in the room of Anaclete. The new anti-pope felt his fusing repeatedly the offer of a bishopric. In 1438 he was impotence, hastened to the presence of the saint, and left in his appointed vicar-general of the order for Italy. At his death in hands the insignia of office. On his return to. France B. came 1444 the'Fratres de Observantia,' an order of which he was the into collision with one whose gifts were certainly not less than founder, possessed upwards of 300 monasteries. B. was canonhis own. Abelard (q. v.), the tender humanist, who'loved not ised in I450, his festival being on the 20th of May. His works wisely but too well,' had incurred the charge of heresy by his were published at Venice in 159I, at Paris in I636, and again at vindication of the rights of reason. A council was held in I540, Venice in I745. and by the influence of B. Abelard was condemned without even being heard. It is the least noble incident in B.'s career. But time brings about its revenges. The faulty Abelard is still Ber'nay (the Roman Ber-naziznm), a town in the French deremembered with affectionate pity by mankind, while the imma- partment of Eure, on the Charentonne, 43 miles W. by N. of culate saint whose fame once filled the world only maintains a Evreux. It has manufactures of woollens, linens, paper, &c., cold existence in the page of history. In 145, a pupil of Clair- also tanneries, and is noted for its great annual horse-fair. B. vaux was chosen pope, under the name of Eugenius III., and has an abbey of the year IooO, reconstructed in the I7th c., and henceforth B. exercised sovereign power in the Church.'They now serving as the HStIe de Villie. The town is often mentioned say,' he wrote to Eugenius,'that I am more pope than you.' in works of the middle ages. Pop. (I872) 5695. Meanwhile an embassy of Christians from Armenia came to the court of Rome to explain the miserable state of the Eastern Be wn in the duchy of Anhalt, Germany, on the Churches. The Saracens, masters of Edessa, threatened Antioch Sriver Saale, 85 miles S.W. of Berlin, with which it is connected and Jerusalem. Another crusade was necessary. Louis VII. of by railway. It has a castle situated on a steep sandstone rock, France undertook to lead it. Conrad of Germany joined him. and its chief manufactures are paper, porcelain, starch, spirits, All the resources of B.'s eloquence were employed to inflame sgar, and tin-wares. There is also some trade in agricultural the religious enthusiasm of the two nations. In II47, an innu- poduce, ad in fruit Pop. (87) 15,709, including the suburb merable host marched to the East, and was utterly destroyed of Waldau, in the defiles of Asia Minor. When news of the disaster Bern'hard, Duke of Weimar, a famous German general reached Europe, in II49, B. suffered severe reproaches, and it in the Thirty Years' War, was the youngest son of Johann III., may be doubted if he ever felt the same man again. But he was Duke of Saxe-Weimar, and was born 6th August i604. He energetic to the end. His last act at least was apostolical. At first distinguished himself, under the Markgraf of Baden, at the the request of the Archbishop of Treves, he went to Lorraine to battle of Wimpfen in 1622; in the year following at Stadtlohn, appease the quarrels between the burghers and the nobles. Soon under Christian of Brunswick; and subsequently in the Dutch after his return to Clairvaux, he died, 20th August IE53. B. service, then the best military school in Europe. He next took was canonised by Pope Alexander IIT. in II74. His labours service under Christian IV. of Denmark, but returned to Weimar as a churchman may be conceived when we state that he in i628. In 163I he joined Gustavus Adolphus against the caused to be founded or enlarged 72 monasteries-viz., 35 Imperialists, signalised himself at Werben (28th July 1631), and in France, I I in Spain, Io in Britain, 6 in Flanders, 4 in Italy, at the storming of Marienberg; conquered Mannheim at the close 2 in Germany, 2 in Sweden, I in Hungary, and I in Denmark. of i63i, and several other towns early in i632. He completed His writings are numerous. They consist of 440 epistles, 340 the victory of Liitzen (6th November I632) after the fall of Gussermons, and 12 theological and moral treatises. They are ad- tavus, and expelled the Imperialists from Saxony. B.'s subsemirable in passages, full of grace and natural dignity, but they do quent career is crowded with valiant deeds, and he sustained 365 BER TfHE GLOBE EIC YCIOPeD~IA. BER in a high degree the reputation of the Germans for military fifth son of Nikolaus, was born December 27, I654, at Basel, where prowess. In I633 Bamberg, Kronach, Hochstadtand Eichst.dt, he subsequently became professor of mathematics. He greatly and Regensburg (the key of the Danube), fell into his hands. extended the discoveries of Leibnitz, and was the founder of the His defeat at Ndrdlingen (27th August I634) paralysed him for integral calculus. He died August I6, I705. His works were a time, and forced him to seek a French alliance, which he con- published in a collected form at Geneva in 2 vols. I744.cluded with Richelieu I7th October 1635. In I636he conquered Johann, tenth son, who succeeded his brother at Basel, was Elsass-Zabern, in I637 was victorious over Duke Karl of Lor- born July 27, I667, and died January I, I748. His works were also raine, in I638 captured Seckingen, Lauffenburg, and' Waldshut, published in a collected form at London and Geneva in 1744and was victorious at Rheinfelden and other places.. In the midst The brothers were unquestionably the greatest pure mathemaof his triumphs he was cut off at Neuberg on the Rhine, 8th July ticians of the age, and had pusheed their investigations so far as i639, not without a suspicion of his having been poisoned at the to-outstrip even Leibnitz.-Nikolaus B., the eldest son of the instigation of France, who began to see that B. was a thorough last, was born January 27, I695; but had just time to show that German, who wanted to strengthen and unify his country. See he possessed the talents of his family when he died at St PetersRose, Nerzog B. der Grasse,. von Sachsen-I Weimar (2. vols. burg, July 26, I726.-Daniel B., brother of the last (born Weim. I828-29). February 9, 1700, died March 17, 1782), was the first to decomBer'ni, Francesco, an rtalian comic poet, after whom Ita- pose motion of any kind into that of rotation and translation, an burlesque poetry has beea n nlamed Versi Bernesch, or Posia and to investigate fluid motion solely from mathematical considerations. Iis works are numerous, treating of a great variety Bernesca, was born at Lamporecchio, in Tuscany, about 1490: of subjects-vibration, sound, navigation, vis viva, &c.-Johann After acting for seven years as secretary to-Ghiberti, Bishop of B. (born May 8, iono; died July 17, 1 o90), brother of Daniel, Verona, he repaired' to Florence, where he was made a, canon, and his two sons, ob, had also great matheand died there, 26th Tilly I5-36; His O p ere B~r~eshe (Z-vol~and his two sons, Johann and Jakob, had also great matheFlor.and died there, 6th republished in Londonre Bin ols.(I7I-2, matical talents, and' their memoirs are to be found in the scienwithFlor. 1548) were republisd rein London, in the Cvols.(sc 24)i tific publications of that period.-Nikolaus B., (born I687, died (Mil. I866). His y recast, of Boiare do's Orlandon t aloratc is pre-1I759), a nephew of the two first, Bernoullis, was professor of mathe(Mil. 866) His recast of Boiaros Orndo innorato is pre- matics and law at Padua, and some of his writings are found ferred by his countrymen to the original. It has been frequently, e e is best knonr for his reprinted. A critical edition by Molini and Valariani appeared amongst those of Johann, his uncle. at Florence in 2 vols. (87-8). For purity- of direprinted. A critical edition by Molini and Valariani appeared investigations into the conditions of integrability of differential at Florence in 2 vols. (1827-28). For purity- of diction' and expressions. breadth of humour, B. has few equals. breadth humour, B has few equals. Bern'stein, Georg Heinrich, a German orientalist, born Ber'nier, Fran9ois, a French physician and traveller, was'2th January 1787, at Kospeda, near Jena, at the university of born at Angers about I620, studied at Montpellier, and subse- which he studied theology, philosophy, and the languages of quently visited Syria, Egypt, Arabia, and India, where he resided the East. In 1812 he was appointed professor-extraordinary of twelve years, eight of which he was physician to Aurungzebe. oriental languages at Berlin, regular professor in I82I, and His chief works are, Voyages de M..B:, contenant la- Description called to a. chair at Breslau in I843. In i816 he published at des.tats daz Grand' Mogol, &c. (begun in I670, published as Leipsic an Arabic poem of Szafi-Eddin, and he made valuable one work, Amst. I699); Mlhinoire sur le Qetielisme des Indes contributions to Sy.riac lexicography in Kirsch's Cihrestomalhzia (I688); Senztimzent de M; Descartes (I684); Abrege'de la Philo- Syriaca (2 vols. Leips. I832-37). The materials for his consoLhi 8e Ga s s 167,a genddeddbvt~pvaor fd; (Lo and Cambridge teer works ol s soy/hse de Gassende (Lyon, 8 vols. 1678, aug~mented by 7 vols. tributions to Syriac lexicography were collected at Leyden, Ox5684). B. (the joai philosopihe of St Evremond) died at Paris, ford, and Cambridge. Other works of B.'s are, Be mni/ius et September 22, I688. Originibus Relig'ionzmn in Oriente dispersarumn (Berl. I817), the Berni'na, a peak of the Rhaetian division of the Middle Hitopadesa (Bresl. 5-823.), and Arabiscize Gramnnatik cend CzlestoAlps, attains a height of 13;29I feet, with a glacier on its mathie (Gdtt. i8i7). He died 7th April 860. — northern slope almost rivalling the.Mer de Glace in size. To the:Ber'og. A genus of Ccelenterate animals, included in the WV. of the mountain is the B; Pass (7655 feet high), over which highest order of that sub-kingdom, the order Ctenophzora. The a carriage-road leads past two small lakes, between which, lies body is spherical or globular in shape, and consists of a clear the watershed of the Inn and Adda basins. gelatinous mass, provided externally with ceneoh/zores or combBerni'ni, Giovanni Lorenzo, sculptor arcitect, and like bands or masses of cilia, by means of which locomotion is subserved. These ctenop/zores are disposed meridionally around painter, spoken of among his contemporaries as the Cavalier B., the body. A digestive system, consisting of a stomach-sac and and the modern Michael Adngelo, the most fortunate of all artists a series of canals, exists; the function of the latter being to disin securing, during his lifetime, the amplest admiration and re- tribute te nutritive prodts thofunction of the latter being to diswards, was born at Naples, 1598. When only eighteen he ex- B is different from Cydippe or Pleurobrachia, which possesses hibited his'Apollo and Daphne,' and became famous. Pope two tentacles. B. firgens(so named from its phosphorescent Urban VIII. employed him to execute the baldacchino of St light), B. clcemis and B. borenlis are familiar species. Peter's, and his chief architectural work is the colossal colonnade in front of the entrance. He also decorated the pillars Bero'sus, a priest at Babylon in the reign of Antiochus II. sustaining the dome with statues and niches, and when cracks (B.C. 26I-246), who wrote in Greek a history of Babylonia, only showed themselves in the cupolas, his enemies laid them to his fragments of which are extant inJosephus, Eusebius, Syncellus, account. His answer to this slur upon his architectural know- and the Christian Fathers. He states that the materials for his ledge was building the Barberini Palace with its magnificent work were derived from the archives in the Temple of Belus, spiral staircase. In I665 he went to Paris on the invitation of and recent discoveries have proved the accuracy of his stateLouis XIV., travelling with the retinue and circumstance of a ment. See Richter's Berosi C'aladorze Hto ris/o-ic ua sszpersunt prince. At Paris B. executed the bust of the' king and. other (Leips. I825).' works, and won much honour and more wealth. He returned Berre, Etang' de, a lagoon inll the department Bouches-duladen with gifts to Rome, and died there,. November 28, x.68o Rholne, France, I2 miles long and 8 broad, lies about Io miles worth aboutLi;oo,ooo; N.W. of Marseille, and is connected by a short channel with Bernoul'li, a celebrated family of mathematicians in the 57th the sea. It has extensive-saltworks, and on its N. shore stands and I8th centuries. They were descended from a Jakob B., the town of B., with some trade in salt, olive oil, almonds, and originally of Antwerp, who was forced by the oppression of the figs, nd a pop. (5872) of I358. Duke of Alva to take'refuge in France, where he died in 5'83. Berr'y, a term applied to the fruit of various plants. It is A grandson of Jakob, bearing, the same name, settled' at Basel in properly a fruit with one or more loculaments, generally manyi622, and died there in I634. The B. family here attained'a seeded, indehiscent, and pulpy. The attachment of the seeds to high position in the little state, and held various important public the placenta is lost at maturity, and they are scattered in the offices.-Nikolaus; eldest son of the Jakob who died in I634, substance of the pulp. The gooseberry, the whortleberry, the was a prosperous merchant, and became a member of the great fruit of the vine, &c., are examples. The term Pva (applied council of the city. He died in I708, leaving eleven children, of specially to the fruit of the vine) is synonymous and unnecessary. whom the fifth and the tenth were the most famous.-Jakob B., Brown's Manszal, p. 49I. 366 (,.Rb- X —---- ------- BER THE GLOBE ENC YCGLOPEDIA. BER Berry, or Berri, one of the old midland French provinces peared as a designer on wood in I843, and latterly devoted himself (now forming the departments of Indre and Cher). It took exclusively to this branch of art, having since shown marvellous its name from the Gallic Bituriges. Under the Frankish counts rapidity of production and an inexhaustible fancy. He contriit becamea hereditary fief; viscounts ruled it from 917 to lioe; buted 3600 drawings to the Romans Po -ulaires Illusre's, and later it was purchased by Philippe I. of France. It was often among his principal works are Les Omnibus, a comic review; an appanage of, and has given a title to, the French princes; was Le Diable a' Paris; Petites Misires de la Vie ConjugaZe; La Physioraised to a duchy in I360, and was several times-e.g. in I465- logoie du Goz2t; Paris en I'An 3000; Bibliothique des Enfants; united with the crown. The inhabitants are called Berric/Zons besides numberless illustrations in the 7ournalfour Rire, La Seor Beruzyers. maine, L'lilustration, &c. In 1874 appeared La ComnIdie de Notre.Berry, Charles Ferdinand, IDue de, second son of Charles Temus, perhaps his cleverest work, in which the artist most X., born 24th January 1778,'emigrated' with his father, and effectively exposes the shams and abuses of modern society. fought under Conde against the republican army at Thionville. While B.'s drawings.are often finished and delicate, his crudest sketch exhibits a vigorous touch, and the stamp of a sarcastic After the peace of Leobern he retired to Nursia,.and latterly to.e. exhibits a vigorous touch, and the stamp of a sarcastic England. In 1814 he returned to France, and in 1816 married originality. Caroline, eldest daughter of Francisco, afterwards'King of the Berth, or Birth, is a nautical term, describing the space Two Sicilies. The Duke was murdered byLouvel, I3th February occupied by a ship at anchor, including a small width of water 1820. His posthumous son, Henri, Duc de Bordeaux, Comte de all around her; the messing or sleeping-room of a sailor; and Chambord, has frequently proclaimed himself Henri V., and is also the crib allotted to third-class passengers in ships. the hope of the Legitimists, or Bourbon party, his uncle, Duc d'Angouleme, eldest son of Charles X., having died in 1844 Ber'tha (Old Ger. Berchia, q. v.), is the name of several without issue. Mme. la Duchesse de Berri, who was the great noble ladies of the Teutonic race'in early times. Two may be ornament of Louis XVIII.'s court, and behaved nobly in the noted: —I. St B., daughter of Charibert, King of the Franks, revolution of 1830, excited a foolish insurrection in La Vendee who, in AD. 560, married.ZEthelberht,:King of Kent, was the in I832, which was promptly suppressed, the Duchess being means of his conversion to Christianity, and the consequent confined for some time at Blaye. See Chateaubriand's Zl/moir-es spread of the gospel among the English conquerors of Britain.du Duce de B. (Par. 1820), and Alissan de Chazet's Etoge his- 2. B., a housewife of renown, represented on seals and monufor/yue du Due de B. (Par. 1820o). ments of her time as sitting on the throne spinning, was daughter Berr'yer, Pierre Antoine (son of Pierre Nicolas B., one of Burkhard, Duke.of the Alemanni, wife-of Rudolf II., King of the'hommes de loi' of the first republic, and the defender of of Burgundy beyond the Jura, and after his death regent for arshal Ney) was horn at Paris, 4th Ja 170 Educated her infant son Konrad. She subsequently married Hugo, King Marsal Ny) as brn t Pais,4th anury 19b.Eductedof Italy, and died towards the end of the Ioth c. at Juilly, he joined the bar in I8 i. A Legitimist in politics, he of Italy, and died towards the end of the ioth c. made his reputation in defending Generals Cambronne and Ber'thier, Louis Alexandre, Prince of Neufchatel Debelle, the newspapers Braneau Blanc and.ZLa Quotidienn4 and Wagram, Marshal, born at Versailles, 20th November and the Abbd de la Mennais against government prosecutions. 1753, entered the French army, and served under La Fayette in Elected deputy for Puy in 1829, he opposed the address of the his American campaign against Cornwallis. After the Revolun221, which precipitated the revolution of July, supported the tion he'became major-general of the'National Guard of Versailles hereditary peerage, and in 1832 was suspected (unjustly) of tom- a general of division in the Italian army of 1795-96, and subseplicity in the Vendean demonstration of the Duchess of Berry. quently chief of the staff, in -which capacity he accompanied In I842 he sat for Marseilles, and in 1848 became a-member of Napoleon in all his campaigns down to 18I4, riding with him in the council of President Bonaparte, but protested against the the carrriage, taking notes of instructions. He gave important coup d'/tat. He became bditonnier of the bar in 1852, and helpin establishing the Consulate, and became Minister of War died 29th November i868. In spite of his Legitimist principles (vice De Crancy) in 5799. When Talleyrand and Fouchb also (shown in his two pilgrimages to the Comte de Chambord) he took office, under-the senatus-consulate of 1804, B. became grand supported the right of free association, and the reduction of the huntsman. He organised the government of Piedmont. His journal duty, and defended Louis Napoleon for the Boulogne activity at Lobau and Wagramprocured him one of his honours. expedition, and De Montalembert for an alleged libel in the In S8io he was Napoleon's proxy at his marriage with Maria Corresgondant. In 1868 he defended the independence of the Louisa. In 8I54 he presented the French marshals to Louis bench in the debate on the new press-law. He assisted in the re- XVIII. at Compibgne, and was made a peer and captain of the vision of the code of 1814. It has been said that in B. Mirabeau guards. Remorse at his desertion of the Emperor caused him revived. His name is also known in the struggle -between ithe to commit suicide at Bamnberg on Ist July 18I5. He has left independence of the bar and the influence of the -'ministire Relationdes Cam/agnes du G/n/raBlona2arte en ogyiPe eten Syrie pub/i'ue.' (Par. i8oo), and lela/ion dre la Balaille de Marengo (Par. i8o6). Bersaglie'ri, the name given to a corps of Italian sharp- His lMeloires were published in 1826. shooters, which was organised early in the reign of the present Berthlo'ia (B 33ert~hlo't~ia (/7./lanceoalaa or indica), a genus of Composite king of Italy by General Della Marmora. They first obtained a reputation in the Crimean wra -(Sardinia being one of the plants, natives of India and Senegambia, the leaves of which are Allies that fought against Russia), distinguishing themselves by aperient, and used as substitutes for senna. their dashand bravery at the battle of Tchernaya. They were Bertholl'et, Claude Louis, Comte de, a celebrated also of the greatest service in the wars which resulted in the uni- French chemist, was born at Tailloire, in Savoy, 9th November fication of Italy, and from their activity have been much em- 1748.'He graduated as doctor of medicine-at Turin in 1768, ployed in putting down brigandage in the Two Sicilies, although but removed in 5772 to Paris, where he became in 5794 a procomplete success has not yet crowned all their efforts. fessor in the'Normal School. Two years later he was entrusted Ber'serk'er (Icel. ber,'bare,' and serker,.'shirt;' Low Sc. with the transportation of artistic masterpieces from Italy to'sark,' of mail), according to the Norse myth, was the grandson France, accompanied Napoleon, who subsequently made him a of the eight-handed Starkader and of the beautiful Alfhilde. count and a grand officer of the Legion of Honour, to Egypt, B. was the dreaded hero of battle; he fought without mail or where he accomplished valuable scientific work, and, after the helmet, protected only by the terror which:his fury inspired. restoration, was nominated a peer by Louis XVIII. B. died at His twelve sons shared the paternal rage for conflict. Arcueil, near Paris, November 6, 1822. Of his numerous discoveries and improvements, we may specially mention his discoBer'tall, Charles.Albert d'Arnoux, a French carica- very of the composition of ammonia, his proposal for using chloturist, was born in Paris, December i8, 1820. It was intended rine as a bleaching agent, his means for purifying saltpetre for by his parents that he should receive the training of the Ecole gunpowder manufacture and his methods of smelting ron and Polytechnique, ~~~~~~~~gunpowder manufacture, and his methods of smelting iron and Polytechnique, but at an early age he abandoned himself to the stuy o ar, ad bcam th ~uil f Dolln,andtheprotege converting it into steel. His most important works are his B//, — study of art, and became the pupil of Drolling, and the protmgens de'A/ dc/a Teinue (1795), his A/i//ode deNomenc/a/wd 9 ~~~~~Ments de I'Airt dre la 7Teinture (I179i), his lklthode de JVomenclature of Balzac. The author of La Coaemdie zHumnine suggested his Cimiu (1787), and his ssi e caue Ciiue (83) pseudonym of B., a kind of anagram of l/bert, and firequently provided his ready pencil with subjects. B. first ap- Bertholle'tia. See BRAZIL NUTS. 367 + --------— ~ BER THE GLOBE ENC YCLOPEDIA. BER Ber'tin, Louis Fran9ois, founder of the influential French some villas, golfing links, and some export trade in corn. Along journal the yournal des Debats, was born in Paris, December I4, with Haddington, Dunbar, Jedburgh, and Lauder, B. returns I766. He took to writing for the press in 1793, and in I799 a member to Parliament. Pop. (I87I) burgh 88i, parish 2373. founded the journal with which his name will always be associated. The most interesting objects in the parish are the Bass Rock, It was originally royalist in principles, and in consequence both Tantallon Castle, and N. B. Law, a conspicuous cone-shaped it and its editor were subjected to much annoyance during the hill, 940 feet high. days of the first empire, B. being on one occasion banished to Berwick-on-Tweed, a seaport at the mouth of the Tweed, Elba. After the fall of Bonaparte, the Debats became a liberal 58 miles S.S.E. of Edinburgh, constitutes, with its liberties, a B. onarchtinued to edit it till his ndependeath, thowever, of governmentcounty of itself, belonging neither to England nor Scotland, and B. continued to edit it till his death, 13th September I841. — in Louis Marie Armand B., son of the preceding, was o n in Acts affecting the United Kingdom is introduced separately'as the good town of B. - upon - T.' But in the census and Paris in I8OI, and succeeded his father in the editorship of the Paris in 8o, andto which he haeded his father in the editorship of the other parliamentary returns it is treated as belonging to NorthDe'bas, to which he had contributed from an early age. He umberland. Its origin is ascribed to the Anglian kings of died January i, 1854. Both father and son were intimate with Northumbria, but there are no authentic records before the Chateaubriand, and the latter acted as his secretary when he reign of Alexander I., when it was an important seaport. was alm-bassador to England. For centuries it was an object of contention between the Bertino'ro, a town in the province of Forli, N. Italy, and a English and the Scots, but was finally ceded to Edward IV. station on the railway, near the river Ronco, 40 miles S.E. of in I482. In I55I it was erected into a free town, independent Bologna. It is the see of a bishop, was formerly a fief of the of both countries; but its importance as a frontier-town ceased Malatesta family, and has a cathedral and various convents and when James VI. succeeded to the English crown. B. is pleachurches. Pop. 6388. santly situated on the N. bank of the Tweed. The old fortifications partly remain. A stone bridge of fifteen arches, completed Ber'trand, Henri Gratien, Count, born at Chateauroux about 1634, and the North-Eastern Railway bridge, connect B. (Indre), 28th March I773, joined the National Guard in 1792, with Tweedmouth on the S. side of the river. Principal indus-.nd served as an engineer under Napoleon in Egypt, where he try, fishing, and there is an inconsiderable shipping trade, the became a general of brigade. At Austerlitz, Friedland, Aspern, imports being timber, manures, and iron, and the exports salmon, Wagram, and in the Russian campaign he distinguished himself. corn, and coals. Pop. (I871) I3,282. Napoleon made him adjutant, and also Count of Illyria. B. decided the battle of Liitzen, and covered the retreat from Leipsic. Berwickshire, the most eastern border-county of Scotland IHe remained with the Emperor at Elba, Waterloo, and St Helena, i the basin of the Tweed, bounded N. by Haddington, S. and and in 1830, the sentence of death against him having been S.E. by Roxburgh and Northumberland, E. by the North Sea:ancelled by Charles X., he returned to France, where he be- and Berwick-on-Tweed, and W. by Roxburgh and Midlothian. came a deputy, and commandant of the Polytechnic School. Area, 464 sq. miles; pop. (187I) 36,486. In the N. are the B. died 3st January 844. After his death his sons ublishe Lammermoors, where the surface is generally hilly and barren, B. died 3Ist January I844. After his death his sons published the Campagnesf d'egyptee teSyrie, eMzoires pour serird-T'is- but the districts of the Merse in the S., and Lauderdale in aire de Nmpolaeon, dictse par ZSi-mzne a- Saint Hsene a Gener the W., are as productive as any part of Scotland. Agriculture B. (Par. 2 vols. I847). is in a very advanced state, and the principal crops are wheat and oats. The geological formation of B. is silurian in the N., Ber'vic, or Bal'vay, Charles Cl6ment, an eminent en- Devonian in the W., and carboniferous limestone in the S.E., graver, born at Paris, 23d May I756. The sole incidents in his the only minerals being coal and ironstone. The coast-line, career are the records of his artistic work. After some less stretching from Lamberton to St Abb's Head, a distance of over successful efforts, he established his reputation in I790o by his 9 miles, is precipitous, and has only two bays, Coldingham and full-length engraving of Louis XVI., after Callet's portrait. Edgemouth. Coldingham Priory, Dryburgh Abbey, Hume Castle, His masterpiece, however, is his engraving of the Laoco/sn. B. Fast Castle, and some remains of Roman camps and British died 23d March I822z. The correctness of his drawing, and barrows, are the chief objects of interest. The county town is the clearness and brilliancy of his manipulation, give his works a Greenlaw, but it is surpassed in importance by Dunse. Under high value. the jurisdiction of school-boards there are 46 day-schools, with Ber'wick, James Fitz-J-ames, Duke of, natural son of 4500 pupils, while there are also 30 private schools, attended by James II. of England, by Arabella Churchill, sister of the Duke some 2000. B. returns one member to Parliament. of Marlborough, was born 2ISt August I67o. He made his Ber'yl, a mineral closely allied to the emerald, from which it first campaign in Hungary, under Karl of Lorraine. In I689 he only differs in the absence of the rich green colour which characcompanied his father to Ireland, in his expedition against acterises the precious emerald. The colour of the B. varies, in William of Orange, and was severely wounded. In I692 he some cases it being almost colourless and transparent, while other entered the French service,:and fought under Marshals Luxem- varieties possess various shades of light blue, green, or greenish bourg and Villeroi. In i704 he commanded the French army yellow. The clearer pale tints of blue and green are known as in Spain, whence he set out to crush the Camisards, or Wal- aquamarines or precious beryls. The B. crystallises in regular denses, in the S.E. of France, who were heroically struggling six-sided prisms, and some specimens of great size exist, one for liberty of conscience. In 1 705 he took the place of Feuillade found in New Hampshire, U. S., weighing 2900 lbs. at the head of the French troops in Savoy, and conquered Nice, 4th January I7o6. For this he was created a marshal Berze'lius, Johan Jacob, Friherre af, was born at of France. In I707 he was again sent to Spain, where he of France. In 1707 he was again sent to Spain, where he Westerlsa, near Linkbping, in East Gothland, Sweden, 29th gained the famous victory of Almanza, which re-established the August 1779, studied medicine at the University of Upsala, but rule of Philip V., who made him Duke of Liria and Xerica. soon devoted himself almost exclusively to chemistry. After From this date till I7i9 he distinguished himself in Spain, holding some minor offices, he was appointed, in 807, Professor Flanders, and France. In fact, he finished the war of the f Medicine and Pharmacy at Stockholm. In the same year Spanish Succession by the capture of Barcelona, Ith Septem- he took part in founding the Swedish Society of Physicians; ber 1714. In I733, after a protracted period of inactivity, he in i8 was chosen a member, in Iad o president, and in IS I took the command of an army that was to cross the Rhine, and perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences, Stockholm was killed by a cannon-shot at the siege of Philippsburg, I2th Raised to the rank of a noble in the last of these years by King June I734. His military capacity was undoubted, and his Kal-l Johan, B. took some part in parliamentary affairs, but the defence of Dauphine was a strategic triumph. French critics whole energy of his genius was really given to the service of place him on a level with Catinat and Villars. His Mimoires, science. The result was something approaching a revolution il 2 vols. 8vo, were publisEed in 1778 by his grandson, after in chemistry. Its whole present form rests in a measure on having been revised by the Abbe Hook. -the discoveries and views of B., although the rapid advance of the science has detected errors and imperfections in his Berwick, North, a watering-place and seaport at the mouth work. He discovered the elements selenium and thorium, of the Firth of Forth, in Hladdingtonshire, 22 miles E.N.E. of and was the first to exhibit, in the metallic form, calcium, Edinburgh by railway. It lies on a fine bay, has many hand- barium, and strontium, and to isolate silicon and zirconium. \ 368 ^ BES TiHE GLOBE ENCYCL1OPEDIIA. BES He gave a new, or, at least, a completely different nomenclature the M/eemorabilia of Xenophon, the lMetaphysics of Aristotle, and classification of chemical combinations, which has since been and the Characters of Theophrastus. universally accepted, and engaged in laborious analytical re. Besseges', a towa in the centre of a coal and iron mining searches to confirm and extend the atomic theory. His electrodistrict, in the French department of Gard, situated on the Ceze, chemical theories and experiments are also of great importance. I miles N. from Alais, with which it is connected by a railI II miles N. from Alais, with which it is connected by a railB.'s chief works are Afzafndingar i Fysik, Kerd och r Mineralogo i (6 vols. Stockh. I8o6-I8), the Foreldsningar i Djurkemien (2 wa. P. (72) 8036 vols. Stockh. I806-8), and the OfPersi6 on Djzerkemiens Brain- Bess'el, Friedrich Wilhelm, a distinguished modern astrosteg (Stockh. I812). But his great work is his Lir'ebok i Kemzien nomer, was born at Minden, July 22, I784. His first important (3 vols. Stoclkh. IS808-I8, 2d ed. ISI7-30), which has been trans publication was in I8Io, being some researches on the orbit of lated into French by Jourdan, with improvements and additions the great comet of I807. For this he received the Lalande by the author (Par. I829), into German by B16de, Palmstedt, medal of the Academy of Sciences; and in the same year he and Wdhler (4 vols. Dresd. and Leips. 1825-31, 5th ed. Io superintended the erection and fitting up of the KInigsberg vols. 1843-47), into English, and also into Dutch, Italian, and Observatory, where, after three years of most patient and arduother languages. As secretary of the Academy of Sciences, he ous observation, he obtained the annual parallax of 6I Cigni. published yearly the Arsberdttelser om Framstegen i Fysik oc/ In 1840 he indicated the existence of Neptune before its disK'emie (Stockh. I82o-47). B. died 7th August I848. covery by Leverrier and Adams. B. died March 17, 1846. His best-known systematic works are the Fundaaentea A4stronotzice Besan'gon, formerly the capital of Franche-Comte, now of the deducta e: Observationibus, 7. Bradley (Kbnigsb. I8i8); Tabuld department of Doubs, France, on the river Doubs, 45 miles E. Regiomnontance Redntcionzmm Observationzum ao An. 1750 usaa7e of Dijon, a very old and strongly fortified town. It is well- ad An. I830 computatZ (Kdnigsb. I830); Astrozom. Ulstersuc/built, the most remarkable edifices being the cathedral, the palace, ungen (1841-42); and his Popzulcdre Vorlesungen ziiber wissenschaft, built by Cardinal Granvella, and the public library, containing Gegenstdndre (pub. by Schumacher 1848), The Aizandidungen are 80,ooo volumes and some valuable manuscripts. The chief now (November I875) being published by Dr Engelmann, formanufactures are of watches, hosiery, carpets, agricultural im- merly of Leipsic Observatory, in 3 vols. See B.'s Briefwec/sed plements, iron and copper wares, porcelain, liqueurs, and beer; mit Olters (ed. by Erman, 2 vols. I852). and there is a considerable trade in wine, brandy, iron, and Bessemer, Henry, engineer and inventor, was born in coal. Pop. (I872) 33,I58. B. is the Yesontio, Besontizemn, or Hertfordshire in i813, and is chiefly known in connection with Visontiun of the Romans, was in existence in Caesar's time, and the celebrated process for maing steel which bears his namehas had an unbroken municipal existence since the ist c. Along a process which has effected an entire revolution in the steel with Franche Comte, it was annexed to the German empire in trade. This important invention is described in the followthe 12th c. The Emperor Friedrich I. held a diet here fromrticle. MrB. TI62 to II78, and made it a free imperial city. Cardinal Gran- itge er inventions and scientific improvements. In I875 considerable vella, minister of the Emperor Karl V., who, as archbishop of attention was attracted by what was known as the B.-saloon B., was a German prince, founded here a university which lasted steamer, which was designed to counteract the unpleasant moto the French Revolution. It first became a French town in tion of the sea by means of a swinging cabin, to be kept in i679. B. has numerous memorials of its Roman period. position by an ingenious arrangement of machinery. But after Besants', or Bezants, Byzantine gold coins, of varying several experiments in the English Channel with a large steamer weight and value, introduced by the Crusaders into England, built for the purpose, the invention has apparently failed. In 1871 where they were current from the Ioth c. till the time of Edward Mr B. was appointed president of the Iron and Steel Institute. III. There were also silver B. Bessemer Steel is steel made direct from cast-iron by a:Bessara'bia, a southern frontier government of Russia, lying process patented in i855, and subsequently, by Mr Henry B. between the Dniester, the Danube, and the Black Sea, and This process, as now worked, is briefly as follows:-The pigbounded on the MW. by. Moldavia. It belonged to Turkey fi-rom iron is remelted in a cupola, and poured into a large vessel called 1484 till I812, when it was ceded to Russia by the treaty of a converter, lined with firebrick, and capable of revolving upon 1484till s owhen i s cde d tf by the Cr treaty about horizontal trunnions. The converter is then turned up, and air Bucharest. As one of the results of the Crimean war, about 0ooo sq. miles of 1B. were restored to the Porte iln I856. The at a high pressure is blown upwards through the liquid metal. countrly is traversed in the N. by spurs of the Carpathian moun- Most of the silicon is first burnt out, a dull flame appearing at the mouth of the converter; presently the carbon begins to tains, and in the S. forms a vast steppe, where the soil is rich the mouth of the converter; presently the cabon begins to burn (combining with the oxygen of the blast), and the flame but poorly cultivated, yielding wheat, barley, millet, and some burn (combining with the oxygen f the blast), and the flame hemp, flax, tobacco, fruit, and wine. Cattle and sheeparereared increases to a dense, white, roaring blaze, accompanied by in large numbers, and much salt is procured from the lakes. ost violent ellition. This continues until the decarburisaKischinev is the capital. Area, 13,472 sq. miles; pop. 1,026,346, tion is complete, when the flame suddenly contracts. The con chiefly Rumanians, Bulgarians, Greeks, Tartars, Jews, and Ger- verter is then turned down, and a measured quantity (about 6 or man colonists. 8 per cent.) of spiegeleisen (iron containing about Io per cent. of manganese) is run into it. This is sufficient to add the required Bessar'ion, Joannes, born at Trebizond in 1389 (according amount of carbon for the steel, and after the occurrence of a to Michael Apostolios), orin I395 (according to Bandini), entered further short'flaming reaction,' the liquid steel is run out into the order of St Basil, and spent twenty-one years in a monastery ladles, and thence into moulds. in the Peloponnesus. He was made Bishop of Nicxa by the The use of spiegeleisen was patented by Mr Robert Mushet in Greek Emperor Joannes Paleologus, whom he accompanied 1856, but the patent was subsequently allowed to lapse. It is, to the Council of Ferrara (1438), and at first eloquently main- however, of the greatest importance in the B. process, not only tained the doctrines of the Greek Church; but being gained for the reason mentioned, but also because the manganese comover to the Latin side, he was ultimately the principal cause of bines with the oxygen left in the iron by the passage through it the union agreed on. He soon after joined the Latin com- of such a large body of air, which would otherwise have a most munion, was made a bishop, a cardinal, papal legate at Bologna, deleterious effect on the quality of the steel produced, and was twice near being made pope. On his death at Ravenna, In Sweden and Germany, where manganiferous ores are freNovember 9, 1472, B. left his library, consisting of 600 Gr. quently used, the decarburising of the liquid metal is generally MSS., to the city of Venice. B. is perhaps most famous for his stopped short at the required point, and the steel run off;-the attempt to reunite the Eastern and Western Churches, but this exact instant at which the point for turning down the converter liberal policy was only a consequence of his free study of the is reached being determined by the spectroscope. This beautiful civilised literature of ancient Greece. He was one of the great application of the principles of spectrum analysis is, we believe, promoters of the new learning, and wherever he dwelt, his palace due to Professor Roscoe. The remelting of the pig in a cupola became a rendezvous for the disciples of science and the lovers is also frequently dispensed with abroad. of art. B. himself wrote a good deal, chiefly vindications of A great drawback to the B. process is that it does not elimihis master, Plato. See particularly his Conztra Calutzniatorem nate in any sensible degree either sulphur or phosphorus, if these Platozis (Rome, I469), and translations from the Greek authors, most injurious materials are present in the pig-iron. It can 47 369 4 ~ ~ ~ --- *~ —~ BES THE GLOBE ENACY CLOPDI,4A. BET therefore only be employed with pure irons, a great limitation to Be'telgeuse, a star of the first magnitude in the right shoulder its usefulness. See STEEL. of Orion, forming with Procyon and Sirius a magnificent subequilateral triangle. Besseno'va, a large Austrian village in the Woiwodina, situated on the Aranka, 128 miles S.E. by S. of Pesth. Pop. 7896. Betel1Pepper, or Betel-Pawn, various species of pepper, such as Chazica Belel, C. Siraboa, and C. Mal/amiri, extensively Bessieres, Jean Baptiste, Duke of Istria, born at Priessac, cultivated for the purpose of wrapping round the B.-nuts (ul near Cahors, August 6, I768, served as a common soldier first suira). in the guard of Louis XVI., and afterwards in the army of the Pyrenees. He fouglht in the battles of Roveredo and Rivoli, Beth'any (Heb.'house of dates'), a village I- miles from was made (I798) general of brigade of the expedition to Egypt, Jerusalem on the road to Jericho. B. never came into notice and later, as general of division, secured the victory of Marengo till the time of Christ, who made it his headquarters in Judca, by a sharp cavalry attack. At the battles of Austerlitz, Jena, very much what Capernau wretched hamlet of about 20 families, called E1-Azariyeh (' the Eylau, and Friedland, B. greatly distinguished himself, rising to wretched hamlet of about 20 families, called Elzariyeh ('the the rank of marshal in I8O4, and being made Duke of Istriaplace of Lazarus'). in I807. During the war in Spain (iSo8) he was appointed Beth'el (Heb. house of God'), the name given by Jacob to by Napoleon to the command of the reserve cavalry, a post a place originally called Luz, of which there are two different which he had also held in the Austrian campaign (I805); and accounts, Gen. xxviii. and xxxv. It appears, however (Gen. while again serving in Spain he was made governor of Old xii. 8), to have had the name of B. in the time of Abraham. The Castile, and commanded the guards in I812. B. went through city found on the spot at the invasion of Canaan became a bounthe horrors of the Russian campaign, showing skill and courage dary town between Ephraim and Benjamin (Josh. xviii. 22). at every step of the retreat from Moscow. He fell while recon- Bethes'da, Pool of (Syr.'house of mercy,' or Heb.'place noitring the Rippach, before the battle of Liitzen, May I, I8i3. of the flowingr'-of water), according to the Gospel of John B. died poor, and his son received, by the bequest of Napoleon, (v. i-9), a pool with five 6 porches' near the sheep-gate of Jerua sum of ~4000. salem, the water of which had miraculous healing power. The Bes'tiaires (Fr., from Lat. Bestiaria), the name given to place now pointed out for it is close to the gate of St Stephen. a class of books very popular during the middle ages. They Beth'lehem (Heb.'house of bread'), a place second in inwere the text-books of the zoology of that period, describing terest only to Jerusalem itself in the sacred narrative, from being animals fabled as well as real, and generally illustrated with the birthplace of David and of Jesus, is about six miles from rude drawings. Symbolism was the science most prominent in the latter city, and is now a village (Aeit Lahm) of about 300o the B.; they indicated in the brute creation types of various inhabitants, who gain a livelihood chiefly by the manufacture of forms of good and evil in man-an idea still prevalent. The wine, and relics for pilgrims. The principal building is the congrotesque forms and faces carved on churches of the middle ages vent of the Nativity, built by the Empress Helena, 327, beneath are expressions of this symbolism. The word B. is also used the church of which is a grotto, said to be the place where the (like the Lat. Bestiarii) to denote persons who fought with wild Saviour was born, the'manger' (a marble trough) in which he beasts in the circus. was laid also being there. Those who feel surprise at the idea Bestus'chew, Alexander, a poet and novelist of Russia, of a cavern being pointed out as the place, ought to remember well known under the pseudonym Kosack Marlinski, born in that in the gospel narrative there is no mention of a stable, 1795, was in early life master of the horse to the Duke of Wur- which has been created by the imagination of poets and painters. temburg, and was one of the conspirators (Dekabrists) of I825. -2. A city in the tribe of Zebulun (Josh. xix. I5), about six He was banished to Siberia (Yakutsk), but subsequently served miles W. of Nazareth, now a miserable village.-3. A town in in the army of the Caucasus, and was killed in a fight near Pennsylvania, U.S,, at the point where the Mannakissy flows Jekaterinodar, June I837. Together with Rylejew. his brilliant into the Lehigh, 51 miles N. of Philadelphia. It is the chief friend, B. established the first Russian almanack, The Polar settlement of the Moravian brethren in N. America, and was Star (St Petersb. I823). His chief works are Mulla/-gNur, a founded in I741. B. is the seat of a bishop, has a fine church, wild tale, and Ammalath-Beg, a romance of the camp and field. some manufactures and tanneries, and a pop. of 45I2. The three His collected works were published in St Petersburg in I2 vols., separate establishments of the Moravians for youths, maidens, 1839-40 (Ger. transl. Ieips. 1845, 4 vols.). An interesting and widows are distinguished by an almost monastic severity of volume of his Lefters was issued in I86o. B. had threebrothers, life. In the excellent boarding-schools connected with these, Nikolas, Mikail, and Pieter, all of whom were exiled to Siberia the children of other religious denominations are received. on account of the military revolt of 1825. Beth'lehemites, an order of monks at Cambridge in the Betan'zos (the ancient Brigantinm Flavium), a town of 13th c.; also an order founded in Guatemala in I673. The Spain, province of Corufia, 15 miles S.E. of the city of Corulla. followers of Huss were styled B., after Bethlehem Chapel, in It has manufactures of linen, leather, and earthenware. Pop. Prague, where Huss preached, under 5000co. Beth'nal Green, a parish in the E, of London, Middlesex, Be'tel, or Betel-Nuts, the fruit of a tall graceful palm-tree, with a pop. (I871) of 120, 104. It is largely occupied by silkAreca Catechz, a native of the East Indian Archipelago, but cul- weavers, who carry on their occupation at home. Between tivated in most tropical parts of the East. The tree is held in I84o-50 no fewer than ten churches were erected and endowed very high esteem in the East, and from its Malay name, Pinang, in the parish, chiefly by the efforts of Bishop Bloomfield. The arises that of the British possession Penang. The fruit is about charitable foundations are numerous, and the Baroness Burdettthe size of a small chestnut, and exceedingly hard, so that it Coutts has made the parish a theatre of her active and intelligent tAkes a fine polish when cut or turned. These properties, to- philanthropy. Within its limits are the Victoria Park, and the gether with its pretty white and brown mottled structure, make East London Museum, a branch of South Kensington Museum, it useful for button-making, to which it is sometimes applied in opened by the Prince of Wales, June 24, 1872. B. has a place Western countries. But the great use of B.-nuts is for chewing, in English literature through the simple but touching ballad, a practice universal in oriental countries. A small piece of the The Blind Beggar of B. G. B.-nut is wrapped up with an equal proportion of lime within a Beth Root, or Birth Root, the root of the purple Trillium leaf of the B.-pepper, Chavica B., and rubbed against the teeth. erec/um, used in the United States as an astringent, tonic, and The mixture is thereafter chewed a little, and placed between antiseptic. It is used especially in menorrhagia. the gums and the lips, when a copious exudation of saliva of a brick-red colour takes place. A little tobacco is added to the Bethsai'da (Syr. the'house of fish'), the name of two places on the Lake of Galilee: one on the W. side, the native town of chew when such. a luxury can be afforded. The habit is very Philip, Andrew, and Peter (John i. 44); the other on the E. side destructive to the teeth, and the appearance presented in chewing Philip, Andrew, and Peter (John i. 44); the other on the E. side B3. is very repulsive, but it is a passion among all classes in China (comp. Matt. xiv. 13, Mark vi. 3I-45, and Luke ix. cO- 7), a viland the Indiahn Archipelago. The B.-lnut contains chiefly lage which was rebuilt by Philip the Tetrarch and called Julias. catechu, tannic and gallic acids, and a red colouring substance. Beth'shemesh (Heb.'house of the sun'). —I. A city within A variety of Catechu (q. v.) is prepared from it. the territory of Dan (mod. Ain. es-S/zems), but belonging to the 370 4. 4 BET THNE GLOBE ENC YCI OPAED4. BEV priests of Judah, chiefly celebrated as the place to which the and Virginia. It was during B.'s connection with the I)uke's Philistines brought the ark from Ekron (I Sam. vi.).-2. A town Theatre (Lincoln's Inn Fields) that Macbet/z and the 7Tehpjesl of Issachar; and 3. of Naphtali (Josh. xix.). —4. A city of were produced as semi-operas with Matthew Lock's music. This Egypt, mentioned Jer. xliii. 13, the same as On (Gen. xli. 45). stimulated the development of moving scenery. Beth'len-Gabor (i.e., Gabriel B.), born in 1580, of an ancient Betting or Wagering is, on an extensive scale, especially Protestant family in Upper Hungary and Transylvania, became an English custom. It mainly prevails in England with regard king of Transylvania in I6I3 on the death of Gabriel Bathori. to horse-racing, on which it may truly be said that the highest See BATHORI. The Ottoman influence was exerted in his favour and the lowest in the land are engaged in betting. Of recent years When in I619 the Bohemians revolted under Friedrich, the an uneasy feeling seems to have been gaining ground in British Elector Palatine, against Ferdinand II., B. invaded Hungary, society that its favourite amusement is not wholly in accordance took Kaschau (about 30 miles N. of Tokay), and, after repeatedly with morality, and that all outward signs of its prevalence ought defeating Dampierre and Count Bucquoy, was crowned king of therefore to be suppressed. This feeling has led to the passing Hungary, Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia at Presburg, 25th of an Act of Parliament for the suppression of B.-houses. Any August I620. Even Vienna was threatened, a junction having such establishment is declared to be a common nuisance, and been effected between the Bohemian and Transylvanian armies. the owner is liable to a penalty of ~Ioo. The Act, which now In spite of the desertion of the Elector by the Protestant Union extends to Scotland, makes various minor provisions for the supat the Pacification of Ulm, and the advances made at Presburg pression of B. and WV by the French ambassador, Angouleme, B. despatched a body of Bet'ula, and Betula'ece. See AMENTA'CEE and BIRCH. troops which took part in the battle of Prague (8th November Bet a broad but shallow river of India, rising in the I620). Shortly after he again attacked Austria, Count Thiorn etwah, a broad but shallow river of India, rising in the.and many Bohemians serviaging atte his armyi Dampierre was,Vindhya mountains, in the Bhopal territory, passes the towns and many Bohemians serving in his army: Dampierre was of Bileah and Jhansi on its way to the Jumna, which it joins killed at Presbui'g, Bucquoy at Neuhausel * and although Count of Bileah and Jbansi on its way to the Junna, which it joins k filled at Presbuig, Bucquomyat NenhAustel; and although Count about 200 miles above the junction of the latter with the Ganges, Mansfield was the only enemy of Austria in the N., Ferdinand after a course of about 340 miles. was compelled by the treaty of Nikolsburg to cede seven eastern provinces of Hungary, and some territories in Silesia, B. renoun- Beu'kelzoon, Willem, a native of Biervliet, Flemish Zeecing the crown of Hungary, and becoming prince of the empire. land, who lived in the I4th c., and invented an improved meB.'s marriage with Katharina of Brandenburg induced him for thod of salting and preserving fish. The invention is assigned some time, with Mansfield and Weimar, to support the Protes- to the year I386, and is said to have greatly helped to develol tant cause in the Thirty Years' War. The Sultan, Morad III., the Dutch fisheries. B. died probably in I397. The Emperor intended to make B. ruler over Moldavia and Wallachia. Sir Karl V. and his sister Maria paid a grateful visit to his grave Thomas Roe's mission to Constantinople had reference to the The derivation of the word'pickle' (Dut. pelie) from Beuket relations of B. and the Sultan, which the Protestant princes is fantastic. That B. is not yet forgotten is evidenced by the looked on with suspicion. B. died I5th November 1629. What- fact that his praise was sungas late as I827 by B. G. Camberlyn ever may be thought of his policy, B. contributed to the indepen- in a Latin poem, De Bukelingi Genio. dence and progress in learning of his country: he founded the Beust, Friedrich Ferdinand, Count von, a German Reformed College at Enyed.-Johann and Wolfgang B., statesman, born at Dresden, I3th January I809, after the usual both chancellors of Transylvania, belong to the same family, diplomatic training, became Saxon minister at Munich (I838), and have left Latin histories of their country for the periods at London (1846), at Berlin (1848), in 1849 minister for foreign I629-63 and 1526-I609, the latter of which was published by affairs at Dresden (in which capacity he called in Prussian troops Benk6, under the title Wofganngwi de B. Historia de Rebus Tran- to suppress a popular rising), and subsequently minister for the rilrzanicis (6 vols. Hermannst, 1792).' interior under the tolerant and constitutional rule of King Johann. Bethune', a fortified town of France, department of Pas-de- When the Slesvig-Holstein question came before the Bund, B. Calais, on the river 1Brette, the Caeneux de B., and the Crizemin supported the nationalisation of the Duchies, and represented th, de Fer du NAord. Pop. (1872) 4204. It has linen and woollen Bund at the London Conference. Chiefly through his influence. manufactures, and a considerable trade in corn, wine, brandy, Saxony joined in the revolution of the Bund against Prussi%, and cheese. The town sprang up round the strong castle of the 14th June I866, and sent an army to co-operate with the Auslords of B., was a considerable place in the I2th c., went by trians pl the aonemian war. In this y Saxony narrowly marriage to the Counts of Flanders, then had counts of its own, escped political annihilation, and B., dismissed from Dresden who became extinct in the I7th c.'-' *' demand of Prussia, entered the service of Austria, where The family of B. is very old. It traces its origin to a Robert he became prime minister, and in 1867 adjusted with Deak the Faissaux de B. of the ioth c., one of whose descendants, Fran- question of the Hungarian constitution. In 1871 B. became 9ois de B., Baron de Rosny, embraced Calvinism, and was taken Austro-Hungarian minister at London, a post he still holds. prisoner at the battle of Jarnac. Two lines were founded by his B. has a brother, Friedrich onstantin, Freiherr von B. two sons, of whom one was the famous Maximilien de B., (born I806), who is head of the mining-schools of Saxony, and Duc de Sully (q. v.). Both became extinct in the beginning of has written on geology. the present century. But other branches of the B. family still Beu'then, a Polish-speaking town in the government of flourish in France. Oppeln, Prussian Silesia, 50 miles S.E. of Oppeln. Pop. (I871) Betjuans. S-ee BECHUANS. I7,946, engaged to a considerable extent in the manufacture of Betjaton. See CONCRETE. woollens and earthenware. Bev'el, in building construction, a sloping surface. Betroth'ment is an engagement to marry. In England, Bev'ela, noord (.) and Ziud (S.), two islands in the should either man or woman secede from their engagement, the tBev'eland, Noord (N.) and Ziud (S.), two islands in the oulaggrieved oneither mas ground for an seactionede from their engagement, the estuary of the Scheldt, in the Dutch province of Zeeland, constiit is so also; but in that c ountry B. with certain consequences tuting with the small island of Wolfaartsdijk the district of B., of may constitute marriage. See MARRIAGE, PROMISE. which the area is 120 sq. miles, and the pop. 23,000. Ziud B., or canedvan ter Goes, is the larger and more fertile, producing corn,'Bett'erton, Thomanss, actor, born at Westminster in i635, madder, fruit, and vegetables. Area, 25 sq. miles; pop. 23,000. began to perform in 1659 at the Cockpit, Drury Lane. HIe was It, chief town, Goes or Tergoes (pop. 5205), has a trade in corn introduced by the Laureate, Davenant, to the favour of Charles and hops, and some shipbuilding. Noord B., or Land of Kortgene, II., who sent him to Paris to study the French stage. His chief is low and marshy, but much improvement has been effected by parts were Hamlet; Valentine, in Congreve's Love for Love; embankments and drainage. Area, i8 sq. miles; pop. 5300. Alvarez, in Vanbrugh's eMistake, &c. His wife (nte Saunderson) Bevelled Gear. See GEARING. played Lady Macbeth very well, and is described by Cibber as'at once tremendous and delightful.' A description of B.'s be- 3Bevel-Wheel, a wheel (generally furnished with teeth), of nefit in 1709 (he had previously lost most of his savings) is which the'pitch surface' is the frustrum of a cone. B.-wheels given in Tat/er, No. i. B. died 28th April 1710o. He wrote The are used to communicate rotation between shafts which lie in the Amorouts Widow, and Barnzaby Brittle, an adaptation of the same plane, but are not parallel. former; besides a tragedy entitled The Unzust 7cedge, or Ahihus Bev'eridge, William, a distinguished theologian and orien. BEV THE GLOROBE EANC YCL OFDIA. BEZ talist, was born at Barrow in Leicestershire, in I636-37. He Bex, a small Swiss town, canton of Vaud (Ger. Waadt), on was educated at Cambridge, and such was his devotion to the the Aven9on, a tributary of the Rhone, 12 miles from Lake study of oriental languages, that he was able to publish a Latin Geneva. There are hot mineral and salt springs in the vicinity. treatise on them at the age of twenty. B. declined in 1691 the Pop. (I870) 386o. It is a station on the Swiss-Italian Railway. bishopric of Bath and Wells, but accepted that of St Asaph in Bexar, San Antonio de, a thriving town in county I704. He died 5th March i7o8, leaving the most of his pro- Bexar, Texas, on the San Antonio river, and the scene of the perty to the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge. slaughter of Colonel Crockett and his men by the Mexicans. His works, which were voluminous, were published in I824, Pp (870) 12,256. under the editorship of the Rev. T. H. Homrne. Bev'erland, Adrian, a learned Dutchman, was horn at Bey'erland, or Beijerland, an island of S. Holland, Middleburg in Zeeland, in I653 or 1654, and studied for the bar, separated from the mainland by the Old Maas and the Holland In 678 e published his Peccatu Orinae, which for its DDiep. Old B. is a thriving village on the island, with a populaIn I675 he published his PercLarumn Orf-i~onab, which for its i o bu 0. tion. of about 4ooo. obscenity was burnt at the Hague, and caused his expulsion from Leyden and Utrecht. Two years later his De Slolatce Virini- Bey or Beg, a Turkish title of dignity, meaning'lord,' which, talus "r e Lucubratio, of which two French imitations were when strictly applied, denotes the governor of a district or subpublished, procured for him still greater odium, and he passed division of a province, who bears a horse-tail as the sign of his over to England, where he received countenance from Isaac rank. The higher title of beglerbeg (more correctly beilerbegi, Vossius, who admired his learning. His income was not great,'lord of lords') is restricted to the governors of provinces, who but he spent it chiefly in the purchase of scarce books, obscene have three horse-tails to mark their superior dignity. But drawings, &c. In I689 he repudiated his earlier writings, and generally the word B. is of wide enough import to comprehend destroyed all the copies he could recover. It is said that his the English titles prince, lord, general, captain. treatise De Fornicatione Cavends Admonitis sive Adhor/atio ad Beyrout', or Beirut, the most important haven and comPudicitiam et Cas/ila/em (Lond. 1698) was composed as an atone- mercial town of Syria, on a promontory at the base of Lebanon, ment for his previous literary wickedness. He died insane in 55 miles N.E. of Damascus. It is the Syrian entrepft for I712. His collection of licentious engravings, on which he had European merchandise, having regular steamer communication written illustrative passages from the ancient poets, was destroyed fortnightly with Liverpool, and weekly with Marseille, and direct before his death. postal and, telegraphic connection. The town has greatly im3lev'erley, the chief town of the E. Riding of Yorkshire, Io proved of late years, the chief public work being the European miles N.N.W. of Hull, connected with the river Hull by a canal, system of waterworks, completed in 1875, bringing a supply of and a station on the N. Eastern Railway, has large manufactures excellent water from the Bahr-el-Kelb or Dog River, a distance of implements of husbandry, machinery, and beer, and a trade of 9 miles. Various roads have been laid down, and /Io,ooo in corn, coal, leather, and cattle. B. grew up around a priory, has been (1875) granted for the erection of a harbour for coasting founded in the beginning of the 8th c., and was called from a craft. There are extensive factories in the vicinity, producing neighbouring morass Beverlac —i.e., lake of beavers. The minster'Syrian silk,' now almost as much admired as that of India. of B., or collegiate church of St John, founded in the I3th c., The coal deposits of Lebanon are being utilised for this industry. is one of the finest Gothic structures in the kingdom. B. re- In 1873 the imports amounted to /I,323, I52; exports, p668,568. turned two members to Parliament from the time of Elizabeth till The former are chiefly cotton yarns, Manchester prints, Bir1870o, when it was disfranchised under the new Reform Act on mingham and Sheffield cutlery, petroleum from the United account of corrupt electioneering practices, Pop. (1871) o0,258. States, &c.; the latter, raw silk, dried cocoons, wool, olive oil, Beveoo', in the province of Belgian Limourg, 2 miles tobacco, fruits, horses and cattle. For the last fifteen years the N. W. of asselt, in the oCampine, is noted for its permanent general trade has not perceptibly increased, but since the opening Vmilitary camp, the Belgian Aldershot. f I pmae of the Suez Canal a direct Eastern trade has sprung up in indigo, military camp, the Belgian Alder-shot. spices, and Mocha coffee. The stationary state of trade is Bev'erwyk (Du. Bever-wof), a very clean town in North ascribed to the obstructive Turkish imposts and regulations. Holland, on the Ij, about 7 miles N. of Haarlem, with a pop. Pop. (873) oooo, mostly Christians. B. is the Old Testament of2o.Near it the Prince of Orange, Stadtholder, and after- PP 17)8,omsl hitas.i h l etmn of 2500 Near it the Prince of Orange, Stadtholder, and after- Berothai or Berothah, and the Roman Berytus, which was capwards William III. of England, had a country residence. tured by the Christians under Baldwin I. of Jerusalem. It Bewd'ley, a market-town in Worcestershire, beautifully subsequently belonged to the Saracens, to the Seljuks, and situated (hence its original name, Beaulieu) on the western finally to the Turks. B. sympathised with the Pasha of Egypt, bank of the Severn, 13 miles N. by W. from Worcester. Pop. and was bombarded and taken by the English fleet under Sir C. (1871) 302; of parliamentary borough, 76144 Napier (i840-4I), when it was restored to Turkey. Bew'ick, Thomas, the first great English wood-engraver, Be'za (Fr. Theodore de Bbze, or rather Besze), was born in 1753, at Cherryburn, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, was born 24th June 1519, at Vezelay, in Burgundy, Before he was apprenticed to his art in Newcastle (I767), and made such rapid ten years old he was sent to Orleans to study under Wolmar, a progress that in I775 one of his illustrations of Gay's Fables German Hellenist, and one of the first by whom the ideas of -the cut known as the'Old Hound'-won the first prize for the Reformation were introduced into France. Under him B. wood-engraving from the Society of Arts. In I7go appeared the acquired an excellent knowledge of the ancient languages, and General History of Quadrujeds, with illustrations by B. and his also an acquaintance with the Scriptures. But the good impresbrother John, who was an engraver and draughtsman of scarcely sion of the lessons and the example of this good man, to which inferior genius. Goldsmith's Traveller and Deserted Village, B. bore testimony thirty years after, was for the time smothered Parnell's Hermit and Somerville's Chase, were illustrated by by the passions of youth. Surrounded in Paris with all that the brothers; but in 1797, after the death of John, the first could mislead, rich, amiable, and full of spirit, he abandoned volume of' the His/ory of British Birds appeared with cuts de- himself to enjoyment; published (1548) a volume of erotic signed and engraved by B. exclusively, and was followed in 1804 poetry (_uvenilia); and contracted a marriage he dared not by a second volume. Each of the cuts in B.'s greater works reveal, because, being intended by his friends for the Church, is in itself a poem or story, abounding in incident, and full of he was already drawing the revenues of several benefices. His pathos or humour, and excelling as a work of art in its extreme conscience was roused by a severe illness, and on his recovery simplicity of execution. There is no line without a thought. he went with his wife to Geneva (I548), abandoning'at the same Among his latest works is 7he Fables of.,Esoz and Ot/hers, and time,' in his own words,'country, parents, friends, to follow his chef-d'euvre is believed to be his cut of the Chillingham Christ.' Soon after he became Professor of Greek at Lausanne, Park bull. B. died November 8, 1828. His lechnique, which where he wrote his treatise De Ire/licis a Civili Magis/ra/uze consists of engraving white lines on a black ground, has been Puniendis (Par. 5554), in defence of the burning of Servetus the revived with great effect in late years by a school of French year before, and in 5559 became pastor and Professor of Theology artists headed by Gustave Dore. In July 1875, Jane and Isa- at Geneva. There he was associated with Calvin, who was ever bella, daughters of Thomas B., living at Gateshead, signified after his guide and master, and to whom lie became very much their intention of bequeathing a complete collection of the proofs, what Melancthon was to Luther. In the famous theological drawings, &c., of their father and uncle to the British Museum. conferences held at Poissy and St Germain in T56s and 1562, 372 *p — * —-----— ~ BEZ THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP/EDIA. BHA B. signalised himself by the eloquence and zeal with which he India. The B.-G. is one of the so-called'episodes' of the maintained the Calvinistic dogmas, and made a very favourable Mahabharata (q. v.), and some MSS. insert it in its'proper' impression on the French court. On the death of Calvin in place in that poem; but in point of fact it has only a superficial I564, B. stepped into his place, and was henceforth regarded, connection with the great Indian epic. The main theme of the till his death, I3th October 1605, as the chief of the Reformers Mahibhbarata is the strife between the Kurus and PaDndavas in Geneva as well as in France. The most important of his (kinsmen) for the sovereignty of Hastinapura (Delhi?), while in works, which were extremely numerous, are a translation of the the B.-G. the circumstance of the strife is only introduced to furNew Testament into Latin, and a 1istory of the Reformed nish a framework for the dialogues which follow. The hostile Churches of France, to the year 1562 (Gen. I58o). B. naturally armies are assembled on the'sacred plain;' the trumpets sound presents himself to our minds as a theologian; but he was essen- the onset; Asjuna (a Pandava prince), who is eager for the fray, tially a scholar and a wit by nature, and but for the sins of his has the god Krishna for his charioteer; but when the latter early years, which drove him into a penitential career, he would points out the numerous kinsmen and friends that are marshalled in all probability have been a brilliant luminary of French litera- against him, horror suddenly seizes the prince, and throwing ture. See Bolzec, I]istoire de la Vie, 2lkzours et Defportement de down his bow, he declares that not'for the sovereignty of the Yie'od. de Bize (Par. I577); Fay, De Vita et Obitu Theod. Bez-s triple world' would he imbrue his hands in his kinsmen's blood. Vezelii (Gen. I6o6); Schlosser, Leben des T/heod. Beza (Heidelb. To this Krishna replies with the arguments which form the 8o09); Baum, Theod. Bezce, nach hzandschriftlichem Quellen didactic and philosophical doctrines of the work. In the end (Leips. 1843). Arjuna is convinced that he may fight.'My delusion is destroyed, and by thy fayour, divine one, I have recovered my Bezant', or Besa.nht', in heraldry, a small circular piece, either stroyed, and by thy favour, divine one, I have recovered my Beznt' orBes-nt, i healdya sallcirula piceeitersenses., I remain free from doubt, and will do thy bidding.' The or (gold), which may have derived its name from the Byzantine senses I remain free from doubt, and will do thy bidding.' The coins which the Crusaders fixed upon their shields as heraldic B.-G. contains 8 chapters and 700 shlokas. According to its devices; or argent (silver), which is called a plate, from the last English translator (Thomson),'The whole work has been devices; or argent (silver), which is called a plate, from thedideinotreptseahfsx atrsTefrt s Spanish Jlata. When the shield or any charge is strewed Mr~ith divided into three parts, each of six chapters. The first has Spanishj~la/a. When the shield or any charge is strewed with the former, it is styled zn or znt with the latter, ptte been considered the purely practical portion, containing the prinSimilar figures, in neither metal, but in colour, are called cipal doctrines for the practice of Yoga (spiritual devotion) generoundles. roundles. rally, and more particularly for its adoption in the routine of everyday life, and may be said to follow Patanjali's rather than Bezdan', an Austrian market-town, in the Woiwodina, situ- any other school. The second portion is purely theological, and ated about 2 miles E. of the Danube, and io miles W.N.W. of displays the theories of the Theistic Sankhya school, which we Zombor. Pop. 7782. presume to have pre-existed. The third is the speculative or Bez'iers (anc. Beterrae), a town of France, department of metaphysical portion, and follows more closely in the footsteps Herault, not far from the junction of the Orbe and the Canal du of Kapila and the pure Sankhya.' The work is essentially Midi, and a station on the railway from Bordeaux to Cette, eclectic and conciliatory; but on the whole, in the ethical and about lo8 miles E. of Marseille. The situation is so beautiful practical section, it vindicates the worship of the deity by actions that it has given rise to the proverb, Si Deus in terris, vellet (Karma) rather than by monastic devotion (ynanayoga).'AM habitare Beterris ('If God were to dwell on earth, it would be in the end of nearly every chapter Asjuna is exhorted to arise and Beterris'). The cathedral is a fine specimen of Gothic architec- fight; and the great dogma seems to be, that however bad or ture. Soap, leather, glass, woollens, gloves, &c., are among obnoxious one's own duty may be, it is better than that of the manufactures. Brandy is also extensively distilled. Pop. another.' The B.-G. was first brought before the notice of the (1872) 27,533. B. is the Betlerre of the Gallic Sectosages, was European world by the English translation of Sir Charles Wila Roman colony and a station of the Seventh Legion, whence its kins (Lond. 1785), which was turned into French by M. Parraud name Beterrwe Septimanarum, and has, among other remains of (Par. I787). The first edition of the Sanskrit text appeared at antiquity, the ruins of an amphitheatre. It shared the changes Calcutta in i8o8, under the care of the Brahman Babu-Rmma that affected Gaul during the dissolution of the Roman empire, The best editions of it are those of A. W. von Schlegel (Bonn, was for a time the residence of the Frankish Counts of Sep- 1823), accompanied with a very literal translation and notes; timania, and later on, in the wars of the Albigenses, was the and of Christian Lassen (Bonn, 1846). A Greek translation by scene of a horrible tragedy and crime, 22d July 12o9. Stormed Demetrios Galanos (Athens, I846) is highly commended. The by a horde of'Catholic Crusaders,' under the leadership of the latest English version is that of Cockburn Thomson (Hert. Legate Milo and the Cistercian Abbot Arnold, 7000 of its in- I855), with an introduction on Indian philosophy. The B.-G. habitants were burnt in the Church of the Madeleine, and 20,000 has also been translated into all the important languages of were massacred. modern India. Bezoars, concretions formed in the stomach of various mainm- Bhagulpore', or Bhaugulpore, on the right bank of the mals, which, at one period, had an enormous reputation in me- Ganges, the chief town of a district and division of the same dicine. They are still highly prized in Persia. Oriental or name, province of Bengal, British India. Pop. (1872) 69,678. Persian B. are found in the goat; occidental B. are taken from Troops are kept here to overawe the Santhal tribes. The executhe llamas of Peru; and German B. occur in the chamois. tive district of B. has an area of 4327 sq. miles, with a pop. of 1,826,290, mostly Hindus. Though the district is generally Bhad'lee, a name applied in India to a species of millet mountainous, the majority of the population is engaged in agri(Panicumn pilosum). culture. Bhadrinath', a town of Garhwal, Kumaun division (HiLna- Bha'mo, a town of Burmah, on the left bank of the Irralayan Tract) of the N.W. Province of India, on the right bank waddy, 200 miles N.N.E. of Mandalay (q. v.), contains over a of the Vishnugunga, an affluent of the Aluknunda, in the centre thousand houses built on piles a few feet above the ground, for Zn. ~~~~~~~~~~~thousand houses built on piles a few feet above the ground, for of a narrow valley, 10,294 feet above the sea-level. Its import- the advantage of free circulation of air, and has 5000 inhabitants. ance is due entirely to its temple, which is resorted to annually B and its district are governed by a Woon who acts as king, and by numerous pilgrims, as many as 50,0o00 collecting on the The town is fast sing recr a iteral oftweveyeas.pays subsidy to the King of Burmah. The town is fast rising grand periodic festivals, which recur at intervals of twelve years. - gTherandpeioi fa whiother attendainto importance, owing to its being the gate to the Shan States The Brahmans and the other attendants on the temple abandon of Western China. Steamers have recently commenced to run of Western China. Steamers have recently commenced to run the town during winter, from the intensity of the cold, between Rangoon and B., and large quantities of salt and piece3Bhagavad-Git' (' Revelations of the God') is the title given goods are sent thither in return for the products of Western to a philosophical poem belonging perhaps to the brilliant age China. A British resident is now established at B. for the prowhen Vikramaditya ruled in Northern India at Ujjayini (mod. tection of our commerce; and if the projected railway between Ozuein), which is conjectured to have been about the middle of B. and Talifu, in the basin of the Yangtse, be carried out, B. must the ist c. B. c. There are, however, no external data by which become a great emporium of trade. the time of its composition can be really fixed; and it is only by ang, the Eastern name for hemp, ut now frequently ap a consideration of the style, the general character of the teach- a the atn nefo mp o fe p ing, and the drift of particular passages, that scholars have been plied to the intoxicating preparation made fro it. See HEMP. led to assign it to a period when Buddhism was still prevalent in Bhanpu'ra. See BAMPURA. 373 - BHA HIE GI OBE ENCYCL OPiEIA. BIA Bhargaon, a town in the district of Khandesh, northerfi Bhojpur', a town near the Ganges, in the district of Rai division of the province of Bombay, British India, with a pop. Bareli, province of Oude, British India, about 50 mliles S. of (1872) of 6153. Lucknow. Pop, gooo. Bhartriha'ri, a famous Indian proverbialist, of whose life Bhooj, a fortified city of India, capital of Cutch, 35 miles N. nothing is really known; but, according to the legend which of the Gulf of Cutch, possesses numerous fine temples and other has survived, he was a brother of the brilliant monarch Vikra public buildings. It is famous for its gold and silver manumaditya, who is supposed to have reigned about the middle of factures. Pop. 20,000, the Ist c. B.C, Originally a rake, he repented of his sins in his Bho'pal, one of the Central India states, all of which, taken riper years, and closed his career as a hermit. The collection together, may be regarded as a province of British India, inasthat goes by his name is believed to be in reality an anthology much as the various territories are wholly under British power, of the gathered beauty and wisdom of various men and various though each has its native ruler. That of B. has received from ages, which, with Eastern looseness in riatters of fact, has been the Viceroy the title of Nawab. IIis dominions have an area ascribed to one whose name had become conspicuous.in the of 6764 sq, miles, and a pop, of 662,872, and his revenue half-mythic traditions of the past, There are in all some 300 amounts to /688,126.-The capital, also called B., about I76 apophthegms, which contain many fine touches of natural de- miles N.W. of Nagpore, is surrounded by a dilapidated wall scription, sentiment, religious and philosophical reflections upon about 2 miles in length. Near it are two enormous tanks, 2 and God, the soul, life, and immortality. An edition of B,'s sayings 48 miles long respectively. Pop. 20,000. was published by Bohlen (Berl. I833), to which he added varis lectiones (Berl. I850), with a German translation in verse (Hamb, hosawal', a town in the district of Ihandesh, provinceof I835). B. was the first Indian author known in Europe, two- Bombay, 203 miles N.E. of Bombay city, lies near the left bank thirds of B.'s collection having been translated more than two of the Tapti, and is a station on the Bomay and Benares Railcenturies ago by a German rmissionary, Abraham Roger, in his way. Pop. (I87a) 6804i Offene Tzhiire zitm verborgenen Heidenthurne (' Open Gates to Bho'tan, or Bhu'tan, an independent state of India, N.E. of IHidden Heathenism,' Nurnb, i653). Herder has given imita- Bengal, on the S. slope of the Himalayas, with an area estimated tions of them in his Zerstreuten Biatter-n. (according to state returns, 1873) at Io,ooo sq. miles, and a pop. Bhatgong', a towIn of India, in the independent state of New of 20,000. It is inhabited by a race (Blotyas) who speak the pal, about 9 miles from Khatmnandu, the capital of the country. Tibet dialect, and are governed by a Dherma-Lama, regarded as It has a fine palace, and a pop. of 120oo0, chiefly Brahmans. almost divine, and by a Deb Rajah, controlled by a council of eight. Polygamy and polyandry are practised. The middle Bha'vani-Xudar', a town in the district of Coimbatore, pro' region of the country is alone fertile, producing wheat, barley,vince of Madras, India, 58 miles N.E. of the city of Coimba- rice and maize. Tassisudon is the capital, on the Tehintsue, a tore, is noted for its temples of Vishnu and Siva. feeder of the Brahmaputre. Bhawulpur', the capital of a native (feudatory) state of the Bhowan', or Bhuwain, a torn in the district of Mozuffersame name in India, under the government of the Punjab, on the nuggur (Meerut), N.W, Province, British India, 55 miles W. of Delhi. It came into the possessionof the British in I8og. S. of the Punjab, is situated on the Ghara, which falls into the of Delhi It came into the possession of the itis i809. Chenab a little farther down. Pop. about 20,000. The imme-Pop. (I872) 848I. diate neighbourhood of the town is very fertile, as also the strip Bhu'ji, or Bhujji, a small feudatory state of India on the of land skirting the Ghara and Indus. The principal products tipper Sutlege, in the province of the Punjab. It is not more of manufacture are scarfs, chintzes, turbans, &c. Area of state, than 20 miles in length and 7 in breadth, has a pop. of some I5,000 sq. miles; pop. (i868) 472,79I. 20,000, and is governed by a chief who pays a small tribute to the Viceroy of India, Bheels, a Dravidic race inhabiting part of the region between the Tapti and the Nerbudda. They al-e believed to be a Bhurtpore', the capital of the Jat state of the same name in relic of the Indian aborigines driven from the plains into the Rajputana, India, 30 miles W. of Agra, with which it has beei wilder hill regions by the victorious advance of the Aryan cted by railway since I872, and I00 S. of Delhi. It Rajputs. Many of them are still in a very savage and degraded was founded by a freebooter named Bilj, who (1799) built an state, and can hardly be considered as anything else than caterans. almost inaccessible fort here, in which his descendant, Runjit They were long a source of great trouble to the British Govern- Singh, sheltered Holkar after the battle of DPt in 1803. The ment, as they used to burst out of their mountain jungles and latter act brought about the memorable siege of B. by Lord commit horrible atrocities. At length, in I828, a British force Lake, which ended, after the failure of four assaults, in its surwas sent against them; but, although they were subdued, it was render, when Runjit Singh received back his dominions on soon felt that some permanent force was required to maintain paying an indemnity of /220o,000, April I7, I805. In 1826 order among them. At last, in the year I840, a Bheel corps was there was a second siege, owing to a disputed succession, and raised (into which the wilder spirits were drafted), to keep order the fort was stormed and afterwards dismantled by Lord Comamong the B. themselves, and to protect them from the grasp- bermere. Pop. about 6ooo. The territory of B. produces good ing extortions of native kamdars; and since then a great im- crops of grain, cotton, and sugar, but is scant of water. It provement has taken place, The Bhee? Agenzcy comprises the has a very hot climate. Area, I974 sq. miles; pop. (I87I) seven small feudatory states of Dhar, Jabuah, Ali Rajpur, Jobut, 743,7I0. The Maharaja has been granted the right to adopt a Kuttiwara, Ruttonmal, and Mutwarh, with parts of Scindia successor, has a revenue of 242,000, and pays no tribute. The and Holkar's territory, and forms a division of the Central India present ruler is proverbially a thrifty economist, and very States.'The inhabitants are almost entirely B. and Bheelalas; careftul of his money. The army and other establishments are the latter descended from Rajput fathers and Bheel mothers, all regularly paid at the end of the month, and the ryots are who, year by year, settle down to husbandry and peaceful not subjected to any sort of exaction or extortion. See Annals habits. Occasionally, however, stung by some act of injustice of Indian Administr-ation for I872-73. or oppression, a chief, gathering his tribe around him, retires to BiaraBit o, a portion of the Gulf of Guinea, extending the hills and jungles and breaks out into wild outlawry.' This from C ape Formosa to Cape Lopez, a coast distance of more relapse was exemplified in I872-73 by Jugtia, the head of the than Soo miles. The northern shores, as far E. as tie Old CalaDussana B., who went'out' with most of his tribe, and has bar river, are flat and low; but to the S. of Rio del Rey, the not yet come' in.' See Annals of Indian Atdministration for Cameroon mountains rise to a considerable height. The 1872-73. chief rivers emptying into the B. are the Niger (in part), the Bhel or Bael. See 2FGLEj Calabar rivers the Rio del Rey, the Cameroon, and Gaboon, at the mouth of which last is George's Town, or Naango, the chief Bhewn'dy, or Bhiwan'di, a town in the district of Tanna, resort of European traders. province of Bombay, British India. Pop, (i872) II,970. Bial'ystok, the Polish name of the now Russian 1tjel6stok, Bhingarh', a town in the district of Ahmednugur, province a town in the government of Grodno, Western Russia, on the river of Bombay, British India. Pop. (1872) 5752. Bial, 95 miles to the N.E. of Warsaw by rail. It has manufac374 BIA 7HE GL ORE ENC YC OPLMDJI, BIB tures of leather, soap, woollens, &c. Tle town has a fine castle, Bi'ble, The, is the name given to the collective volume of with a magnificent garden and park, laid out at great expense the sacred writings recognised by Christians, by Count Branicki. Pop. (1867) 16,985. The province has a I, The Name.-The special object of all the designations pop. of 265,944. which have been given to these writings has been to distinguish them as holy wri/ijigs in a special sense, or as't he Biatna, a towne in the Rajput territory of Bhurtpore, India, tiuis them as hoy zritis in a special sense, or as'te 23 miles S.W. of Bhurtpore. It was formerly fortified; and writings tar excellence. The most ancient designation of the numerous ruins of temples and buildings in its neighbourhood the Jewish sacred ritings is in the Book of Daniel (ix. 2), bIthe books the Gareed wreiteingsiinteok o f whcDanie b(ix. 2o, attest its former greatness. In its vicinity is the Bhim Lat,'the books;' the reek renderingof which (i bloi, or or'Staff of Bhim,' a stone pillar, visible at a great distance. ta biblia), used by the Alexandrian Jews, occurs in the prologue to Ecclesiasticus, as well as in 2 Tim, iv. I3. Other and Biancaviil'a, a town in the province of Catania, Sicily, on later names were the writing, or the Zwritings, the readag, the the S.W. of Mount Etna, r4 miles N.W, of the town of Catania. reading-book, and hence'the Book.' At a later time, when It trades in silk, cotton, and cereals. Pop. (1872) 9328. the sacred writings of Christianity had come into existence, these Bianchi'ni, Franesco, an Italian astronomer and anti- names were also transferred to them in the Christian Church, quarian, was born at Verona, December 13, 1662, studied at so that both collections were comprehended under the title Padua, and then proceeded to Rome. He was employed by'Scripture,''Holy Scripture,' or' Holy Scriptures,' the' Sacred Clement XI. to reform the calendar; and he undertook the task Letters,' The Greek title, ta biblin, employed by Chrysostom of drawing a meridian line from the Adriatic to the Mediter- for the entire collection (in the Latin Church,'Biblia') as a neuter ranean. His most famous work is his Storia Universale (Rome plural, came to be used in Low Latin as a feminine singular, 1694); but his edition of the work of Anastasius, De V'itis'Biblia;' from which has arisen the use of B. as a singular noun RPomanzarztm Potzlificun, completed by his nephew Giuseppe in all modern European languages. B. (4 vols. Rome I718-34), is also highly valuied. B. died at Of the whole collection, the part properly Jewish, and oriRome, March 2, 1729. ginally written in Hebrew, receives the name of the Old Testament, as distinguished from the New Testament, or the Christian ZBiardl', A/uguste-F~rancois, a French genre.-painter, a bornat Lyon, 27~uth June in o, a tnh e scoo od Scriptures proper, which were originally written in Greek. St born at L~yon, 27th June I8OO, studied at the school of design born, at Lyon ud instudiedat schoo of design Paul (2 Cor. iii. 14) applied the name of the Old Covenant (A. there, and was appointed in 1827 draughtsman on board a V Testament) to the whole scheme of the Jewish revelationcorvette, in which he, visited various countries on the Mediterthat is, God's covenant with the children of Israel under the ranean. Later (i839) he visited Greenland and Spitzbergen; -.... ine. I19, Mexvioa d in6 u ndertook pitoriarney mediation of Moses, in relation to the New Covenant under the in 1859, Mezi~eco, and in i8f5 undertook a pitoral journey mediition of the Messiah (Jer. xxxi. 31). In course of time, the round the world, sketching numberless portraits, groups, &c. e dan e ea er xi 3our o the titles Old and New Covenant were applied by metonymy to the His' Attack of Brigands was purchased by the Duchessde Berry, writings relating to these, and the Greek word which meant and his'Les Comeaiens Ambulants' (now in the Luxembourg) sometimes'covenant' and sometimes'testament' was by the by the Government. His greatest successes, perhaps, have beensometimes'ovenant ad sometimes'testament' was by the b translators of the old Latin version always translated by the word in rendering burlesque groups, of which his' Sequel of a Mastestamentzum, and the word has come into almost universal use querade,''Family Concert,' and'Good Gendarme' are favourable, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~as the title of the two parts of the B. able. B. belongs to no school, if it be not to that of nature, the he o etaet o oe n II. The Old 2'eslament.-I, 774 Contenls.- -The Canon (q facts of which he delineates with great freedom, and in open v.) of the Hebrew Scriptures is exactly the same as that of contempt of the unities. ntisa ~~~contempt of the unities, ~the English B., but differently arranged. The arrangement is as Biarr'itz, a celebrated bathing-place in the Basses-Pyrenees, follows:-I.'The Law,' the five so-called Books of Moses, or France, 5 miles S.W, of Bayonne, is much frequented by the the Pentateuch. 2.'The Prophets,' subdivided into-(I) The French nobility, by Spaniards and Englishmen, and was formerly former prophets (referring merely to their place in the canon)an autumn residence of the imperial family. Pop. (1872) 3164. viz., Joshua, Judges, Ist and 2d Samuel, jst and 2d Kings; and i'as, of Priene in Ionia, was one of the seven wise men of (2) The latter prophets, including (a) the greater prophets Greece, and flourished aout 570B.c. The'wise men' earned their (referring merely to the bulk of their extant writings), Isaiah, Greece, and flourished about57OB.C. The'wise men' earnied their fame by uttering pithy maxims of practical wisdom; and several Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and (b) the twelve minor prophets-from HoseaomalachEeiel 3nd (the twele mnin Bok'rprophedths-fo of those of B. are recorded by Diogenes Laertius.'We should Hosea to Malachi. 3. The (remaining) oos,' arranged thus: love men as if they might one day hate us,''The most difficult -(i) The Psalms, Proverbs, and Job; (2) The Song of Songs, RuthI)ameetations, Proverbstcs, Endthob; (3) Danel SonzorSng, thing is to bear a change to the worse.''Do not praise an uno Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiasticus, Estlier; (3) Daniel, Ezra, worthy man on account of his riches,''Take wisdom as you Nehemiah, ist and 2d Chronicles. supplies for travelling from youth to age, for it is the most secure 2. istory of the Canon.-(A.) Among the Jews of Palesof all possessions.' B. died suddenly afte successfully plea tine. The groundwork of the Old Testament canon is conaa bf t judged suesfy ~ding ~fessedly the five'Books of Moses,' or'the Pentateuch' (q. v.). a cause before the judges. All that can be known with any degree of certainty regarding Bib, Pout, or Whiting Pout (Morrhua hlsca), a Teleos- it is, that canonical authority was attached to it after the distean fish belonging to the Gadide or cod family. It averages a covery of the Book of the Law (probably Deut. iv. 44-xxvi. foot in length, and possesses a remarkably deep body for its size. and xxviii.) in the eighteenth year of Josiah, thirty-six years The back is arched; and the skin of the eyes and head being of before the destruction of Jerusalem. It is at any rate cera loose texture, the fish can inflate these parts at will. A dark tain that since the time of Ezra the Pentateuch has remained spot exists at the pectoral fins, as in the whitings. The B. occurs unaltered as the Book of the Law. As to the other books, in very generally on the British coasts, and on those of Norway, the Second Book of Maccabees (ii. 13) there is mention of the Sweden, Greenland, and elsewhere. The Scotch name of this'writings and commentaries of Neemias, and how he, founding fish is the Brassy, It is esteemed as a marketable fish in Lon- a library, gathered together the acts (? books) of the kings, and don, and is said to be Df finest flavour in October, November, the prophets, and of David.' The letter (from the Jews in and December, Palestine to those in Egypt) in which this passage occurs is not Bib'erach, a fortified town of Wiirtemberg, circle of the authentic, but there is no reason for doubting the accuracy of Danube, at the point where the river B. joins the Riss, a sta- the statement as it stands; so that there is evidently a reference tion on the Wirtemberg Railway, and situated on the Ulm- to-(i) historical writings relating to the reigns of the kings of Ravensberg highroad, 23 miles S.S.W. of Ulm, with manufac- Israel and Judah; (2) prophetical writings-i.e., containing tures of toys, leather, paper, linen, cotton, lace, &c, It has predictions of prophets; (3) certain writings of David, probably also an important fruit-market. Its High Church is a fine the Psalms, and not the Books of Samuel. As the order here building, originally of the year Iioo, but much altered at a indicated is that which prevails in the Hebrew canon, and from later date. The mineral waters of Jordanshad are in the what is known independently of the origin of the various books, vicinity.. The inhabitants are noted not only for their industry, there is good ground for assuming —() that the books referred to but their taste for art, and reckon many painters in their roll as'the (books) of the kings,' were the Books of Samuel and of burgesses. B. became an imperial free town in the time of Kings; (2) that those'of the prophets' were the prophetical Friedrich II. Moreau defeated the Austrians at B. in 1796, writings now found in the second division of the canon; and (3) and again in i8oo, ]Pop. (1871) 7o09. that the collection of Psalms was by this time brought to a close. * ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~375 ~~~ —-----— ~~~~~~~~~' 0 BIB TH.E GLOBE ENCYC~OP~LOMPIA. BIB Further, since the object of Nehemiah in forming this collection which it retains in the Greek Church to this day. The conwas doubtless to include such books as would give a continuous sequence of this was, that when a need arose for a translation of history, from the point at which the Pentateuch left off down to the Holy Scriptures into the vulgar tongue of any country, the the Babylonish captivity, we may also suppose that the Books of Old Testament was translated from the LXX. This was especiJoshua and Judges were admitted into the collection. Very ally the case with the Ethiopian, Egyptian, Armenian, Georgian, probably the Book of Ruth, which supplied information about and Slavic translations. In the Latin Church, when Jerome the forefathers of David, the ancestor of the kings of Judab, was (d. 420) made a fresh Latin translation direct from the Hebrew, it at the same time admitted into the series of the historical books- gave great offence at first, on account of the manifold variations a supposition which is rendered the more probable by the fact from the LXX. and the translations made from it; but in course that by the Ist c. it was classed along with Judges as one book. of time Jerome's version gained ground, and the LXX. lost its Except the Book of Lamentations, which may be assumed, for former importance. At the end of the 5th c. it was used similar reasons, to have had its place after the prophecies of similarly to the translations made from the LXX., and from the Jeremiah, it cannot be decided whether any other of the books 7th c. it has been accepted as the current text (vulgata editio), (besides those already mentioned-Psalms and Ruth) now in the is what is known in modern times as the Vulgate (q. v.), and third division of the canon were then admitted into Nehemiah's has been directly or indirectly the parent of all the vernacular collection. Evidently this could be done only with those then translations of Western Europe, with the exception of the in existence, and this can be asserted with certainty only of the Gothic, which was made from the Greek. Books of Job, Proverbs, and the Song of Solomon. The books The English B.-To pass over the translation of fragments composed after the time of Ezra and Nehemiab —Daniel, Esther, of the Old and New Testaments into Old English by CadEzra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles-are none of them placed in mon, Bede, _/Elfred, }Elfric, &c., the first literal prose translatheir chronological position amzong the books collected by Nehe- tion in English of a portion of the B. was made by Richard miah; they are all placed after the Psalms and the other poetical Rolle (died i349). Another version was made about the same books in the Hebrew canon-that is, showing the high authority time, comprising the Gospels of Mark and Luke and all the to which that collection must have attained. Some of the books Epistles of Paul; and another, in the Northern dialect, conin the third division of the canon were not received into the taining the Dominical Gospels for the year. Meanwhile the number of the sacred writings without opposition-e.g., Esther people were forbidden by the Church to possess any of the and the three attributed to Solomon-and a considerable time books of the B., except perhaps the psalter and the breviary, but elapsed before the canon was considered as finally completed. especially to have any of these books translated into the vulgar But several centuries before the time of Christ, a feeling seems to tongue. It was in the face of this opposition of the Church have prevailed among the Jews of Palestine that the Spirit of that Wicliffe made his translation, which was finished in 1380. God no longer operated upon men in such a way as to produce The revival of learning in the 15th c., and the invention of works deserving to be reckoned Holy Scripture. Thus no work printing at the same time, afforded facilities for the translation was received into the canon which was known to Ilave been and diffusion of the Scriptures previously unknown. Wicliffe's composed later than Ioo years after the captivity. The Books translation was made from the Vulgate, as he knew nothing of of Daniel and Ecclesiastes were so received only because they either Greek or Hebrew; but the reformers of the i6th c. were were regarded as the writings of Daniel and Solomon. able to study the Scriptures in the original languages, while the (B.) Among the Hellenistic Jews, there seems reason for be- printing-press multiplied the number of copies in a manner that lieving that the canon remained unsettled for a longer time, and was impossible before the invention of printing, although Engthat no marked distinction was made between the books which land was long in availing herself of the help of that useful art. composed the Hebrew canon and several others of a later date. The first part of the English B. printed was the'seven penitential It is at any rate certain, that among the Jews of Alexandria, at psalms,' in 1505. The whole of the New Testament was transthe time of Christ, the limits of the canon had not been fixed. lated and published about I526 by W. Tyndale, who also In the LXX., which was almost entirely used among them, translated in 1529 the Pentateuch, the first English version several of the books of the Hebrew canon received considerable direct' from the Hebrew, and in the following year the Book of additions, and there were also several books not in the Hebrew Jonah; The first complete English B. was printed by Miles Covercanon at all. These additions form what is now called the dale, a friend of Tyncdale's, in 1535. Soon after there was pubApocrypha (q. v.). lished, under the sanction of the king (Henry VIII.), a new B., (C.) In the Christian Church, the books of the Old Testa- which bore on its title-page the name of Thomas Matthews, but ment were used from the first in the same way as by the Jews, the real editor of which was John Rogers, a friend of Tyndale's, as Holy Scriptures. It was but few, however, of the Christian whose version it closely resembles. In I539 was published the writers who were acquainted with the Hebrew language; and great B., which was simply a revision of Matthews', with the by far the most of them knew the Old Testament only as it omission of the prologues and notes, which savoured too much existed in the LXX. It thus happened that they often quoted of heresy for the taste of the clergy. Next year (1540) there as Holy Scripture passages from books not included in the was published a new edition, with the translation in great part Hebrew canon. This was continually pointed out byJewish recast, and a preface by Cranmer, from which it got the name of writers in their disputes with Christians, and the distinction was Cranmer's B., though it is often confounded with the edition of in general after the 4th c. observed in the Eastern and Greek I539. A reprint of the I540 edition was issued next year, Church, in which there was a tendency to reject from the canon bearing the names of the Bishops of Durham and Rochester. also the Book of Esther. In the Latin Church, although there During the persecution under Mary, the English exiles at Geneva are catalogues belonging to the latter half of the 4th c. in completed a new translation of the New Testament in I557, and which a distinction is made, the Apocrypha came to be generally of the Old Testament in I56o, which sometimes goes by the regarded as belonging to the canon, along with the books of the name of the' Breeches B.,' from the rendering of Genesis iii. 7 HIebrew canon; so that these books were included in the ancient (authorised version,'aprons'). Under Elizabeth new editions Latin translation made from the LXX.-the so-called Itala-and of Cranmer's B. were issued in 1562, 1566, and I568; but it was at a later time in the Vulgate, although the latter was made felt to be very defective, and the Geneva B. satisfied none but the from the Hebrew. At the Reformation the Protestant Churches puritan party. Accordingly Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, adhered strictly to the Hebrew canon. set agoing a new translation, which was published in i568, and 3. Translations.-Of translations of the Hebrew text of the got the name of the Bishop's B. New editions were issued in Old Testament, the first was that of the Septuagint (q. v,), made 1569 and in 1572, but it never became popular. As the Proat Alexandria, where it was regarded as an authentic and even testant exiles at Geneva in the reign of Mary had done, so the inspired version of the sacred books. By the Jews of Palestine Popish exiles at Rheims in'this reign produced a new version it was regarded from the first with the most intense dislike. It from the Vulgate: the New Testament in I582, the Old Testawas, besides, convicted of many inaccuracies, and a more literal ment some years later. It was printed at Douay in I609, and is translation into Greek, for the benefit of Jews unacquainted with hence called the Douay B. In 1604 James I. set agoing an Hebrew, was made by Aquila (q. v.), besides others by Theo- entirely new translation, for which all the previous ones were dotion (q. v.), Symmachus (q. v.), &c. In the Christian Church to be utilised, that one being followed in every case which came the LXX. had a higher and more lasting authority, being regarded nearest to the meaning of the original text. The work was by many as equally inspired with the Hebrew text; an authority intrusted to the most talented and learned men in the kingdom, 376 * —------- BIB THE GLOBE ENIVC YCLOPAzDIA. BIB to the number of forty-seven, who were divided into corn- ment, after the invention of printing, is merged in that of the Old panies, with a portion of the B. to each company; and was Testament, as given above. completed by the end of 160o7. But with the time occupied in The books on the subject of this article are exceedingly numeits revisal, printing, &c., it was not issued till 16II. This, then, rous. We can note only the most famous and useful. In Engis the authorised version still in use. A company of translators lish, there are Hartwell Homrne's Introduction lo the Critical are engaged at the present time (1875) at Westminster preparing Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriltures (4 vols. Lond. 1856); a revised translation; but the extreme accuracy of King James's Stowe's Origin and ttistory of the Books of the Bible (Hartf. B., and the great care bestowed upon it, are apparent from the I867); Dr Samuel Davidson's Introduction to the Old Testament fact that its defects, after the lapse of two centuries and a half, are (3 vols. Lend. 1862-63); and an Introduction to the Study of the comparatively so few. NVero Tstament (2 vols. Lend. i868); Canon Westcott's General III. The Neew Testament.-It is asserted by the conservative Survey of the Canon of the New Testament (4th ed. I875), and school of divines that the books of the New Testament were Westcotts Bible in the C/hurch, and History of the -English Bible. composed and the canon completed during the latter half of the The best book on'the MSS. of the New Testament is Scrivener's Ist c. Some modern critics, on the other hand, assert that some Plain Introduction to the Crittkism of the New Testament (2d ed. of them-e.g., the Gospel of John and the SecondEpistle of Camb. I874); and a popular account of the subject is given in Peter-were not composed till about the middle of the 2d c. The Words of the New Testament, by Drs Milligan and Roberts But granting that the books composing the canon were all (Edinb. 1873). written in the ist c., it is at any rate certain that they were not In German, the best introductions to the Old and New Testaat first all received as equally authoritative, and that the limits ment are by De Wette, Fr. Bleek, and Reuss. Hilgenfield has of the canon were not authoritatively fixed till the latter half of just published an introduction to the New Testament, giving the 4th c. The earliest authoritative compositions received into the opinions of the Ttibingen School (Leips.. I875). the canon were undoubtedlythe Epistles of Paul, written about: 5. Bible, Prohibit~ion of the, is a practice of the Church of In the course of the 2d c. our four Gospels were received. By Bibe, rohibitiom of the, is a practice of the Church of the middle of the Rd c. the four Gospels, Acts, thirteen Epistles, ising from her doctrine regarding the rule of faith. Protestants hold that the B. is sufficiently clear to be understood, of Paul, of Hebrews (by -some regarded as the work of Paul, by rte hd t the i Siity e people to whom others not), ist Peter, and Ist John had been admitted into the under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, by the people to whom canon. Regarding 2d and 3d John, 2d Peter, James, Jude, and it is addressed; and that they are entitled and bound to judge the Apocalypse, there was still great difference of opinion. But for themselves what is its true meaning. Roman Catholics, on besides these there existed, during the 2d and 3d centuries, a the other hand, teach that the Scriptures are so obscure that considerable number of what are now called apocryphal writings, they need a visible, present, and infallible interpreter; and that for the most part childish fables about the life of Jesus and the the people, being incompetent to understand them, are bound to apostles. Many of these, however, were then decidedly popular, believe whatever doctrines the Church declares to e true and and there was as great difference of opinion about exclui divine.' From this doctrine it follows that the use of the B. by certain of them from the canon, as about including certain books the people is discountenanced by the Church of Rome. Accordinlathepough itws evrdisontenne by anyCucho genera Acouclpronow in it. Thus Origen included the Epistles of Barnabas, Cle- ingly, although it was never done by ay general council, promeat, and the Shepherd of Hermas in his list of canonical ooks. hibitions have been repeatedly issued by popes-eg., by Gregory The historian Eusebius gives a very exact statement of the views VII., wso ordained (io8o) Latin to he the sole language of regarding the canon prevailing up to his own time (beginning of worship; and y Innocent III., Clement XI., and Pius IV., 4th c.). He divides the Scriptures into three classes: the recog- who prohibited the reading of the B. without permission from a nised, the controverted, and the spurious. In the first class he priest. The consequence is, that the B.is practically inaccessible places the four Gospels, Acts, the Epistles of Paul (which he to the mass of the people in Roman Catholic countries. elsewhere calls fourteen-ie., including that to the Hebrews), Bi'ble 8ociety, an association having for its object the cirof ist Peter, and Ist John. In the second the Epistles of James, culation of the Scriptures. An association had been founded at Jude, 2d Peter, and 2d and 3d John. Regarding the Book of Halle in Germany by Charles Hildebrand for the purpose of the Revelation there was difference of opinion; the controversy printing Bibles, which was carried on for many years with unregarding it having been connected with the millenarian contro- wearied activity; and by the end of the 18th c. had issued as versy. The third class he divided into (i) spurious but harm. many as 3,ooo000,000 ooocopies of the B. in German. The Religious less, or even instructive-e.g., the Acts of Paul, the Shepherd of Tract.Society also, founded in 1799, though not properly conHermas, the Apocalypse of Peter, the Epistle:of Barnabas, the -fined to the dissemination of the Scriptures, has always made Apostolic Constitutions; and (2) those which were also absurd that a very prominent part of its labours. The first association and im/ious —e.g., the Gospels of Peter, Thomas, Matthias, the known by the title of B. S. took its rise in England in 1780. It Acts of Andrew, of John, &c. The fixing of the canon, which was intended solely for the benefitof soldiers and sailors, the was thus so far accomplished by this arrangement, was brought movement being suggested by the idea of their frequent exstill nearer completion by the Councils of Laodicea, of Hippo, posure to danger. The society was supported by'voluntary, and of Carthage (the third). By the 59th canon of the Council individual subscriptions, and collections at different places of of Laodicea (360-364), it was -enacted that no uncanonical books worship;' and'within two years they had distributed more than should beused in the churches; and by the 6oth that the twenty- Ii,ooo Bibles among different regiments and ships' crews six canonical books should be so used-i.e., all the books of our (one of the first to be supplied having been the Royal George), canon except the Apocalypse. By the Council of Carthage and expended upwards of fI5oo. The same society exists at (397), the Apocalypse (of John) was included in the list of the present day, under the title of the'Naval:and Military B. canonical books; and from this time the New Testament canon S.' Ten years later (1792), a number of persons in London may be said to have been definitely settled, formed themselves into an association called the'French B. S.,' Till the invention of printing, the New Testament, like the their object being to supply French Bibles to those who wanted Old, was preserved in MSS., of which, considering the labour them in France. B-utt the attempt -proved abortive amid the of transcribing, there were great numbers-one of the good tumult of the French Revolution. things which we owe to;the leisure of the monks; and, as the The greatest of all the associations of the kind is the'British material employed was parchment, many of them are still in and Foreign B. S.,' which was started.at the beginning of this existence. The three oldest of these are the Sinaitic MS., so c. Founded in I804, chiefly in consequence of the desire of called because discovered by Dr Tischendorf in a convent at Thomas Charles of Bala to procure a supply of Welsh Bibles Mount Sinai in 1854 and 1859, now in the possession of -the from the Religious Tract Society, in forty-eight years upwards of Emperor of Russia, and believed to be as old as the middle of 700,000 had been printed and circulated in Wales. The conthe 4th c.; the Vatican MS., in the Vatican Library at Rome, stitution of the society is, that it exists only to spread among all believed to be as old as about the middle of the 4th c.; the nations the written Word of God,'without note or comment,' Alexandrine MS., in the British Museum, so called because of the Old and New Testaments, and the canonical books only. presented to Charles I. in 1628 by the Patriarch of Constan- The income of the society is derived from collections, donations, tinople, formerly of Alexandria, and believed to have been legacies, &c. Its labours consist in circulating copies of the written about the middle of the 5th c. The three contain both authorised version of the English B. in Great Britain and the the Old and New Testaments. The history of the New Testa- British Possessions, and also copies in Gaelic and the other 48 377 BIB THE GLOBE ENC YCLOPZEDIA. BIB Celtic dialects in Great Britain; and in printing and circulating prompt appearance of the Editiones Principes of the classics is translations prepared by missionaries in various countries. Of an admirable illustration of the rapid diffusion and development above 200 translations of the Bible which have been made into of the art throughout Europe. Within twenty years after its different languages and dialects, above I50 have been printed discovery, editions of nearly all the Latin classics had been more or less directly in connection with the British and Foreign printed. The first Greek book (the Grammar of Constantine B. S. Its relations with the Continent -of Europe also have Lascaris) was printed at Milan in 1476; and in I494 the famous always been of the most liberal nature. During the first ten Aldus issued the first of a series of upwards of sixty Greek years of its existence, forty-eight different societies, formed mostly works, completed before his death in I 515. The compilation of in imitation of itself, in Germany, Hungary, Sweden, and Switzer- a universal biographical dictionary was attempted by Conrad land, in Finland, Denmark, Iceland, Courland, and Russia, had Gesner in his Bibliotheca Universalis (Zurich, I545), which received from it 99,ooo Bibles and 127,ooo New Testaments. was, however, confined to Hebrew, Greek, and Latin books. Up to the present time it has printed in the various languages of The B. Britannica of Watt (Edinb. 1824) was designed by him Europe above 9,00ooo,ooo copies. According to the report just to be a universal catalogue of the authors with whom this issued for I874-75, the receipts for the year amounted to country is acquainted. Special or particular bibliographical ~222,062, and the expenditure to 2I17,390. The issue of dictionaries are many in number and various in character. Rare Bibles, Testaments, &c., was 2,619,427; since the establishment books are arranged and described in the B. Curieuse, ou Cataof the society, 74,000,000. logue Raisonne'deLivres Rares of David Clement (I750-56); and The auxiliary and branch societies -connected with the preced- to this department also belong the Malznuel du Libraire et de ing are too numerous to name. There are in Scotland two l'Amaleur des Livres of Brunet (the 5th ed. i860-65, now out societies, which seem to be two branches of one founded in of print), and the iTresor des Livres lares et Precieeux of Graesse I809-the'National B. S..of Scotland,' and the'Scottish B13. (I859-60). Bohn's edition of Lowndes' Bibliograpfher's Manual S.' The American B. S., which is only second in importance to (I857-64) contains an account of the rare, curious, and useful the British and Foreign, was founded at New York in i8'i7. books of Great Britain. Some bibliographical works treat The most important in Germany is the Prussian Central in Berlin, specially of the literature of particular countries, as, for examfounded in I814. The Russian B. S., which was founded at St pie, the Critical Dictionary of English Literature and British Petersburg in I813, was abolished by a ukase of Nicholas in and American Authors, by Allibone (I859-7I); La France i826, although its place has since been so far filled by a Pro- Litte'raire (1827-39), by Querard; and its continuations by Loutestant one, which does not interfere with the members of the andre and Bourgueldt, and by Lorenz (I867-7I); the B. Hispana Greek Church. Vetus and B. Hispanta Nova of Antonio (1783-88); Handbuch der Deutschen Literatur, by Ersch, with supp.; AllBib'lia Pau'perum (' Bible of the poor'), the name given gemeines Biicher Lexicon (18I2-56), by Heinsius. Special works to a picture-book forming a system of scriptural symbolism or also are confined to the literature of the classical languages, typology, and representing, in from 40 to 50 plates, the principal such as those of Dibdin and Moss, and the useful handbook incidents in the salvation of the human race by Jesus Christ, Guide to the of Classical Boohs, by Mayor. Renouard's with brief elucidations and verses from the prophets, in Latin. Annales de l'lmprizerie des Alde (1834), and Annales de l'md A larger work of the same kind, with an expanded text in primerie des Estiennes (I837-38), are specimens of works that rhyme, was known as the Speculum f Humanet Salvationis treat of the books -issued from particular presses. The exten('Mirror of Human Salvation'). Before the Reformation, both sive and curious class of books published anonymously, or under were immensely popular with the preaching friars for homi- feigned names, has long enchained the interest of bibliographers. letic purposes; and to laymen and clergy were often the sole The best book~in.this department is the Dictionnaire des Ouvrages source of their biblical knowledge. The Franciscans, Carthu- Anonymes et Pseudonymes of Barbier (I822-27). There apsians, and other orders, who called themselves Pauperes Christi peared in I868 the Handbook of Fictitious Names by Olphar ( Christ's poor'), made great use of the first work, hence its name Hamst (Ralph Thomas), being a guide to authors, chiefly in the B. P. MSS. of both are numerous, and reach as far back as the lightertliterature of the g9th c., who have written under assumed I3th c. They exercised a great influence on ecclesiastical art, names, and to literary forgers, impostors, plagiarists, and imitabeing frequently copied in the sculptures, frescoes, glass-paint- tors. The prospectus has been issued of the Anonymous and ings, and altar-pieces of the middle ages, and were probably the Pseudo ymous iter ure of Great Britain by the late Mr Samuel very first works printed in the I5th c. by the xylographic system Halkett, continued by Mr Jamieson, his successor in the of Holland and the movable types of Germany. keepership of the Advocates' Library, and the Rev. John Laing, Bib'lical Antiquities, or Archaeology, is the science librarian of the New College, Edinburgh. The following works which describes the political constitution, geography, manners, may be mentioned in addition as of interest to the student of this customs, laws, &c., of the nations mentioned in theect.: Bibliographie Instructive (1768) of De Bure; the oBibliograp2hical Dictionary of Dr Adam Clarke; Peignot's well as the usages of the Apostolic Church, for the purpose of Mnue Biiograp ue; Home'sonary of Dr Adam Clake; Peignot's elucidating the text of Scripture. The sources of B. A. are the Mane Bghograthibge; Horne's introdnca on to r e Stedy t B.; and Egbert's Bibliographical Dicionary (translated from the Bible itself; the Apocrypha and Talmud; the writings of Jose- German, 4 vols. 837) See al Dictionary (translated from the phus, Philo, Jewish rabbis, and Christian fathers; of Greek, German, s837 SeealsoEdwardsemoirs Libraies Roman, and Arabic authors, and of travellers who have visited (Lond. 1859). the countries mentioned. A prolific field has recently been dis- Bib'liornancy (Gre bibEion, manteia), a species of divinacovered in the imperishable terra-cotta libraries of the Assyrian tion, which consisted of opening the Bible at hazard, selecting kings at Nineveh. the first passage on which the eye fell, and deriving from its Bibliog'raphy, from the Gr. bib~liographia, meant originally contents, or even its sound, fanciful indications of future events. the transcribing of books, and biliogrph os was a copyistginally B. was very prevalent for many centuries, and was prohibited by the transcribing of books, and biblioffrahhos was a copyist. The term, however, now signifies the history and description of books, including notices of the materials of which they are Biblioma'nia, literally book-madness, a compound from the composed, of the times when they were printed, of the presses Greek, expressive of the passion or irresistible desire for rare and from which they were issued, of their subsequent good or ill curious books, still prevalent,. but which reached its acme during fortune, of the authors whose names they bore, of the classes the s8th c. The bibliomaniac values a book, not for its intrinsic into which they have been or may be arranged, and comprehends, excellence, but for some accident-as its rarity, its being on large indeed, information of every kind respecting them. The history paper, or on vellum (a tall copy, and a large paper copy are not of books in their earliest form, and of the materials composing the same), the press from which it issued, or the name of the them, is contained in the Origin and P-rogress -of the Art of binder. A defect, as the omission of not from the seventh comWriting, by Humphreys; and the origin and progress of the art mandment, in one impression of the English Bible gave a factiof printing are narrated and illustrated in Meerman's Origines tious value to that impression; and the Breeches Bible, so called Typographice, and in Annales Typographici ab Artis Invcente from its rendering of Genesis iii. 7, is a favourite with the Origine, by' Maittaire. Ames's Typotraphical Antiquities bibliomane-so named by Isaac D'Israeli in his Curiosities (1785-90) gives an account of the establishment.of the art in of Literature, in his rendering of a passage of Jean Joseph England, and contains memoirs of our early printers. The Rive:'A bibliomane is an indiscriminate accumulator, who 378. BIC THE GLOBE ENVC YCLOPEDIA. BIC blunders faster than he buys, cock-brained and purse-heavy.' sonal history little is known, except that he was page to Lord In Dibdin's Bibliomanzia, it is more than hinted that biblio- Chesterfield, and was at one time an officer of marines, but maniacs never read books. -Jonathan Oldbuck, in the Azlztiquary, was dismissed the service. His plays, of which L;ove in a is a happy mixture of the bibliomane and the bibliophile- Village (I762), the AMaid of the Mill (I765), and Lionel and the latter of whom reads as well as collects. The Elzevir and Clarissa (I768), are genuine specimens of comic opera, and Foulis editions of the classics were long highly prized, and still several of his comedies and farces, of which he wrote twentyare so, though in a less degree. In the Elzevir Cesar of two, were produced under Garrick's management, and were long I635, the number of the I49th page is misprinted 153; deservedly popular. The name B. is also known as a nom de hence it acquired a factitious value, and imitations are plumeused by Swift and Steele. detected by being unfortunately accurate in their paging at Bick'ersteth, Rev. Edward, an active clergyman and this critical place. Ridiculous prices have sometimes been missionary of the Church of England, was born at Kirkby Lonspaid for rare works. The first dated edition of the Decamneron dale, Westmoreland March, 786. After being a post-office was purchased at the sale of the Duke of Roxburghe's library in cle in London, and a solicitor in Norwich, he took such an i812 by the Marquis of Blandford for,/226o. The Roxburghe clerk in London, and a solicitor in Norwich, he took such an 1812 by the Marquis of Blandford forthereprin. Thofre wRoxburghe interest in religion that: having been admitted to orders (I8I5), Club was hereupon established for the reprint of rare works, and he went to Africa as.a missionary. Returning after successfully was followed by the Bannatyne, Maitland, and Spalding Clubs in Scotland, the Camden, Percy, and other societies in England, organsing missions, there, he became secretary to the Church and the Celtic Society in Ireland. A very charming book on the Missionary Society. He discharged the duties of tired, office subjtis Dr John Hill Burton's Book-unter (Ediub. 1862), in with great energy and success till I830, when lhe retired, on acsubject is Dr John Hill Burton's Book-Hunler (Edinb. i862), in cepting the rectory of Wotton, in Hertfordshire. B., who died which affection, mockery, and criticism are pretty fairly blended. Februry 28, i85, rote several religious books, and took an February 28, I850, wrote several religious books, and took an Bice, a name given to two pigments, a blue and a green, energetic part as an'Evangelical,' against Tractarianism and both of which are, however, prepared from carbonates of copper. the endowment of Maynooth. See Birk's!kenmoir of B. (2 vols. They may either be made from the native carbonates, or be Lond. 1815). His son, R'ev., Edward EIqnry B. (born at artificially prepared; and in the latter case they usually receive Islington, I825), is favourably known as a religious author and the names mnountainz blue and mountain green respectively. editor; and his brother,:Eenry B. (born I8th June 1783, died cep a mucle on the front of the arm. It arie by two 8th April I85I), rose to distinction as a lawyer, and when proheads (hence its name). The long head arises within the capsule moted. to the bench took the title of Lord Langdale. of the shoulder-joint,'from the upper border of the gledoid Bi'cycle, the recent development of the zveocipede, and the ligament,' and passes over the head of the Humerus (q. v.). most- popular of all modern athletic machines.. It is a lightlyThe short head arises from the coracoid process of the scapula built vehicle, of fiom 30 to 60 lbs. weight, chiefly formed of iron or shoulder-blade. These two heads unite to form the B. It and steel, and- consisting mainly of two wheels (hence its name, is inserted into the tuberosity of the Radius (q-. v.). From the from his, twice, and kyk/os, a circle), and of a simple but strong tendon of insertion, a fibrous expansion is given off from its connecting frame. The front or'driving' wheel is usually about inner side, which passes downwards and blends with the fascia twice the size of the other, and has a diameter. averaging from 42 of the fore-arm. The chief action of the B. is to-flex the elbow- to 60 inches. The frame consists (I.) of a'backbone,' connectjoint. It also helps to raise the arm at the shoulder, and to ing the two parts of the B., supported at its lower extremity on turn the palm of the hand upward. the axle of the smaller wheel; (2) an erect bar, upwards of twoBicet're, an old castle to the S. of Paris, just beyond the thirds forked to admit the driving-wheel, Qr the axle of which fortifications, used as a military-hospital until the erection of the it rests; (3) a strong steel spring, placed over the backbone and H-tel des Invalides, afterwards as a lunatic asylum and prison, supporting the'saddle.' The erect bar rises from the axle now as a refuge for the aged poor, with 2750. beds. It was of. the driving-wheel to the upper end of the backbone, through originally built in the reign of Charles V., and destroyed in an aperture in which it passes, having a free cylindrical moI634, but was rebuilt by Louis XIII. tion, and terminates in a cross handle. This handle is the means of controlling the exact direction of the driving-wheel and brated of arench physaniois and anatomists, wae most r e lea - therefore of the machine. Motion is given to the B. by the rider, te(Jura), November U I 77I. He pa ssed the first Thoirst- yearsOfseated in the saddle, pressing with his feet on revolving treadles ette (Jura), November II, I77I. He passed the fikst years of attached by a crank to the axle of the driving-wheel; and when his medical study under the direction of his father, who was attached by a crank to the axle of the driving-wheel; and when also a physician.u After spendiong two years fat Lyon, he re- once set a-going, such is the lightness of the machine, it is capa-. palso a physician. After spdending two tears at Lon,; the re ble of receiving great acceleration of impetus. The pace of an paired to Paris in 793, and attended at the telDieu the ordinary bicyclist is from 9 to I miles an hour, or about 60 miles clinical lectures of Desault, who being soon attracted by the a y or about superior intelligence evinced by B., took him as his assistant in, while that of a trained rider is 14 miles an hour, or about his surgical practice and in. preparing his lectures andiworks. 90 miles aday. D. Stanton, of Brompton, ran Io6 miles in After the death of his patron in I795, B. showed his gratitude 7 1874. by publishing in 1 797 two volumes entitled (Euvres Chirur icales 19, i874. by pblishing in 1797 two volumes entitled Euvrs iuricacs he most striking qualities of the B, as a means of locomode Desault, setting forth the great surgeon's doctrines and methods of treatment. He then devoted himself to lecturing on tion are, perhaps, its'-staying' power and its capacity of susmethodso.He then devoted himself to lecturing on tamed balance. In long distances the B. is found to surpass anatomy, physiology, and surgery; and established with several the horse; a fact the less surpristances then it is taken into account of his friends L~a Societe' Aledicale d'Emulatiorn, through the the horse: a fact the less surprising when it is taken into account dof his friend.s L ea gveit' ttdicale od'Eulation, throuigh o the that the muscles called into play, those of the back and legs, medium of which he gave to the world many highly original are the strongest in the human body. More singular is it that and important memoirs, notably those on the tissues of the te strongest in the human body. More singular it hat human body. He was nominated a physician of the Hotel- the B. should preserve a perfectly steady balance on so narrow a base as the felloe of the wheels (one inch), and its power in this en in r pa y his iur threg respect affords the physicist a fine illustration of the stability due hastened in great part by his. incessant labours. B.'s three great totion. works are the Traite' des A/embranes (Par. I798), in which he to motion. wkate atds(. 7The earliest velocipede on record is a crude machine invented classifies the different kinds of tissues, maintaining that all are by Blanchard, the aarongut, and described in the yournal de merely differentiated forms of the same elementary tissue; the Paris lchard, the aronaut, and described in the Journal di Receces Physioogiqes s Vie et a Mort (Par. I Paris, July 27, 1779. It was followed by that of Joseph Nicephore Niepce, the famous French inventor, in i8i8, and in the work rich in new discoveries and original ideas, in which he de- phore N e the famous French inventor in fines life to be the'sum-total of the functions which resist death;' same year by the notorious'dandy-horse' or'Draisena, a and the Traite'd' a ie g e (vols Par. II), in which machine called a velocipede,' which Baron von Drais of Mannand the raitd to egnle vsPar..o in heim patentedz in Paris and London, and which~is described in he summarises his now generally received principles, applying he canled iPer d o which is esen n them in the same systematic manner to the various' departments certainly embodies the main idea of Dais, but its impresent B. of biology. See:Bilon's Loegeh istoviue nde B. (Par. I2o?). form is due to an unknown Frenchman, whose work is supposed Bick'erstaff, Isaac, a writer of English comedies, which had to have been produced about i86i. In i866-67 the B. began a considerable although evanescent popularity in the I8th c., to be popular. in England,. and the taste for it was confirmed by was born in Ireland, 1735, and died about 1,8Qo Of his pe r- the races at the Crystal Palace, May 26, 1869. Many feats have 379 * BID THE GL OBE EIVC YCLOPDIA. BIE since been done on the B., the most remarkable, perhaps, being It is not difficult, and it is very interesting, to trace the course the journey of M. A. Laumailld from Paris to Vienna, via of the old Sanskrit collection westward. First of all, under the Strasburg, Munich, Linz, &c., October 12-23, I875. In 1574 Persian king Nushirvan, or Chosroes the Great (531-579), it was there were some 50 B.-clubs in Britain, and in the same year translated into Pehlevi by his physician Barsuye, under the title I02 racing matches, amateur and professional, took place. See of F[Cli/a and Dimzna/h (from two jackals that are prominent in Steinmann's Velocipede (I870o), and The B., by A. Howard the first fable). This Persian version is no longer extant. To(Lond. 1874). gether with the rest of the old native literature it was destroyed Bidasso'a, a river of Spain, which rises in the province of y the Arabs after the country became Mohammedan. The Pthe Bay of Biscay near Fuenterabia, forming antschaealztra was next turned into Arabic in the reign of the eavarra, and entersma the W. of the boundary between omingKalif Almansur (754-775) by Abdallah Ibn-Almokaffa, who in the point of termination in the W. of the boundary between Spain and France. It is 55 miles long, and at its mouth lies the his introduction gives the name B. to the author and says that he was the chief of the Indian philosophers. This Arabic verisland where the treaty of the Pyrenees was concluded, Novem- e was the chief of the Indian philosophers. This Arabic verher 7, I659. The B. was the scene of several bloody conflicts sionnot only became the common property of the whole Moslem ber 7, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~world, but. was the vehiicle through which the ]>anzschalanhwa during the Peninsular campaign, the most important of which world, but was the vekicle through which the Pnsctnt was the victory of the Allies over the French, whom they forced found its way into Christendom. The Arabic text was published to retire from the siege of San. Sebastian with, a loss of i6,ooo by Silvestre de Sacy (Par. i816), and has been republished at Cairo (.1836), Delhi (I85o), &c. There is a German translaZ7:1 nugust 3I~~~ r8I3. tion by Wolff (2 vols. Stuttg. I837). Ibn-Almokaffa's version Bicddc'le, John, who may be considered the father of English. has given rise to. many imitative works among Arabian and Unitarianism, was born at Wootton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire, Arabico-Persian. poets, which it is not necessary to specify. 14th January 1615. He was educated at Oxford, and after But itmay behere noted, that with the spread of Mohammedangraduation became master of Gloucester Free School,. and ism a knowledge of the Aiza/i/a and Dilznah was carried to the performed his duties as such with great ability. Having, how- Afghans and Malays.; while Buddhist missionaries from India ever, embraced and given utterance to opinions impugning the at an early but uncertain, date had made the substance of the doctrines of the Trinity, he was expelled from his post, and original Pantschalantra familiar to Tibet, Mongolia, and China. ordered by the Puritan Parliament to be imprisoned for four The Arabic K[ahla and Dimznal reached Europe in three years. Liberated by Cromwell's General Oblivion Act of I654, ways: —. Through the Greek translation of Symeon Seth, he became pastor of an independent congregation; but a fresh Ky/ile and Dimne, executed about io8o (published in an incompublication of heresy once more exposed him to the wrath of a: plete form by Stark, Berl.. 1697; Athens, I85 ), which was again triumphant orthodoxy, and the Protector was driven, to order turned into Latin by Possinus, and into Italian by an unknown him to be banished to one of the Scilly Isles (I655). When. his author (Ferrara, 1583). 2. Through the Hebrew translation of term of punishment expired, he returned to London, to be Rabbi Joel, composed about 1250, which was put into a Latin again, however, apprehended after the restoration of Charles dress between I263 and 1278 by Joannes of Capua, under the II., fined'Iooi and thrown into prison, where he died, of title D)irectoriumn Hzumane Vite; alias, Parabole Antiquorunm fever, September 22, I662. His adherents were first knoxn as Sapientium (first printed in 1480). The Directorium in Bidellians, then as Socinians, and finally as Unitarians. turn became the basis of a German version of the first Biddle, Nicholas, a celebrated American financier, born at half of the I4th c. by Duke Eberhard of Wiirtemberg, which Philadelphia, 8th January I786. From I8L9 to 1823 he was a. appeared- at Ulm in I485S 3, Through the Spanish transdirector, and from 1x823 to 5839 president, of the United States lation, executed in 125I, in. the reign of Alfonso X. This also Bank.'Under hisguidance the affairs of the bank, previously dis. was turned into Latin by Raymond of Beziers, a learned ordered, soon became prosperous; but President Jackson, sus-. physician in the service of Queen Juana of Navarra, wife of pecting that the resources of the bank were employed for political. Philippe le Bel. Partly from the version of Joannes of Capua, purposes, refused to renew its charter; and, ceasing to be a and partly from that of Raymond, come all the later mediaeval national institution, it became insolvent in. I845, very much in- and modern translations; the Spanish (Burgos, I498), Italian consequence of the rash counsels of B., who died, February (Flor. 1548), French (Lyon, I556), English (Lond. I570), Dutch 27, 1844. He wrote the Commercial Digest, a work published (Amst. 5623), Danish (Copenh. i6s), Swedish (Stockh. I743), with the sanction of Congress, edited the P~iiade/le2Zia Portfoio, German (latest, Leips. 5802:; Eisen. I803). See Loiseleur des and was a public speaker and essayist of considerable mark. Longchamps' Essai sur les Fables Indiennes (Par. I838), and above all, Benfey's version of the Panztschatantra (Leips. 5859). Ilid'eford, (' by the ford'), a. seaport of Devonshire, on thea Torridge, near where it enters the estuary of the Taw in the Bristol Bie'briCh, a village in. the German province of Nassau, Channel, 34 miles N. of Plymouth. It has manufactures of sails,, situated on the Rhine, possesses a splendid palace, the residence ropes, leather,. and hardware, and exports naval stores, oak-bark,, of the Dukes of Wiesbaden- Pop.,. with Mosbach (587I), 6642. and iron. B., is accessible to vessels of 500 tons, and the river is Biel, Eel, Bia'lo, are forms of a. Slavonic word signifying here crossed by a bridge of 24 arches. In I-874 there were 5og'white,' and entering into the composition of innumerable names vessels, of 7029 tons, belonging to B..; and in 5873, 729 vessels,, of persons and places in the various Slavonic regions cf Europe, of 38,007 tons, cleared the port. Pop. (587i) 6969,. such, as Eastern Germany,. Poland, Austria, Russia, Servia, &c. Bid'pai,. also Pil'pai, is the name popularly given tothe un-. Several instances have already occurred in this work, and more known author of a collection of fables and stories which, in will immediately follow. We may recall two conspicuous numer3us translations and various forms, have forcenturies been examples-Beli. Tsar (Gr. BelizarioOs),'the white prince,' and familiar both: to the East and the West. Recent researches lead Begrade,.'the white fortress..' to the conclusion that its ultimate source is the ancient Indian Biel (Fr. Bienne), an old town in: the Swiss canton of Bern, work Pan/tsclhatantra (Sanskrit text, Kosegarten, 2 vols. Bonn,. picturesquely situated at the base of the Jura, to the N. of Lake 1848-59; Ger. Benfey, 2 vols. Leips. I859), which professes to B., near the mouth of the Suze or Schiiss, with manufactures of be the composition.of a-certain Vishnugarman, but has apparently printed cottons, watches, leather, cigars, and iron-wire. It was received its present shape in the 2d c. B.c. under Buddhist in- founded in the Ith or I-2th c., early came under the rule of the fluences. The Pantschatantra spread over all. India in recen- Bishops of Basel, but allied itself with- the Swiss confederacy in sions differing more or less from each other, and. in versions of I352, and thereby diminished the power of its ecclesiastical overall kinds passed into the langages of the N. and S. Indian lords. It was united to- France in 5798, but restored on the races. The Fi'ench translation of the work by Dubois (Par. peace of i815. The inhabitants of B. speak German, but there I826) is based on versions in Tamil, Telugu, and Canarese. In is also a French patois. Pop. (1870) 8113. See Bli6sch's India itself the matter of the Pantschalantra was quite freely Gesclhichte der Stadt. B. (Biel, 5855-56).-B. Lake is about lo handled, as is-proved by the manner in which it is epitomised: miles long and 3 broad, is r459 feet above the sea, and has a in the Kcathasaritsdgara- and the Hitopadesa (Sanskrit text, by depth of 300 feet. IPt contains the island of St Pierre, where Lassen and Schlegel, Bonn3 i-829; by Johnson, Hertf. I.847.; Rousseau resided in 1765; receives the surplus waters of Lake Eng. yers. by Wilkins and Jbnes; Ger. by Max Muiller, Leips. Neuchatel by the Thiele, and then discharges its own waters I844). The Hitopadesa in turn became a fertile source of trans- by the same river; flows N.W. and joins the Aar, at the dislations into all Indian tongues. tance from Lake B. of 5 miles. 380 BIB TH-E GL OBE ENVC YCL OPEI)DA. BIG Bie'la's Comet, discovered by Biela, an Austrian officer, Ig villages. William Beukelzoon (q. v.), the inventor of herringFebruary 28, I826, has a period of 6'6I years. It appeared, curing, was born here. Pop. about 5000. according to prediction, in the years I832, I839, I845, and I852. In the years I859 and 866 it was not observed as ex- Bies'-bosch (i.e.,'rush-bed'), a'coast-lake' of morassin HIolpected, but reappeared in 1872 at a time of meteoric display. land, near the mouth of the Maas, havig an area of some 60 sq. miles, containing numberless small islands, and communicating with the German Ocean by the Hollandsdiep and Biel'efeld, the chief town of a district of the same name, Haringsvliet. It was formed (November the, 42 i) by the Maas province of Westphalia, Prussia, on the Lutter, 52 miles S.W. Ilaringsvliet. It was formed (November I8, 1421) by the Macs province of Westpcdlia, Prussia, on the Lutter, 52miles S.W. in flood forcing a direct course towards the sea, on which of Hanover, with which it is connected by rail. It is one of the occasion 72 with persons, sea, chief places in Germany for flax-spinning and linen manufacture, The B. i s now crossed by the railway from Rotterdam to and among its other industrial products are silk, velvet, tobacco, ntwer. glass, asphalt, cement, machinery, cast-iron wares, and leather. The old walls and ditch of B. have been converted into prome- Biffinr See APPLE. nades. On the outskirts of the town is the castle of Sparrenberg, built by the family of Ravensberg in I545, and now used as a Bi'ga, properly Bige, the Latin name for a chariot and 9prison. Pop. (I87I) 2I,83. pair, the two horses being yoked abreast. The chariot was p two-wheeled, open behind, and sloping gradually upwards to the Bielev', a town of Russia, government. of Tula, on the Oka, front, which was closed in. The occupant and the driver both 150 miles S.S.W. of Moscow.- It has 19 churches and 2 stood. monasteries. The chief manufactures are soap, leather, oil, and Big'amy is the crime of going through the marriage ceremony sailcloth. But the most important industry of the inhabitants during the legal subsistence of a marriage previously entered into. is a pedlar-trade with the poor and a suttler-trade with the The crime is equal in degree on the part of a man and of a soldiers. In the remotest parts of the vast empire, Siberia, woman. By 24and 25 Vict., c. x0oo, if any person, being married, Caucasus, Georgia, &c., numbers of the Bielevese are to be found shall feign. to marry another person during the life of the former engaged in lucrative huckstering. Pop. (I867) 8123. The husband or wife, whether the feigned marriage shall have taken Empress Elizabeth, widow of Alexander I., died here May place in England, Ireland, or elsewhere, he or she shall be guilty i826, on her return from Taganrog to St Petersburg.. of felony, and subject to penal servitude. But the penalty shall not be incurred on account of any second marriage conBielitz' (Pol. Bielsk,'white town'), a town in Austrian tracted out of England or Ireland by any one not being a subject Silesia, at the N.W. foot of the Carpathians, on the Biala, of her Majesty; nor by any person marrying a second time whose opposite the Galician town of Biala, with an extensive woollen husband or wife shall have been continually absent for seven and kerseymere trade. It has I8 wool factories, with manufac- years, and not known to- have been living within that time; nor tures of linen, machinery, carriages, &c., and is a great by any person who at the time of such second marriage shall emporium for the salt produce of Galicia. The old castle of have been divorced; or by any person whose former marriage the Princes Sulkowsky, to whom B.. belongs, is situated here. shall have been declared void by, the sentence of a court of comPop. (I869) Io,72I.' petent jurisdiction. Strictly speaking, no one of course can reo marry during the subsistence of a: previous marriage. He or she Biell'a, the capital of province Novara, N. Italy, at the can but go through the form or ceremony of so doing. The junction of the Cervo and Aurena, 39 miles N.E. of Turin by essence of the crime consists in the fraud involved; but even rail, with manufactures of woollens, hats, paper, &c. It is the where there is no fraudulent intention,. and the crime is committed seat of a bishop, and has many churches. Pop. 8362. Near it through legal ignorance, it is nevertheless one which the law is the village of Oropa, with its famous monastery Modenna del severely punishes, and properly so, because the ignorance of the Monte. p offender will not mitigate the injury to the victim. Nice questions,have arisen between the law of England and that of Scotland reBie'lo-Oz'ero (the *white lake,' so called from its white clay basin), belongs to the government of Novgorod,. Russia, and is B., as they have done on many other points relating to marriage. It was decided in England, in the celebrated case of 25 miles long by 20 broad. The Sheksna river conveys its 25 miles ong b 20 boad. he Sheksna riverkconveys its Lolley, that a decree of divorce by a Scotch court in favour of a born waters to the Volga; and the Onega, Sukona, and Dwina are connected withe it by canals-eB. -Oers, on the southern share Englishman domiciled in Scotland wasnot operative in England ore, Lolley and his wife had domiciled themselves in Scotland for the is a small town of 4467 inhabitants (867), and trades in cattle, purpose of obtaining a, divorce, which being got, the former recorn, pitch, and candlesturned to England, where he remarried. He was at once indicted Biel'opol, an active trading town in the government of for B., found guilty, and sentenced to seven years transportation. Kharkov, Russia, io6 miles N.W. of the city of IKharkov. A good deal of difference of opinion existed among eminentEnglish Pop. (a867) IO,500. lawyers as to the soundness of this decision. It was, however, generally held to be sound; which being so,- it is not for us to Biels'hi6hle, a singular cavern, in the Harz Mountains, on question the fact. The decision was given in I8T2. It is very the right bank of the Bode, near Riibeland, Duchy of Brun- doubtful if it would now be sustained, especially having regard swick. It was discovered in 1762, and consists of eleven to the exception in the Act above quoted, whieh provides that the compartments, abounding in curiously formed stalactites. penalty shall not apply to any one who at the time of remarrying shall have been divorced. Not only the bigamist, but every one Bielsk, a town of western Russia, government of Wilna, 23 advising, aiding, or abetting the offender, is held equally guilty miles S. of the town of Bialystok, lies in a very fertile district, with thl offender himself. Accessories before and after the fact watered by the Narev and Nurzek. Pop. (1867) 3985. are also- severely punishable. Bienne. See BIEL. Bigg. SeeBARLEY. Bienial plants which do not floer the first season of Big'horn (Ovis mzolztana), a species of sheep, the only species flownergplant bearh fr, ndt dwer ay sesond indigenous to the New World, inhabiting the Rocky Mountains their growth, but flower, bear fruit,, and die away the second from their termination in latitude 68' to 40i; The males of this season, such as the turnip, carrot,- wallflower, parsley, &c. species possess horns of enormous size, an hence the popular Under exceptional circumstances of early sowing, heat, &c. name of these animals, which collect in flocks numbering fr' plants which are naturally B. will flower and fruit during the e thals first season. In such cases they become annuals,. and die the habitst same season. Brown's Manual, p. 295., Big Horn River, the largest tributary of the Yellowstone, Biervliet', a fortified town on an islet of the same name, be- which again is the greatest affluent of the Missouri, rises near longs to the province of Zeeland, Netherlands, and lies i6 miles Freemont's Peak in the Rocky Mountains, and waters Wyoming N. of Ghent. In I377 the islet of B. was formed by an inunda- and Montana for a course of 400 miles, part of which is navigtion, which separated it from the mainland and which submerged able.. 38.s BIG T-HE GLOBE EC YCLOPPDEIA. BIL Bight, a noun derived from the old English verb bigfan, to Portugaleta, situated at its mouth, and 45 miles W. of San Se-'bow' or'bend,' and still in use among sailors to denote a coil bastian. It is connected by railway with Tudela, in the valley of a rope. It is also applied in geography (though here also of the Ebro. The new town lies picturesquely along terraced the term is doubtless of nautical origin) to denote a bay of the slopes on the right bank of the river, and is connected with the sea, as the B. of Benin, the B. of Biafra, &c., on the W. coast older part (B. la Vies'a) on the left bank by a stone, a chain, and of Africa. B. and bay (originally begs). are essentially the same. an iron bridge. It has fine promenades, good churches, a theword. Another form is the Lowland Sc. bucht. atre, and a. school of navigation. B. is an important commercial Bignonia'ceea, the trumpet-flower order, a natural order of centre, and. is the principal port of N. Spain, the larger vessels Dicotyledonous plants, mostly trees, or climbing or t-wining at Portugaleta, where there are large shipbuilding shrubby plants, with large and showy flowers, and opposite, yards. B. itself has extensive iron foundries, with manufactures simple, or most pinnately-compound leaves. The order has of sailcloth, glass,. paper,. leather, hats, earthenware. Its great about 46 genera and 460 species, most of which, are tropical exportiswool; but italso sends to Central and Northern Europe plants. With the exception of being cultivated for their beau- chestnuts, oil, wine, &c. On the other hand, a large part of tiful flowers, the order is.of little importance. From the leaves Northern Spain is suppliedwith foreign productions, machinery, of Bigfnonia chica the S. American Indians make chica for paint- hardware, cotton and woollen goods, colonial produce, &c., ing their bodies and arrows. In India an oil is obtained from through the port of B. Pop. I8,800. B. was founded in 1300, the wood of B. xyZocar7a. The woods of several species are under the name of Belvao, by a knight of Castile, Don Pedro used in Brazil and Jamaica-e.g., B. leucaxylon, which is some- Lopez de Haro.; rose rapidly,. but suffered severely in the French times sold as ebony. The trumpet creepers (Tecoma) are often wars. It was taken by the French Igth July 1795, and again, astringent, and the roots of 7aicaranda Bakamensir is employed 26th September and Ist November I8o8. During the Carlist as an anthelmintic in Panama. struggles it has often been besieged; the latest instance was a most destructive bombardment in. the spring of I875, when it Big Sandy Creetk, a navigable river of the United States, was relieved (May 2) by the army of the north under Generals rises in the Pallachians, and flows N. for some distance in two Serrano and Concha. branches, forming the boundary between Kentucky and Virginia, and joining the Ohio after a course of I50 miles. RBil'berry. See WHORTLEBERRY. Bihacz', a strongly fortified town in the N.W. angle of Bil'bilis, a Celtiberian city of Spain, the birthplace of the Turkish Croatia, on the Unna, near the Austrian military frontier. poet. Martial, and famous in Roman times for its steel blades, It was often besieged during the'T1urkish wars. Pop. (I869)j tempered in the water of the Salo. Its site is at Bambola, near 4000. the modern town of Calatayud, which is built in great part out Bijanaghur' (' city of triumph.'), a ruihed: city of India, of the ruins of B. province of Madras, on the Jumbudra,. 40 miles N.W. of Bellary. It was for two centuries the capital of a Hindu sove- lnboes (fro reignty, and has remains of granite palaces and temples. In long bars of iron, with shackles sliding on them, into which are 1564 it was plundere$d and destroyed by t~he Mohammedans of inserted the ankles of sailors who have been sentenced to be put the Deccan. Bijawur', a town and- mediatised state in the Bundellihand, BiELcock. See RAIL. Central India. The town is in a mountainous tract, 14o miles Bil'derdijk, Willem,, a once famous Dutch author, born at S.W. of Allahabad. Pop. estimated at 6000ooo. The state has Amsterdam, 7th September I756, studied law and philology at an area of 920 sq,. miles, a pop. of 9,ooo0, and a revenue of Leyden, and cultivated poetry while practising as an advocate at ~/35,000. It is bound to maintain, a force: of Ioo cavalry and the Hague. During the French occupation he was for some time _300 infantry, in Brunswick and England, lecturing in the latter place veheBijnur', a town and' district inrr the Rohilkhand division, mently against the French language.. Louis Bonaparte, King of N.W. Province, British India. The town is on the left bank of Holland, took him into fa-vour in r8o6, and made him a presithe Ganges, 75 miles S.W. of Delhi, with a pop. in I872 of dent of the new Institute at Amsterdam. On the re-union of I2,566. The district has an area of I884 sq. miles, and a pop. Holland to France, B. lost this support, but on the deliverance (I872) Of 737, I52. Its produce consists chiefly of cotton, wheat, of his country (I814) he recovered his position at the Institute. and sugar-cane. He died at H-aarlem, I8th December I83I. B. was remarkable ABikanir', the capital of the Rajput state of the same in poetry for the skill of his imitations and translations of the name, India, 240 miles W.S.W. of Delhi. It has a detached Greek idyllists, of Sophocles, Dante, Corneille, Delille, Chaucer. citadel, the residence of the Maharajah, built in I489, and is a He even tried an. epic, De Ondergang der eeaste Wereld ('The walled town with oooo inhabitants. Te stae was founded Destruction of the First World'). He was a patriotic adherent walled town with 6o,ooo inhabitants. The state was founded by Bika Singh, a son of the Jodphur chief in 1459, and is still of the house of Orange, savagely criticising both German and French literature, and vindicating the rhyming capabilities of his ment, March 9, II, exacting no tribute but securing the own language. Among his most important didactic poems are ment, March 9, i-8i8,i exacting no3 tributee but secuering the M a Iafreedom of transit for the trade with. Central Asia, which now, Buiten;teven(Amst. 1803); De Ziekten der Geleerden (' The Malahowever, goes by the, Multan, route. B. rose to importance dies. of Scholars,' Amst. 1807); and Le Mensch (8o8). He also wrote in prose a treatise on geology, based on De Saussure, a and additionial territory fromthe Emperor. Akbar. At the etigme history of Holland in io vols., and several essays on grammar of the Mutiny, Sirdar Sing,.the present ruler, fought against the and philology. In old age his mind was embittered and half rebels of Hansi and Hissar, and protected European fugitives, upset. Thus the Eclo from tke Roc (1824) is a tirade against for which services he received a grant of 41 villages. The pre- modern improvements. A, collected edition of his poems sent (I875) minister of state is Pundit Munphul, C.S.I.,. the cele- (Dickwerken), in I6 vols., wras published at Haarlem, I857-60. brated Central Asian traveller. B. is a great desert, with but His second wife, Katharine Wilhelmine B., nde Schweickhardt little water, and ihas a climate subject to sudden alternations of (born I 777 died I830), was also a poetess of considerable merit. cold and heat. Nearly half of the inhabitants died from the See Da Costa, Overizit van ket Leven en de Werken van B. effects of a drought in I868-69. The revenue of B. is'6o,ooo. (Amst. 1844), and- B, en da Cosla (Amst. 1862). Area, 17,676 sq. miles; pop. (1874)' about 539,000. See |Bile is a greenish-yellow fluid, somewhat viscid, especially M.alleson's Na-fize States of india. (Loud.. 187.5). that portion of it contained in the gall-bladder. It has a bitter Bikh. See ACONITUM. taste, a peculiar nauseous smell, and an alkaline reaction. It is Bil'and~erj or Bilandte, a kind of merclhant-ship not often heavier than water, its specific gravity being from 1026 to 1030; seen now. It has two masts, and is distinguished by the shape water being Iooo. It is secreted in the cells of the liver, and and arrangement of its mainsail. flows along the hepatic duct till its union with the cystic duct, the duct leading tothe Gall-bladder (q. v.), and then along the Bilba'o (Basque,'Under the hill'), a Spanish seaport, and'common B.-duct;' and is poured into the upper part of the capital of the province of Biscay, on the Nervion, 8 miles above small intestine.. The common B.-duct in man enters the bowel * 382 BIL TfHE GL OBE ENVCYCL OPEDIA. BIL obliquely about three or four inches below the stomach.'Ihis jaw, or mandible proper, consists, in birds, of numerous separate duct is somewhat constricted at its:opening into the Duodenum pieces, which become ossified together in the adult to form a (q. v.), and when this opening is closed by contraction of the single bone. No teeth are developed in the jaws of any bird, muscular coats of the bowel or otherwise, the B. flows along although the horny membranes which invest the jaws may pre. the cystic duct into the gall-bladder, and is there stored up. sent processes analqgous, but not homologous, with dental The B. is constantly being secreted by the liver, but in much structures. The form of the B. varies greatly throughout the greater quantity during meals. Berzelius gives the chemical class of birds, and is adapted to the different habits of the incomposition of the B. as follows in Iooo parts-: — cluded members. Thus, in the birds of prey (Ratfores), the B. Water, 904 4 is arched, and of powerful make.; in theparrots it is curved, and Biliarly fat and colouring matter,. 80o0 adapted for aiding these birds in climbing, and in the cracking of Mucus,. hard fruits, &c.; in the insect-eaters (e.g., goatsuckers, swallows, E &c.) the B. is short, and the gape wide, and provided with bristles Earthy salts Iadapted for the detention of the insect-prey which these birds B3. contains two acids, glyco-cholic.and tauro-cholic. The latter pursue on the wing; in many swimming-birds the B. is broad, contains sulphur. These two acids are in combination with and provided with sensitive lamzina or plates, fitted for straining sodium and pdtassium, and so form a soap, giving to B. its the -food from among the mud in which these birds grope; whilst saponaceous character. Five colouring matters have been de- many other adaptations of the structure.of the beak to the wants tected in B. The most important of these are bilirubin and of its possessors might be cited, and are referred to under the biliverdin. The former is the chief pigment contained in human articles relating to the different birds. The term cere is applied B., and is of a pure red colour. The latter is the chief colouring to the sensitive portion at the base of the.upper mandible, which matter in the B. of herbivorous animals, and is of agreen colour. may be naked or feathered, and in which the nostrils frequently By means of the action of nitric acid on these pigments, we are open. This cere has been supposed to be of -use as an organ of enabled to detect the presence of B. in urine and other sub- touch. The B. is also used by birds to Ireen or dress their stances. The fatty portion of B. is composed to a great extent feathers with the secretion of the uropiygium, or oil-gland, of of Cholestrine (q. v.) united with fatty acids. Iron and copper the tail'; the great mobility of the neck of-birds giving to the B. are both found in B. The quantity of B. secreted has been many of the characters of a hand. variously estimated, but it is generally believed that in man it is fully 3 lbs. daily. Bill, a term applied to an account, and to various kinds of The functions of B. are most important. The elements of'B. formal writings connectedwith state, legal,-and mercantile affairs are secreted from the blood by the liver, and the blood is thus and procedure. See the following articles under this word:purified of certain constituents which -woild render it deleterious. B. of Adventure is a writing given by a merchant, declaring The B., after being poured into the bowel, assists in the process that goods shipped by him belong to some one else, to whom he of digestion. How it does this is still a matter of doubt, but it i undertakes to account for the results-of the adventure. believed to assist in turning the chyme into chyle. It is poured B. of Attainder, and B. of Pains and Penalties, are bills or into the alimentary canal in greater quantity during the process measures proposed to be enacted by the Legislature, criminally of digestion than during fasting. A portion of B. is caried condemnatory of an individual. The Legislature being legally along the alimentary canal, and is excreted with the faeces. This omnipotent, it has frequently in the history of England passed a is specially noticeable in the case of the colouring matter of B. B.of A. against an individual, on evidence which would have The greater portion of B. is re-absorbed into the blood, and been quite inadequate to establish guilt in a court of justice. passes off in the lungs as carbonic acid and water, on account of Instances have even occurred of persons being so attainted the carbon and hydrogen of the B. uniting with oxygen. B. has without their being heard in their-defence. Under the Tudors, the property of arresting the process-of digestion, and on -account -this method of procuring condemnation of-men who had become of this property, when B. by regurgitation or other-wise finds its bi t th monarch, or who were suspected of treason,. r all interer'i'obnoxious to the monarch, or who were suspected of treason, way into the stomach, it materially interferes with digestion,was freqently had reourse to. It rarely was so under the prodcin nasea voitig, nd hatconitin o th sytemwas frequently had recourse to. It rarely was so under the producing nausea, vomiting, and that condition of the system Stuarts; but a noteworthy instance, in their time, was the B. of Wtermed biliousness. ssceeingetraonthnA. in the'reign of Charles I. by whose enactment the Earl of When B. is secreted in greater amount than can be poured Strafford was beheaded in 1641. In 1820 the trial of Queen into the bowel, or when through obstruction of the common Srfodwsbhae ni4.I 80tetilo ue into the bowel, or when throug~h obstruction of the common Caroline before the House of Lords —took place under a B. of P. B.-duct it is prevented from entering into the bowel, it is again and P. Like other bills, those in question canonly become law re-absorbed into the blood, and produces that disease called by the unanimous judgment-of the Crowen, the Lords, and the jaudic (q v., i whch he kinandconuncivaasstim aby the unanimous judgment~of the Crown, the Lords, and the Jaundice (q. v.), in which the skin and conjuncti-va assume a Commons. See ATTAINDER. yellow colour, due to the colouring matter of the B. By the B. i Cacey, or B. of Coain is the written statement B. in Chancery, or/5B. of Comzfiaint, is the written statement solidification of the cholestrine gall-stones are formed, and the of a plaintiff in the Court of Chancery, under which he seeks passage of these along the B.-ducts gives rise to acute pain. See equitable redress. The somewhat analogousterm in Scotch law GALL-STONES. ~~~~~~~GALL-STON ~S. ~is Condesczendence'(q. v.). The B. of C. sets forth the circumstances of the~case. ~It must be signed by counsel. It must not Bilge, that portion of the -bottom of -a ship contiguous to the stances of thecase. It must be signed by counsel. It must not keel and on both sides of it. A ship when aground usually rests contain any matter impertinent. -t must be printed, and duly on the keel and one B. served on the defendant. The B. may be dismissed by demurrer -that is, by the court-finding that, even if the averments be true, Bilge'ways, timbers used for launching a ship. See LAUNCH. -the plaintiff is not,entitled to relief from -the court. Otherwise, an answerdis ordered, -and the case proceeds. Bil'iary Calculus. See CALCULUS, B. of Costs is the attorney or solicitor's account against his client. These bills are submitted to the Masters of the respecBilim'ba. See CARAMBOLA. tive courts, who make such deductions as they think reasonable, -and the remaining charges are certified and called the Master's Bilin', a small town in Bohemia, on the river Biela, Thbout 3 allocation.'In Scotland, the solicitor's B. of C., there called miles from the baths of Teplitz, is chiefly celebrated for its acid ex enses, is taxable by the Auditor of the Court of Session (q. v.). springs, and for the remarkable precipitous mountain, called See C Brezina-Berg, in its vicinity. B. has -a trade in Glauber-salts, OSTS, EXPENSES. In some kinds of transactions in Eng-land-:and in Scotland the law-agent is paid by commission-that magnesia, cloth, coal, beetroot, sugar, and fruit. Pop. 4300. is, by a percentage on the -value of a transaction. This mode of Bil'ious Fever. See TYPHOID FEvER. payment is adopted'in the case of loans and sales. In 1873 in England, the council of the Incorporated Law Society drew up a Bill, the term applied in zoology to the beak of birds. scale of these charges, according to which 2 per cent. is allowed The B. consists of an upper and a lower nmandible, which consist on a loan up to /2ooo, and for each /Iooo thereafter up to essentially of prolongations of the facial bones. The inter- /Fr5,ooo, I per cent., after which ~ per cent. On a sale, the maxillary bones constitute the chief portion of the edge of the charge is 3 per cent. up to,Iooo, between which and /5000 upper jaw, whilst the upper jaw itself in birds is formed by the it is 2 per cent.; between 5000ooo and /50,000 it is I per cent., premzaxilla, or front portion of the nzaxilaryvbone. The lower thereafter - per cent. 383 BIL- THE GLOBE EANCYCLOP~EDIA. BIL B., T-rue. —In criminal law, a B. signifies the indictment of the time and place; and his failure to do so, or to give notice of accused before the grand jury. (See JURY, GRAND.) The jury non-payment by the acceptor, exonerates the drawer and eneither'ignore the B.'-i.e., acquit the prisoner-or find'a T. B.' dorsers. When a B. becomes due, it is said to mature. This -against him. In the latter case, he is tried before a petty jury, is not generally till three days after the date on which it bears to whose verdict determines his guilt or innocence. See JURY, be due. These three days are called'days of grace.' If not TRIAL BY. then paid, the holder may proceed to recover by law. This is B. of Exceltions is a statement of objections as ground of ap- now done by a speedy process, under the Act 18 and I9 Vict., c. 67. peal (see APPEAL) to the ruling of a judge in a civil case. The Act does not extend to Ireland, nor to Scotland, where Counsel can oblige a judge publicly to seal a B. of E., stating the payment of a B. may be enforced by a very summary prothe point on which he is supposed to err. -cess. Against the drawee and acceptor this process must, howB. of Exchange is a mercantile instrument generally written ever, be begun by protest (i.e., notarial evidence of demand on a broad, short piece of paper, by which one person orders or duly made), not later than the last day of grace. Against the requests another to pay a certain sum of money to him, to a acceptor, the protest may be made and recorded any time within third person, or to'the order' of either, at a specified time. six months after the B. has matured. As there are now various The place of payment -is also sometimes specified, mercantile journals which publish the recorded protests of bills The convenience afforded in commerce by the B. of E. is of exchange in Scotland, and the similar procedure in England easily understood. It is valuable especially in two ways, -First,:and Ireland, procedure is almost certainly fatal to the mercantile as facilitating transactions on credit; second, as saving time, credit of the obligant against whom the protest is made. The expense, and risk in transmitting or carrying money. Thus, A holder must, therefore, be very careful not to take this extreme supplies goods to B, for which A wishes to be immediately paid a measure without being sure that he is legally entitled to do so. B, on the other hand, wishes credit for four months.; so that he may The mere fact that A is a holder of a B. on which B is an obhave retailed his goods before paying for them. A then draws a ligant, may not justify A in -recording protest against B. It may B. on B for the value of the goods, to be pa-id'four months really be that on an accounting A is debtor to B, in which case after date.' The B. is negotiable; and A gets the value of it, less the protested B. might be held as paid; or there may be many four months' interest, from his banker or other capitalist; and thus other reasons why the summary procedure would not be held as debtor and creditor are accommodated. Again, AM in London justified; in which case B. might have ground for an action for owes BN in Glasgow 6,'oo, and CP in Glasgow owes AM,Ioo. damages, so leading A into the expense and trouble of a jury AM, instead of paying his debt to BN by sending coin or bank trial. If B thinks himself wronged, his remedy is by writ of notes from London to Glasgow, writes as follows on a piece of summons; in Scotland by note of suspension (see SUSPENSION) duly stamped paper:- in the B. Chamber (q. v.). Suspension is, however, seldom,/ioo. London, ist June 1875. granted without the defender being required to give security for (Stamp). -the amount expressed in the B. Even though the note contain One month after date (' on demand;' or'at sight') an allegation of forgery, security may probably be required. See pay to Mr BN, merchant in Glasgow, or order, one hundred pounds for value received. AM. By writing the words' without recourse' after his signature, the endorser of a B. may free himself of liability to the enMr CP, Merchant, Glasgow. dorsee. He transmits this piece.of paper to BN of Glasgow, who re- Accommodation B. is a B. drawn for a fictitious debt, for ceives the amount from CP; who thus discharges his debt to the purpose of raising money by discounting it. A owes B AM of London. Such a simple transaction as this, which we nothing, but he accepts A's:B. drawn on him at four months give to show the principle of a B. of E., becomes complicated to'for fioo. B discounts this with his banker, and so gets the loan suit the convenience of commerce.; and as it'becomes so, ques- of,/Ioo, less the discount, for four months. B probably returns tions arise of the greatest legal nicety. the fasvour to A; and when the relative obligations fall due, We have supposed BN to receive payment from CP, but'if not convenient to pay them, they are met by drawing fresh unless the B. be payable 6 on demand' or-6 at sight,' it will seldom bills, which, to avoid exciting suspicion, may be discounted with happen that the drawer's'creditor receives dirzect payment fi-om another bank, or through some different channel from the first. the drawer's debtor. In our first illustration of the convenience This fraudulent system, fostered by over-speculative banks, has of bills, we have shown how this happens. A, we have said, sometimes in our great mercantile towns been carried to an exgets the value, less four months' interest, from his banker, or tent that has led to general commercial disaster. There have other capitalist. A is then said to have discounted his B. In been many plans for suppressing the system by law, but it has so doing he endorses it, that is, he writes his name on the back;'been found impossible to do so, without undue interference with by doing which he becomes legally bound for the amount to the lawful transactions. discounter-or endorsee, as he is called-who, when'the B. Promissory Note is a written obligation by one person to pay becomes due, is entitled to require payment either from A, the a certain sum of money on demand, at sight, or at a specified drawer, or from B, the drawee or acceptor. This endorsee may time after the date of the note, to another, or his order, or to again endorse and discount with some one else, who in his turn be- the bearer. It is usually in this form,comes the endorsee, and so on; the holder, when payment becomes I due, having all the endorsees as securities, as well as the drawer London, ist June I875. of the B. He who makes or draws the B. is the drawer; he to On demand I promise to pay AB one hunwhom it is addressed is before acceptance the drawee, after ac- At sight. dred Pounds for value received. ceptance, the acceptor.; the person in whose favour it is drawn months after date. CD. is the payee, and if he endorses, he is then the endorser, and the The note requires to be duly stamped. It has all the privileges person to whom he transfers it is the endorsee. Whoever pos- of the other forms of B. of E., and it is under the same rules and sesses the B. is the holder. laws. See BANK, BANKING, BAN-K-NOTES, FORGERY. A B. is either foreign or inland. It is foreign when the ad- I. 0. U.-These letters are sometimes used for forming dress of drawer or drawee is abroad:; it is inland when both an obligation to pay. They' are legal evidence of debt; but reside in the United Kingdom or Channel Islands. A good B. unless followed by a promise to pay on a particular day, they do must be payable at all events. It must not be payable out of a not constitute a P. N. particular fund. It must be drawn for money only; and not B., Exchequer. See EXCHEQUER BILL. stipulate for the performance of any act. It must be duly stamped. B. of Health is a certificate from the consul, or other proper Omission of date may render it void. To be negotiable, i't officer, given to the master of a ship on sailing fiom a port susmust be payable to' A, or order,' or'to bearer.' pected of infectious disease. A clean B. certifies that at time of Acceptance is an engagement to pay the B. It is done by sailing no such disease was known to be there. A suspected B. the drawee writing'accepted' on it, and then signing. It may indicates that there were credible rumours that such disease be inferred in England from collateral circumstances, but not had appeared. Afoul B. implies that it actually had appeared. so in Scotland. See ACCEPTANCE. It may also be conditional B. of indemnit)y. See (under ACT) Act of Indemnity. or partial; for instance, to pay / oo instead of f15o. The B. of Lading.-This is a very important mercantile document. holder of a B. of E. must present it for payment at the proper It is an acknowledgment by the master of the shipment of goods, 384 --------------------— ~9 BIL THE GLOBE ENCYCLO~EDIA. BIL which it enumerates, on board his ship; and is a written evidence berry trees.' Though possessing a resinous aroma and sour taste, of the agreement for their carriage and delivery, according to the and containing many hard seeds, the fruit of B. mutabilis is eaten. order or consignment of the shipper. It differs from a Charter- B. longiftora is cultivated as a greenhouse plant in Britain for party (q. v.) inasmuch as the charter-party only states the terms the sake of its profusion of flowers and blue berries. The genus and conditions of the freightage or carriage; while the B. of L. is named after Labillardiere, a French botanist attached to usually states the quantity, condition, and marks of the mer- D'Entrecasteaux's expedition. chandise, the names of the shipper, consignee, and master, and the place of departure and destination. the place of departure and destination. ~ Billaud-Varenne', Jean Ngicolas, I'the execrable citizen,' A B. of L. is transferable by endorsement of the shipper; and born at Rochelle, 23d April 1756. B. studied in the Oratory, aond was forchoellear 23 prefec of. studyied iuithe Oratory, his endorsement and delivery of the B. for value conveys the and was for some yeas Prefect of study at Juilly Cllee. absolute right to the goods shipped to the endorsee, Endorse- Coming to Paris in 1785, he became an advocate, and in 1789 ment is either aeneral or special. The former does not name the published an anonymous essay ois the despotism of French published an anonymous essay on the despotism of French consignee, but gives a general direction to the master to deliver ministers (Despotisme des Ministres de France). Vice-president the goods to the holder of the B. of L., on their reaching the of the Jacobin Club, he called for'primary' assemblies of the place of consignment. Special endorsation names the consignee. people in every district; urged the destruction of the kiing, as a I8 and 19 Vict.,c. III, enlarges the rights and liabilities of the en- ember of the Committee of Pblic Safety and of the Convendorser or consignee of a B. of L. See STOPPAGE IN TR^NSrTU.! dorser or consignee of a B. of L. See STOPPAGE: IN TRA1N5ITU. tion; assisted Danton at the September massacres; took the king's Bills of Mortality are abstracts from parish registers showing letter to General Dumouriez, and drew up the indictment of the the deaths periodically. They generally include, also, periodical king. In 1793 ie denounced both the executive council and the lists of the births and marriages. It was on the data afforded by Girondists, and turned against Robespierre, whom he succeeded these that Sir W. Petter, Dr Halley, Pascal, Dewit, and others as president. Accused in his tur as a Terrorist by Lecointre and as president. Accused in his turn as a Terrorist by Lecointre and founded their calculations respecting the laws of mortality (see Legendre in 1794, he was ultimately banished to Cayenne with MORTALITY, LAW OF, and LIFE, MiEAN DURATION OF); but Barere, Vadier, D'Herbois, &c. The last-years of his life were the data were inadequate, both, probably, from being inaccurate, spent in Hayti. He died at Port-au-Prince, 3d June 8ig. spent book byfB. areLe deied- aCor-up (rince179, LdJue 9 and from not being sufficiently extensive. The London B Other books by B. are Le Dernier Coup (Lfnd. 1789), Lg M. were first used in I562, and from 1603 they have been keptPeinre Pliie (1789), Aehalocatie (179), or federal governregularly. They are of little value, from the superior data now ment. He excelled in savage attack. afforded for practical purposes by the returns of our Registrars- Billber'gia (B. tinctorina), a beautifully-flowered genus of General. See REGISTRATION OF BIRTlS, DEATHS, AND MAR- Bromieliacea {q. v.), from the roots of which a colouring material RIAGES. is got in Brazil. B. in Parliament. See PARLIAMENT. B. of Rights. See RIGHTS OF THE PEOPLE. Bill'et;, in architecture, is a Norman ornament formed by B. of Sa/e.-This is a contract under hand and seal, by which notching out a moulding, generally a round one, so that it rea man transfers the interest he has in goods to another. The sembles a row of separate billets of wood. In heraldry, B. is a deed is binding against him who executes it, whether granted for small oblong figure, which may be of any tincture. Whether it adequate value or not; but it may be fraudulent and void against represents a brick or a love-letter has been a matter of heraldic creditors. It may be an Act of Bankruptcy (q. v.). But a B. dispute. of S. for adequate consideration, granted with the knowledge Bill'eting, a term applied to the feeding and odging of and consent of creditors, is valid against them, though unaccom- soldiers when not in camp or barack. In towns unprovided soldiers when not in camip or barrack. In towns unprovided pantied by possession. The most important use of a B. of S. is with barracks this burden is sorely felt, and has always given rise in the transfer of property in ships, which, being held in shares, to dissatisfaction and complaint. Prior to 1689 there was no ascannot generally be delivered over on each change of ownership. certained system for the lodging and maintenance of soldiers in The Act 17 and ]8 Vict., c. 36, is framed with the view of preThe Act 17 and Vict., c. 36, is famed with the view of pre- such towns, and there was room for the exercise of caprice and venting firauds on creditors by secret B. of S. of personal chattels. opresson, an unsatisfactoy state of matters, which the Mutiny In Scotland a valid title to personal chattels can hardly be given Act of that year attempted to remedy. It intrusted the B. of so as to defeat creditors without giving possession to the buyer. Ato htya tepe ormd.I nrse h.o so as to defeat creditors without iving possession to the buyer soldiers on the inhabitants to the discretion of the chief magisSee DELIVERY. Certainly the landlord's Hypothec (q. v.) can- trate, whose local knowledge enabled him to distribute the not otherwise he superseded. burden with approximate fairness. No change was made by B. of Sight is a writing taken at the custom-house descriptive Parliament till 1745, when the burden of B. soldiers was restricted of a package consigned to a merchant, on his making oath that of a pacage consigned to a merchant, on his making oath that to certain traders, a relief not extended to Scotland till I857. In he is ignorant of its contents. In virtue of the B. of S. the 1858 a committee of the House of Commons reported on the hardpackage will be lauded and examined in presence of the im- ships and inequalities of the system; but practically the provisions porter and officers of the customs. A perfect entry nmust then porterd and officers of the customs. A perfect entry must then of the Act of I745 are still in force, with only slight modifications. be made, and duties paid according to contents. tm stoAll keepers of inns, livery-stables, alehouses, victuallingB. ofStoe is a licence granted by the custom-house to mer- houses, retail wine-sellers, and dram-sellers are obliged to rechants to carry provisions and stores required -for a. voyage free chants to carry provisions and stores required for a voyage free ceive the soldiers billeted on them; but they can claim relief, by of duty. By. ofculigAlitoitasadstrsrqie nacomplaint to a justice, on proving that, in comparison with their B. of Victua//ingo. —A list of victuals and stores required on a hon leaving a neighbours, the number so billeted is unduly large, By 5 Will. Blong voyage ns made up byt the master ofm au ship ties. On IV., c. 6, persons holding canteens, distillers, shopkeepers whose British port, and submitted to the custom-house authorities. On.' their approval, stores are shipped accordingly. A list is then principal dealing is not in spirits, keepers of taverns only, being made out of all stores on board, which, bing signed by thei free of the Vintners' Company in London, are exempt from rethnfree of the Vintners' Company in London, are exempt fr'om remade out of all stores on board, which, being signed by th ceiving the military; and in and near London there are special customs, constitutes the B. of V. customs, constitntes the B. of V. regulations affecting the B. of the, Guards. The person on whom B.-27roher; one whose business it is to buy inland and foreign bills on speculati one whose business it is to buy inland and foreign soldiers are quatered must furnish each with one hot meal per ills on speculation. This busiess is to be distinguished from day, consisting of meat, bread, and vegetables, with two pints of that of one who discounts bills. See BILL OF EXCHANGE. small beer, vinegar, and salt, for which tenpence is allowed; and B7.-Chambe~r is a department of the Court of Session (q. v.) in salbe, 2,Pec salwd n B.-Cmber is a department of the Court of Session (q v.) in innkeepers must provide the military, when stationary, with fire, Scotland. analogous to that of Judges' Chambers (q. v.) in Eng-... Scotland, analogous to that of Judges' Chambers (q. v.) in Eng- candles, vinegar, salt, and cooking utensils, for a halfpenny a day. land. The business of the B.-C. consists in the disposal of all The regulation allowance for hay and straw for a horse is tenmatters in whose initial stage judicial authority is required; such Tese disbursements are made by the regimental payasan application for interdict. The court of the B,-C. is held pence. Thee isb ee r m byt rimnt master. The term B. is derived from Fr. billet, a diminutive of by one of the Lords Ordinary, called the'Lord Ordinary on the Low Lat. bi, Class. at. a, a small piece of paper or bills.' During the session the duty is taken by the junior Lord teLwLt i4,Cas a.bla ml ic fppro bills.' During the session the duty is taken by the junior Lord ticket, prepared according to the rules of the Act, one of which Ordinary. Duing vacation it is taken by the six judges of is delivered to each soldier, and is his warrant for claiming food the court who are not criminal judges. and lodging and lodging. Billardie'ra. a genus of climbing Australian plants of the Bill'iards (Fr. billard, from bille, a ball, hence billarcde;r, to natural order Pit/osporace (q. v.), colonially known as'apple- strike a ball twice; Ital. bigliardo or trucco), a beautiftil and 49 385 BIL THE GLOBE ENC YCIOPEDIA. BIL scientific game, played with ivory balls on a specially constructed sisting entirely of winning hazard. It thus closely resembles the table, and supposed to be of either Italian or French invention. old game of B. before the introduction of the red ball, and can be From France, at all events, it found its way to England, where played by as many as fourteen persons (formerly limited to twelve), it was known in the I6th c., as appears from a passage in Shake- each contributing his stake to the'pool.' The players receive speare's A ntoony and Cleopatra, act ii. sc. v., in which B. is repre- each a ball, and start with three chances, or'lives,' and every sented as a pastime of the amorous queen of Egypt (!). Little is time a ball is holed, the owner of the ball pays a sum previously known of the progress of B. in England, but it is only in com- agreed upon to the player, and loses a'life;' when this happens paratively recent years, and after great improvements in the three times he retires from the game. The person who first game itself, that it has come to be so universally popular. loses all his lives can'star,'-i.e., purchase the smallest number of lives still existing, by renewing his stake to the pool; if he does not, the privilege extends in rotation to the other players, excepting always the last two. He who keeps his ball longest on the table wins the pool. The game is to hole the ball of the previous player, and, when successful, to play at the nearest....0 9; I > ball. The balls are easily distinguished by being of various colours. The'pyramid' game, which is also popular, is played ~ ~ iUII~~iI~with fifteen red balls and one white, the red balls being placed together, in the form of a triangle or pyramid, at spot, and the game being to hole them, subject to the special rules. Captain Crawley has called B. an excellent form of'indoor athletics,' but it is something more. The principal qualifications,v/ssEr of the expert player at B. are the power of dynamical calculation, presence of mind, a steady hand, and a sure eye. He has to estimate the'strength' of his stroke, and the elasticity of the Billiards. cushions, to follow instinctively the angles of incidence and reflection, to allow exactly for the disturbing influence of the The modern billiard-table is rectangular in shape, stands 3 feet'side' imparted by striking his ball in a particular spot, and to high, is generally about 12 feet long, by 6 feet I~ inches wide, be able to leave the three balls near any given position after a and usually costs from ~8o to ~150, though a very good table variety of impacts and rebounds. Amongst the best players in may be had for less even than the lower of these sums. The England of late years may be mentioned the late Earl of Eglinton, first-class table is made of mahogany, and has an entire weight of Colonel Munday, Mr Roberts (senior),'young' Roberts, Mr from 20 to 25 cwt. It has a perfectly level surface, formed of the William Cook, and Mr Bennett. Mr Cook was champion for finest slate of Bangor or Penrhyn, and covered with green cloth; many years, and astonished his admirers by a score of'752 up' in and is surrounded by a ledge, the inner sides of which, called a match with Bennett at St James's Hall in 1871. Mr Roberts,'cushions,' are padded with'native' or vulcanised india-rubber to junior, has at various times performed such wonders with his make the balls rebound. With good cushions, a ball struck mode- red winning-hazard at the lower end of the table, that his name rately hard will traverse the table three or four times; on'fast' is identified with the particular stroke. The best billiard-tables tables, as many as eight passages may be made. Round the table, are made by the celebrated firm of Messrs Burroughes & Watts, at each corner and at the centre point of each of its longer sides, London, and by Messrs Morison & Co. of Edinburgh. See are placed the six holes or pockets, with nets to catch the balls. Mbley, Unterricht im BilZardsiied (Leips. I84I); Coriolis, Teo rie About 2 feet 5 inches from one end, a line is drawn across the AMat/esaatiqzz e des E~fts de ielz dL Billard (Par. I835), and the table, the space within which is known as'baulk,' and from the well-known works of Captain Crawley (Lond. I866) and Joseph centre of this line is described a semicircle, I8 inches in diameter, Bennett (I873). from within which the play begins. At the other end of the table, T5 inches from the cushion, a spot indicates where the red Bill'ing, a noble family of Old Saxony, and from 96I to ball is to be placed at the beginning of the game. The cue is a Io06 the ruling dynasty in the Duchy of Saxony, which under it straight rod of lance, ash, box, or Brazil wood, about 5 feet long, attained great territorial strength and independence. The first tapering towards the extremity, which is tipped with leather, and Duke was Hermann B., originally perhaps a simple gentleman, which requires to be chalked occasionally in playing. The but raised by the Emperor, Otho I., through a succession- of regular billiard-ball is made of the finest African ivory, is perfectly dignities to the governorship of Saxony. B. was celebrated in spherical, and is 2-r inches in diameter. One of the balls is his time for his valour, boldness, sense of justice, and loyalty. red, having been dyed with vermilion; the other two are white, He died at Quedlingburg, 27th March 973. His successors in distinguished from each other by one having a small black spot. regular order were Bernhard I., died 9th February IoII; BernAmong the other accessories of the game, not calling for special hard II., died 29th June Io59; Ordulf, died 28th March Io07I; description, are the long cues, butts, rests, maces, and the marking- and Magnus, died 23d August I Io6, with whom the male line board, in its improved form a miracle of ingenuity. became extinct, when the Duchy reverted to the emperors. The In playing, the cue is held in the right hand, and is steadied, first traditions of the Billings are mythical rather than histoat abouta foot fl-om the tip, on a' bridge' formed by the thumb rical, but it is not improbable that the name was originally that of and forefinger of the left hand, which rests on the table. In the an old Teutonic clan or tribe, some of whose members may have ordinary billiard game the objects of the player are twofold: been among the Low German adventurers who conquered Britain first, to' cannon'-i.e., to touch both of the other balls with his and made it EIgland. The conjecture, if accepted, would historiown at one stroke; second, to make a'hazard,' by either holing cally explain sudch names as Billingsgate, Billingshurst, Billington, his adversary's ball or the red one, or by pocketing his own, off Billingley, &c. —viz., the homes or settlements of the Billings. either of the other balls. The former is called a'winning, and Bill'ingsgate, the old port of London, was opened in I588 the latter a'losing' hazard; but these terms, derived from the old as a landing-place for provisions, made a free market in I699, game at B., no longer apply in their strict sense, as is seen from and is now a wharf and wholesale fish-market. Salmon and eels the fact that the wsinning hazard now is the less advantageous. are sold here by weight, other fish by tale, oysters and small shellThe'points' of the game are, 2 for a cannon, 2 for a white fish by measure. The market opens daily at 5 A. M., and mackerel hazard, 3 for a red hazard, I'away' (or to the adversary) for a are allowed to be sold on Sunday. The market was extended and miss, and 3'away' for a'coo' (coZp)-i.e, going into a pocket improved in 1849, and a new one was erected in I852. From or off the table without striking another ball. A game was for- the unsophisticated language of the dealers in this market, B. merly limited to 21, but now oftener extends to 50, 63, 84, I00, has come to be synonymous with ribaldry or foul language. or Iooo. Two, three, or four persons may play at the billiard game; two or four being the usual number. The common game Bill'ington, Elizabeth (nee Weichsel), born in London, in France, and indeed all over the Continent, consists altogether 1769, was one of the most beautiful women and clarming singers of cannons, and is played on a table without pockets, of her day. Her voice was a soprano, of wonderful compass There are many other games played on the billiard-table, of and quality. After singing with extraordinary success in the which the chief is the somewhat mercenary'pool,' a game con- chief cities of Italy, Milan, Venice, Leglcrn, Genoa, Padua, 386 4 g' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 BIL TH-E GLOBE ENCYC~OPEDIA4. BIN Florence, and Naples, she returned to London, where she was Salts are compounds of metals and salt radicals,so popular, that in I80o she received from Covent Garden and Na(CL) Chloride of sodium (common salt). Drury Lane theatres the (for that time) extraordinary salary of Na,(S04) Sulphate of soda. /4000 for six months,-to sing at the two houses alternately. Na3(PO4) Normal phosphate of soda. One regrets to add that her private life was a succession of The chief objection to this theory is that many of the sall radicals scandals. B. withdrew from the stage in 1809, and died at her cannot he isolated. It should he rememhered, however, that villa near Venice, 25th August i8S8. chemists are unanimous in believing in the existence of many Bill'iton, one of the Dutch islands in the E. Indies, to the S.W. radicals which are only known in a state of combination. of Borneo, from which it is separated by Carameta or B. Passage. (Arab. the'thousand and one churches'), a It exports iron and timber. Area, II 50 sq. miles; pop. I5,000. ruined city of great antiquity in the vilayet of Konia, Asia Minor, Bill'om, an old town in the department of Puy-de-Dome, 40 miles S.E. of Konia (Iconium), supposed to be Lystra, conFrance, 65 miles W. of Lyon, with some manufactures of earthen- tains the remains of about 40 Byzantine churches, from which it ware, thread, cloth, serge, and embroidered work. It was takes its hyperbolical name. Some ruins a few miles to the E. formerly a place of importance, and had a university, founded are supposed to mark the site of Derbe. in I455, but abolished on the suppression of the Jesuits in I764. Its church of Saint Cerneuf, and the ruins of some old castles, tche, a walled town of Belgium, in the province of Hainare noticeable. Pop. (I872) 353I.,ault, on the IHaine, 91 miles S.E. of Mons, carries on considerable trade in lace, paper, coal, &c.; and has manufactures of Bill'on, a French word, traceable as far back as the I3th c., leather, cutlery, glass, &c. Pop. about 5500. but of uncertain derivation, used in coinage to denote an alloy of silver and copper, in which the latter predominates. Examples of B. are the Prussian 2, groschen, the N. German silver or trict of Muttra, N.W. Province, on the Jumna, 92 miles S. of new goscen, the S. German 6 or 3 kezer pieces, and, speaing Delhi, and 40 N.W. of Agra, with an immense number of red generally, most small silver coins. In France the word is more stone temples, chiefly dedicated to Krishna. It is much visited frequently applied to small copper coins, by pilgrims, and has ghafts or flights of steps extending for about a mile along the bank of the river. Pop. (I872) 21,500, nearly Bilma, a town in E. Sahara, Africa, the capital of the Tibbu all Hindus. country, on the caravan route between Fezzan and Bornu, with Bindweed. See CoNvoLvdLUS. considerable salt trade. It lies 900 feet above the level of the sea, and has a pop. of about 6000. Bindwrong. See BENTWRONG. Bil'sa, or Bhil'sa, a strongly fortified town in Bhopal, a Bing'en (the Binzgieum of Tacitus, and probably the ViSznczm feudatory state, Central India, situated on the Betwa, I88 miles of the Antonine Itinerary), a town in the Grand-Duchy of HesseS. of Gwalior. Since I230 B. has changed hands between the Darmstadt, at the confluence of the Nahe with the Rhine. Pop. Hindus and Moslems several times, and finally became a part (I87I) 5936, mostly Roman Catholics. The district is noted of the Mogul empire under Akbar in I570. Pop. about 30,000. for the culture of the vine, and the exquisite Rudesheimer is The town is remarkable for its Buddhist monuments, the B. topes. produced in the neighbourhood. There are manufactures of In its vicinity is produced the finest tobacco in all India. tobacco, glue, starch, and leather, besides a brisk retail and river trade. The Bine/-loch, formerly a dangerous rapid in the Rhine, Bil'ston, a town in S. Staffordshire, included in the parlia- lay below the town; but blasting operations caied on by the mentary borough of Wolverhampton, from which it lies 3 miles Prussian Government in 1834 have entirely removed the danger to the S.E. It is a great centre of the hardware and lacquer t th igation of the river. A towe the Musetrm, in trade, and has extensive iron foundries and smelting-works. the middle of the Rhine, erected, probably about the year Iooo, There are numerous iron and coal mines in the vicinity. Pop. by Willigis, Archbishop of Mainz, as a defence for the district, (I87I) 24,I88. is celebrated in legend as the scene of the destruction by rats of Bi'ma, a seaport situated in a deep bay on the N. coast of the hard-hearted Bishop Hatto in 969, the subject of one of Sumbawa, one of the Sunda islands, E. of Java. It is the capi- Southey's best-known ballads. Restored in I856, the tower tal of a state of the same name, exports horses, timber, rice, now serves as a beacon, warning ships, by means of a flag, if wax, and pistachio nuts, and has a pop. of about 5000. the Bingerloch is clear. Opposite to B. lies Bingerbriick, a place Bi'mah, or Bhimah, a tributary of the Kistnah, rises in the which has been created by the Rhein-Nahe and the Rhenish Western Ghalts, in the district of Poona, province of Bombay, at Railway, and which is connected with B. both by a stone and an iron bridge. East of the town is the Rochusberg, with its an elevation of more than 3000 feet above the sea-level, and church of St Roch (Fr. ace), built in I66, and restored in after a S.E. course of fully 300 miles, exclusive of windings, joins 18 4. the Kistnah, in the southern part of the Nizam's dominions.:BEi'mana, Cuvier's name for the highest order of Mammalia, Bing'ley, a town in the W. Riding of Yorkshire, 32 miles ne ythe human species only. This term was plid WV. S.W. of York, on a rising ground between the river Aire on in corepresentradistinction to the name uadrma which Cuvplied the W., and the Leeds and LiverpoolCanal on the E. It has in contradistinction to the name Qdrman, which Cuvier manufactures of yarn and paper, and a trade in malt, and is a gave to the order including the monkeys, apes, and lemurs. station on the Midland Railway. POP (is 8 The B. thus possessed but two'hands,' whilst the feet of the monkeys, being also capable of being used as hands, entitled Binn'acle, formerly bittacle, a corruption of the Fr. habitacle, these latter forms to be termed Qsuadruzanous, or'four-handed.' an abode, is the name given on board ship to the case or box This arrangement is not strictly correct, as the feet of apes containing the compass, and is so situated as to be easy of refemore nearly resemble the feet than the hands of man; and the rence to the steersman. more approved arrangement is to classify man and the Quadra- mana in one order-the Primnates-and to subdivide this order Binn'ey, Rev. Thomas, D.D., a popular Independent into distinct subdivisions. preacher and theologian, was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1798. He first officiated as a minister in Newport, Isle of Wight, Bin'ary Theory. The B. T. was introduced into chemical and removed in I829 to London to the pastorate of the'King's science by Dulong, to account for the constitution and pro- Weigh-house Chapel,' in Eastcheap. There he laboured with perties of salts and acids. It regards both these classes of sub- great success (his pulpit eloquence drawing to his church crowds, stances from a common standpoint, viewing them as compounds especially of intelligent young men), and with only one interval of two distinct groups or radicals (whence the name of the of two years, spent in Australia, till he retired, January 1871. B. theory). Acids are compounds of hydrogen and an element, or wrote several religious works, of which Zowe to Make the Best oa group of elements, called a salt radical; thus- Both Worlds is the most notable, and he was an ardent, although H(CL) Hydrochloric acid. not illiberal, controversialist on the side of Nonconformity. He HT(S04) Sulphuric acid. was the first to introduce chanting into the service of IndepenHa(P04) Phosphoric acid. dent congregations. B. also received from the United States 387 4~ + BIN THE GLOBE EAC YCLOL/EDIA. BIO the degree of D.D., and from the University of Aberdeen that criticism and didactics, are extremely useful. Moreri's Le Grand of LL.D. He died February 26, I874. Dict. List. ei Crit. (1673) may be said to be the first of this class. In modern times the French Biographie Universelle and the GerBino'mial (Lat. bis, twice; oniomen a name), in mathematics, man Conversations-Lexikon are the most important. Another is an algebraical expression consisting of two terms united by class of books, which glance at eminent lives merely to point a the sign either of addition or subtraction, such as (a + b). The moral, can hardly be called B. Such is Fuller's Holy and ProB. theorem, discovered and fully stated by Newton, gives the Jane Stale. Although the word B. is said not to be older than law of expansion of (a +b) n, where n may be any number, in- the 17th c., the thing was well known in the ancient world. tegral or fractional, positive or negative. The narratives in the Old Testament concerning the patriarchs Binon'do, a town in Luzon, one of the Philippine Islands on and kings do not take a distinct biographical shape, and those the river Pasig, connected by Manila with a stone bridge, 41I of the synoptical Gospels bear little signs of conscious literary feet long. Pop. about 29,000. effort. But Plutarch's Lives of illustrious Men (which separately describe, and then compare, a Greek and a Roman warrior or Bintang', an island in the E. Indies, at the extremity of the statesman), is a biographical work of high merit. Tacitus' Malay Archipelago, 40 miles S.E. of Singapore. It belongs to Sketch of Agricola is an excellent study of character, and Philothe Dutch, and exports much gum, rice, and pepper.. Area, stratus' LZfe of Apollonius of Tyana (the false Christ of the 2d 468 sq. miles; pop. about 1o,coo. c.) is very ingenious, though for the most part incredible. AlBiobi'o, the largest river in Chili, rises in the Andes, and though of late a vast number of biographies has issued from the flls into the Pacific at Concepcon. It is io miles long, and press, good lives of many most eminent men are sadly wanted. falls into the Pacific at Concepcion. It is i8o miles long, and 2 broad at its mouth, and is navigable for small craft almost to Biol'ogy (Gr. bios, life; logos, a discourse). This name has its source. been applied to indicate that department of science which, in Biog'raphy is a species of prose narrative, of which the sub- the fullest sense, deals with the structure, functions, and distribuject is the life of an individual man or woman. The ideal B. tion of living beings. It thus comprehends the two sciences of would, therefore, exhibit the gradual development of character, Zoology (animals) and Botany (plants). General B. exhibits a the influence of such external conditions as education, social division into (a) Morphology (or the science of form), (b) Pzysi. position, &c., which modify the inherited tendencies, and the ology (the science of function); and (c) Distribution (the science by extent to which the character has vanquished or has succumbed to means of which the habitat, in time present or past, of any living these conditions. For these purposes a description of contem- being is ascertained). To these three divisions some add a fourth, porary social life and history would be requisite. We most the science of Etiology, through which the derivation of any living know among whom the hero lived, what they thought and felt, being may be investigated, in view of recent theories respecting before we can fix his position as a guide or protector, or even the evolution or descent of living beings, through the modificacorrectly ascertain the strength of his genius by measuring the cation of pre-existing forms. The following table indicates the resistance he overcame, or the forces which helped him. method of B., or the mode in which the perfect study of any Whether the life be successfuil or not, whether the character living being-animal or plant-must be carried outturn out beautiful or disgusting, B. is eminently the field fora. Anatomy. didactic'conclusion, illustrated in the most powerful and pictur- i. Morphology, b. Development. esque manner. In the hands of many writers, B. becomes more c Taxony o Classifia romance of reality or a series of striking pictures. This is, of B. (Scienceoflivingbeings) rPhysiology, a. Function of nutrition.y B. (Sci~ ~ ~~ ~Phsolg~scene oflivlng-i: beitings o. Physiology course, a legitimate form of art, but it is often accepted in lieu of a includes- iece of.fuc- b. reproduction. tion. C. inn~~eprvaution. scientific estimate of the influence of individual upon general life, ion. inervan -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a In space(geographical). which writers of the romantic class are apt to exaggerate. It is 3. Distribution. In tispace(geolographical. also in this last species of B, that the greatest faults are commit- 4 Etiology. Questions of descent. ted, the minutest contemporary circumstances being considered Bi'oplasn, a term originated by Dr Lionel Beale, which worthy of insertion and discussion, however remote and indirect has been used synonymously with Protoplasm (q. v.) to indicate their connection with the subject. Pure B. is also found in the the albuminous substance of which the bodies of all living autobiography, where the author happens to be a man of modesty beings are principally composed, and which exists in its simplest and common-sense. Goethe and Mill, for instance, although of and most primary form in the Protozoa or lowest animals, and utterly dissimilar genius, both succeed in throwing a truthful Protophyta or lowest plants, The name Sarcode is also used to light upon the inner life, but there are so many opportunities for indicate this substance. See also ALBUMEN, colouring the past with the regrets or the new aspirations of the present, that autobiography is not chiefly valuable as history, Bi'on, a Greek idyllic poet, who flourished in the 3d c. before which is rather to be found in the diaries and memoirs which re- Christ, was a native of Smyrna, and a contemporary of Theocord genuine impressions and reflections made on the spot. Quite critus. From the elegy written on his death by his friend and apart from B. proper stand the historical collections which, pro- brother bard Moschus, we learn that he spent the last part of his fessing to give the lives of individual men, use these chiefly as the life in Sicily, and perished by poison. The most important of links in a consecutive history of a period. Such were Tillemont's his extant writings is a Lament for Adonis (edited by Ahrens, Mztmoires pour servir a l'Histoire Ecclesiastique de 6 premikres Leips. 1854). His other pieces are merely fragments, but are Sikcles de l'Eglise. Much of the E.ncyclopcdia Metropolitana was distinguished by delicacy of expression, purity of feeling, and a written on the principle laid down by Coleridge in the introduc- simple and natural delineation of pastoral life. They have often tion, that the subject of history being the'nature of man' (not been printed and translated with the poems of Theocritus. the nature of society), it might be best represented in B. chrono- Separate editions of B. in modern times have been publishetd by logically arranged. In particular departments of history-e.g., Jacobs (Gotha, 1795), Wakefield (Loud. 1795), and, along with international relations or great constitutional controversies-the Moschus, by Hermann (Leips. 1848). Good translations into B. of a statesman or a warrior, a Barneveldt or a Frederick the German have been executed by Voss (18o8) and M/rike (I869). Great, may be very complete; but it is now generally recognised Biorneborg, a seaport of Finland, on the Gulf of Bothnia, that history, as the basis of social science, deals with larger 76 miles N.N.W. of Abo, with an export trade in timber and quetios ad geatr frce thn B decries.A mre sefil76 miles N.N.W. of Abo, with an export trade in timber and questions and greater forces than B. describes. A more useful form of B. is where, as in Vasari's Lives of Painters, Sculptors, and pitch. Pop. (86) 75 Architects (Flor. i55o), Johnson's Lives ofthe English Poets (I78i), Bi'ot, Jean Baptiste, a distinguished French physicist, Lewes' Biographical History ofPhilosophy(I 846), the development was born at Paris, 2Ist April 1774, educated at the College of of a particular art, science, or speculation is traced in a chrono- Louis le Grand and the ]cole Polytechnique, and in I8oo be. logical series of lives, or some general conclusions are attempted came Professor of Natural Philosophy at the Colldge de France. to be drawn from the successive failures or successes in these In i8o8 he became a member of the Academie des Sciences, lives. A similar plan, only dogmatic, not scientific, in its spirit, and took part in the first balloon ascent of M. Gay Lussac. He is seen in the,Aca Sanctorurn of the Bollandists (I629-1846). accompanied M. Arago (q. v.) to Spain to measure a degree of Dictionaries of B., although for the most part confiniing them- the meridian, and reported the result to the Institute. B. subselves, as did the B. of the ancients, to facts, and avoiding sequently undertook many other scientific voyages, and mado 3S8 BIP THEi GIOBE ENCYC LOP/EDIA. BIR numerous important discoveries in optics, especially in the polar- the age of twenty-one, when he was employed under the Comisation of light. TIe died at Paris, February 3, I862. Among missioners of Public Records. Two years later hewas appointed his writings are Traite Elementaire d'Astronomie Physique (Par. assistant in the department of antiquities in the British Museum, 1805, 3d ed. I841-57); Traite de Physique experimentale et ma- and rose in I844 to be assistant-keeper. On the new organisatheoiatiFue (Par. I8i6); Precis ilementaire de Physique expIri- tion of the department in I86I, B. was appointed keeper of the men/ale (Par. I8i7); Recherches sur l'Ancienne Astronomie Chi- Oriental, mediaeval, and British antiquities and ethnographical noise (Par. 1840); and Atudes sur l'Astronomie Indienne (Par. collections; but, by a further subdivision of labour, his office 1862). is now keeper of the Egyptian and Oriental antiquities. B. is Bi'ped, literally'two-footed,' a term applied to such animals corresponding member of the Archaeological Institute of Rome, as walk on two legs, and generally applied to man and to birds, of the Academy of Berlin, and of the Academy of Inscriptions to indicate their mode of progression, rather than the mere pos- Belles-Lettres in the French Institute. The honorary session of two limbs. Some of the quadrumana or apes may degree of LL.D. is from St Andrews. He is also an honorary temporarily assume a bipedal attitude. The whales among member of the Royal Society of Literature, of the Society of mammals and the sirens among Amtphibians or Btrachia (aq v.) Antiquaries, of the Oriental Society of France, as well as of the may be termed bipeds, as these forms possess the front pairof Ethnological Society of America. B. has long been a profound mays as these forms possess the front pair of student of Egyptian hieroglyphics. This latter fact attracted the limbs only. Some fishes also want two of the paired fins (repre- ng attentin hieroglyphics. This latter fact attrated the senting the limbs of other animals), and may therefore be also admiring attention of te late Baron Bunsen, who availed himself termed bipedal in a sense. largely of B.'s special knowledge in the philological portion of his work Egypt's Place in Universal Histo;y. Baron Bunsen Bipenn'is, a double-headed axe, said to have been wielded requested that he should revise future editions of this work; and by the ancient Amazons. accordingly in I867, some years after Bunsen's death, he issued the fifth volume, the greater part of which is written by himself. Biquadrat'ic (Lat. bis, twice, quadrus, square), in algebra B'a principal publications are Gallery ofA tiquities (1842); the is a term applied to equations of the fourth degree, the general text of Owen Jones' Views on the Nile (1843); along with Mr form being x4 +ax3+bx2'+cx+dd-o. See EQUATION. 43); along with Mr form being x b cx. See EQUATION. Newton, Catalogue of Greek Vases (I85I); Introduction to the Bir, or Bireh-jik, a town of Asiatic Turkey, vilayet of Bag- Study of Hieroglyphics (I857); History of Ancient Potltery dad, Syria, situated on the Euphrates, in the great route from (I858); Description of the Papyrus of VNas-Krcem (1863), and Aleppo to Diarbekr, and I50 miles W. of Adana. It is the the Rhind Papyri (I866). The papyrus of Nash-Khem, priest ancient Birtha, Turkish Bireh-jik; the word bir meaning a' well,' of Amen-ra, was discovered in an excavation made in a tomb and occurring in the names of several other Arabian towns. B. near Gournah at Thebes by direction of the Prince of Wales, is a place of some importance from its position, and has con- is the property of his Royal Highness, at whose expense it was siderable trade in cotton, silks, wine, tobacco. It is 597 feet printed for private circulation. B. presided over the Congress above the sea, and would form a station on the projected Tigris of Orientalists held in London in I874. He is an able Chinese Valley Railway. Pop. Io,ooo. scholar, and has published (I841) Analecta Sinensia, short Birch (Betula), the generic name of several species of trees stories from the Chinese; The Friends i Deomanceth 845) a and shrubs. The common or white B. (B. alba) is a well-known translation from t hat language; and Cinese Archoloneia the tree of a graceful and airy aspect, very common in the moun- Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature, the English tainous districts of Scotland, and being one of the hardiest of all Ecycoe trees, is found growing far N., even into Arctic regions. It has Chabes's ncycopdia, the Ecycopdia geerll iBritannica (new edition), the Revue Archiologique, the Archi'oa wide geographical range, growing generally in the temperate logisehe Zeitung, and the Zeitschrzftir EgypZische Sprache und and sub-Arctic regions of N. America, Europe, and Siberia. Alterthums aunde. Great forests composed entirely of the B.-tree are found in Russia, where the bark and wood are applied to a great variety Birch, Thomas, D.D., author of many secondary works on of useful purposes by the peasantry. The entire tree, wood, history, was born at Clerkenwell, London, 23d November 1705. bark, and leaves is impregnated with essential oil, and to the oil Although of a Quaker family, he entered the Church of England of the bark is due the agreeable smell peculiar to Russia leather, (1730), obtained numerous preferments, was made D. D., rector in the tanning of which it is used. The outer cuticle of the bark of Deepdene in Surrey, and one of the secretaries of the Royal becomes white, and scales off in thin papery sheets, and in India Society (1752). He was killed by a fall from his horse, 9th the sheets so obtained from a species of B. (B. Bhoy'zutra) were at January I766. B, was an indefatigable, though not very eleone time used as paper, while to the same property is owing the gant, writer in the departments of history and biography. name of a species of B. growing throughout N. America (B. Among his works may be mentioned Memoirs of Queen Elizapapyracea), from the bark of which very light useful canoes are beth; Lives of Henry Prince of Wales; of Raleigh; of Boyle fabricated. B.-bark is exceedingly tough and durable, and ap- and Tillotson; Thurloe's State Papers; and a History of the plied in Northern countries to many useful purposes. In Russia Royal Society. B. left his library and a collection of MSS. to the it is made into drum-shaped boxes for holding caviare, &c., and British Museum, of which he was a trustee. small boxes are frequently made from it, on which are impressed Bich-Pfeiffer, Charlotte, a celebrated actress and playelegant stamped and incised ornaments. B. yields a close-grained lr Chart, a c elebr ated actress and playis vey extensively employed in the man-wright, was born at Stuttgart, i8oo, made her debut at Munich fctdurable of c hrs tables be dsteads, and the woodwork of furni-in her thirteenth year, and played for many years at Berlin, facture of chairs, tables, bedsteads, and the woodwork of furni- Vienna, St Petersburg, &c. She married the Danish author ture generally; but the great part of the B. wood for furniture Dr Christian Birch in 1823, was directressof the Zurich is imported from America, and is the produce of the black B. theatre, 1837-43, and also of the Hoftheater at Berlin from 1844 (B. len/ta). The wood of the white B. is used by the Tartar She died at Berlin, August 24, I868. Of her numerous plays, peasantry of the Russian empire for turning into sugar-basins, which are marked by dramatic force, though marred by sensa&c., which, painted a bright vermilion colour, and gilt, are ex- tionalism, may e mentioned Pfriise (1833), Der Ghdcner ported from the Baltic ports. B.d-wine is a beverage prepared von Nolre-Dame (1839), Die Marquise von Vile/te (1845), Dof from the fermented sap of growing trees, and prepared on a large send SLat (1848), Waise von Lowoae (1856). Her Gesamme scale in Russia. The dwarf B. (B. nana) is a low shrubby Drainatische Werke were published at Leipsic in 13 vols., plant indigenous to Scotland, and found generally throughout I863-69. the N. of Europe and the Arctic regions. Among the other species may be mentioned the white B. (B. popuelfolia) of N, Bird-Bolt, an arrow with a blunt head, which in former America; the B. acuminata of Nepal; and the B. Antarctica of times was shot from a crossbow to kilLrooks with. the neighbourhood of Cape Horn. tBird-Catching Spiders, a name applied to spiders beBirch, Samuel, LL.D., keeper of Egyptian and Oriental longing to the genus Mygale, from their habit of entrapping antiquities in the British Museum, is the eldest son of the late small birds in their nets, and by other means. The nane, so Rev. Samuel B., D.D., and was born in London in I813. far as bird-devouring habits are concerned, might also be applied Iie completed his education at Merchant Taylors' School, which to another genera of spiders, such as Epeira, &c. Mygale he left in I831. B. began his career in the public service at aviczularia, found in Surinamn and elsewhere, a large black 389 * BIR tHE GLOBE ENCYCIOP/EDIA. BIR spider, averaging about two inches in length, is thus said to species are the P. szper-ba, P. sexselacea, and P. regia. These capture birds by pouncing upon them. This American species birds inhabit New Guinea and neighbouring islands. They con. has its allies in Africa and the E. Indies, which similarly hunt gregate in troops in the dense for birds, but prey also upon insects. The nests of these spiders forests, and appear to feed on consist each of a tubular cell, formed of a silky material, and fruits, rice, insects, &c. They situated among stones and in the clefts of trees. Madame pass from island to island accordMerian, in her account of travels and of the insects of Surinam, ing to the change of seasons, and A ll' relates and figures the instance of a Mygale devouring a small appear to fly invariably against''m bird which it had'torn from its nest.' the wind. The wings are long The LEpeir- (of which genus the Eleir-a diade'ma, or common and rounded. The tip of the garden spider, is an example) of tropical countries are said to upper mandible is notched. The entrap small birds in their webs. hinder toe is long, and the claws Bird-Cherry (Padus), a subdivision of the genus Cerasus are of large size and curved. (cherry), which is again perhaps only a sub-genus of Prunus These birds are shot by the' (plum). The common bird-cherry (Przuns Padus), or hag- Malays with arrows, and are berry, is a shrub of 6 or 8 feet, or sometimes a small tree, with generally captured during the small, nearly globular, black and bitter fruit, with a rugged ght. The skins are dried by stone. It is found in Northern and Central Europe and Asia fire, and the legs are cut off-a from the Arctic regions to the Caucasus and Himalayas, but dis-circumstance which induced Lin. appears in S.W. Europe. It is rare or absent in Ireland and nmuns to give to the emerald speSouthern England, but is scattered over the rest of Europe. cies the specific name of apo'a, A spirit is distilled from the fruit, and in Siberia the refuse after or'footless,' although the great expressing the juice is made into cakes. P. Virginianza is found naturalist was himself well in America from Canada to Tennessee, and is cultivated in aware that these birds possessed Britain as an ornamental tree. Its bark is febrifuge, and its legs. Various fables and stories wood is used by cabinetmakers. It grows to a height of from of a ridiculous kind have from gird of Paradise. 80o to Ioo feet. time to time been promulgated respecting these birds, such as the ideas that they were footless, Bird, Edward, an English artist, was born in Wolverhamp- and wholly lived in the air; that they fed on dews and vapours, ton, 12th April I772, and earned his first money by painting &c. The natives name them Maanuco-Iewata, or'God's birds;' flowers, shepherdesses, &c., on tea-boards for a Birmingham and other names, such as'sun-birds,''birds of the air,' &c., have manufacturer. Afterwards he established himself as an artist in been applied to them from their gorgeous appearance. Bristol, where he died, 2d November 1819. His' Choristers Rehearsing' and'The Will' were purchased by William IV. and the Birde or Byrd, William, an English musician, born about Marquis of Hastings, and after these successes he was elected 1543, was the son of Thomas B., one of the members of the Royal Academician. Princess Charlotte appointed B. her painter. Chapel Royal in the reign of Edward VI. - He composed eccleHis finest work is his'Chevy Chase aftet the Battle.' Others well siastical music, little of which is now known except the NJon known and much admired are'The Village Politicians,''The nobis, Domine. Elected organist at Lincoln Cathedral in 1563, Blacksmith's Shop,'-The Country Auction,' and'The Young he was appointed a gentleman of the Chapel Royal six years Recruit.' after. B. was reckoned the finest player on the virginal in his Bird Island, one of the Sandwich Islands, 290 miles W.N.W. day. He died 2Ist July i623. of Honolulu, and haunted solely by sea-fowl; hence its name. Birds, a class of vertebrate animals, defined as possessing bodies covered with feathers; as being oviparous, or producing Bird-Lice, the name applied to the insects of the order eggs, from which the young are afterwards hatched; as possessM]allopsag'a, a group of lower or apterous insects undergoing ing warm blood, afour-chambered heart, a pefect circulation, and no metamorphosis, and which are destitute of wings. These having the fore-lo mbs modified for flight. The lungs in B. are forms are chiefly parasitic upon birds, and eat the feathers of further perforated, and the main bronchi or air-tubes open upon their hosts by means of their strong masticatory mouths. They their surface, so that the air received into the lungs escapes into frequently destroy the entire plumage, and otherwise affect the the body. This latter character is specially distinctive of the health of the bird. They are classified in two families-the bird class. The body covering of B. consists of feathers, which Philopterid& and Liotheide. are produced from ppille, or small processes of the dermis or Bird-Lime, a viscid, tenacious substance used for spread- true skin. These papillae are grooved, and in the grooves horny ing on branches, twigs, and other perches of small birds, for matter is deposited, and finally pushed outwards in the form of catching them. B.-L. is prepared from the bark of the holly, the feathers. Each feather consists of the quill, continued upwards mistletoe, and various other plants, by boiling, and allowing the into the shaft, which bears on each side the web composed of strained boiled bark to ferment for some weeks. Boiled linseed barbs. The barbs are kept in close apposition by means of oil may also be used as B.-L. smaller barbs or barbules, which bind the various barbs of the epper is ade fm the powdered frits of sic eb firmly together. The feathers of the hand are termed Bird-Po0epper is made from the powdered fruits of Calsiculiz O ~baccat~ of the West Indies. gprimnaries; those attached to the fore-arm, secondaries; and those of the upper arm, tertiaries. The great tail-feathers are Bird of Paradise, a genus of Insessorial or Perching birds, named rectrices. The ztlula, or bastard wing, is the name given forming the type of the family Paradiseida-, a group nearly to the feathers borne by the small thumb. allied to the crows (Corovida). The males of these birds are The skeletons of B. exhibit many adaptations to their aerial celebrated for the immense development of the feathers on the life and habits. The bones are exceedingly light, owing to their sides of the body and neck, these feathers in the common or containing a much greater proportion of phosphate of lime and emerald B. of P. (Paradisea apoda) appearing as long detached analogous salts; and in most B., the long bones, instead of plumes, of light texture, and of exceeding brilliancy. The eme- containing marrowz, are filled with air: such bones are thererald species averages a crow or jay in size, and is coloured cin- fore named pineumatic. The neck region of B. is very flexible, namon, the head and neck being yellow, whilst the front part and contains from nine to twenty-four vertebrae. This flexibility of the body and throat are bright green, and the expanded of the neck region admits of extensive movement of the beak. feathers yellow. These shoulder-feathers attain a length of two The back or dorsal region is fixed and consolidated, so as to feet. The tail in this species also possesses elongated filaments afford a firm point d'ap5pui for the movements of the wings. of horny texture with twisted extremities. The plumes are The dorsal vertebrae vary in number from six to ten. In Runextensively used in the manufacture of head-dresses and other ning B., however (e.g., ostrich, &c.), a greater or less amount articles of female decoration. These birds appear to be polyga- of motion is permitted between the segments of the back region. mous. The females are coloured of a sombre tint, and want the The vertebrae which intervene between the dorsal segments and splendid appendages of the males. Paradisea rbira possesses the caudal or tail vertebrae are ossified together, so as to form a the expanded shoulder-tufts of a red or carmine colour. Other r single bone, named the sacrutm z, and which consists of from nine 390 At,',. - BIR TTHE GLOJRE ENCYCLOPMDIA. fBIR to twenty united bones. The cauola or tail vertebrae number which, however, are not united in front at the pubis in any bird, from eight to ten. The last verteblrae form the'ploughshare- except in the ostrich. This open disposition of parts has probably reference to the laying of eggs. The lower limbs consist each of afemur or thigh-bone, of a large tibia or shin-bone, and small or rudimentaryfibula. The upper extremity of the tarsus 9_S in B. is ossified to the lower end of the tibia, and the lower half / / ao a r t of the tarsus is similarly anchylosed with the metatarsus. The'K 0 tarsus and metatarsus thus together form the tarso-metatarsal,/ i ~ bone, which, in Wading B., gives the great length to the legs. ~ P-..- -.. 13 o <>acb I 04'.' r ~g \ss~ - ^ X AidFeet of Various Birds. a, Foot of Raptorial Bird; b, of Percher; c, of Rasorial Bird; 1.7~=~~l a 11 d, of Wader; and e, of Swimming Bird. The above cut, representing the skeleton of the falcon, shows the skull The anlIe-joint of B., as in reptiles, is thus placed in the middle with the large orbit or eye-cavity; the flexible neck region (k); the of the tarsus, instead of at the upper or proximal extremity, as in dorsal or back region (1); the telvis (as, a, o); the tail (p); and mammalia. The toes are four in number in most B., three being'the ploughshare-bone or pygostyle (q). The breastbone with its placed forwards, and the fourth (the aux, or great toe) being prominent keel is shown at s; the united clavicles, forming the directed backwards. Sometimes, as in paots and other Scanmerry-thought, at w; the coracoid bones supporting the wing at r; directed backwards. Sometimes, as in parrots and other Scan and the ribs at t; and the scapula or shoulder-blade at I. The sores, two toes are directed forwards and two backwards. In wing-bones consist of the humerus (2); the ulna (4); and radius Swifts, all four toes are turned forwards. The Ostriches possess (3); the thumb (7); the metacarpus or palm (5 and 6); and two toes only, and the Eius three; while in many othef B. the fingers (8, 9, and no). In the lower limb, the thigh (Ii); leg (i2 and ) the tarso-metatarsal bone (nI); and the toes (i, I6, the fourth or hinder toe may be rudimentary. 17, and I8). The detached figure of the skull shows the frontal bone The digestive system of B. includes a tongue (which, however, (a), paietal (b) and occipital bone (c), the articulating part of the is generally sheathed in horn, and not adapted to serve as an occipital bone (td); the orbit (e); the mandible, or lower jaw (g) of simple structure; of a and at hs the os qdraoe by means of wiics the lower jaise ata- organ of taste); of salivary glands of simple structure; of a culated to the skull. single or double crop, or ingluvies, serving as a receptacle for food; of the proventriculus, or true digestive cavity; and of the bone,' or pygoslyle, on which the uropygium, or oil-gland, is gizzard, a muscular cavity, usually provided internally with horny situated, and into which the great feathers of the tail are inserted. ridges, by means of The Cursorial or Running B. do not possess a ploughshare- which the food is tritu- A. bone, and in the extinct ArochZopteryx (q. v. ) this bone was also rated and brolen dowl., - wanting. The skull of B. is very compact, and is joined by a The intestine is compasingle orcipital conzdyle, or process, to the spine. The Bill (q. v.) ratively short; the beconsists of the upper and lower mandible; the lower jaw in B. ginning of the large, or', (as in reptiles) being a compound bone, and being joined to the terminal, part of the in- il skull by a special bone, the os quaaraturn or os carrSe No teeth testine being generally 6 _.. exist in B., although the horny sheaths of the jaws may be more or marked by two cceca, or less strongly serrated. The orbit, or eye-cavity, is always of large blind-pouches, often (as / size. The ribs forming the sides of the chest or thorax number in grouse) of great \-' \" I from six to ten pairs. Each rib is generally joined to its hinder length. The intestine.' / neighbour by a hooked bone or process, known as the uncinate terminates in the cloaca, process. The true ribs are joined in front to a series of bones a chamber which alsol which arise from the sternuom or breastbone, and which are receives the terminal 8' named sternal ribs. These latter correspond to the costal ducts of the urinary and cartilages of mammalia, and constitute the movable centres in generative organs. The breathing. The sternzum or breastbone bounds the chest in front. liver is always large, In all B. (save the Cursorial or Running B., which do not fly) and the pancreas, or the breastbone bears a prominent bony ridge or keel in front. sweetbread, is con- i',j This keel serves for the attachment of the great muscles of the tained within a loop of wings (pectoral nmuscles); and hence it is easy to tell if a bird the intestine at its compossesses great powers of flight by looking at the relative size of mencement of that tube the keel, which, accordingly, is largest in the most powerful as it leaves the gizzard. Internal View of Bird,. flyers. In the ostriches, &c., the breastbone, on the contrary, A spleen is always, and The gullet is represented in this cut at the presents in front the appearance of a comparatively flat shield, a gall-bladder generally crop at 2, and the muscular gizzard at 3. without ally ridge or keel. The collar-bones, or clavicles, are present. The gizzard is Thewindpipe (4) is alsoseen; the heart (), usually united to form the furczulum, or'merry-thought.' The best developed in grain- with thechief vessels (6), and pericardium, coracoid bones are greatly developed, and articulate directly with eatingB. In flesh-eaters and sac). t he liver is exhibited (8 the breastbone, so as to form the chief supports for the wings; and insectivorous B. it neum (II); and the cloaca, or vent (I2). whilst the scapulze, or'shoulder-blades,' exist as simple bones of is of rudimentary nature, small size. The wing consists of the humezrues, or upper bone and of thin membranous structure. Small pebbles or stones are of the arm; of a large ulna and slender radiues in the fore-arm; generally swallowed by grain-eating birds, to assist the gizzard and of three wrist or caipal bones; of three united mnetacarpals, in its work of crushing the seeds and grains. and of two fingers or digits (index and ring fingers), and a rudi- The heaZt and circulation of B. do not differ from those of mentary thumb. The pelvis consists of two inceonoinate bones, mammals. The heart consists of two auricles and two ventricles, 39' BIR TtHE GL OBE ENVC YCL OiEDIA4. BIR the right auricle and ventricle being exclusively devoted to send- reference must be made to the various respective articles treating ing the venous or impure blood for purification in the lungs, of B. —such as ORNITHOLOGY, POULTRY, NESTS, EGGS, &c. &c. whilst the left side of the heart is as exclusively devoted to send- B. are not plentifully represented asJfossils —a fact presumably ing pure or arterial blood out through the body. The blood of due to their aerial habits, precluding their deposition in favourB. is warmer than in any other group of animals. Its tem- able circumstances for petrifaction and fossilisation. The earliest perature varies from eoo~ to iio or more; the average tem- bird-traces are found in the Triassic sandstones of America, in perature being Io3~ or Io4~. That of man and mammalia is the form of footprints, which, some paleontologists maintain, are about 98~. The red blood corpuscles of B. are oval in shape, rather those of reptiles. The oldest known bird-fossil is the and are nucleated. Only one aortic arch-the right-exists, Archsoypteiyx (q. v.), from the Upper Oolites of Bavaria, this bird instead of two, as in reptiles. constituting of itself the order Sacrura. In the cretaceous rocks The resfiration of B. is carrnied on by means of lungs, which of America, remains of extinct Wading B. (genera Laornis, Hesare of a bright red colour, and of spongy or cellular tex- Jerornis, Palcotrhig'a, &c.) are found, together with the curious ture. The lungs are attached to the back-wall of the chest, genus Ichfhyornis. In the newer tertiary rocks-that is, in which, however, is not Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene strata-bird-remains are compat....-~3-~. ~ separated from the ab- ratively plentiful. The Eocene Gastornis, Lithornis, and Prodomen by a diphrag- nz tornis (this last the earliest example of the Insessores or or nidrif, as in mammals. Perchers), represent the bird-life of that period. The PostThe bronchial tubes of Tertiary or Pleistocene formations, especially of New Zealand, are each lung give off the remarkable as containing the remains of gigantic wingless birds, air-cells in which the referable to the genera Dtinornis (q. v.), Aptornis, &c. And in blood is purified; but Madagascar the E.biornis remains also belong to the later period the main bronchi pass of geology. The eggs of the Efiornis, also found in a fossil'.-~'28~~~~~\ through the lung and state, measure from 13 to 14 inches in diameter, and equal 3 1 open on its surface by a ostrich eggs, or 148 hen's eggs in size. definite number of aperI~definite numher of apter- Bird's-Foot (Ornithopus), a genus of plants of the sub-order Papilionacew, of the natural order Leguminose, so called from its apertures the air escapes a apertures the air escapes curved pods, resembling the claws of a bird. There are few from the lungs into large cre sacs or cavities situated in species, chiefly S. European, and one S. American. There are s c e' two in Britain, O. ebracleatu.r (sand-B. -F.), and O. jerfusillus, the various parts of the body / of the bird, and known first growing in sandy situations near the sea, the other in dry vrous pats h i Brti,0biraces(adB.-), and 0.kneownlu, h as Air-sacs or Air-cells pastures. (q. v.), whilst from the Bird's-Foot Trefoil (Lotzus), a genus of Papilionace', a subThe air-cells and lungs of the ostrich are latter receptacles the in- order of the natural order Legumintiose, so named, like the prerepresented in the above cut. The wind- terior of the bones are ceding genus, from the resemblance of the pods to the claws pipe is seen at i; the lhnngs at 2, 2; the also filled with air. of a bird. The genus is not numerous in species. They are chief air-cells of the chest at 3, 3, 3, with These bones are not abundant in Southern Europe and Northern Africa, and are the orifices of theair-tubes which supply them. The heart is seen at 4; and the pneumatic in young B,, widely scattered over the temperate regions of the Old World 4;~~~~~~~~wdl santrd ovrthe t m e a e r g o s o h l ol stomach and intestines at 5 and 6. but become so as adult and Australia. In Britain there are L. corniculatus (B.-F. T. life is attained. In some proper), and L. angustisissimus. Of the first there are several B. (e.g., penguin, apteryx, &c.), none of the bones are pneumatic; varieties, which are by some authors described as species. It is whilst in others (ostrich, &c.), only some of the bones are filled by some considered to be the true Irish shamrock. L. tetragonwith air. Others (e.g., pelican) possess air in nearly every bone olobus (the winged pea) of the S. of Europe is cultivated in our of the body. The uses of this distribution of air throughout the gardens as an annual, and in some parts of Europe for the sake of bodies of B. may be summed up by saying that, firstly, the spe- its seeds, which are used as one of the many substitutes for coffee. cific gravity of the body is thereby diminished; secondly, the Bird's-Htead Processes, or Avicularia, the name given muscular work of the body is thus rendered less tiring; thirdly, to certain peculiar structures which exist on the external surthe blood is more perfectly purified; and fourthly, a high tem- face of many Polyza (q. v.)-molluscous animals, of which the perature is thus maintained; whilst, fifthly, B. are also enabled'sea-mats' or Flestree are good examples. Each process conthus to prolong their notes in singing to a great degree. The hiys of B. relrge, and to retes d rgeth urie ito sists essentially of a movable mandible or jaw-like piece, which kidneys of B. are large, and two zmrtters discharge the urine into the cloac. No urinary bladder exists. works into a cup-like portion, the entire structure thus resemthec~oncn. ounnary bladerexistsbling in general formthe beakr of a bird. These processes The b&ain evinces a superiority to that of reptiles, its chief g in general form the beak of a bird. These processes mass being made up of the coiytora striata of the higher brain. appear to be endowed with independent vitality, and their motions are seemingly independent of those of the animal upon The cerebellum or lesser brain is represented by its central lobe motions are seemingly independent of those of the animal upon or vermiform process. The corpus callosusn is absent, and no which they reside. The vibratile lash-like processes known as or vermiform process. The cor~u a/sr sasnadn.pu calosm i abent an novibracula are often associated with the avicularia. By some convolutions exist on the surface of the brain. The eyes are well-associated with the avicularia. y soe -evel d ia B., and p rtic pe their - o naturalists these structures are viewed as peculiarly modified developed in all B., and possess sceroic aes in their outthey reside; and by coat. Besides the ordinary eyelids, a third eyelid, or nictitatin6 Zorics t(q. v.)u to bet of tani n wh ich they reside; and by others their use is said to be that of detaining food-particles in membrane, is present in B. No outer ear exists, but the feathers the neighbourhood of the mouth of their hosts. See also PEDIsurrounding the aperture of the ear can in some cases be raised, so as to imitate the functions of an external ear. The internal CELLARY, ear is well developed. The nostrils open in the upper mandible, Birds of Passage (Aves migratorice), the name popuand are sometimes protected by scales or valvular processes. larly applied to those birds which exhibit the migratory instinct, The sense of taste is not very perfectly developed, the tongue and pass from one country or region to another at different times being horny in most B., but fleshy in the Parrots. Touch is a and seasons of each year. The migratory instinct forms one of the sense not present in great perfection in B. It may be subserved most remarkable features of the bird class. The means by which by the tongue, by the Bill (q. v.), as in ducks, &c., or by the cere. birds are enabled exactly to time their flight to a certain day, and B. are strictly ovipus, producing eggs, which, as they pass to return year by year to the same country, and even to the same through the oviducts, receive the'white or'Albumen' (q. v.) and spot, frequently flying over hundreds of miles of sea and land in the'shell.' The young are hatched by inczubaion-a process. their journeys, form problems of great interest and difficulty to the carried to its fullest extent in B. Some B. (Autophagi) run about naturalist. Many differences may be observed, not only in the as soon as they are hatched; others (leterophagi) are dependent times and seasons at which different birds arrive in and depart for a longer or shorter period on the parents. from any given country, but also in their mode of flight, and in B. possess both an zu;er and lower laynxz, the latter, placed the apparent circumstances which inaugurate their migratory life. at the lower end of the traclhea or windpipe, being the true organ Many northern aquatic birds fly southwards to winter in Britain; of voice and song. For other particulars concerning the different whilst British birds (e.g., swallow, cuckoo, &c.) in turn pass to kinds of B., and for other details regarding their structure, warmer and more southern climes on the approach of autumn. 392 *~ —------- ----------— ~ BIR THE GL OBE ENCYCL OP-.EDIA. BIR Most sea-fowl appear and disappear with the utmost punctuality struck at once by machinery; and the best glass in the English -the puffins invariably seeking their stations on a given day. If market is manufactured in the district. To these industries may migratory birds are kept in confinement, they are generally oh- be added the manufacture of fancy goods in leather and wood, served to become restless and excited as the season for migration of surgical instruments, of soap, of varnish, &c. There are also approaches. The mode of migration also varies greatly, some numerous coachbuilding establislhments, breweries, chemical birds flying in great flocks or squadrons (e.g., swallows), whilst works, cartridge factories, &c. B. is the great seat of the others leave singly or in detached groups. The scarcity of food, manufacture of steel pens, of which 98,ooo gross are made temperature, breeding-seasons, &c., have each and all been sug- weekly, the value of them amounting to3000ooo, and the weight gested as causes for the nmigration of birds, but neither singly of steel used in their production being about Io tons. Steamnorcollectivelywill these causes explain the phenomenon. More engines were first made in England at the Soho Works, founded recently, the theory of natural selection has been suggested as by Watt and Boulton. The city has many handsome public explanatory of migration. buildings; among these are the Town Hall, built in 1833 to hold 6o0proswihamgiietognthB.ndid Birds of Prey, the popular name of the order api/ores or hold ooo persons, with a magnificent organ; the B. and Midland Institute,, finished in i866, one wing of which contains the zlcczipitres (Linnaeus), distinguished by their curved, notctled t Ac~pi~tres (Linnuus), distinguished by their curved, noichd free library, opened in i$6i.; the Central Railway Station in beaks, and the strong talons of the toes, which are placed three New Stet, a im g structure in the Italian style; the forwards and one behind. The order is divided into the _Voc- E teet, an imp zrael B. of P. (owls), and the Dlilurna forms (eagles, -hawks, Exchange, in course of erection; and the new Post Office and falcons, &c.). Corporation buildings. J'osiah Mason, a manufacturer of steel pens, built and endowed the Erdington Orphan Houses in 1869, Birk'beck, George, Mg.D., was born at Settle, in, York- and in 1873 endowed a college for the study of practical science. shire, ioth January I776. After studying medicine at Edin- In I853 a Queen's College was organised in connection with the burgh, he became in 1799 Professor of Natural and Experimental London University; and there are a Roman Catholic college, Philosophy in the Andersonian Institution, Glasgow, where he a- richly endowed grammar school, a diocesan training college obtained great popularity through his gratuitous scientific lectures for schoolmasters, a botanic garden, an art gallery, and four to the skilled artisan class. In 1807 he went to London, and public parks. There are upwards of I70 churches, of which secured a large medical practice, but found time to do much for over 6o belong to the Establishment. Darwin, author of the popular education. He was associated with Brougham (whose once famous Botanic Garden, and grandfather of the celebrated firiendship he had made at Edinburgh) in founding the London propounder of the evolution theory, resided here. Pop. (1871) Mechanics' Institution, of which he became life-president. B. 343,787. B. returns three members to Parliament. Before the died 1st December 184I1. civil war B. has no place in history, and even after that it is long Birk'enhead ('the head of the birken' or'birchen trees') noteless, except as a thriving seat of industry. It first, and not a flouishing town and seaport of Cheshire, lies opposite creditably, emerged into general notice by its outrage on Priesta flourishing town and seaport of Cheshire, lies opposite iverpool, on the left bank of the Meey, whose house was destroyed in 1792 by an ignorant mob, Livpyalds wide. It is of modern growth, and owes its in- incensed at his liberality as a politician and a theologian-a crime 1340 yards wide. It is of modern growth, and owes its in1340t-ease~~~~~~~~~ a s i ic o sfor which it has recently atoned by erecting a statue to his crease and prosperity to its commodious and splendidly conmemory; but since 1832 B. has, taken a. prominent part in structed docks. The town is regularly built, contains many fine memory; but since 32 B. s taen a prominent part in public buildings, a large market, a free public library, and a nationalpolitics. It is now (1875) regarded as the representabeautiful public park of iSo acres. The chief industries for tive city of what is known as the'Advanced Liberal or Radical party, and, unlike some. other great cities, has never which it is universally famed are shipbuilding and the manufac- adi rty, and, u sr ter g cte h ev tueofmchnry heear erh shwavered in its love of extremes. After the passing of the Eduture of machinery. There are here the shipbuilding-yard of Messrs Laird, the Canada ors for constructing geat iron cation Act of 187r, it displayed remarkable energy in carrying Messrs Laird, the Canada Works for constructing gretiro bridges, the Britannia chineryoks, c. The ols, how- out its provisions, and in particular: arrested universal attention bridges, the Britannia Machinery Works, &e. The docks, howat the last school board election by pronouncing in fayour of ever, are the principal feature of B., and the cause of its rapid te l o bad ecto pr ou inf ro the principle of' united secular andi separate religious instrucrise. They include a floating harbour, with an area of I2o acres tion.' B. has shown great readiness to take advantage of the and a depth of 19 feet, and have a total accommodation (1875) t of some 400 acres. The acommunication with iverpool is main- recently granted facilities for city improvements. For this purof some 4oo acres. The communication with Liverpool is maintaed by means of an excellent system of steam ferry-boats and pose the municipality purchased some 30 acres in the centre of rained by means of an excellent system of steam ferry-boats, and the city in I1875. is further facilitated by the railway bridge across the Mersey at the city in 75 Runcorn, 14 miles distant. A railway tunnel has been projected Bit'nam Hill, in Perthshire, near Dunkeld, 12 miles N.W. (I875) to pass below the river, and thus more completely to of Perth, is I58o feet high. It was once covered with a royal connect B. with its compeer. Pop. (I821I) 236, (i86i) 36,212% forest, to which Shakespeare alludes in his _Iacbel& (Act v. Sc. 5)(187I) 42,981. Along with Claughton, Oxton, Tranmere, and'Fear not till Birnam wood part of High Bebington, B. returns one member to Parlia- Do come to Dunsinane."' ment. A Benedictine priory of the 12th c., the remains of which are still preserved, gave rise to the small village of B. ir'ni, the former capital of Bornu, Central Africa, on the:Bit'hi, the former capital of Bornu, Central Africa, on the the nucleus of the present town. Eward II. ganted to the river Yen, 75 miles W. of Lake Tchad, not now in a prosperous monks of this priory the monopoly of the ferries.. The name B state. It is, however, walled, and has still considerable marlets. monks of this priory the monopoly of the ferries.. The name B., P.p 000 r like the' Broomie Law' of Glasgow, points back to-a time when Pop.,. The present capital is Kuka (q. v.), on W. shore nature was undisturbed by commerce, of Lake Tchad.-New B., a walled town of about the same size cle as the former, lies 20 miles S. of Kuka, and has an extensive Bir'mingham (Old Eng. 2Bee-mziaigehiam), popularly called mud palace. Brurnmmagem, a city in Warwickshire, on the rivers Rea and Tame, 69 miles S.S.E. of Manchester, and 112 miles N.W. of Bi'ron, a title assumed by an ancient and distinguished French London. It is the fifth city of Britain in point of size, and is family, De Gontaut, of which the following are the most the chief seat of the metallic manufactures. Situated in a fine conspicuous members: I. Armand de Gontaut, Baron, district, it is one of the healthiest of English cities, having a afterwards Due de B., born about 1524, secretly favoured the splendid drainage and water supply. Its manufactures are valued Huguenots, but took part against them in the religious wars of at upwards of 5,ooo000,000ooo yearly, and consist mainly of articles the times, and was one of the negotiators of the peace of St of gold, silver, iron, brass, steel, mixed metal, &c. Gun-making is Germain in 1570. On the night of the massacre of St Bartholocarried on to a large extent; the jewellery trade and the manufac- mew, B. was in the arsenal of Paris, and protected the Huguenots ture of electroplated goods have largely increased; iron castings who were with him. Charles IX. appointed him to the comare made, from those of many tons weight, for steam-engines, ma- mand of La Rochelle, but the inhabitants successfully resisted chinery, and buildings, down to the smallest fittings for harness, the appointment. He was made a marshal of France in 1577; guns, watch-keys, &c.; and more recently the manufacture of gal- and at the death of Henri III., in 1589, was one of the first to vanised iron ware for roofing, buckets, &c., has become of prime welcome Henri of Navarre, under whom he distinguished himimportance. B. is unrivalled for its papier-machd manufactures; self at the first siege of Paris, and at the battle of Ivry. He button-making! is a special trade; pins, the manufacture of which was killed at the siege of Epernay, July 26, 1592.-2. Charles once employed so many different classes of labourers, are now die Gon;taut;, Due de B., son of the former, was born in 50 393 ~~ —------— ~~ BIR THE GLO gBE iENVC YCZLOP~ED-IA. BIR 1562; at the death of his father was made an admiral, and two Birth, in medicine. See PARTURITION. years later a marshal of France. He stood high in the esteem of Henri IV., who heaped favours upon him. Daring and brave Birth. See BASTARDY. in battle, he was at the same time indifferent to both sides of the Birth, Conlcealment of, is a legal offence accordiing to the religious struggles of the time, vain, presumptuous, and always B of i lg of fnc a te in want of money. This last circumstance induced him to in- law of England and the law of Scotland. By the latter, a trigue against the king, who twice spared him, but at last was woman who conceals her pregnancy, and does not call for help forced to send him to the Bastille. He was tried and condemned in the birth, and whose child is missing, is held guilty of murder. forced to send him to the Bastille. He was tried and condemned PREANCY. to death, a sentence which was put in execution, July 31, 1602, -3. Armand Louis, first Due de L:auzun, and subse- Birth'right, or the right of Primogeniture (q. v.), is the rule of quently Due de B., born April 15, I747, brought himself into by wich the eldest son is preferred to younger ones ad to law by wih th letsni rfrred to younger ones and to notice by a tract Sur I tnat de D~feynse de l'AiZetetrre et de toules Yes daughters in succession to the father's real estate. The rule is Possessions dans les Qua/re Parties du Monde, owing to which he f feudal law. It has prevailed in Britain and in most one of feudal Iaw. It has prevailed in Britain and in most was put in command ofanexpedition against the British possessions countries of Europe. ts intention has been fortified by the deon te W.coat ofAfria. rrivng t Cae Blnco he ookcountries of Eu r~ope., its intention has been fortified by the deon the. coast of Afica. Arriving at Cape Banco, he took vice of entailing property, by which the succession is cut off from the fort there, January 30, 1779, and sent a portion of his fleet one or more of the heirs at law, and settled upon a particular towards the Gambia, which was successful in seizinga some of the toards the Gamia, which was successful in seizing some of the heir or series of heirs. The object of these laws is of course to British possessions on the coast. After returning to France, B. gratify that desire of human nature which leads a man to wish crossed the Atlantic, and took part in the American War of to preserve entire in his own descendants or heirs the wealth and Independence in 1780. Coming back to France, hewas sent to social sttus hih he has himself acquired or inherited. In the States-General as a deputy of the nobles; was appointed in sca ttswihh a isl curdo neie.I the States-General as a deputy of the nobles; was appointed in considering the expediency of these laws, the fact of the existi79i to the command of the army of the north;- in I 792, com1791 to the command of the army of the north; in 1792, com- ence of this instinct in our nature, as a strong motive power, is mander-in-chief of the army of the Rhine; in 1793, commandermander-in-chief of the army of the Rhine; in 1793e, dcomander- not to be ignored. It may be very contrary to reason that it in-chief of the army of the CStes de le ]Rock/ie, distinguishing should exist; but it does should exist; but it does; and, were it annihilated, the motive himself greatly in all these positions. But he had the misfortune which keeps many a an e t nh o which keeps many a man in the path of industry-which conto excite the suspicions of the Committee of Public Safety, and to excite the suspicions of the Committee of Pblic and tinues to give him an interest in the practical affairs of life, after after what was called a'trial,' was guillotined, December 3', he has ceased to be interested in these for his own immediate I~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ h has- Seaed to be inteestded H. thesDe for hazis (Par immediat I793. See lifimloires de Mi. le Duc de Leuzutn (Par. 1822). sake-would thereby be impaired or destroyed. The question is Biro, Est Johan, Duke of Couran, was the son of a, very complicated and difficult one, probably not capable either of theoretical or practical solution. Thbe evils that are alleged a Courland gentleman of German origin, named Btihren, and was f theoretical or practical solution. he vils that are alleged horn in 1687. He gained the favour of Anna Ivanovna (q. v.), against the system lie, really or apparently, on the surface. By bornin 687 Hegaied he ayor o Ana Ianona q..), it immense estates are accumuilated in' the hands of one man, niece of Peter the Great, and Duchess of Courland, and was t mmense estates are accumulated in the hands of one man, while his, near relatives are comparatively poor and landless. made by her, when she ascended the throne of Ru.ssia in I730, a prncpal administrator of the empire. At this time he Again, by it, as other laws affecting the right of property in a principal administrator of the empire. At this time hie Z, land now'are, enormous power is thrown into the hands of a assumed the name and arms of the Fr'ench family of B. assued he nme nd ams f th F~-encl~ amil of13.few men;, a power which, were they generally to exercise it, B. ruthlessly removed every obstacle in the way of his advance- few men a power which, were the y g enerally to exercise it, would be intolerable to the community. Thus it has been said mrent, but introduced order and vigour into all the branches that some half-a-dozen, men might together exclude the public of the administration. He was made Duke of Courland in I737, that some half-a-dozen men might together exclude the public from half of Scotland. Not fr-om the roads certainly, but from assumed the regency on the death of the empress in 1740, but hill and dale, loch and stream; and from the two latter, in som in consequence of a successful conspiracy was arrested in less in cnseuene o a uccesfu cospiacywas rretedin esshill and dale, loch and stream; and from the two latter, in some than a month, and sentenced to death. His sentence being com- districts, this not only might be, but has been done. On the muted into banishment for life, he was exiled to Siberia. Recalled other hand, to take the same country, ther advocates of the by Elizabeth in i741, he was permitted to reside at Jaroslav. sytem ay-'True, "Jock i th lairdsbroi r my aggrieeed In 1763 Catherine IT. reinstated him in his dukedom, which he by the law, but this is not a public grievance. Where will you governed with singular moderation and justice till his death, 28th see a more flourishing agriculture-where will yon see farmers so December 1772. See B.'s Leben, Brem. 1772. He was suc- intelligent, so wealthy-where will you see a peasantry healthier December 1772. See B.'s Leben, Bremn. I772. He was sueeeded by his son, ieer'B., D e of Courland and Sagan, and better contented than on the lands of the great proprietors of the Lowlands of Scotland?' While each man would no doubt and Count of the German empire, born at Mita, I~th February and Count of the German empire, horn at Mta, 15th February like a slice of land to himself, sooner than see it generally cut 1724. His reign. wa s stormy and unfortunate. He could not 1724 Hi regn. wasstomy nd nfotunae. e culdnotup and equally divided among his neighbours and himself, he manage his subjects at all, and finally (28th March 1795) he re- up and eually divided among his neighbours and imse he linquished his duchy to the mpress Catherine, only reserving would probably prefer to have a large property in the hands of linuisedhisducy o te Eprss athrie, nlyreervngone. We give no opinion of our own; we merely endeavour to himself and family ducal honours and rights. Pieter died, one. We give no opinion of our own; we merely endeavour 12th January iSoo, at G~Glenau, in Silesia. By his third wife he fairly to state the arguments of the advocates and opponents of 12th January i 8ooi, &t Gallenau, in Silesia. By his third wife he the system. Public opinion has in recent times certainly been had four daughters, the youngest of whom, Dorothea, born 2Ist the syste. Public opinion has in recent times certainl been August 1793, married, 23d April i8o9, Edmiond, Duc de T-ally- running somewhat against the law of entail at least. Yet if this rand-Perigord and Duc d Din, in Calabria, and died 9th be bad, it may be difficult to see how B. is good. See ENTAIL, rand-Perigord and Due de Dino, in Calabria, and died i9th September I862. Their eldest son, Napoleon Louis, Duc de SUCCESSION. Valengay, born I2th March I8xi, inherited from his mother the Births, Registry of. Under recent statutes, the father or Prussian principality of Sagan; while the second, Alexander mother, or the occupier of any house in which a child is born, Edmond, born I5th: December 1813, obtained by his father's must give notice of the birth to the registrar of the district in abdication the lordship of Deutsch-Wartenburg. See Tiedge's which it happens within forty-two days from the date of birth. Anna Charlotie Dorothea, leize Herzqoin von Kerleand (Leips. And, if required by the registrar, information must be given on i823). A brother of Pieter's, the last Duke of Courland, carried the following points,: the day of birth; the name, if any has on the male line of the Birons, some of whom have distinguished been given,; the name and surname of the father; the name themselves in the Russian and Prussian services. and maiden surname of the mother; the rank, profession, trade, Birr. See PARSONSTOwN. or calling of the father. The person giving the information must enter in the register his or her name, description, and resiBirs, an inconsiderable Swiss stream which rises in the dence; and unless this be done, no register can be given in N.W. border of the Canton of Bern, flows in a N.E. direc- evidence. No fee or payment can be lawfully required of any tion, and joins the Rhine near Basel. Its banks are memor- person giving information respecting any birth. No one shall able for two conflicts: (s) that of 26th August 1444, fought at knowingly cause any birth to be registered otherwise than as the Chapel of St Jakob, about a mile from Basel, in which 500 mentioned after forty-two days, under a penalty of fifty pounds; Swiss were slain by the army of the Armagnacs; and (2) that of and no one shall knowingly cause any birth to be registered after July 22, 1499, in which 60ooo Swiss defeated 15,ooo Austrians six calendar months from the day of birth (except in case of at the village of Dornbach, 5 miles S. of Basel. This disaster children born at sea) under the same penalty. No register of forced the Emperor Maximilian to conclude the peace of Basel births made after six calendar months, with exception as above, two months later. will be received in any court as legal evidence. Any one wilfully 394 BIR THE GI OBE EXC YCL OPADIA. BIS making, or causing to be made, any false statement, for the pur- produce of the neighbouring country consists chiefly of wine and pose of having it registered, is liable to the penalties of perjury. currants, in which latter it rivals the Ionian Islands. The Scotch law of R. of B. is essentially the same as the English. But, in accordance with the law of legitimation in Bisch'of, Karl Gustav, a distinguished chemist and geoloScotland, it is provided that an entry of illegitimacy shall, on gist, was born, January I8, 1792, at NUrnberg. He studied at the subsequent marriage of the parents of the child to which it Erlangen, where he first applied himself to mathematical and refers, be corrected on the margin by an entry of the marriage. astronomical studies, but the influence of Hildebrandt soon inSee REGISTRATION OF BIRTHS, DEATHS, AND MARRIAGES. duced him to devote himself exclusively to chemistry and physics. In 1822 he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at Bonn, and Births, Deaths, and Mlarriages. See VITAL STATISTICS. after a life of uninterrupted activity in scientific work died there Birth'wort. See ARISTOLOCHIA. November 30, I870. B.'s chief works are, Die Wliroselehre des nlznersz unsers Erd/ikaPers (Leips. 1837), which appeared in an Biru' ( Walala), a small native state of Sudan, Western Africa, English form at London in 1841 under the title Physical, on the S. border of the Sahara, and N. of Bambarra. Its capital, Chemical, and Geological' lesearc/hes on the inler-nal Heal of the Walata, lies 275 miles N.W. of Timbuctu, and has a pop. esti- Globe; and Lehlrbuch der Chemos. send Physik. Geologie (2 vols. mated at above IO,OOO. Bonn, 1847-54; new ed. 3 vols. Bonn, I863-66; suppl. 187I) Bis (Lat.'twice'), in music, denotes that the passage to which it refers is to be played twice. Bisch'weiller (Fr. Bisclzwiller), a town on the Moder, proBisaccia (supposed to be the ancient Romssulea), an Italian vince of Alsace-Lorraine, Germany, 15 miles N. of Strasburg, town in the province of, and 28 miles E. N.E. of the town of with which it is connected by railway. It has a trade in hemp, I nAvellin theo. Pop. about 6000. zg miles II.N.E. of tho n If, madder, socks, gloves, oil, soap, and an important hop-market. Avellino. Pop. about fooo Pop. (1871) 9231.:Bisacqui'no, a town in Sicily, 28 miles S. of Palermo, wited'), the name applied to an extensive trade ill grain and oil. Pop. 8690 Bis'cuits (Fr. bis can,'twice baked'), the name applied to an extensive trade in grain and oil. Pop. 0. thin hard-baked cakes of unfermented, or in great part unferBisanagar', a town in the Gaikwar's territories, India, sit- mented, flour. A biscuit essentially consists of a mixture of flour, uated on the route from Mhow to Deesa, 44 miles S.E. of salt, and water made into dough, and fired in an oven till all the Deesa. It has considerable trade with Marwar in iron and water is expelled, and the flour is turned slightly yellow with other heavy goods, and also a considerable manufacture of cotton heat, when the cake is found to have become hard and firm. cloths. Pop. I8,ooo. This is the simplest form of cooking flour; and as well-baked B. will keep a long time perfectly unaltered, it is a very conBis'cay, or Viscay'a, the most northerly of the three old venient manner for preparing flour for use at sea, for armies in Basque provinces in Spain, bounded on the N. by the Bay of B., campaign, and many other purposes. Besides water or ship B., E. by Guipuzcoa, S. by Alava, and W. by Santander. Area, an innumerable variety of fancy B. are manufactured and sold, 85o sq. miles. Pop. (I870), I87,926. The surface is generally which differ in size, shape, and the nature of their ingredients. mountainous, occupying part of the thickly-wooded and rugged In the composition of fancy B. milk often replaces water, and northern slopes of the Cantabrian Mountains, the plains being large quantities of butter, lard, sugar, eggs, and flavouring confined to the lower courses of the streams, of which the materials are used. B. are also often rendered porous by the Ibaizalbal or Nerva is the largest. The climate though humid, addition of bicarbonate of ammonia to the dough, which, being flom its proximity to the sea, is in general healthy; but the volatile, is entirely dissipated in the firing process; and the same hleat in the valleys during summer is almost insupportable. effect is produced by the addition of baking-soda with sour milk, The chief crops are barley, maize, pulse, hemp, and fruits of or by inducing a slight fermentation of yeast in yeast-B. The various kinds; the principal live stock consists of sheep and biscuit manufacture has now become a great industry in the goats. The inhabitants largely support themselves by fishing, United Kingdom, and many hundreds of workpeople are emwood-cutting, and mining; iron, lead, alum, and sulphur being ployed in some of the greater establishments, which export found in abundance, and ropeworks, tanneries, and ironworks enormous quantities of B. in tins, in addition to supplying a great also giving employment to many. The Biscayans, who are a demand for ship-B., as well as for general consumption. Very pure Basque race (see BASQUE PROVINCES), are bold and elaborate and perfect machinery has been adapted to the manuactive, and distinguished for their love of fi-eedom. facture, and mechanical ovens have been introduced for biscuitBiscay, Bay of (anc. Mar;e Canltabricumn, Fr. GolSe de Gas- baking, through which the goods travel at various rates, entering cognze), the name given to that part of the Atlantic Ocean which as raw dough at one extremity, and being delivered as finished lies between the island of Ouessant in France and Cape Ortegal B. at the opposite end. The following description of a biscuit in Spain, washing the N. coast of Spain and the W. coast of factory gives a general idea of the processes il making a waterFrance. Extreme length, 400 miles; extreme breadth some- biscuit. what less; depth varying from 20 to 200 fathoms. From Cape' The flour is, in the first instance, deposited in one of the Ortegal to the western extremity of the Pyrenees the coast is upper storeys. It passes through spouts or tubes into a lower precipitous, with numerous recesses which form convenient har- storey, where the sifting machinery is placed; and after that the bours; further N. the shore is low and sandy, the mouths of the flour passes through other tubes to the ground-floor, where it is Adour and Gironde forming the only harbours; but at the delivered direct into the hoppers of the mixing-machine for extreme N. (Bretagne) it again displays in some measure a biscuit-making. The machines are arranged in straight lines in Zbroken and rocky character, and has numerous picturesque out- front of each oven, and deliver their products into the latter lines and excellent havens. The rivers entering the B. of B. firom immediately after it has received the proper consistency and Spain are unimportant; but the Adour, Gironde, Charente, and fo. The first machine in this series s the mixer, or cylinLoire pour into it more than half the whole river drainage of drical vessel of cast iron, in which a number of knives is kept France. The B. of B. contains the islands Belleisle, Re, and revolving by a central spindle. The cutters are formed like Olbron. Tihe navigation is proverbially dangerous, from the screw-propeller blades, and their action in revolving is therefore prevalence of western and north-western winds, which raise bigh, a thorough mixing of the mass. The mass from which the short, broken waves; and the agitation is increased by Rennel's dough is formed, say, for ordinary ship-B., is wheat-flour and Current, which runs along the entire coast of the bay. The water; it is delivered fiom the mixer to the "brake," a machine comlmerce of the bay, which is considerable, is almost entirely which is simply a small rolling-mill for rolling a plate of dough, in the hands of the French, the exports being mainly the say, 3 feet wide and about IO feet long, and of the thickness products and manufactures of France. required for the special class of biscuit. This sheet is then delivered to the third machine-the "cutting-machine." This tBiscegl'ie, a strongly fortified seaport town on the Adriatic, is a somewhat complicated apparatus, operating upon the prinin the province of Bari, S. Italy, 19 miles N.W. of the town ciple of a multifarious punching-machine, the punches having of Bari. B. is the seat of a bishop, and has many churches, the regular and irregular shapes of the B. to be cut out of the convents, &c. Some ruins still exist of the hospital for which dough. The cutting-machine faces the stove, and delivers its it was famous during the Crusades. Pop. (1872) 21,371. The produce into it, either by the assistance of hanld-labour or by a 395 4 +- ---— __ —__ —- 4 4> 4BIS ITHE GL OBE ENVCYCLOPEDIA. BIS self-acting Apparatus, the latter being the more modern mode. (i Tim. i. 3, v. 22; 2 Tim. ii. 14), and Titus B. of Crete (Tit. The ovens are about 40 feet in length and 6 feet wide. One i. 5-io). The worth of this proof to those who have no foreoven can produce about 3 tons of ship-B. per day of ten working gone conclusion on the subject will appear if we consider that hours. One cutting-machine is capable of supplying this quan- the nature of their office is in no way defined by the passages tity of cut biscuit-dough, both oven and machine working con- cited than by the duties imposed, which might just as well have tinuously. The time required for the B. to pass through the oven been discharged by evangelists. That Timothy was an evangelist is about forty minutes; the process of baking evaporates not is distinctly stated (2 Tim. iv. 5); while his having been ordained only all the water mixed with the flour for forming the dough, a B. seems to be disproved by i Tim. i. 3. That Titus was but also a certain percentage of hydroscopic water held by the settled as a B. in Crete seems also disproved by Tit. iii. 9-r3. flour in its apparently dry state. This loss amounts to io per (b.) Coming to the Christian fathers, we find them unanimously cent. of the total weight of the flour, io lbs. of flour:yielding only testifying that the order of bishops is of apostolic institution. 9 lbs. ofL baked B.' Indeed, so definite is their testimony, that they are able to give the name of the B. ordained by an apostle in each of the prinBiscuits,:neat, are small cakes composed of fine flour and cipal churches. Nay, Irenaeus gives a list of the twelve bishops concentrated extract of meat thoroughly incorporated to- who had succeeded each other in the see of Rome to his own gether. They are of American origin, and are designed to gether. They ar of merican origin, and are designed to time: to St Peter, the first B. of Rome, succeeded Linus; to preserve for an indefinite time the nutritive properties of meat, Linus, Clement; to Clement, Anacletus, &c. So the first B. I lb. of the preparation containing the extract of 5 lbs. of meat, of erusalem, ordained by the apostles, was James, the Lord's with -1 lb. ~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~of forTeyfra lvaubeadto-toh ra Jerusalem, ordained by the apostles, was James, the Lord's with 2 lb. of flour. They form a valuable addition to the tra- brother, who was succeeded by his cousin Simeon; of Antioch, veller's stores, as they occupy little space, can be eaten dry, or Euodius, succeeded by Ignatius-bo th ordained by the apostles; boiled with water to form soup. of Smyrna, Polycarp, the disciple of John, by whom he was Biscuit Wiare, a name given to pottery in its unglazed ordained (Jerome). According to similar testimony, Timothy condition, when it is withdrawn from the first firing or biscuit was B. of Ephesus, Titus of.Crete, and Epaphroditus (Phil. ii. oven. It presents a flat porous surfacend in this state it 25) of Philippi. The worth of this as history (say the Presby. uently used for water-coolers, as red. W. Parian statuettes trians) may be estimated from one case taken as an examplefrequently used for water-coolers, as red Bo.Painstute and vases, &c., are a form of B. W'.Irenaeus's list of the bishops of Rome. Not to mention the discrepancies in -the testimony of different fathers regarding that Bish, a celebrated Indian drug and poison, obtained from the list, every one knows the uncertainty regarding Peter's residried roots of various species:of aconite:(,4Aconilumz ferox, A. dence at Rome. That he was ever there, can at the best inridum, A. Najacllhts, and A. palmnatumi). only be called a tradition. To this, again, the advocates of Episcopacy reply that the discrepancies only prove the inaccuBish'op is the title now given to the highest order of the racy of individual memories, and may even be regarded as Christian ministry, who have the same oversight of all the clergy less suspicious evidence of the common fact whose reality they within their Diocese (q. v.) as these have of their flocks. Two attest, than any uniform consensus could possibly be. And rival accounts are given of the origin of this order, orrather a fnrther, they urge that the testimony (though traditional) in different colouring is given to the same facts, according to the favour of Peter's visit to Rome is such that it is less reasonable theory held by the writers-Episcopalian or Presbyterian. An to reject than to accept it. attempt is made in the following article to state the facts without 4. An examination of the ecclesiastical tendencies of the time any colouring at all.!is supposed by Presbyterians to lead to the conclusion that the I. In the New Testament the men appointed by the apostles B. is not a divine-i.e., apostolic —but a human-i.e., ecclesiastito superintend the churches:they founded, and to carry on the cal-institution, developed out of the presbyter. The first traces instruction of the people, are called presbyters (Gr.) or elders of this development, it is allowed, are apparent in the New (Acts xiv. 23, xi. 30), since age, experience, and character would Testament. Thus, in the pastoral epistles, while the singular be essential qualifications for the office (2 Tim. ii..2), bishops of B. is always used,presbyters are always spoken of in the plural, (Gr. episcopoi) or overseers (Acts xx. 28) leadinzg men (Heb. xiii. as if it were implied that one of their number acted as president, 7), and sherherds or fastors (Eph. iv. it). That the titles B. primus inter pares. The ang els of the churches mentioned in and presbyter are used synonymously in the New Testament is the Apocalypse (i. 20, &c.), if these be, as some suppose, funcproved by the following facts: (I) Both titles are applied to tionaries borrowed from the Jewish synagogue whose name is a the same persons (Acts xx. 17, cf. 28; Tit. i. 5, 7; I Pet. v. Hebraism for'ministers,' would point to the same thing. But 1, 2). (2) They are never used together, as'if applied.to orders whatever importance may be attached to these supposed traces distinct from each other. (3) Bishops and deaconzs are mentioned of the,germ of the B. in the New Testament, there is not as if they comprehended all the officers of the Church (Phil. i. (say Presbyterians) a more striking phenomenon in the des; i Tim. iii. I, 8).'(4) Pr)esbyters discharge duties which pro- velopment of the Church, nor a more undoubted fact in her perly belong to the bishzops (o Tim.:v. 57; I Pet. v. I, 2). history, than the gradual formation during the first centuries 2. It is the fact that in the 3d c. there were three distinct of a sacerdolal caste. Till late in the 2d c., presbyter and B. orders of clergy in the Church-deacons, presbyters, and bishops. were still synonymous titles. Ireneus and Tertullian mark a Theodoret says (Comn. a Tim. iii. I),'The same persons were transition period, for both sometimes use the names in this way, anciently called promiscuously both bishops and presbyters, and sometimes distinguish the B. as president of the presbyters. whilst those who are now called bishops were called apostles. As late as the 3d c., the presbyters remained as a college of But shortly after the name of apostles was appropriated to such counsellors to the B. Even Cyprian, to whom the episcopal only as were apostles indeed; and then the name B. was given system owes more than to any other individual, apologises both to those who before were called apostles.' Here two things are to his presbyters and the laity when he does anything without to be distinguished:'the fact that at a certain time there was an consulting them. But as early as the time of Tertullian, men order of bishops above the presbyters, which is undeniable, and had begun to compare the B. with the high priest, the presbyan explanation of this fact-namely, that there had been a regular ters with the priests, and the deacons with the Levites of the and uninterrupted succession of apostles, who, very much out of Jewish system. Anid besides Judaism, which always gets justice, respect for the apostles, came to get a name originally belonging another influence was at work, which is always overlooked, to the second rank of the clergy, an explanation which itself namely,!Paganism. Thus the B. (not he of Rome merely) got requires to be established. So that the question comes to be,:the name of Pontifex Maximus and many other titles, all to Were there from the first three orders of clergy in the Church- express the honourto be heaped upon him: President, Provostdeacons, presbyters (at first also called bishops), and apostles Inspector, Prince of the People, Prince of the Clergy, Pope, Vicar (afterwards called bishops)? in other words, was the B. an of Christ. Avery significant indication, it is said, of how the B. apostolic and (therefore) divine institution, or was it an outcome grew to his full stature is to be found in what was further deof the ecclesiastical tendencies of the time, and a development of.veloped out of tihe order of bishops, namely, first, Metropolitans the presbyter? (q.v.), then Primates (q.v.), then Patriarchs (q.v.) or Archbishops 3. PrIoofn that te B. zos an apostolical instittion. — (a.) From (q. v.), and finally, a Prince of Patriarchs, the Pope. Even the the New Testament. The amount of proof claimed from the origin of the inferior orders of clergy is a part of the same thing. New Testament is that St Paul appointed Timothy B. of Ephesus For the presbyters, although at first (in the 3d c.) they protested 396 o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —---— ~~ BIS THIE CGLOBE E&NVCYCYLOPIOEDIA. BIS strongly against the usurpations of the B., soon began to follow gives to the Sanseverino family the title of prince. It has some in his steps, and the deacons in theirs; which created a neces- silk trade. Pop. (1871) 4096. sity for inferior orders-sub-deacons, &c.-to take up the menial Bis'kupitz, a rising town in the circle of Oppein, province duties the higher orders cast off, of Silesia, Prussia, has manufactures of sugar and of iron and But Episcopalians find it quite as easy to interpret the facts in steelwares. In the vicinitythere are extensive iron and coal accordance with a belief in the scriptural origin of their own mines and smelting furnaces. Pop. (1872) 5408. system. They do not affirm that a New Testament B. was, or could possibly be, in power, position, circumstance, &c., what Bis'ley, a town of Gloucestershire, situated on the Severn and he subsequently became when Christianity spread and the Church Thames Canal, 3 miles E. of Stroud, with some manufacture of grew. Even the theory of his office might become clearer under coarse cloth. It has a church built in the I4th c., which conwider and more difficult conditions, until finally the organisation tains several interesting monuments. Pop. (I87I) 4985. of an institution that reached to the ends of the Roman empire, Bismark or Bis'marck (as some branches spell the word), and beyond it, might justly be thought to require an expansion the name of an ancient and oble fmily of Brandenburg, be1~~~~~~1 ~~~~~the name of an ancient and noble family of Brandenburg, beof the original conception, which is not necessarily the same ieve to be of endish or oemian origin. At a very early lieved to be of Wendish or B3ohemian origin. _At a very early thing as the creation of a new order. This view they consider period it appears to have founded the village of Burgstall and intrinsically more reasonable, and more in harmony with the the petty town of B., in the circle of Stendal, district of Magdefacts of Church history. At first bishopswere electebye burg, Prussia. In the I2th and 13th c. several members of the At first bishops were elected by the clergy and the people. family figure.as burghers at Stendal and Prenzlow. In I494 the family figure as burghers at Stendal and:Preuziow. In 1494 the Then the Roman emperors reserved the right to themselves. town of B.was acquired by the lords of Alvensleben, but in 1562 Afterwards the B. of Rome brought it about that the canons iS Burgstall was exchanged by Friedrich von B., Lnadahairnzaun cathedral churches should have the right of election, which, in the Altmark, for Schbnhausen, Fischbeck, Crevese, Briest, however, had to be confirmed at Rome. Still princes had a &Cc., belonging to the Brandenburg Elector, Joachim II., and, on certain power in the election of bishops in their own dominions. account of this barter, is called in the family history Permutator Especially was this the case in England, where all ecclesiastical the Exchange'. Friedrich von B.ecame through his two dignities were conferred by the King in Parliament, till the right of investiture was given utip by Henry I. The right ofe sons the ancestor of the two still flourishing:houses of B., that of right of investiture was given up by Henry I. The rightiof cinas n h gdbr eo, c tt Cvs n Schdnhausen in the Magdeburg region, and that of Crevese in electing the bishops was confirmed to the chaptes by John-the the Altmark. Both lines have produced men notable in their election, however, to be founded on the King's cong d'elire, and day as statesmen and soldiers. Christoph Friedrich von after to receive his assent. day as statesmen and soldiers. Christop~h ZFriedrich von after to receive his assent. a. (died I7o04), lordof Schnlhausen, was a Prussian general and The Church of Rome has retained, of course, her episcopalcommandantof istrin. Levn Friedrich vo. (ie ~commandant.of,Ktistrin. Levin F~riedlrich von B. (died organisation. The Reformed Churches, modelled after the Ge-I774 was a privy-councillor and minister of justice under 1774) wsapiycuclo n iitro utc ne nevan pattern, adopted the Presbyterian system. The Lutheran Friedrich the Great from I746 to i764. His son, August Church, in some countries, has kept her bishops. So has the ilhelm von B (died 7), as also a Prussian priv-coun W~ilhelm von B. (de I 8) was also a Prussian privy-counChurch of England, in which there are twenty-eight, includi llgdei 8) Chuch of England, in which there are twenty-eit, including cillor, minister of war, president of the Board of Trade and two archbishops, besides those in Ireland-twelve, including Manufactures, ant head of the Excise Department. To a two archbishops —and those in the colonies. There are seven Rhenish branch of the Schdnhausen line belonged Friedrich bishops of the Episcopal Church in Scotland. See Bingham' Wilhelm vonB., who in Si6 was raised to the iank of count Ecclesia~slicalZ Anz/iqzitz'e l Neander's Church Hislory; it' Ecc~lesias~ica/ Anlzigities; Neander's C/sr/i Jisry; Ktosin the peerage of Wtirtemberg. His.elder brother, Freiherr Cyc/~2~'~of Eib'l'i/'Z Cy~clo2, of ~ib6. L~~. E ~Ludwig -vona B., died 31Ist MarCh i816, OberZhojfnarschall:Bishop, the name given to a pleasant beverage which Jis Bishop, the name given to a pleasant beveage hich is and lieutenant in the service of the Duke of Nassau, and left made by pouring Burgundy, claret, Medoc, or any of the red fou son, all of whom received the rank of cont in the Wirwines, cold or hot, on ripe bitter oranges, and regulating the temberg peerage, 3th September 1831. To the Schbntaste of the mixture with sugar and spice. It is drunk hot or hansen line also belongs the world-famous statesman Karl Otto cold. Good B. requires excellent wine, and the white of the von B.-Schdnhausen (q. v.). orange, between the peel and the pulp, must be removed. White Bismarck-Sch6nhausen, Karl Otto, Prince von, the wine similarly used instead of red, is called cardinal, aand Tokay, greatest German statesman of the i9th c., was born at Brandenpope. burg, ist April,I814. He studied law at Gittingen, Berlin, and Greifswald,:and after having passed his first trials, fell back on Bishop, Sir Henry Rowley, an eminent English musical the life of:a country gentleman. In 1846 he was elected member composer, born in London in I78o. Ile obtained an appoint-' coposer, on in Lonon in 1780. Ie obtained an appoint- of the Dietof Prussian Saxony, and of the General Diet in 1847, ment at the Opera-House in iSo6, and from i8o8 to 1826 com- and soon became marked as an extreme defender of the privileges posed incessantly for the two great theatres, among his me of the nobility. B.'s eloquence and vigour of character were t1of the nobility. B.'s eloquence and vigour of character were zopular operas being Guty llanne)ring, Thue Miller- and/s~isj Men, readily recognised, but he did nriot then get credit for that sagacity Alaid M'alyrian, &c. Later on he conducted the Ancient Concerts and craft which have since excited the admiration and fear of and craft which have since excited the admiration and fear of for some years; in 1841 was elected Reid Professor of Music at Europe. He was even thought to be a rash and unwise chamEdinburgh (an appointment which he held only two years); and monarchy and aistoracy; and the Forsci party pion of monarchy and.-aristocracy; and the Fortsch'i/i party in 1848 he became Professor of Music at Oxford. Isolated glees and chorises c vhmicP occur oin his operas (exor. Te C/solaes (the' Advanced Liberals') half despised their inveterate foe. But gleesandC, c ses w s &ccu ar hs dperaservedlypopu in reality B.'s principles were already fixed; and amidst all the as Careo, Balssome f ghiles, sg c.) are still deservedly popularn, changes of a necessarily tortuous policy, he has never faltered as are also some, of his songs. B3. diedl in poor circumstances, A ps arie ~ls 8some~ ofhi sng..in his strong conviction that a king should govern, an aristocracy 3oth April I855. control,:and a people obey. His contempt for representative Bishop's tort'ford, a ton of Hetfordshireon the Stort, institutions is probably as strong to-day as it was twenty-five 25 miles N. of London by rail, with some trade in grain, malt years ago, though he has for nearly a decade relied for the success and heather. It wa-s the property of the Bishops of London'l of his political strategy on the patriotic sentiments of the Gertn leth c., and formerly possessedr a castle. Biop. (o 7) 6250.ill man people. B.'s earlier career is now almost forgotten except the I22th C., and formserly possessed'a castle. Pop. (18l1) 6250.in Germany,'but he was particularly active in the 1848-50 Bishop's Wa.l'tham, a town of Hampshire, 8 miles'N.E. periodby his strenuous opposition to the semi-socialistic revoluof Southampton by rail. It has been firom the earliest times tionists who drew up a'constitution' for a German empire; the property of the see of Winchester, and contains the ruins of he was one of the keenest opponents in the Erfurt parliament a bishop's castle, founded by King Stephen's brother, Henry de of 85o of the efforts towards union made by the Prussian Bloisking, in 1135, and destroyed in the civilwarof the 1 7th c. The government; and publicly declared his approval of the reactionBlack Act (q.v.) of 1723 was intended to put down the Waltham ary policy of Manteuffel. The new corporation laws, the system Blacks, or deer-stealers, who infested a forest in the neighbourhood. of passive servitude, of heritable jurisdiction, and all the pretenB. W. is the election town of N. Hants. Pop. (1871) 2618. sions of the feudal party received from B. the most unmitigated support. At this time no one saw in B. more than a daring and Bisigna'no, a town in the province of Cosenza, S. Italy, 15 passionate Junker. Whether the great idea of consolidating Germiles N. of Cosenza, contains a cathedral and a castle, and many under the leadership of Prussia as early as i85o was the 397.A~ - ------------— ~ BIS 7TIE GIOBE NC YCLOP/EDIA. BIS master-motive of his action is uncertain. The germ may have panding at the moment of solidification. Some of its compounds been there, but to the outside world he appeared simply a head- are employed in the arts and in medicine. Basic nitrate of B., strong, overbearing, and narrow-minded Prussian aristocrat. trisnitratc of B. or flake white (BiONO3) is prepared by disProbably the conduct of the national policy has not only thrust solving B. in nitric acid, and precipitating with a large excess of a certain greatness upon him, but also enlarged and ennobled water. Oxychlorid'e of B., or peanr white (BiOCl), is prepared his own nature and aims. At any rate he was a man to be in a similar manner, substituting a solution of common salt for trusted and employed by his sovereign and his party. He be- the water used to dilute the nitric acid solution. B. forms three came secretary to the Prussian Legation at Frankfort in I851, oxides-BiO, Bi203, and Bi.O5; two sulphides, BiS, and Bi2S3 was opposed to Rechberg at Vienna in I852, and from I859-62, -the latter occurring native as B. glanc; a chloride BiC13, and acted as ambassador at St Petersburg. In I862, on returning other compounds not having any practical importance. from an embassy to Paris (where Napoleon gave him the Cross of the Legion of Honour), he became Prussian Minister of Foreign Bi'son (Bos, Bison, or B. EzseOpeus), a genus or species of the Affairs. When his Budget and Army Re-organisation Bill were ox family (Bovide), represented in Europe by the Aurochs or Lithuanian B., and in America by the American B., a distinct species criticised, he instantly showed the stuff of which he was made thnia B., and in America by the Ameican B., a distinct species by dissolving the Lower Chambers, and concluding a secret treaty o the European form-the. Azecans of the naturalit. with Russia, in spite of the censures of th'e deputies. In I864, e European B. formerly abounded over the whole of Europe, he forced Austria into the Slesvig-Holstein expedition, and including Britain, as proved by the presence of its fossil remains shortly afterwards, by the Austrian war, which ended at Sadowa which are found in strata of recent age At present, it occurs (I866), he not only obtained for Prussia the rights of Austria wild only in the Caucasian forests, and is preserved by the Czar in Slesvig-Holstein, but finally excluded Austria from the Ger- of Russia in Bialowieza, a Lithuanian forest. This animal is of manic Confederation, which was now re-cast, Hanover and Frank- very large size, and stands about six feet high at the withers. fort being incorporated with Prussia, and the South German The back is highly arched, and rises abruptly at the neck, which States contracting an offensive and defensive alliance with appears humped from the presence of strong muscular developPrussia, whom they also recognised as supreme in military ope-ments. The horns a re large, rounded, and tapering. They rations. A Federal Council, consisting of delegates from the spread outwards, and curve inwards at the point. Fourteen States, and a Diet elected by universal suffrage, were also pro- pairs of ribs exist. The hair on the front of the body and vided, and B. became Chancellor of the Confederation and shoulders is long, coarse, and of brown colour, and forms a kind of deep mane beneath the throat. The hair on the other parts President of the Council. This is the turning-point in the public of deep mane beneath the thoat. The hair on the othe parts estimate of B.'s character and aims. Henceforth he is the pride of the body is short, and of a dark-brown colour. Thelong of his countrymen, who begin to recognise a great patriotic pur- of tbehe front p art appearsil pose in his policy, and to share his belief that, if a nation is to tufted. The males are larger be powerful, the state (i.e., the governing body) must be strong. than the females, which latter The Fortschritt party lost its hold on the German people, and than the females, which latter everywhere there appeared a N2ationat party ready to support a do Ot possess such shaggy hair minister whose genius already commanded the homage of Europe. to be fThese an mals appeae in Soon after B. obtained the neutralisation of Luxembourg, in place be fierce and untamable in of its cession by Holland to France. Meanwhile it was becoming their disposition, and they cerclear that a great struggle between France and Germany for tainlypossessimmensestrengt. supremacy in Europe was impending. B., with his allies Von The European B. may have Moltke and Von Roon, secretly prepared for it, and there can been the ULnus of the ancients;;, fr I be little doubt that, when the proper moment arrived, he de- although some naturalists give liberately forced it on by the Hohenzollern candidature. After the name Urns to another ox Eison. the war (I870) he became Chancellor and Prince of th of large size, which has become German empire. Since then he has actively pursued his great extinct within the recent historic period. The Bonasus of the idea of the unification of Germany. His efforts to free education ancients in this latter view corresponds to the B. from ecclesiastical control, and to raise its standard, his measures The American B. or Buffalo (B. Anzericanus) is found in to enforce the authority of the State over that of the Church, in numbers at present only in the western prairies of Amelica, althe education of clergy, and in the question of civil marriage, though it formerly occurred over the entire area occupied by the and his determined attack on the Jesuit and Ultramontane party praes. The body of this animal is thicy setl the head being are still in progress, and cannot be adequately judged of. In low and the withers high The head is very large, and, together November 1873, he became Prime Minister of Prussia: on the with the neck and shoulders, is covered by a thick woolly hair I3th July I874 his life was attempted by the fanatic Kullmann, a f dak-brown colour. This coating acquires a greater length crime which B. publicly charged the Ultramontane party with in winter. A hump exists between the shoulders. The est ofand instigating; and a great part of I874-75 was taken up with the the body is covered by short hair, and the tail is short and trial of Count von Arnim (q. v.). Whatever verdict may ulti- tufted. These animals appear to migrate southwards in autumn, mately be passed on the character and policy of B., he cannot fail their most southern limit being in New Mexico, whilst their to hold a foremost place in European history, and will probably most northern point of distribution is at lat. 63 or 64~. They rank as the greatest statesman of the Igth c. See Hesekiel, are hunted by the Indians, and serve for food to these nomadic Das Buchk Vom Grfen (I869); Graf B., Ein Charakte/sbitd tribes, whilst from the skin a variety of useful articles is manufactured. The horns are short and obtuse. These bisons fight diS67); Reden. des Gy-afen B. (867-7 I); Rosier, Giraf B. trands. die Deutsclhe.Nation (1870); and Life by Gbrlach (Engl. transl., the wolves with much skill and activity. The flesh and fat conTauchnitz, I875). stitute the permmican of the fur-traders, and the tallow is also of commercial value. Attempts to domesticate these animals have Bis'muth is a crystalline, brittle metal, having a white colour, met with partial success only. with a shade in the red. It is first mentioned by Agricola (I529), Bissa'o or Bissa'gos Islands, a group of about 20 small and was subsequently investigated by Pott (I739), Beccher, volcanic islands enclosed by a reef, off the W. coast of Africa, Geoffrey, John Davy, and others. It usually occurs in the pure opposite the mouth of the Rio Grande. The Portuguese have or native condition, and is often found beautifully crystallised. a fortified settlement on the principal island, B., and carry It is found chiefly in Saxony, and requires little other metallur- on an extensive traffic in slaves. The wealth of the natives gical treatment than fusion to get rid of earthy impurities. B. consists of cattle and goats, only a small quantity of maize is very heavy (sp. gr. 9'8), readily fusible (fusing point, 247~ C.), being cultivated, though the soil is fertile. and may be distilled at a high temperature in a current of hydrogen. It may be obtained in beautiful cubical crystals by Biss'en, Hermazn Wilhem, a Danish sculptor, was born fusion and partial cooling. Its chemical symbol is Bi, and its I3th October I798, near Slesvig, and studied ten years at Rome atomic weight 2Io. It dissolves in nitric acid (aqua fortis) and under Thorwaldsen, his countryman. He received several imin aqua regia; but is not attacked by hydrochloric acid. Its portant commissions from the Danish Government, was made alloys with other metals are important, on account of their ready director of the Art Academy at Copenhagen in I85o, and was fisibility (see ALLOYS), and the property they possess of ex- appointed by Thorwaldsen in his will to complete his unfinished 398 BIS THIE GLOBE ENCYCL- OP-EDIA, BIT works. B. died IotllMarch 868. His works are distinguished Euxine, as far E. as Paphlagonia, and bounded on the S. by by vigour and earnestness. Among them are the'Valkyries;' Phrygia and Galatia. The Greek poets sometimes called it a'Venlus;'' Cupid sharpening his Arrow;' a frieze in the great Beeb-)cia, from its earliest semi-mythical inhabitants the Beloyces. hall of the palace at Copenhagen; and some works commemor- The chief stream was the Sangarios (mod. Sakaria). Its most ative of the national struggle with Prussia. notable towns were the Greek colonies, Chalcedon, Heraclea, Biss'unpur or Bish'anpur, a town of British India, in the PMyrlea (later Apamea), and Astakos; after whose destruction district of Banp ora, division of Burdwan, province of Bengal by Lysimachus Nicomedes I., Nicomedia was founded close by, district of Bankora, division of Burdwan, province of Bengal, and became the favourite residence of the kings of B., and one on the left bank of the river Bankora, 45 miles W. of Burdwan, of the greatest cities of Asia Minor. Nicaea and Prusa also and 83 N.W. of Calcutta. It has considerable manufactures of flourished along with Nicomedia. The inhabitants according silk and indigo, and an active trade in metal wares, cotton, jute, to their legends, were of Thracian origin. About 560 B.c. ndXto their legends, were of Thracian origin. About 560 B.C. and fibres. Pop. (1872) I8,047,. they came under the power of Crcesus, the king of Lydia, and Bis'tort, or Snakeweed (Poiy~onuvz z Bistorta), a perennial on the overthrow of the Lydian monarchy, 548, submitted to plant of the natulal order FPolyonacea, growing in moist pas- the Persians. In the 3d c. B.c. B. recovered its independence tures and meadows, chiefly in the hilly districts of Europe, Cen- under native princes, who, however, became quite Graecised tral and Russian Asia, and Northern America, extending into ip manners and speech. Finally Nicomedes III. (died 75 B.C.) the Arctic regions, but not common in Britain, where it is fre- left his kingdom to. the Romans, who made it a province. It quently a straggler from gardens. It is a valuable astringent. is particularly memorable as the scene of Pliny the Younger's proconsulship, from which he wrote his famous letter to Trajan Bis'tre, an artist's colour of a warm brown colour, prepared regarding the practices of the Christians. Under Diocletian chiefly from the soot of beechwood fires. It is used only as a it was the customary residence of the Roman emperor. In the water-colour, and chiefly in monochrome sketches. IIth c. it came into the possession of the Seljukide Turks, from whom it was temporarily captured by the Christians durBis'tritz, or Nosen, a, town in the N.E. of Transylvanig, ing the First Crusade; and in 1326 it was conquered by the on the river B., a tributary of the Great Szamos, one of the Osmanli, who made Prtusa (Brusa) the capital of their Asiatic branches of the Theiss. It has a Gothic church (I5 9), with a dominions. tower 300 feet high, two monasteries, two hospitals, a large bazaar, and an encircling wall with two bastions and fourteen Bit'lis, a town of Asiatic Turkey, vilayet of Erzroum, I20 towers. It had once a great transit trade with Dantzic and the miles S.E. of Erzroum, and 12 miles S.W. of Lake Van, on Levant, but its commerce is now limited to the Bukowina. a river of the same name. The fertile ravine in which it lies Frequent contests occurred here in 1848-49 between the Aus- is over 5000 feet above the level of the sea. It has an extentrian and Hungarian generals. Pop. 345I, mostly German Pro- sive trade, being an emporium for the imports and exports of testants. The district of B. has a pop. of more than IOO,ooo, Armenia and Kurdistan. Its dyes are famous for their brilmostly Roumans and Germans. Its mining, once so important liancy, and its carpets, of a rich texture, are elegantly and tastethat, according to authentic records, the Tartars in their invasion fully designed. The bazaars are well stocked and busy. Beof I242 partly slew and partly carried into captivity 40,000 sides several mosques and Armenian churches, B. has about a workmen, has in the last century or two greatly declined, and dozen monasteries of howling dervishes. Pop. from Io,ooo to at present is of no importance. 12,000, of whom a large number are Armenians. Bisulpur', a town in the executive district of Bareilly, N.W. Bito;'to (the ancient Butzuntzum), a town in the province of Province, British India, 24 miles S.E. of Bareilly. Pop. (1872) Bari, S. Italy, about Io miles W.S.W. of the town of Bari. 9005. Along with Ruvo it is a bishop's see, has a splendid cathedral, two monasteries, and a large orphanage. Zagarello, a wine of Bites of Rabid Animals. These are very dangerous, not some reputation, is produced in the district in considerable only on account of the local effects, but more especially on account quantities. Pop. (I872) 24,978. Here, on the 24th March of the constitutional effects which may arise afterwards, as Hydro- 1734, the Spaniards won a victory over the Austrians which phobia (q. v.). The treatment consists in tying, where that is decided the fate of Naples. possible, a ligature above the seat of injury, or applying compression. This to some extent prevents absorption of the poison. Bitsch (Fr. Bitche), a town and fort of German Lorraine, The parts around the wound should be excised as soon as pos- 35 miles N. of Strasbourg, at the N. base of the Vosges, and a sible; the wound should now be well washed, and afterwards station on the Hagenau and Saargemiind Railway. It is consisome caustic freely applied. Attention must be paid to the dered nearly impregnable, being defended by an outer wall, and general health until the wound heals. It is only when the ani- by a strong citadel built on a high rock, and capable of accommal is really rabid that such severe treatment is necessary. modating a garrison of Iooo men. There are manufactures of Bites from animals not rabid are best treated by soothing appli- Porphyry wares, papier-mache, clocks, hour-glasses, and earthencations, as poultices. ware, and in the vicinity are iron and glass works. B. came to France with the rest of Lorraine in I738. In the FrancoBites of Venomous Reptiles. The serpents provided Prussian war it was unsuccessfully besieged by the Germans, with poisonous fangs are chiefly natives of foreign countries, only September I 1-14, 870, but was transferred from France to one, the common adder or viper, being a native of this country. Gelrmany along with part of the department of Moselle, on the The general arrangement of their poisonous fangs will be de- conclusion of peace, May Io, I87I. Pop. (1874) 3047, includscribed in connection with the serpents possessing them. The ing 650 soldiers. bite of the common adder is seldom fatal in man. The bites of some foreign species are fatal in a few minutes. Treatment Bitter Ash, or Bitter Wood, the common name in Jamaica consists in sucrking the wound freely. This is quite safe if there for Quassia (q. v.). be no broken skin in the mouth. This may be done by the person bitten, or by a friend. At the same time a ligature is to Bitter Cucumber, or Bitter Apple (Cilullzus [Czcuntis] be tied above the injured part where that is possible. The part ColocyZtTis), supposet2 to be the wiii vine or zild gnooud of the may be cut out, and some strong caustic applied to the wround Old Testament (2 Kings iv. 39). The fruit furnishes the drastic Internally stimulants are to be given freely, such as ammonia or hydragogue cathartic known as Colocynth. Two iinds are brandy. known-Peeled Colocynthl, from Smyrna, Constantinople, Alexandretta, Italy, France, and Spain; and.fMogadore or Unpecled Bithoor', a town of British India, in the district of Cawnpur, Colocynthz, which is obtained from Mogadore. The first is the division of Allahabad, N.W. Province, on the right bankl of the best, and the kind generally employed in medicine (Bentley). Ganges. It was the stronghold of Nena Sahib during the Indian Mutiny. The fort was burnt by General Havelock after his Bitt'ern (Bolourzus), a genus of GraollZorinl or Wading defeat of the Nena, I6th July 1857. Pop. (I871) 8322. birds, included in the Heron family, Alrdeid&n. These birds differ from the herons in building on the ground, and among Bithyn'ia, anciently a country in the N.W. of Asia Minor, reeds and in swamps, in which they lie concealed during the day. extending along the Propontis, the Thracian Bosphorus, and the The plumage of the neck is of a detached and loose character, 399 BIT THE GLOBE ENC YCLOPFED~A. BIT and canll be erected along with the other feathers at will. The red berries are the cause of frequent poisonings, especially of black of the neck is bare, or invested by a meagre covering only. children, who are tempted by their appearance to eat them. The. The toes are very long, the leafless twigs are used as a diaphoretic and diuretic, and as a G o'1/, 2 middle toe especially being remedy in skin diseases. much elongated. They are'\nocturnal in habits//,, and feed | Bitts, in shipbuilding, strong cylindrical pieces of wood or vi///,,4.6"... an d fly abr dg ironl about IS inches high, firmly fixed in the deck for the purand fly abroad during the xight. \ l The cry is sharp, harsh, and of pose of securing ropes. In modern ships iron bitts are so con\\ ii&a dissm al character. The com- structed as to serve as ventilators for the hold. mon B. (BotauruZs stelar-is) is Bitu'men. Under this name are included a series of subthe familiar species. The head stances which differ widely in their physical characteristics, but is coloured greenish-black; the all of which have a common origin and gradually merge into body plumage being yellowish each other. The bituminous series ranges from the volatile,,-,,: -__~~ ~: I, /ein colour, mottled with black. clear, limpid, hydrocarbon naphtha through petroleum and the hit~t ltg It was formerly more abundant thick viscid naphtha to the black, hard, lustrous and glassy than it now is, owing to the asphalt, the series of changes being produced by oxidation and dr/ ainage of marshy districts., exposure. As the name asphalt is generally applied to a limeThe eggs number 4 or 5, and stone rock strongly impregnated with B., the term B. might the young remain in the nest properly be reserved for the varieties comparatively free from Common EBittert. until they are fledged. The B. earthy matter which are employed for makling varnishes, such as is a voracious bird, feeding on: black Japan varnish, &c. See ASPHALT. fishes and on other birds. It is distributed over the Old World. In summer it may be found in N. Europe and Siberia, and in Bitum'inous Coal, a name given to such kinds of coal as winter it occurs in India, China, and S. Africa. The little B. contain a large quantity of orgalic, volatile, or resinous matters, (B otaunris minuzzlus) is less and which consequently burn brightly, and yield in distillation common in Britain, and a-ver- large quantities of pure gas. They are chiefly used for the ages about I3 inches in length, latter purpose. The American B. (B. Cenii- Bituminous Limestones. This term denotes limestones gosus) is found in N. America, which contain bituminous and resinous matters derived from the but has occasionallybeen found decay of organic matter, chiefly of plant kind. in Britain. Its head is reddishbrown, and its colours are Bituminous. Shales, clay rocks occurring in the true darker than the common. coal measures, and which, when mixed with ordinary coal, may __________ British species. The B. burn, owing to the amount of bituminous matters they contain. exilis, or least B., is another These shales, however, even after combustion retain their form, N. Amrerican. species of small: and do not.fall toashes after the fashion of pure coals. _ _ size. The Australian B. (B. Bitz'tus, Albert, a celebrated Swiss writer of folk-lore, Little Bittern. Aestralis) resembles its British better known by his pseudonym of Jeremias Gotthelf, born at neighbours in habits. The Morat, Freiburg, 4th October 1797. He was educated for the upper parts and head are of a purplish-brown colour; the Church, and was pastor of Litzelflih, Emmenthal, Bern, from wings being yellowish-brown or b uff; and tile throat, breast, 1832 till his death, 22d October 1854. Itis first work, Batern-fz and belly being brown with buff markings. siege (' The Mirror of Peasants,' Burgsdorf, I836; 3d ed. Berl. Bittern is the name given to the liquor which remains after 1850), established his reputation. Hlis Leidenz zzd Fi-edzaen most of the common salt has been separated by evaporation and. eines Schzdzneisters (' Sorrows and Joys of a Schoolmaster,' 4 crystallisation from sea-water or the water of saline springs. It vols. Bern, I838; Bed. 1848-49); Deunsli, der Brazntwveinconsists chiefly of a solution of chlorides and sulphates of the s/infer (' Dursli, the Brandy-Drinker,' Burgsd. 1839); Bi/nder bases magnesium, sodium, and calcium, and also contains minute und Sagen aus der Schlweiz (' Scenes and Legends from Switzerquantities of bromine and iodine. land,' 6 vols. Soloth. IS42-46); Erz/'hienzgenz end Bilder anzs In the south of France and elsewhere the extraction of the, dem. Vo/lZsZebeiz der Scheveiz (' Stories and Pictures of Popular Life salts and bromine from B. is carried out on a large scale. in Switzerland,' 5 vols. Berl. I852-55), are all admirable for their Bitter Orange.- See ORANGE. fine realism and their healthy morality. A collected edition of B.'s works, in 24 vols., was published at Berlin in I855-58 Bitt'ers, a popular medicine extensively used as a tonic and (2d ed. i86I). See Manuel, B. seinz Leben zenzd seine Sc/;nifirz carminative. B. are prepared by infusing in water some vege- (Berl. I857). table substance containing a bitter principle, and afterwards straining the infusion. The strained infusion alone should be used. To this infusion some rectified spirit should be added, to possess shells, which consist of two pieces or'valves.' Each half of the shell is thus termed a'valve.' This name, whilst prevent the B. becoming putrid. A good proportion is one of convenient for popular use, is apt to be very misleading in spirit to two of water. This will keep for any length of time, zoology, since there ar use, is apt to be very misleading ieach and can be diluted when required for use. B. may be prepared since there are two groups of Mollusca which each and can be ilte r vegetable substance, such as gentian, bogbeanred possess B. shells, but which in respect of their internal structure from quassia chitter vegetable substanlix, such as gentian, bogotean, and relations are very widely different. These classes are the quassia, chiretta, willow (salix), centaury, Columba root, &c. Brc/ziode (q. v.) and Lame//i/n-nc/zieie; the former class B. are greatly improved by containing some aromatic substances, being resented by the'lamp-shells' (7Z-ebnen/e, Linlmrl, such as ginger, cinnamon, cassia, or pepper, Some substances csuch as ginger, cinnamon, cassia, or pepper Some substances &c.), whilst the latter class contains the more familiar oysters, contain aromatic properties in addition to bitter principles, and mussels, cocles. The Lamellibranchiata are admittedly of in consequence are held in high esteem for making B. To this class belon angelica and angostra or Cusparia bark. Care higher organisation in most points than the Brachiopoda. class betakelongt avongelica pantsd a ing ostura or ibark.CareThe shells differ widely, however, in external characters. Thus must be taken to avoid all plants containing poisonous ingre- in the Brachiopods, the valves are placed dorsally and ventrally; dients, as strychnine bark. B. are best taken before meals, and in the Lamelhibranchiata they lie side by side or laterally. In tend to improve the appetite, promote digestion, and give tone the former the valves are opened an shut by muscles; in the to the whole system. B. are more areeable, an of ore medi latt the fo rmer the valves are opened and shut by muscles; in the cinal virtue, when combined with aromatics and carminatives. an elastic ligament. The Brachiopo shell is equilateral, but an elastic ligament. The Blachiopod shell is equilateral, but Bitter-Sweet, or Nightshade (Solonzum Duzcczmara), a inequivalve; the Lamellibranchiate shell is inequilateral and equiplant of hedges and thickets found in moist situations all over valve. In microscopic structure the shell of the Brachiopod is Europe, except in the extreme N. In Russian Asia there occurs seen to be made up of numerous flattened prisms, arranged a variety, or a closely allied species. It is found generally over parallel to one another, and at a very acute angle with the shell England and Scotland, though rarer in Scotland. The ovate surfaces; whilst the shell structure itself isperforatedlby asystem 400 -aI;' ------------- - BIV THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPEDrA. BLA of canals continuous with processes of the Manfle (q.v.) which produced when all the three primary colours are mixed in un; secretes the shell. The Lamellibranchiate shells want this equal proportions, although in theory equally mixed they should characteristic structure. produce a white effect. B., in the symbolism of medixeval art, The prominent point near which the hinge (formed usually of indicated evil, falsehood, and error, and among modern nations tooth-like processes fitting into sockets) is situated is termed the it is regarded as appropriate for the garb of grief and mourning. umna or beak. This beak is placed on the dorsal or upper sur- The principal B, pigments used by-painters are ivory-B., boneface of the shell, and points towards the moutth or anterior border B., lamp.B., and beech-B. Brunswick-B. is used for covering of the shell; whilst the opposite borders are respectively termed cast-iron work, such as grate-fronts, fenders, &c. Blacks in;ventral and posterior. Internally, the living shell is lined by the dyeing are produced from logwood, sapan wood, and madder, mantle, the line along which the mantle is attached being termed with strong iron mordants, and there are several aniline blacks. the pallial line. See also MANTLE, MOLLUSCA, SHELL, &C. the allial line. See also MANTLE, LL A, SHELL,. Black, John, an eminent journalist in the early part of the Biv'ouac (Fr. originally bivac, from Ger. beiwache,'bywatch'), Ig9th c., was born in Berwickshire in 1783, his father being a a term in the military art introduced during the Thirty Years' shepherd in the Lammermoors, near Dunse. For some time he War, signifying-(I) the encampment of a whole army during was employed in a writer's office, first in Dunse, and then in Edinthe night in the open air in expectation of a surprise or attack burgh. After having devoted much time in that city to self-imwhen in the vicinity of the enemy; and (2) any encampment for the provement, and especially to the acquisition of ancient and modern night without tents. To secure rapidity of movement, the French languages, he went to Lodon about I8Io, and became parliarevolutionary armies encamped regularly en B., a practice never mrentary reporter on the Morning Chronicle, and subsequently generally adopted, and now resorted to only in cases of absolute its editor. Under him the Chronicle became a most successful necessity. journal, and was celebrated for the fearlessness of the opinions Bixa (B. Orellana), the name given by the Indians of Darien it expressed. Retiring in 1844, he lived quietly at Birling in1 Kent, and died there, June IS, x855, B, published a Life of to a plant from the reddish pulp surrounding whose seeds is Kent, and died there, June 15, I B. published a Life of produced the Arnotto or Anotto (q. v.), used to colour choco- Tasso (Edinb. 2 vols. i8io), and translated several works from French, Italian, and German; among others, the lectures of the late, cheese, and butter. Schlegels on dramatic art, and on the history of ancient and Bixa'cese, or Flacour'tiaoeso, the Arnotto order (see BIXA), modern literature. He was a shrewd, cultured, and kindly man, contains about 96 species, almost entirely confined to the hottest and was considered in his time to be a model newspaper editor. parts of the W. Indies and Africa. Some of the plants, on account of their feeble astringency and bitterness, have been Black, Joseph, author of the theory of'latent heat,' was used as stomachics. the son of a Scoto-Irish merchant, and was born at Bordeaux in 1728. He was sent to Belfast for his education at twelve years of Biziu'ra. See MUSK DUCK. age; entered the University of Glasgow when eighteen, and studied BjUrn'son, Bjdrn'sterne, a distinguished Norwegian novel- chemistry under Dr Cullen. In I751, he proceeded to Edinburgl ist and dramatist, was born at Kvikne, Oesterdal, December 8, to complete his medical curriculum, and took his degree in 1754. 1832, entered the University of Christiania in 1852, and pro- In the following year he enlarged the Latin thesis which he read duced his first drama, Valburg, while still a student. Dissatisfied on that occasion, and published it as Experiments on Magnesia, with the state of the theatre at Christiania, he withdrew his play Quicklime, and other Alkaline Substances. This paper excited from the managers before they put it on the stage, and devoted great attention, as it explained the manner in which lime-water himself for a time to vigorous dramatic criticism, by which he acted in alleviating the excruciating pains of stone and gravel. did a great deal to improve the national stage of Norway. In In 1756 B. succeeded Cullen in the chair of Anatomy and CheI856 B. went to Copenhagen, where he wrote the greatest part mistry in Glasgow; and between I759 and 1763 he evolved of Synnmve Solbakken, a novel which placed him in the foremost his famous theory of'latent heat.' In 1766 B. again succeeded rank of Scandinavian writers, and may be said to have begun a Cullen as Professor of Chemistry in Edinburgh University. Here new era in the literary life of Norway, From Copenhagen he his class was always crowded; he paid great attention to the returned to his native country, where he was for some years perspicuity of his lectures; but he did nothing to widen further manager of the theatre at Bergen, and later of that in Chris- the boundaries of chemical science. B. died November 26, I799, tiania. He edited for a short time, at Christiania, the Aften- at the age of seventy-one. His lectures were published (Edinb. bladet, one of the leading Norwegian journals. Other novels, 2 vols. 4to) in I8o3, with a biographical preface by Professor each of striking merit, published by B., are Arne (IS58, trans- Robison. lated into English I866 A), Blithe Boy (TI86o), 7he Fisher Girl atedinoEnglis lih oy(86) F Black, William, a modern English novelist, was born at (I868). They are all vivid pictures of peasant life in Norway. lasgow in 84, an was educated at various private schools. Among B's dramas are Betscveen the~at~esFg B ~ ing~i",o Glasgow in I84I, and was educated at various private schools. and MAery Stuart ina Engla nd. - For several years he was exclusively a journalist, and though well known in his profession, could hardly be said to be even Bjdrnstjer'na, Magnus Fredrik Ferdinand, Count, the shadow of a name to any considerable portion of the outside born Ioth October 1779, at Dresden, where his father was then public. In i868, however, appeared his novel iz Si/k Attire, secretary to the Swedish legation, was educated in Germany, which betokened the possession of exquisite talent, but did not and entered the Swedish army in 1793, serving as captain in forcibly arrest the attention of the public. There was no mistake, the Finland war. In 1813 he followed the Crown Prince (Berna- however, about the reception of A DauzghZer of feth (i871, I Ith dotte) to Stralsund; afterwards fought in the battles of Gross- ed. i875), which at once placed its author in the front rank of beeren (23d August, against Oudinot), Dennewitz (6th Sep- living artists; and since then almost every book he has written, tember, against Ney), and Leipzig; and arranged the capitula- of which the best are The Strannge Adventures of a Phaeton (1872), tion of LUbeck with Lall.emand, and the cession of Maestricht. The Princess of Thufle (I873), and 7he Aiid of Killena, &c. After the Holstein war with Christian Ferdinand of Denmark, (i874), has confirmed and deepened the impression he made B. terminated the Norwegian campaign by the treaty of Moss. four years ago. Subtle, delicate, and pure in his conception of He was created a count, and acted as ambassador at London for character, B. is also incomparably graceful and chaste in style, nearly twenty years. He died at Stockholm, 6th October I847. everywhere showing some of the finest qualities of the poet and B. wrote on political subjects, such as public credit, universal artist. A new work, Madcap Violet, is now (January I876) in Suffrage, and also on Hindoo religion and philosophy. Enge/ska course of publication. Statsskundenz (Stockh. I833), and Gzrunderfdr Repriesentationens Mtatssi e On(bySgncd oc ) aorenk un f (Stockh. R835), and Detns Black Alder Bark, or Winter Berry, obtained from Mbgliga Ombyggnad och Ff'renk/ing (Stockh. 1835), and Del rfolaceis). A decoction Brittiska izket i Ostindien (Stockh. i839), are among his chief Ps used in the United Stat es as a tonic and astringent. is used in the United States as a tonic and astringent. works. His Anteckningar ('Commentaries,' 2 vols. Stockh. I85I) are particularly interesting as contributions to the history Black Art. See MAGIC, of the Napoleonic struggle..of the Napoleonic struggle, Black Assize, the name applied to the assize held in the Black, though popularly spoken of as a colour, is really an old town-hall of Oxford from 4th to 6th July 1577, because at effect produced by the extinction of all colour; that is, a purely its close a terrible pestilence broke out, which by August I2th B. surface absorbs all the rays of light which fall on it. B, is had carried off 5Io persons, among whom were the chief digni51 40oI BLA TIlE GI OBE ENCYCL OPEDIA. BLA taries who sat on the assize, and most of the jury. The malady, is covered by feathers, giving the head a slightly tufted or regarded at the time as a judgment fiom God on the cruelty of hooded appearance. The females exceed the males in size, and the sentence passed on a bookbinder named Rowland Jencks, their heads are rust coloured. The back, wings, and tail in accused of sedition, may with more propriety be attributed to both sexes are of an ashy-brown colour; the throat and breast the filth of the adjoining gaol. being grey, and the under parts white. Blackband Ironstone, an iron ore existing in large These birds are migratory, and arrive quantities in the S.WV. of Scotland, and discovered about the They Britain about the middle of April.mmer, even year ISoo by the late Mr Mushet. It is a carbonate of iron, They fly northwards in summer, even mixed with clay and sand, and coloured by carbonaceous matter, to Lapland, but appear to be perma. nent residents in Southern Europe, which forms part of the fuel used in reducing it. It generally contains from 20 to 30 per cent. of metallic iron. Similar ore The B. i celebrated for its song, which - l is hardly inferior to that of the nighthas since been discovered in Westphalia. is h ardly inferior to that of the nightingale. It readily survives and sings in Black Beetle. SEE BLAPS and COCKROACH, confinement. The male assists in incuBlackberry. See BRAMBLE. bation, and may sing when sitting on the eggs. The nest is fixed in a low Blackbird, or Merle (Tzurdus ret-ula or Merua vlgaris), ush, the eggsTh bnest fied in number, Blackcap. a well-known species of Insessorial or Perching birds, included oloured pale greenish-white and spotted with brown The in the sub-family of 7trdine or True Thrushes. The male bird garden warbler (CurrRca hazortensis), the whitethroat (C. cine;ea), is coloured a uniform deep black, the legs and claws being dusky and lesser whitethroat (C. sylvieia) are included in the same brown. The bill, eyelids, and mouth are deep orange. The upper plumage of the female is of a dull brown hue, the chin, throat, and upper part of the breast being coloured of a lighter Blackcap Titmouse, a name sometimes given to the brown; whilst the belly, sides, and under tail-coverts are darker Marsh T. of Britain, and also to the' Chickadee' of N. America. brown. Varieties of the common B. are occasionally met with (See TITMOUSE.) of a pied or whitish colour. These birds pair early in spring, Black Chalk, a variety of Clay-Slate (q. v.) containing carbon, and are frequently said to pair for life, the male and female and used for drawing and painting purposes. It is found in varibeing seen together during winter. The nest is built amid thick ous places; for instance' the island of Islay, Caernarvon, Spain. shrubs, and the eggs, four or five in number, are of a bluish-green colour, spotted with reddish-brown, or they may be destitute of Blackoock, or Black Grouse (Tetlrao letix), a species spots entirely. This bird feeds on insects, larvae, worms, snails, of Rasorial birds, included in fruits, and seeds. It occurs over Britain and Europe, N. Africa, the Tetraonice or Grouse and the Azores. The cry is cheerful, and these birds appear also family. The male birds posto possess considerable imitative powers. sess a plumage of fine glossy The ztrdzes p&ccilopterus of Asia is nearly related to the com- black, with white on the lower mon B. The ring-ouzel (T. torqualus), so named from the pos- wing-coverts, the under tailsession of a white stripe across the breast, is sometimes known coverts, and the bases of the as the ring-B. secondary quills of the wing. The tail has a peculiar form, - / Black-Boy Gum, or the red resin of New Holland, is the four outer feathers of each obtained from a Grass Tree (q. v. )-XanthoZorrhca Hashtie.side beinglong and curved / The yellow or Botany Bay resin is probably the product of X. outwards at their tips, so as arborea. Both resins exude spontaneously from the trunks of to give a double-hooked apthe trees, and have a fragrant balsamic odour. pearance to the tail. In the Blackcock Black Bully, or Bally-Tree Wood (Achras sajola), a females the tail is simple andS. American tree, belonging to the natural order Sapotaccea, the straight, the colour of the females being pale or rustybrown marked wood of which is greenish and very hard, and is used for ship- withbrown hues. The slanks are feathered. Thesebirds occur in building, &c. Its bark is febrifugal, and its seeds diuretic and moors, chiefly in Scotland, and aperient. particularly in mountainous Blackburn, a flourishing town of Lancashire, on the Dar. districts. Theyare also found,: a wen, a branch of the Ribble, 9 miles S.E. of Preston, and 24 on the European continent,' N.N.W. of Manchester by railway. It is one of the chief seats on the Alps and Apennines, / / of the cotton manufacture, and produces calico, muslin, &c., to and in Russia and Sibeia. the annual value of ~8,ooo,ooo, having some IIo mills, with They feed on the twigs, -,,500,000 spindles, and employing about 36,000 persons of both of heath, on the leaves and of shoots of tplants, and sexes. As early as the I7th c. it was noted for the manufacture shoots of plants, and on berries. They are gregariof what were called B. checks and B. gireys, kinds of linsey- berries. They are gregariwoolsey, and in later times it has been associated with many ous; the sexes in winter, howimprovements in the cotton manufacture, chief of which was the ever, keeping in separate og u invention (I767) of the spinning-jenny by Hargraves, who was flocks. They are polygamous - born in the vicinity. Of late years the town has greatly improved, in habits, and pair in spring, v - and has now many fine buildings, the most notable being the but the males take no part in wit u/ parish church of St Mary's, the Congregational Church, the the incubation of the young. Black Grouse (female). Town-hall, the Exchange, and the Public Free Library (which The young males resemble the contains 20,000 volumes). There are numerous charitable and females in the colour of their plumage. The eggs number six or educational establishments, including a free grammar school, eight, and are of yellowish white colour, spotted with brown, founded tby Qlueen Elizabeth in I567. On the skirts of the | and are each about two inches in length. The flesh is highly town is the Corporation Park, with an area of some 50 acres. esteemed, these birds being considered as typical British game. Besides having excellent railway communication, B. is connected birds. Hybrids between these birds and other grouse, or even with aLeeds and Liverpool by means of a canal. The town is |pheasants, are said to be occasionally produced, although the epresentedl by two members of Parliament. Popo (f87n) Of T exact nature of these breeds has not been determined. The municipal borough, 76,339; of parliamentary borough, 82,928. municipal borough, 76,339; of parliamentary borough, 82,928. average weight of the male B. is 4 lbs., and that of the female The district in which B. lies, anciently covered with a vast about 2 or 2 lbs forest, known as B/ackburnshire or Blagrnbornshire, is now ex- |Black Cummin of the Scriptures (Isa. xxvii. 25-27), beceedingly populous, and abounds in coal and lime. lieved to be the seeds of Nigella sativa, natural order D)illeniacea, Blace~ap (Curruca ctalicapi/la), an Insessorial or Perching or of a closely allied species, the seeds of which are used by bird belonging to the sub-family of the Sylvintz or True War- the Afghans for flavouring curries. blers, and so nanrd from the jet-black head of the male, which Black Dammar. See CANARIUM. 402 * *I BLA THKE GL OBE ENzC YCL OPED2IA. BLA Black Death is the name given to the unusually severe tagion, which by self-mortification they hoped to escape. The epidemics of Oriental plague which visited Europe in the I4th c. disgraceful 7udenschlacht (or slaughter of the Jews), in SwitzerBefore the B. D. appeared on the coasts of the Mediterranean land, Germany, and elsewhere, was also an indirect effect of in I347, it is said to have ravaged China, India, and Egypt. the B. D. The Jews were accused of poisoning public wells, From Constantinople it spread through Southern and Central but the only evidence in support of the charge was obtained by Europe andinto England in I348. It may be observed that the torture, and was therefore worthless. I2,000 Jews were, howbattles of Cressy and Neville's Cross in 1346 had relieved ever, put to death in Mainz alone. (See Boccaccio, Decamerone; England from exhausting wars. Through Sweden and Poland Hecker's Epidemics of the Middle AAges.) it reached Russia in I35I. In some places-e.g., Avignon in There appeared in Ireland in I866-67 an extensive epidemic, 1360 (where it was observed by the heroic physician De distinguished from the more common form of cerebral meningitis Chauliac), and England in I36i and I369-it reappeared. by the presence of purple blotches, or patches of effused and Even-Iceland was attacked, and the disappearance of the Nor- dissolved hbematin, and resembling in other symptoms what wegian settlements in Greenland has been attributed to this has been described above. It was also called the B, D. (See cause. Scotland suffered in I349, and according to Wyntoun Malpother's'Malignant Purple Fever in Ireland,' read to the was- Epidemiological Society of Ireland, July I867.)' Off sa gret 6yolens, That, it wes seyd, off lywand men, Black'faced Sheep. The range over which these sheep The thrydliart it dystroyid then.' extend, and upon which no other sheep could thrive so well, (See also Macpherson's Jotes on the passage in the Cronykild is a very wide one, extending from Derbyshire on the S. through B. 8. ch. xlii.) In Europe the B. D. originally appeared in the counties of Cumberland, Lancashire, Westmoreland, and the form of a carbuncular affection of the lungs, accompanied by Yorkshire, to all the Scottish mountains, and they have even a.rdent fever, which carried off the patient in periods varying from penetrated into Orkney and Shetland. The B. S. are very hardy, twelve hours to three days, the shortest period being that perhaps in and are now beginning to supplant the Cheviots on their own Dorsetshire. Latterly, the symptoms described by the Byzantine hills. They feed on scanty fare, their wool, naturally coarse, has writers also appeared in W. Europe-; the glandular typhus and by careful selection been much fined down of late years, and the putrid inflammation of the lungs showing itself in buboes on the mutton of a three or four year old B. wether is unsurpassable. arms and thighs (the gavocciolo of La Mortalega Grande in Italy), The shearling rams bring high prices, as much as,65 having black spots or* petc/sdz all over the person, coma, and some- been given for one. Their horns are beautifully curled round their times intense thirst. It has been conjectured that the result- hmadsome faces, and their general aspect is gay. See SHEEP. ing mortality in Europe, as a whole, amounted to 25 per cent., Black-Fish (Cen/roo/hus pomnilus or moris), a genus of while in particular countries it is said to have varied greatly. Teleostean fishes belonging to the family ScomberiIIe or mackerel Thus in Italy it rose to 50, while in France it only reached Io per family, and occurring rarely on the S. coasts of Britain, but cent. In England,Wood states(Historyof Oxford Univei-sity, 1674) more commonly in the Mediterranean Sea, and on the W. coasts that g90 per cent. perished. This is of course incredible(see of Europe. This fish may attain a length of from 20 to 30 also Stowe's Survey, p. 478)-but we know that the price of inches, and may weigh as much as 14 lbs. The body is covered labour rose so high that Parliament attempted to compel labour with small or minute scales, and one long, low dorsal fin exists. at certain prices (37 Edw. III. c. 3). The body is of a black colour, the fins being darkest in hue. The B. D. has generally been connected with the great atmo- No Air-Bladder (q. v.) exists, and the skin is tough. The flesh spheric disturbances, variously shown in droughts, famines, &c., i said to be very palatable. which took their origin in the Chinese earthquakes of 1333 and following years. The College of Physicians in Paris believed Black Flux consists of an intimate mixture of charcoal and it to have arisen in the form of a mist from the Red Sea, carbonate of potash, obtained by calcining creoam of tartaor or which, again, was caused by a disorder in the heavenly bodies. bitartrate of potash in a closed crucible. When compounds of A more general opinion of the time referred it to the con- easily reduced metals are heated with the flux, the metal becomes junction in the sign of Aquarius of the planets Jupiter, Mars, separated. B. F. is, therefore, a useful chemical re-agent. and Saturn; and the physician Santa Sofia of Padua endeaVours to distinguish between the epidemy which is due to gene- cidrca of the Romans), so called from the sombre foliage of its ral atmospheric conditions connected with astral disturbances, pine-trees, a mountain-chain chiefly in Baden, but also partly i and the endem~y which is due to local telluric conditions. The pine-trees, a mountain-chain chiefly in Baden, but also partly in and the endemy which is due to local telluric conditions. The Wtirtemberg, which runs close to, and almost parallel with, the hypothesis of a cosmic alteration of the air is not very intelli- Rhine ch runs close to, and almost aralle with, the gible. On the other hand, simple contagion (although it acted e, from S.S.W. to..E, d is considered by many a prolongation of the Jura range. The rivers rising in it are the extensively without contact) cannot account for the progress Danube, Neckar, Kinzig, Murg, Enz, &c., most of which flow of the B. D.'We must suppose that, from a variety of causes Daubed into the Rhinz, Mulg, Enz,., most of which flow -e.g., the previous plagues (of which at least six had appeared igest summit of the chain, of which ther g under 5000 feet is the in the first halfsummit of the centy), the famines, c.-aof which the greatest length is about 8So miles, and the greatest breadth about 37 miles. The core position had been created in many places; and we know that the domestic habits of the age, and the absence of public sanim consists of granite and gneiss, flanked by porphyry, sandstone tepublic saum occurring at the base and along the loftiest ridges. The most tary regulations, indefinitely multiplied all the risks with which beautifulg at the is the nd al ong the loftiest ridges. The most later times are familiar, Purgation, bleeding, and the bun- are silver, coppe, lead, and cobal. mong ts mineral watreasures of ing of odoriferous wood arere among the chief remedies er- are silver, copper, lead, and cobalt, and the mineral waters of ing of odboriferous wood were among the chief remedies emns- Baden-Baden have long been celebrated. On the slopes facing ployed by the doctors, some of whom, as Gentilis of Foligno, the Rhine vineyards and orchards are profitably cultivated; but died of the plague. Generally, however, both priests and doctors the rearing of cattle and the manufacture of fancy articles of fled before the B. D., only some of the charitable orders doing wood, as clocks, music-boxes, &c., are the principal industries. their duty. Popularly, smellingflowers was thought to be a The Hdlle Strasse ('Hell Pass') and the Kniebis Strasse are protection. The town of Reggio distinguished itself by its associated with stirring incidents in the wars of the French efforts to establish a system of separating the diseased from the Revolution. The inhabitants are simple and quaint in their healthy; but it was not till long after this that lazarettos were established in Italy. The Catholic Church isways said to he wys of life, but pure in morals, and very intelligent. A halo of gained much money and land, intrusted by desperate owners to legendary romance and picturesue superstition still invests the its custody. The B. D. also revived in Hungary the Brother- region with an indescrjbable charm. hood of the Flagellants, or Brethren of the Cross, who had first Black'heath, an extensive common in the county of Kent, appeared in Italy about 1260, under the name of ZDevoti. Men, 5 miles E.S.E. of London, formerly a noted resort of highwaywomen, and children, in great crowds, went roaming through men, now a favourite place for holiday parties in summer. B. the chief towns of Europe without any more definite object than was the rendezvous of the Kentish men in Wat Tyler's rebellion that of flogging themselves for thirty-four days, or until they in I381, and in Jack Cade's in I450, and has been the scene should obtain divine grace. These brethren had masters, rules, of many other interesting historical events. Morden College, and a fund. Their pilgrimages, prohibited by the Pope (as also founded in I695 for the support of decayed merchants, the free in Germnany and France), only resulted in spreading the con- grammar school, erected by Abraham Colfe in -652, and the 403 BLA ]iiHE GLOBE EVNC YCLOPeiL9IA. BLA village of B., a station on the N. Kent Railway, and chiefly Europe. About the middle of the I4th c., B. was in common composed of handsome villas, all stand on the Common. use in England in the production of MS. works; and when Black Hellebore. See HELLEBORE. printing was invented a century later, both the block books and those printed with movable types were naturally in this charBlack HIole, the place in which soldiers guilty of minor acter, and imitated manuscript so perfectly, that it was difficult breaches of discipline are confined, and hence applied to a police to discriminate between the printed and thewritten. The Mainz cell, or any place where offenders are temporarily detained. Bible, known also as the Mazarine Bible, from a copy having The name has been distinctively applied to a small chamber, been found about the middle of the last century in the library not 20 feet square, in the old fort of Calcutta, into which, after of Cardinal Mazarin in Paris, is an exquisite imitation of manuthe surrender of the place to Surajah Dowlah, Nabob of Bengal, script. Books printed before the beginning of the i6th c. are 2Ist June 1756, there were thrust 146 persons at the point of mostly in B. L., though Italy furnishes some exceptions,-e.g., the sword,'in one of the hottest nights of the most sultry season the editions of Pliny's Historia NIaturalis, printed at Venice of the year.' Only twenty-three were found alive in the morn- by Spira (I469) and by Jenson (I472); but after that date the ing, and of these, says Macaulay, the ghastly forms could not Roman character came into favour, and in a short period suphave been recognised by their own mothers. planted the Gothic for general purposes. B. -L. books are highly Black'ie, John Stuart, Professor of Greek in the University prized by the book-hunter, from their age and consequent rarity. of Edinburgh, was born at Glasgow in i809. His university In Germany the Gothic character is still in use, but the Roman education, which included a three years' theological course, was character is occasionally employed, especially in printing works received partly at Aberdeen and partly at Edinburgh. He in some departments of science, and its use seems likely to bewent to Germany in I829, and afterwards to Rome, and during come more general. See Hallam's Literature of Europe, and this visit he devoted himself to the study of Getman and Italian Dibdin's 7Typogoraphical Antiquities (4 vols. I8Io-Ig); his Biblioliterature. HIe passed advocate at the Scottish bar in I834, but mania (I8II), and his Biographical, Antiquarian, and Pictorsoon retired from the practice of his profession, and became esque Tour in France and Germany (I82I). engrossed in literary work, especially in contributing to ma Blac ist, the name familiarly gi rinted lists zines and reviews. In I84I, B. was appointed Professor of iumanity in Marischal College, Aberdeen, where he remained bankruptcies, bills of sale, records of protests of bills, and other for eleven years, when he was eClebted to the chair of Greek in matters affecting the credit of individuals and firms. These are for eleven years, when he was elected to the chair of Greek in now extensively circulated among commercial men, bankers, and now extensively circulated among commercial men, bankers, and Edinburgh University. During his professorial career, B. has shopeepes. he legality of publishing such informaton was been instant in advocating, by pen and by tongue, the radical at one time disputed, but it has been decided to be lawful to do reform of the Scottish universities and higher- class public so, the lists being merely extracts from public registers. schools; and by his vigorous and effective eloquence he has acquired wide popularity as a public lecturer. In i874, B. was Blacklock, Thomas, D.D., born at Annan in I72i, a made convener of the University Council Committee for pro- preacher and poet, and in both respects somewhat of a phenomoting the foundation of a Celtic chair in Edinburgh University, menon, being blind from the age of six months. His parents and advocated the scheme throughout the country, with such were poor, but conspicuous talent found him a patron, and he enthusiasm and success, that at the close of I875 the subscrip- studied divinity at Edinburgh University, where he remained till tions amounted to 6700o. His works, of which the following 1745. In the following year he published a volume of pieces are the chief, are very numerous, and evince the versatility and in verse at Glasgow (2d ed. Edinb. I754). In I764 he finally activity of his mind, as well as the range and power of his settled in Edinburgh, where, on a small annuity received in lieu scholarship. Goethe's Faust, in English verse (I834); The Lyri- of a church appointment, he cultivated literature till his death, eal Dramas of./Eschylus, 2 vols. in English verse (I850); The 7th July I791. The degree of D.D. was received from Marischal Pronunciation of Greek (I852); Lays and Legends of Ancient College, Aberdeen. B.'s poetry is only mediocre, but he was the Greece (i857); Three Discourses on Beauty (I858); Lyrical friend of Hume and Burns; and it was his appreciative letter in Poems (I86o); Homer and the Iliad, 4 vols. (the second and 1786 that prevented the latter from leaving the country. A colthird containing the Iliad in English verse) (I866); Musa lected edition of his works, with a biographical sketch, was pubBurschicosa (I869); War Songs of the Germans (I870); Four lished by Mackenzie (Edinb. I793). See also Dr Robert AnderPh]ases of AMorals (187I); Lays of the Highlands and Islands son's memoir in his edition of the British Poets. (1872); Self-Culture (1873), and Horre Hellenicac (I874). Black-Mail, an unauthorised tax formerly levied in the HighBlack'ing, as the name implies, is a paste used for polishing lands and on the Borders by certain men who undertook to problack leather, especially the upper leather and the edges of the tect those paying it against the pillage of their cattle, and subsoles of boots and shoes. Different manufacturers put different mitted to in consequence of the impotence of the law. The leviers substances into the paste with which they supply the market, of this tribute were sometimes themselves caterani or robbers. but the main ingredients of the best B. are animal charcoal, However, cattle-lifting, so far from being considered dishonourotherwise called Bone-black (q. v.), sperm oil, raw sugar, and a able, was regarded rather as a mark of spirit and enterprise, and slight infusion of sulphuric acid, which, by converting a large the leviers of B. -M. could in many cases boast of ancient blood, portion of the lime in the animal charcoal into sulphate of lime, and of distinguished and powerful kindred. The most famous spethickens the mixture into the requisite pasty consistence. This cimen of the class was Rob Roy (q. v. ). In the Border Minstrelsy, compound, while it is still warm, is then diluted slightly with Jamie Telfer, who had been plundered of his cattle by the Captain vinegar, and the B. is ready to be bottled for the market. of Bewcastle, is answered by a chief of the Elliots, to whom he had applied for assistance to recover them,' Gae seek your sucBlacklead, Plumba'go, or Graph'ite, one of the forms in cour where ye paid B. -M.,' referring to the head of the Scotts, the which Carbon (q. v.) occurs native. B. has a metallic, lead-like laird of Buccleuch. The levier of B.-M., when informed of a lustre, and a greasy feel, and is found in Cumberland and other lifting, either recovered the cattle or paid an equivalent. In parts of Britain, in Ceylon, Siberia, Bohemia, Bavaria, &c., as Waverley, Sir Water Scott, with his usual graphic poer, nar well as in many localities of the New World. It occurs in beds rates a case of harryig or hersh and the recovery of the catte rates a casetofuharryinff ornhershij), and the recovery of the cattle, or veins in granite, gneiss, and other rocks of early formation The levying of B. -M. in the Highlands ceased after the suppresThe B. of Borrowdale in Cumberland is a fine-grained variety, sion of the rebellion of 1745, the law thenceforth asserting its and in its purest form contains 88 per cent. of carbon, the re- supremacy. maining impurities being hydrated oxides of iron and manganese Black'more, Sir Richard, a poet and physician at the silica, and alumina; it is much valued for the manufacture ofI an n, poeradi ltin abou lead-pencils. B. is also employed for making crucibles, muffles courts of William III. and Anne, was born in Wiltshire about for counteracting friction, and for giving a polished surface to I650. He was educated at Westminster School and Oxford, and cast-iron. It is a good conductor of electricity, took the degree of M.D. at the university of Padua. On his return to England he settled as a physician in London, and was Black Letter, the name familiarly applied in this country knighted by William III. He died 8th October 1729. B. is notori. to the various forms of what is generally known on the Continent ous for the manufacture of voluminous epics. His persistent dulas the Gothic letter, which about the close of the I2th c. began ness provoked general ridicule. Dryden accused him of writing to to supersede the Roman letter in the writings of Western the'rumbling of his coach's wheels;' Pope made him outbray all 404 * 4 _ BLA THE GLOBE ENCYCIOPIDIA. BLA rivals at the games in the Dunciad; and Cowper said that B. had affects only a narrow fiinge in the N., between Odessa and the written more absurdities than any other English author. His Crimea. There are few fisheries, owing to the depth of the sea chief works are Prince Arthur, Creation, The Redeemer, Eliza, and the absence of shoals and sandbanks. Of the numerous King Aifred, The Natlure of Man, A Satire zupon Wit, A Para- rivers which pour their waters into this sea, the principal are the phrase on the Book of7ob, besides a number of prose works partly Danube, Dniester, Dnieper, Bug, Don (Sea of Azof), on the W. professional. and N., the Kuban on the E., and the Kizil-Irmak and Sakaria Black Nightshade (Solaniuln nigcrum), a plant belonging on the S. Its principal ports are Varna (European Turkey), to the natural order Atoace. It possesses alterative and nar- Braila, in the delta of the Danube (Rumania), Odessa, Khercotic properties. Its fruit, as well as that of S. oleraceum, are son Eupatoria, Sebastopol, IKertch, Azof (Russia), Batum, common potherbs in the Mauritius. Trebizond, and Sinope (Asiatic Turkey). In ancient times its shores were the seats of several Greek colonies that carried on a Black'pool, a town in the county of Lancaster, on the coast, great trade with the mother-country, especially in the products to the N. of the estuary of the Ribble, I6 miles W. of Preston of the East; and it continued to be the scene of commercial and 30 N. of Liverpool. It takes its name from a dark boggy enterprise and industry till the overthrow of the Byzantine pool near the old seat of the Tildesleys, at the S. end of the empire. The Turks excluded all foreign ships from I453 till town.- It has no trade or manufactures, but is a celebrated I774, when Russia acquired the right to trade in it; a privilege bathing-place, with a handsome pier, splendid sands, and pure extended to Austria in I784, and to France and Britain in 1802. bracing air, and is easily accessible by railway. There are some At the close of the Crimean war in I856, Russian preponderance large hotels, libraries, newsrooms, and a theatre. Pop. (-87I) in the B. S. was carefully guarded against by treaty; but Russia 6o0I, with over I00,000 visitors in the course of the year. succeeded, at a conference of the contracting powers held at London in I87I, in procuring the abrogation of the restricting clauses. Black Prince, the name by which Edward, Prince of Wales, eldest son of Edward III. (q. v. ), is best known. Black Snake (Coluber or Bascagion constrictor), a species of Black Rod, Usher of the, an officer of the House of Colubrine snake included in the Innocuaus or harmless section Lords appointed by letters-patent. He is a Knight of the of that sub-order, and found in N. America, chiefly in the Garter, and chief gentleman-usher to the sovereign. His duties United States, from Louisiana to Connecticut. It attains a are to summon the gHouse of Commons to attend in the House length of six feet, and is coloured a glossy black. It is highly of Peers, and to take into custody any peer guilty of breach of active and swift in all its movements, and climbs trees with privilege. facility. It feeds on small birds, frogs, rats, &c., and will drink milk and cream. It possesses no poison apparatus, and is said Black Rood of Scotland, was a casket-shaped cross of gold, to be readily tamed. of peculiar sanctity, as containing what was deemed a portion of the true cross set in an ebony figure of the Saviour. It was Black'stone, Sir William, an eminent commentator on brought into Scotland about the year Io68, by Margaret, sister of English law, was born in London, Ioth July I723, educated at Edgar the Atheling, who was soon after married to Malcolm Can- the Charterhouse and at Pembroke College, Oxford, and was more. Margaret left it to her children as a sacred heirloom. It was called to the bar in 1746. In 1749 he was made recorder of reverently preserved in Edinburgh Castle along with the regalia Wallingford in Berkshire. In 1753 he gave a. course of law lecand the national records, till it was carried off by Edward I. in tures at Oxford, which led to his being appointed in I758 to the 129I. That monarch made use of it when he exacted oaths of Vinerian professorship in that university. The spirit of his lecfealty from the territorial and ecclesiastical magnates of Scot- tures was in accordance with the Toryism then dominant in England, who, however, despite the veneration in which the B. R. land, and led to B. beilig made a Q.C., or rather K.C. Other was held, hastened to break their oaths as soon as they found professional honours followed. Having entered the House of it convenient. The B. R., restored to Scotland at the peace of Commons (176I) as member for Hindon, he was made SolicitorNorthampton in I328, became the prize of Sir Ralph de General to the Queen. In I770 he was offered, but refused, the Neville, when he defeated and took captive David II. at the Solicitor-Generalship of England. He was then knighted, and battle of Neville's Cross, in 1346. From that time till the made a Justice of the Common Pleas. B. died I4th February Reformation it was suspended in the shrine of St Cuthbert in I780. Though a respectable pleader and judge, he was not Durham Cathedral; but its after history is unknown. See Bur- sufficiently distinguished to have been long remembered in either ton's History of Scotland, vol. ii. capacity. His fame rests wholly upon his Commentaries on the Laws of England (Ist ed. I764). It is generally conceded that Black or Eux'ine Sea. The earliest Greek epithet for in these he has succeeded in being eminently lucid-in extracting this sea, Axeinos, the'inhospitable,' suggested probably by the legal principles from the load of technical language under which storms to which it was subject, and the cannibalism of the they lay hidden and choked; but his want of historical scholarship Scythians who dwelt on its shores, was changed into Euxeinos, and his incapacity for scientific thought unfitted him for being in the'hospitable,' when its waters were opened to the commerce any high sense a philosophic critic of the national legislation. of Greece: the epithet Kara ('black'), given to it by the Turks, expressed their fears of the perils of navigating it, from the inci- Black Varnish. That of the Burmese is obtained from dence of sudden and heavy storms, and the scarcity of convenient MlelanorrhZa a usitatissima, natural order Aitacardiaceac. It is ports. The modern Greeks have translated the Turkish name anthelmintic. The nuts of Semecarpus anacardium, belonging into their own language, Mavri (anc. mauros,'dark') Thalassa. to the same order, is also extensively employed in the manufacThe B. S. is a large inland sea, separating the southern pro- ture of a B. V., and is the source of the marking-nut. vinces of European Russia from Asia Minor, and extending Black Wad, the native black oxide of Manganese (q.v.), so from 400 45' to 460 45' N. lat., and from 270 30' to 41" 50' E. called by miners. long. Its extreme length from E. to W. is fully 700 miles, and, its greatest breadth 380 miles; its coast-line exceeds 2000 miles, Black'wall, a suburb in the E. of London, on the N. side or and its area is 172,000 sq. miles. The Strait of Yenikale con- the Thames, 4 miles E.S.E, of the City, with which it is connects it with the Sea of Azof, and the Bosporus, the Sea of Mar- nected by a railway raised on a viaduct above the streets. It mora, and the Dardanelles, with the Mediterranean. The depth contains the E. and W, India Docks, numerous shipbuilding of water varies from 40 to I070 fathoms. Like other inland yards and foundries, and is a favourite point of embarkation for seas, the Euxine has no tides; but it has strong and well-defined passengers who wish to avoid the' Pool' and Greenwich Reach. currents, caused by the large influx from the rivers, each square mile of its surface receiving the drainage of 51 sq. miles of Black Warrior, also known by its Indian name, Tuscaland. Hence the comparative freshness of its waters, the aver- loosa, a river formed by the confluence of the Mulberry and age specific gravity being II04, as compared with that of fresh Locust, in Alabama, U.S., flows S., and enters the Tombigbee water at 0600, while that of the water of the Mediterranean is above Demopolis. It is navigable for steamboats for I50 miles. I028. The shores of the B. S. are very varied; in some places Its basin yields several valuable minerals. low and sandy, in others bold and rocky. The navigation is Black Watch, the name of six companies of militia, three of comparatively safe, there being few islands or rocks. The ioo men each under captains, and three of 70 men each under principal danger is from drift-ice for a part of the year; but this captain-lieuttenants% raised chiefly among the Whig clans, the ~Q L~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 405 BLA THE GLOBE ENCYCI OPzEDIA. BLA Campbells, Frasers, Grants, and Munros, about I730, to watch (I735), A Key to the Znquily (1736), Letters on MY~/j'hology (1748), and preserve order in the Scottish Highlands. The epithet and Memoirs ofthe Court of Augustus (3 vols. I753, I755, 1764, black was in allusion to the colour of the tartans in which the the last being incomplete). men were dressed, and the sidier dhu ('black soldier') was an object of fear and aversion to those clans whose chiefs favoured Black'wood, one of the commercial names for E. Indian rosethe claims of the Stuarts. The companies, not being connected wood (Dalbergia latifolia, natural order Leguminose). like those of a regiment, were known as the Independent Com-k panies of the B. W. In I739, the Highlands being then sup- Blawood, illia, a distinguished Scottish publisher, posed to have been pacified, the companies were incorporated as was born at Edinburgh, November 20, 1776. Passing through the 42d Regiment, with the Earl of Crawfurd and Lindesay as an apprenticeship to the bookselling trade, he became (1804) a bookseller on his own account in Edinburgh, and finally, in colonel. A dark arbitrary or fancy tartan, the now familiar 42d, on his own account in Edinburgh, and finally, in was adopted for the regimental kilt and trews. The B. W. is 1817, a publisher. In the same year he issued the first number of the celebrated magazine which bears his name. Gathering one of the crack regiments of the British army, its most recent of the ceebrated magazine which bears his name. Gathering distinctions having been won in the Ashantee war. For an round him some of the ablest literary men of the day, including distinctions having been won in the Ashantee war. For an Wilson, Hogg, and Lockhart, B. instantly achieved success. account of its earlier exploits, see Colonel David Stewart's Wilson, Hogg, and Lockhart, B. instantly achieved success. Till his death, September i6, I834, B. was the leading spirit Sktctades of the CDetaisfcter, Militears, Svc., of the nders of Hof the magazine, of which there was never a sole and irresponScotland, with Details of the Mgilitary Service of the ]-ig'ohland SaRegiments (Edinb. I~Dti~822). O Iit Svc f Nsible editor. As a political organ of the Tory party it was long 2?egizentts (Edinb. 1822). a power, and at first a terror. But its fore was literature; and Black'water, the seventh largest river in Ireland, rises in the if the'sound of revelry by night' was in the old days too loudly W. of Kerry, near Killarney, traverses in an easterly direction echoed in its pages, it has now completely died away. Yet it the counties of Cork and Waterford, and, after a course of 100oo has not lost, but only changed its spirit. Under the successors miles, enters the sea at Youghal harbour. It passes the towns of' Ebony,' Blackwood maintains its position in the face of numeMillstreet Mallow, Fermoy, Lismore, and Cappoquin, flows rous and formidable rivals, and is still admirable for the various through a well-wooded and beautiful region, abounds in salmon, talent it commands. and is navigable to barges for about 15 miles. B. is the name of other four rivers in Ireland, the chief of which, rising in the Blacldc'er, Diseases of. The B, is liable to a number of W. of Fermanagh, flows E. through Monaghan, and then N.E. diseases, the most important of which are-I. Inflammation q/ to Lough Neagh, forming the boundary between Armagh and the B.-This may be either acute or chronic, technically called Tyrone. The prevalence of the name in Ireland, both in its Cystitis. The acute form may belimited to a portion of the B., or English and Gaelic forms, is explained by Joyce (Irish Names involve the whole organ. It may be caused by cold, by inflammaofPlaces, 2d ser. 1875, p. 26i) by the great extent of bog-land. tion extending from neighbouring parts, by a calculus in the B., by external violence, or by irritating injections. Sylmtoms-ShiverBlack'well, Alexandler, M~.D., was born in Aberdeen poi-hvr Black'wbut ell, Aeinnlexandfter,., was born tin Aberdeen ing, pain in the region of B., pain in passing water, which is passed about the beginning of the g uth ce, studied physic under Boer- frequently, and in small quantities. There is generally high fever, have at Leyden, where he graduated, and afterwards became a with much coistitutional disturbance. The treatment consists in printer in London, but was thrown into prison for bankruptcywt uhcntttoa itrbne h ramn osssi pinter in London, but was thrown into prison for bankruptcy applying soothing poultices over the region of the B., especially in 1734. His release was effected by his admirable wife, who, poppy-heads and linseed meal, hot hip-baths, gentle aperients, having a talent for drawing, published a Herbal, which was pat such as castor oil, in small doses, If there be retention of urine, ronised by the College of Physicians. The first vol. appeared t t b drawn off by the surgeon. The diet should be light, b ~~~~~~~~~~it must be drawn off by the surgeon. The diet should be light, in 1737, and contained 252 plates; the second in I739 with 248 as milk, arrowroot, barley-water, and mucilaginous drinks. All plates. It was then published in a complete form, under the stimulants are to be avoided. Opium and belladonna are to be title, A4 Curious Herbal, containiufg 5o0 cu/s of the -most us efu title, A Curious Herbal ountadining 50r0 cuts of tPhe msost ustv l freely used, especially as Suppositories (q. v.). During the whole Pl/ants which are now used in the Practice of/Physic, en6 raved infontlio cop/ er-tes after drawing t akie fom th lif by~r-vr time, perfect rest must be maintained. In chronic inflammation'fojlio coipj~r-plates, afler drazoin~s takenz fi'am lhe i~ b~y Eli~sabeth Elisabeth of B. the symptoms are not so severe, It often occurs in old Blackwell. In 174o B. removed to Sweden, where he enjoyed people, and here the cause must be ascertained; and if dependcourt favour till x748, when he was accused of plotting court favour till 1748, when e was accused of plotting ing on a stone or calculus, it must be removed;' if due to the against the king and government, condemned and executed, state of the urine, that must be remedied. This disease is someAugust 9, I749. His works, both English and Swedish, treat times called catarrh o the B. Infusion of Uva-ursi (q. v.) and specially of agriculture. ~ specially of agriculture. Bucku (q. v.), combined with belladonna or henbane, will often Blackwell, Elizabeth, M.D,, the first female that ever prove beneficial. Barley-water and linseed tea are also both obtained a doctor's diploma, and at present a practitioner in good. When the pain is severe, opium or belladonna must be New York, U.S., was born February 3, 1821, at Bristol, where given. her father was a sugar-refiner. The family removed to the 2. Paralysis of B.-This is a common disease in the aged. United States in 1832; and on the death of the father at Cinci- It is often due to over-distension of the B., brought on by cold, natti in I838 she opened a boarding-school, which soon gained or by being prevented from some cause from passing urine for a a wide-spread reputation. After some time, however, she re- long time. In this case the urine generally dribbles constantly, solved to become a physician, and, with this end in view, passed and it is often mistaken for incontinence of urine. This mistake through her preliminary studies at Asheville and Charleston, has often led to most serious results. The treatment consists in supporting herself in the meantime by teaching music. She passing the Catheter (q. v.), and withdrawing the urine. This then studied anatomy and midwifery privately under Professor must be repeated two or three times a day. This state often Allen and Dr Warrington of Philadelphia, having vainly continues for weeks before the B. regains its strength. When sought admission as a student into more than a dozen medi- due to disease of the nervous system, it is often permanent. cal schools. After strenuous efforts, she obtained admission P. of B. frequently follows injuries, especially of head and into Geneva University, New York, in I847, and graduated in pelvis. In some cases iron, strychnine, and other tonics 1849. After visiting the London and Paris hospitals for a year may be given. and a half, she returned to America, and established herself in Irritability qf B. may be due to disease of kidneys, B., or New York in I851. In 1857 she opened an hospital for women, some other organ in that region; to piles, to pressure of the over which she presides, assisted by her sister, Dr Emily B., uterus, or a tumnour; to worms in the rectumn (a common cause who graduated in 1854. In 1859 she paid a second visit to in children), or it may depend on some morbid state of the urine. England, and delivered a course of medical lectures. She has Synmptoms-Constant desire to micturate, and a general uneasipublished several professional works of considerable merit. ness in the region of the B. Tr)eatment consists in removing the acwell, Thomas, LL.., bother of Alexander. cause, rest, attention to diet, avoidance of all stimulants, mucilaginous drinks, and iron tonics where there is debility. Bella(q. v.), was born at Aberdeen, August 4, I7or, graduated~ as q. v.), was born at Aberdeen, August, 1701, graduated as donna is a most valuable medicine in such cases, and very M.A. in the university of that city, became Professor of Greek in Marischal College in 1723, and Principal of the University speciall in the irritability of B. in children, in 1748. B. died at Edinburgh in February 1757. His Bladder, Urinary, is a membranous and muscular sac, works are Ant Inyuhiy inZto the Lzfe and Wri'tings of H7omer which receives the urine poured into it through the Ureters (q. v.) 406 4~ —------- *e BLA THfE GLOBE ENCYCIOPEDIA. BLA from the kidneys, and retains it until it is expelled from the body the latter of whom died in I650. —Jan B., born at Amsterdam through the Urethra (q. v.). Its position varies according to its in the beginning of the I7th c., published his Alas _lagonus state of distension. When quite empty it lies deep in the pelvis, in II vols..(I650-I662; French, I2 vols. 1663; Spanish, Io and when distended with urine it reaches above the pubes into vols. I669-72), a magnificent work, the details of which were furthe abdomen. In infancy it is more elongated, and extends much nished for the several countries by learned natives. He was an higher into the abdominal cavity. enterprising man, and: entered into important speculations in Structure of B.-It is composed of three coats-a serous, a conjunction with foreign publishers, having an establishment muscular, and a mucous coat. The serous coat is a portion of even at Vienna. He died 28th December I673, after which the Peritoneum (q. v.), and covers only the posterior and upper the business was carried on by two of his sons, Jan and Pieter, half of the B. The muscular coat lies beneath the serous coat, with distinction and success till about 1700. and is composed of three distinct layers, and it is owing to these muscular fibres that the B. owes its contractility, which enables Blan'ville, Henri Xarie Ducrotay de, a celebrated it to expel its contents. The internal covering is called the French anatomist and zoologist, was born at Arques, near Dieppe, mucouzs coat. This is sometimes described as composed of two September I, 1778, and graduated at Paris in IsoS, where he coats-the cellular and mucous membrane. The so-called cel- soon attracted the notice of Cvier, who chose him for his Zular coat is composed of a layer of areolar tissue lying between assistant in the College de France and the Athenee, and in I812 the muscular coat and the mucous membrane. The mucous secured for him the chair of Anatomy and Zoology. Soon aftera membrane is'soft, smooth, and of a pale rose colour.' It is con- broke out between the mastr and disciple, which found tinuous with the mucous membrane of the urethraand ureters. melancholy expression in their scientific papers. Cuvier ignored It is covered with an epithelium intermediate between theclared that Cuviers labours were of no value. columnar and squamous varieties. The mucous membrane over Nevertheless, in 1832, he succeeded Cuvier as Professor of the greater portion of the B. is loosely attached to the cellular Comparative Anatomy in the Museum of Natural History, and died May I, 185o. B. was a devoted and enthusiastic savan. If tissue beneath it, and in consequence, when the B. is empty, is died May I, I850. B. was a devoted and enthusiastic svbz. If y he did not create a science, like Cuvier, he immensely extended thrown into folds. At one portion of the B. the lining membrane is closely adherent to the subjacent tissue, and is never thrown one by his observations and experiments. His principal works into folds. This is at the base of the B., is triangular in shape, are EFune Fr anfise (1821-30); ManueldeMalacologie et deConand has been called the trigone of the B. The apex of this (825-27); Ostgrapie (ar. 839-49) and isto T *o B h e tides 3kiences.aturdlells au Noyen Age (Par, I845). triangle is in front, immediately behind the urethra, and its base is behind, the two angles of which correspond to the openings Blair, Hugh, a Scotch theologian and rhetorician, more of the ureters. This portion of the B. is uncovered by peritoneum, esteemed in his own than in our time, was born at Edinburgh, is in contact with rectum in the male, and is the portion through April 7, I718. Educated at Edinburgh University, he was which the surgeon punctures the B. when this operation is per- licensed to preach in I74I. His career was very successful, formed from the bowel, There are three openings into the B. and he filled in succession the charges of Colessie in Fifeshire, -the mouths of the two ureters through which the urine flows Canongate Church in Edinburgh, Lady Yester's, and finally (in into the B., and the entrance into the urethra, through which the I759) the High Church in the same city. The literary style of urine passes out of the B, his sermons was much admired, and when the chair of Rhetoric Blacdder Campion, See SILENE, and Belles-Lettres was created in the University of Edinburgh, he was appointed, in 1762, professor. In 1780 he received from Bladder Green. See BLACKTHORN. George III. a pension of 200oo a year, retired from his professorBladd'erlocks, Henware or IHoneyware, a local name ship in I783, and died December 27, 1799. Both his sermons and his lectures as Professor of Rhetoric were published, and obapplied to Alaria esczulen/a, a species of seaweed found abun- taed a high reputation. They were translated into almost dantly on the shores of Great Britain. It is sometimes eaten. every language of Europe, and everywhere held in the highest Bladder-Nut (Stapzhyea), a genus of plants which, in honour. It is almost ludicrous to see a great original genius comb ination with ESzuscayis, is lby some botanists considered like Jean Paul quote B. as an authority. Yet they are still pleathe type of the small natural order Stapeyleancet, containing I4 sant reading,-the former as moral essays, the latter for their species. They are mostly shrubs. The bark of some of them clear, if thin, style is bitter and astringent, while others, like Staphylea, have some- Blair, Robert, a Scotch poet and divine, the son of the what purgative seeds. Rev. David B., was born at Edinburgh in 1699. He was Bladd'erwort ( Utriculaia), a genus of Lentibulariacce (q. v.), educated for the Church, and from I731 till his death in I746 found in ditches, lakes, and marshes in all parts of the world, including Britain, of which three species are natives. Some of for his gloomy but powerful poem of the Grave, which was the leaves are transformed into utricles or bladders, which illustrated by the gifted and eccentric artist William Blake. float the plant to the surface during the flowery season. In- Although he looked upon life from the serious point of view, sects are sometimes imprisoned in these utricles, and it has was a man of many accomplishments and a keen botanist. lately been debated whether these insects do not contribute to His fourth son, Robert B. of Avontoun, became Lord President the food of the plant. (See DION4A, DROSERA, and NEPEN- f the Court of Session. TIHES.) Blair, Robert, a noted Presbyterian divine, was the son of Blad'ensburg, a post-town of Maryland, US., on the E. John B. of Windyedge in Ayrshire, and was born at Irvine arm of the Potomac, 6 miles N.E. of Washington, and the scene in I593. He studied at Glasgow, was licensed to preach in of a victory won by the nglish under General Ross over an I6I6, and, after several vicissitudes, was settled at St Andrews. inferior force of Americalns, August zq, I8I4. In i640 he accompanied the Scottish army to England, was conspicuous in the prosecution of the adherents of Montrose Blae'berry, See WHORTLEBERRY. after Philiphaugh, was appointed one of the divines who were Blaeu, or Blaeuw, the patronymic of a family of Dutch sent (1645) to Newcastle to reason King Charles out of Episcoprinters and publishers, distinguished by their learning, and by pacy, and in i648 was employed by the Church to treat with printers elega nd general correctness of their publications.- Cromwell for uniformity of religion throughout the island. At Wilthe elegance and general correctness of their publications.ciple the Restoration he was deprived of his parish, and forbidden WTillem B,, born at Alkmaar in 1571, a friend and disciple to preach. B. died at Meikle Couston, near Aberdour, 27th of Tycho Brahe, acquired a high reputation as an astronomer to preach. B. died at Meikle Couston, near Aberdour, 27th of Tycho Brah, acquired a high reputation as an stronoer August i666. He was a man of considerable force, but altogether and geographer, and as the constructor and publisher of atoo narrow to he remembered with much pleasure. Robert B. terrestrial and celestial globe of remarkable beauty and correct~~~~~~~~~~~~ness. HsonokaeZe7n )*(q. v.), the author of the Grave, was his grandson, and Hugh B. ness. His own works are Zeeshiegel (1627 and 1643); Ondelws (qv) was great-grandson. van de Hemeische en Aerdsche Groben (1634); a Novzes Alias (6 vols. 1634-62,) partly published by his sons; and a Theatruzz Blair-Athol (the'battle-field' of Athol), a small village in Urbiumz et Munzzimentorunz (1619). After his death, October 2I, Perthshire, Scotland, at the confluence of the Till and Garry, 1638, the business was conducted by his sons Jan and Kornelis, 30 miles N.N.W. of Perth, near which is Blair Castle, the seat 407 4p _ BLfA THE GL 0OBE ENC YC'L OPFIDIA, BLA of the Duke of Athol. The largest and oldest larch-trees in socialistic work, Organisation d T7ravail, in which he advoScotland are to be found here. cated the absorption of the individual in a great'solidarity.' Blair-Gowrie (the'battle-field' of Gowrie), a small town This book gained B. a high reputation in Paris, especially he miles N.N.E. of Perth, with among the working-classes, by the brilliancy of the style, in Perthshire, on the Ericht, 6 and the thoroughness and simplicity of the schemes proposed. some industry in flax-spinning and weaving. It lies pictur- rou ghness and simplicity of the schemes proposed. esquely at the E. base of a range of hills, and is connected with By al writings, and particularly his Histoire de Dix Cupar-Angus by a branch railway. Near it fine white marble is quarried. Pop. (1871) 4832. in 1848, and after the February revolution became a member quarried. Pop. 0871)4832- of the Provisional Government, Subsequently, getting mixed Blake, Robert, a great English admiral, was born at up with attempts to forcibly carry socialism into practice, B. fell Bridgewater, Somersetshire, in August I598, and was educated under the suspicions of his colleagues, and, had he not escaped at Wadham College, Oxford. In the struggle with Charles I., he to London after the June insurrection, would probably have heartily threw in his lot with the Puritan and Republican party, been thrown into prison. He lived in London, writing on poliand earned such distinction by his heroic defence of Taunton in tics and history, and with equal ease, apparently, in French and I644 that he was appointed to the command of the fleet which the English, till the fall of the Second Empire. He returned to energy of Parliament and the policy of Sir Harry Vane, who France in i870, and has since been gradually regaining a political wished to create in the navy a force that might neutralise the position; but is apparently as eager as ever to reconstruct society. army, then beginning to be troublesome to the Parliament, had His chief work is his Ifistoire de la Revolutionz Franraise (Ist called into existence. B. found the sea to be the proper ele- vol. Par. 1847), which is still unfinished. His historical knowment for his genius as well as patriotism. He destroyed the ledge is great, and he is a dignified and eloquent writer; but fleet of Prince Rupert in the harbour of Malaga, after having pur- though his enthusiasm and earnestness are beyond suspicion, sued it from Kinsale in Ireland. In i652 and I653, by a series of and his intellect is singularly clear and logical, he has not brilliant and desperate engagements, in only one of which he impressed his contemporaries with a belief in his wisdom or was beaten (from being outnumbered), he established the naval insight. supremacy of England-destroying that of Holland, and defeat~~Illn~~g her chief admi~rals,~Blanc, Le, a town in the department of Indre, France, on the Creuse, 55 miles S.S.W. of Tours, formerly fortified; with was sent to the Mediterranean. He destroyed the capital of Tunis, some trade n wine, lace, iron, timber, and hardware. It has beat a Turkish fleet, and set free the English detained as slaves at several old castles, and a oman church of St Genitour. Pop. Algiers. In I657 he gained a great victory over the Spaniards, (s72) 4332. forcing his way into the harbour of Santa Cruz, in Teneriffe, burning the galleons there, and working his fleet out with only Blanc, Mont. See MONT BLANC. the loss of one ship and 200 men, in the face of a heavy gale. Blanc-Mange' (blanc,'white,' and mnanger,'to eat'), a white His health had, however, given way, and he died, August 27 of jelly, made principally of milk and isinglass. The following is a the same year, while the fleet were entering Plymouth Sound. very simple recipe for making B., but it is only one of many:Cromwell honoured his remains with a public funeral in Henry Dissolve half an ounce of isinglass in three gills of milk; add the Seventh's Chapel; but after the restoration of Charles II., four well-beaten eggs, and the peel of two lemons rubbed in a they were thrown into a pit in St Margaret's Churchyard. B. few lumps of sugar; sweeten it to taste, and stir it over a slow was a man of the highest character, honesty, and piety, as well fire until it is on the point of boiling; add a little brandy, if as patriotism, and he raised British seamanship to a reputation liked, and pour the whole into a mould. which has never left it. See Hepworth Dixon (assisted by Lord Dundonald), Robert B., Admniral and Genleral at Sea, Blanching, or Etiola'tion, a process, natural or artificial, based on Family and State Pacers (Lond. I852). by which leaves and succulent stems of plants are in growing Blake, William, a great erratic genius and mystic, the kept pale and watery by exclusion of light from their growing of exquiite lyrics, and of manydesigns, surfaces. The natural process is seen in cabbages, and other author of a number'o exqvlosite lyrics, anct ot many clesigns,'heart'-forming vegetables, where the inner leaves are tender chiefly allegorical or symbolical, betraying a lofty, but also excep- and white. B. ally by earthing up around tional imagination, was born in London, I757 and wasand white. B. is produced artificially by earthing up around tional imagination, was born in London, 1757, and was ap- growing shoots, by tying leaves together, or by covering over prenticed in 77 to an engraver. In 783 he published is with an inverted flower-pot, or a special B.-pot. The plants Poetical Sketches, but which were written previously to and chiefly-blanched for table use are celery, seakale, and asparagus; during the year 1777. In 1789 appeared his Songs of Innocence but rhubarb, chardoon, endive, and various salad plants are also and of Experience, accompanied by sixty-five plates, both designs artificially blanched. B. prevents the elaboration of chlorophyle artificially blanched. B. prevents the elaboration of chlorophyle, engraved and poems hand-printed upon copper by a secret and the secretion of acrid juices, besides preventing the formation process (revealed to B., according to his own account, by the of hard, indigestible, woody fibre within the parts operated upon. spirit of his brother), and tile specialty of which was, that when the uncovered parts were eaten away by acid, the design remained Blanche-Lyon, a pursuivanlt-at-arms in England. See as in stereotype. Others of his works are the Gates of Para- PURSUIVANT. ptdise (i plates); (trizeN (d27 plates, 1i79z4); avzesrnsaem (100oos |Blanc'o, COpe (i.e.,'white cape'), the name of various proplates). He also illustrated the Night Thoughts and Blair's montries, the chief of which are infic, America, Spain, montories, the chief of which are in Africa, America, Spain, Grave; and his llfustrations to the Book of yob are among hislippines. There are two in Africa one in best efforts. B. died August IA, I8z8. He was the admired brie e frots. BF. died Acugusto2,r Mrs. Hamieson waes te adird Tunis, which is the most northerly point of the continent, and friend of Flaxman the sculptor-; Mrs J amieson writes of his con- the other on the W. coast, forming the Great Bay, a large natural ception of angels as in the highest degree pure; Charles Lamb harbour, about 390 miles N. of Cape Verde. Cape B. in Peru is speaks of his work as executed'with wonderful power and the most westerly headland in S. America. spirit,' and of B. himself as' one of the most extraordinary persons of the age;' and A. C. Swinburne says of him, that he Bland'ford-Forum, or Market-Blandford, a town of was'the single Englishman of supreme and simple poetic Dorsetshire, on the Stour, I6 miles N.E. of Dorchester, and Io3 genius born before the closing years of the i8th c.; the one S.W. of London by rail, with horse, cattle, and cheese markets. man of that date fit on all accounts to rank with the old great It is a very old place, and was a market-town in the 13th c. names.' See Life of William B. by Alexander Gilchrist (Lond. It was partly destroyed by fire six times (I579-173i), and on the 1863); and William B,, a Critical Essay, by Algernon Charles' last occasion was rebuilt with the aid of public subscription. At Swinburne (Lond. i868). one time B. produced the finest point-lace in England, and also Blarnc, JeaYn Joseph LQouis, a notable French politician large quantities of shirt-buttons, before pearl was used in the and socialistic philosopher, of Corsican extraction, was born manufacture. Pop. (I87I) 40II. Creech, thetranslator of Lcreat Madrid, October 28, I813. After being an attorney's clerk tins, and Archbishop Wake, are among its more distinguished natives. and a tutor, he established himself in Paris as a writer on politics and literature, and unfolded a system of socialism in Blandra'ta, Giorgio, an Italian physician, was from 1544-51 the Recue Cdu Progrls Politique, Social, et Lite'r-aire, which he in the service of Isabella, mother of Johann Sigismund II. (Zaestablished in I838. In I840 appeared his most important polya), King of Transylvania. Persecution on account of his Arian A 08 *E ------- BJLA. THE GLOBE ENCYCL OPEDI-A. BLA opinions drove him from Pavia, Geneva, and Poland, back to constituted B. V. the measure for English epic, and though in Transylvania, where he became court-physician, and, in I564, the Queen Anne era the rhyming dectsyllabic verse came into President of the Synod of Enyed. With the help of Francis vogue, and was demonstrated by Pope to be admirably adapted David, a Unitarian preacher, and of the King, B. secured tolera- for didactic verse and for the poetical essay, yet the adaptability tion, and soon after a wide diffusion, for Unitarian principles in of B. V. for narrative and dramatic purposes has never been Transylvania. On the accession of Christoph Bathori (I57I), impugned. For a fine analysis of the B. V. of our greatest draa Catholic, B., having quarrelled with David (then superin- matists, see Scott's'Letter' to Lockhllart on the authorship of tendent of the church at Klausenburg) about the duty of prayer the Tzo Noble Kinsmen. to Christ, after a public discussion at which Faustus Socinuse, an eminent French economist, assisted, procured the disgrace of David, and the punishment of was born at Nice, Adst November 1798. Coming to Paris, all who denied this duty. B. died at Gyula Fejervar, in I588. made the friendship of J. B. Say, who procured for him some In Poland (which B. revisited under Stepan Bathori) he had public teaching on subjects connected with political economy, from I558-63 been attacked by the letters of Calvin, and exposed notably at the Athcnee in 1825, where he delivered a course of to'the suspicions of the orthodox party (See Wallace's Anti- lectures on L'Nistoire de te Civilisationv industrielle des Nations trin. Biography, ii. p. I40; Bayle's Dictionary; Langre's His- Europtennes. In 1830 he became director of the Acote speciate toIy ofI R1eformed Cznrch, in luznary and Transylvania, 1728, due Commerce, and in I833 succeeded Say at the Conservatoire des P. iifi). Arts et Aetliers as Professor of Industrial Economy. From 1846 13lane, Sir Gilbert, an eminent physician, born in Ayrshire,'to 848 he was a useful deputy, doing much commission work. August 29, I749, and educated at Edinburgh. In I780he accom- His special reports on Corsica (1838), Algiers (I840), and the panied Lord Rodney as his private physician when he took the London Exhibition of I85I, furnished to the Academy of Moral command of the W. Indian fleet; was appointed physician to St and Political Science, are valuable. Besides a journal of travel Thomas's Hospital, London, in 1785, and ten years later head in England and Scotland in 1824, B. wrote two important works of the Navy Medical Board. In I812 he received a baronetcy, in political economy, in which he supported free- trade, and and was physician successively to the Prince Regent and to,:adopted a position between the'Utopias of Socialism and the William IV. B. died June 27, I834. His principal service:rigour of Malthus.' These are his Pr-c&is Etlementaired'Economie to the navy was the introduction of the use of lime-juice, which Poltiqiue (Par. I827), with a biography of economists; and his has nearly extirpated scurvy from the fleet. Among many valu- Histoire de l'Economie Politiqie en Euroge (4th ed. Par. i86o), able professional works, his Warning and A dmonition to the with a biography of the science. B. says in the latter work,'It British Plbelic on t/he Intvoduction of the Cholera of India'is not sufficient for political economy that wealth has been pro(Lond. I832) may be mentioned as having been opportune and:duced, she must -see it equitably distributed.' Hence he caresalutary. fully analyses the historical phenomena of slavery and pauperism. Blan'es, a Spanish town in the Mediterranean province of B. died at Paris, 28th January 854..-Louis Auguste B., Gerona, 21 miles S. of tihe town of Gerona, and 32 mileslN.E. brother of the preceding, was born at Nice in I805, and at an of Balrcelona, with which it is connected by railway. Pop. 000. early period involved himself in secret associations for the overthrow of the existing forms of society. Captured in the armed Blank Bonds were, in the practice of Scotch law, bonds in outbreak of I2th May I839, he was condemned to perpetual which the name of the creditor was left blank. They passed imprisonment, but was released at the revolution of February like bills by mere delivery; the bearer being at any time at I848, and instantly set to work to reorganise-that is to say, liberty to fill up his name and to take action for payment. to disorganise-society. He founded the Central Union RepubBeing found to facilitate fraud, B. B. were in I696 made null by lican Club, had a chief hand in the inflammatory' manifestoes' Act of Parliament. of the I7th March, I6th April, and I5th May, and was in conBlank Cartridges. See CARTRIDGES. sequence again imprisoned for ten years at Belleisle (q. v.). Blank'enburg, a walled town in the Duchy of Brunswick, In.I86I, on account of fresh plots, he was once more sentenced to an additional four years' imprisonment. After the overon the northern slope of the Hartz mountains, 38 miles S.S.E. throw of th e N apoleonic dynasty in S eptember 1870, the greyof the capital, is the chief town of a circle of the same.name haired'Irreconcilable,' most of whose life had been spent in It has a pop. (i871) Of 3853, chieflyengaged in mining. ver A haired Irreconcilable,' most of whose life had been spent in It has a pop. (I87I) of 3853, chiefly engaged in mining. Overchains, reappeared in Paris, as eager as ever for a social and looking the town, on the Teufelsmauer, is a palace belonging to democratic republic. the Duke of Brunswick, and at a short distance are the remains of a large castle hewn out of the rock by Henry the Fowler in -Blaps, a genus; of CoZeostera- or beetles, represented by such 9I9. The district is noted for its fine fruits. species as the B. mo-tlisaga or churchyard beetle, by the B. sulcata, &c. These forms belong to the Hetevromerous group of Blank'enese, a beautiful village on the right bank of the the order, the members of which possess four joints in the tarsi Elbe, about 4 miles from Altona by rail, is a favourite residence of the hinder pair of feet, and five joints in the tarsi of the other of the Hamburg merchants. It nestles picturesquely among the legs. No distinct neck exists in this genus. The colour is knolls and gardens on the steep bank of the river, which is here black, the elytra or wing-cases, representing the first pair of fully a mile wide, while from Sandhill (Blanke nase,'bare nose') wings, being joined together. These beetles are nocturnal in a splendid view can be got stretching away to the sea. B. is the habits, and of slow movements. They feed on decaying vegeheadquarters of the North Sea fishermen and the Elbe pilots, and table matter, and some species possess the power of secreting a has, although without a harbour, some 300 craft. Pop. (I871) bronish liquid of irritating odour and properties. B. sulZata 3321. is said to be eaten in Egypt, under the idea that it gives to the Blank Verse, strictly defined, is verse zwithoul rhyme, and female figure a fatness and redundancy. irrespective of the length of the line. In this sense it is appli- Bla'sius, St, the martyr, was Bishop of Sebaste in Cappacable to the Greek and Roman epics, which are in hexameter;,-docia when Licinius, the rval of Constantine the Great, began to Italian dramatic verse, which consists of eleven syllables; to German and English non-rhyming epic and narrative verse, in a persection of the Christians. e thereupon left the town, which the line may be of any length, fiom that of Hiazwata, and hid himself among the rocks; but was discovered, and which contains six, to that of Evangetine, which contains sixteen brought back to Sebaste, where he suffered a cruel martyrdom syllables.The term, however, is uslly applied in England in A.D. 3I6. Because a wool-comb was one of the instruments syllables. The term, however, is usually applied in England by which St B. was tortured, the woolcombers claim him as to the non-rhyming heroic, or decasyllabic line, first made use tof by the Ea rl of Surrey in his translation of the ane ud, their patron; and at Bradford, in Yorkshire, a procession is held of by the Earl of Surrey in,his trandslation of the adotneid on St B.'s day, the 3d of February, every seven years. In the published in 1557, and immediately afterwards adopted by our Greek calendar, however, St B.'s festival is celebrated on the early dramatists as the most suitable from its elasticity and its calendar, however, St B.'s festival is celebrated on the freedom from coesural fetters for dramatic purposes. Several of ith of that month. He is invoked for sore throa because he the ealy poets and dramatists-notably Chaucer, Massige, is said to have saved the only son of a widow from being choked the early poets and dramatists-notably Chaucer, Massinger, byafish-bone. and Fletcher-frequently add an additional syllable, making the number eleven; but this, according to modern canons at least, Blasphemy. It has been held in England that this crime must be reckoned a liberty. Milton, by his Paradtise Lost, has is not committed by an attack, however violent, on any religion 52 4 09' ~ -------- ----------- -- -----— * BLA THE GLOBE ENC YCLOPIEDIA. BLE except the Christian religion, nor on any form of the Christian necessary (say once in twelve hours), and the metal allowed to run religion except that established by law. If, however, there be out and fill a number of channels prepared for it in the sand of an attack on a dogma or principle of any form of Christianity, the pig-bed. When anything like economical working is desired, which that form holds in common with the established religion, the gaseous products of combustion are carried off into flues then the crime of B. is -committed. The reason being simply through openings near the top of the B. F. below the bell, and that the form established is established by law, and so entitled are used to heat the blast on its way from the blowing-engines to to its protection. It may, however, be questioned whether any the furnace. The iron produced by the B. F. is crude pig-iron, expression of theological opinion, if in temperate language, how- often containing sulphur, phosphorus, and other detrimental ever heterodox, would now be considered criminal. The decision impurities. above referred to-that of Baron Alderson, in the case of Gather-of brealdng np stone or rock in cole, tried at York in I838-so far rests on a sound legal prin- situ by the use of an explosive agent. It may be divided into ciple, that that which the law establishes, the law must protect three stages-boring the holes, loading, and firing. The holes from contempt; but it is not contempt to discuss with perfect in small-shot B. are commonly from an to 3 inches in diafreedom, if in temperate language, the merit or truth of any meter, and from 3 to I2 feet deep, according to circumstances. principle or institution which the law has established. To lay Hand-boring is done with a steel-pointed tool called a'jumper,' down that there are certain subjects which no one shall publicly either by striking it with hammers, or by weighting it, and allowdiscuss, except with a foregone conclusion, may be held as a discuss, except with a foregone conclusion, may he held as a ing it to fall from a little height. When the hole has been bored violation of the principle of personal liberty. On the other hand, ing it to fall from a little height. When the hole has been bored it is perfectly right that that which the great majority of a people to a sufficient depth, the fragments of rock not previously taken out are removed' and the powder is introduced. A fuse (comnof a country hold sacred should be protected from ridicule or the from being made the subject of virulent or contemptuous attack; wonly Bickford's) is then placed in the hole, one end in contact just as any one is entitled freely to discuss the wisdom of a law, with the charge, the other proecting at the mouth of the openwhile no one is allowed by word or act to treat that law with ng, wadding of turf or hay is pushed down upon the charge, contempt. In Scotland, in I843, in trial for B., in which the and the hole lamped-that is, filled up with fragments of stone prisoner was found guilty, it was laid down by Lord Justice- ance to the charge as possible. The chato present as f ired by igniting Clerk Hope, that those who publish opinions'contrary to the the to the charge as possible. The charge e. fired by igniting known principles of Christianity' may be lawfully proceededk,'mines,' or shafts of conagainst for so doing before the civil magistrate. In the case in For carg on large B. - siderable diameter, take the place of the holes above described. question, however, the publication by which the offence was con- sThe shafts are large enough for men the holes and have described. stituted seems to have been violent and virulent in its tone; and some cases been ade as much as So feet long. The chare has probably no temperate discussion, whether written or spoken, sometimes been as much as 3000 to 4000 l. f B.-powder. Kowever untrammelled, wotuld now be regarded by a civil court a sometimes been as much as 3000 to 4000 lbs. of B.-powder. injurious to'the knhowever untrammelled, princid now be regarded by a civi court aples of Christiaitys The mines are exploded by electricity instead of fuses. As much as Io,coo or 12,000 tons of stone were several times thrown Blast, Hot. In I828, Mr James Beaumont Neilson, then down by the explosion of a single mine during the quarrying manager of the Glasgow Gasworks, discovered that great operations for the stone of the Holyhead Breakwater. For many benefit would arise from heating the air used to support the years gunpowder was the only explosive agent used in B. operacombustion in Blast Furnaces (q. v.), and he took out a patent tions, but lately various other explosives-as Dynamite (q. v.), for his discovery. The ironmasters ridiculed it at first, then Gun-cotton (q. v.), lithofracteur, &c., have been also employed adopted it everywhere, and then in some cases made a discredit- to some extent. See also BORING and TUNNEL. able attempt to evade payment of any royalty to the inventor. Blastoidea, an order of extinct Echinodermata, the fossil The action against Messrs Baird of Gartsherrie, in 1843, has remains of which are exclusively confined to rocks of the oldest become almost histerical. That firm admitted to have made a profit of Q26o,ooo in ten years on H.-B. iron, but refused to or palaozoic period of geology. They are most commonly found in the Carboniferous rocks, and the typical genus is Penztremites. pay his royalties to the man through whose invention they had P. pyr/carmis and P. conoaieus are familiar species. The body been able to make this money. After a ten days' trial, in which was fixed to the sea-bed by a short, slender, and jointed stalk or the defendants' conduct was severely censured by the judge, the and was of oval or globular shape. It was composed validity of Mr Neilson's patent was fully established. As an, and instance of the value of the H. B., it may be noted that by its and five intes, united togethac areas. No dist in five as seen ic use the Clyde Ironworks, which in 1829 were using 8 tons the Crinoids, appear to have been developed in the bfastoidea. I cwt. of coal made in coke for the manufacture of I ton of iron, were enabled in 183I to double their turn-out, and use only 2 Blatta. See COCKROACH. tons 5 cwt. of coal in its raw state per ton of iron. The temperature of the blast is from 5oo~ to 8oo~ Fahr., or even more, and Blaye, a fortified town of France, in the department of its pressure about is3 or 4 lbs. per sq.o' inFr., orevenmoreandGironde, on the right bank of the estuary of the Gironde, with an export trade in corn, wine, brandy, fruits, soap, and oil, Blast Furnace, a furnace to which the air for supporting and some manufactories of linens, woollens, glass, and earthencombustion is introduced under pressure-generally used for the ware. In addition to its fortifications, it is overlooked by a reduction of metallic ores. The imost important blast furnaces castle on a rocky eminence, and its approaches are defended by in this country are those used for the reduction of iron from three forts. Pop. (I872) 4478, including the garrison. B. is its ores and the manufacture of'pig-iron.' These are generally the Biavia of the Romans. In the 4th c. it was won over to in external appearanice immense cylinders of brickwork, 50 to Christianity by the preaching of St Romanus, in whose church Ioo ft. high, bound with iron. Internally the smallest and low- are said to repose the ashes of the first Merovingian Duke, est part is a cylindrical chamber called the hearth, and above Charibert, brother of Dagobert, and of Roland, the nephew of this the furnace expands rapidly in the boshes, where its shape is Charlemagne. Its mediaeval history was much chequered, but that of an inverted cone. The part of the furnace above the not significant. boshes is called the shaft, and is commonly cylindrical, or tapering slightly inwards towards the top. In some modern furnaces Bla'zon, ZBla'zoning, Bla'zonry, is the art of describing the alteration of shape which distinguishes the parts just named armorial charges in correct heraldic language, and of represent — is almost obliterated, the one running fairly into the other. The ing them accurately in form, position, arrangement, and colourtop or mouth of the furnace should be closed with a cast-iron ing. The'German word blasen,'to blow a blast on a horn,' is bell, so as to prevent the free escape of the gases of combustion. the origin of these terms; and its meaning refers to the fact, The furnace is fed with fuel and ore at the top (the bell being that when a knight entered the lists at a tournament, his prelowered at intervals for that purpose), and the Blast (q. v.), which sence was announced by sound of horn, after which the official.is supplied by a blowing-engine, is injected through a number heralds declared his armolial insignia. of nozzles, called twyers (tszueres), in the sides of the hearth. Bleaching, the art of rendering animal and vegetable proThe reduction of the ore takes place as it makes its way down ducts white in colour by atmospheric agencies or the employthe shaft and boshes, and the liquid iron accumulates in the ment of chemical substances; an important operation in the hearth. A tap-hole in the latter is opened as often as may be process of manufacturing textile fabrics used in clothing, which 4IO BLE TfHE GL OBE IENC YCL OP/EEDIA. BLE branch of the subject will only be treated of in this article, leav- described, but with more dilute solutions and repetitions of the ing the B. of paper, straw, wax, &c., to be dealt with under processes, as the colouring impurities have a firmer hold of tile their respective heads. Cotton, flax, wool, and silk all possess fibres. For some varieties of linen, the operation of'crofting' a certain amount of colouring matter, and in the operations of is combined with the chlorinating process. Animal fibres are spinning and weaving these fibres gather certain impurities. B. more liable to injury from chlorine than vegetable fibres, thereis resorted to to cleanse and whiten the woven fabrics, as well as fore in B. wool and silk the sulphiulring process is purto prepare them for the reception of dyes and ornamental de- sued. Wool contains a large amount of natural grease, and it is signs. One hundred years ago cotton and linen were bleached increased by the weaver's dressing, and to remove this the wool by exposing the fabrics to the combined action of light, air, and is scoured with water and stale urine; carbonate of ammonia is moisture; this method, however, was a very tedious one, and evolved, which combines with the grease, and the soapy comthe fortunate discovery of the effective and rapid B. properties pound formed is removed by washing with water. Washingof chlorine speedily effected a revolution in the art of B. In soda and soap are sometimes substituted for the urine, but the the middle of last century the Dutch were esteemed the best result is not so satisfactory. The- damp woollen cloth is then bleachers in Europe, and it was the usual practice to send linen submitted in a close chamber to the action of burning sulphur; of Scotch manufacture to be bleached in Holland. Soon there- the dioxide produced in the combustion readily combines with after, through the instrumentality of the Board of Manufactures, the moisture to form sulphurous acid, which discharges from the bleachfields were established in Scotland. The operations were wool the colouring matter by forming with it a colourless combased on the Dutch method, and consisted of steeping the cloth pound. Fabrics composed of cotton and wool are bleached by in alkaline leys and washing with soap, called'bucking;' then passing them through a warm solution of soap and soda, and immersing the cloth in butter-milk, called'souring;' and after- then sulphuring for several hours. Silk, except in special cirwards exposing it to the action of sunlight and frequent water- cumstances, is not bleached with sulphur. The prevalent pale ings, called'crofting.' These several operations were repeated tint is acquired by boiling the silk in a strong solution of soap, till the desired purity was obtained, many months being thus thereafter immersing it in a solution of washing-soda, and then occupied. Dr Home of Edinburgh effected the first improve- for a short time in a very dilute acid, washing and rinsing in ment by employing, in the'souring' process, water acidulated water between each operation. If perfect whiteness is desired, with sulphuric acid, with considerable saving of time. In 1785 the silk stuff is bleached by sulphurous acid like wool. Berthollet, a French chemist, demonstrated that Chlorine (q, v.) Bleaching-Powder, or Chloride of Lime, is an inporwas eminently suited for B., and this led to its adoption in the tant substance manufactured in large quantities in this country form of an aqueous solution, a change which shortened the pro- and abroad as 4 disinfecting and bleaching agent. It is prepared cess of B. cottons to almost as many days as months were for- by sloly passn chlore over slaed lime spread in layers merl occpie. On obectin totheemplymet oftheby slowly passing chlorine over slaked lime spread in layers mery occupied. One objection yto the dfi femplotyment of the 2 to 3 inches in thickness on perforated leaden shelves or flagchlorine solution lay in the difficulty of reulating its proper stones, till the gas ceases to be absorbed. B.-P. consists essenstrength, for when too strong the fibres of the cloth were per- tially of a compound of lime and chlorine, generally represented manently injured. In 1799, however, this objection was re- by the formula CaOC12. It was formerly regarded by chemists moved by the discovery, by Mr Tennant of Glasgow, that dry as a mixture of hypochlorite and chloride of calcium, CaCO2,2 slaked lime was an excellent absorbent of chlorine gas; and CaC1. Its use as a bleaching and disinfecting agent depends since that time the compound so produced, properly called upon the ease with which it s decomposed by acid into ee upon the ease with which it is decomposed; by acid into fl-cee Chloride of lime or B.-.powder (q. v.), has been in universal use chlorine and a salt of lime. The carbonic. acid of the air is suffifor B. vegetable fibres. Animal fibres, as wool and silk, are ent to produce this change. Z~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~cient to produce this change. bleached with sulphurous acid. Subsequent improvements consisted in the introduction of machinery where practicable for Bleak, a Teleostean fish, belonging to the Cyprizice or Carp facilitating operations. B. is now carried on as a rapid and family, and scientifically known as the Letcizscus albz-rznus. continuous process, a great number of pieces of calico being The B. inhabits fresh water, and averages about 6 inches in sewed end to end, and carried by machinery from one stage to length. It somewhat resembles: the nearly-allied dace (L. the next. A preliminary process is singeing, by passing the grey vulgaris),. A single dorsal fin placed far back on the body cloth over red-hot plates or through a gas flame, to remove the exists. The beak is pointed, and the lower jaw protrudes. The downy nap fi-omn the surface. The general sequence of opera- scales exhibit a striated or striped appearance, and are used for tions then are-Ist, lizinzf, passing the cloth through a super- making artificial pearls and other ornaments. The back is saturated solution of lime; 2d, boiling, or bowhzing, in large coloured greenish, the fins and rest of the body being silvery close kiers for several hours. The boiling with lime forms a cal- white. The tail is deeply cleft or forked,. The B. inhabits careous soap with the grease in the cloth, which is, 3d, washed most of our English streams and rivers. It is active in its moveout to remove the weaver's dressing, &c. The cloth is, 4th, ments, its food consisting of flies and insects, which it pursues at soured with hydrochloric acid solution, which removes the remain- the surface of the water. Its flesh is very palatable, its small size ing lime and calcareous soap, after which it is, 5th, again washed. rendering its use as a common article of diet rather less firequent. It is next, 6th, again boiled in kiers with rosin and soda-lye; These fishes are caught by means of gentle bait and also with and, 7th, again washed. The calico is now ready for the, 8th, flies. They are fond of bran, and may be allured to the surface chemzic or B. liquor, a weak solution of chloride of lime, 9th, by strewing this substance on the water. sozred with very dilute sulphuric acid, and, ioth, thoroughly Bleeding. See ILIEMORRHAGE and BLOOD-LETTING. washed, after which it is ready for d),ring. If intended for printing, this finishes the processes through which the cloth Bleek, Friedrich, one of the most learned of modern German passes; if for white bleach only, the cloth passes through several theologians, was born at Arensb6k, in. Holstein, 4th July I793, important finishing operations (see CALENDERING). The B. studied first at Kiel and afterwards at Berlin under De Wette, action of chlorine depends upon its power of decomposing water, Schleiermacher, and Neander. After holding several minor apcombining with the hydrogen and liberating oxygen. pointments, he was appointed Professor of Iheology at Bonn in When the oxygen is liberated it is nascent, or in the state of I829, where he laboured till his death, 27th February 1859. B., single atoms, and immediately attacks the vegetable colouring whose writings embrace the whole field of biblical exegesis, is matter to form compounds destitute of colour. Free oxygen notable alike for his clear and acute criticism, his exegetical skill, does not possess this property to any great extent, because it con- and his warm enthusiasm for Christianity. His masterpiece is sists of a molecule or a group of atoms with less active proper- Der Brief an die'I/elbr'er (Berl. 1828-40). In his Beit'-lge zzr ties than the element in the nascent state. On the other hand, Evangelienkritih (Berl. I846) he sought, among other things, to the element in a condensed form, called Ozone (q. v.) (three vol- vindicate the genuineness of the Gospel of St John against the umes of oxygen forming two volumes of ozone), is more active than destructive criticism of the Tiibingen school. After B.'s death free oxygen, and as ozone is always present in the atmosphere, appeared his Einleitznzg in das Alte Testameznt (Berl. i86o), and it is probable that the B. action which follows the exposure of Linleitung in das NVeze Testament (Berl. 1862), both of which cloth to the air is due to its activity. display in a high degree his fine intellectual scholarship, reverLinen contains more colouring matter than cotton, and whereas ence, and love of truth. The same qualities are visible in his cotton only loses about,I of its weight in B., linen loses Synojtische Erkldr'zngP der dSei ersten Evangelienz (Leips. 1862), about ~. Linen is occasionally subjected to the operation just and Vorlesungenz iibr die Apocalpse (Berl. 1862). * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~41 BLE YZIE GLOBE ~ENCYCIOP].EI/. BLI Bleek, Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel, son of the fore- Blennfy (Blennius), a genus of Teleostean fishes lelongingy going, an able linguist, was born 8th March 1827, studied at Bonn to the section Acant//opleygii, and family Gobidee or Blennzidc. and Berlin, and at an early period chose for his specialty the S. The fishes of this African languages. His thesis, when he took his degree, was De family have large, ]loreinurn Generibus Linguarun Africav Auslralis (Bonn, I85I), blunt heads, with an in which he sought to prove the N. African origin of the Hot- abrupt profile, and tentot tongue. In 1855 he went out to Natal along with the usually possess. newly-appointed Bishop Colenso, and in the course of extensive fringed appendages W journeys into the interior and the neighbouring Caffre lands, made also. A single but himself acquainted with the languages, manners, and customs of divided dorsal fin exthe natives. In I856 he obtained an appointment at Cape Town, ists. The ventral fins / which gave him an opportunity of prosecuting further his lin- are placed on the guistic studies, especially in reference to the languages of S. front of the throat, Blenn. Africa, Australia, and Polynesia.. B. is the chief author of the and consist of two Handbook of African, Auslralian, and Polynesian Philology rays ununited by any membrane. No air-bladder exists. The skin (Cape Town and Lond. I858-63), a work which not only em — is furnished with small, concealed scales, and gives off a mucous braces all the literature extant in these tongues, but attempts also. secretion like that of the eels, whence the name B. (Gr. a classification and characterisation; Of his other productions, blennos, mucus) is derived. The pectoral fins are of large size, besides a Vocabulary of the Mozanmbique Languiages (Lond. I 856), and the anal fin is long. The Shanny (Blenniusp solis) is the may be mentioned his Comnparative Grammnnar of Soith Afiiycan common British species, and, like others of these fishes, hides Languages (Cape Town, I862)-; Reynaird the Fox in S. Africa,. in the nooks and crannies of rocks as the tide recedes. Another or Hotlentot Fables and Tales (Lond. i864, Ger.ed; I870); Uber species is the ocellated B. (B. ocellairis), which possesses curiously den Urspyrung- der Splrache (I868);'ac.. branched filaments borne in the head. One species, termed the'eel pout,' and included in a different genus (Zoarcus vivigparus), Bleiberg ('lead hill'), a town of Austria, province of Car!- is noted as bringing forth its young alive-a function said to be inthia, situated at an elevation of 3000 feet, on a range of hills exhibited by other blennies. Other species are the Blennius 8 miles W. of Villach. The hills are rich in metallic wealth, Yarrellii, B. gatlorufgine, &c. They are active fishes, and can and are literally honeycombed by lead and zinc mines, the num- livefor a considerable period out of water. her of which amounts to nearly 500, though only 50 are in full operation. There are also 22 smelting furnaces. Pop. (I869.) Cer, a t own of France, department Indre-et-Loire, on the ~~~~~~406Ir~~~~~. Cher, 15 miles E.S.E. of Tours. Pop. (I872) I992. Close by is the castle of Chenonceaux, purchased by Henri II. of France Blende (ZnS), the sulphide - of zinc, a. valuable ore of that for Diana of Poitiers, and afterwards the residence of Catherine metal. When pure, it has a yellow or pale-brown colour, and de Medici. It also possesses an abbey of the I2th c., and the contains in every Ioo parts 67 of zinc and 33 of sulphur, but as ruins of an; aqueduct. found native it is usually of a brown or black shade from the admixture of sulphides of iron and cadmium and other impurities: Blessed Thst iron imparts the latter hue, whence the name'black-jack,' given. Bless'ington, Mlargaret, Countess of, a celebrated to B. by English miners. B. occurs, usually associated with leader of society, was the daughter of an Irish gentleman named Galena (q. v.), in Derbyshire, Cumberland, and Cornwall, in Edmund Power, and born at Knockwilt, near Clonmel, TipEngland, and in numerous localities throughout the globe. The perary, September I, 1789. She was first married to Captain term B. is also sometimes applied to the sulphides of other Farmer, who died in I817, and in the year following to Charles metals, as antimony B., manganese B., &c. John Gardiner, Earl of B. She had literary tastes, travelled much, and, both in London and on the Continent, during her 2Bldn'eau, a village of France, department of the Yonne, 30 husband's life and after his death (I829), gave soirees which miles V. S. W. of Auxerre, is the scene of Turenne's victory over were much frequented by authors. A most prolific writer of the Prince de Conde in I652. Pop. (I872) I433.. novels, travels, sketches, memoirs, &c., her only important book Blen'heim (Ger. Blindsheim), a village of Bavaria, 23mniles is her Conversations woits Lor;d Byron (1834), with whom she N.N.W. of Augsburg, near the scene -of Marlborough's'famous formed a friendship. Along with Count D'Orsay, she followed victory' of I3th August I704. Assisted by Prince Eugene and the late Louis Napoleon to Paris, where she died, June 4, 1849. the Imperialists, Marlborough, with 52,000 men, attacked the See Madden's Literary Zife and CorrcsfSondnce of I/se Countess French and Bavarian army of 56,ooo- men under Tallard, or B. (Lond. I855). Marsin, and the Elector of Bavaria, and gained a decisive vi-c- Bletch'ingly, an agricultural town in Surrey, 20 miles S. of tory. The loss of the French and Bavarians in killed, wounded,: London. It has a large and'handsome parish church, St Mary's, and prisoners (among these last was Tallard himself) was esti- with a low square tower and a chime of eight bells. Pop. mated at fully 30,000. The allies lost about 5000 in killed and (1871) I9I6. Old Roman coins are found in its vicinity, and had 8ooo wounded. Bavaria came into the possession of the the fossil remains of the iguanodon, an- extinct reptile, were disvictors. The battle is known to the Germans as that of Hoch- covered in cutting the B. railway tunnel. stidt, the name of the village where the conflict actually occurred. The Austrians were defeated by the French near B. in i800. Blett'g, from the Fr. blesse, a term applied by Lindley to that intermediate stage between the maturity and decay of a;Blenheim Dog, a spaniel allied to the Cockers (q. v.), fruit. It is the first change after the sugar in the ripe fruit has and so named from its having been originally bred by one of the commenced to oxidise. Accordingly, if fiuits like pears and Dukes of Marlborough. The colour is usually black, with light- apples be kept in close vessels free of oxygen, they will preserve brown or yellowish spots on the feet and breast and above the for a much longer periodd than they would otherwise do. eyes. The muzzle is broader than in the cockers. The ears are also, if anytlhing, longer, and more drooping, than in the Blich'er, Sten Stensen, a Danish novelist and poet, born at latter dogs. Viwm, in Jutland, I sth October I 782; studied theology at Copenhagen; in I8i9 obtained a living at Thorning, which he exBlennorrhoe'a, or Blennorrha'gia, from two Greek words changed in I825 for one more valuable at Spentrup, Jutland, signifying a flow of Mucus (q. v.), and if applied literally would where he died, 26th March I848. Belonging to no poetical or signify an unusual flow of mucus from any Mucous Membrane philosophical school, he was long known only as the translator (q.v.). When used in medicine, however, it is almost always of Ossian (2 vols. 1807-9); although two volumes of poems restricted to a specific disease of the urethra, termed Gonorrhcea which appeared in 18I4 and 1817 proved him to possess unques(q. v.), or gleet. B. is almost always the iesult of inflammation tionable genius. The first thing that attracted much notice of the mucous membrane with which it is connected, and the was his Snteekl/okken (1826), and still more his contributions to treatment consists in subduing that inflammation by soothing the monthly journal the Noirdlyset (12 vols. 1827-29). Here measures, by local astringents, and attending to the general appeared his Zydske Comanszeser a happy attempt to turn the health. Jutish dialect of Danish to poetical uses. A collected edition of 412 BLI THE GLOBE ENATCYCLOPAEDIA.. BLI his novels, in 5 vols., was published at Copenhagen in 1833-36, important causes of blindness. (See BLINDNESS.) The B. in and of his poems in 2 vols. 1835-36. B. has humorously Britain, arranged in the order of age, are as follows, according sketched his own life in his Gamle og nye Novell/er (7 vols. to thle census of April 3, I87r:Copenh. 1846-47; 3d ed. 8 vols. 1861-62). His novels contain exquisitely truthful pictures of country life in Jutland, with which England. Scotland. Ireland; Total. his pursuit of the chase over its barren solitudes had familiarised him, and his poetry is equally national and spirited. Under 5 years of age ~ 567. 42 3'I 640 From 5 to o. 700 2:03 67 870 Blid'ah, a town of Algeria, 30 miles S.W. of Algiers, and,, IO, I. 870 135 ii6 122 220 E. N.E. of Oran, with both of which it is connected by rail. s no.088I 143 040 2064 Mta hsago-20. 30.' 728 248 637- 2603 It lies to the S. of the fertile plain of Metidjah, and has a grow-, 30,, 40 2042 28I.: 70 3024 ing trade in esparto-grass, wine, cotton, wheat, and barley.,, 40,, 5 o 2314 325 7I7 3356 POPep~~~~. (I872) 8II3. It~ 50,~6).- 2878[ 380 947 4205 P ( 8 60,, 70 3490 470 1243' 5205 Bligh, William, was born at Plymouth in 1753, and after 7,,0 80. 3883 533 029 5445,,.80 go 19~ 3 95 ]300 I588 ]2873 serving as a lieutenant under Captain Cook, was in 8787 sent so 95 300 s8S 2873 90,, 9.... 248 [ 51 { I26 }425 out in the Bounty to Tahiti to ship a cargo of bread-fruit trees for,, oo and:upwar. 24 5 5 14 icn ad~upwrdi. 2' 7 5 2 4 the W. Indies. He left Tahiti in 1789, and was proceeding to. 7 Jamaica, when Fletcher Christian and twenty-four other mem- 2I50 309 637 30,956 bers of the crew mutinied, turned B. and the remaining eighteen 3 seamen adrift in the launch with a few days' provisions, and re- Thle small proportion of juveniles. in this table, and more turnedto Tahiti. This was niear Topea, r9~ S. lat. 1840 E.olong.'especially in the column relating to-Ireland, is worthy of note, B. managed to reach the island of Timor, 3600oomiles distant, in while the fact that 13,962;. or 45 per cent. of the whole, are about six weeks, but only twelve of the faithful crew reached above sixty years of age shows clearly that old age and infirmity England with him in I790.. He was appointed a commander, contribute largely to blindness. It is also seen firom the census and soon afterwards succeeded in taking the bread-fruit from the that the B. are more numerous in agricultural than in manuSouth Seas to the W. Indies. In 1792 he published an account facturing and mining counties, a. circumstance partly to be of his voyage. In i8o6 he became Governor, of New S. Wales, ascribed to the great average age attained in the former, and but in ISo8 resigned this post, on account of his extreme un6 partly to the constant exposure of-an agricultural life. In Scotpopularity. B. died inLondon, 7th September i8-7. See Lady land and Iieland the females steadily predominate, while in Belcher's Afulineer-s of lthe Bounty (Lond. 187o). England the males are as fixedly in excess, as will be seen from the following table, giving the census of the three decades Blighia. See AKEE.-. -7i Bligh Islands, Polynesia, in long..-X8o, and S. lat. 15~ 30'- le Fal Males. Females;. Total, I90 30', a group discovered by Tasman in 1643, and named after..... Captain Bligh, who sighted them from the open boat in which I858 9,807 8,670 28,477 he made his perilous voyage after his expulsion fromtnthe Bounty England.. 86i Io,340 9,99 19 9,549 by his mutinous crew. 2I870' 2i,371 00,202' 2I590 1851:,466 1,544 3,oio Blight, a term vaguely applied to a diseased condition of Scotlaid-. 085 I,4399 I,42I 2,820 various grains and other grasses, no matter how caused, but is, { 87I V,'490 1,5290 3,o89 properly speaking, limited to those diseases caused by minute or85: 3,:5858 09,8 parasitic fungi, known as Smut-Balls, Bunt, Pepper Brand, or ieland.,:588 3.999 7,587 I'eland:.. ~ 86I 3, 149 3,730 6,879 Stinking Rust (q. v.). B. is often owing to errors in manring, x871 3O,22 the fmungi attacking unhealthy plants so caused. A false B., 3,325,347 which does little harm to the plant, is caused by an abnormal The gradual decrease in the total'number of the B. in Ireland, development of the epidermal cells (the Derma, q. v.), which bursts observable in the above table, is in a great measure due to a the cuticle and forms mealy patches on the surface of the plant,, falling off in te population at large. In England, again, the simulating by their colour and appearance'an attack of true B. number has steadily increased, and in Scotland it s almost number has steadily increased, and in Scotland it is almost Blimbing, the acid fruits of Averrl-Zje Bibimbi and A- exactly the same as it was twenty years ago. Caroambola, two plants belonging to the natural order Bo/samin- As ealjr as- 1178 an asylum for the B. was established by acem (q. v.). They are eaten by the natives of India, and: are Woof VI. at: Memmingen. In 1260 the Hospice des Quinze aused as pickles yaeat by the ntvsoaEuropeans. dre Vingis was opened in Paris by St Louis, for the reception of 300 persons (as its name implies),- and was originally intended Blind, The, is the name applied to those who'lack the for those Crusaders who had lost their sight on the burning sense of sight. This class, wlhich is greatly on: the increase in, plains of Egypt and Syria. Here pensions were granted of a England and various other countries, has received inestimable franc and a half a day to- those who chose to reside in the benefits at the hand of modern philanthropy. Charitable insti- house, while smaller pensions were granted to any who preferred tutions for the maintenance of the B. existed, indeed, as early as to reside with friends. In 1784 the cause of the B. seems to the 12th c., but provision for their education and self-improve- have attracted special notice, and in- Paris the first institution for mnent has only been made within comparatively late years.- To their education was opened by the famous M. Valentine Haiiy, the present century belongs not only the foundation- of almost under the patronage of the Philanthropic Society. This estaball the asylums now existing, but also the vast extension of the lishment was closed during the Revolution, but was re-opened field of B. industry, and above all, the invention of relief-print- in 1817, and since 1843 has occupied a building capable of ing, and the consequent creation of a B. literature. receiving 1:6o pupils, who receive, in addition to a primary eduIn 1871 the number of the B. in the British Isles was 30,956, cation, careful instruction- in music, for which many discover a or I in every 1022; and this proportion alm-ost: exactly corre- special aptitude. Institutions of a. similar kind were soon after. sponds to that of the various flat areas of Europe, as France, wards founded in Amsterdam, Berlin, Breslau, Brussels, CopenPrussia, Belgium, and the plains of' Hungary,- Denmark, and hagen; Dresden, Edinburgh, Liverpool, London, Vienna, Ztirich, Lombardy. Mountainous countries have a much lower average, and in many towns of the United States. In 1791 the Liverwith the singular exception of Norway, which has I blind person pool school' for the B. (Hardman Street) was opened; but it in every 482 inhabitants. It has been estimated that the B. in was left to the Rev. Dr Johnston, of North Leith, assisted by the world are not fewer than 3,000,000; and of this vast number, Dr Blacklock, the poet, and William Wilberforce, to open, in 37,662 belong to France, some 45,0oo00 to Germany, upwards of 1793, at Edinburgh, the first institution for the employment and 70,000ooo to Russia, some 3000 to Holland, 5700 to Sweden, and industrial training of B. adults. In the same year the school at upwards of 200oo0 to Norway. The large number of the B. in Bristol was begun; then followed, in 1799, St George's-in-theall highly civilised countries would seem to indicate that intel- Fields, London; in 18o5, Norwich school; in S11io (Sackville Itctual pursuits and industrial modes of life are among the more,Street) Dublin,; in 181, Aberdeen (Industrial); in 1815 (Moly413 BLI TiHE G OBE _EVNCYCL OM~EDJA. BLI neux), Dublin; in 1827 (Henshaw's), Manchester; in 1828, alphabet was a Roman one; but this decision was only come to Glasgow (Industrial); in 1831, Belfast; in 1833, York; in I835 after nearly five years of deliberation, and when a report had (Gayfield Square School), Edinburgh; and'The Society for been obtained from the Rev. W. Taylor, a gentleman of great Teaching the B. to Read,' in London, in 1838. In 1873 there practical experience in teaching. Mr Alston, of Glasgow, subwere I48 institutions for the B. in the world. A splendid new sequently so improved Dr Fry's system as to render the letters building for the B. in Edinburgh was completed in 1876. sharper and more tangible; and in this higher form it soon found The industrial employment of the B. is necessarily restricted its way into most of the schools throughout the country, and to departments of work which do not require very delicate acquired everywhere a lasting popularity. manipulation; but instances are on record of B. people who have The question of stenographic versuts Roman alphabets was long maintained themselves as clock and watch cleaners, sculptors, warmly discussed by the adherents of the two systems, but this surveyors, &c. Large numbers of the male B. are employed as dispute seems likely to obtain a quiet settlement from the test of basket-makers, rope and twine spinners, brush and mattress experience in favour of the latter. As long ago as I833, Mr Taylor makers; others are employed as mat and matting makers, saw'no sufficient reason for departing from the common Roman choppers of firewood, and sack-weavers; while a few are engaged letter,' and spoke decidedly against the adoption of any merely as shoemakers and wood turners. Piano-tuning:has recently been arbitrary characters. added to the employments of the B., and fsom their quickness of The testimony of the Edinburgh Society was given in favour ear it is very likely to prove a valuable addition to their limited of the Roman letter in an elaborate report of over 30 printed resources. The female B. are usually taught to knit, net, and pages. In this report it was stated —(I)'That although an arbimake fancy-work of various sorts, which seldom pays. In trary character might possess in itself superior advantages in Scotland, and especially in the Royal B. Asylum, Edinburgh, simplicity and tangibility, yet there would be great, and in many sewing has been long a remunerative source of employment. cases insuperable, obstacles to the B. generally acquiring a knowSewing sacks and bags for grain, &c., also pays well. Brush- ledge of any character not familiar to those possessed of sight. making by the females is now carried on to a great extent, while.... (2). that the same objection applies, though perhaps in the seating of cane chairs, making of carpet brooms, &c., gives a less degree, to Mr Gall's angular modification of the Roman employment to a number more. The use of the sewing-machine alphabet. (3) that from being almost universally known was a few years ago introduced into some of the London institu- in Europe and America, the common Roman capital alphations, but the amount of supervision required is so great that it bet, as represented by the late Dr Fry, seems not only the best is very questionable if it ever can be employed extensively., adapted for teaching the B. to read, but also as a medium of M. Haby, as the inventor of printing in relief, is to be regarded correspondence;.... it would sooner be brought into general as the founder of the literature for the B., although there had use than any of the other characters,.... and expense would be been several previous. attempts to give to this class a knowledge greatly diminished.' Of the alphabetical systems still in use, the of letters. The invention of M. Haiiy, which has never been principal are those employing (I) Alston's Roman capitals, (2) superseded, was taken up subsequently by Mr James Gall, of the American smaller capitals, and (3) the French alphabet. Edinburgh, among whose modifications may be mentioned the re- The chief arbitrary systems are those of Lucas, Frere, Moon, duction of the number of letters of the alphabet, the employment Carton, and Braille. The alphabet of Mr Lucas of Bristol of a larger type, and the substitution for curves and circles of consists of thirty-six chmacters, ten of which represent double angles and straight lines. In 1827 Mr Gall issued his FirstBook, letters, and in printing, not only are all letters omitted that printed in the new manner, and such was its success, that it was are not necessary to the sound, but whole words are often requickly followed by his Scripture Statements and an Epitome of presented by single letters, as the by t, yet by y, mie by nl, Old Testanzent History. Two years later, having procured a &c. This system was held to have the manifold advantages sufficient number of subscribers, at the rate of one guinea a copy, incident to great condensation, but was found ultimately to be he began to print the first book of the Bible ever brought thus even longer than Alston's. The New Testament of the former within the reach of the B., namely, the Gospel by St John-a occupied 84I pages, whereas in the full-length Roman capitals work which did not, however, appear till I834, owing to. many of the latter it only took 623. The system of Mr J. H. Frere of serious causes of delay. These works showed an advance upon London, again, was founded on Gurney's shorthand, as that of the French printing, and could be read by the B. with greater ease, Lucas was on Byrom's, and its special feature is its being purely but they were so costly as to be practically beyond the reach of phonetic, the characters being intended to represent the simple the class for which they had been mainly produced. Still the sounds in the language. Its alphabet is composed of thirty-two success of Mr Gall had ro6used the interest of the public, and for characters, the vowels being represented by simple dots, which the time being Edinburgh was the enthusiastic centre of this new in a. variety of positions indicate the different vowels. The many branch of philanthropy. In 1832 the Edinburgh Society of Arts rules and directions for learning this system do not to any conoffered their gold medal (value twenty sovereigns) for the best B. siderable extent obviate its difficulty. The alphabet of Mr W. alphabet and method of printing. Mr Gall's establishment was Moon of Brighton (himself blind) contains six of the Roman letters visited by the Abbd Carton, in the name of the Belgian Govern- unaltered, twelve others with parts left out, so as to be more ment, and later by Dr Howe of Amnerica, and these visits led to open to the touch, while the rest are new and comparatively the foundation of similar institutions in Boston and Brussels. In simple. All the words are printed in full, but this makes the America, a private press had been set up in Philadelphia by Mr system cumbrous and expensive. The works issued in it, inJacob Snider, who issued the Gospel by St Mark, in'the capital cluding a monthly magazine, have, however, been widely ciralphabet,' in I834. When the general attention had thus been culated throughout the country by agents, and the inventor states once fairly stirred, there began to appear the utmost variety of in the preface to Luifhtfor the B. (1875), that'5000 persons have schemes and theories for the perfection of this method of print- learned to read, including several at the advanced age of eighty ing, and many were the attempts made ostensibly to improve or ninety, as well as children of tender years.' and simplify the alphabet. The only inventions of any great In 1834 M. Louis Braille introduced his yoint system (a modivalue in the way of printing were-(I) the serrated type, which fication of an invention by a M. C. Barbier) into the Institute produces a series of dots instead of straight lines; and (2) the at Paris. It is very easily felt, and can be printed in much less'return line,' or the alternate printing of lines running from left space than Moon's or Alston's. In France no other method is to right and from right to left. As regards the alphabet, it used, and over the whole Continent it is fast displacing all other seems long to have remained a pet subject for the apprentice systems. hand of the inventor. Till about I830 there had been nothing A B C D E F G H used but the ordinary Roman alphabet, more or less modified ~ for the sake of distinctness; but subsequently there were issued numerous experimental works in characters taken from existing 0 0 o a 0 0 a systems of stenography. Among the twenty-one alphabets sub- Iand from these mitted to the Committee of the Edinburgh Society of Arts, there form is simply six dots (thus was one of this latter kind, which has since come to be employed sixty-two variations are made. Besides having become the extensively. It was that, namely, of Mr M. T. Lucas, to the medium of many publications, it has been made the basis of a merits of which we shall again refer. The medal of the Society, thorough musical notation. With the aid of printing frames, the on the same occasion, was awarded to Dr Fry of London, whose B. themselves can use it as a means of correspondence. In IS87i 4414 4rq~~~~~~~ BLI THE GLOBE ENC YCI OPiEDIA. 3BLO the Braille system was ingeniously adapted in New York by Mr Io to 15 inches. The tail is blunted, the body being of almost William Wait, who, by laying the root on its side (thus a'' ), equal thickness throughout, and covered by very small scales. and by representing the letters of most frequent occurrence by The tongue is free, fleshy, and slightly notched at its tip. The the fewest possible points, achieved a great reduction in expense. teeth are very small; and although it has been credited with The Boston system, however, is firmly established in America venomous properties, it is perfectly destitute of such, and is by Dr Howe's long and energetic labours, which are being ably altogether harmless. No limbs are outwardly developed, and seconded by Mr N. B. Kneasse of Philadelphia, who issues a although a true lizard, its appearance is decidedly serpentine. monthly journal, among many other works. It feeds.upon snails, insects, and worms. The specific name The present price of a copy of the New Testament by Alston fragilis is derived from its habit of stiffening the muscles of isZ2, by Gall i, I2s., by Frere /2, ios., by Moon /4, Ios., by the body when touched, so as to cause the tail readily to be Lucas /2, while the Gospel of St John is issued by Mr Wait at 2$. broken off, as if exceedingly brittle. The young are produced See T. Anderson, Observations on the EEmfloyment, Education, from eggs, but in a living state (ovo-vivizparously); and although and Hlabits of the B.; Dr J. Kitto, The Lost Senses.; Dr G. termed'blind,' the eyes are well developed, but of small size. Wilson, 7he Five Gatezways of Xnowledg-e; V. Haiiy, L'Educa- The amphibian C&ciliai& above alluded to are snakelike tion des Aveugles; P. A. Dufau, Des A veug5les, leur Etat P/ysiyue, forms found in Java, Ceylon, and S. America. The eyes are 3Moral et Intellectuel, crowned by the Academy. rudimentary, and are concealed beneath the skin. They burrow Blind'age, screens made of timber and earth, or of trees in marshy ground; and the young, as in all AZibia, possess external gills in early life. slanting towards each other, which are sometimes placed in an inclined position against the walls of besieged towns to add to Blis'tering Flies. See CANTHARIDES. their strength. Blis'ters axe substances used medicinally to produce counterBlind Coal, a popular name of Anthracite (q. v.). irritation. When applied to the surface of the body they raise the cuticle'by causing serum to be exuded between it and the studied at IH-eidelberg and Bonn, and early became known a true sin, and thus form a vesicle. This vesicle should be pnotimpetuous advocate of German freedom and unity. I-Ie played:to be removed except in those cases in which a running sore is a leading part in Hecker's rising in Baden in x848, for which he to be maintained exept in this iscasesirable it can be promoted by was subsequently exiled. Later he headed the second republican inter or some irritating snbstnce, as savin insurrection in the Black Forest, when he was captured, tried, applying a second blister or some irritating substce, as savin,ointment. B. should be dressed with lard and cotton wadding, and sentenced to eight years' imprisonment. Liberated by the great care being taken not to irritate the blistered part. people, he was sent by the Provisional Government on a diplomatic mission to Paris, where he was arrested on a charge of The substances used to produce B. are boil water, strong implication in Ledru Rollin's movement in favour of the Roman canth rides. Of these, cayenne pepper, either as a plaster or as andisRepublic. After much public discussion, B. was'finally banished cantharides Of these, cantharides, eithert common sub ance for producing from France. He has since resided in Belgium and England, terigfidd, isby far the most common substance for producing froom France. He has since resided in Belgium and England, B. It:is generally allowed to remain for ten or twelve hours actively engaged in a democratic propaganda. B. is an honest B. It i generally allowed to remain for ten or twelve hours enthusiast, who is ready to turn the world upside'down in t he applied to reliee deep-seated interests of humanity. Politically he belongs to the order of pain in inflam-They are gene rally applied to relieve deep-seated' Irreconcilabules.' pain in inflammation and congestion of internal organs. B. are also extensively applied to remove glandular swellings and other Blindness may exist in any degree, from the smallest impair- tumours. B. are very useful in removing -fluid from internal ment of vision to total loss of sight. This state may be congeni- cavities, especially -in pleurisy and pericarditis. B. form the tal, or it may occur at any period of life, but most frequently in best application to indolent and callous ulcers. old age. It may arise from many causes, as disease of the brain, B. should be used very cautiously in infants and old people, as rendering the person unable to recognise the impressions pro- they are very apt to produce great depression, and not unfreduced in the eye by the rays of light. B. may -be the result of quently in such cases produce troublesome sloughing wounds. disease of the optic nerve or of the retina. It may arise from In all such cases it is best to remove the blister after a few hours, inflammation of any of the structures composing the eye, or from and afterwards apply a poultice. B. are to be avoided in all affections of the crystalline lens and humours of the eye. It cases of inflammation of the kidneys, on account of the tendency may also be due to adhesions of the eyelids or to absence of of cantharides to produce bloody urine. Other remedial agents the eyeball. Whatever tends to obstruct the rays of light as act in much the same way as counter-irritants, but produce a pusthey pass through the eye may be said to cause B. The dif- tular eruption instead of vesicles, the chief of such substances ferent kinds of B. will be treated under the various affections beingf croton oil and tartar emetic. that constitute B., as amaurosis, cataract, glaucoma, &c. thay-B. (constitute B., as a peculiarosis cndition aractn which vision i Blister Steel, a variety'of steel, showing, when broken across, tDay-B. (Nuctaloia) dris n a peculiar condition a ind which vision ad a fine granulated texture, and marked on the exterior with blistermost powerful during twilight, due to a kind of amaurosis, and like pominences of varyg diaeters. It is formed in a furnace exists among those who are confined in dark. cells. Night-B. like promincess of varying diameters. It is formed in a furnace in the process of converting bar-iron into steel by carburisation, (ieber oadloia) is the converse of day-B. The patiment sees which is effected by building up alternate layers of bar-iron and only in broad daylight, but not at all.at other times. It is powdered charcoal, the upper layer of charcoal being covered common in India and other tropical countries, caused by the ex- over with a damp siliceous powder, the product of the wear of posure of the eyes to a burning sun. The treatment consists in proteting of the eyes toby a burning sun. The treatment consists common grindstones in the manufacture of steel articles, and keeping the protecting the eyes by a shade. A similar affection is common whole at a red heat for from seven to ten days. The blisters among the Esquimaux and those engaged in Arctic travelling, whole at a red heat for from seven to ten days. The blisters among the Esquimaux and those engaged in Arctic travelling, are supposed to arise from a part of the charcoal cement combinare supposed to arise from a part of the charcoal cement combincalled Snow-mB. This affection is caused by the reflection -'f ing with the oxygen of the included air to form carbonic oxide, light from the snow. See BLINDNESS. which permeates the whole mass of iron carburising it, and renBlind'story, in ecclesiastical architecture, is the second or dering the surface vesicular. B. S. is employed in making files middle arcade in that wall which separates the body of'a church and tools of all descriptions. The first use of the process is from the aisles. In cathedrals it serves to give access to dif- unknown, but it was described at length by Reaumur in I722. ferent parts of the building. Its apertures admit no light, and Bloch, Marcus Elieser, a Jewish physician and ichthyolothus B. is opposed to Clerestory (q. v.), the third arcade, which gist, was born at Anspach, Bavaria, I723, graduated as M.D. admits light. B. is also called the trifonium. at Frankfurt, and settled at Berlin, where he died, 6th August Blind'worm, a name given to the Cociliade,.a group of I799. His great work is Allgemeine Naturgeschichte der Fiscke Amphibian Vertebrata (see BATRACHIA), but more commonly (with 432 coloured plates, I2 vols. Berl. I782-95). His Systema applied to indicate the slow-worm (Anguis), included in the Lacer- Ichthyologie Iconibas CX illlstratum was left unfinished, and tilia, or Lizard order of reptiles, which is represented by the was published by Schneider (Berl. I80I). common blind or slow worm (Aznguisfragilis) of Britain, Europe, Block, a nautical term, meaning the case or shell which conAsia, and N. Africa. The slow-worms are included in the tains the wheel or sheave of a pulley. A tackle is two or more fanmily Scincidce. In length the common species measures from blocks with the rope. The B. is called single, double, treble, * BLO THE GL OBE ENC YCLOPxEDI. BLO fourfold, according as it contains one, two, three, or four sheaves. of eleven arches. It is the see of an archbishop, and has a comrnThe manufacture of this important part of a ship's rigging, so munal college, a botanic garden, and a public library of 20,000 necessary for raising sails, tightening ropes, and other purposes, volumes. Its manufactures are chiefly porcelain, lace, and was carried on by hand till the year I78I, when a Mr Taylor hoisery, and there is some trade in brandy, wine, and timber. invented and patented a process for making shells and sheaves. Pop. (I872) I4,496, including the suburb of Vienne. B. conThe late Sir Mark Isambard Brunel set up his ingeniously in- tains a cathedral, a Roman aqueduct, which supplies the public vented machinery in the dockyard at Portsmouth between the fountains, and an ancient citadel, partly built in the 15th c., years I802 and i8o8. A duplicate of it was erected at Chat- famed for its historical associations. In this castle Louis XII. ham about I807. By this machinery every operation connected was born, and the Duc d'Alengon and Marguerite of Anjou, and with the making of a B. is performed. It cuts up.the rough also Henry IV. and Marguerite of Valois, were married; in timber, and polishes the iron for the pin on which the sheave it Franyois I., Henri II., Charles IX., and Henri III. held turns. There is a machine for boring, for mortising, for shap- their courts; and within its walls the Duc de Guise and his ing, for scoring, and for many other minute purposes. The brother were murdered in 1588. At B. have been concluded whole of the machinery is put in motion by straps passing over numerous treaties. In the Franco-Prussian war, the troops of drums, and is driven by!a steam-engine of 32-horse power. By Hesse-Darmstadt here gained a striking victory over the French, means of it, ten men can with ease finish from I3,ooo to June 28, I87I. I40,oo000 blocks of different sizes in a year. The B. is made of elm, the sheaves of Zignum vite, and the pins are made of Blom'ied, Charles James, an eminent English Churchiron prepared so as to reduce friction as much as possible. The man, was born at Bury St Edmund's, May 29, I786. He studied importance of this invention will be seen when it. is mentioned at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he distinguished himself that a single line-of-battle ship requires about I430 of these highly, and was elected fellow in 1809. In I8I3 he became articles for her equipment. Brunel received 20,00ooo for the domestic chaplain to the Bishop of London, in I82r Archdeacon invention, and for superintending the erection of his machine. of Colchester, in I824 Bishop of Chester, and in I828 was translated to the see of London, where, after a laborious and enerBlockade', in military or naval tactics, signifies the effectual getic career, he died, August 5, I857. B. edited four of the trastoppage, by a circle of fortifications or men-of-war ships, of all gedies of zEschylus; the Eirag-,zezts of Callimachus Sophron, means of external communication with the garrison of a besieged of Sappho, and Alcneus; contributed to the Edinburgh and fortress or port. If resistance is determined on by the garrison, Quarterly Revizews; and published sermons, lectures, pamphlets, the governor places the civilians (if any) under strict military &c. But his principal distinction was gained by his activity in rules; superintends the consumption of food, which is regulated the management of his diocese, and by his exertions for churchas economically as possible; and makes frequent sorties, so as extension. His efforts for the suppression of certain offices in to at least retard, if not prevent, the complete investment by the -cathedrals, that. their revenues might be applied to the augmenenemy. tation of the smaller livings, subjected him to the unenviable Blockade, in international law, means the rendering of inter- satire of the Rev. Sydney Smith. See LiZfe of Biskop B., by course with the ports of an enemy unlawful on the part of his son Alfred (2'.vols. Lond. I863). neutrals. In England, it has always been held that a B., to ber born about valid, must be effective-that is, that there must be a force of Blomm t'a Phlip, Flemish litnera1 r, born about i8o9, earned some reputation as a poet in I834, but is now best known ships sufficiently near the port to make it dangerous for a vessel to attempt to enter. On the Continent less strict conditions by his careful editions of Flemish poems of the middle ages, have generally been held to constitute a valid B. The French as the T/zeopkil/s (Ghent, 1836) of the 14th c., and the Ohave held that a ship attempting to run the B. was entitled to vlsmsc/ze Gedic/iten ('Old FlemishPoems') ofthe I2th, I3th, and warning, and that seizure was not legal until an act was done in I4th centuries (3 vols.;hent, 1838-5 I). He also translated the defiance. To be binding on neutrals, a B., besides being effee- Nibelungens into Flemish lambics; but probably his greatest work tive, must be presumably known to them. Official notification, is his History of the Belgians (A8onde Gescniedeszs der Beongen of ought, therefore, to be made of the fact. Neo7VI er Dsitsc/eers, Ghent, I849), in which he shows strong TeuA breach of B. may be made either by coming out of or going' tonic sympathies. B. died at Ghent, I4th August I87I. into the blockaded port. It subjects.vessel and cargo to confis- Blon'del, properly Blondiaus, also Blondel de Nesle cation by the blockading power. A B. can only be maintained or Ni6ele, so named from his birthplace in the old French produring war. It ceases on the proclamation of peace. vince of Picardy, a minstrel and poet of the 12th c., was the Block'house bears the same relation to a. temporary fortifi- favourite comrade and brother-poet of Richard Cceur de Lion of cation that a tower does to a permanent one. 4It is especially England. His name has, however, been immortalised, after a useful in a wooded country, where it is quickly raised, and fashion, by a beautiful but baseless tradition, which tells how where it is not easily attacked by large guns. The form is either Richard, kidnapped and hidden away in prison by Duke Leorectangular or like a Greek cross, preferably the latter. The pold of Austria, was sought for and at last found by the faithful roof is composed of 3 or 4 feet of earth, strong and fire-proof; B., whowandered -through Austria in disguise, until he finally the walls are provided with port-holes, through which the be-: came to a fortress in which a distinguished prisoner was said sieged may fire; and a ditch is not unfrequently dug round it, to be confined. Approaching close to the place, B. chanted a thus preventing the near approach of the enemy. If opposed to stanza of troubadour song well known to himself and to Richartillery, the walls must be composed of two rows of trunks, ard, and was overjoyed to hear it answered from within in the with earth rammed firmly in between them. voice of the King. Having thus discovered his master's prison, B. hurried back to England, where the required ransom was soon Block IPrint~ing. See PaINTING, obtained, and the royal prisoner freed. The only ancient source Blocks'berg, the name of several mountains in Germany, for this tale is the Chronicle of Rheims belonging to the I3th c. and, in particular, the popular name of the Brocken (q. v.), a (Par.. I836); all earlier records, English, French, and Austrian, famous eminence of the Hartz Mountains, on which the witches are silent in regard to B. Even the songs of the trozuvre Blonwere popularly believed to hold their orgies on Woanu9gisnoacht, diaus and of King Richard, published by Tarbe (Les SEuvres the night between the 3oth of April and the Ist of May. de B. de NWele, Rheims, i862), furnish no trace of the legend. Block System. See RAILW1AY. But after the 15th c. the story began to spread, and its beauty has since won for it an abiding place in the human memory, if Block Tin. In order to purify crude tin, it is subjected to not in history. In the work of Tarbd's referred to, he has the process of iquanionz. This consists in gradually heating ingots gathered together everything relating to the legendary and the of the metal on the bed of a furnace, when the purer or g'rain tinl historical B. fuses first and runs off, leaving an impure and less fusible alloy, containing, in addition to tin, iron, copper, lead, arsenic, andy liquid, a little heavier than water, its specific grsomewat antimony. Tllis alloy when remelted forms B. T. clammy liquid, a little heavier than water, its specific gravity being Io52 to Io57, water being Iooo. It has a saltish taste, Blois (Lat. Blesia), the capital of the department of Loire-et- a peculiar odour, and is alkaline. In man and the higher manmCher, France, 35 miles S.W. of Orleans by rail, beautifully situ- malia it is florid red in the arteries, and dark purple in the veins. ated on the right bank of the Loire, here crossed by a fine bridge To the naked eye it appears a homogeneous liquid, but when.416 BLO TH7-E GLOBE ENCYCLOPzED9IA. BLO examined with a powerful microscope it is found to consist of a disease, but the special B. diseases will be treated under their colourless fluid called the liquozr sangzinis, in which float nu- respective heads. See CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD, RESPImerous corpuscles. These corpuscles are of two kinds, red and RATION. colourless corpuscles. The red are by far the most numerous, and are smaller than the white corpuscles. In man the red and are smaller than the wlecorpuscles. In man the red born in Ireland about I628, his father being according to one corpuscles are circular biconcave disks, and in B, drawn from account a blacksmith, according to another an ironmaster. He the body have a tendency to run together, adhering to one an- served in the Parliamentary army it his own country, and the other by their flat surfaces like pieces of coin piled one above desperate character of the man was shown in a plot which he another, forming cylindrical columns. This is easily seen under made after the Restoration to seize Dublin Castle and the person a powerful microscope. The size of these red corpuscles in man of the Duke of Ormon the Lord-Lieutenant. The plot was of the Duke of Ormond, the Lord-Lieutenant. The plot was has been estimated at -~ to - of an inch in diameter. I drupeds they are generally smaller than in man, in the ele-discovered, and B. fled the country. After a wandering life in Holland, Scotland, and England, he placed himself at the head phaut, however, they are larger. TIn reptsles yand amphibia of another conspiracy against the Duke of Ormond, seized him tlhey are much larger. The largest corpuscles yet observed are in his cch on 6th December 670, an all but succeeded in in the _Sioteus, in which they are about - of an inch in length. in his coach on 6th December 67, and all but succeeded in of an inch in length. having him hanged at Tyburn. Singularly enough, he was never The shape of these corpuscles varies in different animals. In most mammals they are shaped as i man in the camel, i suspected of having had anything to do with this desperate they are elliptical n reptiles, fishes, and birds, yow- villany, although there is some reason to think that he was ~~~~~~ever, they.In tr~ iey ~screened by the Duke of Buckingham, if not hired by him for are generally more or less oval. In most of the invertebrate purpose, His next exploit was the most daing of all. anilnals the corpuscles are colourless, and hence their B. is also animals the corpuscles re colourless, and hence their B. is also Disguised as a clergyman, he attempted with two accomplices, May 9, 167I, to carry off the regalia from the Tower. He was,?White or Colourless Corpitscles are much fewer, somewhat however, seized with the crown in his possession, and thrown larger, and lighter than the red corpuscles.' In man (during o seized with the crown in his possession, and thrown health) the proportion of white corpuscles to the red is 2 or alarmed by a statement that he was at the head of a large band 3 to moo. This proportion is diminished by fasting and increased after a meal, especially of albuminnous food. Their of conspirators who would certainly avenge his death, that the king not only pardoned him, but gave him a pension of ~5oo a number compared with the red corpuscles is said to be greater in venous than arterial B., and it is much gr eater r,'Colonel' B., as he was called, became indeed an influin venous than arterial B., and it is much greater in the ential person at court. Subsequently, however, he fell out with y. of t'-splenic and hepatic veins than in venous B, gene- Buckingham, made a scandalous imputation against him, and rally.'-Q(uain's Anatomy. In certain diseased states of the was imprisoned. He was, however, admitted to bail, and he spleen, the white corpuscles are much increased, See LEU- died in his own house, 24th August I68o. COCYTHEMIA, or WHITE-CELLED BLOOD. Liquor sonZginis is a pale clear fluid in which the corpuscles Blood, Avenger of, the man whose duty it was, according float. It consists of fibrine and serum, and has a great tendency to a custom yet in vogue among nations of patriarchal habits, to to coagulate. The fibrine is best obtained by stirring newly- avenge the death of a murdered relative, unless a certain comdrawn B. with a bundle of twigs, which entangle the fibrine.B.-moneywere paid bythemurderer The Mosaic Fibrine exists in B. about 22 parts in Iooo. law was peculiar in preventing the escape of the wilful murderer Serum of B. is a thin yellowish fluid, holding in solution about by the payment of B.-money, in restricting the vengeance to the IO per cent. of solids. It coagulates when heated owing to the offender himself, and in providing means for the escape of an uniGalbumen it contains. Serum also contains fatty matters and a tentional manslayer. See Numb. xxxv., and CITIES OF REFUGE. peculiar nitrogenous principle called globulin, and certain Blood, Corruption of. See TREASON, salts, potash, and soda. Many chemists have carefully analyseds aBlood, Eatlng of, prohibited Genesis ix. 4, and frequently B., but as that fluid is always changng, and differs very much in t osaic law, generally in connection with sacrices, The y in the Mosaic law, generally in connection with sacrifices, The in different parts of the body, it is impossible to give an exact prohibition was renewed by the council of apostles and elders at prohibition was renewed by the council of apostles and elders at chemical composition of B. The following, however, may give Jerusalem (Acts xv. 29), but coupled with things offered to idols, a general idea of its emical onsttuton parts an evident compromise between Christian liberty and Jewish nearly 800 parts consist of water and the rest solid matters. prejuices. The an, too, enjoins abstinence from B. and This solid residue has nearly the same chemical constitution as from th flesh. The red corpuscles contain a principle termed Globulings offered to idols. closely allied to albumen, and a colouring matter called IIojz~ltin. The h ematin contains iron. The globulin, along eater (q. v.), a native of New South Wales, and named from with some colouring matter, forms the so-called B.-crystals. the scalet colour of its body, except the wings and legs. These crystals are very beautiful and are differently shaped ac- Blood-Flower (Zmnzmanshs), a genus of bulbous-rooted cording to the B. of the animal from which they are drawn, plants (natural order, A4maoyllidacea-), which gets its name from Coagulation of B.-When B. is drawn from the vessels it the colour of the flowers of most of the species. There are about very soon coagulates. This is due to the fibrine separating into fifteen or sixteen species, nearly all natives of the Cape of Good a solid mass, entangling within its meshes the corpuscles, and Hope, and many of them cultivated in our conservatories. allowing the serum to escape. In inflammation and certain other Most of them are poisonous. The inspissated juice of H. toxidiseases the red corpuscles separate from the liquor songuinis, carius is used by the Bushmen to poison their arrow points, and fall to the bottom before coagulation takes place, and the Bloodhound, a breed of hounds known also by the white corpuscles, on account of their lightness, float on the sur- name' Sleuth-hounds,' possessing a broad-chested, muscular face; and hence, when coagulation takes place, the clot is of a body. The ears are large light colour, forming what has long been called the' buffy coat.' and pendant, as also are Cold retards coagulation whilst moderate heat accelerates it. It the overlapping upper lips, is also much affected by chemical substances. It is retarded by The usual colour is a tan of acids and prevented by alkalies. Faintness promotes coagula- various shades, interspersed tion, whilst excitement, as a rule, retards it. The colour of the with black. These dogs have B. is due to the red corpuscles. These undergo a remarkable gained an unenviable reputachange in passing through the capillaries. The corpuscles then' tion, from their having been give off oxygen, which unites with the carbon of the tissues to used to track fugitives, and i I g form carbonic acid and render the B. dark in the veins. On especially runaway slaves. X' the other hand, as the B. passes through the lungs it takes The breed has lately de.- in oxygen, and again assumes the florid red colour of arterial dlined in Europe, although I 5t,-.' B. The B, receives the products of digestion and carries in America, but nmore parti them to the tissues, and receives the waste of the tissues to be cularly in Cuba, these dogs B 3loodhound. excreted by special organs of which the kidneys are the chief. are still bred for the purposes The quantity of B. in the human body is said to be above 30 lbs. above noted. They are not naturally fierce, but possess a in the male and less in the female. The B. varies much in powerful and acute scent; and are trained to show a great 53 4*7 BLO YTHE GLOBE ENCYCIOPEDI9ZA. BLO amount of dogged perseverance in following up the trail, as well Blouse, a light, loose, blue over-garment, worn especially by as to exhibit ferocious traits. The Cuban B. is a variety more the working-men of France, who are hence called blouses. A nearly allied in general conformation and in ferocity to the bull- white B. is Sunday dress. The smock-frock of the English wagdog. It is still used in Cuba in tracking slaves. goner and farm-labourer is now frequently called a B. It is made of coarse, under-bleached linen, and is plaited and embroiBloodletting may be either general or local. General B. con- dered on the breast and shoulders. It is sometimes worn by sists in abstracting blood from the general circulation. This may butchers in the Lowlands of Scotland, the colour being blue, as in be effected from an artery (arteriotomy), or from a vein (vene- France. It is worn blue also in Germany, where the B. is fresection or phlebotomy). When from an artery, it is usually the quently tightened by a belt. anterior branch of the Temporal Artery (q. v ). The vessel Is cut obliquely but only punctured, care being taken to have the wound Blow-Fly, or Flesh-Fly (Sarcoph5aga carumaria), a genus in the integument much larger to allow the blood freely of Dipterous insects or flies, belonging to the Muscid&s, or family to escape. When sufficient blood has been drawn, the artery is including the domestic fly, &c. The adult B.-F. possesses a to be completely cut across and a pad and bandage are to be ap- yellowish head, a greyish thorax, whilst the abdomen is coloured plied. In venesection, blood is generally drawn from the arm. of a blackish-brown, with a bluish or metallic lustre. The eyes A bandage is tied above the part to be opened, sufficiently tight are set apart in both males and females. The body is hairy. to obstruct the blood in the veins, but not tight enough to inter- The wings may measure an inch in extent. The eggs are depofere with the flow of the blood in the arteries. It is generally sited in decaying flesh and organic matter, or upon the bodies the median Cephalic Vein (q. v.) which is selected. The vein of living animals (e.g., sheep), in the skin of which the larvse is opened obliquely, and when sufficient blood is abstracted, the cause much irritation or even serious disease. Sometimes the bandage is untied and a pad and bandage applied to the wound. eggs appear to be hatched within the parent body, the flies being In certainr cases B. is performed on the external Jugular thus ovo-viviparous. Another species (S. moruaorulz) is said to Vein (q. v.) in the neck. B. is now seldom resorted to in surgi- inhabit cemeteries and graveyards, this form being distinguished cal practice. At one time it was universal in all inflammatory by a red line or mark on the front of the head. The larval diseases, and even a common occurrence for the most trifling flies, deposited in decaying matter, do good sanitary service by complaints, and in many instances for no disease whatever. removing putrescent material from the earth's surface. Now it is rare in any instance. This change has been brought about partly by an alteration in the type of disease, but Blowing Machines are instruments for producing blasts chiefly by a more correct knowledge of the nature of disease, or currents of air, and are used for exciting combustion or geneand of. the proper medicines to be applied. Local B. is more ating a great heat. The common bellows is on of the simplest advantageous, especially to relieve local congestions, and may in use, and very primitive forms are met with among uncivilised be performed by simple incisions, by cupping, or by leeches. See nations. All, however, work on the same principle-viz., by contracting the dimensions of the space within which a quantity of air is confined, and thus forcing the air out with a velocity Blood of our Saviour, an order of knighthood limited to proportional to the pressure and to the smallness of the aperture. twenty knights, instituted by the Duke of Mantua in I60o. The The space is refilled by taking advantage of the elastic properties Dukes of Mantua were sovereigns of the order, the name of of air as a gas. A serious objection to such machines as the which was suggested by the preservation in the Church of St common bellows is the want of a continuous blast, and to remedy Andrew, Mantua, of what were believed to be some drops of the this defect, various improvements have been suggested, such as B. of Christ. the use of two bellows. This, however, was soon superseded by Blood of St Januarius. See JANUARIUS, ST. the double bellows, which consists of two contiguous chambers, connected by a valve opening into the upper one, with which Blood~roolt. See GEUM, HIEIMODORACEm, and SANGUIN- the exit-pipe is connected. The upper chamber is filled by comARIA. pression of the lower one, which is itself refilled by merely perBloodstone. See HELIOTROPE. mitting it to open by the gravitating weight of the lowest board, which is also provided with an inlet valve. Bloom (Old Eng. bloma), originally a mass of malleable In blast furnaces, the blowing arrangement is somewhat more iron obtained by direct reduction of the ore in a hearth or complicated, and is worked by a steam-engine. There is an bloomery. The word is now used in ironworks for the spongy ordinary steam-cylinder at one end of the beam, and at the other mass of iron taken from the puddling-furnace. See IRON. is a blast-cylinder. This latter is provided with an air-tight Bloom, in art, an appearance on the surface of paintings re- piston, connected with the beam by a piston-rod, and with several inlet valves and an outlet valve at each end. The outsembling in some points the B. of certain fruits, which destroys several ves and an outlet valve at each end. The outthe transparency of the picture, and is caused by moisture in the let valves both open into the exit-pipe. Suppose, now, the varnish or on the picture before varnish is laid on. It is removed piston to be at the top of the cylinder, the lower part of which by sponging the ]picture with hot camphine, smoothing with a is filled with air. As the piston descends, the inlet valves below soft brush, and. drying in the open air. Most pictures painted are closed, and the compressed air escapes through the outlet nowadays are not varnished at all. valve into the exit-pipe; but at the same time the pressure of the external atmosphere opens the inlet valves above, and fills Bloom'erism, a momentary fashion in ladies' dress, origin- the upper portion of the cylinder with air, which is, in its turn, ating in America in connection with the female rights move- forced into the exit-pipe by the ascending piston. Meanwhile, ment. It took its name from Mrs Anne Bloomer, who, in 1849, the lower portion of the cylinder is being refilled with air adopted and advocated the so-called reform. The dress origin- through the inlet valves, and thus the operation is repeated and ally consisted of a jacket with close sleeves, a skirt reaching a a tolerably continuous blast produced. little below the knee, and trousers. The dress subjected its Another important blowing machine is that known as the wearers to a good deal of ridicule and even social persecution, fanning machine or Fanners (q.v.), originally used as a winnowand although some more or less graceful modifications of it have ing machine, but now applied to purposes of ventilation, heating, been suggested, it has never become popular here or even in drying, water-raising, &c. It consists usually of a wheel with America. fans instead of spokes, rotating in a box, open at the centre, and shaped spirally with respect to the wheel. The air sucked in at ~~~~~~~~~Bloomnf~~~'field, Rbtothe centre is driven to the extremities of the fans, and forced was born in 1766, at lonington, Suffolk, where his father was a t was born in 76, at onington, Suffolke wohere hista farther was a round till it finds its exit along a pipe fixed tangentially into the poor tailor. He worked first as a farm-servant, then as a shoe' box. There are various modifications of this, such as Chaplin's maker in London, and after unsuccessful efforts in various occu- dble varios modif ns of thi s, such as Chaplin's double fans, and Platt & Shiele's silent fans, which latter are pations, died at Shefford, in Bedfordshire, August 19, I823, provided with curious-shaped vanes. deprived of memory and almost of reason. His chief works are the Farmzer's Boy (composed in a London garret), Rural Tales, Blowlopipe. The B. is an instrument of great value to and Wild Floweirs. They are admirable for their charming art- the chemist and mineralogist for detecting the presence of many lessness, fidelity to nature, and fresh, honest flavour of rusticity. elements and their compounds in substances to be analysed; it They have been often reprinted. is also employed in the arts for soldering and glass-blowing. The _r 4 * BLO TffE GLOBE EVC YCLOPEZEDIA. BL U discovery of the B. is ancient, but its application to analysis com- great obstinacy. Taken prisoner, he was soon exchanged for paratively modern, having been introduced by the Swedish Marshal Weber, and kept persistently rousing his country against chemists of the last century. Many forms of Napoleon, until it did rise. In II83 he fought bravely at Ltitzen, the instrument are made, but the simplest D defeated Macdonald on the Katzbach, and aided greatly in is that invented by Black, and known as achieving the victory of Leipsic, obtaining from the Russians, Black's B. It consists of a conical tube on account of the rapidity of his movements, the nickname of made of sheet-tin (A), at the wide end of'Marshal Forward.' Crossing the Rhine on the Ist of January which is attached a thin brass tube (B), 1814, he fought desperately against Napoleon, sometimes winprovided with a nozzle of brass or platinum ning and sometimes losing, but always cheerful, confident, and (C). In using the instrument, the narrow stubborn. Finally his victories at Laon and Montmartre in extremity (D) is placed in the mouth, and A March crushed his once terrible foe, and on the 31st of that month the nozzle applied to the flame of an oil or the'old captain of hussars' rode proudly into Paris. On folgas lamp; a steady blast of air is then forced lowing the allied sovereigns into England, B. was received with from the mouth through the nozzle against great enthusiasm. In 1815, after Napoleon's escape from Elba, the flame. The B. flame consists essenti- B he was again appointed to the command of the Prussian troops; ally of three parts: A is a non-luminous c and although beaten and all but killed at Ligny, he brought up cone in which is a mixture of unburnt com- his troops in time to make the battle of Waterloo decisive. He bustible gases and atmospheric air, both at Black's Blowpipe. once again entered Paris, and, remembering what shame and a low temperature. B is luminous, and con- disgrace Germany had suffered at the hands of France, would sists of burning gases containing an excess of carbon and carbonic have allowed his men to plunder it had he not been restrained by oxide; whilst at C the flame again becomes less luminous, Wellington. B. was honoured by his king and country as a hero. owing to the abundant supply Statues were erected to him; he was made Prince of Wahlstadt, of oxygen, which deprives it c. A and the estate of Krieblowitz, in Silesia, was bestowed upon of its combustible materials; him. There he died, September I2, I819. As a man, B. was the temperature of C is ex- open-hearted but uncultivated; as a soldier he was intrepid, rapid ceedingly high, particularly in in movement, and indifferent to defeat. Nothing could daunt theneighbourhood of the point the spirit of the man, but his strategy was not remarkable for its of B. If any easily reducizle skill, and was utterly unlike the profoundly scientific style in which compound - such, for inu~ Blowpipe Flime. Prussia went to work against Austria (i866) and against France stance, as the oxide of lead- (870o). B.'s intense patriotism helped the great cause of the be applied on a suitable support to B, the unburnt carbon com- unification of Germany, which has been accomplished in the prebines with the oxygen of the oxide at the high temperature to form sent day. See Varnhagen Von Ense's Lebensbesclreibungz B.'s carbonic oxide, and lead becomes separated or reduced. B is (Berl. 1827); Schbning's Gesc/ic/le des Preuss. 5 Husarenregitherefore called the reducing or inner flame; whilst C, on account ments mzit besonderer Biicksicht auf B. (Berl.- 1843); Bieske; G. of its oxidising properties, is called the oxidising or oztter flame. L. Bliicler von 4ah/stat (Berl. i862);- Scherr, B., Seinze Zeil The following are the more important B. tests: (I) The sub- und Seinz Leben (Leips. 1862). For an interesting account of stance placed in a cavity scraped in charcoal, and mixed with the ancient and honourable family to which B. belonged, see carbonate of soda, is heated in the reducing flame; if it contain Wigger's Geschichte der FanZilie B. (1871). antimony, arsenic, bismuth, copper, lead, silver, or tin, these metals become separated in beads, and may be recognised Blue, one of the so-called primary colours, seen in nature by their physical properties, and often by the incrustation of in the clear expanse of the heavens. From the azure vault, the metallic oxide left on the charcoal. (2) The substance is heated colour B. has acquired a peculiar significance, and in medi val on platinum wire in the hottest part of the flame; if barium, times it was taken as the emblem of eternity and immortality. calcium, potassium, sodium, or lithium are present, the flame The Virgin Mary, represented in a B. mantle, symbolised virginal assumes a characteristic colour. (3) The substance is heated on modesty, and angels in B. garments were typical of faith and platinum foil after it has been moistened with nitrate of cobalt; fidelity. In heraldry, B. is regarded as an emblem of chastity, if aluminum, magnesium, or zinc is contained in it, the resulting loyalty, and'fidelity. Its significance extended to its combinamass is blue, pink, or green, as the case may be. (4) A small tions with other colours; thus purple in which red predominated particle of the substance, together with some borax, is heated on indicated love of truth, while B. purples were emblematic of the a loop of platinum wire before the flame; the resulting borax truth of love. The connection of B. with fidelity still lingers in bead becomes coloured if chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, man- popular apprehension in such an expression as'true B.' ganese, or nickel be present, the colour varying in some cases B. dyes are not numerous, and before the discovery of the according as the bead is heated in the inner or outer flame. aniline or coal-tar colours, dyers principally depended for their Blow'pipe and Arrow, a native weapon found among several blues on WoAD, ARCHIL INDIGO, and PrussIAN B. Now, a tribes of S. American Indians, who use it with great skill and series of very brllliant blues and bluish-purples are obtained from precision. The pipe is a straight tube formed of the small palm coal-tar, and they are possessed of great tinctorial power and stem, and is usually from 8 to I2 feet long. The arrows, which durability. Among these may be mentioned bleue de Lyon, or beu vary much in length, are made to fit exactly the hollow of the de Paris, Nicholson's soluble B., and azurine (see DYEING and pipe by means of the down of the silk-cotton tree, and are ex- CALICO PRINTING). The principal B. colour used by painters pelled with great force by blowing through the tube. is ultramarine, a brilliant azure colour, which was originally prepared from lapis-lazuli, a mineral found in China and other Blubber. See CETACEA, WHALE, and WHALE-FISHERY. oriental countries. Ultramarine, as now prepared, however, is an artificial compound, prepared by roasting together certain Blii'cher, Gebhard Leberecht von, Prince of Wahl- proportions of China clay, carbonate of soda, sulphur, and charstatt, a distinguished Prussian commander, belonged to one coal (see ULTRAMARINE). Among other painters' blues may of the oldest Mecklenburg families, and was born at Rostock, be enumerated Prussian B., -and various modifications of the Mecklenburg-Schwerin, December i6, I742. He entered the same base, by the addition of materials which alters its body, Swedish service at the age of fourteen, but being captured by indigo, cobalt B., smalts, or powdered cobaltglass, and mounthe Prussians, joined the standard of Friedrich the Great. He tain B. or bice, prepared from carbonate of copper. The oxide served during the Seven Years' War, and rose to the rank of cap- of cobalt is an important basis of many blues in use besides the tain. Being, however, offended at what he imagined to be a two above indicated, which are very extensively used in the slight passed upon him, he requested his discharge, and Fried- colouring of pottery, porcelain, and glass. The various colours rich granted it, in a brusque manner telling him he'might go to alluded to will be found more particularly detailed under their the devil if he pleased.' After a few years spent in retirement own names. on his Pomeranian estate, B. returned to the army, and served with considerable distinction, particularly as a leader of cavalry, Blue'beard, the title of a French tale,' the hero of which, a in 1792, I793, and I794. In I8o6 he commanded the advanced certain Chevalier Raoul, is distinguished by having a b/ue beard. guard at the battle of Auerstadt, and defended Lilbeck with The tale, which is too familiar to require analysis, has become ex. a49 * —~ —-------- 4 4- * BLU THE GLOBE EC YCZ OPiEDIIA. BLU tremely popular, especially in its nursery form, in all countries Blue Mountains. —(I) A range of mountains which traof Western Europe, and has formed the basis of several well- verses the island of Jamaica (q. v.) from E. to W. It is densely known dramatic compositions. It is thought that a certain Giles wooded, abounds in splendid scenery, and varies in height from de Laval, Seigneur de Riaz, marshal of France in I429, a man 5000 to 7000 feet.-(2) A mountain chain in New S. Wales, whose acknowledged patriotism and valour were cast into the extending, strictly speaking, from 34~ to 33~ S. lat., but often shade by his atrocious cruelty, was the original of the fictitious popularly regarded as reaching to 320 S. lat. The B. M. in their Raoul. Riaz was burnt alive in I440, at the instance of Jean proper signification consist of two parallel ranges, of which the VI., Duke of Brittany. As his crimes are detailed in connec- western one is the higher. They are full of gloomy ravines and tion with charges of diablerie, it is probable that truth and fiction fearful precipices, and the two ranges are divided by an immense are inextricably intermingled, chasm i500 feet deep. The character of these huge fissures has been graphically depicted in the following sentence:'Narrow, Blue-Bell. *See I-IvAcsN'w gloomy, and profound, these stupendous rents in the bosom of Blue-Bird, or Blue-Robin (Sialia or Sylvia sialias), a the earth are enclosed between gigantic walls of sandstone rock, genus of Insessorial birds, included sometimes receding from, sometimes overhanging, the dark bed in the sub-family of the Erythacinbe of the ravine and its black silent eddies, or its foaming torrent of or robins, It inhabits the United water.' The highest peak is Beemarang, 4I00 feet; and the States of America in summer, and average height of the range is 3300 feet. The B. M. are now ~-~- g r-. usually migrates southwards in win- traversed by a railway, which attains at Blackheath station a ter to the VW. Indies and tropical maximum height above the sea of 3494 feet. The ascent from America. The B.-B. represents in the plains on either side of the range is made by'zigzags.' The America, from its familiar habits, the western one is a remarkable specimen of engineering skill. t Blue ird. redbreast of Britain. It is coloured Blue Pill, the P/iula Aydrargyri of the Pharmacopoeia, consky-blue in its upper parts, red or chestnut on the breast, and sists of 2 parts of mercury, 3 of confection of roses, and I of white on the belly, the colours of the female being less brilliant liquorice powder. The dose is 3 to 8 grains (one or two pills). than those of the male. The song is very agreeable. The nest than those ofthe male. The song is very agreeable. The nest This is a useful pill when a mild mercurial is indicated. It is is built generally in the holes of trees, and the eggs, of a pale less liable than certain other preparations of mercury to cause blue colour, number five or six*. Two or even three broods are irritation. It is useful in certain sluggish states of the liver and produced annually. The B.-B. rather exceeds our redbreast in bowels, but, like all preparations containing mercury, should be size, but resembles the latter in the general shape of its body. administered with great caution. This pill may be used to proThese birds are remarkably pugnacious and courageous. Nearly duce the constitutional effects of mercury when that is considered allied species, or varieties, represent this bird farther north on desirable. The medicinal effects of B. P. as a mercurial will be the American continent, whilst it also occurs in Brazil, Guiana, treated under MERCURY (q. V.). Miexico, and the W. Indies, Mexico, and the W. Indies. Blue Ridge, the eastern range of the Appalachians (q. v.), Blue-Books, the printed publications of the British Parlia- United States, extending almost continuously from New York to ment, so called from their being uniformly bound in blue paper, Georgia. The highest peak is Mount Mitchell in North Carolina, as those of the French Government are named livres jaunzes which has an altitude of 6470 feet. (' yellow-books'), from a similar circumstance. They have been Blue Shark (Carcharias glaucus), a genus of true sharks published regularly since the beginning of the I8th c., and con- common in the Mediterranean, but sometimes occurring on the sist chiefly of the votes and proceedings, acts of Parliament, the southern coasts of Britain. The head is pointed and flattened, estimates, correspondence connected with matters of discussion, the teeth being sharp and notched at the edges. No spiracles and reports of commissions, Those of a single session now form or breathing-holes, placed on the top of the head, exist in this a collection of some sixty large folio volumes, which, though con- form. These sharks attain a length of eight feet or more, and taining papers on the utmost diversity of subjects, treated on no are of voracious disposition, feeding chiefly upon fish. The regular principle, are rendered handy and coherent by means of B. S. is said to manifest a close attachment to their young. annual indexes. In the United States the name is applied to a book containing the names of all persons in the Government ser- form. See SHARK. vice, together with their salaries. Blue Skate (R{aia batis), a genus of skates, sometimes also, Blue-Bottle Fly. See FLESH-FLY, from its bluish-grey colour, named the grey skate. This form possesses a rhomboidal body. The tail is spineless1 and two.Blue Ca~rdinal See LOBELIA, small dorsal fins exist far back on the taili The females of this Blue-Coat School, the common name of Christ's Hospital genus in Plymouth market are named'maids,' and'good (q. v.), arising from the circumstance of the boys wearing blue wives.' coats or gowns. Blue-Stocking, a name applied to female pedants, and Blue-Eye (Enloatyza cyanotis), belongs to the family of suggested by the blue stockings of a Mr Stillingfleet, a conspiHoney-eaters (q. v.), and is a native of Australia. It is gregarious, cuous member of a society of both sexes formed in London about and one of the most pleasing sights in the Australian bush is 5780 for literary conversation. The name is generally used afforded by the flocks of blue-eyes flitting from tree to tree sip- somewhat opprobriously, as indicating that the B.-S, indulges her ping the honey from the flowers with their long tongues. They literary tastes to the neglect of home duties. also eat small insects, and berries in the winter-time. Bluethroalt, or 3Bluebreast (Sylvia or Plianicura Sutecica), a genus of Insessorial birds, rare in Britain, but found very geneBlue'fields, a river rising in Nicaragua, Central America, and rally distributed over the continent of Europe, averaging a robin flowing through the Mosquito territory to the Caribbean Sea, in size, and possessing the throat and breast of a bright blue which it enters about 210 miles S. of Cape Gracios a Dios. At in size, and possessing the throat and breast of a bright blue which it enters about 2Io miles S. of Cape Gracios' Dios. At colour. In the centre of the blue patch a spot, white in some its mouth is situated a small town of the same name (pop. 60o), forms, and red in the adult males, eists. Beneath the blue, the [ the residence of the ruler of the Mosquito territorm and red in the adult males, exists. Beneath the blue, the the residence of the ruler of the Mosquito territory. front parts are barred with black, white, and chestnut colour. Blue-Gowns, a class of privileged beggars popularly so called These birds are eaten in Alsace and Lorraine, and pass in Italy in Scotland. They had a small royal bounty. The last of them by the name of Becfin (q. v.), and Beccafico (q. v.). Their song drew his last allowance from the Exchequer in Edinburgh in is very sweet, and they possess considerable imitative powers. I863. See Bedesrzen, under BEAD. Bluewing (Cyanotlera discors), an American genus of Blue-John, the name given by miners to a rich violet-blue AnItir or ducks, resembling the teal, but of larger size; the variety of Fluor-spar (q. v. ), found abundantly in Derbyshire, and males in full plumage being coloured black in the upper parts manufactured into vases, &c of the head, the rest of the head being blue, and a crescentic patch before each eye being white. The wings are coloured Blue'-lW.antle, the title of a pursuivant-at-alms in England. with various shades of blue; the upper parts being brown, See PURSUIVANT. glossed with green, and the under parts orange or reddish, 420 4 4 BLU Z7WE GLOBE ENAYCYCZOPEDJA. BOA mottled with black. The tail contains fourteen feathers, and is matical Radicalism of the German democrats, he has laboured of shortened conformation. This bird is named the blue or blue- unweariedly to create a national party which should be at once winged teal in the United States of America. In summer these liberal in politics and conservative in spirit. Of his numerous birds fly to the 57th parallel, but in winter they migrate south- writings we may mention Staats-und-Alechtsgeschichle der Sladlt wards. In Jamaica, Texas, and elsewhere these birds are said to und Landschcafi Zirich (Ziir. 1838, I839; new ed. I856); Gebe permanent residents. The flesh is much esteemed for table. schichte des Schweizer. BundesrechZs (Ziir. 1846-52); *AZ/geBlum, Robert, a German political writer and agitator, was meines Slaatsrech/ (Miin. 1852; 4th ed. 1869); Dezsc/shes Privatborn of humble parentage at Cologne, November Io, I807, and recht (Min. 1853; 3d ed. I864); Die nszeenz ecAtsclzeen der rose from the position of scene-shifter to that of manager in the SYe-isten (2d ed. Ziir. 1862); Gesckickte des Al/gezeinen. Stants1-echts und der PolitiZ (Miir. 1864); Des 2Iloderne. -ienosrec.ht Cologne theatre; afterwards holding a similar situation in Leip- ec der P sic, where he cultivated letters and latterly became a publisher (i866); Das Moderne TV/ kerrecht a/s techtsbuch (i868). in I847. Besides his contributions to various political and Boa, a name applied generally to the serpents included in literary journals, he published along with Herloszsohn & Marg- the family Boid&e, which includes the true Boas and Pythons graff a T/zeater/exikon (7 vols., I839-42), with Steger, the poli- (q. v.). These serpents are tical almanac, Vorw-/irs (5 vols., 1843-47), and independently, the giants of the serpent a Staalslexicoln fiir das deutsche Volk (I847). In 1845 he distin- tribe, and are included in the guished himself in the German Catholic movement at Leipsic sub-order Colebrina, and in as a bold and eloquent speaker, and in 1848 was made vice-pre- the Innocuous section of that sident of the provisional parliament at Frankfort, performing his group. These forms possess duties with characteristic vigour and intelligence. In the same ordinary teeth in the upper yearhewaselected a member ofthe NationalAssembly, andbecame jaw, and are destitute of Boa Constrictor. the leader of the Left, or democratic party. During the October fangs and a poison-appararising in Vienna, along with Frbbel he conveyed a memorial of tus; but, although innocuous as far as venomous qualities are congratulation from the Left to the insurgents, but on the re- concerned, they are yet greatly to be dreaded on account of their covery of the city he was captured and shot, November 9, I858. immense strength, by means of which they are enabled literally to His son, Hans B., born at Leipsic, June 8 I1841, was chosen crush their victims to shapeless masses, by entwining themselves a member of the Reichstag in I866, and has been editor of the found their bodies. and inclosing the victim within the folds. Grenzboten since 1871. Rudimentary hind-limbs exist, these being indicated externally, Blu'menbaoh, Johann Friedrich, a celebrated natural- by the presence of two horny claws or spurs, placed in close ist, was born at Gotha, I Ith May 1752. After studying at Jeia proximity to the vent. The tail is eminently prehensile, and is and Goittingen, he became (1778) ordinary Professor of Compa- covered below by a double row of plates. By its aid these forms rative Anatomy and Physiology at the latter university. These suspend themselves from trees, whilst they lie in wait for their subjects he made the stepping-stone to the natural history of prey. The head is covered by scuta, orshields, is roughly triman, comparing men and animals with respect to cranial and angular in shape, and is separated from the body by a neck-like facial developments, and originating in 1785 the classification of constriction. The th is very wide, the gape extending far the human race into white, black, red, yellow or tawny, and beind the eyes. Th e throat scaly, and the belly is covered Malayan. On these subjects and on the history of medicine he by transverse plates. No intermaxillary teeth exist in the boas, lectured for 50 years, receiving great distinction at home and andtheteethareconical and somewhatrecurvedinform. These abroad. B. died 22d Jan. I840. His chief worlks, ~ilzadb2;zckh serpents occur chiefly in S. America. The B. constrictor is the der aVe.geicendien Anztonie undr PHiysioeof o (Gktt. 1804; 3d best known, but by no means the largest species. It generally ed. 1824), arnd iindbuack dew Nat/urgesckict/e, have been very attains a length of 12 or 15 feet. The B., or EzunecZes marinus, popular all over Europe. His observations on skulls are con- or'Anaconda' of some writers, is larger than the B. constrictor tained in the Decades Jt7Jf. Cran. div. Genzt. (1790-I828). His -tis latter term, like the name B. itself, being applied indisspeculations on the generative principle (nisusformzativus) were criminately, and in a popular sense to all the members of the valueless. See Marx, Zruml Andenken an'. F. B. (Gbtt. I840). groiup These forms are credited with being able to swallow prey of Blu'menthal, Leoxnhardt Von, a distinguished Prussian very large bulk; and there can be no doubt that a large B. can general, was born at Schwedt on the Oder, July 30, iISo, edu- swallow animals of the size of a sheep or goat. Various circumcated in the military academies of Culm and Berlin 1820-26, stances contribute to the easy deglutition of prey of such bulk. and received the appointment of lieutenant in I827. After Thus, firstly, the body of the victim is crushed to a shapeless pliant holding various minor posts, he was raised (1849) to the general mass by the folds of the serpent. Its body is probably smeared staff, and appointed to the command of the Slesvig-Holstein over by the viscid or glutinous saliva of the B., and is thus more army. He was twice subsequently employed to convey to Eng- readily swallowed. The mouth of these serpents can be greatly land special military propositions. In the Danish war of i864, distended from side to side; the halves of the lower jaw being however, came his first great military success, when his strate- connected by ligament only, and the mouth-cavity can also be gical ability was so decidedly shown in the taking of Missunde, greatly widened in a vertical direction, owing to the mode in the storming of the trenches at Duppel, and in the passage to which the lower jaw is articulated to the skull. Then, lastly, the island of Alsen. In acknowledgment of these services, he the teeth, from their recurved position, assist in retaining the was raised to the rank of major-general. B. afterwards greatly prey in the mouth as it is being slowly swallowed. After a full distinguished himself in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, and meal, these forms generally lie torpid for a longer or shorter on the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war was appointed period. As in many other serpents, only one lung is functionally chief of the general staff of the army of the Crown Prince. To useful in the boas, the other lung being abortive or rudimentary. the skilful operations of 13. in the latter campaign were in great These serpents generally inhabit the neighbourhood of rivers and part due the catastrophe of Sedan and the capture of Paris. lakes, and lie concealed amid the branches of trees, so as to 3Blun'derbusS is a short and wide-bored musket, capable of pounce with certainty upon the animals which come to drink. taking in several bullets at once. It is destructive only at close The nearly related Pythons (q. v.) of the Old World very closely quarters, and is now almost entirely superseded by the carbine. resemble the boas in their essential characters, but possess inter(The name is a corruption of the Dutch donderbus,' thunder- maxillary teeth, and their labial or lip-plates are deeply pitted. gun.' Comp. Ger. donnerbiickse.) Boadicea,'the British warrior queen,' rutled over the Iceni, Blunt'schli, JohanIt Kaspar, a distinguished Professor of in the district now known as Norfolk and Suffolk, in the latter Political Science in Germany, was born at Ziirich 7th March half of the ist c. A.D. Her husband, Prasutagus, to win the I8o8. He studied at Berlin (1827) under Savigny, and after- favour of the Romans, had left (60 or 6I A.D.) his wife and two wards at Bonn under Hasse and Niebuhr. In I833 he was daughters and the Emperor Nero his joint-heirs. The bribe appointed a professor in the newly-founded university of his proved of no avail, for the Roman soldiers plundered the country, native town, went to Miinich in I847, and accepted a call to scourged B., and violated her daughters. The Britons rose, Heidelberg in I86I, where he has since remained. B.'s career and in revenge took several colonies and destroyed about 70,000 has been active and patriotic. Averse to the narrow and schis- Romans. Suetonius, the Roman governor, now advanced, and 42J BOA TH.E GLOBE ENCYC OP,,-,DI1A4 BOA was met by B. at the head of a great horde of her infuriated spines along the base of the dorsal and anal fins exist in the B. countrymen. A terrific battle ensued, in which the Britons were F., as in the nearly allied toiy (Zeus completely overwhelmed, and the Roman power in Britain firmly faber). The eyes are of large size, established. Tacitus tells us that some writers state the number and the jaws project to form a snout slain amounted to 8o,ooo. B., in despair, took poison and died The body is coloured red, and (62 A.D.). banded with orange bands across the. back. This fish inhabits the MediBoard, the name usually applied to the directors and others ta a Sea, and is rare on the Md having the management of any public institution, or of any southern English coast. legal, commercial, or charitable trust. In various departments of the government, the term is also used to denote those in man- Boast (Fr. ebaucher, to roughagement, when met for business purposes. hew), is, in sculpture, a term ap- Boar-Fish. plied to the blocking out of a piece Board, a plank or deal of timber, as used in most operations of stone or wood into rude outlines of the figure to be afterwards of joinery. From the use of such timber in vessels B. has finished. come to have a special application in nautical affairs. Aboard or on board ship are phrases used in connection with the load- Boat, a small vessel adapted for navigating water, and proing of ships' cargoes or the reception of crews or passengers. pelled by means of oars, sails, or steam. The earliest kind of Boarding an enemy is a phrase in the tactics of naval warfare B. was formed of wicker-work: coated inside and outside with which was formerly much practised, but in the transition state bitumen, or covered with skins. The Egyptians and other ancient of vessels and armaments it is difficult to say what may be the nations used boats of this description, and a similar B. was known future course of sea-fights.'On the boards' is an expres- among the ancient Britons, and is still in use on the Welsh and sion having originally a theatrical application, mieaning the Irish coasts. (See CORACLE.) There are very many varieties of bringing forward of anything on the stage; but it has now passed boats in form and construction, designed to serve different purinto current language to indicate the production of any project poses; for instance, boats for swiftness are slim, and have fine or display. lines; those for carrying burdens are of a strong construction; for shallow water they are flat-bottomed; and so forth. Boats Board of Admiralty is a department of government which form a very necessary adjunct to a ship, and accordingly ships-ofhas the control of all matters relating to the British navy. In war ate equipped with a number of boats, including longboats former times the functions of the B. of A, were discharged by barges, piznaces, cuttters, giffs, yawls and jolly boats, each kind the Lord H-Tigh Admiral of Enigland. See AuassaAL. having its special uses. Heavy built steam lauic/zes, adapted for The board is composed of five Lords Commissioners. Two carrying a gun, are also attached to men-of-war. A wherey is a of these are civilians, and three are naval officers. Besides his light, sharp B., used for transporting passengers or goods on a share of corporate action, each lord has his special function. river, and sometimes employed in B.-racing (see BOATING). A The First Lord is always a cabinet minister. At board meetiTngshe First Lod is always a cabiunet minister. At boarld meet- punt is a small flat-bottomed vessel; a skiff, a small light B. for ings he has, like the rest, but one vote; but his parliamentary river-sailing. The principal parts of a B. of ordinary form areresponsibility as a member of the Government practically invests the bows, the stern, and the midships. The bow is the head of him with absolute authority. the vessel placed behind the stewm, or cutzwater, the opposite end Board of Ordnance was a department of the government is the stern, and the intervening space is the midships. At the having control of all that related to the artillery and munitions ster is the stern-ost, to which the rudders is fixed for steering. of the British army. It was found that in matters relating to The side boards of a Be are called strakes, the lower of which coast de~fences there was some conflict between the jurisdiction are termed garboards, and beneath these is the keel, the principal of the B. of 0. and that of the Admiralty; and the earlier events timber on which the whole frame rests. Tile bow szeats are the of the Crimean war showed in other respects a want of workng timbers at the bottom of the Bf at the how, and the correspondharmony between it and some other government departments. ing parts at the stern are the stern sheets. The seats placed These facts led to the dissolution of the B. of O. athwart the B. are called thwarts, and on the upper edge or wale The surveyor-general of the Ordnance is now an officer in the of the B. are placed the rowlocks, projecting pieces of wood or department of-the Secretary of State for War. The surveyor- iron, between which the oars or sculls rest. See LIFEBOAT. general is responsible for the munitions of the army. Boatbill (Cancrozma cochlearia), a genus of grallatorial or Board of Trade is a department of the government having wading birds, belonging to the family Ardeide or herons, and very wide and important functions respecting the trade and found in S. America. The bill resembles in shape a boat navigation of the United Kingdom. It has a general superinten- with the keel uppermost, whilst it has also been compared dence over the mercantile marine. It exercises considerable con- to the bowls of two spoons placed with their concavities totrol over marine boards. It appoints officers to inquire into and gether The upper mandible terminates in a strong hooked report on the condition of trading vessels. The board is chiefly process. The legs are shorter than in the generality of composed of a president and secretary, with three assistant secre- wading birds, and this bird is believed to perch on trees situated taries and four inspectors. Perhaps the most important function by the sides of rivers, and to dart down upon fishes. The of the B. of T. is noxw the supervision of railways and railway French colonists of Guiana term the B. Crabier from their belief companies. Notices of application for railway acts with plans, that it subsists on crabs, and from this supposition the generic must be deposited with the board before the relative bill can be name Cancromr is also derived. brought before Parliament. Before a railway is opened for oatFly (Notoe), a gens of insects beloning to the traffic, the permission of the board on the report of an inspector, Henzmptera or bugs, and included among the Hydrocores or must be got. On the occurrence of an accident, notice must be aquatic members of the group. The group Notonectida includes given to the board, which is then empowered to take any meas- those distinguished by the broad rounded form of the head. The ures which it may consider advisable for public safety. legs are adapted for swimming, and these forms both swim and The B. of T. prepares and publishes at monthly and other rest in the water on their backs. TIhey inhabit fresh-water pools, periodical intervals, accounts showing the exports and imports and, like other HenZptera, possess a powerful rostrum or Ibeak,' of the United Kingdom for the period, with relative matter, so by means of which they can inflict severe wounds. The air reas to show the commercial position and progress of the country. quired for breathing is contained within a cavity placed between It also prepares selections from the commercial statistics of foreign the wings and the back.. glaucan or the'water-boatman,' is Allcountries, plicatiothe familiar species. These insects are carnivorous in tastes, All a fplications made to the sovereign for charters of incor and feed on other insects. The common species is about ~ an poration are referred to the B. of T. inch in length. Boar-Fish (Caopros afer), a fish belonging to the Scomr- Boat'ing, the art of propelling a boat by means of sails (see beridre or Mackerel family, possessing a short, deep, oval body, YACHTING) or by oars, called rowizg, which method is treated greatly compressed and covered with scales. Two dorsal fins of in this article. Rowing is a useful art and forms a healthy exist closely situated together; but no elongated filaments or physical exercise. Of late years its cultivation has immensely 422 4 4 BOA THIE GLOBE ENC YCZOPLEDIA. BOB increased in British waters. There are now innumerable row- boat, and this regulating rope is held by a man in the boat. ing clubs, of which the principal are those of the Thames, Tyne, Dr Nicholson, of the royal navy, has recently made the following Mersey, and Clyde. Gigs, outriggers, and outrigged gigs are the invention the subject of a patent: A'cradle' is attached to and chief varieties of boats used in rowing on rivers; wherries and suspended from the upper end of a frame, consisting of two long skiffs are also sometimes employed by watermen and amateur vertical arms, strengthened by transverse bars and hinged at rowers. (See BOAT.) Gigs are found of all sizes suitable for their lower ends to the ship's side at a suitable distance from from 6 to 8 oars; when there are three seats the boat is called the water's edge, the whole apparatus being made of iron. The a randtlan gig, in which the centre rower plies a pair of sculls, cradle carries the boat, and, to lower it, with the crew already and the other two rowers a single oar each. A scull is a light seated, it is only necessary, by means of lowering tackle and and short form of oar, a pair of which can be worked easily by blocks, managed either from the boat or the ship's deck, to ease one person in the operation of sculling. Outriggers are used off the upper ends of the frame, which describe an arc of a circle for racing purposes, and are propelled by a single sculler. in passing to the water, on reaching which the boat is disenThey are much lighter and narrower than a gig, being usually gaged by the cradle passing under the water in consequence of 30 feet in length with a breadth amidships of a little over one the momentum acquired in its descent. Mr Hill has also infoot, tapering off to mere points at the ends. Amidships is vented an apparatus which has been tried with success in the placed the'box' in which the sculler sits, and the leverage British navy. It consists mainly of two disengaging hooks of necessary to propel the boat is gained by mounting the row- peculiar form, which are fixed to ordinary chain slings at each locks at the end of an iron support rigged outside of the box end of the boat; and with these hooks the rings attached to the -this arrangement giving the boat its name. Outrigged gigs, lower tackle-blocks are locked by means of a small piece workor wage;r-botas, are constructed like a gig, with outrigged iron ing on a pivot. So long as there is any strain upon the rings, rowlocks, and carry from 2 to 8 oars according to size. Most they cannot be detached from the hooks; but, on the strain of the universities of Great, Britain have B. clubs, and upon ceasing by the floating of the boat, the rings slide off the hooks. the Cam and Isis, specially,~rowing is zealously practised. The To prevent one fall disengaging without the other by the boat 8-oared match between the representatives of Oxford and Cam- being water-borne at one end by a wave, the two rings are conbridge, which takes place annually at Easter on the Thames nected by a'life-line' stretching between them, thus distributbetween Putney and Mortlake, is an event that always awakens ing the strain, and only allowing the rings to be unlocked when public interest. From I829 (the year of the first contest be- the boat is completely water-borne and the falls at both ends tween the rival university crews) to 1875, 32 matches have been slackened. rowed, of which Oxford has won 17 and Cambridge 15. The Boat'swain, the second of the three warrant officers on board length of the racing-course is about 43 miles, and the shortest Her Majesty's ships. He has charge of the boats, rigging, time occupied by either of the representative crews was in the anchors, and cables. It is his duty to turn the hands up to match of 873, when Cambridge performed the distance in relieve at the watcheors, and if necables. It his duty to turmmon the hands up to chusetts, and those of Oxford, took place on the Thames course, which British seamen are still liable. Oxford winning, after a gallant contest, in 22 minutes 20 seconds. A decisive victory was also gained on Ioth June i872 Boat-Tails, a name applied to the Insessorial birds forming by the London Rowing Club over the Atalanta Boat Club of the family Quiscalinme, represented by American birds allied to New York in an international 4-oared match over the Thames the starlings. Of these birds the Quiscalus ferruineus, and the course; the English crew on this occasion conformed to the Q. versicolor, or'Crow Blackbird,' are good examples. The tail American practice of rowing without a coxswain, one of the is long and tapering, and the edges are curved upwards like the oarsmen steering the boat by means of an apparatus managed sides of a boat, this conformation suggesting the above familiar with his feet. By far the greatest innovation, however, of late name. Q. ven-sicolor is about 12 inches in length, and is coloured years, was the introduction of sliding seats in I87i, an invention entirely black, with metallic tints and lustres. These birds feed now everywhere admitted to be the means of a great increase on insects, but they also damage the crops of Indian corn. of speed. Among other interesting boat-races may be men-, a wooden implement upon which thread of any tioned the annual one on the Thames between young watermen kind is wound for use. The best bobbins are ade from birch, for Dogget's coat and badge, a prize given in 1715 by an ems. The scarcity of th nent actor of that name, who left a sum of money at his death but t y at kind of wood causes other hard woods to for the yearly continuance of the match on the st of Agust, frequently employed. Bobbins are of three kinds-ist. Those the anniversary of the accession of snGeorge I. See W. B. iod employed in the spinning of yarns; 2d. Weavers' bobbins; and the anniversary of the accession of Georgea I. See W. B. Wood- I gate's Oars andl Sculls (Lond. s875). 3d. The bobbins or reels used for sewing thread. The bobbins used in spinning have large flanges, and are usually of three sizes; Boat-lowering Apparatus, an arrangement usually a large size being employed for holding'slubbings;' a medium consisting of pulley-blocks and ropes, or other gearing, whereby size containing the somewhat more compressed and drawn out boats may be lowered from a ship in perfect safety when the rovings; and a small size, on which is wound the spun yarn vessel is in motion. It is a matter of the utmost importance, in Weavers' bobbins, which have only a flange at their upper ex the event of ally emergency at sea, that the boats of a ship should tremity, also vary according to the size of the shuttle sed, which be available for lowering without fear of mishap, whether the is regulated by the fineness of the material to be woven In the sea be smooth or rolling. Until of late years it was a common manufacture of thread bobbins or reels, ingenious automatic misfortune, from the clumsy construction of the ships' davits,turning machinery is employed, which produces the reels with and the unworkableness of the accompanying gearing, in lowering great accuracy and rapidity. the boat, that one'fall' was released while the other could not Bobbin Net, a kind of network made in the lace manube disengaged, and the boat was swamped in consequence of facture, in which the threads are twisted round each other, so as being lowered perpendicularly. It often happened, too, that the to form an open reticulated texture. It was originally made by boat was bilged against the ship's side in process of lowering. hand-work on a pillow with pins and bobbins, but in I808 Mr The risk attending the lowering of boats at sea is now, however, John Heathcot invented the first effective B. N. machine, and greatly diminished by the adoption of one or other of many net-work is now made by very intricate and ingenious machinery. recent inventions of B. A. Clifford's method has probably been See LACE. adopted more than any other system, and is in use in many ves-tic sels ofr the British navy. His apparatus was patented hin856, of Pavia, on the Trebbia, 30 miles S.S.E. of the city of Pavia. and consists of a rope passing from each davit-head through It the see of a bishop, and has a trade in wheat, Indian con, peculiar blocks in the ends of the boat; thence they are coiled wine, and fruit. B. was almost destroyed by an inundation of uponabarrelorrollerplaceduneronethe Pellice in the time of Oliver Cromwell, who gave a grant of centre of the boat, the ends of each rope being firmly secured to e the of the roller by a special contrivance, till the boat is launched, when money for the building of a protecting wall, Pop, 4575. they are set free. To the roller is attached a third rope, which Bo'bia, called also Pirate Isle, an island in the Bay of Amcontrols the unwinding of the other two in the descent of the boise, on the coast of Guinea, Africa. It is said to be densely BOB THE GLOB-E EXCYCLOP/AEDI. BOO peopled, but its shores are steep and difficult of access, and it is authors. Many of the tales are licentious in the extreme, and slowly diminishing in size, owing partly to its gradual subsid- were the cause of deep regret to B. in after years; others, how. ence, and to the action of the sea. ever, are informed with the finest morality, and breathe the deepest pathos, while they have furnished themes for the muse Bob o' ik Reed Bird, or Rie Bird (Doliconyx of Chaucer, of Shakspeare, of Dryden, and of Keats. The olylzxivorls), a bird included in the Conirostrlal section of the style is beyond all praise-exquisitely symmetrical and polished Insessorial order, and allied to the Fringillinz or finches. It and the narrative is full of grace and liveliness. Soon after occurs in the winter in the W. Indies, but migrates northwards he had finished the Decame)sone, B, applied himself to the study in summer to lat. 54', and is chiefly found at the latter seasonpts of the classical authors, in the eastern. parts of N. America. The tail feathers are of Greek, was a collector of manuscripts of the classical authors, in the eastern parts of N. America. The tail feathers are and became one of the most learned nen of his age. These pointed and of stiff conformation. It averages a yellowhammer parsuits brought him into contact with Petarh (1350) and in size; the males exhibiting a brilliant plumage in spring and thenceforth, till severed by death th d summer; the plumage being black, the hinder part of the head Mwere the firmest friends. B. is the author of several works in yellowish white; and the rump and tail-coverts white, tinged with Latin prose, nowlittle read, among which are his Genealo ash. The food of these birds consists of insects, worms, and Deorul, De Aizdieribus Claris, &c. His death, which occurred seeds, and in autumn of the seeds of oats and barley. The song t Certaldo, est December I375, is sid to have been hastened consists of a medley of notes. They grow fat in August par y his zeal in peparing his De b et37 said to ha Con astened by his zeal in preparing his Cozmegnto Soa la Co i zec ia de ticularly on the wild rice which grows along the shores of the nt having been appointed y the magistrates of Florence to rivers in Carolina, New York, and Pennsylvania. Their flesh give public lectures on the of the gre give public lectures on the Diviza Comzznedia of the great poet. is then much esteemed, and they are shot in large numbers. A complete edition (Opere Colm/ete) of his works was published The males in winter assume the more sombre plumage of the by Moutier at Florence in I827, in 17 vols. Of the Decamerone, females. These birds are kept in cages chiefly for their gay which has been translated into almost every European tongue, appearance, and on account of their song. the edilio prinzceps was published at Venice in I47I; of the Bobrinez', a town of Russia, government of Cherson, 132 modern editions, Biagoli (I833), Foscolo (1825), and Fanfani miles E.N.E. of Odessa. Pop. above Io,ooo. (I857), the last is the best. The best of the older biographers of B. are Manetti, Manni, Mazzuchelli, and Tiraboschi; the Bobrujsk', a town of W. Russia, government of Minsk, on most thorough, Baldelli (Flor. I806). New matter is to be found the right bank of the Beresina, 88 miles S. E. of Minsk. It in Ciampi's Monumenli d'un Maznoscrito aulografo di Giov. B. carries on an important trade in wood and corn. Pop. (I867) (Flor. 1827). 24,68I, among whom are upwards of I,oo000 Jews. B. was beBoccage', Maglrie Anne Du, nee Le Pbage, a French writer, sieged by the French without success in I8I2. By the Emperor Boccage', Marie Anne fu, nee Le rage, a French writer, Nicholas it ws made a fortress of the first rank much admired by Voltaire, Fontenelle, and others, was born at Nicholas it was made a fortress of the first rank, Rouen, October 22, 7IO, and became the wife of a wealthy Bob'stays, the stays or strong ropes which keep down the financier. Her writings comprise a translation of Pope's Temple bowsprit during the plunging of the ship, and also sustain the of Fame (I 746); an imitation of Milton in her Paradis Perdu, other stays which keep the foremast, fore-topmast, &c., and and La Mor-t d'Abel (I748); a pretentious epic poem, called La therefore the main-topmast, from falling aft. B. are frequently Columbiade (I749); and a tragedy,Les Amazons, produced at the made of chains. Comedie Frangaise. Her poemis were translated into English,:Boc'a, the Spanish word for'motuth,' is lused geographically Spanish, German, and Italian, but have long ceased to be read. in Spanish America to denote the outlets of straits and rivers, The Letres (I751) descriptive of her travels in England, Holas B. Clzica (' little-mouth'), the entrance into the harbour of land, and Italy, were translated into English, and are the only Cartagena, in S. America; B. del Dirago (' dragon's-mouth'), ings by which she is now favouraby known. She died 8th the strait leading from the N. into the Gulf of Paria, between August I802, the Island of Trinidad and the mainland. There are also B. del Bochart', Samuel, a French Protestant theologian, born at Navios (' entrance for ships'), the estuary of the Orinoco river; Rouen, May 30, 1599. After having given proof of extraordinary B. Grande (' the great entrance'), at the mouth of the Zucar philological aptitude during his studies at Paris, Sedan, Saumur, river in Costa Rica; B. del Toro ('bull-mouth'); and B. ded and Leyden, he became, in I625, Protestant pastor at Caen, Tigre ('tiger-mouth'), in the S.W. angle of Costa Rica. where, in I628, he disputed for nine days with the Jesuit Vrin, Bocc'a Tigris, or Bogue, is the Portuguese name given by a protdge of Richelieu, and published an account of the discussion in 1630. His Geographia Sacra (Caen, 1646), a favourite with Eropeans tog the entrance of thems s Cantown as ARive? or in C Humboldt, embodied the results of twenty years' special study; Among the Chinese themselves it is known as Hu-nmiz, or in his ieoi or Sacd Zoogy (Lond. 663), greatly comthe Canton dialect u-men (i.e.,'Tiger-port'), mended by Cuvier, owed much of its value to information found Boccaccio, Giovanni, who may be regarded as the creator in some Arabic manuscripts lent to B. by Queen Christina of of Italian prose, was the son of a Florentine merchant, and born Sweden, whom he had visited at her own request, in I652. This at Paris or Florence, it is uncertain which, in I3I3. When ten work, impugned by Simon, was defended by J. Leclerc; and an years old he was apprenticed by his father to a merchant at edition, in 3 vols. 4to. with notes by E. J. C. Rosenmtiller, was Paris; but mercantile pursuits and the study of the canon law, published at Leipsic (1793-1799), 3, died suddenly at Caen, to which he afterwards applied himself, were equally distasteful,!6th May I667. Teseide, as romantic epic in ottazna rinda, a measure of which m, is believed to have been the inventor. The I(a'ighltes Tale of Bocholt, or Boqhold, a town of Prussia, province of WestChaucer was probably suggested by this poem. His fame was phalia, on the Aa, 12 miles N. of Wesel, on the Rhine. It has established on an imperishable basis by the composition of the a fine Catholic church, a synagogue, an hospital and orphanage, Decamerone, begun, it is said, at the request of Queen Joanna, some twenty cotton-mills, ten dyerworkss and also manufactures and finished about I358. It consists of IQo tales, represented of woollens, silks, hosiery, and ironwares. It is the chief town to have been related in equal portions in ten days (hence the of the barony of B. and Anholt, which belongs to the Princes of name) by a party of seven ladies and three gentlemen, Salm-Salm, who have here a castle. Pop. (i872)-6127. who had retired from Florence to a villa in the neighboTra Bochum, a town of Prussia, province of Westphalia, 5 miles ing hamlet of Fiesole, during the destructive plague of 1348, E.N.E. of Essen by railway. It has large manufactures of cloths, to dispel their fears for a season by an episode of unin- iron and steel wares (notably coffee-mills), tobacco, and tapestry. terrupted and unreflecting gaiety. The incidents are partly There is a chamber of commerce, a royal technical school, a the invention of the author, but partly derived from earlier municipal high school, and various other public institutions. Contes and Fabhziax, and even from fables found in Greek Pop. (1872) 2I,192. 424 BOC THE GLOBE ENCYCI OP~IDIA. BOD Bock'au, a town in the circle of Zwickau, Saxony, 25 miles cutions of Mary, B. had an opportunity of attending the lectures S. S. W. of Chemnitz, in the Erzgebirge, famous as a centre for of Calvin and Beza. After becoming a graduate and proctor at the gathering of many valuable medicinal herbs. It has some Oxford, he travelled on the Continent to learn the languages, and manufacture of drugs and tinctures. Pop. (I871) I86o. was subsequently employed by Queen Elizabeth in several imporBockenheim, a town of Prussia, province of Hesse-Nassau tant diplomatic missions connected with the Protestant cause, Bock'eteaio, a towan adof Prussia, province of esse-Nassau, especially in France and Htolland. B. says his further political and a station on the Main and Weser Railway, about a mile career was stopped by the disputes of Essex and the Cecils. IIe N.W. of Frankfurt-on-the-Main, of which it is virtually a suburb. then (597) devoted himself to the library at Oxford which bears I1 has manufactures of culinary articles, pianos, cigars, spirits, hivis g boots worth liy, en dowing the officers of his name, giving books worth /Fio,ooo, endowing the officers of fancy wares, and bijouterie. Pop. (1872) 8483. the library, and helping the construction of the new house. B. B6ckh, August, one of the most learned philologists and died at Oxford, 28th January I612. See his Autobiography in ingenious antiquaries of this century, was born at Carlsruhe, Reei/ze Boadoeidanzz (published by Hearne in I703). November 27, I785. He entered the university of Halle in I803, Bodloy'an, or Bodleian Library, the public library of and studied under Wolf. After being engaged for a short time the University of Oxford, was originally founded by Humphrey as professor at Heidelberg, B. was appointed in i 8is, Professor of Gloucester, almost entirely destroyed by the visitors of Edward of Rhetoric and Ancient Literature at Berlin, a post which e held VI. but re-established and endowed by Sir Thomas Bodley about with distinguished honour for over half a century. He died 602. odley drew up statutes which prohibit leding of boos. August 3, 1867. B. began his career as an author by his first The visitors and curators now consist of the vice-chancellor, publication, Comrmentatio in P/a/onis.qui vuZgo fer/ur /Jinoemz proctors, regius professors of divinity, civil law, medicine, Greek (Hal,le, i806). Two years later appeared his G7racaz TSragdirP and Hebrew, and five residents elected for ten years by CongrePrzginczmz,,Eschyl, Sopahocls, Euipidizs tnus ean aue supeesnt gation. The present librarian is Mr B. O. Coxe, with a salary el genuina ortnia tsizt. His Pindar (3 vols. Leips. 1811-22) of:Iooo, and two assistants. The library is free to literary men is a great work of classical criticism. Other writings of B.'s on proper recommendation:; members of the university are adwhich hold the first rank among works of the kind are Die don payment of a small sum annually. The library is supKStanats~aaus/aun drer At//esszen (I8s7, 2 vols. Svo), Dzie EnC- ported by voluntary contributions, the endowment (increased this twickehung der Lehi-en des Pythagoreien Phaiolaos (Berl. i89), 7twice/ung de r Le/ren des Pytagorien PIhi/o/aos (Berl. 1819), c. by the Mason bequest of 40,000ooo), the charge on matricula/lletroZog'see hUnteUsrsuchuzngen giber Gewaic/te, MiVz/inzfsse, untd tion (introduced by Lord Stowell in i780), and the statutory Masse des Alteirhu1nmis (Berl. 1838), Ur-kuwndesn -9ber das See- right to a copy of every book published in the United Kingdom. zwesen des Altiscizen Soaats (Berl. I840). Along with these This fight originated in an agreement between Sir T. Bodley labours must be noticed his collection.and elucidation of Greek and the Company of Stationers in 1609, which was enforced by a inscriptions in the Corpus fnscrsistionum Grcecan~ru (Berl. decree of the Star Chamber, and ultimately recognised in the 1824-62), which he began with the intention of giving in it every form n of the printing licence in the Sedition Act Greek inscription known in print or manuscript. After his 14 Charles II. c. 33. Among the valuable collections may be withdrawal from the undertaking, it was carried on first by mentioned Lord Pembroke's Greek MSS, collecteby Barozzi Franz, and afterwards by Kirchhoff. His minor writings have Sir T. Roe's Oriental and Greek MSS. Dodsworth's collections Sir T. Roe's Oriental and Greek MSS.; Dodsworth's collections been collected and published (GesammneZte kleiznere Sc/iften, 5 on English History; the MSS. of Archbishop Sharpe; Selden's vols. Berl. 1858-7l). Library (containing many Talmudical and Rabbinical treasures); Boc'land, or Bookland, one of the original modes of the the Hebrew Library of Oppenheim; Malone's poetical collectenure of manor-land. It was constituted by a short deed stipu- tions, presented by Lord Sanderlin; Gough's collection on lating for rents and free services. It was sometimes granted for British Topography, and Douce's Library. The library has a one or more lives, with remainder in perpetuity to the Church. number of Biblical codices. The books number about 300,000, See Kerr's Blackstone and Wharton's Law Dictionary. the MSS. between 20o,ooo and 30,000. Bode, Barons de, a family well known in England through Bod'mann (anc. Bodami Ces/rz), a villige in Baden, on a claim made onaccount of an estate in Lower Alsace confiscated Lake Constance, 12 miles N.W. of Constance. Pop. (I872) in I793, for a share of the sum granted by France as indemnity 89I. Close by stand the ruins of a castle, formerly the residence to the English sufferers by the Revolution. The claim was re- of the lieutenant of the Karoling kings, the Botezanrn or Bordpeatedly discussed in Parliament, and was finally dismissed on manno, from whom the lake takes its German name of Boden-See. the ground that at the time the estate was lost the then baron Bod'mer, Johann Jakob, a German /it/elnrater, and for fifty was not an English subject. See J. Hodgkin, Case of th/e Baron years Professor of History at Zurich, was born i9th July i698 at de B. in its Prese~nt Aspect (i86o). Greifensee, near Zurich. An intimate acquaintance with foreign Boden-See. See CONSTANCE, LAKE. literature showed him how tasteless that of Germany had become, Bode's Law is an empirical law in astronomy, connecting and he set himself to reform it with more zeal than ability. The the distances of the planets from the sun, and may be thus boldness of his attempt provoked the ire of Gottsched, and their stated. Rleckoniug from the orbit of Mercury, and supposing fierce disputes did something to pave the way for the splendid the distance of Venus to be 3, that of the earth is 6, that of Mars epo that commend about I770. B. died d January I7o3i 12, that of the Asteroids 24,- &c. Hence, taking the distance of His poems, dramas, and translations never rise above mediocrity; Mercury from the sun as 4, we have the following numbers but his republication of a part of the Aibeszngen (Zur. 1757), representing the distances of the planets, the true distances being and his Samsnnunz der Minnesanger (2 vols. Zur. I758), acted on placed below for comparison: the current poetic literature of Germany somewhat as the publiMercury Venus Earth Mars Asteroids Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune cation of Percy's Reies acted on that of Britain. His Noachide 4 7 IO i6 28 52 I00 i6 388ne (Zur. I750-52; new ed. Basel, 1781) is the most widely known 3-9 7'2 10 15 275 52 9 5 192 300 of his works. See Danzel's Gott/sched zgod seine Zeit (Leips. 3'9 7'2 IO 15 27'5 52 95 192 300 1848), and M6rikofer's Die Swe/hsoiz-Liets-a/ursdes i 87ahr/z. (Leips. Neptune is the only one which falls short to any considerable i8)f extent. Similar laws are found to hold for the several systems of 6 satellites. BodC'min, the county town of Cornwall, lies in a picturesque Bod'kin (etymology uncertain), originally a poniard or dagger, valley near the centre of the county, 26 miles N.N. W. of Plyin which sense it is used by Shakespeare in Hamlet's fansous mouth, with some manufacture of woollen and yarn, and a trade i sense it is used by S hakespeare in Hamlet' his fmous in cattle and sheep. It is connected by a branch railway with soliloquy (Act 3, sc. I),' When he himself might his quietus lmake with a bare odkin.' The word also denotes an instru Wadebridge, its port, 7 miles to the N.W., and it is 7 miles dismake with a bare bodin.' The word also denotes an instru- tant from the B.-road station on the Cornwall line. The chief ment for piercing holes in cloth, a large species of needle for or ribbon through a loop, and a straight hair-pin buildings are a church of the I5th c., the market-house, county drawing tape or ribbon through a loop, and a straight hair-pin jail, built in 1859 at a cost of /40o,oo0, and the Cornwall Lunwhich was used in ancient times, and still turns up in the changes atic Asylum, built in i866. B. returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (I87i) 6758. B. is an old town, which grew up Bodley, Sir Thomas, born of an ancient family at Exeter, around a priory said to have been founlded by King YEthelstan 2d March I544. His father going to Geneva during the perse- in 936, and at one time had a cathedral, and was a place of im54 425.42~~- -r- 42 BOD THEE GLZOBE ENCYCL OPZDIA. BOE portance. Thomas Sternhold, joint author with Hopkins of the mental activity; but the proverbial dulness of the inhabitants, first English metrical version of the Psalms, was once the pro- ascribed to the denseness of the atmosphere, was due rather to prietor of B. Priory. The town declined in the I6th c., but has greater attention being paid to physical than to intellectual deregained much of its importance. velopment; and the poets IIesiod, Corinna, and Pindar, the historian Plutarch, and Epaminondas, one of the greatest miliBodo'ni, Giambattista, a distinguished Italian printer and tary geniuses of Greece, were all Bceotians. B. produced heavy type-cutter, was born at Saluzzo, Sardinia, February I6, I740. tary geniuses of Greece, were all Boeotians B. produced heavy type-cutter, was born at Saluzzo, Sardinia, February h6, 1740s corn crops, and had excellent pasture grounds; the vine was culIn 1758 he went to Rome, where he remained six or esght years tivated with success, and the mountains yielded iron and marble. as compositor in the printing-office of the Propaganzda. In I768 c as compositor in.h printing-o~ice of tile. opnn,.n. The larger cities of B., under the presidency of Thebes, formed he removed to Parma, and became in I789 the superintendent of s of B., under the presidency of Thebes, formed the Duke of Parma's private printing establishment. From this a confederacy known as the Beotian league, at the head of press he sent out his editionsof the ad, g and several which was the archon. The affairs of the separate states were press he sent out his editions of the Iliad, Viirgil, and several managed by military chiefs called Bmotarchs, who also dismanaged by military chiefs called Bceotarchs, who also disother classical works, and also the Lord's Prayer done in t155. charged several executive functions. B. differed from the other languages, all of which are admirable for their beauty of type. Greek states in this, that it could scarcely be regarded as a truly B. died at Parma, November 20, 1813. federal state, on account of the hardly disguised sovereignty of Body, HIuman, will be described in detail under the various Thebes. Attica and B. united now constitute a nomarchy of organs, tissues, and functions of the body, as Arm, Bone, Brain, the kingdom of Greece, with an area of 248I sq. miles, and a Cerebellum, Leg, Liver, Lung, Muscle, Nerve, Spleen, the pop. ('i870) of 136,804. organs of Sense, Connecting Tissue, Circulation,'Digestion, Boerhaave, Hermann, a celebrated physician, was born Perspiration, Respiration, &c. For a general description of the at Voorhout, near Leyden, st December a ici, and commenced progress and present state of human anatomy, see ANATOMY, at V oorhout, nearology Leyden, wher e he took the degree of HISTORY OF;* also article MAN. the study of theology-at Leyden, where he took the degree of,HrS'ORv OF; also article MAN. Doctor of Philosophy in I689. In I690o he commenced to study Body-Snatching. See RESURRECTIONIST and ANATOMY medicine,.reading carefully ancient and contemporary treatises (in Law). on the several branches,,and took the degree of Doctor of MediHBoece (Boyce), CHEector, was born at Dundee about I465, cine at Harderwyck in -693. In 170I he succeeded Drelincourt educated at Aberdeen, and afterwards at Paris, where he gained as lecturer on the theory of medicine, and at first recommended the friendship of Erasmus, and was made Professor of Philosophy the method of Hippocrates, that, namely, of simple observation, in I497. In 500 he was appointed Principal of the newly- for which, however, in I703, he began to substitute mechanical founded College of Aberdeen, where lhe did much to promote'applications and calculations bearing on the healthy equilibrium learning in Scotland. In.1522 he published at Paris his Livesof the animal fluids. In I709 he succeeded Hotton as Professor of t/he Bishops of Mortflacl annd Aberdeen, and in 1526 his of Medicine and Botany, and revived the method of clinical Scotoruen~ Historiee in seventeen books. Like Geoffrey of Mon- teaching, while his services to botany were many and important. mouth, he pretended to have derived his history from imagi- His nstitctiones Medic (Leyd. I708), and his Ap/1o0-isi de nary authorities, declaring it to be based on the writings of two Cognoscendis et Curandis Iorbis, &c. (Leyd. 709), still classics, putative authors, Veremundus and Cambell. The work is less are models of learning and methodical arrangement, and even sober than the Chronicles of Fordun and Wyntoun, and abounds Arabic translations o have been made of them. In 1715 B. was in romantic fable; but his narrative seems, says Mr Burton,'to made Rector of the University of Leyden; in I718 he became have been skilfully adjusted to the conditions of belief in his Professor of Chemistry, and his Elerzenta C/sinzre (I724) is still own time.' Shortly after publishing'the history, B. received of -value as a landmark in the history of chemistry. He died from James V. a pension of.,/50 Scots yearly, and was likewise September 23, I738, leaving a fortune of two millions of florins. presented with the rectory of Fyvie,:in Aberdeenshire, before his B. was perhaps the greatest physician of modern times; his fame death in 1536, in which year John Bellenden produced a transla- filled Europe, and s said to have reached even China. He tion of his history. See Irving's Literary Scotchnen of t/e Last was an Associate of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and a Four~ Cenztu~r~ies. Fellow of the Royal Society of London. See Burton's Account of the Life and Writings of B. (2 vols. Lond. I743), and also Boehme'ria, a genus of plants of natural order Urticaceae, much the Biographies of Kesteloot (X825) and of Johnson (I834). esteemed for their fibres. B. nivea yields the fibres out of which the Chinese Grass Cloth (q. v.) and other articles are made. It Boerhaa'via,:a genus of plants of the natural order Nycztaginis extensively cultivated by the Chinese under the name of ace&e (the Marvel of Peru order), (q. v.). B. difusa possesses Tschou Ma, and having been introduced into Siam, Burmah, expectorant qualities. Other species of the genus are laxative, APssam, and other semi-tropical countries, it is likely to prove a anthelmintic, or emetic. valuable article of commerce, its fibre being now highly appre- Boers (Ger. Batern, peasants, boors), the name by which ciated in Europe. It is also known by the Sumatran name of the Dutch agriculturists of the Cape of Good Hope generally are Caloce, the Malayan one of Ramee, under which name it is known, but which is also applied more strictly to a small band cultivated in the United States (Rep. Dep. of Agriculltere, 1873, of desperadoes, mostly of Dutch extraction, who have sought p. 26i), but more frequently by that applied to it in Assam, viz., refuge in the Cashan mountains, and are notorious for their R/seea. B. candicans, B. utilis, B. Pzya, B. caudata, and other rapacity and violence. See Dr Livingstone's Travels and iRespecies of the genus, yield similar fibres of greater or'less value searches in S. Africa (-i857). and fineness. Forbes, yournal of the Society of Arts, I875, p. 52. Both properly Boet Anc anliu (Tor,BoS'thius, properly Boetius, Anicius ]Itlanlius (TorBoeo'tia, a political division of ancient Greece, bounded S. quatus) Severinus, one of the most illustrious men of his by Attica and Megaris, W. by the Gulf of Corinth, N. and N.W. time by his talents, his virtues, his services, and his misfortunes, by Locris and Phocis, and E. by the Eubcean Sea, with an area of was born about 470 A.D., of a noble Roman family. When I I i9 sq. miles. A mountain chain, extending E. and W., divides Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, entered Rome (500), B. it into N. and S. B., the former containing Lake Copais, which'was appointed by the senate to address him. Theodoric was so would be a fertile plain had the waters of the Cephissus and its charmed with him then and afterwards, that he made him Mastributaries an outlet to the sea. There are several natural sub- ter of the Palace and of Offices (magisfer ofciorumz), in which terraneous channels in the limestone mountains, which, it is said, position B. was long the oracle of Theodoric and the idol of the old Minyoe of Orchomenus supplemented by artificial tun- the Ostrogoths, while he always exerted his influence for the nels, the greatest engineering enterprise of the pre-historic age. benefit of his countrymen. Three times he was made consul, One of these was four miles long, and had twenty vertical shafts, and in 51o enjoyed the unique distinction of having no colleague with apertures 4 feet square, and a depth calculated at fiom Ioo in that office. His two sons, while yet youths (522), were desigto I50 feet. Orchomenus consequently became great and power- nated consuls, an honour reserved for the sons of emperors, and ful at an early period; but when the power of the Minyae was he himself received the greatest possible honour from people, broken, the tunnels being neglected, the plain was flooded and senate, and king. But Theodoric, who became melancholy and the city gradually dwindled. S. B. was divided by Mount jealous in his old age, was worked upon by creatures whose Teumessus into the plain of Thebes and the valley of the Aso- hatred B. had incurred by his opposition to their injustice and pus. The climate of B. was supposed to be unfavourable to oppression. He was accused of high treason, arrested, kept in 426 BOOG THE GI OBE ENC YCYL OPIEDIA. BOG confinement for a time, and then put to death. B. was the last at the rate of five tons per imperial acre, and the ground is Roman of any note who studied the literature of Greece. His ready for potatoes, which ought always on such ground to be the most celebrated work, De Consolatione P/hilosophfi,, written while first crop. The drills should be formed by the spade, 30 inches in prison, was translated into old English by Alfred the Great apart, to admit of a flat surface, which is carefully compressed (reprinted and edited by Fox, Loud. I864), into modern Eng- by treading after the field is covered. Twenty-five tons of best lish by Chaucer and by Queen Elizabeth. It was extraordinarily dung, and 2 cwt. of guano is a profitable manurial allowance popular during the middle ages, and was to be found in almost upon such a soil. After potatoes, oats sown down with grass every monastic library. The oldest printed edition is that of should be taken; clay to the extent of Ioo or I20 carts per acre Niirnberg (I473); the latest and best is that of Obbarius (Jena, being mixed with the peat. The grass following upon this treat1r843). Whether B. was a Christian or a Pagan has been keenly ment is very good, and the satisfactory feature of this system of discussed. The Catholic Church has canonised him, and yet reclamation is that the pasture improves with age. It proves there is no evidence in his De Consolatione that he sustained, thick in the sole, and sheep prefer it to that grown upon better himself in his last hours by the hopes of the gospel. land. Under such management of B.-land as described, the health and material welfare of the community at large would, Bog (Gael. bogach, a soft, tender, moist place), another name as a matter of course, greatly and rapidly improve. for a moor or marsh. A B. is formed in hollows and levels by the accumulation of vegetable matter, which at one time havingn, river in the interior of ew South Wales. It covered the surface as living plants, has decayed, and served to rises in Goonambla Hill in 330 S. lat. 48' 20' E. long., and form the soil for a subsequent growth. As each generation has flows N.Wt into the Darling (q. v.) in 30d 4' S. lat. I45~ 55' thus decayed, and has been replaced by a new one, the lower E. long. Its length is 450 miles, and it drains an area of 8300 layers, on account of the superincumbent pressure yearly in- square miles. During a great part of the year it is reduced to a creasing, have in time consolidated to form a thick viscid mass, chain of lagoons. in some cases resembling brown lignite. This ultimate cohesion Bog-Butter, a peculiar fatty substance found in the peatis doubtless aided by the chemical action of water. The British bogs of Ireland. It is void of taste or smell, has a white colour Islands afford many good examples of bogs. Ireland is specially and the consistence of butter, and is composed of 75 per cent. noted in this way, B. covering as much as one-tenth part of its of carbon and I24 per cent. each of hydrogen and oxygen. It surface. In France, the United States, and Canada, there are melts at 5I~ C. (I24~ F.), and separates from an alcohol solution also many bogs, often of vast extent. Chatmoss, in Lancaster, is, needle-like crystals. is a famous B., rendered so by George Stephenson's engineering triumph in carrying a line of rails across the yielding swamp. Bogdano'viteh, Ippolyt Fedorovitch, a Russian poet, Solway Moss and B. of Allen are also well known, and continue born 28th December I743 at Perevolotchna. He was apto defy all efforts at reclamation. Perhaps one of the best pointed inspector of the University of Moscow in I76I, and instances that can be given of the transformation of a peat-B., afterwards secretary of legation at Dresden. He published in an unhealthy and unprofitable waste, into fruitful fields, is fur- 1775 his poem Duzshenka, founded on the myth of Psyche; and nished by the example of a portion of the estate of Dargavel, on this, and not on his other works, which are chiefly translabelonging to the late Mr Hall Maxwell, for many years the tions, his fame must rest. Being the first of its kind in Russian Secretary of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. literature, it may have been unduly praised, but it is sufficiently This peat-B. lay between Glasgow and Greenock, about 3 miles graceful and melodious to sanction the wish that he had N. from Paisley. The moss, in its original state, was a quagmire attempted works of greater originality. He died at Kursk, of from 20 feet to 25 feet deep. It was saturated with water, I8th January I803. A collected edition of B.'s works in 6 vols. and covered with coarse heather. Not only was it unproductive in appeared at Moscow (I809-I0.; 2d ed. 4 vols. I8IS). itself, but it had an injurious influence on the crops in its vicinity. Bogen, a market-town of Lower Bavaria, near the left bank Mr Maxwell brought his agricultural knowledge to bear upon of the Danube, with some breweries, and a pop. of It is this repulsive-looking subject. He began by trenching up the much visited by pilgrims bn account of a celebrated image of sub-lying clay on the spots from whence the moss had heen the Virgin contained in its chapel on the adjoining Bogensberg. removed by cottars to make fuel. It was thought the money spent in reclamation would be thrown away, the land then being Bo'germann, Jan, a Protestant theologian, born at Opledeemed absolutely worthless. But an expenditure of /3p an, wert, E. Friesland, in I576, and took a prominent part in the acre brought in an annual value of /;2 per acre, which is not controversies between the Calvinists and Arminians, which in a bad percentage on outlay. And as land differs from house his time distracted Holland. He was Professor of Divinity in property, that early 62- per cent. will inevitably increase under the University of Franeker, and in i618 was elected President of careful and scientific management every year, instead of dete- the Synod of Dort, where his zeal so far outran his discretion riorating. As there are many hundreds of thousands of acres that he displeased the Frieslanders, whose delegate he was. in this country at the present time equally susceptible of being The~Dutch version of the Bible, still used in churches, and the changed from pestilential swamps into productive potato and greater portion of which is the work of B., entitles him to the corn plots, it is well to give Mr Maxwell's method. In regard gratitude of his countrymen, while his polemical works are to the drains-the basis of operations in improvement of this happily forgotten. He died at Franeker, IIth September I637. kind-it was found, after trial at shallower depths, that it was best to go down 4 or 5 feet, the distance between the drains Boghaz' Xie'ui or Koi (Turk. the' pass village'), a village being 20 feet. At first horse-shoe shaped tiles, floated on wooden of Asia Minor, vilayet of Sivas, go miles S.W. of Amasia. It lobs, or boards of larch, were formed, but they did not answer, consists of some I50 scattered dwellings. In its vicinity are and double tiles, flatter than the ordinary horse-shoe, with a several ruins, especially of a magnificent temple, which may be broad flange instead of the usual narrow edge, which enables the that of Jupiter mentioned by Strabo (lib. xii.). Hamilton supone to rest securely on the other, while by' breaking band' in the poses B. to be the ancient Tavium, but Barth, after Texier, dislaying the pressure is divided, and the conduit is kept together. putes this, and endeavours to show that it is probably the A thick sod cut from the surface to fit the bottom is placed over ancient Pieria. the tiles, with the heather downwards, and this method is found Bog Iron Ore, a porous ore of iron of a brown colour, to act well in the softest of peat. The next step is to dig and found abundantly in the peat-bogs of Ireland, and in marshy level the surface to ahout the depth of 12 inches at first, the alluvial districts of different countries. It is the result of the depth being increased as cultivation goes on. Mr Maxwell's decom experience taught that it was well to allow the surface to lie a agencies, and is composed ores by atmospheric oxide and phosconsiderable period after having been dug, in order that it might phatgenies of iron in variable proportions; sometimes and phosbe acted upon by the ameliorating character of the weather. oxide of manganese is variable proportions; sometimes hydrated Two winters he deemed necessary. SHe considered that the oxide of manganese is also present. It is not wrought in the Two winters he deemed necessary..He considered that the United Kingdom, but is used in North Germany, where it is condigging should be cond/icted in autumn, winter being too wet sidered valuable for castings. The iron obtained from it is very for the operation, and the solar heat in summer baking the peat brittle, owing to the precastings. The iron obtained fom it is very so as to render its disintegration difficult. After fields lie fallow for the period stated, two years' clods are broken, lime applied Bog-Iloss. See SPHAGNUM. 427 BOG THEE GLOBE ENCYCLOiEPtDZA. BOH Bog'nor Beds. See LONDON CLAY. of the British and Foreign Bible Society, of the Religious Tract Bogodu'khov, a fortified town of Russia, government of Society, and especially of the London Missionary Society, of Kharkov, g situated ono the Merle, 3 I miles W. N.. of the city which last he has been called the father. B. died 25th October Kharkov, situated on the Merle, 31 miles W.N.W. of the city 1825. Besides some minor works, he wrote, in conjunction with of Kharkov. Pop. (1867) Io,0o69, trading chiefly in, cattle, hides, James Bennett, a,History of Dissenters from I688 to i808 (4 vols. and leather manufactures. Lond. I8o8-I2). His Theological Lectures, edited by Frey, were Bogomi'li, a Slavonic religious sect of the I2th. c., resembling published at New York in 1.849. the Paulicians and Kathari, and whose headquarters were in Bulgaria. The name, which is Slavonic, means,'Lord pity us,' Bo'gus is an Americanism,. and is often used in the sense of and has a reference to the fervency and frequency of their prayers sham or fr aucdulent, as, B,-money. B. election-tickets, having for deliverance from the influence of the evil principle, Satanael, some names of the opposite party on the list, are sometimes put which created matter and man, and from whose thraldom men into the hands of the voters at the polls. are delivered by the Logos, or Christ. The B. banished. the, sign Bo'guslav-, a town of Russia, government of Kiev, situated of the cross and images from their worship, and rejected the on the Rossa, 60 miles S.S.E. of the city of Kiev. Pop. 6000ooo, sacraments, substituting for baptism certain repetitions of the chiefly Jews, Lord's Prayer, and regarding the Eucharist as a sacrifice, to devils. Their canon consisted of the Psalms and Prophets, and the entire New Testament. Their leader, Basilius, was burned Bohe'mia (Ger. Bd'mzen), so called after the Boii, who in III8 by Alexius Comnenus. Remnants of the sect still settled in it in the 2d c. B.c., formerly an independent kingdom, existed at Philippoplis in the following eentury. now a crown-land of Austria, in lat. 48' 33'-5I~ 5' N., and in long. I2'-i6~ 46' E. It is bounded N. by Saxony and Bogong', a mountain range in the N.E. of Victoria. Several Bogong', a mountain range in the N.E. of Victoria. Several Prussian Silesia, E. by Prussian Silesia and Moravia, S. by of its peaks exceed 6000o feet in height. The loftiest are Mount Upper and Lower Austria, and W. by Bavaria. Area, 20,000 B. (6588 feet), and Mount Feathertop (6303 feet). The range sq. miles.;. pop. (869) 5, I40,544, of whom 4,940,898 are Roman derives its name from a large moth found in elevated regions, and Catholics, 89,933 Jews, and the remainder belong to different highly relished as food by the blacks. Catholics, 89,933 Jews, and the remainder belong to different highly relished as food by the blacks. Christian. sects. Bogon'ion, a popular name in Westmoreland and some parts PhyZsical Aspect, &'c.-B. is encircled by mountains': W. by of Lancashire for the royal fern, Osmrlund re,galis (q.v.). The the Bidhmerwald, N. bythe Erzgebirge, E. by the Iser-Riesenrhizime or underground stem,, when beaten and macerated in and Adlergebirge, and S, by the Bohemian-Moravian plateau. water all night, is esteemed as an application to bruises, sprains, The elevations range from, 2000 to above 5000 feet, while offsets &c. (Bentley). traverse the interior from N. to S., enclosing many fertile valleys. The slope of the country is towards the centre. The principal river is the Elbe, with its great affluents the Moldau, Iser, and Colombia, S. America, in0 thfe state tf Cundinama)ca, situated Eger. Instead of lakes there are numerous ponds and morasses. on an extensive plateau;8700feet above the sea, nea. the head The climate is considered healthy, but is cold in the highland waters of the Meta, a branch of the Orinoco, and 290 miles S.E. borders, and snow lingers on the summits of the hi gh a of the Gulf of Darien. It was founded in 1538, is the seat of aningers on the summits of the hills through a archbishop, and contains a remarkable number of churches and great part of the year. Products. —B. has very little waste land. Over 90 per cent. convents, and, besides the Government buildings, a university, a of the soil is available for culture, and of this more than a half theatre, and a national academy. A statue of Bolivar was erected is arable. Grain is raised in andance, the principal crops here in I847. In I827 B. was partly destroyed by an earthquake. Pop. Pop.(Alanosch de Gotha, 875) 50,000. The tableland being wheat, oats, barley, and rye, much of which is exported; quaklte. Pop. (.41manach de Goth/-, 1875) 50,oo. The tableland hops and flax are important products; the cultivation of root in which B. is situated is rich in pasture, and yields abundance hops is becom ar e imp ortant products; the cultivation of root of wheat and barley, being visited annually by two rainy seasons. able; and the vine is partially cultivated. Cattle-breeding is Near the town there are emerald, gold, and silver mines. The not skilfully carried on, but the breed of horses is superior. In Tequendamain goo feet high, and, joins the eMagdablena, which some districts swine are reared in large numbers, while in the S.'requendama, 900 feet high, and, joins the Magdalena, which flocks of geese form a considerable portion of the cultivator's stock. B. has great mineral wealth in silver, tin, iron, lead, Bog'ra, a town in the district of the same name, province of graphite, granite, coal, and marble; but there are no salt-mines. Bengal, on a tributary of the river Attri, 85 miles N.W. of Its mineral springs are among the most noted in Europe-e.g., Moorshedabad. Pop. (1872) 5872. The district has an area of Karlsbad, Marienbad, Franzensbad, and Teplitz. 1501 sq. miles, and a pop. (1872) of 689,467..z7Manufactures, Sac.-The industries of B. are the most important in the Austrian empire. Their chief seat is in the N. Bog-Spa~vin, a disease in horses, affecting the hock-joint, Altogether it is computed there are about 400oo manufactories, and exhibiting as, its chief feature a swelling and distended state whose yearly production is valued at ~20,000,00o. Reichof the joint-capsule (capsular ligament). It is generally caused enberg is the headquarters of the woollen, Rumburg of the linen, by a sprain or sudden start, and in all probability is most fre- Sch/nlinde of the thread, and the Erzgebirge of the lace manuquently found in horses in which inflammatory or other lesions facture. There are upwards of eighty cotton-mills, with 500,000 of the joints already exist, Soft swelling of thejoint, complete spindles, of which the largest are at Reichenberg. There are lameness, and inflammatory symptoms, are the: chief aids to the calico-printworks on a large scale in Prague, Hirschberg, &c. diagnosis of this affection; the swelling having a'boggy' feel, Bohemian. glass, which is not only the best in Austria, but perand remaining persistent after the acute symptoms have disap- haps the. best in the world, is manufactured at Haida, Steinpeared. The treatment of B.-S. consists in the ordinary anti- schSnau, Gablenz, Turnau, Burgstein, and Neuhurkenthal. In phlogistic remedies-fomentations, with liniments and blistering addition to these, B. has manufactures of sugar (from beetroot), afterwards to favour resolution. The condition is one very diffi- leather, porcelain, paper, metallic wares, chemicals, and beer. cult, and in some cases impossible to cure. For its import and export trade there are not very good water Bog-Trotter, a derisive appellation occasionally given to highways, but there is an admirable network of railways conthe Irish peasantry from their living in a boggy country, their verging in Prague. There are Chambers of Commerce at Prague, ability to traverse which with safety and expedition has often Reichenberg, Egerj Pilsen, and Budweis. saved them when pursued by the officers of justice. Government, Admizisi.tration, EduZcation, &'c.-B. is divided into thirteen circles-Prague, Leitmeritz, Gitschin, Jung-BunzBogue, Rev. D., was born in the parish of Coldingham, lau, K6niggritz, Chrudim, Czaslau, Tabor, Budweis, Pisck, PilBerwickshire, I8th February I750. He was licensed as a preacher sen, Eger, Saaz. It has its own provincial Diet, or Parliament, of the Church of Scotland, but went to London in 177I, and consisting of one house of 241 members, representing in different afterwards became pastor of an Independent congregation at degrees the various classes and orders of the community; and it Gosport, where he also established a college for Independent sends fifty-four representatives to the Austrian Recichsirath. B. ministers. From this time he became a zealous worker in the has one university, that of Prague, twenty-two gymnasia, numecause of missions, and took an active part in the establishment rous realand technical schools, and nearly 4000 elementary schools; 428 v —----- -----------— + BOH THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPi-EDIA. BOH yet it is to be said that, though education is widely diffused, a bloody struggle. Joining the first Crusaders in Io96, with Bohemian educational institutions still stand in need of reform. Io,ooo horse and 20,000 infantry, he first tried to persuade Histaoy, &c. —'B., originally in the possession of the Boii, Godfirey to turn his arms against Alexius, who sought to disarm was seized by the Marcomanni in the ist c. B.c. The latter in his hostility by the splendour of his reception and the magniturn were destroyed or driven out by the Czechs-the ances- ficence of his presents. On- the march through Asia Minor, B. tors of the present Bohemians-in the first half of the 6th c. was conspicuous by his valour and endurance. When Antioch fell A.D. About the year 627, Samo, uniting. the neighbouring he-was invested with the sovereignty, receiving investiture at a Slavic lands with those of the Czechs, formed. a.kingdom, which, later period from the Patriarch of Jerusalem. His title was however, fell to pieces on his death, in 662,. Partly dependent afterwards recognised by the emperor, who was constrained by under the Karolings, it next became tributary to the Moravian the successes of B. to grant him an- advantageous peace. He prince, Swatopluk (871-894), who introduced Christianity. The died in Apulia in IiiI. The Christian principality of Antioch Czech chieftains, on the death of Swatopluk, did homage to.the lasted for 170 years under nine princes, the last of whom was German king, Arrmulf. About the year go900, Spithiniew I. ob- B. VI, who was forced to surrender the city to Bibars, the tained the supreme power in the land; but his nephew, St Mameluke Sultan of Egypt, in 1268. See Gibbon,. Decline alznd Wenzel, was forced by the march of Heinrich I. on Prague, 929, Fall of the Roman Empnire, ch. 58-59. to acknowledge the suzerainty of the German emperors. Nor did this feudal dependency of B. ever again cease, though at one B mh'me, or Beh'men, Jakob, the mystic cobbler, was born time it was weaker than at another. Duke Wratislaw II. (v:o6I- in I575 at Alt-Seidenberg, near GCrlitz, in Lusatia. With the 92) received from the Emperor Heinrich, IV. the title of king, exception of his Wandejahlre and a- visit: to a public discussion which was ever after borne by the rulers of B. After a long of his books at Dresden. shortly before his death, he spent his period of strife, the succession was.secured by Ottokar I. (I I97- life at Girlitz, cobbling and, dreaming. He read the mystics I230). His grandson, Ottokar I. (1253-78), acquired the duchy Weigel- andi Schwenkfeld, and adopted. from Paracelsus the of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and ruled from the Baltic doctrines of the Mikrokosm (viz., that the analogy between to the Adriatic; but lost crown and life in the battle on the individual and: kosmic life is perfect), and of the triad of Marchfeld in 1278. In-I3io-a new dynasty came in. with Johann sulphur, salt, and mercury. His chief friends were Frankenof Luxembourg, son of the:Emperor Heinrich VII., who acquired berg, who wrote the biography prefixed to Gichtel's edition of Silesia. Under his son, Karl,. who also became Emperor of B.'s works (1682, translated by Fras. Okely, I87Q), Dr Kober of Germany, B. reached its acme of medizeval prosperity, which Ghrlitz, and Dr Walther, a Dresden chemist. In 1612 he comthe Hussite wars (I378-1419) completely destroyed. After the pleted his Aurora, or MNorgez Z't/he im AIzf6anff, the result of extinction of the Luxembourg dynasty, in the person of the two'illuminations' or short periods of intense cerebral exciteEmperor Sigismund (I437), the crown became elective, and was ment which occurred in i6oo; and ten years later Richter, chief held first by a Protestant noble, Georg of Podiebrad (1458-71), pastor of Ghrlitz, tried unsuccessfully to banish B. from the and afterwards (I471-I516) by Vladislav II., who being chosen town. In 1619 he completed his Three Princples of the Divine King of Hungary (1490), removed his residence to O)fen or Being, and later a discourse on Repentance. B. died 2lst NoBuda. On the death of his son, Ludwig, who fell in, the battle vember.. i624. The last edition of his works is that of Schiebler at Mohacz (1526), B., together with Hungary, passed to the (Loips, reprinted I86,i). Under the Commonwealth there were Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, and its later history, though in England societies of Behmninists. John Pardage, royalist clerdeeply interesting, and at times tragic, is,blended with the for- gyman and' medical man, and Jane Lead' of Norfolk, endeatunes of the House of Hapsburg (see AUSTRIA). Since the voured about 1697 to revive B.'s doctrines among the Philadelrevolution of 1849, B. has shown, a marked disposition to re- phists. William Law of Oxford translated B,'s works in 1764, assert its Czechic character, and to, insist upon. an amount of and expounded part of them in his Spirit of Prayer. B.'s chaautonomy little short of independence. The Austro-Prussian racte.ristic belief was in a revelation of truth firom within. This war of i866 has raised its. hopes of securing the triumph of its was, of course, harmonised with the Bible, but it declined the nationality in education, politics, literature, &c. See Pelzel, authority of creeds. Salvation was not possible through assent Geschich/ie der bhmzen (Prag. 1772; 4d ed. I8I7); Palacky, to propositions; man must recognise his three natures (terresGeschichte von B. (Prag. 1836-60); Jordan, Geschichte'des. Bdhm. trial, astral, and celestial), and hIis true relation to God-that of Volhs und Landes (Leips. 1845-47).'nothihgness to the'All. An a priori scheme of the Trinity For a notice of the important language and literature of B., is given; evil is explained by the l1gical' doctrine of contraries; see CZECHS. and nature, or the mysterium vognumt, the Urgrund, the eternal will of the Eternal Spir;it,,. is, represented as governed by the Bohe'mian Breth'rn, a strictly religious body, which. sur- i of the Eternal Spiit, is reresented as governed by the seven forms or fountains, of life —viz. -.the astringent, sweet, and vived after the politico-religious confederation of the Hussites seven forms or fountains, of lfe-viz.,.the astringent, sweet, and (q. v.) had been finall broken in 453 The members as- bitter qualities, and the qualities of fire, love, sound, and essen(q. v.)hbad been finally broken up in I453. The members assumed the name of'Brethren of the Law of Christ,' and were tial substance. These forms are traced through organic and inoristinguished as. or orvin B., acordg asthey lived i anice nature, and even in the human spirit. Thus the bitter Bohemia or Moravia. In 1467 they formally constituted them-'sseen in sulphur, the planet Mrs, war, dogs, red colours, and choleric temperamnents. It is obvious. that B.'s generalisations selves a sect by electing elders, whom they afterwards,'for ex- choleric temperaments. It is obvious tat B.'s generalistions peiency,' got ordained as bishops by Stephen, an exiled bishop are those of a strong uncultivated fancy, and quite devoid of of the Waldenses. In I48i they were persecuted and driven from rlgoseprecgl i org ntyn oepest of the Waldenses. In 1481 they were persecuted and driven from philosophical value. His worth consists in the sincerity of his Moravia, but most of them returned six years after. As regards eligious experience, and his courage in trying to express to doctrine, at this time they rejected the doctrines of purgatory, others what he felt to be the true paradise of the soul. His own couthers whthe regtt enteratre manradsWem ofith soul wis owiget worship of saints, and transubstantiation, though retaining that ccount of the reenerate man was, We Zeit ist wie Ewigkeit, acunt ofi kethe regt' eeFcner ateb B., ws, e ein s wiben Ewgki of the real presence in the Euchiarist. Afterwards their views nd Ewigeit wie Zeit.' See Fechne aoB., sein Lee d coincided generally with those of Calvin. In the beginning of the seine Schriflen (Girlitz, 1857). i6th c. the B. B. numbered about 200 congregations in Bohemia and Moravia, and their numbers were at that time augmented I i, HenGry Gm e c, wsbniLndoJna 4 by many of the Calixtines (q. v.);. but in 1627 they were again of German extrcton, was born in London, January 4, ldriven from both countries, and since then most of them have 1796. He was one of the earliest and most active promoters of been found in Poland. See Camerarius,, Hist. A7arr de Fratr. the movement in favour of cheap and genuine literature, in the Orthod. F n Boh. Mo. et Pl.; Comens,, De F atr. interests of which he published his standard historical, classical, Oino.E.i Boh. et lo.; Elstuer, Brl.evis Coetmcus, Dctr Fratl. FBoh. scientific, philological, ecclesiastical, reference and antiquarian libraries, amounting in all to about 700 volumes. He is also Bo'hemond I., eldest son of Robert Guiscard, the Norman well known as the translator of Schiller, Goethe, and HumDuke of Apulia and Calabria, was born about io65, and distin- boldt, as the editor of the Bibliotheca Parriana, Lowndes' Biblioguished himself by his victories over Alexius Comnenus, the gralpher's NMfanual, and Addison's works, and as the compiler of Greek emperor, at Janina and Arta, though these were neutra- a Polyglot of Foreizgn Proverbs, an Illustrated Handbooh of Geolised by the successful intrigues of his opponent. His father g-raphy, a Handbooh ofPotte;y atnd Porcelain, &c. B. is also a dying in 1o85, left the dukedom to his youngest son, Roger, from distinguished antiquary, and a member of many learned and whom B. wrested the principality of Tarentum, but only after scientific societies. _ _ _ _ _ _ - 429 BOI TfHE GL OBE ENC YCI OP.EIDIA. BOI Boiar'do, MBatteo Maria, Count of Scandiano, a famous ing to the general health, administering a saline purgative, as Italian poet, was born at Scandiano, in LombarCdy, 1430-34, Epsom salts, followed by quinine, iron, or other tonics. Great and studied at the University of Ferrara. He lived for some attention must be paid to diet, which should be non-stimulating time at the court of the great patron of letters, Duke Borso and not too rich. d'Este, and was subsequently made governor of Reggio (I478), Boileau Desprdaux, Nicolas, the greatest of the earlier then of Modena (1481), and once more of Reggio shortly before French critics of belles-lettres, was born at Paris, Ist Novemhis death, which took place December21, I494. His lesser works ber 1636. Educated at Beauvais for the Church, he chose litecomprise acSonts mi e Canzoni (~ReggCitoi ax499); 1 a Ti a drama rature, or rather poetical criticism, as a profession. Between in five acts f500)e; Cinque Capitoli in 7rza Rleima (.1523);, and I66o-68 B. produced his nine Satires, in which he assails the L'Asino d'tOro, a free translation of the Golden Ass of Appuleins pedantic worship of classical Spanish and Italian models in such (1523); but by far his greatest effort is the O-lando Innamorato, men as Scudery and Quinault, and even in Corneille, the heroes an unfinished poem based on the chivalrous fable of Charlemagne. of the Hatel Rambouillet. From aden-77 he produced L'Art While the earlier poets had contented themselves with represent- of the (imitated by Pope in the From 69 he produced in which ing the nephew of the great emperor purely as a Christian chai:n he enunciates positive rules of art, illustrating them by reference pion, B., who was familiar with the general character of medi- to distinguished contemporaries; the greater part of Lutrin (the oeval romance, and particularly with that of the Arthurian cycle, model of Pope's Re of trie Loc, but not equal to the brilliant sought to add a new grace- t, the tale by introducing the element of Pope's Rape of the Lock, but not equal to the brilliant sought to add a new gace to the tale by introduci ng the element performance of the Englishman), a mock-heroic directed against of the love of woman. The loves of Orlando and'the fairest of the Parisian canons; a translation of Longinus On the Sublime; her sex, Angelica,' are told with a freshness and splendour of Les HZros de Roman, another blow in imitation of Lucian against fancy that ought to, have ensured the work a. perpetual popula- the romantic school; and his firstnine ite on uch subects rity; but, as Hallant: justly remarks (Introd. to the Lit. of Europe raictres on such subjects rity; but, as Haliam- justly remarks (XInto. to the Lit, of Erope as self-knowledge, false shame, the usefulness of jealousy, pleapart i. ch. iii.),'it has not received that share of renown which. sures of the country, &c. B. was now appointed, along with seems to be Oits due; over-powered by the splendour of Ariosto's Racine, royal historiographer. His publications during the last poem (the Orlando zFurioso, which was suggested by it),. and years of his life (incluing three more are inferior; but almost set aside in its original form by the improved, edition h is life (including three more ires) are inferior; but his letters, extending from I672 to I7Io, are valuable as liteor remaking (rificciamnrezto) which Berni afterwards gave, it has rary history. Many are addressed to Racine, of whom, and of rarely been sought or quoted, even in Italy.' This is substan- Molisre and La Fontaine, he was an intimate friend. B. died tially true. Up to 1545, indeed,, it would seem to have been at Autenil, 13th March 1711. He was an upright man, of warm greatly relished, for between that year and the date of the editio and generous feeling He aided struggling tlent, and protected princeps (I495), it had passed through no fewer than sixteen edi- a nd generous feeling. He aid ed struggling talent, and protected tions. But after 1545 it was never again reprinted till I830, when. the u. popular Arnauld and the aged Corneille. As Madame de Panizzi published an excellent edition, with notes and introduc-Svign6 says,'he was cruel only in verse.' He had no proPanizzi published an excellent edition, with notes and introdue- found knowledge of French literature or of the general laws of ductjon, in 9 vols. See alsos WagnTer's text in the Parnsasso poetical expression, but he substituted common sense as a liteItaliano 6'ontiniato (Leips. 1833). The poem was translated rary standard for the ridiculous'conceits' which Moliere has into French as early as the I6th c., and of late years versions of rary standard for the ridiculous'conceits' B hich Molimre has it have appeared in most of the languages of Western Europe referred to in Les Precieuses.Ridicules. B. has had an immense,. and on the whole beneficial, influence on the national literature. Boieldieu, Franpois Adrien,'the French Mozart,' born Upwards of sixty editions appeared in the author's lifetime, and at Rouen, 15th December I775, received his first instructions in more than- 350 in all have appeared. The best is that of Berriat the cathedral of his native city, and was, with. Auber, a pupil of Saint-Prix (Par.. I830; i86o). See Desmaizeaux, Vie de IVic. B. Cherubini. After a busy and prolific.career,. he died, 8th O:cto:- Desjreaux (Amst. 17I2); also Laverdet, Correspondance de B. ber 1834. His opera of La Damze Blanche (the'White Lady (Par. I.858). B. had two elder brothers; the one, Gilles (born of Avenel' in Sir Walter Scott's Monastery) has been extremely r63I, died' I669), translated Diogenes Laertius; the other, popular in France, but none of his works have become well Jacques (born I635, died 17i6), wrote a Eistoria Elagellantiuzmt, known in this country. His principal operas are Le Calzje de and many other ecclesiastical and theological works. 8adand (1799), 7eazn lde Paris (I8I2)., Le Nouveau Seineur Boiler, a vessel in which steam is generated. A B. may (1813), and Le IShaleron Rouose (1817).'His son, Adien B. be either open or closed; in the former case, the temperature of (born 6), is also a composer, and produced the operearyin L the steam formed remains at or near 2I2~ F., and its pressure is Halte du Roi at Rouen on his father's centenary in 1875. the same as that of the atmosphere, or about I4'7 lbs. per square Boi'i, a Celtic people, who emigrated from Transalpine Gaul inch; in the latter case, the temperature and pressure may be into Italy, where they occupied the old seat of the Umbrians, made to exceed these limits to any required extent. Two between the Po and the Apennines. In B.C. 283, the B. were considerations mainly determine the form of a B.-viz., its defeated by the Romans at the Vadimonian lake, and thereafter strength to resist internal pressure and its efficiency in producprolonged through numerous campaigns, especially in support of ing steam. The best B. is that which has sufficient strength Hannibal, but sometimes single-handed, their resistance to the safely to withstand the pressure to which it is subjected, comRoman arms, till their complete defeat by Scipio Nasica, B.c., bined with such a form and arrangement as shall enable the water 9II. They were subsequently compelled to recross the Alps, to abstract a maximum of heat from the gases of combustion. i9. They were subsequently compelled to recross the Alps, The spherical form is the strongest, and seems to have been and dwelt for more than a century in a part of modern Bohemia The spherical form is the strongest, and seems to have been (which derives its name from them), but were ultimately exter- earlies used; it presents to the fire, however, a minimum of minated by the Dacians. surface in proportion to its contents, and therefore has a low efficiency as a steam-raiser. After spherical boilers cylindrical Boil, sometimes called Furunzculus (from ferveo, to burn), is ones came into use, at first set on end, and afterwards placed a name given to an inflammation of the skin. This inflamma- horizontally. Later on these were furnished (as now used) tion is limited, and the skin becomes enormously thickened. with internal cylindrical tubes for furnaces. Watt's'wagon' The swelling is conical, with a hard base, and contains pus at B. (so called from its shape) was used for many years, but being its apex. B. is exceedingly painful, is most common in the quite unfit for any but very low pressures, it has long been disyoung and middle-aged,. generally always in robust and florid carded. So long as the steam pressures employed were only a people, and most frequently in the spring-time. B. is seldom little above atmospheric pressure, it was common to make boilers single, and is most frequently on the parts where the skin is with flat sides, to which stiffness was given by internal stays; thickest, as back, shoulders, hips, back of neck, &c. B. is but now that it is quite common to use pressures of 50 lbs. per generally due to derangement of the general health. Treat- square inch and upwards above atmospheric pressure, a form of ment is both local and general. Local treatment consists in B. has to be employed which shall be strong enough without applying hot fomentations and poultices; in some cases of such stays, which it would be most inconvenient to provide in great pain a free incision does good by relieving tension. When such cases. It is for this reason that the cylindrical form is the suppuration has formed, a free incision permits the pus to escape, one now chosen almost invariably for the B. shell. and also the'core,' which must slough out before the flesh Boilers may be classed as (a) horizontal, vertical, (b) interaround can heal. Poultices and afterwards hot-water dressings nally and externally fired, or (c) plain, multitubular, and tubuare to be applied. Constitutional treatment consists in attend- lous. Large boilers are almost invariably horizontal, the vertical 430 a ---------— s~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' BOI THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPEDIA. BOI form being only used in the small boilers of steam cranes or meat consequently becoming in proportion less nutritious. Fish traction engines, or in connection with some furnaces, or in ought to be boiled in water containing a quantity of salt, as it is other places where length cannot be so easily provided as height. thereby rendered firmer, and retains a fuller flavour. The boilIn this country, where the fuel commonly used is tolerably ing of food starches such as arrowroot, corn-flour, &c., ruptures good coal, boilers are generally fitted with internal furnaces; the starch granules, and renders them digestible, and the same but upon the Continent, where the fuel is inferior, external thing occurs in boiling meal, flour, and vegetables generally, firing is often advisable and economical. All ordinary cylin- which all contain starch in large proportions. Boiled food is drical boilers come into the class of'plain' boilers. They are more digestible than the same either roasted or stewed, but it the simplest and cheapest that can be made, and when properly wants the empyreumatic odour and sapidity communicated by proportioned they possess a very considerable evaporative effi- these processes. It is the most economical of these three prociency. The common Cornish B. is the leading type of plain cesses, as shown by the following table of percentage of loss, extracted from Dr Letheby's Food:-...EA tLNE_ _.. Boiled. Baked. Roasted..e..,__Beef. 20 29 3I ~~~......ifURNACE Whl'Mutton.. 2r c 31 35 Leg of mutton 2.o.32 33 -Shoulder of mutton 24 32 34 See COOKERY. /~ HIN~~~ —-- To CHIMNEY //;/. /// ///z~~//~/////~//////w Boiling-Point of a liquid'is that temperature at which the Longitudinal Section. Crss ecti. liquid boils-i.e., the temperature at which it gives off vapour SSfreely. When this point is reached, the temperature of the Cornish Boiler set in Brickwork. liquid undergoes no further change, the energy of the heating boilers. Its shell is a cylinder (from 4 to 8 feet diameter), being all spent in converting the liquid into a gas. When a placed horizontally, and encloses a smaller cylinder called a liquid is becoming gaseous, it expands and does work. If the flue, which is always surrounded by water, and in which, at its pressure be increased, more work will require to be done to exfront end, the fire-grate is placed. The Lancashire B. is similar pand it to the same amount, and therefore, according to the to this, but has two flues. The Galloway B., which resembles conservation of Energy (q. -v.), more heat will require to be spent, a Cornish B. with cross water tubes placed in the flues, is,pro- and the B. P. will consequently be raised. Similarly, if the bably the most perfect type of plain horizontal B. Where it is pressure be diminished, the B.-P. will be proportionately lowered; necessary to economise space or fuel, or both, a multitubular B. and this is found to be the case in elevated regions where the is commonly used. In this the flame and gases of combustion atmospheric pressure is considerably diminished. The variation are made to pass through a number of tubes surrounded by water, of the B.-P. of water may thus be used for determining heights. commonly from 2 to 4 inches diameter, on their way to the See also PAPIN'S DIGESTER, GEYSERS, and SPHEROIDAL chimney, so that a multitubular B. offers a much larger surface STATE OF LIQUIDS. to the flame than a plain one of the same;bulk, and its steam- is lac, an island it the N. end of Lae Huron, U.S., generating power is correspondingly increased. Marine boilers' s Blanc, an lslaln, -at the N. end of Lake Huron, L.S., are invariably multitubular, and Locomotive Boilers (q. v.) also. Ame rica, IO miles long and broad, extremity. provided with a lightTubulous boilers not only contain tubes, but consist of them entirely. They possess some advantages on the score of safety Bois-de-Boulogne. See BOULOGNE. when very high pressures are used, but those hitherto designed have for the most part been defective in means for causing the BorstLe-) u (Dtltch, De oscwz orea toa ebosch,'the Duke's water to circulate, and have not, consequently, realised all the forest), a strongly fortified town and capital of the province of water to circulate, and have not, consequently, realised all te N. Brabant, Netherlands, at the confluence of the Doimel and advantages expected of them either in security or economy. Aa, with large manufactures of linen thread, woollens, ribbons, In a good marine B., i lb. of good coal evaporates io or ii cutlery, jewellery, and cigars. The cathedral, St Janslkirke, is a lbs. of water from and at 2I2~ F. In a less perfect B., and splerd'building. B. was founded in iI84 by Godfrey III., with inferior fuel, the evaporation is proportionately less, being pled sometimes only one-third as much. Duke of Brabant, the site being the heart of a forest, whence its sometimes only one-third as much. name. The states from which it had rebelled besieged it in I6OI, Boilers are always made of wrought-iron plates, of:a thickness name. Thestatesfrotwhicht hadrebelled besiegedit ini6I proportioned to the diameter of the B. and the pressure of and again in I603, but it was not till I629 that it surrendered. proportioned to the diameter of the B. and the pressure The armyof the French republic here defeated the English under steam. The plates have occasionally been welded together, but the Duke of York in 1794. Pop. (i875) 24, 90. are in almost every case fastened by rivets. The tubes are generally of iron, but sometimes of brass. Copper is occasionally Boisser&e', Sulpiz, a celebrated architect and archeologist, used for the fire-box plates of locomotives, but very rarely else- was born at Cologne, 2d August I783. Assisted by his younger where. The larger class of land boilers are commonly set in brother, Melchior, and a friend, Johann Baptist Bertram, he brickwork, forming a system of flues through which the products gathered together with great labour, and classified with consumof combustion pass on their way to the chimney. mate skill, 200 specimens of early German art which had got The destruction of boilers is principally due to two causes- widely scattered. These pictures were first arranged in historical (I) the burning of the plates in places where a solid deposit periods at Stuttgart, in a spacious building presented to the ('scale') has formed upon their inner surfaces, and (2) the cor-'brothers for that purpose by the King of Wiirtemberg, and the rosion of the plates by the chemical action of various impurities study of the collection has shed great light on the sources of in the water. See COMBUSTION and FUEL. mediaeval art in Ge-many. In I827 the'Boisserean Collection' Boiling, in cookery, is one of the most frequent and impor sold to the King of Bavaria for 120,000 thalers. In 183 the tant operations connected with the preparation of food. It is a pictures were hung up in the Pinakothek (picture-gallery) of Munich, where they still remain. S. B. died 2d May 1854, his process applicable to almost all varieties of food and every kind brother elhior 4they still remain. The elder brother publis of culinary preparation, and the necessary appliances are simple brother Melchior i4th Ma i85ne. The elder brother published and inexpensive. In the boiling of animal food, if it is desired AszenI); Rise Denznzeae deer Buknst voms 7 za 13n (Stuttg. to retain the nutritive juices within the substance, the meat to be 1822-3i); Die Denkmale der Baukust vom 7 bis 13 Yahrh. boiled should be suddenly plunged entire in boiling water, and (Stuttg. 1831-33); Uebei- den Tern&eZ des heizigen Graaz (Mun. briskly boiled a few minutes. This c autethe albu~minous1834); Die Kaiser-Daolna/i/ka in der- Pelerskivce zu Ront (Mun. hcoagulates t1842). His widow published his biography and selections from matter in the outer portion of the meat, and prevents the exuda- his correspondence in i862 under the title Slpiz B. tion of the fluid juices within. Thereafter the water should be maintained somewhat under the boiling-point till the meat is Boissonade', Jean Fran9ois, an eminent French scholar, sufficiently dressed, a period which varies according to the amount was born at Paris, I2th August 1774. In his youth he held office being operated on. By this means the meat is kept at oncejuicy, under the ministry of Dumouriez, and subsequently under Lucien tender, and nutritious. When meat is boiled for the preparation Bonaparte. In I8o09 he succeeded Larcher as Professor of Greek of broths or soups, it should be cut up into small pieces, placed Literature to the Faculty of Letters of the Academy of Paris; and in in cold water, and gradually brought to the boiling-point, by I828, on the death of Gail, he became Professor of Greek Literawhich means the juices are transfused through the liquid, the ture in the College of France. His lectures from these chairs gave 431 BOI T-HE GLOBE ENC YCLOPEDIA. BOL a great impulse to philological studies in France. He issued an the order, by elevating its members to the level of the higher immense number of works, especially of authors till then un- nobility, but denuding them of their ancient and peculiar rights. edited, or editions of classics enriched by commentaries, which The last of the Bojars died in 750. display sound and learned criticism. Among these publications Bokla'ra ('Eastland'), the most important khanate of Cenwere the L~fe of Proc/us by Marinus (Leips. 1814); the Leiters tral Asia, situated between the river Amu Daria and the sandy of Lucas Holstenius (Par. 1817); Lives oft/e Solu iso s by Euna- desert of Kizil-Kum, with an area of Ioo,ooo sq. miles, and a pDinus (Amst. 83228); the Diaeloue of Psellus on The Work of pop. of some 3,ooo000,000ooo. It is in great part a fertile plain, the Demons (Nmirnb. 1838); the Letters of Aristmnetus (Par. 1822); eastern portion of which especially is a region of flourishing the Letters of Philostratus (Par. I842); the Fables of Babrius towns and villages, with their orchards and mulberry groves, and (Par. 1844), of Syntepas (Par. 1828); Anecdoala Greeca (5 vols. of well-cultivated tracts of wheat, barley, maize, rice, cotton, Par. 1829-44), and Anecdot Nova (Par. 1844). In addition to gourds, and water-melons. The extent of cultivated land is his own separate works, B. made innumerable contribution ot known, but B. is second only to Khiva in the quantit, and philological and criticsal, to the works of others, to classicalnokowbtBisecdolyoKhvinheqaiyad philological and criti to the woks of othes to classical quality of its products, while it is unrivalled in Central Asia for journals, and to the daily press of Paris. He died in September the variety and excellence of its fruit. The chief rivers are the 1857. Amu (anc. Oxus), near the S. frontier, on its N.W. course to the Boiss'y d'Anglas, F'ran9ols Antoine Comte de, a Aral Sea; the Zarafshan (Pers.'t-he scatterer of gold'), rising celebrated French publicist, born in the department of Ardeche, in the Fan-Tagh mountains in the S. of Kokan, flowing through 8th December i 756, and came, while still young, to Paris, the heart of the country, and entering the Karakul (Turk.'blackwhere he soon acquired a high literary reputation. In 1789 lake') 50 miles.S.W. of the city of B,; the Sogd, an offshoot of he was chosen a deputy to the States-General, in 1791 became the former, which is absorbed by the western steppe; and the secretary to the National Assembly, and on the eve of 9th Balka, a vast tributary of the Amu, by which the E. portion of Thermidor united with Tallien and Barrere for the overthrow the khanate is watered. In metals B. is very rich, there being of Robespierre. Soon after, being charged with the task of copper, silver, lead, iron-ore, sulphur, salt,:and saltpetre. Goldprovisioning Paris, he was subjected to imminent peril, from washing is carried on in some!of the rivers. The industries are which his intrepidity saved him, and procured for him the chiefly agriculture, the breeding of sheep, goats, horses, and thanks of the Convention. He was afterwards loaded with camels, and the manufacture of silk. B. has a healthy climate, honours both by Napoleon and Louis XVIII., and died at Paris, but is liable to severe summer heats and to occasional sand20th October 1826. In addition to numerous brochures of ephe- storms. The inhabitants are partly Turkish Tartars, known as meral interest, he published an essay on Malesherbes, with Usbeks and Turkomans, and partly Aryan Tajiks, or Persians. notes, letters, and unedited pieces (Essai sur la Vie, les Acrits, They are Mohammedans,.partly Sunnites and partly Shiites, who et les Opinions de Malesherbes, &'c. (2 vols. Par. 1819 and 1821), reverence the Khan of B. next to the Turkish Sultan, who is the and Recueil de divers Acrits en Vers et en Prose (Par. I825). spiritual head of Islamism. See Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de B. d'A. in the Me/~doires B. is the ancient Sogdiana, or Maracanda, of which the capital de l'Acadmi ie des Inscrietions, t. ix. p. 146. was the modern Samarcand. In the 8th c. it was conqueredby Bois-tan, the name apped to he fruits of yrsonia s the Arabs, under whom it flourished till I220, when it fell undei a tree of the nam tural order Maliiaew which o'sarem sedint the power of Genghis Khan, whose descendants were dispossessed a tree of the natural order ]np~ali~hiacece, v/hieh~ are used in dysentery. In Brazilthe bark is also used for tanin. by Timur about 13 70. It was finally seized (I5o5) by the Usbeks, who are still the dominant race. After the Russians had annexed Bojador', Cape (Port. bojao, to bend outward), on the part of Khokan in 1865, they found themselves harassed incesW. coast of Africa, forming one of the projecting points of the santly by the petty attacks of Bokharan troops, and entering the Great Desert, rises to a considerable height, and is the southern khanate, they gained a decisive victory atJdjar (i866), and afterlimit of the low, flat, gently sloping coast, one of the most dan- wards took possessionof the cityofSamarcandini868. The Khan, gerous in the whole globe, which extends as far N. as Cape Musaffer-Eddin, paid a large indemnity, and ceded Samarcand Nun. Cape B. was doubled by Gilianez, a Portuguese navigator, and the fertile upper courses of the Zarafshan, but was allowed about the year 1432. to retain his throne, subject, however, to an annual contribution Boja'no, a town in the province of Campobasso, Central to the Russian exchequer. B. is being rapidly transformed Italy, 13 miles S.W. of Campobasso, and 92 miles S.E. of by Riussian influence, which is promoting its trade and introducRome. It stands on a rocky hill, has a cathedral, and contains ing the civilisation of Europe into its towns. It aided the several parts of an ancient wall. Pop. 3000. It is said to Russian forces in the recent Khivan expedition, and in return occupy the site of the ancient Samnite capital, Bovianizem for this service received (July 1873) a grant of territory on the ('Ox-town'); but T. Mommsen, who has investigated the right bank of the Oxus. See Vamnbery's B., its I-istoiy topography of the place, is of opinion that the famous Samnite and Conquest (Lond. 1873), and E. Schuyler's Turkestan city lay 20 miles N., where ruins are still visible. (Lond. i875), and Fedtchenko's 7ozerney in Turkes/an (St Petersb. I875). Bojar' (pronounced Boiar,'a warrior'), a class of Russian Petersb. 875) nobles, now extinct. The B. was originally a popular'hero' in Bohara, the capital of the khanate of the same name, and all the Slavic lands; but afterwards the name was definitely the most important trading centre in Turanian Central Asia, given to an independent landholder. In the old Russian 140 miles W. of Samarcand, on the Khyrabad, a small branch gradation of anks, he came next to the Kjse, or ine. of the Zarafshan. It is surrounded by mud walls, nearly 9 miles He was the follower of the Ai~?tse, but not his feudatory. H~e was the follower of the Kizpase, but not his feudatory. in circumference, and ivl its centre, on an elevation of between The B. had a train of his own dependabts, and could select 20o and 300 feet, stands the Khan's palace, together with the the prince whom it pleased him to aid, as well as shift his harem, public offices, barracks, and royal stables. The city has allgiance if he thought proper. Tlong been celebrated in Central Asia as a seat of learning, being Th oar D pecp called the'Treasury of Sciences,' and has i8o mosques, with tive right to the chief posts both in the army and the civil administration, and possessed a power which even the Czar high minarets, nearly 0oo academies of Mohammedan theology, respected. The p oseculiarly Slavonic custom of ziesthizesazo and numerous schools. But B. is still more important as a entered largely into their order. According to this curious mart or entrepft for the growing caravan commerce of Turkestan institution, which seems to be Asiatic in origin, property and with China, India, Persia, Siberia, and Europe. It bos also enteed argly ito hei orer. ccodin to hiscurouswith Chin.a, India, Persia, Siberia, and Europe. It has also ititles ere hereditary, but rank was wholly rpersoal. Military considerable manufactures, chiefly of silk stuffs, cotton, thread, dignity conferred by the Czar, or length of political service, con- firearms, shagreen, and jewellery. Pop. estimated -at from stituted the patents of rank. A B. who had been appointed 7o,000 to i8o,ooo. Councillor of the Empire would take precedence of a noble of Bokhara Clover. See MELILOT. the same class, though the latter might be of older family, or Bo'labo'la, or Bo'rabo'ra, one of the Society Islands, in have ten times greater wealth. While the B. class existed, it the S. Pacific Ocean, about 200 miles N.W. of Tahiti, in lat. prevented the Russian form of government from becoming an i6' 32' S., and long. 1510 52' W. It is surrounded by coral absolute despotism. The imperial ukase admitted its power, reefs, contains a lofty hill, and has a coast-line of about 24 miles. being thus framed:-' The Czar has willed, the Bojars have The rest of the group is under the French protectorate, but B. aprroved it.' Peter the Great finally succeeded in destroying forms an independent state. Pop. 1800, chiefly of Malay race. 432 <~3-2 BOL THE GLOBE ENCYCLCZOPMDIA. BOL Bo'lan Pass, a wild gorge in the Suliman mountains, lead- j536, praying for a blessing on Henry. Whether Anne was ing from Sinde, in the N. W. of India, through part of Belu- guilty or not is one of those historical mysteries which appear chistan, towards Candahar and Ghupzi. It is gbqut 55 miles destined never to be solved. She had undoubtedly a strongly long, has an ascent of nearly 50q feet, and is enclosed through- sensuous nature, which was transmitted to her daughter; and out by heights of at least 500 feet. The British troops in 1839, before Henry took proceedings against her, grave reports as to after crossing the terrible desert of Cutch Gundava, entered her character were current in the court. These, however, Afghanistan by the B13. P., through which they took six days tos may be accounted for by the free manners whici she had defile. They were unmolested by the mountaineers, but their acquired in France, and it is certain that she never confessed horses and camels died in great number from fatigue and want to infidelity, although it is believed that she admitted to Cranof pasture. The pass forms the channel of the small river B,, mer some engagement which rendered her marriage with Henry which joins the Indus, illegal. Anne seems to have been a friend to the Reformation, Bolbec, a town of France, department of Seine-Inf~rieure, Bolbc, atownof Fance deartmnt o Seie-Idriere, nod favoured the translation of the Bible. See Fro ude's Hisztory of England, and Miss Benger's _Memoirs of A/nne R/..( vols. on a small river of the same name, and on the Havre and Paris Railway, iS miles E.N.E. of Havre. It has increasing manufac- Lod. ). tures of woollens, linens, printed cottons, and chemicals. Pop. Bol'ingbrok1e, Henry St John, Viscount;, one of the (1872) 9048. most celebrated Tory statesmen, orators, and pamphleteers of the Boldo, or Boldu, a small tree, Boldoa. fragrans, growing I8th c., was born at Battersea, Ist October 1678, of an ancient in Chili, the leaves of which yield an essential oil, and an alka- and distinguished family. One of its members was the celebrated loid termed boldinee. They have been recently imported into lawyer on the side of the Parliament, Oliver St John, who deEurope, and proposed for medicinal use in liver complaints. The fended Hampden in the ship-money trial, and was made a chiefbark of B. is available for tanning. justice by Cromwell. B., who was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, seemed likely to waste his energy at the beginning Bole, an earthy unctuous clay, coloured red, yellow, or brown, of his career in dissipation, in regard to which he-avowed his intenaccording to the quantity of iron present, as ferric oxide with tion to rival his kinsman Rochester. When, however, he entered silica, alumina, and water make up its usual constituents. It is Parliament in 17oo, as member for Wootton Basset, he found a found in Saxony, Bohemia, Silesia, Styria, Italy, &c. The chief worthier vent for his powers in political ambition. He attached varieties are —Armenian B., of a fine bright red colour, used as himself to the moderate Tory party, of which Harley was then'keel' for red marking, in the preparation of a tooth-powder, the head, and his brilliant talents and great eloquence, added and in India as a tonic and astringent; B. of Blois, of a yellow to a singularly fine presence, and a manner in which dignity hue, and containing carbonate of lime, which effervesces with was mingled with sweetness, soon made him, next to Harley, the acids; Bohemian B., a yellowish-red variety; and Frenc/h B., a foremost man in his party, In 1704 B. was appointed Secrepale red, with streaks of yellow. The Lemnian earth, formerly tary at Wpr in the Godolphin administration, but retired in in medicinal repute as anf astringent, tonic, &c., is also a kind 1708 when Marlborough ad Godophin allied themselves with of B. the Whigs. On the fall of the latter he returned to power as Bole'ro, a Spanish national dance. Its music is in triple time, Foreign Secretary, the colleague, but in reality the rival, of Harley. and has a strongly marked rhythm. He negotiated the peace of Utrecht in I7I3-the year before which he had been elevated to the House of Lords as Viscount Bole'tus, a genus of Fuengi (q. v.), division IHynymenomyceles, B. The jealousy between him and Harley ended in a quarrel and subdivision Polypori, many species of which are edible. In the expulsion of the latter from the position of Premier and Lord general appearance most of them resemble the common mush- Treasurer, to which B.-who had been in correspondence with room (A64aricus), but instead of having gills on the under surface the Pretender, chiefly because he thought Queen Anne favoured of the umbrella-like cap (ileus), their place is occupied by him-succeeded in July 1714. The death of his sovereign, howa porous substance, which looks as if it was composed of a ever, blasted his prospects. On the accession of George I. he number of tubes placed side by side. B. edzdis, though not was deposed from office, fled to France in March I715, and highly valued in Britain, is commonly eaten on the Continent. some months later was attainted. In France, he held for a It is believed to be the'suilzus' of the ancient Romans, who short time the office of Secretary of State to the Pretender: He obtained it f-rom Bithynia. B. estivalis is still better, having managed, however, to make his peace with the reigning family, when ripe a nutty flavour. B. scaber, B. bovinus, B. castaneus, and to have his property, though not his seat in the House B. chrysenteron, B. lricus, and B. subtomentosus are less of Lords, restored to him. Returning to England, he lived at valued, and the three last named are even said to be sometimes Dawley, near Uxbridge, where he enjoyed the society of Pope, poisonous. B. Grevillei,; B. flavzts, B. grarnulaus, B. co/initus, Swift, and other old literary and political friends, and in the B. luteus, B. ele'ans, B. favidus, B. verssjellis, B. leucomelas, Craftsman and in pamphlets bitterly attacked Sir Robert Waland B. ovznus are also edible. See Cooke, Fungi, their Natoure pole and his policy. B. never was able, however, to reappear and Uses (I5875). on the scene of active political life. He died Iath December Boleyn, Boulen, or Bolen, Anne, ope of Qhe wives of'75!. B. was twice married. His first wife was the daughter of Henry VIII., was born about I507. Her father was Sir Thomas Sir enry Winchcobe. With her he did not live happily, and, on her death in I7!8, be married the wealthy widow o-f the B., afterwards Lord Rochford and Earl of Wiltshire, and her and, on her death n 8, he married the wealthy widow of the mother a daughter of the Duke of Norfolk. When about seven Marquis de Vilette. B.'s conplete works were published by years of age, she went to France with the Pripcess Mary, sister of Mallet (r753-54, new ed. 8 vols. 5808-9). The best-known Henry VIII. Returning to England, she became one of the these are his issetion aties S o Hsto in whic he attked histianssyaand An Patriot Zing His/otj5 is sinmaids of honour to Catherine of Aragon, and her great per- aac Christianity, and Ptiot. is stye is spsonal beauty excited a strong passion in the king which gularly brilliant, witty, and emphatically ratiopal. Bpt for his however sheat rexcited atron grassion inls the weregmadehich howvever, she refused to gratify unless she were made his religious opinions, and the general belief that he was unscrupulous wife. This refusal may be said to have hastened the Refor- d insincer, B.'s reputatiop would stand much higer than it ndosItm hoeeb isaflfincrmedtht.'s reputation wudsadmc'hge hni mation in England. Henry, enraged at the refusal of Rome to does. It ay, however, be safely affired that,'s eptation stands higher to-day than it did at any period since hi~s death. declare his arriage with Catherine null, contracted a private tands higher to-day than it did at any period sice his death. marage with Anne aut the end of 53 or the beginning of Few accurate readers of history would endorse the verdict of Lord Shelburn, first Marquis of Lansdowne, as given in his outobio53,in which year he also declared himself, and not the Pope, I 3the supreme head of the Church. In September 5533 Anne gave graphy recently published, that he was'all surface' and'both a birth to a daughter, afterwards Queen Elizabeth. For a short political and person coward.' See's orsondne (Lod. poitca and pesonigt' ciowrard. See B.'Coesodee (Lond. i6) time she retained her hold upon Henry's affections, but in 798) and Macknight's y fB. (Lond. 865. 5535 he becamle alienated fiom her, and transferred his love Bol'ivar, Y Ponte, Simon (named Elibelrtador,'the to Jane Seymour. Anne was then arraigned on the charge Liberator'), was born at Caracas, 24thJuIy 5783. Having comof adultery with several of the courtiers, including a musician pleted his education at Madrid, he applied himself diligently to of the name of Spneton, and her own brother, Lord Rochford, the study of politics, and enlarged his experience by travel in also with conspiring against the life of the king; and being Europe and the United States. Returning to his native country condemned by a council of peers, was beheaded May 59, in i8io, he associated himself with the'patriots' who sought to 55 433 BOL TIHE GL OBE ENVC YCLOPEDTIA. BOL establish the independence of the Spanish provinces in America. lives of the saints of the Catholic Church. They received this In I8II he joined the standard of Miranda; and on August 4, name from Johann yon Bolland (born in Limburg I3th August 1813, at the head of an army of volunteers, he entered Caracas 1596, died I2th September 1665), who was the editor of the as a conqueror, having liberated the greater part of Venezuela first five volumes. Among the numerous distinguished men from the domination of Spain. Being invested with supreme who have edited or contributed to this colossal work, the most powers under the title of dictator, he prosecuted the war for notable are Gottfried Henschen (born I6oo, died 1681), Dan. some time with success; but having been defeated at La Pnerta PApebroeh of Antwerp (died I714), Konrad Janning (died (June 14, I814), and afterwards (17th August) at San Mateo, he 1723), Peter Bosch (died 1736), Suyskens (died 1771), Hubens retired to Jamaica, where he narrowly escaped assassination at (died 1782), Dom Anselmo Berthod (died 1788), and Jos. Ghesthe hands of an agent of the royalist party. In December i816, quiere (died 1802). On the abolition of the Jesuit order in he made himself master of the island of Margarita; the next two 1773, the B. found an asylum in the Augustinian Abbey of years were marked by brilliant successes; and in I8i9 Venezuela Candenberg in Brussels, where they continued their vast and and New Granada were united as a republic, under the title of laborious work until the persecutions of the'enlightened philoColombia, with B. as president. In 1822 B. aided in the libera- sopher,' Joseph II., brought about the dissolution of the learned tion of Peru, and was made dictator, an office which he resigned, society. In 1789 the Proemonastratensian Abbey of Tongerloo Ist January 1825, the country having been entirely freed from the in Brabanst urdertook to complete the publication, but had only enenly by the victory of Ayacucho of 9th December preceding. reached the fifty-third volume (6th October in the Calendar of As a mark of gratitude, the Peruvians named the southern half Saints), when the French occupation of the Low Countries (x794) of the new republic Bolivia (q. v.) in honour of the Liberator, put a sudden end to their industry. In I837 a new association and presented him with!,ooo,ooo dollars, with which he purr of B. was formed in the old order, and several volumes have chased the freedom of Iooo negro slaves. After having beenr been issued since I845, but the work is still unfinished. Those conlirmed twice in his presidency of Colombia, in 1826 and in who desire to consult this great treasure-house of mediseval I828, he resigned it in January i830, and died ioth December legend or history should get Palm.' s volume of tables to the of the same year, at San Pedro, near Santa Marta, having failed Acta Sancloruml (Par. 1875). in his object of uniting the whole of the S. American provinces into a gigantic republic. See Larrazabal's Life of B. (i867). Bolo'gna (Lat. Bononia), one of the oldest and richest cities of Italy, capital of a province of the same name, lies at the Boliv'ia, a republic on the W. side of S. America, between foot of the Apennines, between the rivers Reno and Savena, lat. io' and 23' S. and long- 57' 3o' and 70' 10' W- It is fo fteAenns ewe h iesR~ n aea lat. Io and 23. and long. 57 3' and 70' W It is 9o miles N.N.W. of Rome, It was long one of the most bounded W. by Peru and the Pacific, N. and E. by Brazil, and powerful cities in the Papal States, and is still the see of an S. by the Plate provinces and Chili. Area, 536,I8o sq. miles; archbishop and the seatof a prefect, of a general in command, archbishop and the seat of a prefect, of a general in command, pop. (1874) estimated at 2,ooo000,000ooo, of whom about one-seventh and of a court of appeal Adorned with numerous palaces are Indians. B. is divided into nine departments, Chuquisaca ado or fApa. dre ihnmru aae are Indians. B. is divided into nine departments, Chuquisaca and rich in art treasures, it is inhabited mainly by an aristocratic or Sucre, Potosi, Oruro, Tarija, Cobija, La Paz, Santa Cruz, or Sucre, Potosi,a Oruro, Tarja, Cobija, La Paz, Santa Cruz, class, and is little disturbed by the bustle of trade. The houses Trinidad, and Cochabamba, N~early the whole country lies are mostly three-storied, while the streets are broad, and within the tropics, but not more than the half has a tropical th pathwy s usully covered by arcades, which afford both the pathway is usually covered by arcades, which afford bothi climate, on account of its great elevation. The mountains beshelter and shade. The two finest squares are the Piazza Muglong to the range of the Andes (q. v.). Between two meridional shelter and shae. The two finest squares are the Piazza Magparallel ridges of these lies the vast tableland known as the giore del Gigante, or'the Forum of the Middle Ages, 395 feet long and 320 broad, surrounded by many splendid public buildvalley of the Desaguadero, which includes Lake Titicaca. The long and 320 broad srrounde by many splendid public buildriver system of B. is uniue. n he. of the Andes there ings, and adorned with beautiful fountains ( 563); and the extenriver system of B. is unique. On the W. of the Andes there is sive Mercato, used as a military parade-ground. Among the most scarcely a river, while on the eastern side are found the sources notale bildings of B. are the Palazzo del Podest () renotable buildings of B. are the Palazzo del Podestai. (I2ox), reof the Plata and tihe Amazon, Two circumstances explain this: of the Pata and the Amazon, Two circumstances explain this: markable as the depository of the city archives, and as the prison on the western side the air is dry, while on the east, the Atlantic (249-72) f Ezius, son of the Eperor Fiedrich I.; the (I249-72) of Enzius, son of the Emperor Friedrich II.; the trade winds, that cross the S. American continent, are laden with Palazzo Publico, which has any slendid halls, as the Sala Palazzo Publico, which has many splendWid halls, as the Sala vapour, and there is ample space for river development. The Faese, and is adorned with beautiful frescoes and statuar Farnese, and is adorned with beau tifurl frfescoes and statuary; waters of the central plateau fall into Lake Titicaca, the over- the cathedral (il Duomo), completed in its present form in 1748 flow of which is carried off by the Desaguadero, which, after flow of which is carried off by the Desagiadero, which, after the large church of San Petronio, on the floor of which is traced a course of ISo miles, loses itself in Lake Ullagas, The prin- a meridian by Cassini (1653); the beautiful church of San Doa meridian by Cassini (I653); the beautiful church of San Docipal grain crops are maize, wheat, barley, and rye. The menico, rich in monuments, and containing the tomb of St mineral wealth is great. Gold, copper, lead, and tin abound; Dominic. There are some 130 other churches. B. has two ~Donfinie. There are some x3o other churches, B. has two and the silver-mines of Potosi were once the most productive in extraordinary leaning towers, that of Asinelli (built by Gerard the world. Commerce is crippled for want of facilities of transAsinelli, IO09), 256 feet high, with a lean of 3 feet 2 inches; and port. Puerto-de-la-Mar, formerly Cobija, is now a free port, the Garisenda tower ilo), referre to by Dante (feno, st the G arisenda tower (iiio), referred to by Dante (/nfrno, ist but the greater portion of the trade is done through the Peruvian ports f Tcanto), which has a lean of 8 feet in an elevation of I3o. About ports of Tacua and Arica. A line of railway was nearly comI ports of Tac and Arica.Ali failway s nearly cm 3 miles from B. is the nunnery Madonna di San-Luca, towards pleted (1874) between Autofagasta and Salar del Carmen, but which there r~uns a splendid colonnade of 654 arches. The the Rio Amazofias line into the interior has meanwhile (I876) University of B., which claims to ve been irst founded by Uniersty f 7.,whih laims to have been first founded by been abandoned. The principal exports are guano, Jesuits' bark, Theodoss the younger in 425, was founded anew by the ITheodosius the younger in 425, was founded anew by the copper, tin, and the precious metals; imports, iron, hardware, and famous Irnerius or Wenes (died 1140), and subseuently famous Irnerius or Wernerus (died I I4o), and subsequently silks. There are no reliable commercial returns, but the total im- gained a European reputation. Notable among its many celegained a European reputation. Notable among its many celeports are valued at /iLooo, ooo, and the exprsasoehnls. ports are valued at,oooooo, and the exports at something less. brated professors have been several learned ladies, of whom B. declared its independence of Spain 6th August 1825, and B. eclaed its independece of Spain 6t August 825, and three prelected respectively in the chairs of law, mathematics, was named after its liberator; but its subsequent history has not and anatomy. Ill 1262 it had some!%~ooo students, but though been more fortunate than that of other Spanish republics. The n o t h Ita a so oo ues s fo one of the best of Italian schools, it only now numbers some 6oo. present (!876) president is Dr Thomas Frias, who was elected The university library, of hch Mezzofnt was for some time The university library, of which Mezzofanti was for some time 14th February i874, ~4th February I~874., Bkeeper, has some 200,000 volumes and 1000 MSS. Prince MarBolkhov', an ancient town of Russia, government of Orel, sigli here founded the Institute delle Scienze (1690), also an astrosituated on the Nugra, 35 miles N. of the city of Orel. There nomical observatory, botanical garden, &c. Pope Clement XIII. are manufactures of gloyes, hats, leather, &c., and trading in tal- instituted the Accademzia de/le Belle Arte, also called Accademzia low, hemp, hides, &c. Pop. I8,491. Clenentina, which contains the masterpieces of the famous Bo olognese school, formed in the 15th c. by the Caracci, Guido Boll, or Bole, a dry measure still occasionally used in Scoty f eni tts yl cReni, Domenichino Albaim, and others. B. is the birthplace land for measuring potatoes, c erea!%, &c,, and has the value of landfor measuring potoserals& nd.of the Popes Honorius II., Lucius II., Gregory XIII., Innosix lbushels........ I cent IX., Gregory XV., and Benedict XIV. The manufactures Boll'andists, the name given to those learned Jesuits who are chiefly silks, velvets, jewellery, glass, artificial fruits and during the years 1643-1794 published at Antwerp, Brussels, and flowers, scented soap, liqueurs, maccaroni, and the far-famed Tongerloo, the famous Aa Sntorum (q. v.), a collection of the cervelas and zortadello sausages. Pop. (1872) 1i5,957. 434 BOL THE GLOBE ENVC YCIOP:EDI~A. BOM B. is said to have been founded by the Etruscans under the Bo3lus, a round semi-solid mass of some medicine intended name Felsina. It passed into the hands of the Boian Gauls, and to be swallowed at once. It differs from a pill in being much became a Roman colony B.C. I89, when it was first called larger and generally also less solid. Bozonia. It was taken by the Lombards A.D. 728, but was made a free city by Charlemagne. B. received additional privileges from Heinrich V. in II112, and soon rose to be the most amuni, on the caravan route between Constantinople and flourishing republic of Italy. But after suffering from the party Erzerotmo Standing on the left bank of a river of the same strife of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, it was united to the Papal name, it occupies an eminence, supposed to be the site of the See in 15I3. Taken by the French in 1796, it was restored Roman Hadrianopolis. B. has several mosques; and near the to the pope in I815, again taken by the Austrians in i849, and town there are mineral springs and much-frequented baths. finally constituted itself a part of the Italian kingdom in I860. Pop, 5000. See Savioli, Annali della Cittla di B. (3 vols. Bassano, I788-95); Bo'marsund. See ALAND ISLANDS. Gatti, Guida delle pii raire Cose di B. (Bolog. 1813); and Bideker, North Ztaly (I875). Bomb, a hollow spherical projectile fired from a Mortar (q. v.), and fitted with a fuze to explode the charge of gunBologna Phial, a small flask of unannealed glass, which powder which bursts within the shell. Bombs are chiefly emstands a severe shock or blow on the outside without breaking, ployed in vertical fire (that is, they are fired from the mortar at and flies into pieces immediately an angular bit of glass or flint is an angle of 45~, and fall vertically), to destroy earthworks, &c., dropped into the interior. At glassworks the quality and colour or in bombarding towns; in horizontal fire they are most destrucof the pot metal is tested by blowing these phials, and their tive against troops or shipping. The maximum diameter of strange behaviour is accounted for by more rapid cooling on the spherical shell of this kind in use in the British army is 13 inches, outside than inside, and consequent unequal contraction, and such are calculated to penetrate earth to 6 feet, and brickBolognese Stone, a variety of sulphate of barytes obtained work concete to feet, before exploding from a bed of clay near Bologna, which is phosphorescent while:Bom'ba (It. bozmba, a bombshell), the name applied to Ferheated with charcoal and exposed to sunlight. Sticks of' Bo- dinand II., king of the Two Sicilies, to mark the scorn with lognese phosphorus' are made from it, by mixing the powdered which he was universally regarded for his merciless bombardmineral with gum, ments of Messina during the war of I848. Bolor-Tagh, a lofty tableland of Central Asia, also called Bomba'cee. See STERCULIACEA. the Pamir Steppe, stretches from the range of the Hindu Kush northwards to the Thian-Shan, and separates Turkestan into an Bowh bard, an obsolete kind of cannon, very short and tlhick, eastern and western portion. It was long erroneously regardedwith a wide bore, from which were projected large stones. Some eas a mountain chain pof th e first magnitude.rroneouslyregard bombards in the 15th c. hurled through the air stones of from as a mountain chain of the first magnitude. 200 to 500 lbs. weight. 2o0 to 500 lbs. weight. Bolse'na (ane, Vulsinium), a walled town in the province of Bombardier', an artillerman whose duties are to load Latium, Central Italy, on the N. shore of the lake of the same shells Bobardier', an atilke and fix the duties are to is parnames 20 Uniles N.N.W. of Viterbo. It was in ancient times shells and grenades, to make and fix the fuzes, and who is parname, 20 miles N. N. W. of Viterbo. It was in ancient times one of the twelve famous Etruscan towns, and was taken and ticularly appointed, on the field or at sieges, to the service of destroyed (280 B.c.) by the Romans, who here built a city of tars and howitzers. A cetai number of these non-commiswhich there are still numerous remains, B, is celebrated for sionedoffcers are attached to every company ofartillery. its wine. Pop. 2Ioo. The malarious Lago di B. (anc. Lacrus ombardier Beetle, the popular name applied to beetles Vulsiniensis) is 9 miles long and 8 broad, and contains the belonging to the genera Byachiznus and Aptinuzs, from their habit islands Martana and Bisentina, where Pope Leo X. resided of ejecting a fluid, of a pungent irritating odour, from their abduring the autumn months, and where the Farnese family built domens when irritated. These beetles belong to the Pentamizera castle and a church, of which the tower still exists. ous section of the Coleoptera, and are included in the family Bolsward' (Laet. Bolverde),. a town of the Netherlands, in Carabidae. The liquid thus discharged changes vegetable blue the province of Friesland, and 15 miles S.W. of Leuwarden. to red, and ultimately produces a yellow stain. When brought It is surrounded by an earthen wall and a canal, and has a in contact with mucous membrane of the tongue it produces splendid Gothic church, a grammar school, and several bene- smarting sensation. Several very small species of these beetles volent institutions. The principal industries are shipbuilding, occur in Britain; the larger species are tropical in their distributanning, worsted-spinning, and wool-carding, brickmaking, and tion. The Aptini want membranous wings, whilst the Bracizini the manufacture of coarse pottery. There is a trade in butter, possess both e/ytr and membranous wings. B. Scepitans and B, cheese, and cattle, Pop. (I870) 4630. disp/osar are familiar species. Bolt, a piece of metal (generally iron), with a screw cut on it, Bornbard'ment, throwing shells, red-hot shot, rockets, carused in connection with a'nut, which has a corresponding casses, and other destructive missiles into a tower or fort, to internal screw, to fasten together the parts of structures or.destroy property, and terrify or kill the people, with the view of machines.- ccompelling the military defendersto yield up the place. It is a cruel operation, and is resorted to in modern times mainly as an Bol'ton, or Bolton-le-Xoors, a flourishing town of S. adjunct to a regular siege, or to punish the inhabitants of some Lancashire, and one of the chief seats of the cotton manufac- seaport town, when the B. is inflicted by ships of war, Odessa ture, on the Croal, I I miles N, W, of Manchester by rail. It was bombarded by the allied fleets of Great Britain and France contains about 80 mills, with some 21 millions of spindles, and in I854. The most celebrated bombardments on record are those produces chiefly plain and fancy muslins, fine calicoes, dimities, of Gibraltar, Copenhagen, Algiers, Sebastopol, and Paris. It quiltings, and counterpanes. Many of the modern improve- was estimated that for a time, in January T871, 20,00oo0 shells ments in manufacture originated here. Arkwright resided at B., were hurled daily at the forts and city of Paris. The distance and Samuel Crompton was born in the parish. There are also from which these shells, weighing on an average 80 kilogrammes, in B. more than 40 foundries and ironworks, and extensive dye- or over Ii cwt., were sent, and the precision with which they works and bleachfields. In the time of Henry VIII. B. was were aimed, surpassed anything of the kind the world had ever noted for its woollen industry, introduced by Flemish clothiers seen. in the I4th c, The town was garrisoned during the civil war, Bombardon, a bass brass instrument of the Bugle class and in I644 was stormed by the Earl of Derby, who was be- (q. v.), used in military bands. headed here after the battle of Worcester. Near it are many coal-mines. It returns two members to Parliament. Pop. Bombax. See SILK COTTON TREE.. (X870I 92,655, (1871) 92,655. 1 Bom'bay, Province of, formerly the most important division Bolt-Rope, the rope sewn along the borders of sails to of British India, occupying the N. W. coast region, extends strengthen the canvas. It is a leech-raope up the sides of a sail; from Mysore in the S. to Beloochistain and the Punjab in the along the top, a head-roope; and a fo —a-or5e at the bottom. N., and is bounded, W. by the Indian Ocean, and E. by Raj435. BD~OM T~HE GLOBE ENCYCLOPLEDI A.DO putana, the Central Province, Berar, and the territories of the tion similar to that of London University, was opened by Lord Nizam and Indore. Area, I88, 195 sq. miles, of which 63,253 Elphinstone in 1857. In I872, there were go909 candidates, of are in native states; pop. (I872) 25,624,696, including the whom 378 passed. In B. there are four languages widely spoken, native pop. of 9,272,073. It presents great diversity of phy- Marathi3 Gujarathi, Canarese, and Sindi; and of 52 native newssical aspect-high tablelands, fertile valleys, rugged moan- papers, 28 belong to the first, and 23 to the second of these, tains, and sterile plains —and is isaturally divided into four while there is one in Hindustani. Considerable intellectual parts: (I) the N. and S. Concans, which lie between the Western activity is shown by the appearance (1872) of 124 poetical works, Ghats and the sea, and are fertilised by the vapours of the S.W. and of 61 religious and 16 legal publications. See official Slalemonsoons; (2) the dry tract beyond the Western Ghats, corn- mernt of the Moral antd Malerial Progtess and Condition of India, prising the divisions Kaira, Khandesh, Nasik, Ahmednuggar, by Clements R. Markham (Lond. I874); Annals of Indian ldBelgaum, and Kaladgih; (3) to the N. of these, the rich alluvial ministration for I1872-73, edited by Dr George Smith (Seram. region about the mouths of the Tapti and Nerbudda; and (4) still I874). further N., the detached territory of Sindh (q. v.). For adminis- Bombay (named after an Indian goddess, Bo and trans trative putirposes, B. is separated into a Northern and a Southern a by he o tu e in n B, godbay fr lated by the Portuguese into ]3om Z~ahzk, good bay), formerly Division, with nineteen executive districts, while Sindh forms a an island of India off the coast of the Concan, but now consubordinate province by itself. The only foreign possessions nected by causeway with the mainland, and included in the within the limits of B. are the Portuguese Goa, Damaun, and Diu. province of the same name, in about lat. ISn 5'N and long. province of the same name, in about lat. i8~ 57' N. and long. The principal rivers are the Nerbudda, Tapti, Mahi, and Sabar- 72' 52' E. It is traversed by a deep valley, and has a good mati, entering the Gulf of Caibay; the Indus in Sindh; and climate, but its productions are insignificant. Area, i8.62 sq. the Godavafi and Krishna, which flow into the Bay of Bengal. miles; pop. (1872) 644,405, including the old fort or city portion There are few lakes, the chief being the Munchur, and the of B., which occupies the S. of the island. As early as I530 the amphibious Runn of Kutch. B. and Poona cities are supplied Portuguese possessed the whole of B., which they ceded to the with water by the vast artificial basins of Vehar and Karak- English (i66i) on the marriage of Charles II. with the Infanta wasla. The climate varies greatly over so wide an area, but is Catherine. Between the i sland and th e mainland there is a generally more healthy than in the other Provinces Along the Catherine. Betwheen the island and the mainland there is generally more healthy than in the other provinces; Along the splendid bay, accessible to shipping even during the S.W. moncoast the rainfall ranges from 70 to 300 inches, and in some parts soons There are several islets in close proximity to that f B., of te Cncas a empratre o II7'. isexprieced.A geatsoons, There are several islets in close proximity to that of B., of the Concans a temperature of 7 F. is experienced. A great of which the chief are Salsette, containing the reservoir of Vehar, part of B. is covered with forest, and among the existing wild constructed in i856-6o, Caranja, Elephantal famous for its rockanimals are tigers, lions, elephants, leopards, hyenas, wild boars, cut temples, and Old Woman's Isle. and a vast variety of serpents. In 1873, some 2334 deaths were Caused by the bites of snakes and other wild animals. Agiicul- Bombay, the capital of the province of the same name, is ture is making rapid progress, the number of agriculturists re- practically co-extensive with what was the island of B., and, next to turned in i87i being 3,835, i63, and the chief products are cotton, Calcutta, has the greatest trade of any port in India. It is divided rice, tobacco, opium, wheat, barley, and various other grains. into a European and a native town, which lie apart about threeThe system of land revenue administration brings each ryot quarters of a mile, and the space between them is occupied by into direct relation with Government, and is fruitful in precise the railway termini, several factories, and the barracks and statistics. Cotton, which was introduced from America, is also esplanade. The principal public buildings are the Town-hall, indigenous, and in 1872-73 was cultivated over an area of the Secretariat, the Custom-house, the Mint, the Public Works 1,502,523 acres, while 46,735 acres were under tobacco, of Office, the Post-office, the ULniversity, the Elphinstone College, which the export exceeds 3,000,000 lbs., and 1,377,464 were the Grant Medical College, the School of Arts, the cathedral, the under rice. In all 21,852,974 acres were under crops. There mission colleges, the two Jamsetjee hospitals, and the governor's are extensive manufactures of cotton cloths and yarns, and official residences at Parell and Malabar Point. About a century a considerable amount of dyeing and cotton printing. Other ago B. was one of the unhealthiest, but is now one of the healmanufactures are silks, cloth of gold and silver, woollens, thiest, of Indian cities. it has an efficient sanitary system, and leather, paper, pottery, native cutlery, gold, silver, and ivory the death-rate for the five years ending 1872 was 25'45 per ornaments, and lacquered furniture. The salt manufacture, yield- thousand. There is here a Chamber of Commerce and a Geoing (1872-73) a duty of /628,722, is partly in the hands of the graphical Society, founded in 1830, and united in 1873 to the B, Government, to which belong the Gujerat Salt Works, opened branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, which publishes a 7ournal in 1873. The famous opium of Malwa, in passing through B., of 7ransactions, and to which belongs a valuable library, The yielded (r872-73) a duty of`/2,6i2,520. The industries of B. Victoria and Albert Museum, of which Sir Bartle Frere laid the generally received a vast impulse from the opening of the three foundation in I862, together with an extensive botanical garden, great lines of railway to Madras, Baroda, and Calcutta. Many was opened in 1871. There are also numerous commercial and extensive public works have been recently completed, the most insurance offices, and many banks, of which the chief are the new important being the Krishna Canal, while great improvements Bank of Bombay, and the Bank of Bengal's branch. In 1872-73 are being effected in the means of irrigation, the Elphinstone College was attended by 184 students, of whom In 166i, the island of B., the nucleus of the present terri- 45 were Brahmins. To the S.E. of the European town is the tory, became a British possession, and in 1668 it-was granted to harbour, placed under the B. Port Trust by Act 1873, with the East India Company, being made, in place of Surat, their chief docks extending over some 200 acres. The large new Sassoon presidency. For nearly a century its dominion remained unex- dock (so called after the eminent Jew) was opened in 1875. tended, but within comparatively late years it has been rapidly The principal industries of B. are shipbuilding, extensively increased, chiefly by the annexation of Mahratta country. Its carried on by the Parsees, and the manufacture and printing of administration is under the control of the Governor-general of cotton. In the city and throughout the island there are 13 India in council, and consists of a governor and three council- steam cotton-mills, employing 848 looms and 6o,ooo spindles, lors. The annual revenue is some /xo,ooo,ooo; expenditure, and producing 1oo,ooo lbs. of yarn daily. Besides unrivalled 9,000,000oo, the surplus going to the Indian imperial charges. harbour accommodation, B. has a splendid commercial posiIn 1871-72 the army was 39,270 strong, with 1332 European tion, especially since the opening of the Suez Canal, and does officers, embracing 26,764 native troops. B. has now only a small nearly one-third of the trade of India. In 1873 the exports, local marine. The pop. of B. comprises 12,440,650 Hindus, including treasure, were /21,573,829; the imports, /13,676,002. 2,847,756 Mohammedans, I92,245 Buddhists, io6,133 Chris- Among the articles of export are cotton, opium, shawls, coffee, tians, 67, 115 Parsees, and 603,836 aborigines. The Church of ivory, gums, pepper, and tobacco. The Indian mails are sent England is here represented by a bishop, an archdeacon, and to B., from whence letters are despatched by railway to Madras, a small body of chaplains, while there are also numerous deno- the N. W Province, Punjab, and Calcutta. Pop. (1872) 644,405, minational missions. Education is now receiving great atten- of whom 40o8,68o are Hindus, divided into 56 castes; 21'3 per tion, there being (1872-73) as many as 3595 vernacular schools, cent. are Mohammedans; 43,945 are Parsees; 23,534 Indoattended by r82,i47 pupils; 176 middle-class schools, with Portuguese; and 4796 British born. There are an immense 16,612 pupils; 4I high-class schools, where 7167 pupils variety of languages spoken in B., of which the chief are those were being trained for the six colleges affiliated with the uni- of the province, or Marathi and Gujarathi; all those of the versity. The University of B., based on a system of examina- Punjab, the N.W. Province, and Rajpootana; most of the 4,36 BOM THE GLOBE ENCYC'LOP-EDIA. BON Aryan family connected with Bengal and Orissa; all the Bo'na De'a ('the good goddess'), a Roman divinity, deleading Dravidian languages of Madras; Arabic, Turkish, Per- scribed as the sister, wife, or daughter of Faunus. Her worship sian, Hebrew, Burmese, Malay, Chinese; several European was confined to women. Her festival was celebrated yearly on the languages, as English and Portuguese; and most of the lan- Ist of May, and at night, in the house of the consul or proetor, and guages of the E. coast of Africa, as Sowahili, Somali, Galla, &c. was conducted by the Vestals, and while it lasted no male was The Parsees, descendants of the Persian fire-worshippers, used allowed to be in the house. The wine used in the solemnities was to be the richest and most influential of the native citizens, called milk, and the vessel holding it mellarium. The goddess till the collapse of the speculation caused by the American civil was supposed to possess healing powers, in token of which the war in I866, The Hindus, including Jains, have since gained serpent was her symbol. on the Parsees. The principal Hindu is Sir Munguldass Boa Fide. In law, a possessor in bon fide is one who Nathoobhoy, K, C. S. I., and the leading Parsee is Sir Jamsetjee believes that he has a good legal title to that which he possesses. Jejeebhoy, Bart. From 1829 till his death in December i875, B F ends when the possessor becomes aware, by private knowthe Rev. Dr John Wilson, F. R. S., was, as missionary, scholar, e Rev. Dr John Wilson, F. pR.oS., was, as missionary, schoruist ledge or otherwise, that his title is insufficient. When the quesand citizen, identified with all progress in B. The late tion of right is one of difficulty, the interruption of the B. F. also was long a distinguished savan, writers and philanthropist also was.long a distinguished savan, writer and philanthropist may not be held to have taken place until after litigation; perin this city. See GUEBRES and PARSEE. haps even not untill final decree in the action. The legal effect of Bombay Army. See INDIA (EAST) ARMY. being held as acting in bona fide is most important. Bombay Duck, the name given to a Teleostean fish (Saurzes Bonald, Louis Gabriel Ambroise Vicomte de, a ophiiodon), generally regarded as belonging to the family &Scope- politico-religious philosopher and statesman, born at Monna, lidae, which resemble the salmon, and possess a small soft second near Milhaud, in Rouergne, 2d October 1753, emigrated at the dorsal fin. The edge of the upper jaw, however, is formed in revolution of I789, and wrote at Heidelberg in I796 his The/Noie the Scoselidce by the intermaxillary bones. The pylorus possesses du Pouvoir Civil et Religiezex, which was suppressed by the ceca, and an Air-bladder (q. v.) is generally wanting. The B. French Directory because it advocated the restoration of the D. inhabits the seas round the Indian coasts, particularly near Bourbons. B., however, returned to France, was associated Bombay and Malabar. Its flesh is highly esteemed, and is with Chateaubriand on the Mercure, and placed in the departvariously prepared and preserved, and even imported into this ment of Public Instruction by Napoleon. In the Chamber of country as a relish. It is also known in commerce by the name Deputies, under the restoration, he pled for a censorship of the Bzmmalotoi. Its body is elongated. The mouth is very large, press, the abolition of divorce, and the restoration of Church and provided with numerous small teeth lands. He was made a peer in I823, but disappeared from public life at the revolution of I830, and died 23d November 1840. B.'s Bombazine' (Bombax, the silkworm), a textile fabric having principal work is La Legislation Primitive, which appeared in a silk warp and a woollen weft, mostly made of a black colour, 1802 (2d ed. I82I). In this he bases the right to govern on the and used for mourning dress. will of God, supernaturally revealed in the gift of language, and Bomnb-Proof Buildings, in fortification, are erections of preserved by the Bible and the Church. He reduces everything masonry sufficiently strong to resist the penetrative power of to the categories of cause, mean, and effect (e.g. God, Mediabombs or shells falling from a great height. Permanent build- or, man; Church, clergy laity; king, nobility, people; father, ings of this kind are called Casemates (q. v.); temporary erec mother, child), and argues that the same relation exists between ~~tions, ~ blinrdages.~ ~the cause and the mean as between the mean and the effect. tions, *binc/age~rs. Although based on verbal analogies, B's. system was regarded Bom'byx. See SILKWORM. by the Catholic Conservatives of the restoration as their main Bom Jardim ('good garden'), a town in the centre of a very stay in philosophy. He has been classed with De Maistre and rich district in the province of Bahia, Brazil, situated on the De la Mennais in the theocratic school of sociology. See B.'s river San Francisco, i55 miles due N. of Rio Janeiro. Pop. B tFvres Copr mtes (Par. Io aS a7-19), 6000. Bon'aparte, Family of, appears as early as the I3th c. (according to some historians as early as the Ioth c.), in Italian Bom'mel, or Zalt-Bommel, a prettily-built town, at one history. One branch settled in Ajaccio, Corsica; and in the time a fortress, in the province of Gelderland, Holland, on I8th c, its representatives were Lucien B., an archdeacon, Napothe Waal, here crossed by a railway bridge, 20 miles S. by W. leon B., and their nephew Charles. Charles B., father of from Utrecht. Pop. (I870) 4162, engaged in the manufacture the Emperor Napoleon, was born March 29, I746, and in 1767 of iron utensils, leather, and soap, and trading chiefly in the married a beautiful patrician, Letizia Ramolino. At first he produce of the field. espoused the cause of Paoli in the struggle for Corsican indeThe Bommelerzwaard ('Bommel-meadow') is a district in pendence, but ultimately, thinking it hopeless, took the French the same province, I6 miles long by 6 broad, bounded by the side; became assessor of the town and province of Ajaccio, and rivers Waal and Maas, and forming all but an island. It is in 1777 was one of a deputation of Corsican nobles sent to the defended on the E. by Fort St Andrie, and on the W. by Fort French court. He took advantage of this visit to get his son Loevenstein, and has a population of about 15,000, chiefly engaged Napoleon admitted into the military school of Brienne. Charles in agriculture. The St Andrie's Canal, at the E. end, has been B., who seems to have been a very amiable man, died at Montdone away with by the erection of a dam, and so one cause of pellier of cancer in the stomach, February 24, 1785. His family the great inundations has been removed. consisted of eight children —Joseph B., king of Spain; NapoBo'na (Fr. Beotne; Arab. Beled-el-Areb), a seaport in the pro- leon (q. v.), Emperor of the French; Lucien B., Prince of vince of Constantine, Algeria, beautifully situated near the Canino; Maia Anna (afterwards Elise); Louis B., king of IIolmouth of the Sebus, on a bay of the Mediterranen, at the base land; Carlotta (afterwards Marie Pauline), Princess Borghese; of a hill. It occupies the site of the ancient Aperodisiztm, and Annunciata (afterwards Caroline), wife of Murat, king of Naples; near it ate some remains of the famous Hippo Regius, a resi- Jerome B., king of Naples. These, with the children of Beaudence of the Numiaingof the see of St Augusidine B harnais, became the sepoleonidc-the Emperor, by advice of is walled round, and further defended by Fort Cigogne. There the senate, November 6, I804, confirming the right of stccession is a growing trade in hides, wool, corn, tobacco, cork, bark, to his own heirs and those of Joseph and Louis-Lucien and ironstone, and coral. Near B. are iron and copper mines, Jerome being excluded on account of their marriages. A brief the former employing I200 Mworkoers.?The town communicates sketch of the more important of the 1VIspoleonide, not separately with Marseille by telegraphic cable, laid in I870,. and a rail- treated, may be here given. way to the mines of Afn-Mokra is (I875) in course of construc- MARIh LETIZIA RAMOLINO B., mother of Napoleon I., tion. Pop. (1872) 16,196. was born August 24, I750. On her son's accession to the dignity of First Consul, she went to Paris; and when he became Bona (Lat.'goods') is a term sometimes used in English law Emperor in I804, she was known as Madame Mere. After his to denote personal estate, Thus, B. confiscata means forfeited downfall, Letizia, who seems to have been prepared for that goods; B. notabilia, goods of a certain value; B. bucanlier, event, lived with her stepbrother, Cardinal Fescb, and died stray goods, such as wrecks, treasure trove, &c. February 2, 1836, leaving considerable property. 4~7 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ BON THE GLOBE ENVCYCZ OAEDIA. BON JOSEPH B., eldest brother of Napoleon, born at Corte, was allowed to return to France, and was even made a marshal Corsica, January 7, I768, first obtained prominence when, in 1850. On his accession to the throne of Westphalia, Jerome in I8oo, he was sent by his brother, then First Consul, as was compelled to divorce his American wife, and to marry Sophia plenipotentiary to the United States. Joseph, who was an Dorothea, the daughter of the King of Wiirtemberg. He died intelligent and amiable man, stuck by his brother from first at Villegenis, near Paris, June 24, 186o. His Mmaoires et Correto last, and the latter seems to have loved him alone of his slondance du Roi _e/rome et de la Reine Catherine was published family. In 1805 he was made ruler of the Two Sicilies, in at Paris in 5 vols. (i861-64). By his first wife he had one son I8o6 king of Naples, and in I8o8 king of Spain. In the last in America, and by his second three children, one daughter and position he was unfortunate, and after the defeatof Vittoria re- two sons. The elder of the sons, Jerome, was born August 24, turned to France. After some hesitation, in 1813 he allowed 1814, and died I847. For an account of the latter, Napoleon his brother to recognise Ferdinand VII. as king of Spain. After Charles Paul B., born September 9, 1822, see NAPOLEON, PRINCE. Waterloo, he tried to aid his brother to escape to the United The daughter, Mathilde Letitia Wilhelmine B., born at Trieste, States, and when the latter resolved to trust himself to the May 27, I820, married Anatol Demidoff, Prince of San-Donato, English Government, crossed the Atlantic himself, remaining in in 1841, separated from him in I845, and lived subsequently in America till 1832, when he came to England. In 1841 he was Paris. At the court of Napoleon III. she did the honoursup till permitted to go to Italy to reside with his wife. He died at the date of the Emperor's marriage, and was for some time an imFlorence, July 28, 1844. His wife, Julie Marie Clary, born portant political personage. She is understood to have supported December 26, I777, died April 7, 1845, was the daughter of a the policy of her brother. The chief works on the history of the citizen of Marseille, and sister-in-law of Bernadotte, who became Bonaparte family are Fntamilia Butonapfarle del 1183 al i834 king of Sweden, She had two daughters, Zenaide Charlotte (Naples, i840); Storia Genealofica delta Famni5lia Buzona zarte Julie B, (born July 8, iSoi), who became the wife of Lucien B.'s (Flor. 1847); Le Antichita dei Bonaparte, by F. Stefani and son, the Prince of Canino, and Charlotte Napoldone (born L. Baretta (Ven. 1857), and Origine des Bon2aparles (Tur. I859). October 31, o1802, died October 31, I839), who married Louis 3Bona'sia, a genus of Rasorial birds belonging to the family Napoleon, second son of Louis B., king of Holland (died I83I). TeYtranidas or grouse, represented by the European hazel-grouse LUCiEN B., second brother of Napoleon, was born at Ajaccio, or Gelinotte (B. Europaus), and by the ruffed grouse (B. umbel21st May 1775. He was a man of very considerable ability and lus) of America-the'pheasant' of the United States. These decision of character, and, before his brother's ambition developed birds are nearly related to the true grouse (genus Telrao), but itself, was a keen republican. He aided his brother in his aspira- possess the shank and toes destitute of feathers, and the feathers tion after the office of First Consul, and was the hero of the ISth of the upper part of the head are elongated. The hazel-grouse B~umirebutdiffrin fi-m Npolen, ho vishd hi toof the upper part: of the head are elongated. The hazel-grouse Brumaire, but differing fro Napoleon, who wished him to occurs throughout Europe from the N, in Siberia to the exdivorce his second wife, and offered him the crowns of Spain treme S., but is absent from Britain. It is also found throughand Italy, he retired to his estate of Canino in Tuscany, devoting out Africa. It averages the common partridge in size, and is himself to literature and art. Sailing for America in i8io, he tD t trtr nat al f Aec 11 h coloured grey and reddish brown, with a black stripe near the was captured by the English. After his brother's downfall, he ed ge d rds ow ih la sti ete end of the side feathers of the tail. The flesh is highly esteemed returned to Rome. He made a brief appearance in French in Germany and elsewere. It inhabits wooded districts. The politics in 1815, but finally retired to Italy, and died at Viterbo, eray n ehee inhbi e dris T Junle 30, 1840. Lucien made various unsuccessful attempts t eggs vary from ten to eighteen in number. The ruffed grouse of America averages i8 inches in length, and is plentiful throughout obtain a literary reputation, having composed, among other the- United States of America, but especially abounds in hilly dispoems, a forgotten epic entitled Cha)-lemagne, ou z~ Elise ZDepoems, a forgotten epic entitled lle ne, a Egise D- tricts, A tuft of brown or black feathers situated on each side livre' (1814). He was twice married, first, in 1795, to Christine of the neck, and which can be erected at will, has procured for Boyer, daughter of a citizen of St Maximin, and secondly, in this form the name of ruffed grouse. At the breeding season 1803, to the widow of a stockbroker, Madame Jouberthon, who the polygamous males call the females with a drummning noise survived him. By his first marriage he had a daughter; by his made by clapping the wings forcibly. The flesh of these birds is second, nine children, of whom his eldest son, LUCIEN JULES much esteemed in America. The eggs vary from four or five to CHARLES B.- (born May 24, 1803, died July 29, 1857), dispIlayed twelve in number, the nest being generally formed on the ground, in a high degree the parental love of literature and science, and under the shelter of a bush or shrub. and reached distinction as an ornithologist, Louis B., third brother of Napoleon I., was born September Bona'sus, or Bonaassus, See BISON. 2, I778. He was made king of Holland in I8o6, but was never Bonaventu'ra, St, originally Giovanni di Fidanza, a popular, although he was sufficiently noble not to attempt to famous theologian and schoolman, was born at Bagnorea, in Tusenrich himself at the expense of his subjects, and to refuse the cany, in 1221. In 1248 he entered the order of St Francis; in throne of Spain. His later years were spent in Italy, and he I253 he obtained a chair of Theology in Paris; in 1256 he bedied at Livorno, July 15, I846. Louis had the family taste for came General of his order, which he governed with equal zeal and literature, and wrote some political and historical treatises, prudence. After the death of Clement IV. in 1268, the see of His wife, Hortense Eugenie Beauharnais, the adopted daughter Rome remained vacant for nearly three years, the cardinals being of Napoleon, was born at Paris, April so, 1783. Naturally an unable to agree on a successor. 13. reconciled their differences, amiable woman, she lived unhappily with, and was finally and prevailed on them to give a unanimous vote in favour of separated from, her husband, for whom, to please Napoleon, she Tedaldus Visconti, Gregory X., who, in token of his gratitude, rejected her lover, General Desaix. She died at Arenenberg in conferred on him the bishopric of Albano, and whom he accomSwitzerland, October 3, I837, and her remains were placed near panied to the Council of L.yon, at which town he died, July 15, those of her mother Josephine at Ruel, near Paris. She wrote I274, while engaged in the work of the council, B., who enjoyed several songs, including the patriotic Partant pour la Syr/e, even while living a high character for sanctity, was shortly after and also the book, La Reine Hortezse en Italie, en France, eten his death assigned by Dante a place among the saints of Azgleterre penzdant l'aznne 1831. She had three sons, the two paradise, and was canonised in i482. Sixtus V. classed him as eldest of whom, Napoleon Louis Charles and Louis Napoleon, the sixth of the great doctors of the Church. B. ranks as the died in I8b7 and 1831 respectively. The third, Charles Louis greatest philosopher of his order, and the Franciscans proudly Napoleon, became Emperor of the French under the title maintain his merits against those of the scholastic chief of the Napoleon III. (q. v.). Dominicans, Thomas Aquinas (q. v.). Many of his thoughts JER6ME B., youngest brother of Napoleon, was born at are at once sublime and mystical, the product of a strong imaAjaccio, November I5, 1784, and educated for the navy. Dur- gination and an ardent faith; and one of his most characteristic ing the war between France and England in 1803, Jerome works, the Neductio Ar/ium in Tieologiam, displays in its very lived in the United States, where he married Elizabeth Patter- title the drift of all his thought. B. was a pure medievalist, in son, daughter of a Baltimore merchant. By his brother he was whom no trace of modern thought is visible, as it is, for example, made king of Westphalia (I807), in which position he did nothing in Abelard. The worship of the Virgin, the celibacy of the but live in pomp and spend money. He fell with Napoleon priesthood, transubstantiation, communion in one kind, the rules after the battle of Leipsic, but reappeared in public during of monastic life, these are the favourite themes on which his genius the Hundred Days, and fought for his brother at Ligny and spent its force. His collected works were published at Rome in Waterloo in I815. He then went to Florence, but in time 7 vols. fol. (5588-96), Many ofthese, however, are apocryphal, 438 * BON THE GLOBE ENVCYCL OPEDAl. BON such as the Psaller of Miwzay. He was known among his con- came Professor of Rhetoric in the Seminary at Parma. An ode temporaries as the Seraphic DocLor, on the suppression of the order having subjected him to the Bo'na Vis'ta, a bay and cape on the E. coast of Newfound- resentment of the Spanish court, he concealed himself in the land, also the chief town of a district of the same name on the Austrian Tyrol. B. died at Vienna, June 21, 1821. His poems bay, and one of the oldest settlements in thmecolony. Pop. are especial favourites with the ladies of Italy, from the noble (187I) 2600. simplicity of the style and the easy elegance of the versification. His version of the.nenid (Parm. I797) is also much esteemed. Bon'champ, Charles Melchior Artus, marquis de, A complete edition of his works (3 vols, sm. 4to) was puba Vendean general, born at Jouverdeil, in Anjou, loth May 1760. lished at Vienna in I88. Separate productions are La CoonverHe was a captain in the French service wvhen the Revolution sazione (Ven. 1783), La Felicild (Mil. 1797), &c. broke out, but being a fervid royalist, he withdrew to a chateau near Saint Florngt. The Vendean insurgents chose himn for their Bo:dlu', or Bondou, a Fellatah state in Senegambia, West leader; and after defeating the republicans in several engage- Africa, with an estimated pop. of I,500,0oo, extending in lat. ments, he was mortally wounded before Chollet, October I7, I4~-I5~ N. and long. II~-I3~ W. It is a dependency of 1793. He died the following day, not, however, before having France, and exports corn, gums, indigo, tobacco, and gold-dust. prevailed on his troops to spare 5000 republican prisoners who The country is in part hilly, with a healthy climate, and is had fallen into their hands. See Chauveau and P. Dussieux, Vie bounded on the E, by the river Faleme. A large proportion of deLB. (Par. I17Z) the inhabitants are slaves, and the religion is a corrupt form Bond, in brickwork, is the method of laying bricks so that the of Moliammedanism, The capital is Bulibani, a collection of P miserable huts, surrounded by mud walls, situated on the left vertical joints in adjacent courses may not occur immediately bank o over each other, and so that by placing some bricks with their length across the wall (headers), and others with their length Bone forms the framework of all vertebrate animals. The parallel to its face (sire/cler-s), the wall may have the greatest various bones, when united together, constitute the Skeleton attainable stability in both directions. Special arrangements of (q. v.), support the animal, and are the passive instruments of hleaders and stretchers have received the names English B., locomotion. They maintain the shape of the body, give attachFlemish B., &c,, for which see BRICKLAYING. ment to the soft parts, and form cavities for the protection of Bond is, in law, a legal instrument, by which one person the more important vital organs. Being jointed together, they becomes bound to another for the payment of money, or for the as levers for effecting the various movements of the body performance of some act. The general conditions which attach B. is one of the hardest structures of the body, but it also to the validity of all contracts attach to that of a B. Thus an possesses an amount of elasticity and toughness. The ribs are infant or a lunatic cannot bind himself by a B., and a B. by a the most elastic bones. B. in the living body is somewhat pink married woman is null. But a B. in favour of an infant, a lunatic, in colour, and is nearly but not quite twice as heavy as water. or a married woman is valid. There are also special points of Bones difer much in shape and size, and hence anatomists have law regarding the validity of a B. It need not generally be divided bones into four classes, according to their form. dI. Lve bonesn i re ccin g t their form. technically worded, but it must not be ambiguous. Due legal. Bones-These are chiefly the limbs. The Collar-B. execution is necessary. It is of non-effect until delivered. In ((q. v.) is also a long B. Long bones consist of a shaft and two Scotch law, the deed constituting the security, analogous to ends or heads. The shaft is composed of dense texture, and Mortgage (q. v.) in England, is called a heritable B., or B. and has a hollow canal internally filled with marrow. The two ends disposition in security-the latter being the more modern form or extremities are generally more or less expanded, are comof deed. It is a B. for a sum of money, with a conveyance of posed of spongy tissue, and have their surfaces covered with a real estate in security to the lender. It stipulates for rate and smooth cartilage for the purpose of articulating with neighbourdates of payment of interest. Being placed on the records, it ing bones to form joints! constitutes a security valid against creditors. In a competition 2. Short Bones, sometimes called round bones, are found in the writ aeone. They are r ound toges, by fous between two or more holders of a B. over the same subject, the wrist and anle. They are rmly bound togeter y fibrous preference is given, not according to priority of date of B., but tisse, and the movements of the joints formed by them are very according to priority in date of placing on record. See RECORDS. limited. Bond of Caution.-See CAUTION. 3. Fiat rBones. —These bones are composed of two layers of Bond Ibr a Cash-Credit in a Bank.-The cash-credit is an compact tissue enclosing between them a variable amount of arrangement peculiar to Scotch banking. Under it, on satisfac- cancellated texture. The bones of the cranim, which form the tory security given to the bank, a person is permitted to draw to roof and ides of the skull, the lower jaw, the ribs, and the a certain amount agreed upon, for which, with the interest that shoulder-blade, are examples of flat bones. may fall due on the daily balances, security is given. This 4. o'reglar B'ones, sometimes called mixed bones. These security is called as above, or simply a cashlcrgdit B. It may cannot be included under any of the other heads on account of their form; they are generally situated in the middle line of the Bonards of Bottornory nand Rt'spond'ent~ina.-See BOTTOMRY. body. The vertebrae and certain bones about the head may be Bonded cIvarehou.se.-This institution was first authorised by taken as examples. Act of Parliament in I8o.. Various Acts regarding its arrange- StructZure of Boness-B. is composed of two structures-a hald, ments have since been passed, the whole having beeemden embodied dese material lilke iron externally, and a reticulated, softer part in the Customs' Consolidation Act of 1853. The immediate pay- internally, called the sp-ngy or caneellozs tissue. On examinament of duty on articles imported was found to press heavily on tion with a microscope, the difference between these two kinds the merchant, as he got no return for it until his goods reached i? s XgA the retail dealer, and his purchasing power was thus crippled. " - ~o Hence the system conducted through the B. W. was adopted. -> A The Commissioners of the Customs, under direction of the' p i X; A nd (5 C, q Treasury, may appoint warehouses or places of security, in which Di) goods may be depositedl, without payment of duty, until it suits e. 3 the owners to remove them, the warehouse-keeper or the im-:'? porter giving a B. for the payment of the duties on withdrawal 0 of the goods. Any importer or proprietor fraudulently getting access to the warehouse, without the proper officer, forfeits 51oo. Goods must be removed and duty paid within three years; ship-stores within one. Right of property to goods in B is transferred by what are called Dock-Warrants (q. v.). Goods Bonle. in B. W. may be legally regarded as in transitz; hence very of tissue is found to be one of degree more than one of kind nice questions of law often arise regarding them of kid; nice questions of law often arise regarding them. for B. is everywhere porous, only in the hard external portion Bon'di, Clemente, an Italian poet, born at Mizzano, Parma, the meshes are much smaller and more filled with earthy matein 1742, entered the order of Jesuits, and while still young be- rials. The one structure gradually passes into that of the other. 439 BON IHE GLOBE ENCYCLOP~-EDIA. BON The relative proportions of these two kinds of tissue differ very tillation of the bones is conducted by placing them in iron pots, much. In long bones the shaft is composed mostly of compact luting on the covers, and then exposing the pots to a red heat B., whereas the ends are composed to a great extent of spongy inl a kiln for some hours. 13. B. has the remarkable property tissue. In flat bones this spongy tissue is scanty, and exists be- of removing colouring matter from solutions of organic cornmtween the twolayers of compact tissue. In the flat B. of the skull pounds, an action which is quickened by heat. It is on this the spongy tissue is called adijlod The short bones are composed account used on a large scale as a decolorising agent in the chiefly of spongy tissue. The spongy or cancellous texture of refining of sugar. B. B. also exerts its absorbent action on B. is composed of slender bars or spicula of B., forming a kind inorganic compounds, removing lime and other metallic oxides of network with spaces between them; and these spicula run in from their aqueous solutions. It is also valuable as a deodoristhe line of greatest pressure, thus giving the greatest amount of ing agent from its power of absorbing gases. After being used strength with the least weight of B. These open spaces contain for a length of time as a decolorising or deodorising agent, B. blood-vessels and marrow. The compact tissue also contains B. becomes inactive, but its efficiency may be revived by treatcanals or tubes running in the long axis of the B., termed Ilaver- ment with acid or water, or by raising it to red heat; and when sian canals-so called in honour of the anatomist who first de- worthless in either respect, it is still useful as a fertilising agent scribed them. Small blood-vessels run in these canals. The from the phosphoric acid and nitrogen it contains. B. 13. width of the Haversian canals varies from'-w to r- of an thoroughly ground, mixed into a paste with water and then inch. These are well seen on a transverse section of a long B. dried, is also employed as a pigment called Ivory Black. These canals are surrounded with concentric rings. These canals are surrounded with concentric rings. Bone Dust is the name given to the finest particles resultChem~ical Colitfiosition. of B~ones. —B. consists of earthy and ani- 1 Zemzical Cozposiiion of Bones.-B1. consists of earthy and ani- ing firom the disintegration of bones in a bone-mill, the other mal matter. The former renders the B. hard, the latter tenacious. frmteistegainobnei aboemlteth Trhe earthy matter consists chiefly of phosphate of lime, with fragments being assorted according to size, as'inch,''half-inch,''['he earthy matter consists chiefly of phosphate of lime, with n'ure-ch os I sa t piv e ns b and'quarter-inch' bonei. It is usual to deprive the bones, by some carbonate of lime. It also contains a small amount of boiling, of a large part of their organic matter before breaking other salts. The animal matter is chiefly Gelatine (q. v.). When them. B. D. is valuable as a manure where rapid fertilising bones are burned, the animal portion is consumed, and the agency is necessary. earthy material remains behind. It constitutes about two- gencyisnecessary. thirds of B., and is very brittle. By steeping B. in hydrochloric Bone Gelatine, or Ossein. See GELATINE. acid diluted with water, the earthy matter is dissolved out, and Bone, Henry, a distinguished enamel-painter, born at Truro, the animal portion remains behind, which is tough and quite Cornwall, in I755, removed in I790 to London, where he was flexible. It constitutes about one-third of B. When, from engaged in painting brooches, lockets, &c., in enamel for jeweldisease or other cause, one or other of these two portions is lers. In 1780 he exhibited an enamel-portrait of his wife in the deficient, the B. becomes brittle or flexible, according as the Royal Academy, and at once established a reputation in this earthy or animal matter is deficient. In the disease called department. He was appointed enamel-painter to the Prince of IRickets (q. v.), there is a great deficiency in the earthy materials. Wales in I8oo, and was admitted a member of the Royal AcaVarious chemists have analysed B. Their results are somewhat demy in i8 i. His pictures in enamel, from their beauty and different, but the following may be regarded as the average. size, form an era in this art. The chief of them are'Bacchus Animal matter.. mand Ariadne' (sold for 2200 guineas), the'Death of Dios,' 5 Phosphate of lime Venus,' and Bathsheba, besides numerous admirable portraits. p~~~~~ Carbonate of lime. B. died in London, 17th December 1834. Other salts. ~ / r Boner, Ulrich, one of the best of the early writers of fable Growth of B. proceeds in two ways-either from cartilage in German, sprung from an old Bernese family, was a preaching becoming ossified, as in long bones, or by membranous tissue friar, and flourished in the earlier half of the I4th c. He dedibecoming ossified by the deposition of earthy matters, as in the cated 1oo fables, some in prose, others in rhyme, to his friend, flat bones of the skull. tihe song-writer, Johann von Ringgenberg, under the title Der The surfaces of B. have many marks lpon them as eminences Edelstein ('The Precious Stone') They are full of keen obserfor the attachment of muscles, grooves for lodging vessels and vation of life, expressed with pungent wit and caustic humour. nerves, holes or foramina for the transmission of vessels and Lessing, who may be said to have disinterred this gem of middle nerves. Some have depressions forming the cavities of joints. age literature, devoted much of his time to the study of Per In the centre of the shaft of most long bones may be seen a hole Ed(elstei, and wrote two papers about it. The first edition was running obliquely into the centre of the B., for the entrance of printed at Bamberg, in 146i1, and the copy in the Wolfenbittel the artery which supplies the marrow with blood. Library is the sole remnant of this edition that is known to exist. Bones are richly supplied with blood-vessels and nerves. They J. G. Scharf published, from the Strasburg MS., fifty-one of the are covered with a fibrous membrane termed Periosteum (q. v.). fables, from I704 to I714. Bodmer and Breitingen, of Zurich, Bone Ash, or Bone Earth, is the mineral matter that re- issued a fuller edition in 17 7, The first complete edition, mains after bones are calcined, consisting of from 70 to o80 per from the original text, was published at Berlin in i816, with cent. of calcium phosphate with other earthy salts. Large notes and a glossary; the latest is a criticaledition, published at quantities of B. A. are imported from S. America; it is used in Leipsic in 1844, Assaying (q. v,) for making cupels, and though little employed Bones, Dissolved. The manure called dissolved boes is as a manure by itself, it enters largely into the composition of prepared by acting on Apatite (q. v.), Coprolites (q. v.), or on Superphosphate of Lime (q. v.) and other artificial manures; it bones or bone ash with slightly diluted oil of vitriol. By this also forms a polishing powder for plate and other articles, treatment the insoluble phosphate of lime, Ca3PO07, of which Bone Beds, the name applied in geology to deposits or for. these substances are principally composed, is converted into mations of varying age, which contain qrganic remains of vari- soluble or biacid phosphate of lime, CaH4P0O7, sulphate of lime ous kinds. Thus in the Upper Silurian rocks and in the Tile- or gyjsum being formed at the same time. This manure is stones strata, one of the bands, containing the remains of fishes especially adapted for root crops, but is also of much value for and Crustacea, have received the name o.f B. B.; whilst in the cereals if mixed with guano previous to distribution. Triassic system, and beneath the White Lias strata, the Phcetic Bonet, Juan Paulo, a Spanish philanthropist, born in B. B. occur. These contain scales, teeth, and coprolites or ex- the kingdom of Aragon, and lived in the frst half of the the kingdom of Aragon, and lived in the first half of the creta of fishes and reptilia. The name B. B. thus appears to 17th c. Out of friendship to the Constable of Castile, whose be applied to formations more from the general appearance of secretary he was, he undertook to instruct his brother, who their contained bfossils, than from these consisting always of de- had been a deaf mute from the age of two years. He afterfinite osseous structures. wards applied himself with success to the instruction of Bone Black, or Animal Charcoal, the black product ob- others similarly affected, and in 16'20 published at Madrid tained by the destructive distillation of bones, consisting chiefly of Reeduccion de las Letir-as y Arle Aara ense/ar a abloar los phosphate of lime, intimately blended with the carbon of the or- /Mudos, in which he desci-ibed the method adopted by him, ganic matter of the bones. From Ioq lbs. of large bones about 6o and of which he claimed to be the inventor. The Benelbs. of commercial B. B. are obtained, of which only about seven dictine Peter Pence, also a Spaniard, had, however, sucparts are pure carbon or animal charcoal. The destructive dis- ceeded in the previous century in instsucting the deaf and dumb, 440 * ~~~~~+ BON THE GLOBE EIVCYCZLOP-L'DIA. BON though B. does not appear to have known anything of the [855, has been admirably engraved. In the opinion of some, method of his predecessor. B. imparted information to his however, her chief work is'Le Labourage Nivernais' (1849), pupils principally by the eye, availing himself of the manual which has won the highest honour conferred in France, a place alphabet (essentially the same as that now in use), writing, and in the Gallery of the Luxembourg. In the B. family there are gesture. He also made use of artificial pronunciation. See Sir as many painters and sculptors as there are members. Besides Kenelm Digby's treatise OfBodies, ch. 28. the father, Raymond B. (died I853), there are her brothers, A-uguste B., landscape and gfenre painter, Jules-Isidore B., Bon'fire, a large fire kindled on occasions of public rejoicing, sculptor, and Juliette B. (adame Peyrol), her sister. The sculptor, and Juliette B. (Madame Peyrol), her sister. The on the top of a hill, or in some open space near a town or village, studio and residence of Rosa B. at Fontainebleau were spared and These fires are now lighted to celebr~ate great events, such as These fires are now lighted to celebrate great events, such as respected by special order of the Crown Prince of Prussia during victories, royal marriages, &c.; but in the earliest times they esee o Pii 8- 1 the siege of Paris in I87o-7r, were kindled to celebrate seasons-e.g., Beltein (q. v.) and Midsummer Eve. It was also a custom to light large fires as beacons. Bo'ni, or Bony, a considerable native state, forming the It seems to be admitted that bon is the same as the Dan. baun, SW. peninsula of the island of Celebes, E. Indian Archipelago, beacon, and the Welsh ban, high: thus B. signifies a high or and tributary to the Dutch. Pop. about 200,ooo, engaged in the lofty fire, ~~~~~~~~~~an tribtre on ah hutch. op.laceto, aoo beaongaedinte lofty fire, a fire on a high place, a beacon-fire. manufacture of cotton, articles of gold and iron, and, especially Bon'gar (Bzungarus), a genus of serpents belonging to the in the N., where the soil is very fertile, in agricultural pursuits. Venenosa or poisonous section of the sub-order Colubrina. The Bonese have been twice attacked by the British for injury These forms are allied to the genera s and a, to which done to their commerce, and for selling the crews of British Thes foms re llid t th genra lap an Naa, o ~ ships as slaves. B., Gulf of, separates the S.E. and S.W. latter the cobras belong. The bongars are distinguished by the ehips as slaves. B., Gulf of, separates the S.E. and S.W. back being keeled or~ ridged, owing to the development Of a peninsulas of Celebes. It is 200 miles long, and has a breadth back being keeled or ridged, owing to the development of a ~ Z3 ~~~~~~varying from 40 to 8o miles. row of hexagonal scales. The head is broad and flat. These varying from 40 to 8 miles. snakes occur in the E. Indies, and are popularlyr koown as Bon'iface, a Roman general of the 5th c. A.D., was a native' rock snakes.' BF. alnnulaiis, a familiar species, attains a length'rock snxakeees.' B. ann/ais, a famiiar species, attains alength of Thrace. His career is divisible into two periods, the first of six feet. marked by the greatest loyalty to the empire, the second meBongar'dia, a genus of plants of the natural order Berbri- morable for a great political crime which has covered him with daceca (q. v.), natives of the East (Greece, Syria, Persia, and on disgrace. In 413 he defended Marseille against Ataulf, the to Afghanistan and Scinde), the leaves of one of which (B. Visigothic king; in 422 distinguished himself in Spain against chrysogonum) are eaten as a salad, and the bulbs of another the Vandals; and after being raised to the rank of tribune and B. Rauwoifi) in Persia. Some botanists consider both species comes, was charged by Honorius with the command of the identical. Roman forces in Africa. He enjoyed for a time the confidence of Placidia (sister of Honorius) when she undertook the governBongay', the name of an islet and group of islets in the E. ment of the empire during the minority of her son, Valentinian Indian Archipelago, to the E. of Celebes. III., but the rivalry between him and /Etius (q. v.) is said to Bon'go, a people of Central Africa, inhabiting a country in have prompted the latter to subtly undermine his influence at the Upper Nile district, to the S.W. of the basin of the Bahr- court during his absence abroad. The story of the faud percourt during his absence abroad. The story of the fr'aud perel-Ghazal, between 6o-8~ N. lat. and 27o-28~ E. long. Esti-Pt el-Ghazal, between 6-8 N lat. and 27-28 E. long. Esti- petrated by Etius is recorded by Procopius, and accepted by mated area, gooo9000 sq. miles; pop. io,ooo. The country is flat and Gibbone and Fa ch. 33) but it is probably exaggerated. ferruginous, and is -abundantly watered by five large tributaries Falsely induced, it is said, to believe that the empress meditated of the Gazelle, and by many smaller streams. The chief natural his death, in a moment of rash ire he traitorously allied himself his death, in a moment of rash ire he traitorously allied himself products are sorghum, maize, beans, bamia, tobacco, and various with the Vandals, invited them over to Africa, and offered to tubers. Parkia terminalia, the butter-tree, and funguses abound give them a perpetual settlement. In 429 Genseric appeared at while there have been collected as many as 700 flowering plants. the head of 50,000 warriors, and B. discovered when too late The rainy season extends from April to November. Formerly a that he had been basely deceived, and had fatally injured the great field for elephant-hunting, Bongoland has now only ante- empire. Returning to his allegiance, he twice sustained a delopes, ichneumons, civets, genets, wild-cats, and caracals. Its feat from the Vandals, and in 431 embarked for Italy, hut in the donestic animals are poultry, goats, and dogs. The B., who following year died of a wound received in a battle fought against believe in witchcraft, and speak a harmonious language of simple Etius. structure (Dr Schweinfurth, Linguisische Ergebnisse elzer Reise B nach Central Ajfrika, Berl. I873), live by agriculture, and Boniface, St,'the apostle of Germany,' whose original occasional hunting and fishing. They ave a red-brown co- name was Winfrith, was born at Kirton (Crediton), Devonshire, plexion, not unlike the colour of the soil, and are muscular and about 68. Ordained a t h piest at the age of thirty, he set out compact in limb, with an average height of 5 feet 7 inches. b h ig n idrdb a hnbigcridoh compact in limb, with an average height of 5 feet 7 inches. in 715 to preach the gospel in Friesland; but being discouraged Almost without tools, they produce beautiful ironwork, besides by the king, and hindered by a war then being carried on, he rude musical instruments, and a variety of wooden articles gave up the idea for a time, and returned to England. In 78 About the year 1855 the Nubian slave-dealers began their raids he went to Rome, and got the sanction of the pope to preach to upon the B., whom they found living in petty communities, and the tribes of Germany. He at once commenced his labours, and thnertries oGemany. in ihrat Bavria Frienedhs labour, and Hse therefore incapable of combined defence. The B. soon becamne coveted many in Thuringia, avaa, Friesland, and Hesse, much prized as slaves, being docile and industrious, and within turning heathen temples everywhere into Christian churches. ten years there were eighty slave seribas or forts scattered over the On a second visit to Rome, he was made a bishop, and his name country, while half the natives had been kidnapped, and great changed from Winfrith to B. Returning to Germany through numbers had taken to flight. The country is still under vassal- France, with letters of recommendation to Charles Mantel and the acre to the Khartoom. slave-dealers, and forms a convenient base Zage to the Ohartoom slave-dealers, and firms a convenient base German princes, he set about destroying all relics of heathenism. for further slave operations in the lands of the Niam-Niam, Mittoo, O te accession of Pope Gregory III. (73), B. was made an &c. See Dr Schweinfurth's Hert ofAfic ( vols. Ld. 873) archbishop. In 738 he again visited Rome, attended by a great train of priests and monks, and was made papal legate. On his Bonheur', Mdlle. Rosalie, an animal painter of remark- return he appointed four bishops over Bavaria, and four more able genius, born at Bordeaux, 22d March I822, received instruc- in Germany in 745. In 745 he was made Archbishop of Mainz. tion in art from her father. She exhibited'Two Rabbits' and In 754 he returned to Friesland, to complete the evangelisation'Goats and Sheep' in the French Exhibition of I84r, and from of that country, where, however, he and fifty-two companions that year to the present she has continued to enrich and distin- were massacred by the pagans (755). B. left Serzons and Letters guish the exhibitions of Europe with works, the number of (Serrarius, Par. i6o5; best ed. Wiirdtwein, Mainz, 1789), which which manifests her entire devotion to her art. She is best are valuable for biographical purposes, and averycurious histori. known in this country by her'Horse Fair,' in which the action cal commentary on his own times. Dr Giles has published his of the animals in motion seems to be nature itself. This famous entire remains (Ogefra Omn1ia, 2 vols. Lond. I845). See Eudenius, work, which was the chief attraction of the French Exhibition Diss. de S. Bonajfcio, Gerlm. Ajost. (I722); the Acla Sanclorzmt. of I853, and of the French collection exhibited in London in and the Church Histories of Neander, Mosheim, &c. 56 44I 4 —--- 4f~ BON THE GLOBE ENCYC LOPL9DIA. BON Boniface. Nine popes have been so named, of whom only rail), formerly the residence of the Electors of Cologne. Pop. three are conspicuous in history.-B. I. (4I8-422), memorable (I87I) 26,244. Though an ancient town, it has a modern apas the earliest Bishop of Rome who assumed the title of the First pearance, and the environs are pleasant and cheerful. The Bishop of Christendom, a title not recognised by the Greek finest building is the cathedral, probably of the I2th or I3th c. emperors till 6o6, when Phocas conceded it to B. III.-B. The university, re-established in I8i8, has five faculties, two of VIII., whose family name was Gaetano (Lat. Cajetanus), one these in theology, for Protestants and Roman Catholics respecof the important pontiffs and jurisconsults of the middle ages, tively. It has a high reputation, and reckons in its roll of proborn at Anagni about 1228. He studied at Paris and Bologna, fessors the names of Niebiihr, Schlegel, Dorner, Rotto, Ritschl, and, in the capacity of secretary to various papal legates, visited Brandis, Jahn, Lassen, Simrrock, Diez, Dahimann, Von Sybel, France, England, and Germany, thoroughly mastering the con- &c. The library has upwards of 200,000 volumes. In the same dition of ecclesiastical politics. In I281 he was raised to the year the Leopoldine Academy of Physical Science was transcardinalate, and was elected pope December 24, I294, when the ferred to B. from Vienna. These educational facilities attract kings of Hungary and Sicily held his bridle-reins as he rode to a large body of students, and the late Prince Consort studied the Lateran, and waited on him at table, wearing their crowns. here for some time. The manufactures are cottons, sulphuric The great principle of B.'s policy was to assert papal supremacy acid, soap, and earthenware. The fortifications of the town, over states as well as over the Church. In 1296 began his grave which suffered several bombardments, were razed in I717. See quarrel with Philippe le Bel, by the publication of his bull Cle- Ritter's Entstehung der Aflestenstddte am Rhein, Kbjn, Bonn,;rcis Zaicos, and ere long he rashly excommunicated the French and Mainz (Bonn, I85I). monarch; but his language and his pretensions were so insolenter Edmund better known as the that the nation supported Philippe in his defiance of the papal was born about the end of the th c. The son of a peasant in curse. There was hardly a question in which B. did not inter- was born about the end of the 5th c. The son of a peasant in fere. In the Scoto-English wars, in the affairs of Sicily, Den- Hanley, worcestershire, he was educated at Pembroke College, mark, Germany, Bohemia, 8&c, we see hirm meddling and mud- Oxford, where in I525 he was made a Doctor of Canon and Civil dling. Finally Philippe roughly ended the conflict by seizing and Law. Being fortunate enough to secure the favour of Wolsey, imprisoning B. in his native town. Dreading poison, the pope he also gained that of Henry VIII., whose chaplain he became, abstained from food for two days, in consequence of which he died took an active part in the Reformation, was employed on embas a few weeks after (October II, 1303). His enemies accused him sies to France, Germanyf and the Pope, and was raised to the of licentiousness and infidelity. His simony was well known, and see, first of Hereford (i538), and then of London (i540). He he has found an unenviable immortality in Dante's' iferno. See lapsed, however, into Popery, and in the reign of Edward VI. M. Isambert's elaborate paper in the VNouveZe Bisographie Gcie was deprived of his bishopric and put in prison. Mary restored raoe, and Drumann's GeschichZe B.'s VIIL. (Kbnigsb. 1852).e- him; and he earned the name by which he is still known by his B. IX., originally Pietro Tomacelli, a Neapolitan, was elected official prominence in connection with the persecutions of Propope in I389, and had for rivals at Avignon Clement VII. and testants in the reign of this queen, although there is some reason Benedict XIII. He practised simonry without concealment or to believe, with Mr Green and other of the later historians, that he was at heart a good-natured, and even merciful man. Refusrestriction; trafficked in indulgences and dispensations; over- he was at heart a good-atured, and even merciful man. Refusawed Rome by fortresses; and to protect himself against the ng to tae the oath of supremacy after the ascension of Queen enemies whom his imperious spirit had raised against him, he Elizabeth, he was deposed once more, and thrown into the Marhad to purchase the services of powerful allies by granting them shalsea prison, where he died 5th September I569. B. was a as fiefs portions of the pman of considerable learning, and believed to have a thorough as fiefs portions of the patrimony of the Church. B. died knowledge of canon law.t October 1404. knowledge of canon law. October 1404. Bonifa'cio, Strait of (Lat. Fretunt Gallicum), the channel 3Bonn'et, a kind of cap or head-dress, generally of a flat shape, which separates Corsica from Sardinia, named after the fortified and fitting closely to the head. At the present day the name Sardinian town of B., which has large coral and tunny fisheries, is chiefly restricted to the principal head-gear of women, which and a pop. of 3453. The strait narrows at one point to about alters so frequently in shape, material, and decoration that it seven miles, and is difficult of navigation. To the E. lie the defies all definition or description. Bonnets, as an article of Bucinaric or Magdalen Islands (anc. IAnsudl& Canicularia), be- male attire, consist of the indigo-blue knitted and felted caps longing chiefly to Sardinia, but mostly inhabited by Corsicans. which are regarded as a peculiarly Scotch production, and chiefly manufactured at Kilmarnock and the surrounding AyrBonill'o, a town in the province of Albacete, Spain, 38 shire villages. In the I8th c. a broad flat B. with a large red miles S.W. of the city of the same name. Pop. 598o. tassel, known as the'braid bannet,' was the distinguishing headdress of the Scottish peasantry. This form of B. has now entirely Bonin, or Archbishop Ilads, a group of some ninety disappeared, but the'Glengarry' and other fancy shapes have small islands situated in the Pacific Ocean, near long. 142' still a wide popularity, and are sent in great numbers to all parts E. and lat. 27~ N. The larger islands (Peel Island, Stapleton, E. and 1st. 27' N. The larger islands (Peel Island, Stapleton, of the world in which a Saxon population is found, and it forms Buckland, Hillsborough, &c.) are fruitful, producing, amongother the regulatio-cap of British foot-regiments. The name B is not things, maize, yams, tobacco, sugar-cane, melons, lemons, &c. found commonly applied to caps till the time of Henry VIII., of Of domesticated animals, pigs, goats, and fowls abound. This whom we read that at a banquet at Westminster he wore a B. group wa dsovr n y atan y* asa oewhom we read that at a banquet at Westminster he'wore a B. group was discovered in I827 by Captain Beechey; was at one f damask silver, at woven in the stole and thereupon wrought tof damask silver, flat woven in the stole, and thereupon wrought time a Japanese colony, but is now claimed by England and with gold, with rich feathers on it.' At that period Milan Russia. bonnets, or Mellayne bonnets, came much in vogue, and were Boni'to, a term applied to various Teleostean fishes, but more worn by both sexes, whence to this day the makers of female particularly to a species of funny ( Thynnus pelamys), included in head-dresses are known as'milliners.' Milan bonnets of the the Sconmberida or Mackerel family. This fish chiefly inhabits i6th c. were generally made *of costly materials, and richly the warmer seas, and relentlessly pursues the flying-fishes. This decorated with gems, precious stones, and metals. species, often named the'stripe-bellied tunny,' averages about Bonnet, in permanent fortification, is a small defence24 inches in length, and is coloured bluish, being darkest on its work, consisting of two faces only, with a parapet three feet upper parts. Four lines of dark hue mark the sides of the belly. high by ten or twelve feet broad. It is constructed at the salient The flesh is of a dry, unpalatable nature. The lower jaw pro- angles of the glacis of larger works. B. de prtlre is a term in trudes and is slightly deflected, and large scales exist on the field fortification applied to an indented line of parapet having throat. The Pelamys sardea, belonging to an allied genus, inha- three salient angles. bits the Black Sea and Mediterranean, and is also known as the B.; and the Auxis vulgaris (Cuvier), also found in the Mediter- Bonnet, harles, a distinguished naturalist and philosopher ranean, is locally named the Plain B. This latter species is was born at Geneva, March I3, I720, and at the age of twenty coloured a lue, and has no stripes or bands. The flesh is pre- was elected a corresponding member of the Paris Academy of served for use. The dorsal fins are placed far apart in the AzUis. Sciences for a dissertation on aphides. He now devoted himself wholly to scientific investigations. After publishing his Bonn, a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the Traile d'Insectologie (Paris, I745), and his Recherches sur I' Usage Rhine, 15 miles above Cologne (with which it is connected by des Fe[ziles des Pla.st-e- (I754), he was forced to discontinue his 442 a4 F......... _. +~-, BON THE GLOBE ENC YCLOPDIA. BOO researches for a time, owing to inflammation in the eyes; where- exceedingly rich collections, part of which he intended to pre. upon he turned his attention to psychology, and published several sent to the Paris museums, still remain in Corrientes. works distinctly materialistic in their teaching, though he always Bon'us. The di remained a sincere Christian, and wrote in defence of Chris-. vidend to the shareholders of a company is tianitW. We may mention in particular his Essai de Psycologie called a B. in so far as the directors do not wish to lead the tianity. Weamiay metizedes pacelarhs de ai' de (Ps6)o cog- shareholders to expect its repetition. Thus the declaration of a (1i754), Essai Anzaytlizfe d6es Faculaes r de I'Aime (ioo), Con- dividend of 5. per cent. with a B. of 2, would mean that at next May 20, I793. His dUzuvres Cornsites were published at Neu- that repetition of the 2 per cent. is not to be expected. chatel (8 vols. I779-83), and most of them have been translated Bonyhdd, or Bonhard, an antiue town in the county of into nearly all the languages of Europe. See Trembicy's Mem1otoire Solna Hungary, iles N.E. of Finfkirchen, and 98 miles Pouer serziz~r a IKisloh-e de la Vie et des Ouio-ages de Ch. B. 23 miles N.E. of Fiinfkirchen, and 98 miles touBr serrnir ci Z'lisloir~e de ice Vie e4 des Ouvr)esE de C. B. S. S. W. of Buda, Pesth. It is about a mile distant from a branch (Berne, I794). line of railway by which it has now (I875) communication with Bonnet-Pepper, derived from the ground capsules of Cap- Vienna, Italy, the S. of Hungary, and N. of Bosnia. It has an sicuzn teraogonium, a native of India. increasing trade in corn, wine, and tobacco. Pop. (I869) 5340. Bonnet-Piece, a Scottish gold coin of the reign of James V., Bony Pike (-Le5idosleus ossezes), a genus of Ganoid (q. v.) struck in I539 from native gold, and exquisitely beautiful in de- fishes, not at all allied to the common or Teleostean pikes, and sign and workmanship. It derives its name from the royal head, found in the lakes and rivers of N. America. This fish possesses on the obverse side, being covered with a bonnet instead of with a complete armour of ganoid scales, which are arranged obliquely a crown. The weight is 72 grains. in transverse rows. This is the only fish in which the bodies of Bole~al, Claude ~lexand ~e, Coted attery the vertebrae are opisthocrlous —that is, hollow behind and conay vex in front-all other fishes possessing amp/icetous vertebrae, or known as Achmed Pasha, was born of a noble French family at phicalous vertebrae, or known as Achmed asa, was born of a nobl675 H e French family at dsthose hollow at both ends. The spine is well ossified. The jaws Coussac, in Limousin, July 54, I675. He served in the Guards with great distinction iln Italy (i7oi) and the Netherlands * but are prolonged to form a snout, and are provided with double rows being condemned to death by a court-martial for his insolent of teeth. The tail is zeterocercal, or unequally lobed. Both behvior to the inister of ar (), h-e fled to Gemany, edges of the tail-fin, and the front edges of the other fins, are behaviour to the Minister of War (1702), he fle d to Germany, furnished with small bony pieces termed fielera. These fishes entered the Austrian service (I706), distinguished himself fupished with small bony pieces termed falca. These fishes against his native country, and also against the Turks under possess opercular gills and eseudo-branfise n s well. The airPrince Eugene, and was raised to the rank of lieutenant-field- bladder is large and cellular. These fishes attain a length marshal (II9). In 1723 he wras sent to. the Netherlands as varying from two to four feet, and their flesh is esteemed for master-general of ordnance; but here again a court-martial condemned him to death for his insolence. The Emperor Bonz'es, from Japanese Busso, a pious man, a name applied changed the sentence to one year's imprisonment, and he was originally to the priests of Japan, but now extended by the banished from Germany. He found a welcome asylum in Con- Portuguese to other priests in China, Cochin China, &c., especistantinople, became a Mohammedan (I730), was made a pasha ally those of Buddha. There are both male and female B., and of three tails, and did good service for Turkey against Russia they have their respective convents. and Persia. After defeating a large Austrian army on the Danube, he fell into disgrace, and was banished to Asia Minor Booby (Suheiafusca), a genus of Natatorial birds belonging to (1738-39), but was afterwards recalled. B. died at Constanti- the Gannet (c. v.) genus, and included in the family Pelecanidae. nople, March 27, 1747. The only book which can be safely This name is applied to these used for a knowledge of B. is AMemnoires du Comte de B. by the birds from the inactivity they Prince de Ligne (Par. I817). Other professed memoirs are mere display, and from the ease with romances. which they may be caught; the boobies allowing their captors Bonn'ycastle, John, a self-taught mathematician, born at actually to seize them as they Whitchurch, Buckinghamshire. After acting for some time as sit. The B. inhabits the warmer tutor to the two sons of Lord Pomfret, he became Professor of latitudes of the world, and is Mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, a chiefly found in the neighbour-:' position retained by him for more than forty years. Of his hood of rocky coasts. It frenumerous treatises, elementary and more advanced, on the several quently flies far out to sea, and branches of mathematical science, the best known is his once is an expert fisher; although popular Elements of Algebra (2 vols. Svo, I813), which has been the Man-of-war Bird (q. v.) superseded by the more modern works of Todhunter, Colenso, and Frigate Bird (q. v.) perseand Hamblin Smith. secute the B., and forge it to Booby. Bonn'y River, the largest and most easterly mouth of disgorge the finny prey it has the Niger, Upper Guinea, West Africa, falling into the Bight of just captured. The colour of this bird is a dark brown on the Biafra. Its bar forms a safe anchorage, convenient at all seasons upper, and white on the under parts; the young birds being of a and tides. On its east bank, near the mouth, is the townl of more uniform brown. The bill is longer than the head, and is B., formerly infamous for its slave traffic, but now more credit- of straight, conical form and shape. The nest is placed on the ably occupied in the export of palm oil. ground, and but one egg is produced and hatched at a time. The flesh is dark coloured and not esteemed. The northernBono'rum, Cess'io. See CESSIO BONORUM. most American limit (on the east coast) of these birds appears to Bonpland, Aime, a celebrated traveller and botanist, born atbe at Cape Hatteras. Audubon says these birds are not invaLa Rochelle, August 22, I773. After studying medicine and serv- riably listless, bst become wary and active enough in certain ing as a ship's surgeon, he accompanied Humboldt during fivecases. years of travel in America. On returning to France, B. was made Booby Island, a flat, dangerous, and barren rock in Torres superintendent of the gardens at Malmaison. In i8i6 he went Strait, off the N. of Australia, about 3 feet in height and I mile to Buenos Ayres to introduce European trees and plants. Five in diameter. years afterwards, when journeying to Bolivia, he was seized and kept prisoner by Dr Francis, then Dictator of Paraguay. Freed Boodroom, or Bodrun, a dirty seaport town of Asia Minor, in I83I, he fixed his abode at San Borja, in the S. of Brazil. in the vilayet of Aidin, built on the site of the ancient HalicarIn i853 he removed to Santa Anna, in the Argentine province nassus, the birthplace of Herodotus and Dionysius, about 96 of Corrientes, where he devoted himself to science until his miles S. of Smyrna. It is finely situated on the N. shore of death, 4th May I858. His chief works are Plantes Lquinoxiales the Gulf of Kos, and its harbour, where some shipbuilding is Recueillies auz Mexique, &c. (2 vols. Par. 80o5, et seq.), Mono- carried on, is defended on the east by a fortress built by the gl-ranpie d's Jllkastomioes, &c. (2 vols. Par. o806, e seq.). His Knights of Rhodes. Pop. about II,ooo. 443 v - +~~~~~~ BOO THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP/kJDIA. BOO Book. This Teutonic word, as well as the Greek bib/os and cases helping the sale of an intrinsically worthless volume. But the Latin liber, is connected with the name of the rude material cloth bindings, however good and elegant they may be, have originally employed for the purpose of recording events. Inscrip- certainly not the property of durability to recommend them. tions on tree-bark or leaves, on brass or stone, or on the tiles It is otherwise with books bound in leather. Indeed this only and bricks used at Nineveh, are not books. The idea of a B. can be called'binding.' The process differs considerably from is that of a record rolled up, as was done with the scapi or rolls that already described, so much so, that few cloth-binders can of papyrus which for many centuries were exclusively used at both Rome and Alexandria. Parchment, consisting of the skins of lambs, sheep, and calves, was also rolled in the same way. In the 7th c. mixed rolls of parchment and papyrus were not uncommon. Another type of B., in which not only paper and parch. ment, but also the waxen tablets of the Romans, were used, is - seen in the Codex, which, differing from the continuous volzlnzen, consisted of separate leaves or pages fastened together at one corner. Official documents, named libelli, were also constructed in this way. When the multiplication of copies was carried on l systematically in the Benedictine and other monasteries, this form was preserved, and binding in wood, metal, or leather was added. The rolls had previously been preserved in boxes. Till after the introduction of printing, the monks and scribes at the great universities chiefly exercised themselves in producing copies of the Bible, the classics, and certain theological works. In the I6th c., however, an enormous impetus was given to production, 326 editions of the Bible being printed in English between 1526 and i6oo. As the modern manufacture of paper was established, and the writings of the essayists excited a taste for popular literature, books increased rapidly in number, 5280 - __ appearing between 1700 and I756, a very large proportion of which, however, belong to divinity and law. It would be tedious X _ _ to enumerate the varieties of B. which have succeeded to the folios __ and quartos of the I7th c. The circle of readers and of subjects has been constantly extending. Formerly respectable authors, like Rushworth and Ockley, were ruined by a single B., but._;. now literature is a secure profession, and there is active compe-. tition among publishers. Apart from its importance as the vehicle of literature, the B., viewed as a mere permanent record, has had important social effects. Thus Boc-land, or land ofs Arming which the title is in a definite B. or record, is really equivalent to full private property in land, as distinguished from Folc- do leather-work and vice veso For lesther binding the sheets land, in which public interests were preserved. In Scotland, a are folded and arranged as for cloth bsnding; theyare sewed statute was thought necessary in 1696 to authorise the writing together however more firmly and on thee or more pieces of Ps tl 1 1 sr r v. *. r w * btogether, however, more firmly, and on three or more pieces of of deeds'bookwise,' i.e., in leaves, instead of in a continuous cod passing through the back the ends of which are left an inch or so longer than the thickness of the book. In cloth binding the boards are made separately, and fastened loosely to the the hands of the printer they are delivered to the b ook; while in leather binding the ends of the cords above menbe made up into proper book form. This work is done partly tioned are securely fixed into the boards. The edges are then by men and partly by women. The sheets pass first into the cut round, and gilt or marbled,-the latter effect being produced l hands of the women, who fold the m into their proper size, 4to, by colouring matter being sprinkled on the surface of water, and hands of the women, who fold them into their proper size, 4to, mixed by means of combs for producing the various patterns, 8vo, x2mo, i8mo, 24m0, 32mo, the sizes being so named from mixed by means of combs for producing the various patterns, the number of pages on each side of the sheet. They are then and the book being lightly dipped in the colours, enough adheres the number of pages on each side of the sheet. They are then to give the marbled edge. Thefor-wardei- next lays on the silk gathered in the order of the book, and plates inserted, if any; to give the marbled edge. Thefonrarder next lays on the silk and generally at this stage the sheets are pressed closely together, headbands at the top and bottom, mo rocco, or russia leather. The either in a rolling machine, a hydraulic press, or a new machine books are the cver, wheth er a morocco, or russure and allowed to called a'smasher,' to exclude the air and give solidity to the books are then placed under a moderate pressure and allowed toand book. Afterwards they are sewed sheet by sheet on tape, if for y. Whe skilful se of a variety of brass takes them in hand, and | cloth binding, and on cord, if for stronger binding, by the skilful use of a variety of brass tools for the purpose, and cloth bIn cloth bind i ng, the sewed books are next rounded in the of gold-leaf, he stamps on the letterings and the patterns which Inack by a hammer binding, theand jointsewed books a're next rounded in the give to a well-bound book such an air of luxury. If books are back by a hammer, and jointed by a I backing Machine.' The half-bound in the same way, they should be as durable as fullcases or boards are made separately, of cloth and mill-board, half-boud in the same way, they should be as durable as fullan d the gold and other ornaments stamped on clotheir ad acks and, bound ones; but the only saving effected can be in the smaller and the gold and other ornaments stamped on their backs and sides by means of stamps fixed and heated in a blocking or arming quantity of leather used. press, and pressed with a heavy pressure on the boards. The In stationery B., such as ledgers, day-books, cash-books, &c.,, accompanying fig. represents Gough's patent printing and arm- the process is much the same as above, the chief difference being accompanying fig. represents Gough's patent printing and arm- in the. materials used requiring to be stronger and heavier. ing press, the most useful recent invention in this department. The B. trade is very extensive, and employs a large number 0 By means of it 600 cases can be finished in black printing and The B. trade is very extensive, and employs a large number By means of it fioo cases can be finished in black printing and of men and women in all large cities; and in the higher branches gold per hour. If the books are to have gilt edges, they are first of it, such as finishing, there cities; amen who may well rank as cut smooth all round by the guillotine or cutting machine, and artists, whose productions are essential to there are men who may well rank asof the then fixed into gilding presses, where the gilder washes the edges noblests, whose productions are essential to the adornment of thens. with an adhesive glaire, consisting of the whites of eggs. While the glaire is still moist the gold-leaf is laid on, and when dry the Book-Club, a society for the purchase of books, to be gilder burnishes the edges with an agate burnisher. The two used by the members, and then sold or distributed among parts being now finished, the book is fixed into the case by them. The Bachelors' Club at Mauchline, to which Burns merely pasting the coloured papers at the ends, the small pro- belonged, spent only its fines on books, but may be taken as a jecting tapes, and a small piece of thin cloth over the back of specimen of the reading-society not uncommon in Scotland at the sheets to each board. The books then get a nip in a the end of the I8th c. Lord Brougham, in Practical Observahydraulic press to make them solid and firm. Great taste is now tions on the Education of the People (1825), warmly urged the displayed in the outward appearance of cloth books, in many establishment of such societies on the basis of weekly or monthly 444 4B W BOO THE GLOBE ENCYC LOPzEDIA. BOO contributions. They were chiefly useful in localities where a nellprofit or loss; (3)'Charges,' which will embrace rents, taxes, circulation could be conveniently carried on among a sufficient postages, salaries, and wages, if these latter are not kept in a number, but where the ancient bookstall or the intermediate separate account, and which must be posted to the debit of proitinerating library did not come, and where the prospect of fit and loss. In personal accounts, the balance shows the merprofit did not tempt the more recent lending-library. The chant's indebtedness to others, or theirs to him. When the feeling of corporate responsibility in these matters is rapidly books are balanced, the balance of the profit and loss is posted growing, but voluntary agency is still active-(I) in connection -if profit, to the credit, or if loss, to the debit of the stock with special subjects-e.g., a medical or legal reading-club; (2) account, representing the proprietor; or when there is a partnerin connection with a special propaganda-e.g., that of a congre- ship, this same balance is divided according to the terms of cogation or Sunday-school-the selection of books being often very partnery, and posted to each partner's account accordingly. narrow. Business books, kept as above described, form a double-entry set, as it is termed, every debtor having a corresponding creditor, Bookkeeping is believed to have originated with the Vene- and vice versa. tians, who were the great traders of the 15th century, and the There can be little doubt that commercial misfortune often first treatise on the subject was written by Lucas Pacioli, usually comes of badly-kept books; yet the first formation of such a called Lucas de Burgo, a learned monk of the Minorite order, set of books, and their constant maintenance in a perfectly satisand was published at Venice in I494. The system expounded by factory state, requires only ordinary intelligence to express corDe Burgo was universally practised by the merchants of Venice, rectly and clearly the first record; promptitude in doing it while and is still that generally used. It is known as the'Italian the transaction is fresh in the memory; punctuality, watchfulmethod;' and was so perfect and complete at first, that but little ness, and clerical accuracy in advancing the record through the improvement has been made upon it up till the present time. books. If this is conscientiously done, the scientific principles The leading purposes of B. are-(I) to secure a correct record of the method will keep everything right. The state of the merof all transactions between traders and those with whom they chant's affairs can then be easily and readily ascertained; and in deal; and (2) to enable them at a given time to ascertain and case of misfortune, his character will be vindicated from at least exhibit the exact position of their affairs. The importance of one reproach. these objects, it must ble apparent, cannot be over-estimated; B. by single entry is devoid of any scientific method, is unyet the reports of the Bankruptcy Courts show conclusively how satisfactory in its working, and wholly inadequate for the proper many conduct their business either without books at all, or with exhibition of mercantile accounts, or the right conduct of a comthese kept in a most unsatisfactory manner. plex business. It answers, however, sufficiently well for the The principles of the Italian method are exceedingly simple, operations of a small retail trader. By this method the prinand may be apprehended and applied by any person with an ciple is kept out of view that every Dr must have a Cr, and ordinary amount of intelligence. Every trader will be the best every Cr a Dr; and the first record of a transaction is made judge what subsidiary books are necessary for fully and correctly with a Dr only or a Cr only, by the principles already explained; recording all the transactions in his business, but there are so that the ledger will contain an account for a Dr only or a several books which are quite indispensable. These are dal- Cr only, each entry being made but once in the ledger, either book, invoice-book, cash-book, and ledger. The day-book preserves on a debit or a credit side. In a set kept on this principle, a record of all goods sold on credit, the buyer being Dr (debtor) a day-book, cash-book, and ledger are deemed sufficient. The for the amount. An entry should be made periodically of all balancing is simply effected. The ledger accounts are closed with goods sold for cash,'cash sales' being made Dr. In B. by To or By balance as the case may be; and a Dr and Cr balance double entry, either each individual entry may be credited to account being then formed, and the cash balance entered in another account, or the summation of the whole month's entries it, the account is closed with the entry,' By present nett capital.' may be credited to'goods account. In the invoice-book are It will be easy for a trader using such a set to have a few entered all goods purchased, the amount or details of each accounts made up by double entry at monthly or quarterly invoice or account of purchases being specified. An entry should periods, in order to exhibit a clear summary of his transactions. also be made periodically of goods purchased for cash,'cash For all the purposes required by a professional man, a simple purchases' being Cr. The cash-book contains a record of all ledger of this kind, combined with a cash-book or cash-ledger cash received and cash paid, the former being entered on the account, ought to be sufficient. See treatises on Bookkeepinizg by debit side, or left-hand page, the latter on the credit, or right- Theo. Jones (Lond. I846), Dr J. Bryce (Glasg. I873), and F. H. hand page. The difference of the summation of the columns, Carter, C.A. (Edinb. I875). when a balance is made, is the cash on hand, which is carried forward to the next period. In some kinds of business a journal Books of Adjournal are the records of the Court of Ju~is kept, in which the entries of the other books are classed under ticiary in Scotland. general heads. All the entries during the month in which Books of Sederunt are the boocs in which the Acts of the same person or thing is Dr or Cr are collected under Sederunt (see, Act ofSe nt) of the Court of the title'Sundries,' with the amounts. Thus the debit side Seeunt (see under AcT, ACe of Sederynt) of the Court of Ses of the cash-book is transferred under the title,' Cash Dr judges present at each meeting. Formerly most public papers to sundries,' and the credit side under that of' Sundries D1~of importance were recorded in these books, and even matters to cash.' All the entries in the day-book, invoice-book, and importance were recorded n these books, and even mattes cash-book are posted direct, if a journal is not used, to their totally unconnected with the businessof theCourt were recorded, several accounts in the ledger, it being thus the summary of every transaction that has taken place. Every debtor and cre- Book Scorpion (Chelzfer), the name applied to certain ditor named in these books must have a folio, or part of one, small Arachnidans (q. v.) belonging to the lower division (Traset apart for the transactions in his or its name. The goods chearia) of that class. They are included in the order Adelarsold, as in day-book, are posted to the debtor side of each custo- throsomata, and derive their name from the fact of their being mer's account; the goods bought, as in invoice-book, are posted commonly found amongst old books, whilst their general appearto the credit side of each creditor's account; while the cash re- ance resembles that of miniature scorpions. The abdomen is ceived is posted to the credit, and the cash paid to the debit, of more o less distinctly segmented and the maxillary papi or the party in whose name the cash is entered. When every entrhe s ae vey long and are terminated by appendages of the jaws are very long, and are terminated by in these three books is correctly posted into the ledger, the posi- chela or nlpping-claws, so as to give the creature the appearance tion of every debtor's and creditor's account is seen at a glance. of possessing five pairs of limbs. They appear to subsist on But besides ordinary debtors' and creditors' accounts-that is, small insects, and may occasionally be seen attacking the compersonal accounts-there arise a number of other accounts which mon fly. must be kept and balanced in order to complete the system. Among these miscellaneous accounts may be classed —(I)'Goods,' Bookstalls. The practice prevailed in early times of exposthe total of goods sold being posted to the credit side, and of ing goods for sale on temporary structures, erected either in goods purchased to the debit side-the difference being gross fairs or markets, or under the shadow of public buildings in profit; (2)' Profit and Loss,' to which the difference under (I) is towns, and, in connection with the sale of books, has lingered carried, also the bad debts, expenses, &c.-the difference being on, though in a very modified form, to our own time. B. are 445 * BOO THEi GLOBE EzNCYCLO~iEDZA. BOO very numerous in Paris, and are still to be found in London and are agencies of the publishers of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Oxford, Edinburgh. In many of them, however, cheap reprints in gay Cambridge, &c. Many of these have travellers who visit bookbindings have in a great degree ousted the old grey volumes in sellers in the country, and supply them with their own publicawhich the former salesmen exclusively dealt. Keepers of B. tions. But a very large portion of the trade is done through the have occasionally risen to eminence in the trade. Of this we wholesale booksellers, who supply the periodicals and books of have an example in the case of Lackington, an extensive London all publishers to the booksellers throughout the country. Many bookseller in the last c.; and in the present, in the great house of these receive parcels daily, some even twice a day, from Lonof the Messrs Chambers in Edinburgh. don to meet the demands of their customers. In addition to the ordinary booksellers, the railway system Book Trade. The important and interesting commerce in has called into existence the railway bookstalls as a means of books as commodities comprises the two departments of pubh distributing in large numbers all classes of books and periodicals. lishing and bookselling. The latter of these sections of tbie The enterprising house of Messrs W. H. Smith & Son, Lontrade was represented by the sellers of MSS. as far back as don, have the contracts for these stalls on nearly all the leading ancient Greek and Roman times; while publishing, as a dis- lines in the country. The canvassing department of the B. T. is tinct form of business, only came into existence with the also carried on to a very large extent by several houses, who have invention of Printing (q. v.). Fust, Schceffer, Gutenberg, and agencies placed all over the country, and who take up such works Caxton-men occasionally combining in themselves the func- as are usually sold in parts. Another extensive branch of this tions of printer, bookseller, and author-numst be regarded as department is the canvassing of books, chiefly Family Bibles in the founders of the modern trade; This article has for its a bound form. Many thousands of these have been sold of late subject the gradual growth and the development of the resources years to parties who paid for them by instalments. of that trade in the vai0ous countries where it has risen to. im-11 It may be of interest to give the number of books issued in portance. Britain for a. single year, together with a distribution of them E2nglanzd.-The B. T. of this country was beset in its in- into: the various departments of literature and science to which fancy by proclamations and pa.tents-royal, Star Chamber de- they belong. In I875 no f~ver than 3577 new books were pub. crees, university licences, and charter of monopoly. In con- lished, and, in addition, 1320o new editions. Of the new books, tradistinction to the early printers of the Continent, who 644 were contributions to fiction, 556 to theology (including sermainly produced classics in the original, those of England mons), 430, to art and mechanical science, 272 to history and biosupplied the aristocracy with classical translations and abridg- graphy, 270 to educational and classical subjects and philology, ments, French and ItaliaP romances, old chronicles, devo: 227 to the literature of travel and geography, 217 to poetry and tional works, &c. Caxton (q. v.) issued 64 books, Pynson 212, the drama, 129 to bellges lettres (essays, &c.), 68 to law, and 68 while Wynkyn de Worde (I493-I535) actually publihed 408. to medicine. There are on record the names of 350 English printers between The foreign and colonial B. T. is large and increasing. The 1474 and I6oo; aid, according to Evelyn, the loss of book, chief imports into England are from Germany, France, Holland, sellers' stock at the Fire of London (i666) amounted to 200,o000oo. Belgium, and the United States, those from France being about (See STATIONERS' COMPANY.) In the fourteen years following one-third of the whole.;, The total imports of books for 1874 I666 there appeared 3550 books, of which a large proportion amounted to,I78,936. The exports in books for the same year were theological. The beginning of a periodical literature con- amounted to /904,792, the trade being with all foreign countries sequent upon the Revolution of r688 is a noteworthy event in and the Colonies. Fully one-half of the total exports are sent the history of the trade. In 1738 the Copyright Act, 8 Anne, c. to Australia and the United States. An international copyright 19, the last of a long series of restrictive measures, expired, and law (see COPYRIGHT) exists between England and three Eurothe trade has ever since been free. It has extended marvel- pean countries-the German Empire, France, and Italy. lously, and has within late years developed quite a new phase in Gerlmany.-Germany is to be regarded as the birthplace of the the issue of cheap literature, inaugurated by the appearance of B. T. as well as of printing, and in early times Frankfurt was Constable's Miscellany (1827), and the Library (1827) of the the metropolis of the trade; a position, however, which has Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Charles Knight, been distinctly occupied by Leipsic since the end of the I7th c. Archibald Constable, and W. & R. Chambers of Edinburgh,, Berlin, Vienna, Niirnberg, Augsburg, and Stuttgart have also of and H. G. Bohn, were the publishers who subsequently, per- comparatively late. years risen into importance as central marts. haps, did most to foster the'popular taste for literature. But these, it must be remembered, are only agency centres, and A determined effort was made some years ago by the, leading have but a greater or less share of publishing. In 1871 Leipsic publishers and booksellers in Great Britain to regulate the prices contained 249 book firms; and out of a population of 106,925 at which books should be sold to the public, and the whole case there were 21 book commission merchants, and 114 publishers, was submitted for the decision of Lord Campbell. He decided the majority of whon had their own printing establishments. The against the movement, and the result has been that free trade has total number of books published in Germany in 1875 was I2,300, since been carried to such an extent in the operations of the B. T. of which Io84 were theological, I177 were legal and political, as to be occasionally fruitful of serious evils. while the rest were mainly histories, biographies, text-books, The B. T. of the present day has assumed enormous propor- novels, and poems. From the various publishing cities packages tions. Authors and publishers produce new works in extra- containing copies of new books pour into Leipsic daily, to be at ordinary numbers, while the works of older and standard authors once circulated again by the commissioners to the remotest parts are largely reprinted in forms to suit all classes of purchasers. of the empire. And so complete is the organisation of the sysThe publishers take the risk, in whole or in part, of publishing tem, that all books almost equally procure the attention of the many of these works, but in many cases the authors are wholly retail sellers, on whom greatly devolves the business of bringresponsible. Good authors have no difficulty in finding pub- ing them under the notice of the public, while little or no exlishers, while indifferent authors have generally to guarantee pense is entailed by the publisher in advertising. The Copyright outlays. This becomes a serious matter for many authors, and Convention h.as existed with England since 1846. The most exposes publishers not unfrequently to unjust charges. It is famous of modern German publishers are perhaps Perthes (q. v.), extraordinary that the ambition of authors generally is not more Tauchnitz (q. v.), and Brockhaus. See Kichhoff, Beitlrc'e zur moderated by the heavy losses they sustain. On the other Geschichte des Euchhandel (Leips. i86i). hand, at no previous period in the history of the B. T. could the Flrance.-Paris is, as it has been from the i6th c:, the great body of popular authors obtain such large returns for their pro- centre of the French trade, and possesses especially many pubductions. In some cases, no doubt, this is the result of the large lishing works on a most extensive scale. Such, for example, is sales which their works command, but the competition among the unique ]rn}5rimerie Nationale, noted for the magnificence of publishers for the works of good authors is so great, that the value its editions. This old establishment (640o), managed at the of an author's MS. is often increased fictitiously. It requires expense and in name of the state, employs about 0ooo workgreat discretion on the part of the publisher to determine what men, and publishes specially legal acts and public documents, books to publish, and the success of the existing houses of note but also, and this gratuitously, such works of an unofficial charis in great part due to the judgment and enterprise with which acter as receive the approbation of a commission under the they have carried on such operations. The principal publishers Minister of Justice. Its command of varieties of type is perhaps in Great Britain have their headquarters in London, where, too, the largest in the world, including the characters necessary for 446 BOO THIE GLOBE _ENCYCLOP-EDIA. BOO the printing of works ill German, Anglo-Saxon, Arabic, Geor- of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for his memoir On the Aylli. gian, Greek, Hindustani, Sanskrit, Russian, Persian, &c. The cation of the Theor;y of Probabilities to the Question of the ComnFrench publishers generally issue a surprising number of large bination of Testimonies or 7gnzments. B. died at Ballintemple, and costly books in all departments of literature. They are 8th December I864. As a pure mathematician he is well known produced regardless of outlay, and many of them are of surpass- by his numerous memoirs and his works on Diferential Equaing beauty. In paper, printing, and illustration they are greatly tions and Finite D)iferences, and also through his development of superior to anything produced elsewhere. As examples of this that method of solution of equations known as the separation we may mention Dore's La Saincte Bible (published at Tours), of symbols. La Dictionnaire de l'Architecturle by Viollet le Duc, and L'Orne- Boomerang, a remarkable hunting instrument and weapon ment Polychurne, &c. used by th aborigines of Australia. It is parabolic in shape, The various other countries of Europe have, without excep- by the aborigines of Australi shape, tion, experienced a rapid increase of prosperity in the B. T. of late years. Belgium has now an active and growing trade, (40)) centred in Brussels, while Holland, greatly the superior of Belgium in point of productiveness, is still vigorous in the publi. cation of Dutch literature, but has greatly lost its character, acquired in the early days (see ELZEVIR), for beautiful printing. Italy, the country of the immortal Aldines (q. v.), is yearly putting forth more voluminous fruits. In Egypt, also, there is a mnade ofhard wood, and fiom 2 feet to 2 feet 8 inches in length, flourishing establishment at Bulac (q. v.) for printing works in the average length being about 2 feet 4 inches. It is 2~ inches Eastern languages. broad and one-third of an inch thick. The ends are rounded, and America. —Like almost everything Transatlantic, the American one of the sides is convex, the other flat, The B. is held by one 13. T. is increasing immensely, the greatest firms being those of end, with the convex side downwards, anal thrown in the opposite Lippincott and Harper. The chief publishing cities are New direction to the object aimed at. It rises into the air with a York, Philadelphia, and Boston. There is no copyright law gyratory motion and whizzing sound, and at length stops, then between the United States and Great Britain, and one result of commences to return, and falls behind the user. The Australian this is that almost every work of importance which is published blacksare very skilful in its use, but Europeans have never been in Great Britain is reprinted in the United States, frequently by able to master it. The B., although not known even to the arrangement with the original publisher, but probably as often aborigines of Tasmania, was used by the ancient Egyptians, and not. These reprints of English works form a very large part of has also been traced by Colonel Lane Fox (vide Report of the the B. T. in America. For many years attempts have been made British Association4, I872 meeting) to the Dravidian races of the by the Governments of both countries to establish an international Indian peninsula, whom Professor Huxley refers to an Austracopyright law, but the privilege of reprinting English publica- loid stock. The Dravidian B. differed from that now used in tions, with or without nominal compensation, is so great, that the Australia in being thicker and heavier, and in not returning. In consent of the United States Government has not to this day been N. America, Dr E. Palmer has discovered that the B. is used by obtained. It may be hoped that the Royal Commission recently the Moqui Indians of Arizona and New Mexico to kill rabbits. (I875) appointed by the British Government to inquire into the They throw it with a motion similar to that by which a stone is question of the copyright laws will be able to find some solution made to skip on the surface of the water. Still more recently of this question. American publishers and booksellers have the B. has been found in use among some of the Indian tribes of now formed an association, the chief object of which is to California. regulate the prices at which books are to be supplied to the trade and to the public. If they are successful in this, there will Boom, n sails are attached or yard to whched. It r eeives the be hope for British publishers and booksellers attempting to do likewise. In America a fall trade-sale is annually held, at which cular sail to which it is attached-e.g., jib-B. nearly all the publishers dispose of large numbers of their publications. The system of canvassing for subscribers to their works _ 7,~' — mis carried on in a most vigorous manner by most of the American - publishing firms. See Enuglish Catalogue of Books (Sampson Low & Co., I863-74), A History of Booksellers (Chatto & Win- Harbour-Boom. dus, I875), and a Reference Catalogue of Currient Literalure in harbours, a chain stretched across an entrance to pr(Whitaker, I875). vent ingress of hostile vessels. B., in girder bridges, the upper Book'um Wood, Bukk'ura (or Wukkum) Wood, or and lower members or flanges of the girders. Sappan, the wood of COsalpinia Saspan (natural order Legu- Boo minosce, sub-order C&csalpinie), a native of India, which is used II miles S. of the cityof Antwerp, on thle river elgium, for dyeing red. The roots of the same tree, under the name of w miles S. of the city of Antwer, on the navigable river Rupel, yellow wood, or sappan root, are used in Ceylon for dyeing yel- salt some nanactu3) 950 It has the most important brick-kilns low. It is also exported to Britain and other countries, salt. Pop. (I873) 9508. It has the most important brick-kilns low. It is also exported to Britain and other countries. in Belgium, I2 corn-mills, 7 wharves, &c. Boole, George, one of the most famous of modern mathe- Boone, Daniel, the pioneer of the white settlers in Kentucky, maticians, was born at Lincoln, November 2, 1815. His father, wasbornin Pennsylvania, February I735. He afterwards resided though a tradesman of very limited means, was a man of thought- in N. Carolina, and there married; but, inspired by a love of ful and studious habits; and from him B. received his instruction nature and a fondness for adventure, he crossed the Alleghanies in elementary mathematics. After being an assistant-teacher for in 1769, and reached a branch of the Ohio called Kentucky. four years, during which lie made himself proficient in ancient On its banks, in 1775, he built a fort named Boonesborough and modern literature, he opened a school in Lincoln when only Twenty years later he removed to Missouri, where he died, Septwenty years of age. From this time his special study was tember 26, 1822. Kentucky, which owes so much to him, has mathematics. In 1839, his memoir, entitled Researches on the ever held his memory in the highest respect, and his remains Theory of Analytical Tranrsformations, was published in the were finally interred with much pomp in Frankfort, the capital Cambnridge Mathematical 7ournal; and in 1:844 he received the of the state. B. is the typical backwoods hero of all American royal medal of the Royal Society of London for his paper On a youth. General Method in Analysis. In I847 the attention of B. was - attracted to the subject of mental science, from the controversy tBoonesborough, a small village in Madison county, Ken. between Sir WN. Hamilton of Edinburgh ahd Professor De Mor- tucky, U. S., founded by Daniel Boone, where he built the first gan; and in the same year appeared his Mathematical Analysisort in ogaf; and in the same year appeased hIn heel Matical Anatysis mKentucky river, above Frankfort, and near to Lexington. Here in Queen's College, Cork, a position he held till his death. His met the first statelegislature W. of the Alleghanies. most elaborate work, An investigation of the Laws of Thought, Boot, an instrument of judicial torture, formerly used by the was published in 1854; and in 1854 he received the Keith medal Privy Council and the Justiciary of Scotland to extort confession or 447 * BOO THE GLOBE EVC YCL OPMDJI. BOP evidence. It consisted of a cylinder of iron rings, or of a wooden fine. But at fairs, if sanctioned by the local authority, they box, in which the leg was placed, wooden wedges being ham- are still within the statute 6 and 7 Vict., c. 68, s. 23, if coninered in between the leg and the B. Shields, in a Hind let fined to histrionic spectacles. Loose, says this was done'till the marrow came out of the bone.' The limb was often rendered useless. In 1579 the B. iBooth, Barton, a famous actor, related to the Earl-s of Warwas inflicted on a clergyman and notary, false witnesses to a ington, and born in Lancashire, I68i. He was educated at solemn deed. In I583, Walsingham ordered Holt the Jesuit to Westminster, and afterwards at Cambridge University, but ran undergo the B. in Scotland, and next year he ordered the same away at the age of seventeen, and became a strolling player. torture for Hurley the Jesuit, suspected of complicity in the He played successfully at Bartholomew Fair and at Dublin, and Desmond rebellion, The cases of Fian (I59I) and Balfour finally (I70I) made his appearance at Drury Lane, then under (1596) involved charges of witchcraft and murder. In Grant's Betterton, where he soon became a great favourite, especially case (theft and robbery, I632), the plea that Grant, having witl the court and aristocracy. Among his chief parts were passed the ordeal, should be set at liberty, was repelled. Except Othello and the Ghost in HIamlet, the impressiveness of his in extraordinary cases before the council, the B. was not used acting rendering the latter a wonderful performance. He also before the jury, but by way of precognition; what the prisoner gained great praise in the r61e of Addison's Cato. On the first confessed was afterwards proved at his trial. In Covenanting night on which the tragedy was performed, a purse of fifty times the B. was used in the politico-military trials-e.g., Hugh guineas was collected in the boxes, and presented to the actor'I'Phail's. On the murder of President Lockhart (i689), and'for his honest opposition to a perpetual dictator, and his dying in Payne's case (the Montgomery Plot, I690), the B. was used; so bravely in the cause of liberty.' After having succeeded Betin the latter case along with the thumb-screws, at the express terton as Ilanager, he died May I0, 1733. desire of William III. The Claim of Right (1689) declares Boo'thia Felix, a peninsula on the N. of the American' that the using torture withount evidence, or in ordinary cyrimes, is continent, bounded on the N. by Bellot Strait (q. v.). It was contrary to law.' All torture was abolished by 7 Anne, c. 20. named after Sir Felix Booth by Sir John Ross, who discovered M'Laurin states the B. was brought from Russia: it was a new it, and supposed it to extend to Barrow Strait. -B., Gulf of, thumb-screw, which Drummond and Dalziel imported during the separates B. F. from Cockburn Island on the W. persecutions. The French brodeuinz resembles the B. Boots. (The word'boot,' it may be noticed, is of Teutonic Boots (GCr.'ox-driver'), according to the Roman mytho- origin, being the Ger. biitte, whence the Fr. botte, and the Ital. grapher Hyginus, was originally called Philomclos, and was botta, a'butt,' or'leathern bottle.' The transition from the the son of Ceres and Iasion; when he saw himself robbed of all leathern bottle to'boot' is not peculiar to French; the Eng. his property by his brother, Plutos, he invented the plough, to' boot' is used to signify both foot-gear and the luggage-box in which he yoked two steers, and began to till the ground. As a a stage-coach.) Modern B. are strong, durable coverings for the reward for this invention, he was, along with his-plough and feet, made of tanned leather, always reaching above the ankles, oxen, translated by his mother to the stars. According to another and sometimes extending to near the knees. There is considerversion of the myth, B. was the son of Lycaeon and Callisto, and able variety in their forms, and in the mode in which they are was placed by Zeus among the constellations, one of which, fastened to the feet, tie most recent and now generally adopted Arcturus, received his name. fashion being by elastic-web gussets in the sides. Further details Booth, a temporary structure of boards, boughs of trees, can- regarding bootmaking will be given under SHOES and SHOEvas stretched on a wooden frame, or other light material. The MAKING. etymology is disput- B. are of comparatively modern introduction, and appear ______ ed, some deriving it to have gradually come into use after the Norman conquest. from the Gaelic both In Les Mwurs, Costumes, et Clsages au Moyen Age of Lacroix, an or bothag, a bothy, o illustration of the I3th c. occurs, in which long B. like Hessians hut, others from the are seen. From the time of Edward IV. onward, long B. came i:~ Greebtapft, a bothy, or into common use for gentlemen. The B. worn at this period gazine or storehouse, were drawn out in front to long tapering points, and when this -> whence iniquestion- fashion was prohibited by law, the shape ran into an equally >{.'~ " nhly the French boe- absurd breadth of toe, which in its turn had to be restricted by tique. But there is legal enactment. About the period of the Reformation, B. were more probability in worn wide at the top, and having a piece folded back which the conjecture that could be pulled up considerably higher than the knee. The m the word is of Teu- courtiers of the time of Charles II. wore an edging of costly lace tonic origin, and con- round the widely-expanded top of the B. then in fashion. The nected with the Old jack-boot came into use in the time of James II.; the Hessian nug. eban, to dwell, was introduced during the reign of George III., and top-B. Ger. baeen, to build, came into fashion about the end of last century. Wellingtons Booth. It is the same as the Loa*h. It is the same as the were introduced by the great Duke to supersede Hessians, and Dan. by (in Normandy bire and bu/zf), a dwelling-place. The were worn under the trouser-leg. prevalent Lowland Scotch form is buith. Booths, set up in prevalent Lowland Scotch form is barithi. Booths, set up in Boot'y. This is technically a military term denoting the proa locality at the annual fair where the trade of the district Booty. Ths is techncallya militaryter denoting the pro as localiy ttannalt fai were thes ta de of the trc perty taken in war. The corresponding naval term is Prize (q. v.). fair w as ended; buted when weekly mssarilykets superseded the Nominally the property of the sovereign, B. is always divided annual fair was ended booths were often allowrked to rema d among the captors. The officers and the field-officers appoint annual fairs, dthe booths were often allowed to remin during agents, who sell the captured property, and hand the proceeds to the intervals, and gradually became permanent. Encroach the authorities. A scheme of apportionment is then made out, in ments were thus made on the recesses of buildings, and even accordance with a list of those entitled to share, previously sent in aron the streets of towns; and the early monkish chroniclers by the commanding officer, and the money is paid accordingly. are loud in their complaints against the appropriation of sites by stall-keepers without authority received from the Bopp, Franz, a distinguished Sanskrit scholar, was born at superior. Licence to get out a stall frequently resulted in Mainz, September 14, I791. From an early age he devoted liberty assumed to build a house on the spot. In this way, himself to the study of Oriental languages, and continued his according to Stow, arose Old Fish Street, London, and part of labours in that department at Paris, London, and Gbttingen. Cheapside. The Luckenbooths in the centre of the High Street, He published a work on the Sanskrit verb, a Sanskrit gramEdinburgh, arose in similar fashion. The shed, at first movable, mar, a complete system of the Sanskrit language, a Sanskrit voin time got attached to the wall of some cathedral or town- cabulary, fragments of the Mahabharala, and a comparison of house, soon came to have a'solar' or loft above it, in which the the Celtic languages with Sanskrit, &c. In I82i he was aptradesman resided, and a cellar beneath it in which he stored his pointed Professor of Oriental Languages at Berlin. His Vergoods. Booths must now be licensed; if not, they are public gleichende GCrammatik des Sanskrit, Zend, Griechischen, Lateininuisances, and subject those who erect them to punishment by _chen, ithAauischen, Altslavisch/n Gotischen, send Dzutschcn 448 BOP THE GLOBE ENCYCI OPAEIA4. BOR (Berl. I833-53; 2d ed. with the relations of the Armenian, 3 Borage' (Borago), a genus of plants of the natural order vols. Berl. I856-6I; 3d ed. I868), may be said to have laid the Boragiznacee (q. v.). They are all rough, hairy annuals or bien-. foundation of the science of comparative philology. The first nials, with blue flowers in loose spirally coiled cymes. There edition was translated into English by Eastwick (1845-50). B. are few species, and these chiefly from N. E. Europe and Western died 22d October I867. Asia. There is only one British species, the common B. (B. oficiBopp'ard, a town of the Rhine province, Pussia miles. nais), which is doubtfully indigenous, and is probably originally Bof Coben by railp'ard, a town of the Rh ine prove ince, Pussiaes. It is S. an escape from gardens in which it was introduced long ago from of Cobentz by rail, with several active industries. It is the the E. Mediterranean region. The young leaves and shoots are ancient Bauobrig, was in the middle ages an imperial city, pickled, and sometimes served as a table vegetable; but beyond and still contains the ruins of the Roman fortress built by the range of the domestic pharmacopei, B,, at one time held in Drussus. Near it is Marienberg, the celebrated hydropathic re- tge range of the domestic pharmacopea B, at one tie held in ~~~sort. Pop. (~87I) 26Io~. great renown as a remedy in pectoral affections and as an exsort. POP. (187I) 2610. hilarant, is esteemed of little value as a medicinal plant. Boque'tin, or Ibex of the Alps (Cayra Ibex), a species Boragina'cer, or Boraginea, a natural order of dicotyle. of goats inhabiting the lofty mountain ranges of the Alps and donous plants, to which Ec/iumn, Mestensia, Lungwort, ouzndsother European mountains, at a higher range than the Chamois tongue, Borage, Alkanet, Forget-~me-not, &c., belong. It is a (q. v.). It is named' Steinbock' in German Switzerland. The numerous order, comprising nearly 58 genera and 700 species, ibex is of the size of an ordinary goat. The winter coat consists chiefly natives of the northern hemisphere, and having but few of long rough hair, covering a finer under-wool, which forms the representatives in the tropics or in the southern hemisphere. It summer coat. The head is small, but the horns are very large, differs from all the allied orders except the Labiatcz (cq. v.) by curved upwards and backwards, and possess prominent cross-bars the four-seeded nut, and from these by their alternate leaves on their front surfaces. The horns of the female are very small and more regular flowers. The plants of the order are chiefly as compared with those of the male, which may attain a length remarkable for their mucilaginous properties. Nearly all are of 2 feet. The colour is light, brown above and white beneath, harmless, and are of little value as medicinal agents. Alkanet a black band existing on the back, and a brown line crossing (Anchusa tinctoria) roots yield a dark blood-red dye. The young the flanks. The tail is short. A small, rough, black beard is shoots of Comfrey (Symphytum oficinale) are eaten as a vege. developed. The food consists of herbage, shrubs, and lichens. table, and are a good substitute for spinach. The root contains These animals are very active, and exercise a keen sense of smell, much starch, and when scraped ad laid on calico it forms a and of sight also. They execute considerable leaps, and may good bandage for wounds. Several plants of the order-e.g., even escape uninjured, when pursued, by leaping from heights Sweet fBeiotrobSe-are cultivated in our gardens. that would ensure the destruction of less agile animals. If hard pressed, the ibex may charge the hunter. These animals are Bora Samba, a small half-independent Indian state, on the readily domesticated, and will breed with the common goat. S.W. frontier of Bengal, paying an annual tribute of,6I6 to The hybrid progeny will breed with either the ibex or the goat. the British Government. The country is rugged, with an area of about 620 sq. miles; the pop. is estimated at 28,ooo. Bo'ra, Katharina von, the wife of Luther, was born at L6ben, in Saxony, 29th January I499. While very young she Borass'us, See PALMYRA PALM. was placed in the convent of Nimptschen. On reading some of Bo'rax is a colourless crystalline compound of boracic acid the writings of Luther, she determined to abandon a monastic and soda, It occurs native in China, Persia, Ceylon, Peru, and life, and, along with eight of her companions, she applied to on the shores of certain lakes in Thibet. Crude B. from the Luther for help. ILeonhard Koppe, a citizen of Torgau, at the latter locality is called Tincal. B. is now principally prepared instance of Luther, succeeded in effecting their escape on the from the boracic acid of Tuscany, by neutralising a solution of night of 4th April 1523. Katharina found an asylum in the that substance with one of carbonate of soda, and evaporating house of the burgomaster Reichenbach, at Wittenberg, and was to crystallisation. If it be allowed to crystallise from its aqueous married to Luther, I3th June I525. This marriage proved emi- solution at a temperature of 25-30~ C. it separates in prismatic nently happy; and Luther in his will left all his property to her, forms (ordinary B.), and contains IO molecules of water of whom he playfully termed Catha ~mea ('my Katie'). She died crystallisation, its formula being Na2B407, IoHIO. If the at Torgau, 20th December I552. See Walch's Geschichte der crystallisation takes place at 56-79~ C., the B. is octohedral in IathD. von B. (2 vols. Halle, I752-54), and Beste's Gesczic/te shape, and contains only half as much water of crystallisation, alate. von B.'s (Halle, I843). its formula being then Na2B407,5sH. 0. B. is valuable to the chemist as a blow-pipe reagent. When strongly heated, it parts Bora'cic Acid is a white crystalline substance, which in the with its water of crystallisation, and fuses to a clear glass, which anhydrous condition is simply an oxideof the elementBoron, having has the property, at a high temperature, of dissolving many the formula B203O; but in the hydrated states is a compound of metallic oxides, and forming coloured and characteristic comoxide of boron and water, B203,3H20, or B(OH)3. It was dis- pounds (B. beads). It is also used as a flux in soldering metals, covered in I702 by Homberg (Honzber;g's sedative sailt), but it is as it protects their surfaces from oxidation, and at the same time supposed that the chrysoseolZa of Pliny was the same substance. dissolves any oxide that may be presept. In the arts B. is emIt occurs in the uncombined state in the crater of Vulcano, one ployed in the manufacture of certain kinds of glass, enamel, of the Liparic islands, but is obtained in largest quantity from and porcelain. It is used in medicine both as an internal and the sofloni or jets of vapour which issue from the ground in external remedy. many parts of Tuscany. The soffoni, or funmeroloes, containing, in addition to hot aqueous vapour, sulphuretted hydrogen and a Bor'da, Jean Charles, an eminent French mathematician small quantity of B. A., are directed into lagoons or ponds of and astronomer, celebrated for many ingenious inventions and water; the water takes up the B. A., and becomes heated to the improvements, was born at Dux, May 4, 1733, and died at Paris, boiling-point. The lagoons are arranged in such a manner that February zo, T799. His scientific reputation rests chiefly upon the water from the highest can reach the lowest after passing his corrections of the seconds pendulum, and his improvement of through the intermediate ones. The water is allowed to remain the reflecting circle. in each lagoon for from twenty to thirty hours, and finally con- Bordeaux', a beautiful city, the capital of the department tains from 2 to 2 per cent. of B. A. It is then led into a'series of Gironde, France, on the left bank of the Garonne, 60 miles of shallow evaporating cisterns, made of lead, and heated by the from its mouth in the Atlantic, and 3Io miles S.W. of Paris by fuimerolles themselves, when it becomes sufficiently concentrated railway. It consists partly of an old town, chiefly composed of for the B. A. to crystallise out on cooling. Tuscany yields about dilapidated wooden houses of the 15th c., and of more modern 2,500,000 lbs. annually. B. A. combines with various bases to portions laid out in regular streets, open squares, and beautiful form a class of salts called Borates, the most important of which boulevards. The principal buildings are the Cathedral of St is the Bi-borate of Soda, or borax, Na2B407. A few of them Andre, commenced in the IIth c,; the Town-hall, partly deoccur native as minerals, but are unimportant. B. A. is em- stroyed by fire in 1875; the fine old churches of St Croix, ployed as a flux in the preparation of certain kinds of glass, St Seurin, and St Michel; the beautiful quadrangular clockand as an antiseptic dressing for wounds. It is chiefly employed tower of Pey-Berland; a palace built by Napoleon in i8io; the in the manufacture of borax. Exchange; and the theatre (x777), one of the best in France. 57 449 *.a 4 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4_ BOR THTE GL OBE ENCYCL OPEDIA. BOR There is here an Acadenie Universitaire, with fifteen professors, after invasion of each other's territories by both kings, the which took the place in 1839 of the old university, founded discussion of the claims on the Northumberland districts was by Pope Eugenius IV. in I44I; also an academy of arts and proceeded with till I237, when Henry III. agreed to give the sciences, established in I712; many educational institutions and Scots certain manors in Cumberland and Northumberland, not learned societies; one of the richest museums of precious stones in sovereignty, but in feudal property,-an offer which was in France; and a public library of I4o,ooo volumes. B. is con- accepted. From this time the efforts of the Scots to extend nected with the suburb of La Bastide, on the right bank of the their frontiers ceased, and the boundary of the two kingdoms Garonne, by one of the finest stone bridges in Europe, erected began to be distinctly and permanently recognised. Thus, by Deschamps the elder (1811I-2I). It is 532 yards long, and though the actual frontier of the kingdoms varied at dif. spans the river in 17 arches. B. is accessible by the Garonne at ferent periods, the district which we now know as the B. has all times to ships of 6o0o tons, and at high tide to vessels of over been the B. throughout all historical time. It has been -said 0ooo tons; while by the Canals d'Orleans and Du Midi it has of Scotland that no country in the world is marked with so communication with the S. of France and the Mediterranean. many battlefields, and it may be added that no district of It has regular packet service with Holland, England, the W. Scotland is marked with so many sites of battle and foray as Indies, Brazil, and Australia. Its chief exports are the famous the B. The contests of the neighbouring kings led of necesB. wines (see CLARET), brandy, vinegar, hams, glass bottles, sity to frequent battle and constant feud between neighbourturpentine, and dried fruits. There are also manufactures of sugar, ing B. families; and the history of the district, when it is not liqueurs, printed calicoes, woollens, carpets, paper, nitric acid, strictly a part of the history of Scotland, is mainly a record and earthenware. Pop. (I872) I82,727. of deliberate battle, or sudden attack and reprisal. Yet the Under the name Burdigala, of which B. is but the modern story is chequered with the tenderest passages. Between son form, it was the emporium and port of the Bituriges Vivisci, and and son of two hostile families the traditional hatred of their became a great commercial city under the empire. After the race was maintained; between son and daughter a different feeldivision of Aquitania into provinces, it obtained the title of ing was sometimes engendered, and the'sad wooing' of young metropolis of Aquitania Secunda. Ausonius the poet, who was people belonging to the'Capulets and Montagues' of the Scotborn here, gives numerous descriptions of the city in his verse. tish B. has formed the theme of many pathetic Ballads (q. v.). The first Christian church was planted at B. in 272 A.D. The Ridpath (B. History of Eng'land and Scotland) gives a very city passed successively into the hands of the Vandals, the Visi- curious account of a number of articles drawn up by a joint-coingoths, and the Franks. Sacked by the Spanish Arabs in 732, mission from the two kingdoms, in I248, respecting the'B. laws it was reconquered by Charles Martel in 735, Charlemagne ap, and customs,' the first of which articles was to the effect,'that pointed a Comes (Count) of B. in 778. The city was repeatedly any subject of Scotland (or England) accused of committing plundered by the Normans in the 9th c., and only began to re- robbery, theft, homicide, or any other crime that ought to be cover in the ioth c. For nearly two centuries it continued to be tried by single combat, shall not be obliged to answer in any ruled by the Dukes of Guienne, till the marriage of Eleanor of other place but in the marches of the two kingdoms,' or in the Guienne with Henry II. of England in 1154. It remained in B. In 16o3 James I. of England, in pursuance of his purpose English possession for three centuries, but was ultimately taken of extinguishing the hostilities between the B. families, forbade by Charles VII. of France, October 17, I453. By resisting the the use of the name of The B.; and commanded that thenceforth salt-trax in I547, B. incurred the bloody vengeance of the the name of the'Middle Shires' should be applied to the counConstable Montmorenci, and it was also the scene of a terrible ties on the frontier. See Scott's B. Antiquities and M'instrelsy massacre of the ituguenots in I572. In the time of the Revolu- qf the Scottish B., Chalmers's Caledonia, and J. Hill Burton's tion, B. was conspicuous as the headquarters of the Girondists; Histo;y of Scotland (1867). In recent times the districts of the and subsequently it was the first town (I814) to favour the return B. are being in great part laid out in sheep farms, and under of the Bourbons. During the German war the Provisional Go- cultivation the whole region is losing to a great extent the vernment was forced to retire from Tours to B., where a National savage and gloomy appearance it wore before its slopes had ever Assembly, summoned by the Provisional Government in Paris, been made'blythe by plough and harrow.' The moor and met, I3th February 1871, for the purpose of negotiating a peace, moss country of the lower slopes of the Cheviots in Roxburghand continued to meet till March 20, when it was transferred to shire-formerly the impenetrable haunt of mosstroopers-is Versailles. See O'Reilly's Histoire Compllte de B. (2 vols. Bord. rapidly being converted into arable land. See Howitt's Visits 1853-60). to Remlarkable Places. Bordelais, a district in the old province of Guienne, France, Border Warrant is a warrant issued by the Judge Ordinary now included in the departments of Gironde and Landes. The on the border between England and Scotland on the petition of name is still applied to the inhabitants of Bordeaux, formerly a creditor, to arrest the person or effects of a debtor on the capital of B., English side, and to detain him until he find security for his appearance in any action which may be brought for the debt Bor'der, a tract of territory lying on both sides of the frontier appearance in any action which may be brought for te debt within six months, and for his abiding the result of it. line between England and Scotland. This tract was variable at w s on f hsabdin herelt o differeht epochs, as the fortunes of the war that raged between Bor'dure, one of the subordinaries in heraldry, and a mark the two countries from the xiith to the 17th c. added to or the two countries from the 11th to the 17th c. added to or of Cadency (q. v.), is the border of a shield. It is borne plain or char ged, and in it r eferencem mightad e t o the profession of diminished the frontier territories of either country; but it may hre a I efen m b d t e oesi f be said to have always included those wild and lonely tracts, the bearer. Thus a judge's shiel might appropriately show a. sometimes grassy, but often rugged, and impassable to all horse- ermine, and a soldier's a B. embattled. men save those born and bred among their mosses, streams, and Bore, a phenomenon observable in the estuaries of certain ravines, which still form so characteristic a feature of the region, rivers, due to the tidal wave from the sea being impeded by the In I 138 David I. (q. v.) of Scotland marched southward to assert gradually narrowing channel, thus giving rise to a kind of watery his right to the province of Northumberland, of which his son was ridge stretching across the stream, and travelling upwards with heir by inheritance, but was defeated and slain at the Battle of great velocity. The most celebrated bores are those of the the Standard (q. v.). In I57,Malcohn IV.(q. v.)agreedtogive Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Indus, though the phenomenon is up any claims he might have to Northumberland and Cumbria, also seen well in the case of some of our own rivers. though on the same occasion he was reinvested in the honour and Bore, the internal cavity of a cannon, rifle, gun, pistol, or Earldom of Huntingdon. Malcolm's successor, William the Lion other kind of firearm. In some kinds of cannon, and in shot(q. v.), demanded restitution of Northumberland, and being cap- guns, the B. is cylindrical, while in others and in modern small tured in open war on English ground, was carried to Falaise in arms it is furrowed by spiral grooves, or in other words rifled. Normandy, and only released from captivity by signing the treaty Technically the B. is the diameter of the cavity, and in the case of Falaise in December I 174, in which the Scottish king agreed to of rifled arms the mean diameter is taken as the B. The B. of do homage in the future for the kingdom of Scotland to the King shot-guns and small arms was formerly regulated by the number of England. This acknowledgment of feudal superiority was for- of spherical bullets fitting the cavity that were in a pound mally abandoned by Richard Cceur de Lion. On the accession weight; for example, the Enfield Snider rifle would have been of Alexander II. to the Scottish crown, an attempt was made to called 24-B., because twenty-four spherical leaden bullets fitting reannex the northern provinces of England to Scotland, and the barrel would weigh one pound. 450 4 -_a BOR THE G1OBE ENVCYCIOPLDMIA. BOR Bo'reas, in Greek mythology, the god of the north winter CESARE B., whom in his Pr-inczipe and the Descrizzione del wind, son of Astroeus and Eos, and father of Zetes, Calais, and Modo tentlo dal Duca Valentino the contemporary Machiavelli Cleopatra (hence called Boreades), by Oreithyia, daughter of (for three months an ambassador from Florence to B.) quotes as Erechtheus, king of Attica. Remembering this connection, B. a model of political sagacity, was appointed by his father Arch(according to the Greek belief) answered the prayer of the Athe- bishop of Valencia. On the marriage of his brother Giovanni nians by scattering the fleet of Xerxes near Cape Sepias. In (Duke of Gandia) to Sancia of Aragon, he obtained a grant of token of gratitude, an altar was erected to him at Athens, and a money from Alfonso of Naples; and soon became Cardinal yearly festival (Boreasmos) celebrated in his honour. Valenza. He was given as a hostage to Charles VIII. on his Bore'cole. See KALE. march to Naples. Cesare now wished to pursue a scheme of his father's for obtaining the lands of the Roman nobility, Borell'i, Giovanni Alfonso, a celebrated Italian mathe- which was to be carried out by destroying the Colonna, matician, was born at Naples, January 28, I609, and died at Savelli, and Orsini families. To this end money was required. Rome, December 31, I679. He wrote thirteen treatises, of Cesare therefore murdered the Duke of Gandia, and obtained which the most famous is D)e Motu Animel/urm (2 vols. Rome, the duchy of Benevento. In 1498 he carried to the court I68o-8I; Leyden, I7Io), being the application of the laws of of France the papal divorce which permitted the marriage mechanics to the motion of animals. B. foreshadowed Newton's of Louis XII, with Anne of Bretagne, widow of Charles law of gravitation in his investigations of Jupiter's satellites. VIII. For this he was made Duc de Valentinois. Next Bo'rer, a name applied to the Myxine or~ Ig-fisk (q. v.. year he married Carlotta, daughter of Jean d'Albret, King of Navarre. With the help of French troops, furnished Borer, the name given to certain beetles of the genus Ano- under the treaty between France, Venice, and the Pope of b/ium, to which genus the familiar'Death-watch' (q. v.) belongs. I5th April 1499, Cesare in the beginning of I500 reduced The latter insect, indeed, in its caterpillar or larval state, bores Imola and Forli in the Romagna, and was made Gonfaloniere into wood, and thus destroys furniture of all kinds. They be- of the Church. Pesaro, Rimini, and Faenza were soon afterlong to the tribe Pentamera, the members of which possess five wards occupied, and the Florentines were compelled to joints in their tarsi. The jaws in these larval insects are of appoint him their Condottiero, with a large annual tribute. strong make, and constitute the boring organs; and the ]arva After assisting Louis XII. in the joint-occupation of Naples, reside in the burrows thus formed during their pupa state, Cesare, whom his father had made Duke of Romagna, successemerging therefrom as the perfect beetle or imaago. One species, fully attacked Piombino and Urbino, and would have occupied Lymexylon navale, burrows into and destroys oak timber, and Florence, if the French king had not intervened. The blame of thus does great damage in dockyards. It is chiefly found in N. this expedition he skilfully threw on Orsino, Gravina, and Europe. others who were his allies, and whom he shortly afterwards, The name'B.' is also applied to certain Lamellibranchiate during their joint-attack on Sinigaglia, treacherously murdered. shell-fish or Mo//lusca, which bore into rocks by means of their The death of Alexander VI. in I503 stopped the success of shells. Of these latter forms, the Pholas (q. v.) or Piddock, the Cesare. The Roman nobles combined against him; his newlyTeredo (q. v.) or Shipworm, &c., are familiar examples, acquired dominions (except some districts in the Romagna, Borghe'se, a distinguished Roman family, originally of where he had instituted a system of justice) revolted, and the Sienna, where it occupied the most important positions from the election of Julius II. decided his departure from Rome. After middle of the I5th c. The foundations of its greatness at Rome an attempt to raise forces at Naples, B. was imprisoned by were laid by Camillo B., elected pope in i605, with the title Ferdinand of Spain in the castle of Medina del Campo. Escapof Paul V., who loaded his relatives with wealth and honours. iing at the end of two years, he entered the army of Navarre, and From his nephew, Marco Antonio B., who died in I658, is was killed at Vienne in 1507. B.'s skill in diplomacy and war descended the present B. family. It greatly enriched itself by was greatly enhanced by his systematic and heartless treachery, fortunate marriages, especially with the Aldobrandini, Spinola, a quality, however, which was very common among the leading and Colonna families. Camillo Filippo Ludovico B., Italians of the time. Fuller has called him'the practical Prince of Sulmona and Rossano, was born at Rome, igth July atheist.' (The Italian Life of B. is by Tomasi; there is one in 1775. In I803 he married Pauline, sister of Napoleon Bona- English by ordon.'See also Roscoe's LeO X., vol. i.) parte, was created Duke of Guastalla, and became for a time LUCREZIA B., born in 1478, was married in I493 to Giovanni governor-general of the Transalpine provinces. He separated Sforza, Lord of Pesaro grand-nephew of Ludovico Sforza of firom Pauline after the fall of her brother; and died at Florence, Milan. Divorced from him, in I498 she married the Duc de BisIoth April I832. The magnificent Villa B., near the Porta del ceglie, a natural son of Alfonso II., receiving as dowry from her Popolo, at Rome, was built by Scipione Caffarelli B., in the father Spoleto and Sermoneta. The Duke was murderedin I5oo. I7th c., and had formerly a splendid art collection, now mainly After assisting her father in public business for a time, Lucrezia to be found in Paris. The B. Palace is also one of the finest in was married in I50I to Alfonso of Este, son of Ercole, Duke of Rome. Ferrara, whose first wife, Anne Sforza, had died. Lucrezia's Borghe'si, Bartolommleo, Count, an Italian antiquarian son by this marriage succeeded his father in Ferrara as Ercole and numismatist, was born at Savignano, near Rimini, iith II. At the court of Ferrara, where Ariosto, the Strozzi, Cieco, July 1781. From an early age he devoted himself to archo Bembo, Frissino, and Aldo Manuzio then lived, and where logical studies, and arranged the collections of coins and medals Boiardo had just died, Lucrezia's behaviour seems to have been in Milan and the Vatican. In 182I, B. withdrew to the little worthy of her patriotic and virtuous husband. Shevorganised republic of San Marino, where he died, i6th April I86d. The charity, and promoted religion, and frequently in the absence French Government undertook the publication of his complete of the Duke administered public affairs. In the wars of the works, of which 7 vols. appeared i862-7I. His principal work Cambrai League and of Pope Julius II. against Ferrara she is NuaWVi Foramenti dci Fasi Causare/an Capita/nii 1/lustreir often distinguished herself by her courage and her sympathy (2 vols. Mil. I818-20). B. was a corresponding member of the people. She died 22d June I5I9. The legend of Institute of France, and an Associate of the Academy of Berlin. Lucrezia's vices has been skilfully wrought up by a Neapolitan poet and a Neapolitan historian (Sarmazaro and Gaicciardini), Bor'gia, the name of a Spanish family, the first important and has become the subject of Victor Hugo's magnificent trapersonage in which is Alfonso B., Pope Calixtus III. (I455- gedy. The historical evidence does not support the charge of 58), who endeavoured to unite Europe against Mohammed II. double incest brought against her, and makes it certain that her His nephew by a sister, who married Godfrey Lenzuolo of Valen- later life was free from blame. (The most recent Italian Life is cia, was Roderigo B., born in I431, who, at first an advocate by Zuchetti, published at Mantua in 860o. See also Gilbert's and soldier, was appointed by his uncle Archbishop of Valencia - Zfe of Lucrezia B., and Roscoe's Leo X. vol. i.) The most and Cardinal S. Nicolo; was sent by Sixtus IV. to Spain to trustworthy account of the B. family is contained in the despatches settle the Castile succession, and, on the death of Innocent of Antonio Giustiniani, Venetian ambassador in Rome from I502 VIII. in I492, was elected through shameless bribery Pope to 1505, edited by Professor Villari (Lemonnier, Flor. I875). Alexander VI. (q. v.). By a woman named Rosa Vanozza or Giulia Farnese, Roderigo had several children, of whom Cesare Bor'go (Ger. burg, Eng. borough and burth), the name of and Lucrezia B. are best known. many villages and towns in Italy, the most important of which ~ sI-5 BOR THE GI OBE ENVCYCI OPADIA. BOR are-I. B. San Donnino, a walled town, province of Parma, reached. The jumvzter is used for rock too hard to be drilled. on the railway between Parma and Piacenza. It is a bishop's It is simply a steel chisel, which, being continually raised and see (I50o), and has a cathedral, with some remains of medixval allowed to fall again, breaks the rock underneath it into fragsculpture, several convents, a college, a gymnasium, and manu- ments. The chips thus made are cleared out afterwards with an factures of silk, linen, and woollen fabrics. Wine and oil are auger, or in some cases jumpers are used of such a form that produced in the neighbourhood. Pop. about 6o000o. It is named they can themselves clear out the hole. The varieties of B. tools after a military saint, said to have been martyred here in 304 A.D. are almost innumerable, but most of them come in one or other -2. B. Taro, a walled town in the province of Parma, N. Italy, of the three classes described. Special tools, with valves opensituated on the Taro, a tributary of the Po, 35 miles S.W. from ing upwards at their lower ends, are used for soft or wet strata, Parma. Pop. 6938.-3. B. Manero, a walled town, province in which also it is often necessary to line the bore with tubing. of Novara, with a cathedral, two convents, and some manufac- For very hard rock, diamond-pointed tools are now being used tures. Pop. 6ooo. There is also B. in Finland, at the mouth of with great success, and in many cases they are worked by coma river of the same name, with a considerable trade. Pop. 3182. pressed air where hand-working would be impossible. Tools are also made which will bring up solid cylinders of the material Boring. The tools used for this operation, and the mode of bored through, instead of breaking it into fragments. See also conducting it, vary altogether according to the nature of the ma- MINING and TUNNELLING. terial to be pierced. The principal tools used in the B. of timber or woodwork-the auger and the brace-and-bit for large holes, Bor'lase, Rev. William, an English antiquary, was born the gimlet and bradawl for smaller ones-are too well known to at Pendeen, Cornwall, February 2, 1696, educated at Exeter need description. College, Oxford, and appointed vicar of St Just, I732. He B. in metals is carried on either by dirills or by B.-bars, the died at Ludgvan, 3Ist August I772. B. is the author of Antipiece to be bored being fixed upon or beside a drilling or B. quities of Cornwall (754), and Natural History of Cornwall machine, by which the tool is caused to revolve. Drills of some (x758). B. was one of Pope's correspondents, and is the author kind are the tools commonly used when a hole has to be pierced, of several religious pieces, now forgotten. -Another Cornishman ab initio, through a solid. They are made of steel, and (in the of this name, Henry B. (died 1835), was the founder of the form most commonly used) have one end to fit a socket in the'Plymouth Brethren (q. v.) machine, and the other flattened and pointed like a flat V, the two Borneene'. See CAMPHOR, OIL OF. sides of which are bevelled slightly so as to form cutting edges. The greatest width of the V is the diameterof the hole to be bored. Borneo, next to New Guinea the largest island in the world, Steam cylinders and many other parts of machinery are cast or and by far the largest in the Indian Archipelago, lies about 250 forged hollow, and in these cases the B. is only the removal of miles W. of the Malay peninsula, in lat. 7' N.-4~ 20' S. and long. the skin of the metal so as to form an accurately cylindrical sur- io6~ 40'-II6' 46' E. It is irregular in shape, some 800 miles face. Here one or more steel B. tools are fixed either directly long and 700 broad, and is bounded N, and W. by the Gulf of upon a cylindrical spindle called a B.-bar, or upon a disc attached Siam and Chinese Sea, S. by the Sea of Java, and E. by the to it, the whole receiving a continuous rotation from the machine. Sea of Celebes. Area, 279,400 sq, miles; pop. estimated at In both the systems of B. mentioned, the mechanism is so ar- 3,000,000. It is traversed from S.W. to N.E. by two almost ranged that the tool receives a forward motion simultaneously parallel mountain ranges, the space between which is flat, well with the rotatory one, and it is thus caused to come into contact watered, and fertile. There are many large rivers, chiefly in continually with fresh portions of material. the N. and W., but they have usually bars at their entrance; B. in earth or rock for geologic or engineering purposes is and as the coasts do not present large indentations, there carried on principally with three classes of tools-augers, worms, are few good harbours, The climate is temperate in the and jumpers. Augers are used for B. through ordinary soils, clay, N., where the country is hilly, but in the lower parts is gravel, chalk, and the softer humid and unhealthy, the rainy season lasting from Norocks. They are in form hol- vember to May. There are said to be many large lakes low cylinders of wrought iron, in the interior, but the island is unexplored in many parts. steeled, generally about 3~ The botanical products are singularly various, including inches diameter and i8 inches iron-wood, ebony, sandal-wood, gutta-percha, teak, ratans, long, having a sharp-edged benzoin, dragon's-blood, sago, and various vegetable oils, gums, -slit down one side. The and dye-woods. The exports also include spices, pepper, rice, width given to the slit and yams, cotton, sugar-cane, indigo, frtuits, cocoa-nuts, coffee, and the form of the lower end of tobacco, as well as gold, coal, diamonds, pearls, camphor (the the auger varies with the na- finest in Asia), petroleum, iron, tin, and sulphur. The principal ture and hardness of the wild animals are the tiger, bear, ourang-outang, tapir, boar, material to be pierced. On and in the N. the elephant and rhinoceros. Amdng the birds lifting the auger out of the are eagles, vultures, peacocks, Argus-pheasants, flamingoes, hole, it brings with it the parrots, and many other species remarkable for their brilliant fragments of earth or stone plumage. The population is mainly composed of-(I) Malays, which it has cut out, and formed into manyindependent states in the N., chief of which is these show to a certain extent Brunai or B. (pop. 225,000); (2) Dyaks, the aborigines (a negro what strata are being passed race), chiefly engaged in agriculture; and (3) Chinese settlers, of through. The worm is used whom there are some 75,000. The principal towns are Banjerfor rocks too hard to be en- massin, Brunai, Sarawak, and Sambas. B. was discovered by tered by the auger; it is in the Portuguese as early as I523, but the Dutch first permanently ln. ul~r/ll~g form like a large spiral gim- effected a settlement in I643. In r702, and again in 5774, the let. As it cannot bring up English were unsuccessful in attempting to establish a factory materials with it to the sur- here. The Dutch now nominally possess the greater part of the face, an auger is used after it island, their two residences being Pontianak in the S. and Ban. to enlarge and clear out the jermassin in the E.; while the Sultan of B. Proper rules a comhole it has made. The pro- paratively small territory in the N.E., including Sarawak (1430 a,-~ —~-~ cess of B. with both kinds sq. miles), of which Sir James Brooke (q. v.) was for several of tools is carried on by fix- years rajah. Labuan (q. v.), a small island about three miles off ing a long crosshead to them the N.W. coast, was acquired by Britain in 1840. See Brooke, above the level of the ground, Narrative of Events in B. and Celebes down to the Occupation Warsop Rock-Drill for Boring Rocks, and causing it to be turned of Labuan (2 vols. Lond. I848); Veth, B.'s Wester-afdeeling (Selig, London). round by men. As the hole (2 vols. Zalt-Bommel, I854-56); Spenser, Life in the Forests of deepens, a lengthening bar Io the Far East (2 vols. Lond. I862); A Few Months in B. (Society feet long is attached to the tool, then another similar bar is for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, Loud. I874); and attached to the first, and so on until the desired depth is Wallace, T- e Malay Peninsula (5th ed. Loud. I875). 452 BOlR THLE GLiOBE ENCYCLOiI9EDIA. BOR Born'heim, a pleasant village in the vicinity of Frankfort-on- the second and third are Anglian (Mercian and Northumbrian). the-Main, of which, indeed, it is almost a subulb. It is a favourite As it was a Midland dialect from which modern English has summer resort of the Frankforters. Pop. (I872) 6397. On the sprung, the form which marks the independent use of the word is B. Heath the members of parliament Prince Lichnowsky and naturally'B.' B., in England, is defined under the Municipal Von Auerswald were murdered, I8th September I848. Reform Act to mean a city, B., port, or town corporate, whether represented in Parliament or not. By a Parliamentary B. is Born'holm, the most easterly of the Danish islands in the meant a B. sending a member, or more than one, to Parliament. entrance to the Baltic, 95 miles E. of Zealand, and nearly mid- Under the Reform Act of I832, 56 boroughs in England and way between the coasts of Sweden and Germany. It is tra- Wales were wholly disfranchised; 30 which had formerly reversed from N. to S. by a range of high hills, which yields the turned two members were restricted to one; while 42 new clay used for the porcelain manufactures of Copenhagen. Rbnne boroughs were created, 22 having two new members, and 20 (q. v.) is the chief town. Area, 231 sq. miles pop. 29,300, having one member. By the Reform Act of I868, every B. chiefly engaged in husbandry and fishing. having less than Io,ooo inhabitants and two representatives was deprived of one of them, and seven boroughs were entirely disBor'nu, a native state of the Sudan, Central Africa, to the franchised. Two English boroughs, and two in Ireland, have W. of Lake Tchad, with an area of 52,800 sq. miles, and, it is franch ised. Two Engish boroughs, and tw o in Ireland, have estimated, 2,0ooo0,o inhabitants. It was founded as a kingdom since ised for bribery. By the Reform Act of estimated,,oooooo inhaitantas It w472,as founded a driss Alamoa 1832, the B. franchise was given to all occupiers of houses of the by Ali-Dunamani as early as 1472, and un der Edriss Alamoa value of,/iO a year. The Act of I868 extended the franchise (157i-i603) reached its greatest power. The form of govern- to all occupiers of dwelling-houses who on the 3Ist July of each ment is now despotic, and was vested in the Sultan Omar on the visitofBarthinI35. Thepopulationischieflycomposedofthe year have resided in them for twelve months, and have been rated to the poor rates, and have paid their rates up to the preaboriginal Kanori, for the most part engaged in husbandry, and ceding 5th January; and to lodgers who, for the saie period, their conquerors the Shuas, a semi-nomadic Arab race. B. pro- have occupied lodgings of the annual unfurnished value ofri2. duces heavy crops of maize, rice, cotton, and indigo, and pos- B. El zish is, i England, a law or custom under which sesses abundance of oxen, sheep, and horses, while it abounds in wild animals. There are native manufactures of armour and the youngest son inherits real estate in preference to his elder cotton cloth. During the rainy season, October to April, fever broters. It stilprevails in Stafford, and in some other ancient prevails. The present capital is Kuka, on the W. showe of Lake boroughs. Should' the youngest son die in his father's lifetime, Tchad. Dr Nachtigal visited B. in 1872. ~ leaving a daughter, she inherits her father's rights, Tchad B. Aund. —-The Municipal Corporation Acts defines the appliBoro-Budor, a magnificent temple in the interior of Java, cation of this term, and provides for the collection and disburseresidency of Kadu, dedicated, as the name implies, to' the Great ment of the funds of boroughs noted in the schedules annexed to Buddha.' It is the finest specimen of Buddhist architecture in the Act. Under it corporations may now, with certain restricexistence, and is loaded with ornamentation, there still remaining tions, conduct parliamentary and law business at the expense of not fewer than 400 life-sized figures of Buddha, ranged in niches, the B. F. besides innumerable smaller statues of the god, bas-reliefs, and B. 7ustices.-Under the Municipal Corporations Act, these rich carvings. The temple is in the form of a quadrangular pyra- consist of the mayor during his tenure of office, and for one year mid, 124 feet high by 56I feet broad at base, and rises in a succes- afterwards, the recorder ex officio, and of justices appointed by sion of eight immense terraces, led up to by flights of steps; the the crown. highest terrace being surmounted by a pagoda or dome, covering B. Laws are a collection of laws relative to Scotch boroughs, a chamber supposed to have been the depositary of sacred relics. enacted in the reign of David I., in the 12th c, They are inB.-B. is supposed to belong to the Ioth c. See Crawford, On teresting only to the archaeologist. the Ruins of B. in 7ava, in the Transactions of the Lit. Soc. B. Rate is a rate leviable within a B. when the B. Fund of Bombay (2 vols. Lond. I823); Mieling, Prachtuitgave van (q. v.) is deficient. It is of the nature of a County Rate (q. v.). _Javasche Onrdheden (Haag, I852); and Ferguson, Handbook of It is regulated by the Municipal Corporations Act. For boroughs Architecture. not within this Act, the B. R. is levied and applied under the Statute I7th and ISth Vict., c. 7I. The rate cannot be made Borodi'no, a village in the government of Moscow, Russia, retrospective. on the Kolocza, 55 miles W. of Moscow by railway, memorable for the bloody battle fought there, 7th September T812, Boroughbridge', a market-town in the W. Riding, Yorkbetween the French under Napoleon I. and the Russians under shire, on the right bank of the navigable river Ure, 17 miles Kutosow. The Russians, though forced to retreat, regarded this N.W. of York, and 61 S. E. of Ripon, with some trade in corn battle as a victory, and in 1839 a memorial column was erected and hardware. It was the scene of the defeat of the barons on the site of the conflict. under the Earl of Lancaster by Edward II. in 1321. Near it stand three singular stones ('Devil's Arrows') 16 to 24 feet Bo'ron is one of the non-metallic elements, and is contained high. B. is the terminus of a branch of the N. Eastern Railin borax, boracic acid, and a few comparatively rare and unim-way Pop. (i87I) 250% portant minerals. It was discovered in r8o8 by Gay-Lussac and Thenard. Like carbon and silicon, it exists in two distinct con- Borovitch'i, a town in the government of Novgorod, Russia, ditions-the amorphous and crystalline; hence it is allotropic. I40 miles S.E. of St Petersburg, situated on the Msta, and on (See ALLOTROPY.) Amorjyhous B. is obtained by heating the canal connecting the Volga with that river, and so with Lake boracic acid with sodium, and is a brown opaque powder, Ladoga. Pop. 9I50, soluble in solutions of the alkalies, and can be burnt if heated. Crystalline B., obtained by strongly heating amorphous B. with BoSovsk', a town in the government of ouga, Russia, to aluminum, resembles the diamond in hardness, transparency, miles S.W. of Moscow, and 25 N. of the city of Kalouga, toaluminum, resembles the diamond in hardness, transparency, ether with which it gives title to a bishop. Near it is one of and brilliancy, and is incombustible, even if heated in the oxy- gether with whic i t gives title to a bishou. Ne ar it is one of hydrogen blow-pipe, neither is it attacked by solutions of the the wealthiest of Russian convents founde d is famed alkalies. Amorphous B. possesses the remarkable property of active trade in leather, flax, hemp, and sailcloth, and is famed combining directly with nitrogen. The chemical symbol for B. is for its onions and garlic. Pop. 8826. B, and its atomic weight I I. It forms a liquid chloride, BCL; fBorrome'an Islands, a beautiful group of islets, called also a gaseous flouride, BF3; an oxide, B203 (boracic anhydride), and the Enchanted Islands, situated in Lago Maggiore, N. Italy, a sulphide, BS3. province of Novara, and which have been the residence of the Borough (in Old Eng. borth, from' beorgan,' to protect. Borromeo family since the 13th c. The most remarkable of the grrouop are Isola Bella, containing the Borrome0 Palace; Iola hence a fortified place). As a suffix, the word appears in three adre, crowned by an old castle; isoi a e' escatorP, inhabited forms —'bury'in the midland and northernglarts, as Canterboroby some 400 fishermen and smugglers; and Iso/a di San Gioin the midland and northern parts, as Peterborough and Mid- van, laid out in beautiful gardens and terraces. dleborough; and'burgh' in Scotland, as Roxburgh, Jedburgh. These forms represent dialectic differences; the first being, on the Borrome'o, Carlo, son of Gilbert, Count of Arona, and Marwhole, confined to the parts which the West Saxons possessed; garet de Medici, was born 2d October 1538, at the Castle of 4 53 BOR THE GI OBE ENVCYCI OPIEDA. BOS Arona on Lago Maggiore. After studying at the University of gence. Thus, if A ask B to buy him a watch in Paris and bring Pavia (in which city he afterwards founded the Borromean Col- it to London gratuitously, and B buys it and loses it on the way lege), he was appointed by his uncle, Giovanni Angelo de Medici to London, A must pay to B the full price of the watch. B can(Pius IV.), a Cardinal Deacon, Archbishop of Milan, and Legate not be supposed gratuitously to run the risk even of his own of Bologna. While discharging the duties of these posts with carelessness. If, however, B asks A to lend him gratuitously great energy, he found time to form at Rome an academy for anything, say a horse, he is then liable not only for the conseliterature and elocution, the meetings of which were called Noc- quences of his own carelessness, but for the consequences of tes Vaticanco. During the later sittings of the Council of Trent accident while in his custody. Regarding Hire (q. v.) the law (1562-64), B. was, with Guise and Morone, among the most active is different. Were A to ask B as a favour to ride his horse for of the cardinals, and afterwards one of the authors of the' Cater him, this would entirely exonerate B from the consequences of chism of Trent.' After six years' residence at Rome, B., in obed- accident; but were B in this case to lend A's horse to D, withience to the Tridentine Decree requiring residence of bishops, out A's knowledge or consent, B would incur liability to A; bewent to Milan. The whole diocese, with its 3200 clergy, was in a cause loan merely infers right of personal use, not even a temcorrupt state, the sacraments of confession and confirmation being porary right of property. little used. B., who was now celebrated for his saintly austerities, at once held a council for enforcing the new decrees relating to faith and discipline. On his uncle's death, the saint spoke shire, on the S. coast of the Firth of Forth, 17 miles W.N.W. in the conclave in support of Cardinal Alexandrine, who became of Edinburgh, and 3 N. of Linlithgow, with some manufactures Pius V. (566). B. now gave aowary in charity most of his large of salt, vitriol, soap, malt, and earthenware. It is a station on possessions, enforced the rule against pluralities in his diocese, the Monkland Railway, has extensive coal-mines, and lies in a and himself set an example of diligent work and fasting to his district rich in iron, limestone, and freestone. In the 17th c. it clergy. Hse also gavepe the Duomo of ilan its present choir an k ranked next to Leith among Scottish ports, but its trade is now altar, and encouraged associations of lay catechists, such as the chiefly coasting. B. registered, in 874, 27 vessels of 3349 tons; Pescalori. A searching general visitation of the whole diocese in I873, 647 vessels of 68,897 tons entered the port, and I527 of was made;* alnd St John the Baptist's seminary for clerics 169,8I5 tons cleared. A portion of the Roman wall of Antowas founded at Milan. In the famine of I570 fand the ninus, known as Graham's Dyke, is still seen here. Pop. (I871) plague of 1576 the saint behaved nobly. In I578 he founded 4896. the Oblates of St Ambrose, a fraternity of secular priests for Borsad, a town in the executive district of Kaira, province of special missionary work. These reforms brought B. frequently Bombay, N. Division, about midway between Baroda and Ahmeinto collision with the regular orders (e.g., the Umiliati, who dabad, and distant from each about 40 miles. It lies in the eletried to murder him) and the Spanish governors (Albuquerque vated region of Gujerat, which is upwards of 900oo feet above the and Requesius). B. also founded the Borromean League of the sea-level, and which is traversed by the Bombay and Baroda Seven Catholic Twin Cantons. He died 3d November 1584, Railway. Pop. (I872) I2,214. worn out by excessive self-mortifications, and was canonised in I6i6. A colossal statue of the saint stands near Arona on the Bort, or Boart, dark-grey or black lustreless diamonds Lago Maggiore. His works were edited by Sax in I747 in 5 found in the Brazilian mines. They are also called carbonado vols. His Life has been written by Giussano (Fr. transl. I6I5), or anthracitic diamonds, and possessing the hardness of the preGode~au (B1russ. 1684; Parl. I747), Touron (Par. 1761), and cious mineral, they are used for diamond rock-boring drills, Stolz (Ziir. 178). See also Sala's Docuzmenti Circa la Vit for machines used to dress millstones, and other stone-cutting e la Gesta di B. (4 vols. Mil. 1857-59). There is an English apparatus. biography in the Catholic Popular Library (I858). Borwad, a town in the district of Kandesh, province of BomBorr'ow, George, an English author, was born in Norfolk in bay, British India, about ioo miles N.E. of Bombay city, with a I803. While a lad he lived much among gipsies near Norwich, and pop, (I872) of 5I97. acquired a minute acquaintance with their habits and language. He was originally intended to be a solicitor, but abandoned the Bory de Saint-Vincent, Jean Baptiste George aarie, profession for literary work in London. In 1833 he became an agent for the British and Foreign Bible Society, and in this (Lot-et-Garonne), in I780. In i8oo be accompanied Captain capacity visited many countries, including Russia and Spain, in Baudin on a scientific expedition to New Holland, and after his capacity visited many countries, including Russia and Spain, in v the latter incurring considerable personal risk, and being twice return home served at Austerlitz and Ulm, and was one of imprisoned- for endeavouring to circulate the Bible. During his Soult's staff in the Peninsula. He served as a colonel at Waterstay there, he mixed with the Zincali or gipsies, and in i84i, after loo, after which, on the ascension of the Bourbons, he was forced he had retired fronm the service of the Society, he published an into exile. Returning to Paris in I820, lie applied himself chiefly account of them which attracted very considerable attention, and to literary and scientific work; superintended the scientific exinr which he endeavoured to show that their language was inti- pedition to the Morea and the Cyclades, the account of which mately connected with the Sanskrit, This was followed in I842he gave in his Expedition ScieztifziHse de Morke (Par. I832). B. by his still more celebrated Bible in Spain. B. pursued his re- died December 22, I846. His chief works are his Annzes des searches into the habits of gipsies in I844, especially in Hungary, es (8 vols., edited at Brussels during his exile), Wallachia, and Turkey. In 85 appeaed his gr his Traiti de L'HIomme (i827), and accounts of his various Wallachia, and Turkey. In I85I appeared his Lavenzffro, which is partly an rautobiography; in 1857 the Raoaany IRnye; in 1862 travels, scientific and otherwise, which he undertook. Wild Wales. B. has contributed to periodical literature both in Bor'zna, or Borsna, the capital of a circle of the same name, prose and in verse, and besides other works, has translated portions of the Scriptures into various languages, including the Zin- is a station on the Mosow Rssilway. Pop. 723.E, of jeschi cali and the Manchu or Chinese-Tartar. Borr'owing. Some difficulty has been found in giving a Bos. See BovIieb and Ox. legal definition to this term. A great legal authority has defined Bos, Lambert, a Dutch philologist, was born at Workun, it as the reception of something lent, on the view that that which Friesland, d November a67. He stodied Greek at the Unian owner puts into the hands of another, for the benefit or con- versity of Franeker, was chosen reader in Greek the 697, and venience of the owner alone, is not lent, but deposited. Where ersity of Franeke was chosen reader in Greek there 697, and there is a lender, therefore, there must be a borrower. It does professor 1704 He died 6th January 17I7..'S works are now seldom consulted. His ~llipses Greca (Franeker, 1702) was not, however, seem to. us correct to say that B. is necessarily reprintedo consulted. Hisl83,ses with issertations by Weisas gratuitous, or even principally for the use or advantage of him and Hermann. Other works of B. are the Vetus Testamentum who borrows. C borrows a sum of money from D at 5 per cent. (aneker, 1709) and Atiitam Grcarm Descriti bvis Here D presunlably has as much advantage from the loan as C (Franeker, 1714 Leips Gr49escrti has. Where an article is deposited with any one, or intrusted to him solely for the convenience of the depositor, no liability for Bo'sa, a finely situated but unhealthy town in the province of loss or damage is morally or legally incurred by the person so Cagliari, Sardinia, a few miles from the W. coast, on a river of trusted, even though that loss or damage come through his negli- the same name (Lat. Temzus) possesses an old castle, a. cathe454 *~ BOS T-LE G LOB3 E ENC YCZL OPEDIA. BOS dral, and several monasteries. It has a trade in wine, oil, grain, and the Arts consecrating the Glories of France,' &c. B.'s and cheese. Pop. 6403. works are models of grace, proportion, and elaborate finish. Bos'can-Almoga'ver, Juan, a Spanish poet, of patrician Bosjes'mans (i.e", Bushzezn), a name given by the Dutch to descent, born at Barcelona about 1500. After spending some a degraded branch of the Hottentot race, inhabiting the country time at the court of Charles V., he retired to Barcelona, where N, of Cape Colony, and which is rapidly dying out. he died in I544. B. revolutionised Spanish poetry by clothing it in Italian forms. Hi-s hendecasyllabic version of Hero and Bos'na-Serai' or Serajewo (i.e., palace of Bosnia; Ital. Leander is much admired for its elegance and purity. B.'s seragjio), chief town of the vilayet of Bosnia, Turkey, on the works, with those of Garcilasso de la Vega (Las Obras de B. y river Bosna, 92 miles N. by E. of Ragusa, and II6 miles S.W. tA/gunas de Garcilesso de la Vega), were published at Lisbon in of Belgrade. It is surrounded by mountains, and though now 1543, and at Leon in 1549. stripped of its former defences, is still a place of strength. It is the seat of the governor-general of the province, and contains Boscaw'en, Edward, a distinguished British commander, I00 mosques, a number of Greek and several Catholic churches. second son of Hugh B., first Viscount Falmouth, was born Its chief manufactures are arms, copper, iron, lead, and gold August 19, 71II, in Cornwall. He entered the navy, early dis- wares, and woollen, leather, and cotton goods. Pop. 50,0oo, tinguished himself at Puerto-Bello and Carthagena, and, under mainly Turks. B. was founded by the Hungarian Cotroman, Anson, took part in the battle of Finisterre, I747. He was made under the name of Bosnavar, in I263, and has long been a rear-admiral, and sent with a squadron to the E. Indies, when, central point for the Turkish transit trade. although he failed in an attempt upon Pondicherry, he succeeded in taking Madras. B. crowned a series of daring exploits in the Bos'nia (Bosna), the N. W. province pr vilayet of European war with the French by gaining a great victory over the Toulon Turkey, consisting of B. Proper, Turkish Croatia, Turkish Dalfleet in the Bay of Lagos in 1759. For his services he received matia, and the Herzegovina, and forming part of the Austrian the thanks of Parliament, the rank of general of marines, and a frontier, is bounded N. by the Save and Unna, E. by the Jubpension of 30ooo a year. lie died!oth January I76I. lanik mountain range, S. by the Scardagh mountains, and W. by the mountains of Cosman, Timor, and Steriza. Area, 23,320 sq. Bosch, HIieronymus de, born at Amsterdam, 23d March miles; pop. I, Ioo, I26. The S. part consists of vast tablelands, I740. His favourite study was Latin poetry, and his own com- intersected by spurs of the Dinaric Alps, ranging from 600ooo to positions in Latin verse have not been equalled since. In ISoO 7000 feet in height, and presenting snow-covered peaks from he was appointed curator,f the University of Leyden, where he September to June; while in the N. the country gradually dedied, Ist June I8II. B.'s best works are his Poeemla (Leyd. dines to the plain of the Save and Unna, and is watered by 1803; 2d ed. Utrech. I8Q8) and his Anthologia Graeca (4 vols. the Bosna, Ocrina, Drina, and the Verbas. The climate of B. Utrech. I795-I8Io; Lennep, 1822), accompanied by a metrical is delightful, the air being mild and clear. There is much version of Grotius not previously printed. cattle, corn, fruit, wood, and wine, and also, although almost Bos'cobel, an extra-parochial district in the Shiffnal division unwsroght, abundance of metallic treasure, including gold, silver, lead, coal, and quickisilver. Iron is the only metalmined of the hundred of Brimstree in Shropshire. In B. House, which I he only metal mined extensively. At Novipazar, Banja, Budimir, &c., there are many was then occupied by Thomas Penderell, a farmer, and his four exte nsively. At Novpazausty is everywheBumr, c.,there are many brothers, Charles II. took refuge after his defeat at Worcester obstructive taxes, and the transit trade, which is mostly in the I65I. The brothers disguised the king in their clothes and hands of Jews, Greeks, Armenians, Italians, and Germans, is faithfully concealed him for several days, partly in the house and much hindered by the want of good roads. The population, partly in the wood. On one occasion, from a thick oak in which of Slavolic origin, is composed of Bosnians Servians he lay, he saw his unconscious pursuers passing his hiding-place. Morlacks, Croats, Turs, Grees, Jews, Gipsies, Wallachins A tree, called the'Royal Oak,' said to have sprung from an 1 868 some 43T,2s belonged to the Greek, and c7I,764 acorn of the old tree, still stands in the wood. The B. 7)-acts to the Roman Catholic Church; while there were i all 4IS,3 contain an interesting narrative of the above incident in Charles's Mommedans. About one-third of the inhabitants are pure life, written at the time, though first published in I662. They life, written at the tme, thog first published in 1662.'hey Bosnians, allied to the Servians, and next to them in number are generally attributed to Thomas Blount, a Worcestershire are the Croats, who form aout one-sixth of the whole. B. gentleman, though this has been denied by his grandson, Nash, has extensive manufactures of weapons, especially sword-blades, on Blount's own authority. woollens, cutlery, and morocco leather, A projected railway Bos'co Rea'le, a town in the province of Naples, South Italy, throgh. was i abeyance in I875, The capital is Bosna-Serai at the S. base of Mount Vesuvius, from one of the eruptions of (q. v.), and the next important towns are Banjaluka, Travnik, which, in 1850, the town was in great danger of destruction, a Mostar, and Fotesha. The vilayet is under a governor-general large lava stream flowing down on both sides of it and desolating (Va/i), is divided (1875) into eight administrative portions the neighbouring country. It has some trade in wine and silk, (sandjaks), and possesses numerous fortresses, of which the chief which are largely produced in the vicinity. Pop. 4553.- B. Tre- are Senitza, Vischegrad, Nikschitj, and Bjelina. Ca'se, an Italian town in the province of Naples, situated close In the Roman time B. formed part of Pannonia; was divided by B3osco Reale, has a royal manufactory of gunpowder and into four Christian dioceses under Justinian; formed separate arems. Pop. 9I63, states or bans in allegiance to the Servian and Croat kingdoms firom 940; in the 12th and 13th centuries belonged to Hungary; Bos'covich, Roger Joseph, an eminent mathematician and was taken (I339) by the Servian king Stephen, and on his death physicist, was born at Ragusa, May i8,. I7II, became a member remained for a short time independent, forming the Ban or of the Society of Jesus at an early age, and occupied in succes- Waiwode of Tvertko, the princes of which assumed the royal sion the chairs of Astronomy at Rome, Pavia, and Milan, at which title in 1376. In 1398 it became tributary to the Ottoman emplace he died, I2th February 1787. He was a strenuous sup- pire, and was made a Turkish province in 1503. Since then, the porter of the Gravitation Theory, and boldly extended Newton's tyrannous policy of the Porte has led to frequent outbursts of conceptions to the ultimate state of matter. rebellion, as in 1737 and 185 I, but the power of the conqueror has been hitherto sufficient to maintain possession of the unruly proBo'sio, Frangois-Joseph, Baron, a French sculptor, was vince. In 1875 the imposition of certain special taxes, levied born at Monaco, I9th March 1769, and studied at Paris under exclusively on the Christian rayahs, a grievance aggravated by the Pajou. By order of Napoleon I. he executed the bas-reliefs rapacity of the collectors, led to an insurrection in Herzegovina, for the column of the Place Vendome, became a member of the which, though apparently unorganised, has been wide-spread, Academy of Fine Arts in Paris, received from Charles X. the title determined, and destructive: Originating in a local grievance, of Baron, and died at Paris, July 29, I845. B. executed nume- it has assumed the proportions of a national movement, spreading rous busts, among others, of Napoleon I., Josephine, Loulis to Montenegro, and having the sympathy, if not the aid, of Servia. XVIII., Charles X., &c. Among his best-known works are The Sultan has tardily offered to cede several reforms, but the his bronze'Hercules,' in the garden of the Tuileries; the insurgents, backed by a reliance on the great European powers,' Young Hyacinth,' in the Louvre; a marble group of'History are bent on achieving independence. See Iistory of the tuWar in 455 BOS THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP.iEDZA. BOS B., I737-39, translated from the Turkish by C. Fraser (Oriental bishop. B. died at Paris, I6th April I704. His Oraisons Translation Fund, 1830); Hilferding, B., Herzegovina i Staraja Eunibres upon contemporaries, such as De CondO, Gustavus, Servia (Petersb. I859); Sax, Skizzen fiber die Bewohner B.'s Cromwell, Mazarin, the Duchess of Orleans, are splendid (Vien. 1864); Roskievicz, B. und Herzegofwina (Leips. I867); specimens of lofty religious eloquence. B. was great in Thimmel, Beschreibung des Vilajet B. (Vien. I867); and Maurer, theological controversy as well as in preaching. In his RedfuReise durch B., die Saveldunder, und Hungarn (Berl. 1870). tanion du Catechisme du Paul Ferri he combated the doctrines of the Huguenots. In Maximes sur la Come'die he vehemently Bos'porus (' Ox-ford'), the Greek name of the strast that Bo'porus (Ox-ford'), the Greek name of the strait that opposed Father Caffaro, who had defended theatrical enterunites the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora. To distinguish t tri tainments. His Exposition de la Doctrine de l']~fiise Cathoit from other straits similarly named, it was known as the Zique ser les Matures de ontroverse (67), after being for Ti;ce sur les iMat/lbes de Controverse (I67I), after being for Thracian B. It is about 17 miles long, 600 yards wide where some time discountenanced at Rome, was formally adopted narrowest, and i640 yards opposite the gate of the Seraglio, some time discountenanced at Rome, was formally adopted by narrowest, and 1640 yards opposite the gate of the Seraglio, the Gallican clergy at the great synod of I682, where B., who Constantinople. It has a great depth of water. There are two the Gallican clergy at the great synod of i6M2a where B. who lighthouses at each ed. The statement of Pliny that the discussed with Leibnitz the scheme of Molanus for the union of lighthouses at each end. The statement of Pliny that the the Lutheran and Gallican Churches, supported the Regale of opposite shores are within the range of the human voice is not France, the customs of the Gallican Church, and the superior correct. The Strait of Kaffa, or Yenikale, which unites the Sea authority of general councils, against the Papal claim to temporal of Azof with the Black Sea, was named by the ancients the Cof Azof with th Black Sea, was named by the ancients the-immerin Bsovereignty, all vacant benefices, and spiritual independence of C~immerian B. the Church. This book is said to have converted Marshal Bos'quet, Pierre Franpois Joseph, a distinguished Turenne to the Catholic Church. The Hisloire des Variations French general, was born at Mont de Marsan, in the depart- (I688) is intended, by a survey of the German, Swiss, French, ment of Landes, France, 8th November I8IO. He was edu- and English Reformations, to demonstrate the superior unity cated for the'army, and in 1834 distinguished himself in Algeria. and authority of the Roman Church, and the inevitable tendency He further played an important part in the Crimean war, espe- of apostasy into Socinianism. Basnage's History of the Reformzed cially at the battles of Alma, 25th September I854, and Inker- Chqzrches was intended as a reply. B. also took part in the conman, 25th November, receiving for his services to Lord Raglan troversies with Port-Royal, and signed the formulary against at the latter engagement a vote of thanks from the British Par- Jansenius. His quarrel with Fenelon about Quietism is the one liament. At the capture of the Malakoff, 8th September I855, undignified passage in his life. In hisPolitiquetinie de Sainte crihe was wounded by the bursting of a shell, and had to return to ture he seems, at least rhetorically, to uphold the divine right of France. Next year he was made a field-marshal. B. died 4th kings. The accounts of the semi-public discussion between B. February I86I. and the Huguenot Claude are of the deepest interest. B. exerted Boss, in medimeval architecture, a piece of stone usually himself to mitigate the'dragonnade' which took place on the:Bose, in medi~val architecture, a piece of stone usualtyrevocation of the Edict of Nantes. In I87c5 Colonel Ferrel discarved in a fanciful manner, which covers the intersections of the ribs of.ceil- covered in the Convent of Nancy a number of letters and unpubings. It is coin- lished MSS. of B., which had previously belonged to the Basmonly finished with sompierre family. The Benedictine edition of B.'s works extends *aflowerorahuman to 46 vols (Versailles, I815-I9), and is accompanied by a Life *I t. mask. of B. by Cardinal Bausset. Another biography is that of Rdaume (1869-70). There is an English (Catholic) Life by "\-'-~ -. n>Boss, a term in Charles Butler (vol. iii. of Worhks), B.'s secretary, Ledieux, has I! ^ A E/U descriptive botany left M1rmoires etl ournal. See also B. and his Conltem5oraries synonymous with (Lond.;875).-Jacques B., nephew of the preceding, was born Umbinate (q. v.). in 1644, and died Bishop of Troyes, 12th July 1743Bos'si, euigi, Boss'ut, Charles, a celebrated French mathematician and O Count,,a learned physicist, and author of numerous excellent scientific writsItalian archolo- ings, was born at Tartaras, near Lyon, Iith August 173o, and gist and historian, died at Paris, I4th January 1814. His most important works was born at Milan, are TraitZ e'lmentaire de arfcanique et de Dynamique (I 763), February 28, 1785. Cours Cothe4tnedes Mathtmait ques (7 vols. 1795-I SoI), L'Histoire He studied at Pa- Gtte'hrale des MatdheAnaliues (2 vols. I8io), and the Traite' du via, and was ap- CalcuI D entiel el Integ -at. Boss in St Giles's Cathedral, Edinburgh. pointed by Napoleon, on the an- Bostal'ji (Turk. f garden watch'), the military guard of the nexation of Piedmont to France, prefect of the archives of the Sultan's seiaglio, named from their original office of superintenkingdom of Italy. He died at Milan, ioth April 1835. B's dents of the imperial garden. At one time they numbered 5000 numerous writings (upwards of eighty in all) embrace many sub- in peace and 12,000 in war time, hut are now reduced to about jects-history, antiquities, natural science, philology, the fine arts, 60o. B. Bashi is the title of their commander, who is an official and the drama. Among the more notable are his Introduzione of rank and influence. alto Studio delle Arti del D~segno, which is said to exhibit more Bos'ton, a borough and seaport on the Witham, Lincolnshire, learning than taste; his translation of Roscoe's Leo X. (12 vols. 30 miles S.E. of Lincoln by railway. Its earliest name was St Mil. r816-17) contains valuable additional matter; his Storia Botolph's Town, and the parish church of St Botolph, built in delta Siagna (8 vols. Mil. I821); and Istoria d'talia (I9 vols. 13o09, is a large and striking structure. The town, anciently Mil. I819-1823). an important commercial centre, has of late, owing to the recla3Boss'uet, Jacques 3B3igne, a great French. ecclesiastical mation of a large tract of fen-land in the neighbourhood, and the deepening of the river, acquired a considerable shipping orator, was born at Dijon, 27th September 1627. Taught by the deepening of the river, acquired a considerable shipping the Jesuits of Dijon, he entered the Church in 652, an b trade, chiefly in the export of corn, cattle, and sheep. In 1873, successively Dean of the Cathedral of Metz, Bishop of Cordan 529 vessels with cargoes (tonnage, 21,739), and 63 in ballast (I669), and Bishop of Meaux (i68i), which see he occupied at (tonnage, 2281), entered the harbour of B.; while there cleared his death. The admiration felt by Anne of Austria and Louis XIV. 72 with cargo for his preaching procured for him the post of preacher to the 24,813). It has, besides, manufactures of iron, sailcloth, rope, for his preaching pr ocured for him the post o f preaher to the leather, and several breweries. Pop. (I871) of parliamentary court (in which he was succeeded by Bourdaloue), and of pre- borouh, 17,58. returns two members to Parliament. ceptor to the Dauphin, for whose instruction he wrote (1679) his oruh, 17,518. Discours sur t'Histloire Universelte, an attempt to trace a general Boston, the capital of the state of Massachusetts, U.S., and providence working for the Catholic Church in the Biblical his- the chief city of New England, 207 miles N.E. of New York by tory, in the history of ancient ethnic religions, except those of railway, The inlet on which it lies is deep, capacious, well India and China, and in Christian history to the time of Charle- protected, and studded with numerous islands. The railway magne. B. also became warden of the Sorbonne, and in 1697 a system is very extensive, connecting B. with all parts of New member of the Council of State. At Meaux he was a devoted England, New York, Canada, and the great West. The opening 456 4 + —-----— ~-~ BOS THE GLOBE ENATCYCLOP DLA. BOS of the HIoosac Tunnel recently in the western part of the state Samuel Johnson in London. He at once fell down and worhas greatly increased the facilities of B. in the western trade. shipped him. After a tour on the Continent, in the course of The city stands upon a peninsula connected with the mainland which he became an ardent advocate of Corsican independence by B. Neck, and is divided into B. Proper, South B., and East and an admirer of General Paoli, whose memoirs he wrote, he B., the last of which occupies an island nearly 2 miles long, and returned to Scotland, became, in 1773, a member of the Literary is about 6oo00 yards from B. Proper. The river Charles, which Club founded by Johnson, whose acts and sayings he now began here enters Massachusetts Bay, is crossed by several long bridges to record with a fidelity and fulness to which there is no parallel. connecting B. with its suburbs. Recently the Back Bay has After various amours, of which a full account appears in a been filled up, splendid streets now standing where formerly posthumous volume of Letters of aames B. addressed to the Rev. were waste waters, and it is proposed to deal in like manner IWV. ~ TreJifle (1856), he married in 1769 a Scotch lady named with the extensive shoal waters known as' South B. Flats,' fill- Montgomer-y. For many years previous to Johnson's death in ing in the tract with material obtained by dredging the harbour 1784, he had been his constant companion, and in 1785 he pubto a depth of at least 23 feet. The harbour, which is marked by lished a journal of that Tour to the Hebrides in which he was four lighthouses, is one of the best on the E. coast of America. Johnson's associate, and in 1791 his Lif of 7o/hnson. The latter B. is called the'Trimontane' city, because of three eminences is acknowledged to be the best and fullest biography ever written, on the peninsula, the chief of which is Beacon Hill, on which and no character in literature has been so carefully portrayed stands the State House. There are many other important build- as that of Johnson. B. died in London, June 19, 1795. He ings, such as the City Hall, Custom-house, Athenaeum, Music was a vain and self-indulgent, but amiable and open-hearted Hall, Faneuil Hall, and a Free Library of 275,000 vols. man, and in his writings he makes no attempt to conceal his Near the centre of the city is the famous B. Common, a public weaknesses. See Boswoelliana, the CommonplIace Book of vames park of 50 acres. The chief manufactures are machinery, che- B., edited, with a memoir, by Dri- Rogers-(Lond. I874). His micals, boots and shoes, iron and brass castings, and there is also eldest son, Sir Alexander B., Bart., born in 1 775, was a man much shipbuilding, sugar-refining, leather-dressing, &c. of considerable ability and humour, which were shown in his B. has a large trade with India, China, and Russia, and the Songs, chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, published in I803. He was various states of the Union. It receives from the other states killed at Auchtertool, in Fifeshire, in a duel with Mr Stuart of grain, tobacco, coal, cotton, and rice, and returns are made in Dunearn, arising out of a keen parliamentary contest, March 26, the products of her manufactures, B. is also a great emporium 1822. B.'s younger son, James B. (born I779, died 1822), for leather, wool, petroleum, spirits, fish, and ice. At 3othl June annotated the Ly/b of 7ohnson, and produced a scholarly edition 1874, B. (alongwith Charlestown) registered 985 vessels of 312,381 of Malone's Shakespeare in 2I vols. Svo, i821. tons. For the year ending 30th June 1874, the shipping statistics gave 599 American vessels with 228,155 tons, and 2118 Boswell'ia, a genus of plants of the natural order Amyriacre, foreign vessels with 502,614 tons entering the port. The clear- from which the gum resin known as olilanum, thefrankincense ances were 588 American vessels of 211,729 tons, and 2064 of the Bible, is derived. It is now chiefly obtained from three foreign vessels of 447,373 tons. The imports in the same year species of B, (3. Carteri, B. Bhau-Dajiana, and B. Frereana), were $51,166,740, and exports $27,976,591, the export of iron natives of Arabia and the Somali country in E. Africa. B. and steel being $1,216,934, B. has a large number of old pajyrifera of Abyssinia also yields a fragrant gum resin. See families of great wealth, and the capital and financial worth of Cooke's Retort on the Gums, Resins, &c, of the India Mlseum'the solid men of B.' are proverbial. Pop. (1871) 250,526. (1875). B. was founded in 1630, and has throughout been the his- Bos'worth, or Iarket Bosworth, a town of Leicestertorical centre of the old colonies. It has long maintained a high shire, on a rising ground, ii miles W. of Leicester, and overplace in education, intellectual life, and public spirit, and it may looking the moor where was fought the celebrated battle which well be regarded as the seat of literary culture in the United ended the struggle between the houses of York and Lancaster, States, if not as the'hub of the universe.' The Indian name of and in which Richard III. was slain, November 22, 1495. The B. was Shawmut, by some supposed to mean'living springs of chief industry of B. is the knitting of worsted stockings. The water.' It was called B. in honour of the Rev. John Cotton, town has a well-endowed free grammar-school, in which Dr Johnthe first minister of the place, formerly vicar of St Botolph's, in son was once usher. Pop. (1871) 13,746. Boston, England. A great fire took place in B. in November 1872, destroying Bosworth, Joseph, D.D., well known as a philologer and 776 buildings and $6o,ooo,ooo of personal property. Roxbury Teutonic scholar, was orn about 1790. He was educated at was annexed to B. in I868, Dorchester in I87o, Chariestow7 ut a eren fr odg rrl im n gand, was annexed to B. in i86, Dorchester in 87, Charlestown, Repton in Derbyshire, of which county he is a native, but graBrighton, and West Roxbury in 1874. Bunker's Hill (q. v.) i duated at Aberdeen. After holding several livings in England, Brighton, and WIest Rexbury in 1874. Bunker's Hill (q. v.) is now included within the bounds of the city. he went to Holland as British chaplain, remaining there from now included within the bounds of the city. -1 I829 to 1841. He was appointed rector of Water Stratford, near Boston, Thomas, a once notable Scotch divine, was born Bkingm, in 88, and later became Professor of Anglo at Dunse, March 7, 1676. He entered the University of Edin- Saxon at Oxford. Dr B.'s studies in that language have given burgh in 1691, was licensed as a preacher in 1697, and was him celebrity. His Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar appeared ordained at Simprin, September 21, I699, where he remained in 1823, his Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language in 1838, till 1707, when he was removed to Ettrick. While visiting in and his Abstract of Scandinavian Literature in 1848. Among his his parish, he found a copy of the Marrow of iod ern Divinity, other works may he mentioned his edition of the Gospels in by Edward Fisher, an English Puritan of the 17th c., and brought Gothic of 360 and in Anglo-Saxon of 995, with Wycliffe's and it to the notice of some ministers, one of whom republished it Tyndale's versions in parallel columns (Lond. i865; 2d ed. in 1718. B. and others were prosecuted in the Assembly on I873). account of upholding the doctrines of the M&Zarrow, and the dis- Bszormeny, the chief of the six towns of the free district of pute ultimately ended in thile secession of the Erskines. Although Hadjuk ii the E. of Hungary, 12 miles N.N.W. of Deireczin, B. did not leave the national Church, he may be called the fols with an active trade in rye, tobacco, water-melons, soda, and et orizo of all her subsequent agitations. His death took place saltpetre. Pop.(I8 May 20, 1732. B. was a fair scholar, a man of vigorous and pungent mind, well versed in Scripture, and not without literary Botan'ic Garden, a garden devoted to the cultivation and faculty. His most famous book, once very precious in the eyes arrangement of plants of scientific, economic, or other interest of Scottish piety, is the Fouiyfold State (1720), but a finer, though to the student of botany. The ancients knew nothing of such simpler production, is the Crook in the Lot. gardens, and even when the mediaeval universities or wealthy men of science formed them, they were almost exclusively limited in Bos'well, James, the'first of biographers,' was the son of their design to the cultivation of medicinal plants, as their popular Lord Auchinleck, one of the judges of the Court of Session, name of' Physic Gardens' testifies, The chief botanic gardens on and was born October 29, 174o, at Edinburgh. Originally the Continent are the 7ardin des Plantes at Paris, founded 1634, intended for the bar, he studied at the Universities of Glasgow and now an important school of natural history, and those of Montand Utrecht, and in 1766 he was admitted a member of the pellier, Florence, Berlin, Sch3nbrunn, Copenhagen, &c. Nearly Faculty of Advocates. In 1763 he made the acquaintance of every considerable city and university town possesses a garden 58 457 BOT THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPJD94IA. BOT of greater or less importance. In Great Britain, those of Kew, tem of Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist (born I707), who entirely Edinburgh, and Dublin (Glasnevin), are the most important, revolutionised B. He introduced the binomial system of nomenthough the Apothecaries' Company, the Royal Botanical Society, clature, that is to say, every plant was distinguished by two and the Royal Horticultural Society support at their own expense Latin names-the first expressing the Genus (q. v.), the second gardens of considerable extent in London. Kew receives a large the species. All flowering plants he divided into 23 classes; subsidy from the Government, and under the successive direction the 24th was the Cyp/to amia, or flowerless. The first i i of the two Hookers-father and son-has become as important classes of flowering plants are named from the number of Stascientific establishment, from which plants and seeds are sent to mens (q. v,)-viz., /Monzandria (Gr. ntoa, one, cner, a man), similar gardens in the country, the colonies, as well as to foreign those with one stamen; Diane/ria (Gr. dis, twice), with two gardens. There is a fine herbarium and library attached to the Triandria (Gr. treis, three), with three, and so on; Telrandria garden, which cause it to be much frequented by botanists (Gr. tetras, four), Pentandria (Gr. Jente, five), lexandria (Gr. from all countries, and no work on descriptive botany published hex, six), Hejetan5da (Gr. hecta, seven), Octlanria (Gr. occo, of late years but owes much of its value to the assistance afforded eight), Enmeaendria (Gr. ennea, nine), Decandria (Gr. de/ea, by the Kew garden and herbarium. The Edinburgh garden is ten), and Dodecandria (Gr. dodeka, twelve), those having from I2 not of so much scientific importance, but on small funds is ex- to 20 stamens. Class XII. is Isocandria (Gr. ei/kosi, twenty), cellently kept. It was founded in I68o, and is now chiefly used and Class XIII. Polyancdria (Gr. polys, many), which have as an adjunct to the botanical class of the university. The Glas- numerous stamens inserted on the receptacle. Classes XIV., Dinevin B. G., near Dublin, is of less note. In America there are dynamnia, and XV., Te/radynamia (CGr. dynamis, power), are many such gardens, such as that of New York, Cambridge, &c., characterised by the stamens being of different lengths-the though none of them rank high in scientific reputation, being more former having two long and two short stamens, the latter four pleasure grounds than true botanic gardens. In India there are long and two short. The other classes are Mlonadelphia (Gr. several, that of Calcutta being of great magnificence and extent. monos, one, ao'e//hos, brother), in which the stamens are united by the filaments into one bundle; Diadelphia, in which one Botan'omancy (Gr. bolane, a plant, and manteia, divina- stamen is free, the others united; Polyadelgbhia, in which they tion), an ancient species of divination by the use of plants. It are united in more than two bundles; Syngenesia (Gr. syn, toassumed various forms, as writing one's name on leaves, and then gether, and geune, a woman, or genesis, generation), the staexposing them to the winds; rubbing poppy flowers between the mens in which are united by their anthers; Gynandria, in which hands, &c. the stamens are united with the pistil; Mowncia (Gr. oikos, a Botan'ometry. See PHYLLOTAXIS. house), in which the stamens and pistils are on different flowers on the same plant; Dicecia, in which the male and female Bot'any, or Phytology (Gr. phylon, plant, logos, dis- flowers are on different plants; and Polygamia, in which course), the science which treats of the vegetable kingdom in all the stamens and pistils may be on the same or different its phases. These different aspects may be classified as follows: flowers, on the same or on different plants. These classes -I. General Analonty or Histology (Gr. his/tos, a web), the con- are divided into orders, the first 13 of which are founded on sideration of the microscopic structure of the tissues which make the number of divisions of the pistil-M1onogynia, Digynia, up the different organs, viz., Cells, Vessels, and Fibres (q. v,). Trigynia, &c., up to Dodecagynia, including all with I2 to 19 2. Organography or Phytotomy, which treats of that portion pistils, and Polygynia, all with 20 and upwards. The orders of the science occupied in describing the form, relations, and of Class XIV. are two in number, Gymnospermia (Gr. gymnos, structure of the different organs of the plant, such as the root, naked, spern, seed), in which the seeds, as in pines and firs, lie stem, leaves, and flowers. 3. Moi;yhology (Gr. morgphos, form), behind a scale without any fruit-wall covering, and Angiospermia or Philosophical B., the study of the transformation of organs. (Gr. angeion, a vessel), in which the seeds are enclosed by a closed For instance, in this section, the various transformations of fruit or capsule, as in all other orders of plants. In Class XIV. the leaf into sepals, petals, stamens, and pistil are traced. It the orders are also founded on the fruit; those of Classes XVI., is to B. what comparative anatomy is to zoology. 4. Organo- XVII., XVIII., XX., XXI., and XXII., on the number of genesis is the study of the development of organs. 5. Physio- the stamens; Class XIX. upon characters taken from the florets logical B. is the study of the functions of the different organs of compound flowers; Class XXIII. upon characters taken from and the processes of plant life. 6. Vegetable Chemistry may be the circumstance of the hermaphrodite male and female flowers looked upon as a branch of physiological B. 7. Vegetable Noso- being found in one, two, or three plants. The orders of Class logy is the study of the diseases of plants. 8. Terato/ogy is the XXIV.-viz., Felices (or ferns), M1usci (or mosses), Alg'w or study of the various accidental monstrosities of plants, and is Fungi, are natural. The classification of Linnaeus was, with a very useful in enabling us to ascertain the true morphological few exceptions, an artificial one, but it was so simple and beautisignificance of certain organs. 9. Taxology (Gr. taxis, arrange- ful, that it was soon universally received. The founder himself ment), Taxonomy (Gr. taxis, arrangement, and nomos, law). knew that it was founded upon arbitrary principles, and was only Classficantion, or Systematic B., is that department of the science a forerunner of something better. In turn it was superseded by by which the various forms of plants are classified according to the natural classification of plants which holds sway in the botanicertain principles, so that a knowledge of them may be more cal world at the present day. This system was originally promuleasily acquired, or their structure, affinities, or properties be gated by Jussieu, a French botanist, and has been improved by better understood and retained by the memory. The early bo- the De Candolles, Robert Brown, Lindley, Endlicher, Meisner, tanists knew so few plants that any elaborate system of classifica- the Hookers, Bentham, and others, though the broad principles tion was unnecessary and scarcely ever thought of. For instance, are the same as originally sketched out by its founder. It proHippocrates, the father of medical science (400 or 500 B. c.), fesses to arrange plants, as far as possible, by their likeness to mentions only 234, and Theophrastes (31o-225 B.C.) vaguely each other in a/i points of structure; those which are most nearly describes about 500. Dioscorides, whose works were long stan- allied to each other being placed in groups by themselves, all dards in B., describes 6oo0; and Pliny (AD. 79), who was nearly parts of the plant being taken as the basis of comparison, and not, his contemporary, 8oo-a number not more' than was known to as in the Linnaean classification, simply the stamens and pistils. Conrad Gesner in the middle of the 16th c. Linnaeus described In this way the vegetable kingdom is divided into Phanerogamia in his Species Plantarum (I753) 620o types, and at his death, or flowering plants, Cr7ypogamia or flowerless plants, or into notwithstanding the progress which B. had made in the inter- three great divisions:-i. Dicotyledons, plants with two seed val, he was not acquainted with more than 855i species, of which lobes, net-veined leaves, and stems with concentric rings of 7728 were flowering plants. At the present day, though the annual growth (Exogenouzs, q. v.). 2. Monocotyledons, plants flora of Thibet, China, Corea, Africa, and other parts of the with a single seed lobe, parallel-veined leaves, and Endogenous world is imperfectly explored, botanists have described ioo,ooo (q. v.) stems, in which the woody bundles (when present) are floweringplant (Phanerogamia) and 25,000 Cryptogamia. Some scattered through the cellular substance of the stem, and the system of classification became, therefore, more and more im- growth of which is from within outwards. 3. Acotyledons, comperative as the number of species of plants kn~own increased. prising all the Cryptogamia, and in which the stem, if present, is The system of Ray gave way to that of Tournefort, founded on of the Acrogenous (q. v.) or summit-growing type, as in the tree the form of the flower, which long maintained its ground, espe- ferns. Under these divisions are arranged various orders or ially in France. This in its turn was superseded by the sys- families, the number of which varies according to the views held 4$8 434 BOT THE GLOBE EVNCYCLOPEDIA. BOT by different botanists. For instance, there are the Ranunculacei, eggs being deposited in summer and autumn amid the hairs or Buttercup order, the ]fosacec, or Rose order, the Leguminose, of a horse's coat, are licked off by the animal's tongue, and or Bean and Pea order, the Liliacec, or Lily order, &c.; while thus conveyed into the stomach. Within the horse's stomach the orders of Acotyledons are nearly the same as in the Linnaean the larvae are developed, and provided with rings of bristly classification. The natural classification has now entirely super- hooks, by which they retain their position on the walls of the seded the Linnaean. It is more difficult to learn; but the student, organ, These larva remain within the body of their host all having once mastered it, is in possession of something more than winter, and are discharged from the horse's alimentary canal the name of a plant merely, as in the Linnaean system, which during the following summer; and after passing their pupa state was only an artificial key. He has obtained by the study of one amid manure or in earth, emerge in a few weeks as the perfect plant a knowledge of the general structure of the whole order, winged insects. The pupa encloses itself simply within the dried and, as similar organs will have similar functions, of the proper- larval skin. Another species is the G. or (E. kcemorrhoidalis, ties of the plants also. to, A division of Taxology is Glos- or red horse-hot, which resembles the previous form in habits. sology (Gr. glossa, a tongue), or Terminology, a study of the The ox-bot ((Estrus bovis) is the most famous member of this profuse vocabulary of botanical terms which botanists use in group, this species depositing its eggs by means of a pointed Ovidescribing plants; the art of describing plants is styled Phyto- positor (q. v.) in the backs of oxen. The presence and development grahiy (Gr. grajho, I write). The study of the ancient vegeta- of the larva gives rise to a tumour known to agriculturists as a tion of the earth, the remains of which is now entombed in the wornil or worble. This is filled with purulent matter, upon which rocks constituting its crust, is (i i.) Palczo-jskytology (Gr. paaos, the larva feeds; and at the proper time the larva emerges from ancient), or Palceontoloical B.; while the study of the way plants its tumour, and undergoes its further development in the ground. are distributed over the earth constitutes (I2.) Phyto-geography, An open sore is sometimes left in the ox's back after the exit of or Geographical B. i3. The study of the uses of plants from an the larva. The adult fly is about half an inch in length, with economical point of view constitutes Economical B., of which brown wings and head, a black thorax or chest, and a whitish Medical, Agricultural, Horticultural, and industrial B. are divi- abdomen with a black band running round it. The sheep-bot sions. The history of B. maybe briefly summed up. Up to the (cEstrus or Cephalemyia ovis) deposits her eggs in summer in seventeenth c., science had scarcely a place in the study. It the nostrils of the sheep, the larvae passing up to the frontal was merely studied from a medical or astrological point of view, sinuses or spaces in the frontal bone, where they lie until the and the then state of knowledge is embodied in the numerous following spring, and pass down the nostrils to become pupse, quaint herbals, containing an immense mass of absurdities, which and to undergo their further development. These' larvae cause date from that period. Then came the era of the classifiers, of much irritation, and may even cause death by gaining access to which Linneus was the chief. He was indeed the Luther of B. the brain. The sheep-bot is of small size, the face being Themaniafor classifying anddescribing specieswas continued in an yellow and the body of a general grey colour. It inhabits unbroken line bythe promulgators of thenaturalsystem. Within damp situations. Other species of bots affect deer, reindeer, the last twenty years, physiological and anatomical B. has been goats, and other herbivorous mammals. attracting to it more students than systematic B., and the progress oth, ndrie and an,. Flemish painters, pupils of of this branch of science has been great on the Continent, while, Both, Andrieo and Jan, Flem ish painters, pupils o f owing to the numerous collections which are always being sent Blcemerts, were born at Utrecht, the former in I609, the lhtter home from our many colonial possessions, and by English travel- in ifio. The brothers studied, travelled, and worked together lers in foreign countries, systematic B. is more cultivated here. on the same canvas, Jan painting the landscape part of the The brilliant discoveries of Charles Darwin have inaugurated a subject, and Andries the figures. So perfectly were they in acnew era, which may be styled the philosophical one. The stu- cord in mind and manner, that their works, which are rare and dents of his great and increasing school do not content them- very highly valued, seem the productions of a single hand. Of theery Viewl ofIaly-unied, anmt rdutosf a Deinle, harind thfsu selves with alone studying the structure and relations of plants these, a iew oftaly-Sunrise, and a Dele, are the Museum but endeavour to pry into the secrets of their origin, plan, and of Paris. Andries was drowned at Venice in 1650; his brother design in the economy of nature, and whatever may be said of returned to Utrecht, and died in 1651. the Darwinian doctrines, there can be but one opinion as to the Both wonderful impetus which his researches have given to B., as well middle'ni, the Latinised form of the name given in the as to other departments of science. See Balfour's IManual of ages to the coast lands around the Gulf of., comprising B., Brown's Manualtza of B., and Sachs' Text-Book of B. (for the present Osterbotten of Finland and the Swedish bin of B.,Brown's Manualof.,ndach'Txt(or Westerbotten.-Gulf of B., the N. part of the Baltic Sea, lies the views of the German school). beyond the Aland Isles, and between Sweden and Finland. It Bot'any Bay is situated 14 miles S. of Port Jackson Heads, is 400 miles long, and on an average about 0oo broad, with its northern limit (Cape Banks) being in 34~ S. lat. and I5~ a depth varying from 20 to 50 fathoms. Although it contains 16' E. long. It measures five miles from N. to S., and six miles many sandbanks, rocks, and islets, it is the least dangerous from E. to W., is open to the E., and affords no shelter for portion of the Baltic for navigation, has numerous excellent vessels. Cook's and George's rivers empty themselves into it. havens, and from both Sweden and Finland receives considerB. B. was the first point in Australia touched at by Cook, 28th able rivers. In winter it is usually frozen over, and can be April 1770, and owes its name to the large number of new crossed on sledges. The chief towns on the E. shore are Abo, plants discovered there by Sir Joseph Banks (q. v.). The first Vasa or Nikolaistadt, Uleaborg, and Tornea, on the extreme settlement in Australia was founded here 26th January 1788, but N.; and on the W., Umea, Hernisand, and Gefle. was soon after removed to the infinitely superior site now occu- Bothrioceph'alus, a genus of Platyelmia, or flat worms, pied by the city of Sydney (q. v.). From being the name of the allied to the tape-worms. A single species of this genus kB. first, B. B. came to be applied to any Australian convict settlefirst, B. B. came to be applied to any Australian convict settle- latus) inhabits the intestines of man, but is peculiar in its distribument. tion, inasmuch as it is parasitic only in the inhabitants of Russia, Bot;-Fly, or Gad-Fly, the term applied to certain genera of Sweden, Holland, Poland, and Switzerland. The head of Bothflies included in the family Estridce of the Dipterous order. riocephali-other species of which occur in fishes and water birds The term' bot' was originally applied to the larva or cater- -is provided with two elongated depressions, by means of which pillar state of the fly, whilst the name'gad-fly' was given to it adheres to the intestinal walls. The separate zobids or segments flies belonging to the family Tabanidce, of which the gad-fly of this'worm's' body are very broad in proportion to their (Tabanus bovinus) is a well-known member. The rEstridto length, and the generative pore or aperture opens on the flat possess a rudimentary proboscis; the antennae are short, the gurface of each segment, not at the margin or side, as in terminal joint being provided with a bristle-like organ. Of this the common tape-worm. This worm may attain a length of from group, the horse-fly or horse-bot (Gasterophilus or (Estrus 15 to 25 feet, and is more easily expelled than the common tapeequi) is a typical example. This fly is found in Britain, worm. Its developmental history is still imperfectly understood; though it is not so common in this country as on the conti- but it appears to exist in an immature or sexless form in fishes nent of Europe. It averages half an inch in length. The body and other marine animals, and undergoes full development only is woolly, and is coloured yellowish on the head, and red- when introduced into the bird or man, as the case may be. It dish on the thorax and abdomen, with whitish wings. The is said not to pass through a cystic stage, as observed in the female abdomen is prolonged to form a tubular organ. The tape-worm, but this is a very doubtful statement. 459* BOT THE GI OBE ENC YC OPE DIA. BOT Both'well, a village of Lanarkshire, parish of the same name, Botrych'ium, the moonwort, a genus of ferns, of the divion the right bank of the Clyde, 8 miles S.E. of Glasgow, and sion Opha/ioglosse. There is only one British species, B. Iunarsia, near which the splendid Norman ruin of B. Castle overlooks the which, though widely diffused, is not generally common. B. Clyde. The old B. Bridge was the scene of the famous battle virgTinica, though not found in Britain, is widely scattered over of that name, in which the Scottish Covenanters were defeated Australia, Asia, Norway, and America, where it is known as by the royal troops under Monmouth, June 22, I679. Pop. of the rattlesnake fern. Its roots are boiled and eaten in the village (187I), 1209. Himalayas, New Zealand, &c. According to Scottish folklore, ]Bothuwrell, James ~H~epb~urn~, Foulrt~h~ Earl of, was witches, when they strode broomsticks in their midnight expeborn about I526, and on his father's death in I556 became the ditions, used the moonwort for a saddle, chief noble in the S. of Scotland. Handsome and ambitious, Botryll'us, a genus of compound Ascidians (q. v.) or he was thoroughly unprincipled, and in turn favoured and op- 7Y'nicate Molluscs (q. v.), found inposed the Reforming' party. In 1562 he attempted to seize crusting the stones and other marine the Queen's person, was imprisoned, escaped, and outlawed on objects. B. t iohatons is the common shunning his trial. A fatal passion which he inspired in species; and, as exhibited in the the breast of Queen Mary was, however, the means of rein- accompanying cat these organisms _ - stating him at court, when he took the side opposed to Moray, consist of a nmbe of individgual who from the first had been his enemy. There can be little tunicte, each possessing a distinct doubt that the murder of Darnley, on the 9th of February I567, mouth, and united to form a comwhen the house at Kirk-of-Field was blown up, was his act, pound mass by the fusion of the tests though whether the Queen was an accomplice or not is still matter or outer layers of their bodies A comof dispute. The subsequent sham trial and acquittal of B. on the mon anal or excretory orifice exists in charge of murdering Darnley, followed by his obtaining the the centre of the mass. 3otryllus Schloseri. title of Duke of Orkney, and his marriage to Mary, I5th May 1567, was the ruin of both. The nation rose in revolt; Botry'tis, a genus of fungi of the division Hyphonzycetes, Mary's soldiers refused to fight; she was brought back a prisoner containing various plants, which constitute Mould (q. v.), Milto Edinburgh; while B. fled first to Orkney and then to Denmark, dew (q. v.), &c. The genus consists of a thread-like mycelium, where he was imprisoned, after making a confession, it is which enters into and penetrates through the tissues of the plant asserted, in the Castle of Malmoe, exonerating Mary, seemingly or other object, on which it becomes parasitic, and sends up a at the instance of a certain Anna Trandson, who claimed him cellular shoot, which bears the fructification at its extremities. as her husband, and procured the promise of a yearly allowance. A species of B. constitutes the silkworm rot, or Muscardine He died about 1577 in the Castle of Draxholm. (See Burton's (q. v.), and another (B. parasilica) is very destructive to turnips. Histo;y of Scotland.) His titles and estates were forfeited to the B. infeslans is by many observers believed to be the cause of crown. B. has been the subject of dramas by Aytoun and the Potato Disease (q. v.). Swinburne. Bott'a, Carlo Giuseppe Guglielmo, an Italian historian, Both'y, the name given to houses on a farm in which unrBothi, the name given to uhouses on a farm in which un- physician, and poet, was born at San Giorgio, Piedmont, 6th married men are lodged throughout the year, and to outhouses ovember 766, studied at Turin, and ir79 was appointed November 1766, studied at Turin, and in 1794 was appointed in certain counties of Scotland where women are accommodated physician to the French army of Italy. He was elected a during the time of potato-hoeing. Mr Stephens, in his Book of m ber of the Piedmontese Cota in 800, but incurred the the Farm, makes the sweeping assertion that the B. system is a displeasure of Napoleon by calling some of his measures debad one, and that in his opinion'it ought to be entirely abolspotic and ceased to be a member of the legislative body in ished.' Mr Robb, in his little book entitled'The Cottage, the 1814. B. was subsequently for some time rector of the academy B., and the Aitchen, while from personal experience declaring at Rouen, and died in Paris, Ioth August 1837. His most imthat occasionally bothies are not fit for habitation, asserts that portant work is Storia d'ltalia, I490 a I814 (20 vols. Par. I832), many of them are healthy and comfortable. He adduces various the portion from 1490 to 1534 being a republication of Guicciarinstances in Fife, Forfar, and Perth, where he found bothies with dini Among his other productions may be mentioned Iistire a general feeding-room, and with separate apartments for the de I'Amlerique (Par. I809), and ii Camillo, o Vejo Conqzistat various individuals. But there can be little doubt, that where (Par. i8i6), a poem in twelve cantos, full of noble versification the utmost care is not taken to secure cleanliness and comfort, and striking beauties. See Vita di B. by Diorisotti (i868), and the B. system is exceptionally pernicious to the moral habits of B.'s Letters, published by Paolo Pavesio at Turin in 1875.the peasantry. Paul Emile B., son of the preceding, a celebrated traveller, Botonee', or Botony, in heraldry, is a Cross-Crosslet was born in I805. After a voyage round the world, he went in (q. v.), each arm of which terminates in the form of buds or 1830 to Egypt as a physician, and accompanied the Egyptian buttons-usually three. expedition to Sennaar in this capacity, at the same time making Bo-Tree, the name given to the banyan or peepul (Ficus roe a zoological collection. When French Consul at Alexandria, he eg-iosa) in Ceylon, where the Buddhists hold it in great reve- undertook a journey into Arabia in 1837, the account of which is given in his Relation d'ai Voyage dans l'Yemzen (1841). He was then appointed consular agent at Mosul, where he began his i:a I' - explorations in 1843, and soon after discovered the ruins of Nineveh, described in his li/onument de Ninive, with fine illustrations by M. E. Flandin (5 vols. Par. I849-50). A cheaper edition of this work appeared as Inscribtions d'couvertes a Zholrsabad (1848). B. went as General Consul to Jerusalem in 1847, and to Tripolis in 1857. He returned to France in 1868, and died in April 1870, at Acheres, near Poissy. B, greatly enriched the Louvre with his discoveries, and earned for himself an honourable name as the pioneer of Assyrian archliology.....___-____'*~ —=~-~' —I_ ~Botta'ri, Giovanni Gaetano, an Italian scholar and savan, was born at Florence, January 15, I689. He superintended a Bo-Tree. new edition of the Dictionary of the Della Crusca Academy; and having gone to Rome in 1730, became Professor of Church rence. It is planted near the temples. One near the city of History and Polemical Theology in the College of La Sapienza, Anaraganpoora is believed, on good historical grounds, to be assisted Manfredi to determine the level of the Tiber, and subse2I63 years of age. It is looked upon with peculiar veneration, quently became librarian of the Vatican and Canon of Santa but pilgrims are only allowed to take away the leaves when Maria Transteverine. B. died at Rome, June 3, 1775- Of his they fall, the tree being accounted too sacred to be touched with numerous works may be mentioned his Virgil, from the Vatican a knife. See Tennent's Ceylon (ISo). MS. (I740); his dissertations on Dante, Boccaccio, and Livy;. 460 and medireval times.'Pop. of State, was in the Chambre Introurvable,and sat as a deputy for Bour'ignon, Antoinette de, born at Lille, 13th January Yonne, until he had to run from his creditors. His reason then I6i6, was a religious mystic, who held the opinion that the gave way, and he died in a maison de sat, 7th February I834. Bible was not a sufficient source of faith, but needed to be sup- His 2en'moires concerning Napoleon, of the Directory, Consulate, plemented by special revelation. At Amsterdam she abjured Empire, and Restoration, in Io vols., were published in 1829-31. Catholicism, and printed -there her works at a private press. As They are detailed, but inaccurate. a proselytiser she was very successful. After occupying the posi- Bouss'a, a town and district of Sudan, Central Africa. The Friesland, sof thead ofdied an hospital first at ille and then in E. was town is naturally strong, being situated on a rocky island in the Friesland, she died at Franeker, 3oth October i68o. B. was Niger, about 300 miles above the confluence of this river with accused of grave trickeries, and of a piety too interested to be th Chadda. Pop. estimated at from, to i8,ooo. genuine. Her works, collected by Poiret, and accompanied by a biography, were printed in 21 vols. at Amsterdam I679-84:; Bouss'ingault, Jean Baptiste Joseph Dieudonn6, an 2d ed. 1717. eminent chemist, was born at Paris, 2d February 1802. After 466 _ _ _ e b~~~~~~~~~~ —----—. —--— ~ kBOU THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPMEDIA. BOW being educated at the mining school of St Etienne, he went to the Austrians, under Klinsky, were defeated by the French ReS. America, where he fought under Bolivar. On returning to publican Army of the North. France, he was chosen Professor of Chemistry at Lyon, and afterwards Professor of Agriculture at the Conservatoire of Arts Bovey Coal-, the lignite or wood-coal found at Bovey and Measures, Paris. He was elected to the Constituent Assem- Tracey, Devonshire. It has a disagreeable odoul, and is of bly in 1848, and made Commander of the Legion of Honour in little use except as fuel for burning pottery, and for brick and I857. The results of his scientific inquiries are contained in his tile making. Economie Rurale (2 vols. Par. I844; 2d ed. I849); English Bo h intransi. by Law (Lond. 1845); and his MImoires de Chemie Agrt- cludes the various genera of Oxen and their allies. The animals of this group are generally of large size and heavy conformaBoussole' Strait, named after one of the vessels of La tion. As in other members of the Cavicornia (or'hollowPerouse, passes through the Kurile Islands, and unites the Sea horned' Ruminantia), the horns are hollow, and consist each of of Okhotsk with the Pacific Ocean. a process of the frontal bone, or horn-core, covered by a horny sheath. These horns are generally borne by both sexes, and Boustrophe'don (Gr. bozes, an ox, and strepho, I turn: lite- are not shed annually as in the Cervidae or deer. In the B. the rally, turning like an ox in the plough) is the term used to de- horns are usually turned outwards in a crescentic shape. The scribe the early Greek manner of writing alternately from right head terminates in a wide muzzle. The legs are strongly made. to left, and from left to right. The laws of Solon were so The skin of the neck is loose and hanging, and forms a large written. dependent fold, known as the dezelaj. The tail is tufted. There are six incisors, two canines, and twelve molars in the lower jaw, Bou'terwek, Friedrich, a writer on philosophy and poetry, and only twelve molars in the upper jaw; the place of the absent was born I5th April I765, at Oker, near Goslar, N. Germany. upper incisors and canines being taken by a callous or hardened After studying jurisprudence and essaying poetry, he devoted pad of the gum. The females possess four teats. The B. occur himself to philosophy and the history of literature. He was in Europe, Asia, Africa, and N. America, and are represented as made Professor of Philosophy at Gdttingen in 1802, and died fossils only in the Pliocene and Pleistocene formations; the chief 9th August I828. His chief work is his Geschichte der VNeern extinct forms being the Urus or wild bull (Bos primingenius), the Poesie und Eeredsamkeit (12 vols. G'tt.. I80-I9), a work which, Bos antliquus, the B. longifrons, together with the still existent though of unequal merit, is yet a creditable monument of intel- bison or auroch (B. bison). See also AnNEE, BANTENG, BISON, lectual industry and independent judgment. In. philosophy he BUFFALO, OX, YAK, &C., &C. was an adherent first of Kant and finally of Jacobi, and wrote treatises on the subject which are not remembered. Bovi'no (anc. Vebinum), a fortifiedl town in the province of Foggia, S. Italy, 20 miles S.S. W. of Foggia, and close upon the Bouts-Rim6s (Fr. rhymed ends-of lines) is the name railway, that here crosses the country. It is a bishop's -see, and given to a particular sort of verse-making, which consists in has a cathedral. The valley of B. has long been a favourite fitting lines to appointed rhyming terminations. The diversion haunt of brigands. Pop. 600o. is said to have originated in a mishap which befell a French poetaster called Dulot. This man lived by writing sonnets for Bow, a term used generally for the front part of a ship.'On the courtiers of Louis XIV.; and it happened once that his MSS. the port,' or'on the starboard' B.e, are phrases used in reference were stolen. He bewailed his fate in having lost no fewer than to objects seen within about 45~ of the vessel's course to the left 300 sonnets. On inquiry, it was found that these were blank and right respectively. sonnets, having only the rhymed endings. Hence originated the fashion, which appeared later in England. Horace Walpole Bow and Arrow, the most ancient weapons of oence and relates how he had to fill up the rhymes brook, I, crooke wh~y; * of the chase used by the human family, and among all uncivilised which he did in this stanza - tribes the most generally employed. Arro.w-heads of flint, rudely chipped, are the earliest remains found indicating the beginnings'I sit with my toes in a brook, of human life on the globe, and something of the development of And if any one any one asks me for why, the race can be traced in the improved form and finish of flint I gives'em a tap with my crook, And'tis sentiment mkes me, say 9arrow-heads. The remains of bows have also been found in And,'tis sentiment.makes me, say I." large numbers in the deposits of the ancient Swiss lake-dwellings. Bounvar'dia, a genus of plants of the natural order Cinchzonacec The bow with poisoned arrows is to this day; the favourite weapon (q. v.), natives of Mexico, one of which, B. trzphylla, is com- among savages everywhere. See ARcnERY. monly cultivated in flower-borders of our gardens. Its handBow'ditch, Nathaniel, LL.D.,, F.P~.S., an eminent some red flowers are produced from June to November; but it, F S a eminen oug e placd in a g, f er dy c, American mathematician and astronomer, and President of the ought to boe placed in a greenhouse, frame, or dry cellar, to American Academy, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, March *o American Academy, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, March protect it from the winter fiosts. B. fava (yellow flowers) anda. 26, 1773, and died at Boston, March I6, I838. His two prinB. longiPfora (white flowers) are also cultivated. cipal works are The American Practical Navi6gator (I802), and Bou'vet, Joachim, a French missionary, was born at Mans an excellent translation of La Place's Micanique Cdeeste (4 vols. about I662, and was sent by Louis XIV. on a scientific mission Bost. I829-38). to China (a scheme favoured by Colbert, and, after his death, Bow'dich, Thomas Edward, African traveller, was born at carried on by Louvois). On March 3, I685, B. embarked at Brest, Bristol, June I79o, where he was educated, and passed some time with five Jesuit fathers, and landed in China, 23d July 1687. Two in his father's counting-house. In I814 he visited Cape Coast of the fathers, detained in Pekin by the Emperor as teachers of Castle, of which his uncle, Mr Hope Smith, was governor, and in mathematics, directed the building of the church and residence I8i6 was placed at the head of an embassy to the Ashantees, of of the Jesuits in the capital. B. returned to France in I697, whichhe publishedan interesting account (Lond.I89g). Heafterbringing with him from the Emperor of China 49 Chinese vol- wards resided in Paris, and produced numerous original works umes as a present to the King of France. Accompanied by ten on Africa, and a translation of Mollien's Sources of the Senegal and new missionaries he again set out for China, which he reached Gambia (1820).. In 1822, accompanied by his wife, he sailed in i699. He died at Pekin, June 28, 1732, after having laboured from Lisbon for Africa, intent on wide explorations, but on long on a map of the empire. B.'s best-known work is his reaching the river Gambia he had an attack of fever and died, /tat present de la Chzine (fol. Par. i697), some contributions January Io, 1824. His wife prepared from his notes Excursions to P. Duhalde's Description de la C(hine, and a ChineseDictionayy, in the Island of M2adeira, by the late T. B. B., with a Narrative preserved in MS. in the Library of Mans. of'his Last Voyage, Pemarks on Cape Verd Islands, and a Descriptionz of the Enslish Settlements on the Gambia (I825). Bouvines', a small place in French Flanders, to the S.E. of Lille, noted for two battles, the first fought 27th July 1214, Bow'er (Old Eng. bcar, and still so pronounced in Lowland between the Emperor Otto I. and Philippe Auguste, in which Scotch, bour; perhaps connected with the Gr. burion, a house), the latter was victorious; and the second, x8th May 1794, when originally meant a dwelling, either the whole house or a single 467 4 *~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 BOW THE GLIOBE ENCYCL OPAEDIA. BOW chamber, but later on was restricted in its application to the pri- the reef, but affording a safe anchorage inside the barrier reef. vate apartment of ladies in a feudal castle. In this sense it is This name was given by Cook, who visited the island in 1769, a often contrasted with hall, where the feudal retainers assembled year after Bougainville, by whom it was called La Harpe. The for food or mirth; e.g.- native name is Hao. B. I. is scantily peopled by a depraved'What never yet was heard in tale or song race, engaged mostly in pearl-fishing. From old or modern hard in hall or bower.' CoMes (ii. 44, 45). Bowles, Rev. William Lisle, was born at King's Sutton, The lady's attendants were called her'B.-maidens.' The ballad Northamptonshire, September 24, 1762, and edncated at Win. poetry of Scotland abounds with examples of the-use of the word. chester School and Trinity College, Oxford. His Sonnets, pubchester School and Trinity College, OXford. His Sonnels, published in 1789, completely liberated from the artificial and conBowerbank'ia, a genus of Molluscoid animals belonging ventional spirit of the i8th c., had a marked and merited success, to the class Polyzoa or Boyozoa,, and to the order Inzfndibulata and went far to inaugurate a new era in English verse. He may or Gymnolamata of that class. In this order the tentacles be regarded as the forerunner of the'Wordsworthian' school, are arranged in a circular form, and the mouth is not guarded and was particularly admired by its chiefs. Coleridge, in a sonby a valvular process or epistome. B.. is included in the sub- net says: order Ctenostomata, and is common around the British coasts,'No common praise, dear bard, to thee, I owe.' growing attached to sea-weeds, stones, &c. The tufts or colonies of this form (for like all Polyzoa, B. is a compound ani- After a quiet life as rector of Bremhill, in Wilts, B. died at Salismal) may attain a height of I or ir inches, and may be matted bury, 7th, April i850. He was a true poet of nature, and and creeping, or erect and of irregularly-branched shape. The though not a classic, yet in virtue of his influence has a secure cells, each of which contains a little zobid or animal, are of place in literature. His controversy with Byron and Campbell tubular form, and are thickly clustered together. Each little as to the poetry of Pope, whose works he edited, is well known. animal of the colony possesses from 8 to Io tentacles, which are B. supported natural imagery in poetry, as against artificial, and richly ciliated, and can be withdrawn into, or protruded from, is credited with victory by Hazlitt and other critics. Among the cell. The mouth opens in the central aspect, and a gullet, his larger works are The Spirit of Discovery, or Conquest of Ocean strong gizzard, stomach, and intestine belong to each animal. (I8o5), and The M]is.sriozary of the Andes (1815). A new edition Certain cellular bodies are supposed to represent a liver. The of his poems was published at Edinburgh in 1855. tentacles bring particles of food to the mouth. No heart exists, but a circulation of fluid takes place in each cell. The nervous Bowles, Samuel, a distinguished American journalist, was system is represented by a single nervous mass or ganglion placed born at Springfield, Massachusetts, U.5., February 9, 1826, and near the mouth. Reproduction takes place by means of eggs, since 1844 has been sole editor of the Springfield Republican, but the colony itself increases indefinitely by gemmation or founded by his father. Under his management the paper has budding. Complicated muscles for the retraction and protrusion become one of the foremost journals in the country, and is of the tentacles exist. B. imbricata, and B, dense are familiar noted for its extensive news, its literary taste, and its intelligent species. views of public affairs. In recent years it has laboured to free the press fi'om the bias of political party. B. is author of Bower-Bird, the popular name of certain interesting Aus- the press from the bias of political party. B. is author of Across the Continentl (1865), Our Nczo West (1867), and The tralian birds belonging to the Corvine family Sturnido (see Switzerlnd of America (i869). STARLING), and so named on account of their constructing remarkable erections resembling bowers. These consist of a Bowline, in nautical language, is a rope from near the platform of twigs woven together, with other twigs fastened to middle of the weather edge, or leech, of a sail, to keep the leech it at the bottom, and curving upwards so as to meet at the top. forward. The wind thus gets at the sail's after-side. These bowers are decorated with any bright-coloured or white objects the birds can procure, such as parrots' feathers, snail- Bol ls, Game of, one of the most simple, healthful, and poprshells, bones, coloured rags, &c. The aborigines are in the iar recreations open to the community. The date of its ogin habit of looking in the bowers for any light and showy things is not nown, but it has been traced by Strutt as far back as the they may miss from their encampments. The bowers are 13th c. We may therefore say that, in some mode or another, it not used as nests, but as playing places, the birds chasing has been played in England for 6oo years. After the middle of each other through and round them, often for hours at a time, the 15th c., bowling became acommon pastime in London and its environs. But we learn from Stow in his &~rvey of Zoidon, that The adult male Satin B.-B. (Ptilonomynchous holoserisceoes) is of a environs. But we learne from Stow in his Snrvey of Lossdon, that deep purple hue, with glossy plumage resembling satin. The pealn omi nln.Saepaerpael eest deep purple hue, with glossy plumage resembling satin. The the game was played in a roofed-in bowling-alley, as is still the female and young male birds are of an olive-green colour. The peviling form in England. Shaespeare repeatedly refers to Spotted B.-B. (Chlamzydera naculata) makes larger bowers than it (Taminsg of the Shrew, Coriolanus, &c.). Often attached to a the Satin B., theyfrequently being a yard long. It is of a rich tavern, it gradually degenerated till it became a haunt of the idle theSatn B.ou, wthe freuensptly beng a a colard olongak i of arc brown colour, with buff spots, and has a collar or cloak of and the dissolute, and complaints were rife about its pernicious long pink feathers on the neck, whence its scientific designation. influence on the habits of tradesmen;. and it is more than doubtThese two species are natives of New South Wales. A larger ful whether a bowling-alley can ever become a scene of pure and species, the Great B.-B. (Chlamydera nzuchalis), is found in N.W. wholesome amusement. But within the present century, and Australia. The B. are partially insectivorous, particularly in Scotland, the game, played in the open air and on a well-turfed green or lawn, as distinguished from the Bow'ie-Klnife, a dangerous, sharp-pointed weapon, from o10 bowling-alley, has come to occupy a high position among to I5 inches long, and 2 inches broad, named after its con- popular recreations. At present the bowling-green may almost triver, Colonel James Bowie, of the Southern States of America. be considered as an'institution' of the country. It is to be found It was long a favourite instrument with rowdies for settling their in nearly every town N. of the Tweed, and is often laid out with disputes, but its use is gradually being abandoned except by exquisite beauty. It is gradually finding its way across the border, professed ruffians. like another grand Scottish game, golf. Edinburgh has now a considerable number of bowling clubs, with many excellent greens, accommodation to Paganism, like so many more of the practices accomodtionto agansmlik so anymoreof he pactcesand not a few skilful players, but the W. of Scotland, especially introduced into the early Christian Church. The pagans, whose Glasgow and Ayrshire, are the strongholds of bowling; and religion was all more or less directly a worship of nature, always there, as also in the shires of Kirkcudbright and Dumfries, are worshipped towards the rising sun. It was to meet the preju- to befound. the finest greens, the greatest number of players, and dice of converts, therefore, that the altar was placed in the E. the most admirable play. Ithe most admirable play.end of Christian churches. But in modern times the practice of A bowling-green should be laid with very fie turf and be as bowing towards it is connected with the doctrine regarding the fo 0t 5yrs it f2 ad diso he ea bowing towards it is connected with the doctrine regarding the smooth and as perfectly level as possible. It may vary in length presence of Christ in the Eucharist. See Bingham's Ecclesias- from 30 to 35 yards. A width of 25 yards admits of three sepatical Antiquities. rate games being played at the same time, but the larger greens have sufficient width to accommodate from eight to ten rinks. Bow Island, the largest coral island in the Low Archipelago, The B. are generally made of lignum vita, a dense, heavy wood, S. Pacific, accessible only in the N. through a small opening in are about i6 inches in circumference, and more or less oval in 468 4~-~ —--- BOW THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPDIIA. BOX shape. They have a bias given them by their inner side being lower member is a uniform tension throughout its whole length, made more flat than the outer, which causes the bowl to make and the horizontal component of the compressive stress in the a considerable bend or circuit in its course as it slows in ap- upper boom is also the same at every point. Inverted bowstring preaching its destination. This bias,, sometimes very consider- girders are sometimes used,, and other modifications of the same able, enables a player to send his bowl round others which seem type. as if they must obstruct its passage, and the delicate calculation Bowstring Hemp, or African. Hemp, the fibres of Sanof the bias is an important element in the skill and beauty of seiea Zenc, and other species of the genus, belonging to the play. The surface of the bowl being very smooth, it runs the natural order iiacd (qo v.). easily along the green. The game may be played by two or more persons, forming Bow'yer, William, an Eglish typographer, born in Whitetwo opposing sides; eight players, four on each side, making a friars, London, Ig9th December I699, belonged to a family of full party, or rink, as it is termed. A small wooden ball- painted printers. He was educated at Cambridge, and' appointed printer white, perfectly spherical, and about three inches diameter, of the resolutions of the House of Commons in I72'9, an office called the jack, is thrown more than half or nearly the whole which he held till his death, r8th November I777. Among length of the green. Each member of the rink plays two B., his more noteworthy pulblications. are his Works of Selden (3 and the bowl or B. lying nearest the jack when all have been vols. 1726); N2ovun TesatnlazetuZz Graceum (2 vols. 1763); played are reckoned skots to that side by which they are and an edition of the Lexicon of Schrevilius, with considerable played, the game consisting of 7; 9, r3, or 2- shots, as may be additions. His miscellaneous tracts were collected and pubagreed on, the two last being the most common. One bowl is lished by his successor, Mr Nichols, who also wrote B.'s Life. played by each side alternately, and when all have been played, Box (Buxus), a genus of plants of the natural order Euzphorand the number of shots to the winning side ascertained, the biacete (Spfurgeworts), with evergreen foliage, generally shrubs or jack is thrown again, and a new end commenced as before; and small trees. The common B. (B. sezjtervilvens), is a native of so on till either of the opposing parties has gained the required the S. of Europe and some parts of Asia, but is now extensively number of shots, and thus beconme the winners. In the attain- cultivated as an edging for garden plots. It is said to be indiment of this object, every bowl which is played affords the op- genous at Boxhill in. Surrey. In warm countries it will often portunity of displaying a great amount of skill; the player at attain.a height of, from 24 to. 30. feet, though it rarely reaches one time aiming to have his bowl close to the jack, and at an- more than half that height in this country. The variety cultiother to land it at such a spot as may obstruct his opponent's vated for edging is known as the Dwarf B. The leaves play, or where it is likely to count a shot, should the, position of have a peculiar and rather disagreeable smell, and bitter the jack, which is movable, be changed by any future bowl taste. Taken internally, they cause purging, and externally a striking it; and the player hiriself may be required, with his decoction of them promotes the growth of hair. The firm, bowl, to move the jack a few inches or feet, as directed by his smooth, yellowish wood is greatly valued by the cabinetpartners, to where one or more of their previously played B. maker and wood-engraver, and for, the manufacture of valimay be lying; or, if the situation be desperate, to upset allt pre- ous musical and mathematical instruments. It is sudorific in vious calculations by a; run; that is, by discharging his bowl its properties, if taken internally in the form of scrapings. Spain, with such force and precision that the jack and the B. around Portugal, Circassia, and Georgia are the countries from which it may be scattered in all directions, and chance determine the we derive most of our boxwood. B. Bal/earica, the Turkey or issue. See Mitchell's Mzanual of Bowol-Playing (Glasg. I864). Minorca B., also yields a fine timber valued for wood-engraving. Between two and three thousand tons of B. are annually imBow'ring, Sir John, an English politician and scholar, ported into Britain. The common B. is the badge of the Clan was born at Exeter, I7th October 1792. Early in life he at- M'Intosh, tained a high reputation as a linguist and a translator of the variety as theirs more ancient and the more modern popular poems of most of the countries of Europe. B. was the friend and subsequently the Box-Days. In the Court of Session in Scotland, B.-D. are executor of Jeremy Bentham, a contributor from the first to, two days appointed by the judges in each spring and autumn and for five years editor of, the Westminster Review. He sat in vacation, and one day in the Christmas recess, for lodging papers Parliament for the Kilmarnock Burghs from I835 to I837, and ordered by the court towards the close of the preceding sesfor Bolton from I841 to I849, distinguishing hiniself as an' ad- sion. The first box-day is. also the day on which judgments vocate of free trade. He was sent on various commissions by or'interlocutors' of the Lords Ordinary, pronounced within the British Government to inquire into the commercial relations twenty one days of the close of the session, become final, unless of European states. In 1849 he was made British consul at a ReclaimingV Note (q. v.)' be'boxed' on the first day. In the Hong-Kong, and for his services in this capacity the honour of inferior courts, the sheriff must, under statute, before the end of knighthood was conferred upon him. He was subsequently made each session, appoint at least one court-day during each vacation governor of Hong-Kong, and on an insult being offered to the for despatch of. all ordinary civil business, including the calling of British flag (I856), B., without taking any advice from the home new cases, and lodging, during the vacation, of papers required. Government, caused certain Chinese forts to be fired on-a pro- Boxing, i.e., fighting with the fists, has for a very long time cedure which occasioned a ministerial crisis at home. In I855 been a favourite practice in England of men and boys. With he concluded a commercial treaty with Siam, about which the latter it has been in especountry he wrote a fine work, Tke ALingdon,' and People of cial favour at school, as a sumSiamz, and in I86I reported on the commercial relations between mary method of deciding a Britain and Italy. He died November 23, I872. B;is works quarrel. It may seem to are numerous and varied, the chief, perhaps, being his edition, many that this practice of, in 23 vols., of the works of his political master, Bentham, ac- boys so determining their companied by a biography (Lond. I843).-Edgar Alfred B., quarrels is a brutal one, which,. son of the preceding, born ISz26, educated at University College, as such, ought to be put a. London, and successively private secretary to the Earl of Claren- stop to by penalties of neces- don, Earl Granville, and Lord Stanley of Alderney, has won a sary severity. The advocates fair place in literature as a. translator of Schiller, Goethe, and of the system, again, mainHeine. He was returned to Parliament for. Exeter. in, I868,;but tain that the training relost his seat at the general election in I874. quired in learning B. is good Bow'sprit, of a ship, is a large boom projecting over the for the physical development, stem, and carrying the forward sail. It is generally inclined at and that the amount of pain a small angle to the horizontal. which ne boy can inflict on another in a fair fight is in Bow'string Girder, a type of girder in which the upper general no more than every member is arched, and the lower one horizontal. If the arch be boy is able to bear, and that it Anciet Boxes. (as it is in practice approximately) an arc of a parabola, and the cannot do him any ultimate harm; further, that the fighting load on the girder be uniformly distributed, the stress in the is a good moral as well as a good physical as well as a good physical training, because the 459 BOX THE GLOBE 1VC YCL OPEDIA. BOY opinion of the school demands that the contest be conducted was born in that city in 1598. Educated in Edinburgh and without loss of temper on either side, and with the strictest France, he commenced teaching in the latter country at Tours, regard to the rules of fair play on both. There can, indeed, be was ordained pastor at Verteuil in 1604, professor at Saumur in no doubt that B. has hitherto formed an essential feature of I6o6, and was afterwards called by King James to the Principalthose English playgrounds on which, according to the Duke ship of Glasgow University, where he taught Hebrew, Syriac, and of Wellington, the battle of Waterloo. was won. As- the foreign theology, and also preached every Sunday in Govan. He died policy of England does not, however, seem. likely to lead to 5th January I627. Of B.'s works, the least unknown is his many battles for the future, perhaps the physical training which Pralectiones in Epislolam ad EIpesios. He was a fine Latin led to the great victories of former times may now be re- scholar of the old type, and had a genius for Latin verse which garded as superfluous. By the law of England prize-fighting is he did not sufficiently cultivate. illegal, and if either of the. combatants be killed, the killing is Boyd, Zachary, a Scottish divine, belonging to the family felony or manslaughter. But if under the ban of the; law, there of the Boyds of Pinell in Carrick, and cin of Robe B. can be no doubt that a B.-match between two noteworthy pugi- of Trocheig, was born before 1590, and educated first at Killists still possesses almost irresistible attractions even for men of marnock, was at Glasgow, and at Saumur, France, where the upper classes in England. In our own time we have seen marnoc, afterwards at Glasgow, and at Saumur, France, where he became a regent or teacher in I61Ii In I62I he returned to the extraordinary spectacle of both Houses of Parliament nearly Scotland, was appointed minister of the Barony parish, Glasemptied in order that members might behold an infraction of the gow, in I623, where he died in I653 or I654. B. was thrice law. This took place in 1-86o, on, the occasion of the famous chosen rector of the university of that city, which he enB.-match between Tom Sayers, the champion of England, and rector of the niversity of that city, which he enriched with a considerable collection of books, and, for the John Heenan,'the Benicia Boy,' an American. The prize was period, a handsome legacy. The Last Basell of the Soele in a stake of ~200; on each side, and the'champion, belt.' The peatI (2 vols. Edib. l629), reprinted at Glasgow in 1831, an battle at the end of two hours was put a stop to, by the police,, his Psa(es of David in Meeter (Glasr. a646), are the works by each combatant claiming the victory. In the House of Com- kcsalmes of Dvd Meeer (Glasg. i 646), are the works by llons the Home Secretary announced which he is chiefly known. His Zion's Flozwers, aMS. collection monlas the Homeil S tary anouenhe tatd the spectators as of poems on subjects in scripture history, has from its quaintness well as the principals had broken the law, and were consequently liable in penalties. No legal proceedings, hweer, folloed acquired an exceptional celebrity among literary antiquaries. l this announcementi. No eidprcedigsowveolowdThe soliloquy of Jonah within the whale's belly has often been quoted. Two lines will suffice as an exampleBoxing-Day, the. day on which Christmas-boxes, are given'What house is this, where's neither coal nor candle, to servants, messengers, &c. These presents are looked for the Where I nothing but guts of fishes handle?' day after Christmas. In spite of this grolesquerie there is some real poetry and much Boxing the Compass, i.e., repeating the thirty-two points of the compass in order. The origin of the phrase is not known. Boydell', John, born at Stanton, Shropshire, January 19, Box-Sextant, a modification of the nautical sextant, used to 1719, was apprenticed in London to Toms, the engraver, for -ox-8extaY~t;, - modificationof the nautcal seitan, u seven years, and later became a printseller, and one of - the most measure angles in surveying. The whole instrument is enclosed benefien nt patrons of English art. H e is best known as the in a small cylindrical box, a few inches in.diameter, so as to be in a small cylindrical ho; a few inches in. diametes-, so as to be proprietor of the' Shakespeare Gallery,' a splendid collection of paintings by Opie, Reynolds, Northcote, andi West, which, at a Box'tel, a Dutch town, province of N. Brabant, at the con- later period, were beautifully engraved, and published as illusfluence of the Donrmel and Beerze, 7' miles S. of Bois-le-Duc. trations of a magnificent edition of Shakespeare from Bulmer's It has eighteen linen factories, employing 260. weavers, and is press (9 vols. fol. 1792-18oI). B. was made Lord Mayor of noted for its beautiful diapers. Pop. (1873) 4225. B. was the London in 1i79o, and the Guildha11 still contains several fine scene of the defeat of the Anglo-Dutch army under the Duke of'paintings which he presented to the Corporation. At the time York by the French in 1794.. of the French Revolution his business became embarrassed, and in 1804 he disposed by lottery of the'Gallery' and all his pic. Box-Thorn (Iycihnz), a genus: of plants of the' natural order tures and plates. He died December I I, 804. Solanacee, of which several (thorny shrubs) are natives of the S. of Europe, and some are almost trees. L. Eurzopznm and Boy'e, Alexi;s, Baron de, a French surgeon, born at L. fic/zsioides are among the cultivated species, the latter being Uzerche, Limousin, 30th March 1757. In i804 he became used in its native country (the Andes of Quito) as a hedge First Surgeon to NapoleonI.,whom he accompanied on his camplant-a purpose to which the former species is also sometimes paigns; and after the Restoration was appointed Professor of applied in Spain and Tuscany.'. Surgery in the Paris University and First Surgeon at the H6pital de la CharitY. B. died November 25., I833. His chief works Boya'ca, or Bojaea, a town and state of Colombia, S. Ame- are his Trailte' dAnatomie (4 vols. 1797-9.9) and his Traitl des rica, situated I2 miles S. of Tunja, the capital of the state. Maladies Chirurgicales (8 vols. 1814-22). The Nzouvelle BioNear B. Bolivar defeated the Spaniards, and secured the inde g)raphie Geinrale contains a full notice of his life and works by pendence of Colombia in 18I9. Area of state, I7,0ooo sq. miles;. M. Malgaigne, from which one can see that his position was pop. (i87o) 482,874. greater than his merits. Boy'au, in the nomenclature of siege-work, is a winding. Boyer- Jean Pierre, a mulatto president of the republic of trench, which forms a communication between the different Hayti, was born at Port-au-Prince, February 28, I776, and eduarmed trenches. Its object is to prevent them from being fired. cated in France. On his return to the island in 1792 he joined upon in flank. the army, and distinguished himself in aiding Pethion to found Boy-Bishop (Eliscopus Peerorum) was elected on St an independent republic. He was subsequently raised to the Nicholas's Day (December 6), and his mimic jurisdiction lasted rank of major-general, was vested with the command of the till St Innocent's Day (December 28). The ceremonies of the elec- t Port-au-Prince, and on the death of Pthion (I20) was tion were copied from those performed at the regular episcopal unanimously elected his successor. Under B. the republic, consecration. The B. -B. was usually selected from the cathe- which now embraced the Spanish or eastern portion of the island, dral choristers, and had a juvenile chapter who assisted him in was recognised by the European powers, and was acknowledged his episcopal functions. The office was accompanied by sub5- by France on payment of an indemnity to the old planters of stantial benefits. If a prebend became vacant during the period I50 millions of francs (/6,ooo,ooo). For an unwonted period of his episcopacy, the B.-B. had the power of filling it. A pro- the new rule was one of great tranquillity, but no effort was clamation of Henry VIII. prohibiting the election of the.-B. made to improve the lot of the negro, and in March I843 a vicwas recalled in the reign of Mary. The custom has now dropped torious rising took place. (See HAYTI.) B. fled on board an out of use. See Dr Rimbault's Account of the B. -B. of Salis. English man-of-wa ship to Jamaica, where he continued to bury, published by the Camden Society (Lond. I875). reside for some considerable time. He afterwards came to Europe, and died at Paris, July 9, 1850. Arrogant and tyranBoyd, Robert, of Trochrig, an eminent Scotch divine, was nous to his subordinates, B. was nevertheless a master of craft the son of James B., tulzcian Archbishop of Glasgow, and and courtesy. 470 * 4 BOY THE GLOBE ENVC YCLOPD1A4. BRA Boyle (Ir.-Gael. BaeighiZZ, named after a famous Irish chief- and enters the Irish Sea four miles below Drogheda, after a course tain, ancestor of the O'Boyles), a town of Ireland, Roscommon of 65 miles and a total fall, of 336 feet. The Deel, Mattock, and county, on the B., I8 miles S. S.E. of Sligo. It is a station on Blackwater are its tributaries. Near Oldridge is an obelisk 150 the Dublin and Sligo Railway, and has a large trade in dairy feet high, marking the scene of the battle of the B., in which and farm produce. Pop. (187I) 316I. Its annals, in Latin and William III. defeated James II., July I, I69o. English, which date from 420 to I245, have been published. Near B. are the ruins of an abbey, built in the I2th c. Boys' Ships. See SHIPS, TRAINING. Boyle, Charles, third Earl of Orrery, born at Chelsea, Bozza'ris or Botzaris, XEarcos, the hero of the Greek War I676, educated at Oxford, and chiefly known for his edition of of Independence, was born of a warlike family of Suliots, in the the he work mainly of Atterbury, Friend, valley of Acheron (Janina), in 1788. In I820 he issued from the and others. It was published in I695, extolled by Sir William Ionian Isles, the retreat of the expatriated Suliots (q. v.), at the Temple, and mercilessly exposed by Bentley in his celebrated head of 80o men, combined with Ali Pasha against the Sultan, Disserfation. A controversy ensued, in which Bentley was com- and after the death of the former (1822) continued the war with pletely victorious, showing that the Epistles were not written in unabated vigour. He was soon reinforced by Prince Mavrocorthe 6th c. B. c., but in the 2d c. A.D. B., who served for some dato with a disciplined force, but treachery led to the loss of the time in the army, and was employed as an ambassador, was battle of Petta (July 06, 1822), after which the Greeks retired made an English peer, wrote some verses and one comedy, and upon Mesolonghi. In the following summer B. anticipated the died 28th August I73I. The name' Orrery' was given in honour approach of the enemy, and by a brilliant night-attack, with only of B. to the instrument of this name by the inventor, Graham. I-200 men, destroyed a Turco-Albanian army 4000 strong. But Boyle, Richard, first Earl of Corks, was the son of a Here- in this victory B. fell (August 20, I823), leaving behind a name fordshire gentleman, and was born at Canterbury, 3d October still extolled in many a Greek song-Kosta or Xonstantinos I566. After completing his education at Cambridge, he joined B., brother of the former, also distinguished himself in the the Middle Temple, but in 1588 went to Dublin to push his for- patriotic wars of Greece, was subsequently a general and senator, tune. Seven years later he married a very wealthy lady, who and died -t Athens, November 13, I853.-Diitri B., the on her death in I599, left him her whole estate. B. now began only son of Marcos, has been Minister of War under Kilg Ott to invest extensively in the purchase *of land. The envy or since June 22, 859. malice of other proprietors soon involved him in troubles, and Bozz'olo, a town of N. Italy, province of Mantua, on the he was even thrown into prison for a time in England, but at last Oglio, s6 miles W. by S. of Mantua, and il miles S. of the railobtained the ear of Elizabeth, who sent him back to Ireland with special marks of the royal favour. He obtained the confidence some silk-weaving, and was at one time a small independent and friendship of Sir George Carew, Lord-President of Munster, republic. Pop. 5000. who consulted him on all matters of political importance. In I6I2 he was sworn a privy councillor of Ireland, in I6I6 he was Bra, a town of N. Italy, province of Cuneo, 25 miles N.E. created Lord B., and in 1620 Earl of Cork. In I629 he became by N. of Coni. It is an imnportant railway junction, with metal Lord-Justice of Ireland, and in i63I was made Lord High Trea- foundries, silk and linen factories, and an active trade in cattle, surer of the kingdom. He displayed great vigour and courage wine, grain, fruit, &c. Pop. I2,500. on the outbreak of the Irish rebellion. B. died 15th September I643. Brabangonne, the Belgian national song, first sung during Boyle, The Hon. Robert, seventh son'and fourteenth child the Revolution of I830. It was composed by Jenneval, a young French actor, then engaged at the Brussels theatre, and set of Richard B., the first Earl of Cork, was born January 25, I626, at Lismore, Waterford. After finishing his studies at to music by Campenhout, afterwards Director of Music in the Eton, he spent six years on the Continent, whence he returned Chapel Royal. The refrain contains a pun on the title of Orange in I644, after his father's death. For the rest of his life be held by the royal house of Hollandapplied himself chiefly to science; and he was among the first " La mitraille a'brise Z'oraonge members of that scientific association which, after the Restora- Sur larbre de la libert.' tion, received the name of the Royal Society. As a Director lof the East India Company, he exerted himself greatly for the proformerly a powerful duchy, situated in the centre of the Low pagation of Christianity in the East. Another example of his Countries, a powerful dchy, sitated in the cntre of the,ow religious tendencies is his bequest for the foundation of the'B. North B., ontaining sq. miles, -and d873 443,045 inhabiLectures' (q. v.). After a gradual decline, he died at London, Nrth B., contae inig 960 sq. miles, in Belgium, which conDecember 30, 1692. B.'s works, among which may'be men- tants; (2) the province of Antwerp, in Belgium, which contioned Medicir 30, 692 B's worts, aT ing which may dbe men- tains 1094 sq. miles, and (1872) 497,oi7 inhabitants; and rimnent et Observatiozes Pysica, were published, together a with (3) South B., also in Belgium, with 126o sq. miles, and a populai s Lif e and Correspondence, by Dr Birch (s e olsd. Lond. 1744). tion (1872) of 887,905. The country is flat, but slopes graduhis Life and Corespondence, by r Birch (5 vols. Lnd. I ally in a N.W. direction, and is well cultivated and fertile, being Boyle Lectures, The, were founded by the Hon. R. Boyle watered by the Maas and the Scheldt, with their many tributaries, (q. v.). The lecturer is to be appointed for a period not ex- and intersected by numerous canals. It has also flourishing inceeding three years, and to deliver annually eight sermons,'to dustrial centres, as Brussels, Antwerp, Bois-le-Duc, the products prove the truth of the Christian religion against infidels, without chiefly consisting of linens, lace, cottons, and leather. In the descending to any controversies among Christians themselves; N. the inhabitants are Dutch, and in the central part Flemish, and to answer new difficulties, scruples, &c.' The first series was while the S. district is the principal residence of the Walloons. delivered by Richard Bentley (I69I-92); and a collection of Cnesar found B. occupied by a mixed German-Celtic race. In such as were preached between that time and 1732 was pub- the 5th c. it came under the Franks, and on the division of the lished in I739. In I802 the -practice was begun of publishing Frankish kingdom in the 6th c. it formed part of Austrasia. In them regularly. the 9th c. it was united to Lothringen; in 89o to France; in the Boyle's Fuming Liquor, or Volatile Liver of Sul- Ioth c., through the German king Heinrich I., again to Lothph1ur, is obtained by distilling a mixture of I part of sulphur, ringen, together with part of which it was joined to Germany in 2 of sal-ammoniac,- and 2-3 of quicklime. It is a dark yellow 959. The line of Dukes of Lower Lothringen died out in Ioo5, liquid, possessing the disagreeable odour of rotten eggs. It con- and B. was subsequently governed by several princes of the sists of a mixture of different sulphites of amnzonizm. Ardennes; after o1076 by Godfrey of Bouillon. Heinrich V. bestowed B. -on'Godfrey of Birtigen (born II40), descended Boyle's Law, also known as Marriott's Law, expresses that from the princes of Louvain and Brussels, who founded a dynasty at constant temperature the volume of a gas is inversely propor-lasting till I355, and the title of Duke of B. was first taken by tional to the pressure. It was first proved experimentally by Heinrich I. in IIgo. Later on, B. shared the fortunes of the Robert Boyle (q. v.). Netherlands, but became part of Holland by the Treaty of Boyne, a river in the E. of Ireland, rises in the Bog of Vienna, 1815. At the insurrection of I830, however, South B. Allen, Kildare, flows through King's county, Meath, and Louth, threw off the Dutch yoke, and united itself to Belgium. 471 4 BRA, TIE GLOBE ENC YCLOP/U9IA. BRA Braccio Fortebracci, Count of Montane, an Italian'mantle-breathers'), under the erroneous impression that the condottiere, was born at Perugia in I368. In I408 he rendered Mantle (q. v.) which forms the shell was the chief agent in revaluable services to Ladislaus, King of Naples, which were sub- spiration or breathing. These sequently ungenerously repaid by expulsion from Perugia, of forms possess Bivalve (q. v. ) which, however, B. gained the sovereignty in I416. In 14I7 B. shells, which are placed dorobtained temporary possession of Rome, entered about I420 the sally and ventrally, the dorsal service of Joanna, Queen of Naples, who created him Prince or upper valve being generally of Capua, and died 5th June -r424, in consequence of wounds the smaller,,and in manycases received three days before in a battle for the relief of Aquila, containing a series of limy which he was then besieging. The followers of Sforza and of loops (carriage -sprig aJpaa.B. formed rival schools of warriors, known as the Sforzeschi and tus) for the support of the Brachiopoda. the Braccesczi, and their rivalry culminated in the most profound arms. These latter structures hatred. See Antonio Campano's Vita diB3. are two in number, one stretching away from each side of the Brace, a carpenter's tool, used-along with borers of variousmouth They are characteristic of the bhachiopods each con shapes, called bits-to make;holes in wood. sisting of a prolongation of the mantle, furnished with cirrzi or stiff processes, and with cilia. Their functions are those of Brace'let, an ornamental ring or band worn upon the wrist breathing and of drawing particles of food towards the mouth. or upper arm (Fr. bras;'Lat. brachiuzm)o The fashion of wear- The shell is opened and shut by means of special muscles. A ing bracelets is one of very high antiquity, and -is common heart and digestive system exist, and a single nervous mass or to almost every nation; and though among modern civilised ganglion is developed. The B. are but sparsely represented in nations the 13. is a form of female adornment, in bygone existing seas, but over 2000 fossil examples are known. The times, and still among savage tribes, it was used by both Silurian system of rocks is sometimes known as the'Age of sexes alike. Chivalrous conduct on the part of Greek and Brachiopods,' from the abundance in them of these molluscs in Roman soldiers was acknowledged by the presentation of a a fossil state. All are marine. Living genera are Terebratula, B.; and among the Scandinavians and Saxons this ornament Cirania, Discina, Lingula, &c. Among fossil genera, Producta, formed a suitable tribute of esteem. The tutzuli of the ancient Sirifer c, may be mentioned. These forms chiefly occur in Britons have furnished numerous examples of bracelets com- aliving state in Australian and adjacent seas. See also BIVALVE, posed of bone, ivory, bronze, and other metals; they have also SHELL, MOLLUSCA, &C. been plentifully found in the peat bogs of Ireland. Previous to the Norman incursion into Britain, bracelets were worn by Brachyp'terae, or Brevipennate (' short wings'), the Saxons of both sexes, but after that event their use was name given to a section or family of 2atatorial or swimming almost entirely abandoned by men, and to some extent even birds, represented by penguins, -auks, divers, guillemots, grebes, by women. During the three centuries immediately thereafter, &c., in which the wings are short or rudimentary, and somethe B. was not much in favour as a personal ornament; times useless for flight (penguins); the tail short, and the legs but in the I6th c. the fashion among ladies of wearing short placed far back on the body. The wings, when useless for flight, sleeves led again to its adoption, and since that time'the B. may still (as in -auks, &c.) form very efficient aids in diving and has retained its popularity as an ornament of luxury. -it swimming. assumes a great variety of forms, and is frequently made of the most costly materials, enriched with gems and precious stones. Brachyu'ra ('short tailed'), a division of the ecraodous order of Crustacea, represented by the various kinds of crabs. Bra'ces, in roofs, bridges, and other structures, are bars These forms possess a rudimentary abdomen, which is tucked (which may be either struts or ties) used for stiffening the prin- up beneath -the broad body or cephalothorax, consisting of the cipal members. All the common forms of girders consist of an united head and -chest. The rudimentary abdomen is not proupper and lower member (or boom) connected by bracing, which vided with appendages, and is used, in the case of the female in this case has to be strong enough to resist the shearing stress animals, to carry the ova or eggs. The B. generally undergo a caused by the load. metamorphosis-the common crab first appearing as a tailed Brache, a term of uncertain meaning, applied to a dog. It form (Zoea), next as a Megalooa, and lastly as the perfect crab, is supposed to have meant a'bitch of the hound kind. If the with a rudimentary abdomen. word be from the Celtic /brac, a spot, it might signify a spotted hound. Brack'et, in classical and mediaeval architecture, is an ornament in the shape of a console standing isolated on the face of.a Bra'chial Artery, the main artery of the arm, is a contiun- wall. Their use is to support a statue ation of the axillary artery (see AXILLA), commences at the or bust. Recently brackets:made of lower border of the fold of the armpit, and about half an inch wood, and covered with leather ornabelow the elbow divides into -the radial and ulnar arteries. It mentally stamped, have come much in lies on the inner border of the biceps muscle. At first it i vogue. The name B. is also applied on the inner side of the arm, and afterwards lies more in front. to a projecting gaspipe. In the case of bleeding from the hand or forearm, and during lip operations below this vessel, the B. A. is easily compressed Bracklesham Beds, the name against the bone. given in England to that part of the The B. A. gives off four named branches-(I) Superior pro- Eocene deposits which overlie the funda artery, which, along with the muscular spiral nerve, winds'London Clays.' They are the equivaround the arm to the back; (2) the inferior profunda artery, lent of the Calcaire Grossiere of the which, along with the ulnar nerve, runs to the neighbourhood of Continent, and are very fossiliferous. the elbow; (3) the nutrient artery of the shaft of the humerus; The best examples are found in the Isle lillj i15 and (4) the anastomotica magna, which meets with arteries of of Wight and in Hampshire. the forearm around the elbow-joint..Blract. In many plants the flowers Brachia'lis An'ticus is a broad muscle covering the front of spring from the axils of leaves (floral the elbow-joint and lower half of the Humerus (q. -v.). It arises leaves), differing in no appreciable de- Bracket, Melrcse Abbey. from the middle of the humerus, and is inserted into the Ulna gree from ordinary leaves. But in (q. v.). Its chief action is to flex the elbow-joint, which it does others the leaves from the axils of which the flowers rise have a in conjunction with the biceps muscle. The B. A. helps also regular gradation from ordinary leaves up to what are called to protect the elbow-johit. bracts, these bracts being, however, veritable leaves, which, as Brach'iate, lwhen opposite branches are decussate, ige.., one |they ascend the stem, change their form and coloration, until the pair crosses over the pair below it in a cross-shaped manner. uppermost not unfrequently assume the appearance of petals pair crosses over the pair below it in a cross-shaped manner. (Brown). In structure they also affect the character of leaves. Brachiop'oda (Gr.'arm-footed'), a class of Moltuscoida Sometimes, as in Salvia fulgenzs, AmiZherstia nobilis, &c., the bracts or Lower Mollusca, formerly denominated Palliobranchiata (or attain great development, and in brilliancy exceed the flowers 472 _______ ------ -— ~ — 4 —----- BRA 7THE GLO-BE ENC YCL OPAEDIA. BRA themselves. When the floral axis branches, secondary bracts or duating at Oxford, where he had studied for the Church, he bracteoles are often seen at its ramifications. obtained in succession the livings of Bridslow and Welfric, in Bradd'ock, Edward, an unfortunate English general, who Pembrokeshire; but after his election as a Fellow of the Royal commanded against the French in America, in I755. On the 9th Society in 1721, he devoted himself wholly to science, and became Savilian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford. In I 74r he sucof July of that year, while in command of a force of 2000 British Savilian Plofessor of Astronomy at Oxford. In t7 he sucand colonial troops, he fell into an Indian ambuscade near Fort ceeded Halley as Astronomer-Royal, and received the honorary Duquesne (now Pittsburg, Pennsylvania), while he was attacked degree of D.D from Oxford University. Ie died July 13, I762. by the French in front. B. was mortally wounded, and died four B.'s greatest discoveries are the Aberration of Light (q. v.), and days after the engagement; and half of his men perished, the the variation of the inclination of the earth's axis to the ecliptic. remainder escaping under his aide-de-camp, Colonel Washington, brad'shaw, John, a keen and conscientious, but somewhat afterwards the hero of the War of Independence. narrow Puritan, was born in. Cheshire in I586, studied law at Bradd'on, 1Mary Elizabeth, a popular novelist, daughter Gray's Inn, and soon. became known as an able chamber counof Mr Henry B., a solicitor, himself addicted to light literature, sel. In the struggle between King and Parliament he took the was born in Soho Square, London, in I837. At an early age, side of the latter, like his cousin Milton; became, in I647, Chiefshe began to contribute to magazines both in prose and verse, Justice of Chester, and in I649 earned for himself a lasting but it was not till I862, when she published the novel Lady name in history by presiding at the high court which tried and Audley's Secret, that she became famous. By this, and a host condemned Charles I. B. was handsomely rewarded for his of fictions that have succeeded it, she has established the right services on this occasion, but he resisted Cromwell and the to be considered the first of writers of'sensation' novels, which army, and was opposed to the Protectorate. Under Richard depend mainly for their success upon startling situations and a Cromwell he became Lord President of the Council of State. skilfully evolved plot. In some of her later works, Miss B. He died November 22, I659. During the retaliatory persecuhas shown considerable power of humorously sketching char- tion of the Puritans in the reign of Charles II.,. his body was acter. She conducts a London mnagazine called Belgravia, con- exhumed, and hung on a gibbet, with those of Cromnwell and tributes to the newspaper press, and in x873 came before the Ireton. public as a dramatist with the play of Griselda. Bradshaw's Railway Guide was first published in 1841, Brad'ford (Old Eng. Braidanford,'broad ford'), a manu- and is therefore the earliest, while it is also the best existing, of our facturing town in the MW. Riding of ~Yorlk, on a tributary of many manuals of information for the traveller. It was founded the Aire, 8 miles WV. of Leeds, and 34 miles S.W. of York. It by George Bradshaw, a printerand engraver of Manchester, who is a station on the Leeds, Bradford, and Halifax Junction Rail- died in I853. In its present form, extending to some 400 pages, way, by which it is brought into connection with the Great Nor- it is published on the Ist of each month, and contains the newlythern, Lancashire, and Yorkshire, London and North-Western, arranged tables of the various railway companies, besides a vast amount of valuable information relative to travelling by land or and other lines. It is the chief seat and mart of the worsted manufacture in England; mixed fabrics of wool and silk, and sea. It has been followed by publications of a similar character wool and cotton, are extensively wrought, and there are also in France, Germany, America, and even in Australia. B's cotton and silk manufactures. The Saltaire Alpaca and Mohair Continental Railway Guide, a companion volume for the various Mills, erected on the Aire, three miles from B., by Sir Titus Salt, countries of Europe, containing also a handy topographical secemploy 4000 meln, and form the most extensive manufacturing tion, was first issued in I847, and still continues to. increase in establishment of the kind inl the kingdom. There are nearly size and in circulation. A regular series of handbooks, bearing 200 mills in B., and these employ 40,000 hands, a majority Bradshaw's name, is in course of issue, of which there have of whom are immigrants. In. the vicinity there is much coal- already appeared France, Switzerland,. the Overla.cd ~o/orney, mining and iron-smelting. Among the public buildings are St George's Hall, the Exchange, with a clock-tower and Brad'ypus. See SLOTH. spire 150 feet high, the County Court, the churches, &c. The Wesleyans, Baptists, and Independents have here colleges. B. [Braemar', a subdivision of the old district of Mar, in the has several fine public parks. It returns two members to Par- S.W. of Aberdeenshire, remarkable for the romantic grandeur liament. Pop. (187I) 145,827. The district is rich in coal and of its scenery. It lies among the Grampian Mountains, and coniron. Roman coins have been found at B., but the place is tains, among other heights, Ben Macdhui (4296 feet), Cairntoul first noted after the Norman conquest. During the civil wars (4245), Braeriach (4225), Cairngorm (409o), Ben-a-Buird (3869), it took the side of the Parliament, and was stormed by the royal Ben Avon (3826), and Lochnagar (3786). The predominating forces under the Earl of Newcastle. rocks are granite and gneiss. Alpine plants occur, and there is Bradford Clay, a pale, greyish clay, enclosing bands of im- abundance of game, chiefly red-deer, roe, grouse, and ptarmigan. 9 1m B. contains the head-waters of the Dee, and is traversed by pure limestone, the middle member of the upper division of the General Wade's great military road from Blairgowrie to Fort W. of England Lower Oolites, corresponding in age with the limestones of the Great Oolite, ad abounding in the peculiar George. Area of the united parish of B. and Crathie, 182,257 limestones of the Great Oolite, and abounding. t acres;pop. (I87I) I566. Balmoral (q. v.) lies towards the E., fossil the Aj;iocrinile, and in one or two species of Terebratula. acres pop. (i870 1566. Balmoral (q. v.) lies towards the E. Maxfossi the Aiocriite, and in one or two species of Terebratula. and in the heart of the parish is the village of Castleton, the Maximum thickness, fib feet. great resort of visitors. Bradford, Great, a town in Wiltshire, on the Avon, 6 miles rag, the capi E.S.E. of Bath. It is a station. on the Great Western Rail- Br tal of the province of Minho, Portugal, situay. Pop (87) 487i engaged to a considerable extent in ated between the rivers Cavado and Deste, 35 miles N.E. of way. Pop. (s87I) 487I, engaged to a considerable extent in the manufacture of broadcloth, for which the town has been Oportoe in a malarious country. It is surrounded by old walls, noted for several centuries. The origin of the trade is said beyond which several suburbs have spread, while it is further guarded by a castle, and is the residence of the Primate of to be owing to the settlement of Flemish weavers here in the guarded by a castle, and is the residence of the Primate of Portugal, having a Gothic cathedral, an archbishop's palace, a reign of Edward I. St Aldhelm, in the beginning of the 8th c., founded an abbey here. It is mentioned in the Chronicle large hospital, besides seven churches and many monasteries. uunded an52 abbey here. It is mentioned in the betweronile, K fThe manufactures are chiefly linen, hats, jewellery, cutlery, and under 652, as the scene of a battle between Cenwulf, Kinig of the firearms. Pop. (864) 9,54 B is the Roman Bca AuWest S n n sfirearms. Pop. (i864) I9,514. B. is the Roman Bracara dAuWest Saxons, and his kinsman Cuthred. gusta; became the capital of the Suevian kings, who here acBradford, William, second governor of Plymouth Colony, cepted Catholicism, B.C. 563; later on fell into the hands of the was born at Austerfield, Yorkshire, I588. He had a good patri- Arabs, but was captured by the army of Old Castile in Io40. mony, and is one of the few early pilgrims who can be clearly It was long the residence of the kings of Portugal, and has still shown to have had a gentle ancestry in England. B. came with many Roman remains. the first colonists in the Maivflower, I620, was the second Braganz'a, or Braganpa, the capital of the province of governor of Plymouth Colony, New England, and died May 9, Traz-os-Montes, Portugal, on the Fervena, a branch of the i657. He is the author of a History of the Colony. Sabor, 92 miles from Oporto, in the N.W. angle of the kingBradley, Dr James, a distinguished English astronomer, dom. It has a strongly fortified castle, and is a centre of the was born at Sherborne, in Gloucestershire, in I692. After gra- Portuguese silk trade. B. was long the residence of the Dukes 60 473 4 ___.+ — 4 BRA THE GLOBE ENVC YCL OP/EDIA. BRA of B., and gave name to the present royal dynasty Pop. 3650. previous course, in an E. and S. direction, of about IOOO miles. -B., or Cayt6, a seaport in the province of Para, Brazil, at The latter was little known, till recently, beyond the portion the mouth of a river of the same name, about Ioo miles E. S.E. which, under the name of the Dihong, divides British India from of that of the Amazon, with a pop. of 6ooo.-B., a town of Tibet for about I50 miles. After the confluence of the two Brazil, province of San Paulo, 95 miles N.N.W. of the port of branches, the B. flows S.E. for nearly 350 miles, sweeps round Santos, and the terminus of an inland railway. Pop. 5ooo. the Garo Mountains, then takes a S. course, and sends forth the Konaie as a tribute to the Ganges, which it finally joins itself Bra'gi, in the Norse mythologic system, was the god of elo- near Goalundo, at a distance of go miles from the sea. The B. quence and poetry. In the prose Edda it is said that'not only frequently exhibits the phenomenon of Anastomosis (q. v.), but is B. especially skilled in poetry, but the art itself is called from receives few tributaries for a river of its size. It has a rapid his name Bragr, this word also meaning poet or poetess.' B. stream, which somewhat impedes navigation. was the son of Odin and Frigga, his wife being Iduna. He is the Scandinavian Apollo, but is represented as an old man, lot Brahmin Ox, or Zebu (Bos indicus), a species of Eovide as a youth. (q. v.), or oxen, representing the domestic cattle of India. A prominent fatty hump is borne Bra'ham, John, one of the greatest English tenor singers of on the withers, and the dewlap his day, was born in London, of Jewish family, in 1777, and died is very pendulous. The limbs February a 5, 856. He was most celebrated as a concert singer, are slender, and the back slopes and especially as a singer of national or patriotic songs. Some ardsthetail These animal towards the tail. These animals of his best songs were of his own composition, as' The Death are very lithe and active, and of Nelson,''L The Cabinet,''False Alarms,''The Devil's a as beasts of burden, pI BH~~~~ridge,' &c,~.,and in carriages. They are Brah'e, Tycho, a distinguished Danish astronomer, was born at Kundsthorp, December I4, 1546. After studying for a and E. Africa. The B. 0. for, anfew S sacred toEBrahma (q v.). Brahmin Ox. years at Copenhagen, he was sent by his uncle to Leipsic in 1562 i ed to Brahma (q. v.). to attend the law classes; but astronomy had greater attractions for him, and on his uncle's death he devoted himself wholly to: ahmo or Theitic hurch of nda may be this science. After spending some years in travel,. returned said to have been founded at Calcutta, in January 183 by ram to his native country, and soon obtained the patronage of the Mohun Roy, the enlightened Brahmin who procured the aboking, who subsequently built for his use a commodious observa- lition of suttee, and constantly wrote against the prevailing tory called Uraniberg on the island of Hoen, in the Sound. On idolatry, which he declared to be a pervesion of the pure idolarstry, see AHis Ohe d cred tovean, b e all p erversin ofhe pedr the death of the king in I588, B.'s position was changed, and i monotheism found in the Vedas as well as in Mohammedan 1597 he was forced to leave the country. Having obtained the and Christian scriptures. As the Vedic readings in the'Society I597 he was forced to leave the country. Having obtained theh a w protection of Emperor Rudolf II., he settled at Prague, where of God' (at first called Brahmi sb o raya Sumal) were hhe died, October I3, im. The great merit of B. as an as- aconfined to those of the Brahmin caste, no great progress was tronomer lies in the rare industry and assiduity with which he made until 843 when Debendra ath Tago a wealthy Brah observed and recorded the positions of stars and planets, and it mi who had previously started the Tattvabodhiny Sabha (or was entirely due to these observations that Kepler was led to the Society for the Knowledge of Truth), joined the two societies conception of his three famous laws. For his theory of the together, staed a periodical called the P solar system, see ASTRONoMy. His Operaz Omnia were pub- the'Brahmic Covenant,' by which all members renounced lished at Frankfurtin 1648. See the biographies of B. by Gas- idolatry, and engaged to worship the one God of the Vedanta, psendi (Par. 1655), oelfrecht (1eof. 179), and Pedersen(Copen. and to practise virtue. In 1847 there were 767 converts. Soon e838). cr.in, pafter, in spite of the resistance of the conservative party under tho). Akghai Kumar Datta, the special infallibility of the Vedas was Brah'ma, or Brahm, the Self-existent or Supreme Being after study renounced; and the Brahma Dharma, published by of the universe, according to the Hindu religion, from whom Tagore in 1850, consisting of the Covenant and Four Articles of all other beings-the deities, men, the world-derive their ex- Faith (Bijam), appended to extracts fiom the later Hindu scripistence. Other names are Parabrahma, Paratma, Rain, Bhas- tures, and declared to be the basis of the society, is what any savat. theist might adopt. Although converts continued to be made, and branch Somajes were started outside Calcutta, external con. Brah'm,, an emanation from the preceding, whose wor- formity to Hindu sacraments was the rule among Brahmos; it ship is taught in the Institutes of Mann, and who is the first was not till i86i that Tagore himself discarded the sacred person of the Trinity of modern Brahminism-B., Vishnu, Siva, thread, and performed marriage without an idolatrous rite. But the creating, preserving, and destroying principles. B., however, the true regeneration of the society came from Keshub Chunder though once supreme, is but little worshipped now; he has but Sen (born of the Vaidja or Physician caste, i9th November 1838), one temple in all India, Vishnu and Siva having attracted all the who having previously taught and written in its defenceffrom 1859, veneration. He is represented with four heads and as many was ordained a minister of the Somaj in 1862, and who immearms, and in pictures is often painted red. See IIINDUISI AND diately demanded the renunciation of the' thread' by all minisINDIA, RELIGIONS OF. ters, and supported the intermarriage of castes. Tagore could not consent to this, and accordingly in I865, Sen seceded with Brah'man, or Brah'ymin, a member of the highest caste or most of the youngermembers, and established the'B. S. of most of the younger e members, and established Ithe I B. S. off priesthood of the Hindu religion, from which name the latter India,' of wich he becae secretary. Progress and Bhakt is also called Brahiminism. (regenerating faith) is the motto of the Church, a spirit of Brahmanbe'ria, a town in the executive district of Tip- earnest devotion distinguishing their Sankirtan (hymnal serperah, province of Bengal, British India, about 270 miles N.E. vice), the Brahmotsab (or periodic festival), and the practice of of Calcutta, with which it has easy access by sea and by railway, singing in missionary bands through the Calcutta streets. The extending from Calcutta (1874) in a N.E. direction 120 miles to only fixed parts of the B. service are the Sanskrit Adoration Goalunda. Pop. (1872) 12,364. Chant, Satyam jnanamantam Brahma, and the United Prayer, ending, Shantih, Shantih, Shantih (peace). For lessons they Brahmapu'tra ('offspring of Brahma'), one of the largest use a compilation of theistic texts from Hindu, Jewish, Christian, rivers of Asia, rises in Tibet, and after an entire length, reckon- Mahometan, and Parsee scriptures. By the aid of such men as ing from the source of its great affluent the Dzangbo or Sanpu, Protab Chunder Mozoomdar, the theistic movement has been of I700 miles, enters the Bay of Bengal through the mouths of extended to all the Presidencies and the Punjaub, there being the Ganges. The branch long regarded as the main stream, and now 95 Somajes in India (Theistic Annual for 1875), containing still called B. Proper, rises in the most easterly of the Himalayas, not more than 6ooo members in all, recruited mainly fiom young and flows W.S.W. for 200 miles before uniting in Assam with the men taught at the English colleges. Their views are expounded Dzangbo, which springs from the same swamp as the Sutlej and in the Indian Mirror and the Dharma Tallva; and the B. Misthe Indus, on the N. of the Himalayan range, and which has a sion Office, the B. School, and the Society of Theistic Friends, 474 *, 4_ __ ____ a+ —----- BRA THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP-EDIA. BRA all at Calcutta, show the zeal which Sen has infused into his posed to view. This may be divided into four parts-cerefollowers. Since his visit to England in I870, he has also started brum, cerebellum, pons varolii, and medulla oblongata. the Indian Association for Social and Moral Reformation of I. Cerebrum.-This forms by far the largest portion of the Natives, the most important work of which has been the founda- human B., and occupies a large portion of the interior of the tion of the Normal School for female adults, and of the girls' skull. It is constricted on its under surface, and at this conschool attached to it. Episcopalians and Presbyterians'co- striction it passes into the cerebellum and pons varolii. The operate in this. The non-idolatrous marriages having been cerebrum forms the whole upper surface of the B., entirely pronounced invalid, Sen led the movement which resulted in concealing all the other porcivil marriages, under restrictions as to age, being permitted tions. When looked at from under the Native Marriage Act of g9th March 1872. In the above, the B. is seen to be dilarge towns the Brahmos have merely to encounter the social vided throughout its entire lengthl and domestic inconveniences implied- in'outcasting;' in the by a deep fissure running in a country districts violent acts of persecution have occurred. It straight line from before backmay be added that the Adi, or original Somaj, under Tagore, wards, called the longiludin al still exists, and was strongly opposed to the Marriage Act; and fissure. This fissure divides the that the' Prarthana Somaj,' or Prayer Society of Bombay, is inde- cerebrum into equal parts, called pendent of the B. S. The characteristic of the later movement is the hemi.2zheres of the B. Anintellectual eclecticism combined with a fervent piety and a teriorly and posteriorly it penepractical philanthropy. A number of interesting publications trates the whole depth of the may be got from Isbister & Co., London, or from the Society's B., but in the centre it is interoffice, I Mirzapore Street, Calcutta. cepted by a band of white tissue running across from right to Brahms, Johb., a distinguished living pianist and composer, left, called the corpus callasutm, born at Hamburg, 7th May I833, where his father was contra- and uniting the two hemispheres bassist at the theatre. On a professional journey in 1853 he of the B. That portion of the met Schumann at Diisseldorf, became his enthusiastic admirer, lura mater which dips into this Brain-Upper. and is now his greatest living follower. In I863 B. became fissure is called the faIx cerebl i Director of the Sing-Akademie at Vienna, in which city he has from its resemblance to a sickle. Besides the longitudial since lived. His compositions are numerous in all departments fissure dividing the B. into the right and ieft hemispheres except the dramatic, but they are more popular in N. than in S. there are other well-marked fissures. Of these, the chief areGermany. B.'s greatest work is probably his Bin Deuztsches (I) Fissure of Sylvius, which runs transversely and separates the Requiem, by which also he is best known in this country. anterior from the middle lobes of the B. At the outer part of Brai'la, Brahilov, or Ibrail, next to Galacz, the most im- the hemisphere it divides into two branches, which enclose that portant trading place of Roumania, and a free port of Wallachia, portion of the B. called island of Red. (2) Fissure of Rolando, formerly a fort, situated on the left bank of the Danube, about also a transverse fissure, and of importance as being peculiar to IOO miles from its mouth, and where it is entered by the Sireththe B. of man and of the higher monkeys. Besides these there in six streams. It is II miles S. of Galacz, and 92 S.W. of are other named fissures; and between each-convolution there is a fissure (or sulus) running zigzag, and dipping more cor less deeply Bucharest by railway (completed I873), and has a large and fissure(orsulcus)runingzigzaganddippingmorerlessdeeply growing export trade, chiefly in wheat, maize, barley, rye, colza,into the substance of the B. Anatomists have usually divided linseed, timber, petroleum, and flour. B. is the seat of a dis-each hemisphere of the B. into three lobes-anterior, compretrict presidency, and contains a quarantine hospital, several hending that part in front of the fissure of Sylvius; the posterior churches, and many handsome rectangular streets. In 1872-73, lobe, that portion lying over the cerebellum; and the middle the increased traffic in the river had led to the construction of lobe, that part between the other two. internal Struclture oJ Cerebrum-. —O slicing off portions extensive new wharves and quays, while the town was being nteral Strctre o Ceebr.-On slicing o portions of the B. to a level with the transverse fibres called corpus callighted with gas, and regularly supplied with purified water.to a with th tranrps lNo record of the trade is kept by the customs and port autho- louSm, the white tissue of this structure is rities. Pop. 25,767. In the last half of the I8th c., B. was re- of th is structure is peatedly stormed and taken by the Russians, who finally de- broughtintoview; and stroyed it by fire in I770. Restored to the Porte by the peace if we divide longitudi of 1774, it was once more occupied by the Russians in 1828, nallythis band of white but finally reverted to Turkey on the Peace of Adrianople in side of the middle to ineach 1829. side of the middle line, we expose a cavity on Brails, a nautical term, meaning small ropes for gathering each side called the up a yard to the bottom and skirts of its sail, preparatory to right and left ventricles. furling. The sail is'brailed up' when the brails are hauled These cavities are lined taut. with a serous membrane, contain fluid, Brain is the name given to that part of the nervous system and in the disease contained within the cranium or skull. The B., with the Spinal known aswaterin head, Marrow (q.v.), constitutes what anatomists have described as true Hydrocephalus the cerebro-spinal axis. The B. (or encephalon) is covered with (q. v.), become enorthree membranes, called dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater. mously distended with I. The dura mater, the most external, is a thick, fibrous mem- fluid. The partition brane, and lines the interior of the skull. It adheres closely to separating these two the inner aspect of the bones of the skull, forming to them a cavities is called septum kind of periosteum. The inner surface of this membrane is ser- hlcidum. These ventri- Brain-Lower. ous, and covered with epithelium. 2. The arachnoid, so named cles have been divided from two Greek words signifying like a spider's web, is a very into three parts, anterior, posterior, and middle, corresponding thin, delicate, serous membrane. It envelopes the B. without to the three lobes of the B. dipping into the fissures between the convolutions of the B. 2. Cerebellum, or Little B., is situated behind, and in man is It lies between the dura mater and pia mater. Between it and entirely covered by the cerebrum. It is joined to the cerebrum the pia mater is the sub-arachnoid space containing serous fluid,'by the crura cerebri, and to the medulla oblongata by the infethe cerebro-sipinal fuiid. 3. The most internal membrane of the rior peduncles,and to the pons varolii by the middle peduncles. B. is called pia mater. This, like the dura mater, is a vascular It is about 3~ or 4 inches in the transverse diameter, and about membrane. It envelopes closely the B., dipping deeply between 2 inches from before backwards, and at its deepest portion the convolutions of the B. It has also lymphatics and nerves. not more than 2 inches. It consists of two hemispheres joined After removing the membranes of the B., the B. proper is ex- together in the middle. It is not, like the cerebrum, divided 475 4 * BRA T-HE GL OBE ENVC YCL OPEDZA. BRA into convolutions, but is composed of numerous lamince or something like a spread eagle (Lat. aciuila). The root-stock is plates. bitter, but contains considerable nutriment It is eaten by the 3. Pons Varolii is that portion of the B. which unites the Vancouver Island Indians; and in times of scarcity, in some various parts together. It is connected with the cerebrum districts of Europe, has been made into a kind of wretched above, the cerebellum behind, and the medulla oblongata below. bread. It is astringent and anthelmintic. The ashes are emIt consists of transverse and longitudinal layers of white matter, ployed in making soap and glass, and the fronds for littering with grey matter interspersed. cattle, and even, when mixed with straw, for feeding them. It 4. Medeulla oblonglta is that portion of the B. which is contiru- is difficult to extirpate; but the best method of doing this is to ous with the spinal chord below and with the pons varolii repeatedly mow it as soon as it appears, when the vitality of the above. It has much of the structure of the chord. The space plant is destroyed. There are many other species, most of which, between the medulla oblongata and the cerebellum is called both in their good and bad qualities, do not differ widely from the fourth ventricle, which communicates with the third ventricle the familiar British B. by the passage of Sylvius. The third ventricle is a narrow fis. sure between the optic thalami, and communicates by the foramen Brake, an apparatus by wkich the energy of a moving body of Monro with the lateral ventricles. mation, in order either to stop or retard its Structure of the B.-Externally it is composed of grey matter motion, as in the B. upon a train, or to use up surplus energy and internally of white matter. The grey substance is composed as in the testing of engines'on a B.' to a great extent of peculiarly shaped cells, having many pro- Bra'ma (Cu cesses radiating from them, whereas the white matter is com-ier), a genus of Teleostean fishes of the family posed of fibres or tubes which convey influences to and from COhetodortadla, possessing much-compressed, high bodies, with the dorsal and anal fins scaly. The profile is deep and abrupt, the grey matter. The grey matter extends into the bottom of and slender, curved teeth exist in the jaws and palate. The all the convolutions, and is found in masses of various shapes caudal or tail fin is very high, narrow, and crescentic. The and sizes in the interior and under surface of the B., called caudal or tail fin i very high, narrowa and crescentic. The ganglia. These ganglia will be described under separate heads. common species (Bonzes Raii), or Ray's bream, sometimes found a aFor chemical composition of the B., see NERVE TISSUE. eparat.on British coasts, and common in the Mediterranean Sea, is also For chemical composition of the B., see NRvE TissuE. kpecies is the. Many of the most important structures connected with B. are known by the name of'sea-bream.' Another species s the B. situated on its under surface, and will be fully described under pznasuamt. The flesh is very palatable. their respective names. Bra'mah, Joseph, a distinguished mechanical inventor, the Development of B.-In early foetal life the B. is not distin- son of a farmer, was born at Stainborough, Yorkshire, I3th guishable from the spinal cord, but after a time the end gradu- April 749. After establishing himself in London, he patented ally expands and develops into the various structures composing numerous ingenious inventions, of which his improvements in it. At birth the convolutions are not formed, but are developed fire and steam engines, in paper-making, and in wheel-carriages, afterwards and gradually. As these develop, intelligence is locks, &c., merit notice. The B. press (see HYDROSTAT'IC manifested. There is a marked degree of relation between the PRESS) was constructed about I8oo. B. died December 9, intellect and the number and complexity of the convolutions of 1814. See Dr Brown's sketch of B.'s life in the Nezw Monthzl, the B. In certain distinguished men this has been most marked. 3Magazinle, April I844. There is a certain proportion between the weight of the B. and the intellect of the individual. Great men have generally the Braman'te, Donato Lazzari, a famous Italian architect largest amount of B., and idiots have frequently very light B. and painter, was born at Monte-Asdroaldo, Urbino, in I444. In The B. of males is heavier than that of females. The average Milan he studied carefully the construction of the famous catheweight of B. in an adult male is about 48 oz., and in females dral, and in Rome the numerous monuments of antiquity there. 43 oz. At birth in the male it is nearly 14 oz., and in the B. was successively employed by Sforza and the Popes Alexander female a little above I2 oz. The B. of the distinguished natu- VI. and Julius II. He revived the taste for the ancient archiralist Cuvier is said to have weighed more than 64 oz. The B. tecture-his masterpiece in this department being the small of man is heavier than that of all animals except the B. of the church of San Pietro in Montorio. Among his other works whale and elephant. The B. of the elephant is said to weigh are the palaces Giraud (now Torlonia) and Sora, and the immense about 9 lbs., that of the whale about 5 lbs. galleries which unite the *two pavilions of the Belvidere to the For a description of the B. of different classes of animals, see Vatican. He died at Rome in I514. B. figures in the' School under the various classes. of Athens' of Raphael, for whom he had procured the patronage Diseases of the B. will be treated under their respective names, of Pope Julius II. His pictures, both in fresco and oil, are as APOPLEXY, INFLAMMATION OF B., HIYDROCEPHALUS, &c. numerous in Lombardy, and are highly esteemed. He has also written some poetry, which was published in I753. See QuaBrain Coral (Aeeandrina), a genus of Sclerodermic corals, so tremere de Quincy's Vies des Architects Ce'lbres. named from the surface of the coral structure presenting windings resembling the convolutions of the human brain. The surface Brambanan', a district of Soorakarta, in Java, notable as is hollowed out into sinuous, shallow, elongated cells, which containing not fewer than 296 Brahrinical temples, more or less combine to form a massive polypidom or compound mass. entire. The largest of these temples is an imposing structure, These corals are chiefly found in the'Indian and S. Atlantic richly ornamented with mythological figures. Oceans, and sometimes attain a diameter in masses of 8 or 9 feet. Bram'ble (Ruis fructicosus), a common British plant belongMeandrina cereibrformin s is a familiar species, *and aids in the ing to the order Rosacee (q. v.). It is rarely cultivated, but is formation of coral reefs. abundant in a wild state. Its fruit is gathered for the manufacBraine-le-Comte, an ancient town of Belgium, province of ture of a'wine' much esteemed among connossieurs in such Hainault, on the Brainette, I8 miles S.S.W. of Brussels by homely taps. There are many species of Rubns, but the genus railway. It has active cotton mantufactures, -brewing, dyeing, is so variable that no two botanists are agreed as to what are &c., and produces some of the finest flax and lace-thread in the species or what only varieties. Many species are met with in world. Pop. (i873) 6464. In II58 Count Baldwin bought B. Asia and N. America. R. nuthkanus (the'thimnble-berry') and from the monks of St Waudru at Mons, to whom it had belonged R. spectabilis ('salmon-berry'), from N.W. America, have formerly. fruits which supply a large portion of the food of the Indians, who dry them also for winter use. They are cultivated for their Brain'tree, an old market-town, county Essex, 38 miles N.E. flowers in this country. of London, and I8 W. of Colchester by railway, with manufactures of silk, straw-plait, and crape. Pop. of parish (I871) Bramble, or Mountain Finch (Fringilla montif-ingilla), 479~0 an Insessorial bird, belonging to the Fringilliolea or finch family, found in Britain in winter only, and as a mere visitant distributed Brake, or Brack'enl, a name generally applied to the com- widely over Europe and Asia. In winter it occurs also in Italy, mon fern, Pteris aquiliua, which is widely spread over the world. Malta, Smyrna, &c. The B. breeds in Scandinavia. It aveThe specific name aquilina is given to it because in cutting rages an ordinary chaffinch in size. The males are coloured across the underground stem (rhizome or root-stocfk) it appears brown, interspersed with black on the upper parts in winter, 476 M k S e~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —~ * A BRA 71fE GLOBE ENCYCLOPEDIA. BRA and black in spring and summer; the throat and breast during the means'gill-footed.' In some cases the legs themselves constilatter season being fawn coloured, whilst the wings are banded tute the breathing-organs. The body may be unprotected, or with a white and black stripe. The tail-feathers are black, wholly or partiallyenclosed within a carapace; and the mouth is with reddish-white margins, and the tail itself is forked. The furnished with masticatory organs. song is a mere chirp. Bran'co, Rio, a river of Brazil, the largest Bran, the husk or outer covering of the grain of wheat. It affluent of the Rio Negro, rises in the Parime is separated in grinding in thin sharp scales of a brown colour, Mountains, near the sources of the Orinoco, and contains a large proportion of indigestible woody fibre. It, and flows S. S. W. for a distance of about 700 however, possesses a high percentage of nitrogenous matter in miles. When it joins the Rio Negro it is a the form of cerealin and of salts. B. is chiefly used for the mile broad, but rapids and waterfalls render feeding of horses and pigs, and in medicine it is a useful medium it scarcely navigable. for applying heat externally. B. taken internally -has a tendency to cause diarrhoea, by mechanically irritating the intes- Bran'cursune. See ACANTHUS. tinal coats. Brand (Ger. brennen, to burn), the GerE Branch is, in botany, applied to any subdivision of a stem man name for the disease known in Britain which does not arise directly from the.root. Branches originate as built, or pepper B., but also applied to in leaf buds at Nodes (rq. v.), and are given off at various angles Blight, Mildew, Rust, and Smut (q. v.). from the stem, giving rise to the different contours of shrubs and trees. M'Cosh and Dickie believe that the angle at which Bran'denburg,.a central province of Prusthe branches are given off from the stem, as well as the general sia, with an area of 15,565 sq. miles, and a ramification, agrees in many cases with the angle at which the pop. (I87I) of 2,863,229, of whom 42, 722 are veins are given off from the mid-rib, and with the general vena- Wends. It arose mainly out of the old Mark tlion in the leaves of the same tree. The runner in the straw- of B. (i.e., the Au'z-rark, or Mark of the berry plant is a B. which runs along the ground, and sends out Elector), which consisted of the Altmark and roots from its under surface, producing new plants; -while the the NVenzarkl, but it has ceased to corretubers of the potato plant-the ordinary edible'potato'-is not a spond exactly to the old territorial boundroot, but a shortened underground stem, in the cellular sub, aries It is divided into the three districts stance of which starch has accumulated. Berlin, Potsdam, and Frankfurt, and the city Branchiopoda. of Berlin is its capital. The country is everyBranch'iae, the scientific name applied to the gills of ani- where flat and sandy, being in parts, however, extremely fermals. See GILLS. The presence of these structures is associated tile, and is watered by the rivers Elbe, Havel, Spree, Oder, with an aquatic existence, and they form valuable guides in the Warthe, and Netze. There are numerous lakes, of which the classification of animal forms. principal are the Schwielower, Scharmiizzel, Ucker, Plauer, Branch'ial Arches, the name applied to the bony arches of Ruppiner, and Fahrland See, and the water system is further fishes, which exist-on each side of the:throat, and are attac he Finow, Friedrich Wilhelm, Ruppiner, and fishes, which exist -on each side of the -throat, ted are a~ttabied Templiner Canals. Chief among the articles of product are superiorly to the under surface of the skull. They support the Templiner Canals. Chief among the articles of product are gills upeor By to the under surface of h is c omposed of two distinct barley, rye, maize, potatoes, and buckwheat, and the most im-gills or Brasthi(e, and each arch is composed of two distict portant manufactures are woollen and cotton cloths, linen, pieces, known as the celrato-branchial and epi-branchial bones. shawls, tapestry, machinery, glass, chemicals, chocolate, and The B. A. grow successively smaller as they recede from the tobacco. B. has good pasturage, and produces tcelebrated tobacco. B. has good pasturage, and produces the celebrated mouth, and in many fishes may support teeth. Berlin wool (Electoral- Wolle), held to be the best in the world. Branchial Heart, the name applied to the heart in fishes, The only minerals are rock-salt and gypsum, found near Sperenfor the reason that its sole function consists in driving the venous berg. B. is traversed by the Elbe and Hamburg Railway, which or impure blood to the branzchi or gills for purification. This has a length in the province (I872) of 700 miles. The populaname is used in,contradistinction to the name systemic heart, tion is composed of 2,720,242 Protestants, 86,047 Catholics, which (as in Gasteropodous Molluscs) drives the pzure blood 47,484 Jews, and 554I menlbers of small Christian sects. The through the system. In Cephalopoda (q. v.), or cuttlefishes, a province has one university and eighteen gymnasia. B. H. exists at the base of each gill in addition to the systemic About the beginning of the Christian era the land now known heart; and by means of these branchial hearts the venous as B. was occupied by the Semnones and the Longobards, next blood is propelled to the gills to be aerated. by the wandering Slavic tribes of the Hevellern, Wilzen, Redarier, and Obotrites; was subdued by Karl the Great in 789, and Branchial Sac, the term applied to the breathing chamber afresh by Heinrich I. in 928. In 931 it was.made the Nora'dof the Tunicate (q. v.), molluscs or'sea-squirts,' which consists mark of N. Saxony (now Aitmtark), while the Ostmark (Niederof a sac, the walls of which are composed of a network of blood- lausitz) was founded by Gero, who died in 963. The Nordvessels, in which the venous blood is exposed to the oxygen con- mark became the possession of the Princes:of Stade in o056, and tained in the water admitted to the sac. was granted by the Kaiser, Lothar II., to Albrecht the Bear The name is also applied to the pharyngeal dilatation or sac (q. v.), of-the house of Ascania. In I I43Albrecht also received the seen in the Amzphioxus or Lancelet (q. v.)-the lowest member Ostmark.as a fief of the empire, and henceforth named himself of the fish-class —and which is also used for respiration. Markgraf von B. He next added.to his dominion the MittelBranchia'ta, the name given to various groups of animals mark, Priegnitz and Uckermark,,wrested from his neighbours the from the fact of their possessing branchia or Gills z(q. v.). Thus Wends, who were all but extirpated by his merciless raids; the the fishes and amphibian~s (as frogs, &c.) together form the conquered territory being afterwards.colonised by Rhenish, Branzchiate Vertebrata from the fact that they possess gills at Dutch, and Flemish settlers. Aibrecht was followed in sucsome period of life-the fishes during the whole of life, and the cession by Otto I. in I170, Otto II. in II84, Albrecht II., amphibia always in early life; the breathing, in the latter case, founder of Berlin, in I206, and Johann II. and Otto III., who being afterwards carried on partly or entirely by lungs. Tie reigned together I226-58. In I258 B. was divided between Branchiate Gasteropodous mollusca include the whelks, &c., Johann I., head of the old B. Ascanian line of Stendal, and which breathe by gills, as distinguished'from the snails or land Otto III., founder of the younger line of Salzwedel. The former gasteropods, which respire by means of pulmonary or tlung-sacs. line expired in I320, and the latter in 13I7. A period of disThe name Abranchiate is'used inl opposition to the foregoing order followed, during which the Emperor Ludwig IV. (1324) term. placed over the Markgrafdom his son Ludwig, who was succeeded by his brother Ludwig der Ritmer (I352), and in turn Branchiop'oda, a section of Crustacea (q. v.), including the by Otto VII., the Lazy, who in 1363 entered into a treaty with orders Cladocera (water-fleas, &c.), PIZyllopodar (fairy-shrimps, the Emperor Karl IV., by which the Kurmark reverted to the brine-shrimps, &c.), and probably also the extinct Trilobites. house of Luxemburg. But Sigismund, son of Karl IV., sold These crustaceans possess.numerous branchic or gills attached Neumark to the German Order (I402), and mortgaged the land to the legs, and hence the name of the section, which literally of B. (1411) to Friedrich VI. of Hohenzollern for ~20,000. In 477 + - + BRA HEE GLOBE ENVCYCLOP-EDIA. BRA 1415 the territory was united to Niirnberg, the new ruler assum- in I458, became a Professor of Law at Basel, and afterwards ing the title of Friedrich I., Elector of B. Its further history is Syndic of his native town, where he died in I521. B.'s chief merged in that of Prussia (q. v.). See Kiister, Bibliotheca His- work is a satiric poem, written in German, and afterwards transtorica Bracndenburgensis (Bresl. I743), Riedel, Codex Diplorzati- lated into Latin. It was read all over Europe, and was famous rezs Brandenburgensis (Berl. 1839-62), and Voigt, Geschichle des for more than two centuries; yet it has not much poetic force Brandenb.-Preuss. Staats (Berl. I860). or liveliness. There is no fine invention or brilliant imagery; but the moral reflections are weighty and sensible. It formed Brandenburg (Wend. Brennalborch or Brennibor), the an- the model of Barclay's well-known Shyp of Folys. The work is cient town from which the province receives its name, for- now very rare. After the German edition of Basel, and the merly the capital of the Heveller, a Slavic race, and later of the Latin of Lyon, the date of neither of which is known, the oldest Uckermark, is situated on the Havel, 37 miles W. S.W. of Ber- is that of Strasburg (I49I). lin by railway. It is divided into three parts by the Havel-the old and new town on the opposite banks, and the Dom of B. on Bran'dy (Fr. eau de vie; Ger. branntrwein) is the spirit for an island in the river. It is still the seat of the district courts, and drinking distilled from wine, which owes its peculiar flavour to has many high-class schools and charitable institutions. In the the presence of minute quantities of cenanthic, acetic, butyric, vicinity of the old town rises the Marienberg, some 200 feet and valerianic ethers. It also contains a little tannin, extracted high, on the summit of which once stood a heathen temple, from the casks in which it is stored, to which it owes its pale which latter gave place to the famous Marienkirche, destroyed in yellowish colour, and when it is deep brown it has been so I772. The principal buildings are the cathedral (built II70, coloured by caramel or burnt sugar. The specific gravity of restored 1836) and the citadel, both on the island, and St B. should be from'929 to'934; it should contain from 50 to 60 Katherine's Church (140I) in the new town. There are many per cent. of alcohol, I'2 of solids, about I grain of acid in every beautiful promenades. B. has manufactures of woollens, silks, ounce, and it should be free from sugar. The best brandies are gold-lace, oil, and leather, and also some trade and fisheries in those manufactured in Cognac, in France, but they are distilled the Havel and the adjoining Beetz and Plauer Lakes. Pop. in most wine-producing countries, and experts can recognise the (1873) 25,822, including a garrison of I013. B. was inhabited produce of different localities by the peculiar aroma of each. by the Wends as early as 927, became the seat of a bishop under Large quantities of factitious B. are prepared in Great Britain Otto I. in 949, and the administration of its cathedral was secu- from grain spirit, which is flavoured to imitate cognac by the larised in I598. See Heffter's Geschic/te der Klbr- aind Hllpt- addition of Hungarian oil or cenanthic ether, and a much more stadt B. (Potsd. 1839), and his TlYegeeiser durc/s B. nzd seine deleterious spirit is prepared abroad from potato-spirit, which Alterthiimer (Brandenb. I850o. is freely passed as B. As potato-spirit contains a large proportion of fusel oil, its effects are very hurtful to those who drink Brandenburg, New, next to Neustrelitz the most impor- this spurious B. The quantity of B. imported into Great Britain tant town in the Grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, on the in 18.73 was 6,483,486 gallons, on which a duty of 2,375,447 Tollen Lake, and on the HIamburg-Stettin Railway, about 6o was paid. Of this quantity no less than 6,378,398 gallons were miles W.N. W. of Stettin. It was formerly a strong town, and imported from the Cognac district. has still four beautiful old Gothic gates. Its finest buildings are the ducal palace, the restored Gothic Marienkirche, a theatre, B 3ran'dywine Creek, a N. American stream, 36 miles long, and the Belvedere, a summer palace on the lake. The chief rising in Pennsylvania, and flowing through Delaware to Chrismanufactures are woollens, damasks, tobacco, paper, beer, and tiana Creek, with which it joins the Delaware river, immediately brandy. There is an important wool and cattle market here. below Wilmington. It has a place in history as the scene of an Pop. (1873) 7-245. advantage gained by the British during the War of Independence in September I777. Bran'ding was formerly a punishment in England for various offences. At one time, it was awarded to all criminals found Brank, an instrument formerly used in England and in Scotentitled to Benefit of Clergy (q. v.). Now, however, B. is land for the'taming of the shrew.' In England, it was called confined to deserters from the army, the provision of the' the scold's bridle.' It was a kind of iron mask, which covered Mutiny Act being that'on the first and on every subsequent the head and face, with apertures for the nostrils and eyes. conviction for desertion, the court-martial, in addition to any At the mouth, a plate of iron projected inwards, so as to other punishment, may order the offender to be marked on the press upon the tongue of the culprit, who was thus effectually left side, two inches below the arm-pit, with the letter D; such gagged. In a work called Eng'land's Gr'ZeVance Discovered in letter to be not less than one inch long, and to be marked upon Relation to the Coal Trade, published in 1655, and dedicated the skin with some ink or gunpowder, or other preparation, so to Oliver Cromwell, there occurs the following description of as to be visible and conspicuous, and not liable to be obliterated.' punishment by B.:-'John Willis, of Ipswich, upon his oath, The position for the mark seems hardly to be chosen with the said that he was in Newcastle six months ago, and there he view of its being'visible and conspicuous.' saw one Anne Bidlestone drove through the streets by an officer of the same corporation, holding a rope in his hand, the other Bran'dis, Christian August, a German philosopher, son -end fastened to an engine called the B., which is like a crown, of an eminent physician, was born at Hildesheim, I3th February it being of iron, which was muzzled over the head and face, 179o. In i816 he removed from Copenhagen, where he had with a great gap, a tongue of iron forced into her mouth, which been lecturing on philosophy, to Berlin; and there, in i823, he forced the blood out; and that is the punishment which the published the Metaphysics of Aristotle, followed in 1836 by magistrates do inflict upon chiding Iand scolding women, and Scho~ian Arzstotoelen, and in 1837 by Scholia Crcar n Aristo- that he hath oft seen the like done to others.' In a B. pretetis lhletaphysican.. His Aliltthei.lngen fiber Griechenland (Leps. served in the County Hall of Forfar, called' the witches' bridle h842) was written in Greece, where he was a member of King of Forfar,' dated i66i, the gag is a long piece of iron, with Otho's Council. His Handbuch der Geschiche' 7der Griechisch- three sharp spikes. A B. may be seen in the Ashmolean MuRdmisch. Philosqphie (Berl. 1835-6) is an invaluable contribu- seum at Oxford, and in the National Antiquarian Museum of tion to the history of philosophy. B.'s latest work was his Edinburgh, and in several other places in England and ScotGeschichte der Entoickelunnen der Griech. Philosophie (2 vols. land. Berl. 1862-64). He died 24th July 1867. Brandling. See PARR and SALMON. Bran'tbme, Pierre de Bourdeilles, Seigneur de, a French historian, born at Perigord about 1540. He was chamBran'don (Welsh,'the brow of the hill'), a market-town on berlain to Charles IX. and Henry III., studied war under Franboth the Suffolk and Norfolk side of the Little Ouse, 78 miles eois de Guise, and fought against the Huguenots and Turks. N.N.E. of London, and 30 N. W. of Cambridge by railway. It He died 15thJuly I6I4. B.'s principal works are his Miznoires, has several charitable and educational endowments, and some his Vies des -omnmes illustres et grands Calpitaines FranFais, his trade in corn, malt, and timber. Pop. (1871) 2116. Vies des grands Capilaines Etrangers, his Vies des Dames illustres, and his Vies des Dames galantes. The 6Euvres de B. were pubBrandt, Sebastian, author of the ANarrenschff (' Ship of lished at the Hague, in 15 vols., in 1740; and republished at Fools,' Lat. Stultjer-a Navis MVortalizumnz), was born at Strasburg Paris, in 8 volb., in 7iS7. Tlihey furnish lively pictures of the BEA THE GLOBE EIVC YC' OP~IED~IA1. BiRA times, and the author's complacency is amusing. Ile predicted Afuzlz mvetal contains from 6o to 70 per cent. of copper, and their well-merited success. from 40 to 50 per cent. of zinc. It can be rolled into plates whilst hot, and is used as a sheathing for ships. Brasdor's Operation is a cure for Aneurism (q. v.), and i o, aid is used as a sheathing for ships. consists in applying a ligature to the artery on which the aneur- Aich or Gedde's?etal contains Co per cent. of copper, 38-2 consists in applying a ligaturthe tcardiac sidthe artery on which the aneurism but on of zinc, and I'8 of iron. It can be forged, cast, and rolled, and ism is situated, not on the cardiac side of the aneurism, but on is also well adapted as a sheathing for ships. the distal side, or that side which is farther from the heart than the turnour. Obstruction occurs at the point tied, and coagula- 55 p er cent. of copper, 42 ofirm) is a very hatin, alloy, containing tion of the blood in the artery takes place back to the point 55 per cent. of copper, 42'4 of zinc, o-8 of tin, and I 8 of iron. tion of the blood in the artery takres place back to the point io~ard solder is made by fusing together two parts of B. and where the next branch is given off, and so favours the cure of Haod solder is made by fusing together two parts of B. and the aneurism. B. O. is only to be performed when the vessel one of zinc. When B. is strongly heated. the zinc which it contains volatilises-incleed, it is not possible even to fuse it cannot be safely tied on the side of the aneurism next the without loss of zinc occusrieit heart. When a large branch of an artery is given off between the aneurism and the point tied, B. 0. will fail to effect a Brass'arts, uniting the shoulder and elbow pieces of the platecure. armour worn in former ages, protected the upper part of the arms. Demi-B. shielded only the front of the arms. Brachiale Brasenose, an Oxford college, otherwise named King's Hall, was the ancient name for B., founded in I509 by William Smith, Bishop of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton, Prestbury, Cheshire, for a principal and twelve ixed metal called al, slabs or plae, inlaid in tombstones fellows. The number of fellowships was afterwards increased to twenty. The name is said to have grown out of'Brewinghouse,' but probably arose from the college having been partly built of the ruins of the hostel of B. Hall, and a brazen nose I actually projects over the gateway. There are seventeen Hulme exhibitions, the present worth of each of which is /I135, with an allowance of ~20 for books. The senior fellowships had become of great value, but the commissioners under 17 and IS Vict., c. 8, limited their value to /300 per annum, raising the junior fellowships from /8So to i I5o. The suppression of five of the fellowships left funds free for the endowment of a professor and for some additional scholarships. The college has the presentation to twenty-three livings, and the trustees of thel Hulme exhibitions have twenty-nirxe pieces of preferment i.n their gift. The fellowships, which were formerly confined to the natives of certain counties, are now open. The number of names on the books in I874 was 508, and the number of under-i graduates 112.:Brash, Water. See PYROSIS. Bras'idas, a distinguished Spartan general, who was ap- pointed Ephor _E0onyinus for having relieved Methone when besieged by the Athenians at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (B.C. 43 ). In 424 he relieved Megara, and in 422, with greatly inferior forces, defeated the Athenians under Cleon, both generals being killed in the action. The allied troops were pre sent under arms at his burial within the walls of Amphipolis, and his memory was long preserved by yearly sacrifices at his tomb, and by the institution of games in his honour. His was a mixed character, undoubted heroic qualities co-existing with equally undoubted duplicity, a quality which gave him unusual dexterity and tact as a negotiator. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, but frequently contains small quantities of iron, tin, or lead. B. was formerly manufactured by heating a mixture of calamine (carbonate of zinc), Monumental Slab. in Bruges Cathedral. charcoal, and copper to a temperature rather less than that required to melt copper, when the charcoal reduced the cala- usually placed on the floors of churches. The effigies of the mine, and the zinc, as fast as it was formed, became alloyed with deceased persons, or appropriate symbols, are incised in outline the copper. B. is now made by directly alloying the two metals. upon these plates, and the incisions filled up with bitumen or The copper is first melted, the proper proportion of zinc then other black substance: in the very early B. enamelled work added, dnd the resulting metal cast into ingots. The colour also occurs. In England about 4000 B. are preserved, a and properties of B. vary with the proportions of its constituents. much larger number than exists in any other country in Europe, Thus, by fusing 53-49 parts of zinc with 46-5.I of copper, a owing, probably, to their almost total destruction on the Contibrittle crystalline alloy is obtained of a silver whi/e colour, nent during the many revolutionary changes which have occurred whereas ordinary B., which contains about 64 per cent. of there; in England, too, the number of B. has been greatly copper, is ductile, malleable, and of a golden colour. The addi- lessened by the vandalism that accompanied the Reformation tion of a small quantity of lead. greatly increases the hardness and the civil wars of the I7th c. Their use was introduced into of B., and prevents it from clogging the file, and for the same England from Flanders early in the 13th c., but the oldest reason renders it suitable for being turned on the lathe. A small example extant is in Rochester Cathedral, on the tomb of proportion of tin also hardens B., and is added to B. which is to Walter de Merton, who died in 1277. The eastern counties be engraved. The specific gravity of B. (8'3) is greater than the of England, from Kent to Norfolk, with the adjoining counties mean of the specific gravities of its two constituents; in other of Surrey, Sussex, Middlesex, and Berks, furnish by far the words, contraction takes place when copper is alloyed with larger portion; a few are preserved in cathedral and convenzinc, and this contraction is accompanied by a rise of tempera- tual churches in the W. of Englandl; in the other parts of the tare. Both these facts would indicate that B. is really a che- United Kingdom examples are extremely scarce. Old B. are mical compound, or at least contains a chemical compound of remarkable for their chaste and beautiful designs, often exthe two metals of which it is formed, and this supposition is pressed in a few simple lines; and where effigies are depicted, strengthened by the fact that B. can be deposited by galvanic valuable sources of information to the artist are provided reaction. See ELECTROLYSIS. gardcling the varied costumes worn by diffirent ranks of society 479 4 4 I - e BRA THE GLOBE ENC YCL OP/tED1A. BRA during a period of nearly four centuries. The use of B. in i in default of payment, to two months' imprisonment. Offenders England appears to have declined about the time of Charles I., may be immediately apprehended after the offence by constable but the fashion has been revived of late years. An estimate or churchwarden. Persons aggrieved may appeal to next quartermay be formed of the kind of metal employed for B. from sessions, To obstruct or assault a clergyman or other minister the analysis of a- Flemish specimen, which yielded in IOO parts, in the discharge of his duties is a misdemeanour, and any 64 of copper, 29'5 of zinc, 3'5 of lead, and 3 of tin. See Cot- person convicted is liable to be imprisoned for any term not man's Engravings of the Sepulchral B. in NAorfolk and Suffolk exceeding two years, with or without hard labour. See (new ed. 2 vols. Lond. I874), and Haines' fianual of Il. B. CHURCHYARD. (2 vols. Lond. I873). (Brawn (Old Fr. braion,'a roll' of flesh'), the designation of Brass'ica, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order a male pig after it is weaned. A cut or castrated pig is called Criuciferce (q. v.), to which many cultivated plants, such as a brazaner. The name B. is also applied to the flesh of swine Cabbage (q. v.) and its varieties (kale, borecole, colewort, freed from all bones, formed into a roll, seasoned with spices, greens, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, an kohlrabi), and boiled. Wiltshire B. is much relished, and is particularly Turnip (q. v.); Navew (q. v.), &c., belong. The Isle of Man palatable in sandwiches. cabbage is B. Monensis. It grows wild on sandy soils, and is:Brax'y, a fatal blood disease in sheep, produced chiefly from indigestion, inducing constipation, setting up acute inflammation Braun, August Emil, a distinguished German archaeolo- in the bowels, whose ultimate and speedy result is death. The gist, was born at Gotha, Ig9th April I8o0.* In I'833' he went to indigestion, according to the author of The Book of the Farm, is Rome, where he became first librarian, then. secretary, to the occasioned by a; sudden change of food from succulent to dry; Archaeological Institute, and where he died, September 25, i856. and on hill farms' this is more easily discernible, on account of Of his numerous works may be mentioned il Giudizio di Paride the snow in winter covering the grass upon which the stock had (Par. 1838); Griechische YMythologie (Hamb. and Gotha, i850); been feeding, necessitating their subsistence upon the tops of Griechische Gt'lterlehre (Gotha, 1851-55); and Die Ruinen zund old heather and other plants growing on high altitudes. Mr Mzuseen Roms (Bruns. I855). Stephens recommends that the sheep should be provided with Brauns'berg, a walled town of Prussia, province of E. Prus- shelter, and turnips and hay given to them. The Ettrick Shepherd, James IHogg, in his Sheep Guide, says the l oss of cud is sia, on the Passaragei 40 miles S.W. of Kbnigsberg by railway, herd, James Hogg, in his See Guide, says the loss of cud is sia, onthe Pasar j40 m the first indication of B. When the sheep stands, it brings its has an old castle built in I24I, a Catholic college constituted in four feet into the compass of a foot, is restless, lying down and i818, and several hospitals. It has an active trade, and is spe- rising up in the space of a few minutes teyes re dull and rising up in the space of a few minutes; the eyes are dull and cially famed for its u Fiilhoursl bher. Pop. (1871) 10,47h1,- of whom heavy, the ears down-hanging, the tongue and mouth parched, three-fourths are Roman Catholicsand the belly distended to bursting. Hogs affected with B. freBrauw'er or Brouwer, Adrfan, a Flemish painter, born quently die between night and morning: In some parts of Scotin I6o8 at Haarlem, according to others at Oudenarde. His land, the flesh of sheep suffering fiom B. is cured and hung up parents were poor, and gave him no education, but Nature had in the shielings, and is much relished as an article of diet. See made him an artist, and from an early age he painted birds and Stephens' Book of the Farre, Clater's Cattle Doctor, Cowan's flowers, which his mother sold to country-folks. Later on he essay in Transactions of the ZIrihland and Agriculz/ual Society, became a pupil of Franz Hals, who possessed himself of B.'s 1863, Dick's MAanual qf Veterinary Science, and Williams' Prinpictures and sold them for his own benefit. B. effected his ciples and Practice of Velerinary MLedicine. escape from his rapacious master,- and at Amsterdam sold his Bray, a rapidly-rising watering-place on the E. coast of Ire. winrks for large sums, which he squandered in- low dissipation, land, just on the border line between the counties of Dublin and He was generously befriended by Rubens,. who highly admired Wicklow, 13 miles S.E. of Dublin by railway. It may be said his talents; and after B.'s death in the hospital of Antwerp in to have sprung into existence only of late years, but is already a 1640, Rubens had his body disinterred from among the graves flourishing town of fine villas, with many hotels and a large of the poor, and honourably buried in the Church of the Car- Turkish bath. Pop. (i87n ) 6087, being an increase of almost melites. The subjects of his pictures are taken from taverns and 50 per cent. over that of a86io their inmates, and are put on the canvas with great truth and energy. Bray, Mrs- Anna Eliza, an atthoress of considerable reBra'vi, an Italian term, the plural of Bravo, applied to per — pute and- with keen artistic sympathies, was the daughter of the sons who for hire undertook to assassinate and murder, though late MrJohn Iempe, a gentleman of Cornish, extraction, and originally confined to persons indiscreetly daring. was born in the end of last century. She has been twice married, first to Mr Charles Alfied Stothard, an artist, who was Bra'vo, or Rio Gran'de, del Nor'te, after the Mississippi killed, May I82I, by a fall from a ladder, and secondly to the the largest river which flows into the Gulf of Mexico, rises among Rev. E. A. B., vicar of Tavistock. She has published memoirs the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, U.S., and has a course, gene- of both, a variety of works on art and music, and a large number rally south-easterly, of I8oo00 miles, serving through two-thirds of of historical romances, beginning with De lboix (.826), and endits length as a natural boundary between Texas and Mexico. It ing with 7oan ofSAc (I874). receives the large river Pecos from Texas, and the Salado and Conchos from Mexico. Owing to its -shallowness, and the fre- Bray,- Edward Atkyns, B.D.,- F.S.A-., husband of the quent occurrence of rapids and sandbars, it is of little use com- preceding, was a poet and; theological litterateur, and was born mercially. at Tavistock, Devonshire, i8th December I788. He studied at Cambridge, and- was called to the bar in I8o6. But law not tion and to a style of performance.; A 1B. c omposition is one proving congenial, he took orders, and obtained the vicarage of on sisting mainly of florid and intricate passagesition iruns one Tavistock, where, after an industrious literary career, he died, consisting mainly of florid and intricate passages, runs, orna- 1-7th July 1857. B. wrote Arcadian Idyls Lyric ns, Disments, &c. Even when written by a great musician, it pos- ses on Pestntis, and published a variety of selections sesses little interest except as a means of displaying the talents of from eminent divines. is and pblished a variety of selections from eminent divines. His Poetical Remains, Social, Sacred, a great singer. and Miscellaneous, with a memoir, were edited by his widow Brawl'ing in Church is by the law of England an offence ('2 vols. Lond. I859). against public peace. The Act 23 and 24 Vict., c. 32; abolishes the jurisdiction of ecclesiastical courts in England and Ireland Brayera. See Csso. in suits against any person not in holy orders for defamation and Brazil (Fr. Brgsil, named from the colour of its dye-woods; B. By the same Act, any person guilty of riotous or inde- Port. braza,'a live coal'), an empire, and the largest and most cent behaviour in any church in England or Ireland, or in any populous state of S. America, comprehending one-fifteenth of the churchyard, burial-ground, chapel, or place of religious worship terrestrial surface of the globe, and extending between lat. 4~ 30' duly certified, or who shall molest any preacher or minister N. and 33~ S., and between long. 35~ and 70~ W. Its greatest authorised to preach therein, shall, on conviction before any two length from N. to S. is 2600 miles; greatest breadth from E. to justices, be liable to a penalty not above.5 for every offence, or, W., 2500; awhile it has a coast-line of 3600 miles. The areas, 480o A. —------------------ A 4> B3RA THE GLOBE EVC YCLOPAEDIA. BRA divisions, and populations, according to the Alzanach de Go/ha sugar, also rapidly increasing; dry and salted hides, caout. for 1876, were as follows:- chouc, tobacco, mate or Paraguay tea; cacalo, rum, manioc flour, gold, diamonds, &c. The exports for 1874 amounted to Province. Area. Populations. Slaves. /3,508,473, and the imports /9,793,669. The railway system.....____ _ _of B. is being largely developed, the Treasury having spent in ~Ama~zonas 753,470 57,610 979 I871-72 ~I,I67,528 on this item alone. The completion of the Par.....400,464 259,820 0719 systems now projected will place the capital of the empire, Rio Maranh. 040,651 359,040 749 de Janeiro, at only a few days' distance from the greater part of.aani. 4r,65I 359,')4o 74,939 Piauhy.. 8, 779 20o2,222 23,795 the central and northern provinces, and will open up vast terriCear.. 50,262 720,-616 31,913 tories, fertile and healthy, to the enterprise of the colonist. In 7Rio Grande do iNorti 20~,130 2>33,'979 13, o2o PaRio Grahba.nde do Nort,3 233,979 3,20 1873 upwards of 700 miles of railway were in the course of operaParahyba... 20~~~~~-',346 362,5.57 20, 904 Pernambouc. [,5 34, 89,028 tion; but the construction of at least two lines has in the meantime Alagoas... 00,642 348,o009 35,74I been abandoned for want of funds. In 1874 there were considerSergipe a2,035 060,307 20,495 ably more than 3000 miles of telegraph lines, and in that year a Bahia. 204,802 T,283,140 162,295 Espirito Santo.I0 8 8, T37 22,659 transatlantic cable was laid connecting B. with Europe. Espirrto Sant. r7, o3o 82,'r37 22,659 Rio de Janeiro. 8,490 727,576 270,726 Governmlent, Education, &c.-The executive authority is Municipio Neutro a274,972 48,939 vested in the Emperor, who *acts through his ministers. The S. Paulo.90,540 837,354. 56,612 Senate consists of 58 members elected for life, and the Chamber ParanA. 3)8,557 126,722 io, 560 Santa Catharina 08,924 059,802:4,984 of Deputies of 122 members, elected for four years by the free Rio Grande do Sul 00o, 25 43o,878 66,876 population. The financial year of 187I-72, of which a definite Minas Geri'es 237,482 2,009,023 366,574 account was rendered to the Chambers 8th May 1874, showed Goyaz..263,335 060,395 o,652 Matto Grosso. 668,653 60,4I7 6,667 the revenueto be/12,976,825, andtheexpenditure/io, 58,677. The public debt on March 31, x874, was /66r,688,782. The estalIished religion is the Roman Catholic, but all other reliTotal 3,298,065 19,700, 87 x,476,567 gions are tolerated. For administrative purposes B. is divided into twenty provinces, and the ecclesiastical jurisdiction is exercised in The population is composed of Portuguese, Creoles, English, twelve dioceses. Education is being promoted both by GovernGermans, Swiss, Chinese, and aborigines. ment and by private efforts, and there are night-schools for adults Physical Aspect, &'c.-B. is mountainous over about one-third both in the capital and in several provinces. Normal colleges of its surface. There are vast plains in the N. and S., and the have been instituted, and popular libraries, public and private, interior rises into extensive plateaux. The three great mountain have been established. The army for I875 was fixed at i6,ooo chains are (i) Serra do MJar, on the E. coast, with peaks from men; the national guard, including the reserve, was 741,782 4000 to 5000 feet high; (2) the Serra do Espinha~o, the middle men; and the naval force consisted of 6f ships, with 30 comrange, forms the E. border of the Diamond plateau (Alinas Gerwfes), panies of marines, numbering 4136 men. and has peaks of over 7000 feet; and (3) the Serra dos Vertenles, History.-B. was discovered in May 10oo by the Portuguese, the western watershed, which diverges into many broad but low but they founded no settlement till 1538. In I549 they sent out ramifications in the N. and N.W. An immense tract of B. in the first governor, who founded the town of Bahia, where he the N. belongs to the basin of the Amazon, partly consisting of established a regular administration. In 1578 B. was conquered grassy plains (Lanzos), and partly of marshes (Selvas). There are by Spain, and subsequently by the Dutdh Republic, which retwo vast river systems-the Amazon in the N., with nineteen great tained possession of it till 1654, when it was recovered by the tributaries; and the La Plata in the S., formed by the union of Portuguese. In i8o8 the troubles in the Peninsula induced the the Parana and Paraguay, both of which have their head-waters royal family of Portugal to transfer themselves to Brazil, which in B. The only other streams of note are the San Francisco was raised to the rank of a kingdom. On September 7, 1822, it and Parahyba. The navigation of these rivers is seriously was declared an independent state, of which the sovereign impeded by cataracts and shallows, but the Government since adopted the title of emperor, and a constitution was published i865 has diligently striven to remove such obstacles, and has 25th March I824, modified by the additional Acts of 12th August organised (1873) nearly 82,000 miles of internal steam naviga- 8834 and 12th May 1840. In 1871 a law was passed by which tion. The climate, in the mountainous regions, and where tem- children born of slaves were declared free, as also were all slaves perature is affected by the sea-winds, is mild, but in the low in the imperial and public service. See Kidder and Fletcher, B. plains and on the bankls of rivers is tropically hot and unhealthy. and the Brazilians (Philad. i866), Baril de la Hure, L'EmF;ire There is much intermittent fever during the rainy season, which de Brtsil (Par. 8862), Von Varnhagen, IYistoria geral do B. occurs in our winter time. (Rio de Janeiro, 1855), Captain R. F. Burton, Highlands of B. Zoology,' Botany, and Mineralogy.-The Brazilian fauna is ex- (2 vols. Loud. i869), and Stein and Hirschelmann, Handbuch tremely rich, and its flora is one of the most wonderful in the der Geogra2hie unZd Statistie (Leips. 1871). world. The principal animals are the jaguar, wolf, tapir, deer, paca, wild boar, armadillo, and many varieties of the monkey. Brazil Cabbage, or Ghou Caracbe (aladit m sagitt/oOf birds, there are quails, partridges, pigeons, vultures, owls, n a), a plant of the natural orderb Arec, allied to Cocco (q. v.), mocking-birds, parrots, and other birds of brilliant plumage.a native of tropical America, but now cltivated for the sae Tortoises, alligators, boas, and rattlesnakes are among the com- of the root, which is mon reptiles. Everywhere, on the other hand, the most vigorous eaten like coco, and vegetation is exhibited, giving the appearance of a perpetual the leaves, which are spring. More than 7,0ooo botanical species are already known, boiled like greens. of which the most important are the famous B.-wood (q. v.), Brazil rass, Brazil Grass, a valuable alike for shipbuilding, cabinetmaking, and dyeing. commercial name fo The carnauba palm is a vegetable wonder. Every part subserves thestrips oftheleave y ~~~~the strips of the leaves ~ some important use, and from the leaves is extracted a kind of of a wax employed in candle-making, to the value of above /i 50o000 apalm, hamprop annually, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~a~Taentfea, imp or te d annually. The mineral treasures comprise diamonds, emeralds, chiefly fiom Cuba for euclaces, sapphires, rubies, topazes, tourmalins, garnets, gold, thepurposeofmaing silver, copper, lead, bismuth, iron, mercury, and manganese. cheap p hip or. G. magns.cheap chip or B. G Throughout B. there are abundance of mineral waters. hats Commerce, Railways, &c.-The commerce of B. has greatly increased since the opening of the ports to all friendly nations in Brazil-Nuts are i8oS8. With the view of developing the resources of the country, the seeds of Berthollethe Government has allowed to foreign merchants the right of tia excelsa, a very lofty Flower, Leaf, and Section of B.-N. Fruit. navigating the rivers and of coasting. The exports are coffee, tree growing throughrepresenting by itself nearly the half of the whole value; cot- out Brazil, Guiana, and tropical America generally. The ton, a rapidly increasing staple since the civil war in America; seeds, termed nuts, are enclosed within a hard woody cap61 481 -4~~~~~~~ — 4 —--- BRA THEE GI OBE ENC YCL OPiEDIA. BRE sule, closely packed together, the whole fruit forming a ball establishment without leave of the owner. But misconduct, or considerably bigger than an orange. The kernels are also refusal to leave in proper time, is held by the law to constitute enclosed within a hard nutshell, and present the appearance of B.. of C. from the moment of entry. See TRESPASS, BREAKsegments of a circle, the diameter of which would average two ING ENCLOSURES. inches. Besides being consumed as food in enormous quantities, B. of Covenant renders the maker of the covenant and his the seeds by pressure yield a valuable oil of a pleasant nutty representatives liable to an action. See COVENANT. flavour, and is used in cooking. The oil contains 74 per cent. B. of Contract renders the breaker liable to action under the of eleine and 26 per cent. of stearine. Each pound of kernels Common Law Procedure Act, or in the Courts of Equity. See yields about 9 oz. of oil, which is worth in Brazil 2s. per lb. CONTRACT. B. of Duty may be either:an offence of commission or omisBrazil- oodo the name of several trees of the genus icesaZ- sion; and the neglect of any action which the common sense or pinia, belonging to the natural order Leguminosas, found in natual instinct of manind points out as incumbent on any one Brazil and tropical America. The wood, when newly cut, I. natural instinct of mankind points out as incumbent on anyone Brazil and tropical America. The wood, when newly cut, is y titute the offence and render the offender liable in yellow, but rapidly assumes a deep red colour; it is very hard civil or even criminalacon. Thus, parents who neglect their and heavy, and of great value7as a dye-wood. The wood con- civil or even criminal action. Thus, parents who neglect their and heavy, and of gre principlvalue astermed Brazilin which has been ison- children in serious illness may be held guilty of homicide, or even tains a colouring principle termed Brazilin, which has been iso- of murder. lated by M. Chevreul. The dyeing solution is prepared by-Any offence against public safety or tranquillity reducing the wood to powder in a mill, and extracting the is called. See PoACE, OFaENcES AGAINST THE PUBLIC.. 1 1. r 1.1. 1 rat * 1 is so called. See PEACE, OFFENCES AGAINST THE PUBLIC. colouring matter by the action of boiling water. The strained B. of Poun, in English law, means the breaking of any residue is repeatedly heated with boiling water, to which an Pound (q. v.) where stray cattle are impounded, with a view to alkali may be added with advantage. The solution gives a their illegal release. Stray cattle may be impounded accor(ling bright crimson colour on wools and silks, with an alum mordant, to law, in security of any damage which they have occasioned. but the colour is not very permanent. On cotton, with a mor- The penalty of B. of P. is /5 with costs; failing payment, imdant of tin crystals, it yields several shades of red according prisonment with hard labour. to the method of treatment; but it is not commonly used in B. of Promise. See POaMISE. conjunction with other tinctorial agents. Varieties of B.-W. are B. of P,-omise to Marry. See PROMISE. imported under the names of Nicaragua-wood, Lima-wood, B. of Trzst.-In ordinary language one may be said to compeach-wood, and Pernambuco-wood. See also SAPAN-WOOD., peach-wood, 4andPernambuco-wood. SeetalsoSAPANWo D;mit a B. of T. who, as trustee, acts contrary to law; but the Brazil'ian Plum. See HoG PLUM. term in law is only applied to acts in violation of the law of Bra'zing denotes the:art of soldering or uniting the edges or:trust, done with intent to deflaud. (See TRUST, TRUSTEE.) surfaces of brass or copper by means of an alloy more fusible The distinction between B. of T. or embezzlement and the than the metals operated on, and -composed of copper and zinc higher crime of theft is often exceedingly narrow. In Scotland, in varying proportions, sometimes with a small percentage of the principle has been adopted and enforced that where a person tiln. Soft spelter solder, commonly used for ordinary brass work., holds property without any right of administration, and is bound is composed of equal parts of copper and zinc, and hard solder to hand over that property in specific form, appropriation by contains two parts of the former metal to one part of the latter, th a t holder is theft. On the o ther hand, when the holder has a The process of soldering requires that the surfaces to be joinedright of management, or power to exchange or to account for be thoroughly cleaned, which is accomplished by filing, and to the property, or to give an equivalent, the appropriation of that prevent the oxidation of the metals, Borax (q. vo) is mixed with property, or its proceeds, constitutes only the minor crime of the alloy. The mixture of borax and solder in the state of a B. of T. The appropriation by a watchmaker of a watch coarse powder is applied in a wet state; gentle heat drives off left with him to be cleaned and repaired was held to be theft; the moisture and fuses the borax, while a bright red heat fuses but appropriation by a pawnbroker of an article pledged has the solder, which on cooling joins the surfaces firmly together: been held ony as B. of T., on the ground that by lapse of time his tite to the article pledged becomes absolute, and so gives Braz'os de Dios, an important river of Texas, U. S., flow- him the right to sell. For a very curious question of stealing or ing in a south-easterly direction from its source in Bexar county not stealing, see the case of ic/iddleton, tried before the Central to the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of 90o miles. It is always Criminal Court, 23d September I872. The Act 24 and 25 navigable for 40 miles from its mouth, sometimes for 300 miles. Vict., c. 96, is directed against'frauds by trustees, bankers, direcIts valley is rich and fertile, but is still largely covered with tors, and others.' It specifies and defines various crimes and misprimeval forests. demeanours connected with fraudulent appropriation of property, Brazz'a, an Austrian island in the Adriatic, the largest of and with the falsification of books and accounts, and inflicts the Dalmatian group, is separated from the mainland by a penalties on these. See EMBEZZLEMENT. channel from 8 to 0o miles broad, and has a superficial area of I40 miles. Its wines are noted in the district (especially the Bread, an important and universal form of food, made by Vulgava wine); and figs, almonds, and oil are also abundant. kneading the flour or meal of cereals with water into a tough Bees and silkworms are reared, and there is a large export trade and consistent paste, and baking it. The paste is generally renins building-stone. B. has good harbours. Pop. I5,98o. The dered light and vesicular by gaseous carbonic acid, either chief town is San Pietro. evolved within the paste by employing a ferment, or introduced B1reach. -See SieGE-WoRKs. into it by artificial means. The earliest kind of B. was unvesiculated, and simply consisted of raw grain softened with water, Breach, in law, means a violation of law. It has several pressed and baked. Cakes and analogous forms of this primispecial applications, of which the following are the most irmpor- tive unfermented B., made, however, with bruised grain, still tant:- constitute the principal kind of B. used by the rural population B. of Arrestfzenzt is, in Scotch law, the contempt of law com- of Scotland, as well as by the inhabitants of Northern Europe, mitted by an arrestee who pays the sum, or delivers the goods and many other parts of the globe. (See BANNOCK and BISarrested, to the common debtor. The arrestee is liable in CUITS.) Although all the cereal grains are employed more or damages to the value of the money or goods paid or delivered, less for B. —making in the countries where they are cultivated, with expenses. When goods are arrested, and the arrestment only one of them-namely, wheat-is well adapted for the forloosed on security, if the goods cannot be restored or their value mation of good vesiculated B., and accordingly it is most exascertained, the surety, or' cautioner,' is liable for the debt. tensively used for that purpose. There are numerous varieties See ARRESTMENT. of Wheat:(q. v.), all'containing, in slightly varying proporB. of Close means, in English law, the unwarrantable entering tions, the same proximate principles, chiefly starch, nitrogeupon another man's property. The owner will be entitled to nous mnatter, fat, and inorganic salts. The nitrogenous matter damage adequate to the injury. If cattle commit B. of C., their consists chiefly of gluten, a substance which gives wheat its preowner is answerable. In certain circumstances, however, the eminence over other grain for B. -making. If a small quantity of trespass is justifiable. It is so where one comes to demand or wheaten flour be placed in a linen bag and squeezed under water, pay money due in the place entered, or there to execute legally the starch dissolves and passes through the bag, leaving the any process of law. One may also legally enter an inn or similar gluten behind. Gluten is then seen to be a grey, viscid, tena-.i* i BRE THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPDIA. BRE cious, elastic substance, and chiefly consists of vegetable fibrin. creases considerably in weight by absorption of water, and It has also adhesive properties, due to a small quantity of a it is found that one cwt. of flour yields about I40 lbs. of B. peculiar azotised matter called gliadin. Other kinds of grain In the baked loaf, the starch, though swollen, remains unalyield vegetable fibrin, unaccompanied, however, with gliadin, tered in the crumb, and in the crust is transformed into or associated with it to so small an extent that the elasticity and dextrin. A dark colour is imparted to the crumb of the tenacity which characterise gluten, and cause it to retain carbonic loaf when too much starch is converted into dextrin and acid within a paste of wheaten flour, thereby communicating sugar, which in course of fermentation always takes place in a lightness and porosity, are totally or nearly altogether absent. slight degree. Advantage is often taken of the property posWheat for B.-making is first ground by being passed between sessed by alum of hindering this change to render inferior flour, two millstones, in order to detach the white, friable, starchy, which is much more susceptible of it than fine flour, suitable for and glutinous portion of the grain from its hard tegumentary B.-making, and, by adding alum in sufficiently large, though coverings. The product of the attrition is meal, which contains deleterious, quantity, a loaf may be manufactured from deterioall the elements of the grain; and to obtain the starchy powder, rated flour rivalling in whiteness that made from the finest flour. or flour, the meal is bolted or dressed in a hollow cylinder, Salt, while it flavours. B., gives whiteness and firmness to it. which is covered with wirecloth of varying degrees of fineness, Yeast, leaven, or other ferment, is not essential to the formation and placed in an inclined position. Within this cylinder hair of good vesiculated B., for lightness and porosity may be imbrushes are fixed to a rotating rod in the axis of the cylinder, parted by means of effervescing compounds. For instance, B. and when the meal is introduced at the raised end, the brushes of fairly good quality is made by mixing a little hydrochloric force the flour, according to its fineness, through the meshes of acid and carbonate of soda in the dough unflavoured by salt; the gauge. Dressing thus yields flour of different qualities, when the proper proportions are taken, the acid is neutralised called firsts, seconds, and thirds; and the husky particles that by the alkali, common salt (chloride of sodium), and carbonic pass out at the low end of the cylinder are again sifted, and acid being formed, the dough is flavoured and changed by form, according to fineness, pollards, sharps, and bran. Fine charging it with vesicles. Carbonate of ammonia is also someflour, or firsts, is used for B. of a superior quality to the ordi- times employed to lighten the dough, being completely volatilnary or household B., which is made of seconds and thirds ised by the high temperature of the oven-the apparently objecof variable proportions. Dr Letheby gives the composition of tionable qualities, strong taste anrd pungent smell, of the substance flour as follows:- being in no wise imparted to the dough. (See AERATED B.) Nitrogenous matter. o 08 Brown B., which is made of coarse wheaten flour, owes its Starch, dextrin, &c... 70'5 colour to a peculiar nitrogenous body closely allied to diastase, Fatty matter o. called cerealin, which was discovered and described by M. MegeMineral matter. o. -7 Mouries, and is present in largest quantity in the external porWater... I5'o. tions of the wheat-grain. Brown B. is commonly thought to be more nutritious than white B., but is in reality not so. I00o0 Its laxative property arises from the indigestible particles of Loaf-B., or ordinary fermented B., has a firm porous texture, in- the cuticle of the grain acting as a mechanical irritant on the duced by _panary fermentation by means of leaven, yeast, or alimentary canal. See NUTRITION and FOOD. other ferment, which converts a portion of the starch of the flour into dextrin and grape-sugar, and splits up the latter:Breada'ban. (Gael. Braidahl-aizn,'the hill country of into alcohol and carbonic acid. (See FERMENTATION.) If a Albainn'): is one of the old stewartries of Perth, and lies in the mixture of flour and water be kneaded into a stiff paste or W. part of the county. The district known by the name is ndouzgh, and laid aside in a warm situation, decomposition en- about 33 miles long and 3i broad, reaching from Lochaber and sues. The dough in this active condition is called leaven, and if Atholl on the N. to Strathearn and Menteith on the S. It lies kneaded with a large quantity of flour and water, it sets the in the heart of the Grampian mountains, has no towns, and few whole mass into active fermentation, rendering it light and villages. Loch Tay is the principal sheet of water. It gives spongy by the evolution of carbonic acid. Leaven was employed t itle of marquis to a branch of the Campbells, to whom in remote times, and is still used in Germany and France in B.- nearly the whole of B. belongs. making. Its uncertain action, however, has lead English bakers Bread, Army. The B. now supplied to the regiments of the to adopt Yeast (q. v.) as a substitute. There are various kinds British army is baked at the encampment or barracks where the of yeast-brewer's yeast or barm, German yeast, and patzent yeast, regiment is, quartered, by duly qualified; persons. The wholeprepared by fermenting a little hops and malt with brewer s someness of the B. is thus ensured;.- and even when, in certain yeast, and adding boiled and mashed potatoes and flour. cases-egn, when the detachment is small-the B. is supplied by In the manufacture of fermented loaf-B,, the baker first takes contract, it is subjected to a strict supervision before it is used. small quantities of tepid water, yeast, and salt, and proceeds to Formerly all the A. B. was supplied by contract; but a few years knead some flour with them. The sponge so. formed is then set ago itwas discovered that apart in a warm place till fermentation ensues, and the mass the A. B. was of such rises and falls with the evolution and escape of carbonic acid. wretched quality that a When the action has proceeded far enough, the remainder of reform was necessary, and the flour, salt, and water necessary to make the proper amount accordingly,, after several of dough is laboriously and intimately kneaded with - the experiments, the present sponge, and the whole again laid aside for some time, durhngsystem was adopted. which the fermentative action permeates the mass of dough, and increases its bulk by the formation of innumerable bubbles of' Bread-Fruit Tree- carbonic acid. A second kneading operation gives a uniform (Artocarpzts incisa), a tree consistence, and distributes the carbonic' acid equably throughout of the natural order Artothe mass, therefore preventing it from becoming sad or ill raised. carpacee, a native of the. The dough is then shaped into loaves, and during the short time islands of the Pacific and swells up, or gives proof. On being baked by exposure to a lago, the fruit of which high temperature in an oven for an hour, the expansion of supplies a great portion the confined gas within the loaves still further increases their. of the food of the natives bulk, so much so, that on being withdrawn from the oven, they of these islands, while the are twice as large as when they entered it. The heat of the bark is used for clothing, oven stays the fermentative action and expels the alcohol the timber for canoes, thereby formed. One important duty of the baker is to check house-building, furniture, the fermentation at the proper point, for if it is carried &c., and the milky juice, Bea-Fruit too far it leads to acetic fermentation, rendering the B. sour which exudes when thead-Frut. and unpalatable, and if not prolonged enough the dough does bark is punctured, is, when boiled with cocoa-nut oil, employed not rise sufficiently. Flour, in being converted into B., in- as birdl.me, and for making the seams of canoes and various 483 4 4,,. - as> BRE THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPEDJIA. BRE domestic vessels water-tight. The fruit is about the size of a class belongs the B. now in course of construction at Dover, and child's head, and is gathered before it is fully ripe. It is cooked the new South B. completed in I873 at Aberdeen. The Dover by being baked in an oven, or the fruits are allowed to ferment, B. is of ashlar masonry filled up with Concrete (q. v.). The work and then beaten into a paste, which is sourish, but will keep for is carried on with diving-bells, and has proved exceedingly diffisome time. There are several varieties of B. -F., ripening at dif- cult and expensive. The Aberdeen B. had its foundation made ferent seasons. It has been introduced into S., America and the by depositing in situ large bags of liquid concrete, which harW. Indies, and it may be remembered that the mutiny of the dened rapidly under water. The surface of these bags was preBounty-so famous in sea-story —happened in the course of a pared by helmet-divers to receive the superstructure, which, up voyage to introduce the B.-F. into the Antilles. In these islands it to low-water level, consisted of concrete blocks weighing about is, however, not so much valued as the plantain. The 7ak, 7acca, 20 tons each. The upper part of the B. is concrete also, and or yack-Fruit is A. integrifoZia, and is largely used as food by was deposited liquid in cases, holding hundreds of tons each. the natives of Ceylon, Southern India, and other parts of tropical Finally bags, each containing Ioo tons of liquid concrete, were or semi-tropical Asia. The seeds when roasted are also much deposited as an'apron' round the foot of the B. The engi. esteemed, and the timber is much used for furniture. The inner neer of this structure was Mr W. Dyce Cay. Among the bestwood (duramen) is used to dye the robes of the Buddhist priests known breakwaters of the other class are those of Plymouth, of a yellow colour. The Dephal (A. Lakoocha), a native of the Portland, Cherbourg, and Holyhead. The latter was designed E. Indies, is another member of this genus. by the late Mr J. M. Rendel; the necessary Act of Parliament was passed in I847, and the B. was formally declared comBread-Nuts, the edible seeds of Brosimzumi Alicastrumn, plete by the Prince of Wales in August I873, although the which belongs to the same order as the Bread-Fruit (q. v.).. partially-formed harbour had proved itself of great value to The wood is somewhat like mahogany, and in Jamaica is used shipping long before that date. This gigantic structure conby cabinetmakers. The leaves and young shoots are eaten by sists of a mound of rubble 7860 feet long, and 400 feet broad cattle, but become deleterious when old. The beautiful mottled at the base, the depth of water (spring tides) being over 50 feet. heart-wood of B. Aubletii (the letter-wood, snake-wood, or The mound is surmounted near its inner side by a massive leopard-wood of Trinidad and British Guiana) is used for veneer- masonry wall about 40 feet high, on the harbour side of which ing and for making walking-sticks. is a lower terrace, or quay wall, that may possibly be used for Bread-Room, as a nautical term, means the place where. the 4. d biscuits are stored. In the Navy it is carefully constructed, and........-.- -. kept as warm and free from damp as possible. | -.. _.._. Bread-Root. See PSORALEA. - Bread-Tree. See CAFFRE-BREAD. Break'ers are waves that break or fall over, on account either 3yu 9B w > of the shallowness of the water, or of rocks a short distance under the surface. Their foam and roar are sharply looked after wharfage at some future time. The mound contains about seven and listened for at sea, on account of the danger they indicate. million tons of stone (obtained from quarries close at hand-see In a gale the tops of the seas break, owing to the progressive BLASTING), and the whole B. cost about;/I,285,ooo, or about motion of the water at the surface before the wind. This is very /I63, Ios. per foot run. dangerous for open boats. Bream, a name applied popularly, and without scientific Breaking Bulk, a Scotch law term, signifying the making or plausible reason, to various different genera of fishes. The B. use of an article bought, by which the buyer is debarred from proper of ichthyologists is a fresh-water Teleostean fish, belongafterwards objecting to the article and returning it to the seller. ing to the Cyp-iinide or carp family, and scientifically known as Abramis br-ama. It is occasionally known as the'carp B.' Breaking Enclosures, a term in the law of Scotland some- The B. genus Abramis is nearly allied to the Cyyprinus or what analogous to that of Breaking of Close (q. v.) in that of carp genus, but the members of the former group possess England. Several old Scotch Acts are designed specially for the compressed bodies, convex in outline above and below, encouragement of planting and enclosing. They inflict penalties and are not provided with spiny rays in the dorsal and on persons or their cattle found guilty of trespassing on the lands anal fins. No barbues surround the mouth. The mcommon B. so protected. By common law, also, injuries done to trees and is found in most European lakes and slowly-running rivers. It enclosures are punishable as malicious mischief. is plentiful in the Cumberland Lakes. It is yellowish white in Breaking Joint is an arrangement used in construction in colour, the cheeks and gilI-covers being of silvery hue. This iron and other materials, analogous to Bonding (q v. ) in brick- fish may attain a weight of 14 lbs. The flesh is not very rich, work and masonry. The phrase implies that the joints in con- although it was formerly accounted a savoury article of diet. Chaucer's Frankeleyn, who was'Epicurus' owne sone,' had tiguous strakes, or layers of plates, should not be in line with, Chaucer's Frnkeleyn, who was'Epicurus' owne sone,' had or over each other, in order that the structure may be as little many a br ee and many a luce in stewe. The white B. (eA ~weakened by them as possible. blicca) is of a uniform silvery or greyish colour, and resembles the common B. in its distribution. A species named the PomeBreaking of Prison is the crime of escape by one law- ranian B. (A. Bugggenhagii), occurring chiefly in Pomerania, but fully imprisoned, whether effected by violence or by corruption. also in Britain, has a thicker body than the common B., larger The punishment is arbitrary. scales, and the tail less acutely forked. The name sea-B. has been variously applied to the genus Brama (q. v.), belonging Breakstone, an old name for the lady's mantle (Alchemzilla to the family Chaetodontid&e; to the genus Pagellus or Spcarus, vulgaris), derived from the popular belief in regard to its action belonging to the family Sparidle; and to the Gilthead (q. v.) in stone and gravel. It is somewhat tonic and astringent. (Chgysophkys aurata) of the latter family. reak'water, a structure built to shelter a harbour or road- The carp B. is most frequently caught by anglers, and is Breakt'water, a structure built to shelter a harbour or road- |caught in muchl the same way as Barbel (q. v.). The bait constead from the action of the waves, and thus to provide safe sists of red worms or lob-worm. The B. spawns about the anchorage for vessels. Breakwaters may be entirely cut off from end of May or beginning of July, and seems generally to inhabit the shore, across the entrance of a bay, as at Plymouth; but fre-deep holes, and clay or sandy bottoms. These fishes frequently quently they resemble piers in having one end connected with the approach'the surface of the water. land, as at Holyhead. Theymaybe divided into two classes according to their construction: they are either walls of solid masonry Bream'ing, a nautical term, used to denote the cleaning of or concrete, with nearly vertical faces, which reflect the waves, the bottom of a ship by fire. The ship is laid aground, and or else are broad mounds of stone, with long and gently-inclined fire is applied to the bottom, which loosens the pitch, or comseaward faces, upon which the waves break. To the former position of sulphur and tallow, with which it is covered to pro484 4.4. _. X BRE THIE GIOBE ENCYCL OP~DIVIA. BRE tect it from worms. This is then scraped off, along with the the mass is called pudding-stone. They show no trace of maug barnacles, grass, weeds, and other filth which are found adhering nesia, but take on a fine polish. to it. to it. - Breche-de-Roland, a narrow pass of the Pyrenees between Breast'plate, a plate of iron, steel, or other metal, worn France and Spain, about 20 miles S. of Bayonne, and 9500 feet upon the breast in former ages as a piece of defensive armour. above the sea. It takes its name from the famous nephew of There was also a backplate to Charlemagne, who was slain at Roncesvalles by the Biscayans protect the back. See CuI- while leading the rearguard of the Frankish army back from RASS. Spain.. Breasts (nzammna) are the Bre'chin, a town of Forfarshire, on- the S. Esk, 5 miles W. 7. (; glands which secrete the milk of Montrose by a branch railway, has considerable linen-weaving, in the human female. They flax-spinning, bleaching, distilling, and brewing. It is an old - are two in number, and are town, and was the seat of a Culdees house in the Ioth and IIth placed in front of the chest, centuries, and subsequently of a bishopric, founded by David I. E illfjl l~ f one on each side. They are in II50. A portion of the cathedral, dedicated to St Ninian, is X11 i,\!llilib I.....i. _ conical in shape, and at the now the parish church, which contains a beautiful Gothic winX lesummit have a prominence dow. Near the church is a singular tower, 85 ft. high, 25 in diacalled the nipple. The skin meter at the base, and I2~ at the top, crowned with a spire of around the nipple is darker, 25 ft. It is like the Irish round towers, and is the only speciand is covered with sebaceous men of the kind in Scotland besides that at Abernethy. B. was Breastplate. glands. This coloured circle formerly a walled town, and was burned by Montrose in 1645. (areola) round the nipple is of a It was defended by a strong castle, which stood a siege of twenty rosy pink in the virgin, but during pregnancy, and during lac- days before being taken by Edward I. in E303. This was the tation, is much darker, and never afterwards fully regains its seat of the Maule family, now represented by the Marquis of original rosy hue. The B. exist also in the male, but only in a Dalhousie, and which has been rebuilt on the ancient site. rudimentary state; even in the female they are in infancy only Gillies, the historian of Greece, Maitland, author of the Hisrudimentary, and develop as she approaches puberty. They in- tories of Edinburgh and London, and Dr Guthrie, the celebrated crease much during pregnancy, and atrophy or become small in pulpit orator, were born at B. Along with Montrose, Forfar, old age. Arbroath, and Bervie, B. returns one member to Parliament. Structure of B.-They are glands divided into distinct lobes, -Pop. (I87I) 7959. each lobe having a separate duct, called milk-bearing ducts. These are from I5 to 2o in number; they converge towards the nockshire, S. Wales, beautifully situated at the confluence of the anipple side by side without commni nicting withy eaca other, Usk, Honddu, and Tarell, 50 miles N. E. of Bristol, with manuand open on the surface of the nipple. by separate openings. factures of coarse woollens flannels, hats, and hosiery. It is The B. are liable to certain diseases. They are a common w one of the ailway centres of S. Wales, and a place of seat of several tumours, as fatty, fibrous, and very specially of It was founded in ls b a Nmn growing prosperity. It was founded hii IO9 by a Norman Hard Cancer (q. v.). These tumours require to be removed with a n er the knife. The B. are liable to inflammation, often going on to adventu priories, on e of which was converted built a castle and s uIon and frmation of abscess. This generally begins.two priories, one of which was converted by Henry VIII. suppuration and formation of abscess. This generally begins into a college, restored in 864. An Independent college was with shivering, pain in the B., heat and swelling in the part, also founded here in 1867. lies at the N. base of the and great disturbance of the general health. The treatment con- Beacon. The town was formerly surrounded by a wall and a | *. s. r * 1 * 1 Beacon. The town was formerly surrounded by a wall and a sists in hot poultices or fomentations, and opening early to moat It is the birthplace of Dr Hugh Price, founder of Jesus relieve pain. When an abscess forms, it is to be opened withs, the famous actress. B. a free incisin.,College, Oxford, and of Mrs Siddons, the famous actress. B. areturns one member to Parliament. Pop. (I87I) 5845; of parBreast-'Wheel, a vertical water-wheel ill which the water liamentary borough, 6308. enters the buckets at some little distance below the highest part Brec'nockshire, a county of Wales, in the basin of the of the periphery, and which is fitted with a casing, or breast, Usk with an area of 719 sq. miles, or 460,158 acres, and a extending downwards from the point where the water enters to population (87) of g,90. It is in great part mountainous, the tail-race, nearly fitting the outside of the wheel, and so pre- abounds in picturesue scenery, and is watered by the Wye, abounds in picturesque scenery, and is watered by the Wye, venting the water leaving the buckets too soon. sk, Yrfon, Claerwen, and Tawe. The Black Mountains exUsk, Yr-fon, Claerwen, and Tawe. The Black Mountains exBreast'work, in fortification, is a mass of earth raised to tend along the S., and have their greatest height in the Beacon, protect troops against the fire of an enemy. It is generally not 2685 ft.; while in the N.W. rises the lower range of the so high as to require a banquette- for the defenders to stand on Mynydd Epyn. In the N. and W. the formation is Silurian; when they fire over its crest. all the rest is Devonian. The quality of the soil varies greatly, and only about a half of it is cultivated, the products being Breath and Breathing. See RESPIRATION. chiefly oats, barley, and wheat. There is much pasture, and Breath, Offensive, may arise from many causes, and treat- a considerable trade in wool, butter, and cheese. B. is rich ment will depend very much upon the cause of the B. O. It in minerals, the most extensively wrought being iron, coal, often arises from a decaying tooth. This odour is most offen- lead, copper, and limestone. The only considerable manufacsive. It may arise from particles of food lodging in a decaying tures are coarse woollen cloth and worsted hosiery. Three tooth and becoming putrid. In both cases great care must be main lines of railway intersect the country, and the B. Canal paid to cleanliness, either having the stump extracted- or all stretches to the Bristol Channel. Among the chief towns aredecaying matter carefully washed out from time to time. B. O. Brecknock, Builth, Crickhowell, Hay, and Llanelly. Welsh is may arise from ulcers of the mouth, nose, or throat. In all the language of nearly half the inhabitants. The county returns such cases benefit will be derived by gargling the mouth well one member to Parliament. In ancient British times B. was with chlorine water, charcoal, Condy's fluid,' or some other inhabited by the Silures, of whom it still retains many memodisinfecting agent. B. O. is sometimes due to disease of the rials in cromlech, mound, and cairn. There are also many lungs, as gangrene, or abscess of the lungs. In such cases, remains of Roman camps and roads. small doses of turpentine internally will greatly benefit thethe flat meadow-land; the word is Bre'da (Dutch, Brede, the flat meadow-land; the word is patient. When B. 0. is due to indigestion, purgatives, comthe same as the Eng. broad and the Ger. broil), a strong town bined with proper attention to diet, and giving such medicines of N. Brabant, Holland, at the confluence of the Merk and the as charcoal or sulphite of soda internally, will do much to remove Aa, with a Gothic cathedral and an old castle, rebuilt in 5696 the B. 0. by the Prince of Orange, then William III. of England. It was Breccia, a number of angular fragments of any hard rock, for a time occupied by Charles II. while in exile. B. has manucemented into a compact mass by carbonate of lime or any factures of linen, carpets, leather, &c., and breweries and dyeother enveloping medium. When the fragments are rounded, works. Although it has lost much of its military importance, it 485 BRE THE GLOBE ENVCYCLOPMVEDIA. BRE still possesses the means of laying the adjacent country, which is was inserted, instead of being contained in a cartridge, as is the flat and marshy, under water. It came into the possession of case with modern breech-loaders. Owing, however, to the diffiSpain in I567, and, after numerous vicissitudes of fortune, was culty of closing the breech so securely as to prevent an escape in I813 surrendered by France to the House of Orange. Pop. of gas, which was nearly as dangerous to the party using the 15,282. B. was the scene of two congresses-(I) that of 1566, weapon as to those it was used against, the early B.-L. system in which the Dutch nobles demanded from Spain the abolition may be said to have been a failure, and it is only during the preof the Inquisition and of persecution for religion; (2) that of sent generation that the system has been employed with practi1746-47, when France, England, and Holland met to arrange cal effect. terms of peace. Both proved failures. The Peace of B., 3Ist B.-L. A. were and are employed both for military and sporting July I667, ended the naval war in which England, France, Hol- purposes, and are of two classes-breech-loaders in the ordinary land, and Denmark were em2boiled through commercial jeal- sense of the term, and repeaters; but it is intended to confine ousies. this paper exclusively to military breech-loaders; sporting and repeating arms being noticed under other headings. Bre'dow, Gabriel Gottfried, a German historian, born at The war between Prussia and Denmark in I864, and between Berlin, 14th December I773, educated at the Joachimsthal Gym- the former country and Austria in I866, in both of which the nasinum and at Halle, and in I796 became schoolmaster at Prussians used the B.-L. needle-gun with great effect, seems to Cutin. Here he devoted himself with great earnestness to a have been the means of arousing. the attention of all nations to study of the geography and astronomy of the ancients. The the importance of B..-L. A; although previous to i864 such fruits of this labour were his flandbuch der alten Geschichte, Geo- arms had been experimented with by various European Govgraphie und Chronologie (Alt. 8o03; 6th ed.:837), and his ernments, and amongst others by that of our own country Untersuch ungen iiber einzelne Gegenstiinde der altez Geschichte, (two regiments of British cavalry having been armed with the Geographie, und Cironologie (Alt. 1800-2). In 1804, B. was Sharp B.-L. riLfe in 1857, and the Terry and Westley-Richard appointed Professor of History at Helmstedt, where he pub- rifle having been issued to a limited extent between I857 and lished for some years the Chi-onik des I9. y7ahrh., but afterwards.86I). returned to his favourite studies, and planned a great work on In 1864. the British Government invited gunmakers and others the history of all systems or conceptions of geography, from to submit plans for converting the muzzle-loading Enfield to a Homer down to the middle ages, only a small part of which he breech-loader. About fifty different systems were submitted, and executed. In I8o09 he was called to- the University of Frank- in the beginning of i.865 the Snider action was finally adopted. furt-on-the-Oder, and in ISI to Breslau, where he died, 5th It was, however, only considered as a makeshift for the converSeptember 1814. B.'s schoolbooks are very widely used in sion of the large stock of muzzle-loading rifles then in hand, the Germany; as his Mer-kwiirdige Begebenhzeilen ause der Allgemzeinen question of the ultimate selection of a pattern on which to manu. We4ltgesc/hichte (Alt. I8Io; 26th ed.), and his Umstadnaliche Erzah/- facture new weapons being left open. lung der merkewir-digssle Begebenheiten aus der Allgenmeinen Well- In i868 a committee was appointed by the Government geschiczhte (Alt. i8io; I3d ed. 1852), See IKuniscb, B.'s LeBin to consider the question of B.-L. small-arms, with the view of und Schriften (Berl. I8&6). selecting a rifle to replace the Snider. No less than I04 arms of different patterns were submitted to and examined by the comBree, Matthous Ignazius van, a Flemish painter, born mittee, and after a preliminary trial, ten were selected for further at Antwerp in I773, studied there and afterwards at Paris, and experiment-four of which were on the bolt, and six on the block became one of the restorers of historical painting in Holland system. After farther trials with defective cartridges, the whole after the manner of David. He earned his reputation by his of the bolt systems were rejected as dangerous, and farther com-'Death of Cato' (I798). Among his most famous works is that petition restricted to the block system, the prize being ultimately of the Leyden burgomaster in the act of addressing his famish- awarded to the Henry rifle. Instead, however, of recommending townsmen during the siege of I576, and offering his body to ing this weapon as a whole, the committee decided to deal with be parted among them. It now hangs in the Leyden Townl- the barrel and breech action separately. After exposure, endurhouse. Other works are'Rubens Dictating his Dying Testa- ance, and rust tests, the arms left in the competition were rement,' and the'Tomb of Nero.' He was remarkably rapid in duced to two-viz., the Henry (sliding block), and the Martini sketching and securing effect. B. died,, Director of the Asa;- (falling block). These were reported equal in safety and strength, demy, Antwerp, 15th December 1839, but the Henry barrel far surpassed the Martini in accuracy; the Martini being a self-cocking action, it required one motion Breech, the part of a cannon or the end of the barrel of a less to load and fire than the Henry; and on these grounds the firearm farthest away from the muzzle. Technically, when committee recommended the adoption of the Henry barrel and applied to muzzle-loading small-arms, the plug closing the rear Martini breech, and these being adapted to each other, and the end of the barrel. When applied to breech-loaders, it may mean arm christened the' Martini-HIenry,' it was finally selected as either the rear end of the barrel or the mechanism closing it, the weapon for the British army. Meantime other nations have not been idle, and most of the Breeches Bible, the name given to the celebrated Geneva European powers have their troops now armed with breechBible, on account of its translation of Genesis iii. 7, where the loaders, though scarcely two. countries have adopted the same' aprons' of the authorised version is rendered'breeches.' This system. edition, published in I557, was the work of English divines, per- It would be impossible here to give anything like a detailed secuted from the country; and in it the text was first divided description of the various B,-L. A. actually in use at the present into verses. moment, while a mere catalogue: of those proposed and abandoned within the last few years would form a long list. All Bree'ching, a naval term, meaning a strong rope by which that can be done, therefore, is to give a short description of the the recoil of a gun or carronade is checked when the muzzle is representative guns of the various systems. so far within the porthole that the gunner can sponge and re, Modern breech-loaders may be said to be divided into two load it. main divisions-viz.,, the bolt and the block systems. In the former, the plug which closes the breech is advanced between Breech-Loading Arms are firearms loaded at the breech, as guides, and fastened by a partial turn on its axis like an ordicontradistinguished from those which are loaded from the muzzle. nary street-door bolt; while in the latter, the breech is closed by Though it is only within the last twelve years that the B.-L. a block sliding in a vertical slot, or moving on an axis at the system has been brought prominently into notice, it is not a rear end or side of the barrel. The former is the plan generally modern invention, B.-L. A. having been in use more than three adopted on the Continent, while the block system, in various centuries ago. The earliest of which the date can be identified forms, has found most favour in England and America. were made in I537, and are of British manufacture. A perfect The foremost weapon on the bolt system is the Prussian specimlen, bearing the above date, is preserved in the Tower of needle-gun, which was patented in England by Abraham Adolph London. Moser in 1831, and after some improvements by Dryse, a. gunThe early B.-L. A. were chamber-loaders-i.e., they had a maker of Sommerda, whose name it ultimately came to bear, detached loading-chamber at the breech, into which the charge it was adopted by the Prussian Government, and put into the 486 -BRE HEl GLOBE EA7CYCLOPEDIA. BRE hands of their troops in I848. This action is shown in Figs. I. Mauser, Vetterlin, and a host of modern plans; in fact, all and 2. modern breech-loaders on the bolt system resemble it more or The breech is opened by drawing back the bolt B in line with less in some respects. the barrel, and closed by pushing the bolt, the front end of which Coming to the block system, the Sharp (American) may be forms a conical cup, forward against the barrel, in which posi- taken as the earliest. The breech action consisted of a vertical tion it is secured by turning the knob or lever O a quarter of a block moving in a slot in rear of the barrel, and depressed or circle to the right. The explosion of the cartridge, C, is effected raised by a lever forming the trigger-guard, the upper edge of by a steel needle, N (Fig. I), which is driven forward by a spiral the block being sharpened so as on being raised to cut off the end of a paper or linen cartridge previously inserted into the __ barrel, and the ignition being effected by means of a strong percussion-cap on a nipple, outside the barrel, as in the muzzleloading arms. This system of ignition is, however, now obsoD | lete, the great escape of gas at the breech in all actions in which D_______ __ _ _it1-S ~ - such a system of ignition was used proving detrimental to steady shooting. This defect was only obviated by the adoption of a metallic cartridge-case containing its own ignition. Of modern systems of block actions, the Snider, Martini, and Henry each merit a brief description. As previously explained, the Snider action was adopted by g. FigI.; the British Government after a competitive trial as the best mode of altering the thei existing stock of muzzle-loading rifles to spring. The needle pierces the case of the paper cartridge, breech-loaders. Since its first *adoption various alterations and passes through the powder, and strikes the fulminate inside, a improvements have been made upon the action, but its characcap situated within the cartridge and immediately behind the teristic features still remain. Figs. 3 and 4 show the action with bullet, as shown in Fig. 2. The base of the bullet is fitted into all its latest improvements (No. 3 pattern). a sabot made of compressed paper, which is forced into the In converting a muzzle-loading Enfield on the Snider system, grooves of the rifle by the discharge, and causes the bullet to the barrel is shortened by about 2~ inches, and the rear end rotate with it. The cartridge being a self-consuming one, no extractor is required. The breech action consists of three concentric hollow cylinders, Fi3g. with the spiral spring and needle-carrier A within the last; the whole working in a shoe into which the barrel is screwed, and which is attached to the stock. This shoe is open at the rear end, and immediately behind the barrel a space is cut in it sufficient for the insertion of the cartridge, while from this space to the rear a groove is cut sufficient to allow the knob or lever to pass along it. In loading the gun, the first action is to withdraw the needle from the barrel by means of the thumbpiece E in rear of the lock, as shown in Fig. I, pressing at the same time the:springcatch F, which requires releasing to allow of its withdrawal. The bolt-handle O is next struck upwards, so as to release it Fi. 4. from the side-catch into which it fits when the breech is closed, and the bolt B drawn backwards, carrying the needle N and screwed into the shoe A, to the right side of which the solid spring with it, thus opening the breech. The cartridge is then breech-block B, which closes the breech, is hinged upon a longiinserted into the chamber as shown at Fig. I, and the breech tudinal pin. When closed, this block fits into the shoe, its front closed by pushing the bolt forward and turning the handle to the end fitting close up to the breech-end of the barrel, and its rear right. The cocking is then effected by pushing in the end thumb- end bearing against the solid face of the shoe, the block being piece E to its original position, in which it is retained by the securely locked by the spring-catch C. In opening the breech, spring-catch F; this compresses the spring, the shoulder on the the lever D is pressed by the thumb, by means of which the needle-holder A being held fast by the trigger-catch I, which spring-catch C is withdrawn, and the block is then lifted and allows it to pass backward when the sliding bolt B is withdrawn, turned over laterally, as shown at Fig. 3. The cartridge is then as in Fig. I, but catches and detains the needle-holder when the inserted into the chamber, and the breech-block turned over into bolt is pushed forward again for closing the breech. The gun is the shoe. The firing of the cartridge is effected by the ordinary fired by pulling the trigger T, which releases the needle-holder side-lock, the hammer H of which, on pulling the trigger, acts A, and allows it to be driven forward by the compressed spring, upon the piston J, which passes through the breech-block obas in Fig. 2. liquely, causing its point to impinge upon a percussion-cap in the It has latterly been the fashion to speak rather disparagingly centre of the base of the cartridge-case; the piston, on the of the needle-gun, and although it may now be said to be obso- hammer being raised, is drawn back into the breech-block by a lete, it at least, through the events of i864 and I866, was the light spiral spring. After firing, the empty cartridge-case is means of converting the world to a belief in B.-L. A.. for mili- extracted by the extractor E, which slides upon the hinge-pin of tary purposes. But, under the name of'Prussian needle-gun,' we the breech-block. The block itself is made to slide longitudiare really considering a whole series of arms. Dryse, who took nally upon the hinge-pin for a short distance, and on being fully up the invention, never ceased to improve and alter it; and opened is drawn back by the hand, carrying the extractor with before his death had succeeded in adapting it for a metal car- it, and the latter having hold of the cartridge-case under the base tridge, which experience has shown to be a necessity for any flange, draws it out of the barrel. The block on being let go is breech-loader. It is the parent of the Chassep6t, Beaumont, returned to its original position by the spiral spring. 487 BRE TtHE GLOBE ENCYCIOP)EDIA. BRE The Martini-Henry B.-L. rifle, which has been selected for lever B, which forms the trigger-guard by the links C on each adoption in the British army, is compounded of two independent side, leaving space for the hammer between them, while the front inventions, viz., the action, invented by Mr Martini, a Swiss end of the lever is hinged to the trigger-plate. The mainspring engineer; and the Henry barrel, the invention of Mr Alexander D is in front of the action below the barrel, while the hammer Henry, gunmaker, Edinburgh. As the latter will fall to be treated of under the head of RIFLES, it is only the breech action which requires to be described in thlis article. In this action (Figs. 5 and 6) the breech is closed by a longituFig. 5 dinal falling block, B, working in a morticed steel body, whichg. forms as it were a box or case to contain the mechanism. The block is hinged on a transverse pin passing through the sides of and extractor, E F, are both jointed on one hollow axle passing the body at its rear end, the end of the block being rounded off through a projection on the trigger-plate. On opening the lever, and fitting into a corresponding hollow in the body, so as to the breech-block is drawn downwards by the links, and the form a perfect knuckle-joint, A. The arrangement for ignition bottom of the latter when descending acts on curved feathers or consists of a direct acting striker or piston, J, impelled by-a spiral projections on the hammer, drawing it back to full cock, where it is retained by the point of the sceir G. On coming to full;: -...~-~.' cock, the outer end of the hammer acts on the back of the extractor, throwing forward its upper end and ejecting the empty ~- + ~s- 0.....-cartridge. On a cartridge being inserted, the lever is raised, carrying the block upwards and closing the breech; and on the trigger H being pulled the hammer is released, its point striking the cap in the cartridge through a small hole in the face of the breech. A small catch, J, in the end of the lever, keeps the latter in position when closed, and can at the same time be used as a bolt for bolting both trigger and lever when the rifle is at full cock. The following table shows the rifles in use at present by the principal powers, with their relative weights, &c.:Fig. 6. - _ spring, both being contained within the falling block. In mani- Weight. pulating the rifle, the lever L is thrown smartly forward, and its Lbs. o inner arm, coming in contact with the hook D on the breech- England, Martini-Henry,... 8 2 block, draws it downward. At the same time the tumbler C, 9 I America, Springfield,.9. the point of which fits into a slot in the striker, is carried back Russia,. Berdan.9 2 with the lever, carrying with it the striker J, and compressing the Austria,.. Werndl,.9 II spiral spring. The block, in falling, strikes the legs of the Switzerland, Vetterlin,... o cranked extractor E, the upper prongs of which, fitting round the Prussia, Caerted Chass. IO 8 base of the cartridge-case, are thrown backward, thus ejecting the elgium, Albini-Braendlin,.. o 3 cartridge-case, as shown in Fig. 6. The front end of the block Denmark,.. Remmington,... 9 8 falls sufficiently to clear the breech end of the barrel, and its Turkey,. Sider and Martini- English Henry, pattern. upper side is hollowed out and forms a groove -to allow of thery, attern. free entrance of the cartridge G into the barrel. On a cartridge being inserted, the lever is drawn backwards, and its inner end Breed, a perpetuated variety or race of animals, generally raises the breech-block, and closes it securely over the end of formed and induced by man, through a process of artificial selecthe barrel, the tumbler C, which holds back the striker and spring, tion. A variety of animals springs from deviations in a Species being meantime retained at full cock by the tumbler-rest and (q. v.). When such deviations become permanently embodied trigger, H and T. There is a small spring-catch, K, in the and perpetuated, the variety is termed a race or B. We are stock, into which fastens the outer end of the lever and pre- accustomed to speak of the various races of men, and of the vents it falling and opening the breech. On the trigger being breeds or perpetuated varieties of domestic animals, such as the pulled the tumbler C is released, and the striker J impelled horses, sheep, oxen, &c., and of birds, such as the pigeons. In against the cap in the base of the cartridge by the spiral spring plants, also, land perhaps in greater profusion than in animals, which had up to this time been held compressed by the turn- instances of specific variation, productive of varieties and bler. A small indicator outside the body, and working on the breeds, are found. The varieties of roses, and of many other same axle, serves to show when the rifle is cocked. flowers and vegetables produced by artificial selection and culFrom the above description, it will be seen that the mere tivation, are too well known to require further enumeration. motion of the lever forward opens the breech, cocks the rifle, and The mode in which breeds of animals and plants originate extracts the cartridge. The stock of the Martini-Henry is in forms a very interesting topic, but, at the same time, a subject two parts, the butt being attached by a bolt through its centre very difficult of elucidation and satisfactory or clear explanascrewed into the rear of the morticed steel body. The barrel is tion. Mr Darwin has laid great stress on the primary variation oJ screwed into the front of the same body, and the fore end of the speciesinhis theory of descent by natcralselection. He thus supposes stock attached to it by bands. that in nature there is an endless tendency to greater or less The breech action shown in Fig. 7 is a recently improved variation in every species of animal and plant; and that this construction of the vertical-sliding block action, the invention variation proceeds by nature selectiz-g, as it were, those indiof Mr Alexander Henry of Edinburgh. The breech-block A viduals which vary most from the original stock to carry on and is a stout block of steel, moving vertically in a slotted body perpetuate the variety, and so to form a race or B. These races at the rear end of the barrel. This block is attached to the or breeds, Mr Darwin holds, will in time also vary, as did the 488 A> + BRE THE- GLOBE ENC YCZOP/EDI,4. BRE original species and the degree of variation from the original usual between the sexes, and legitimation of bastards (even species will at last come to be so great, that a new sjecies will be adulterine) took place on payment of compensation to the putathus evolved by variation from the former one. In this view- tive parent. There were seven grades of chiefs, distinguished which is supported by the consideration of our domestic animals by their wealth in cattle, the importance given to their evi-breeds or races mark a kind of intermediate stage of variation, dence, the amount of dues received from vassals, the amount which process is tending to evolve new species. But admittedly of compensation due on injury, and their power of contractit is very difficult, and in some cases impossible, to pronounce ing. The Bo-aire, or man wealthy in cows, became an airewhere the mere B. or variety ends, and where new specific desi, or inferior chief (Kaiil). By appropriation of tribal characters may be said to have been formed. waste-lands, by subordination of Findz/ir (broken men or There is no doubt, however, that many of the derived breeds stranger tenants), and by lending out their surplus stock of or races of pigeons, for example, differ as widely among them- cattle to assist in agriculture, these chiefs gradually developed selves as other and admittedly distinct sjecies of birds differ. the laws of Jaerstock and Daerstock. In the former the Ceile And so with cattle, horses, and sheep, where the process of or Kyle (tenants) held land for seven years, returning the growth, artfifcial breeding or selectionz has operated to produce varieties increase, and milk of the few cattle they received, and rendering so different from the original species, that they might structur- also homage and labour in harvest and building. The latter ally be deemed distinct species. was an oppressive tenancy (the origin of the "cushering' and Man, by artificially selecting animals possessing certain de-'coign of livery' alluded to by Spenser in I596), in which the sirable characters, and by mating such, produces a new B. or tenant lost status, and gave a rent in kind, the chief having also variety, which combines the characteristics of the parents. a right of feasting at his tenant's expense. The Find/sirs are The science of breedizng is to a very great extent based on also called Senzcleilles and Tol/ac/s, and were possibly men exempirical laws-the results of experience;' and it is one of the communicated from their native tribe, and not protected by chief difficulties, alike of the breeder and theorist, to determine fiative institutions. Both tribe and family are called Fine, and where the limits of fertility and sterility end or begin. (See intermediate is the sept or joint-family. The family, or cdescenHYBRID.) The chief points to which the breeders of sheep dants of a living ancestor, divide into the Geljinze, Deirblfize, have paid attention are the character of the fleece and the 7ayqinze, and Indfnze, containing seventeen members. On the shape of the body; those animals, a combination of the quali- birth or adoption of a new member, the senior member for each ties of which seemed to be desirable, being thus mated to pro-' Fine' but the last is promoted to the'Fine' above, and the duce a new B. In oxen: the quality of the flesh and milk, and seventeenth member leaves the family. The grouping here is in horses the form and stamina or enduring power, have re- radically different from that based on'degrees,' and now unispectively formed chief ideas in the guidance of the breeder. In versal. Before the I7th c.,,when the Anglo-Irish judges estaa wild state breeds are produced, as between certain game- blished primogeniture, the rules of succession were those of birds, and between wild cattle, deer, &c.; and in wild and Tanistry as regards the succession of chiefs, and Gavelkind, or domesticated animals, it is firequently impossible to determine rather divisions among the males of thie sept, whether bastards the original stock or progenitors of the numerous derived races. or not, according to antiquity, in the case of family property. See also HYBRID SPECIES, HORSE, OX, &c. Latterly the power of disposing of property during the life of ree'de, a river flowing in a S.E. direction thrug the dis- the head of the family seems to have been partially recognised, Brofee'deare Cn ionyand drecteion Sth h Sathds the ancestor becoming a'pensioner.' Similarly the land,'.which trict of Zweliendam, Cape Colony, and entering St Sebastian's Bay, or Port Beaufort, from which it is navigable for a distance was at first eitser tribal or unappropriated, gradually became in the first case subject to division at the end of ten years, or of 40 miles inland. held in severally under purchase or other contract.'iThe reBregenz' (Lat. Brigantium), the capital of the circle of Vor- straints on alienation were relaxed in cases of acquired property, arlberg, in the Tyrol,' Austria, near the German and Swiss fron. or of necessity, or of poets and judges, or of promises to the tier, at the entrance of the small river B. into the S.E. part Church.'Rundale' occupation and the duty of uniform tillage of Lake Constance, called Bregenszer Zee. It is an old town, survived the tribal occupation. The original monastery and the with good railway communication, and has a' large transit trade, minor abbots and bishops which sprang up in its neighbourhood and considerable manufacture of wooden wares. Its wine is cele- also retained a sort of tribal relation, a blood-relative of the brated. Near it is the Bregenzer Klazuse, a ravine between the founder being preferred to the abbotship. The subject dealt Tyrol of Swabia, at one time having fortifications, which wvere with in most detail in the volume of' I865 is the law of distress. swept away by the Swedes during the Thirty Years' War (1646), The custom of a creditor'fasting' at the door of his debtor by when B. itself was taken. The Bregenzzer f"Vald is a well- way of giving notice to pay, resembles the Hindu custom of wooded spur of the Algiu Alps, with a peak (Kanisfluh) 7200'sitting Dharna,' and the Persian custom of sowing barley and feet high. Pop. of B. (1869) 345r. sitting at the door. This distress, which proceeded before an agent and witnesses, was entirely free from judicial authority, Bre'hon Laws, the ancient laws of Ireland, or Judges' Law's and extended to all breaches of contract. When the'dithunim,' (Dlig/id/ Breit/hean/mhinn), wvhich Lordi Eglinton's Commission or stay in the public pound, was exhausted,' the pledge was of I852 have been publishing-the first three volumes (I865, gradually absolutely forfeited according to the amount of the i869, and I873) being translated by Dr O'Donovan and Mr debt. (See Sullivan's Inzrodnzc/io'z to O'Carey's Amanners and O'Curry, both of whom are now dead. The third volume Cusstoms ofAncient Irelanzd; Maine's Lectnres on Early Inzs/icontains a valuable preface. What has been published consists tn/ions.) The general result seems to be to reveal a greater of the Sencz/is Afor (Great Book), wvhich claims the autho- similarity between Celtic and archaic Teutonic, and indeed all rity of St Patrick and Dubhthach, the royal poet of Erin, and Aryan civilisation, than has hitherto'been admitted. is assigned to the end of the a:ath c.; and the Book of A4icill, or sayings of Cormac and Cennfaeladh, partly written by a retired Brei'sach Alt (the Mions Brisiacus of Caesar), a very old king, and assigned to the end of the Ioth c. There are minor town in Baden, on the right bank of the Rhine, on a steep basaltracts, such as the Corus Bescna and the' Critl Gablach: each tic hill, Soo feet above the sea, 12 miles W. of Freiburg. It text has a commentary and marginal glosses. The Brehons were was once a free imperial town, and until the middle of last cenprobably at first, like the Druids, if not a sacred, at least a literary tury was reckoned one of the strongest fortresses, the very key, class, having authority to declare the law in matters voluntarily in fact, of W. Germany. The minster of St Stephen is remarksubmitted to them. From the influence of literary fosterage, the able for a beautiful altar-screen of carved wood. Weaving, agriBrehon acquiring certain rights over the person and property culture, and cattle-rearing are the chief industries pursued by the of his pupil, this class would tend to become an hereditary inhabitants, who number (1872) 3255. The French, into whose caste. The laws distinguish the law of nature (pre-existing hands it came at the close of the Thirty Years' War, destroyed Celtic custom, either adopted or not abolished by St Patrick) its fortifications in 1744, and they have not since been restored. and the law of the letter (the Bible as interpreted by the Church). By the peace of Presburg, B. was ceded to Baden in x5o5. There are traces also of the lawt having been declared by the See Rosmann and Ens, Geschic/hte der Stadt B. (Freib. I851).chiefs at the triennial fairs. No consistent scheme of the B. L. Neu B. (Fr. Nenf Brisach), a town and fortress in Upper is as yet possible, but on a variety of points the published vol- Alsace, on the Rhine, opposite Alt B., was built by Louis XIV. ames are explicit. Temporary cohabitation seems to have been in x699, and is one of the strongest military posts in the pro. 62 489 *B —---- 4~ BRE TFI.E GLOBE EVCYCLOPAsDIA. BRE vince. It was besieged by the Germans during the Franco- was /I,965,I39. Besides the capital, B., the towns BremerPrussian war, and capitulated Ioth November I870. The place haven and Vegesach belong to the republic. See Roller's is an octagon in shape, has a pop. (I873) of 2627, and carries on Gesczichte der Stadt B. (4 vols. Brem. I799-I804); Buchenau, a small trade. Die Freie aie 7fasestadt B. sd i/r Gebiet (Brem. I862); and the HBreit'enfeld, a village of Saxony, a few miles N. of Leipsic, Brernischer 7asr-BZuCk (5 vols. 864,-70). with 177 inhabitants. It is remarkable for three great battles Bre'mer, Frederika, an eminent Swedish novelist, was fought in its neighbourhood-(I) that between the Swedes and born, 17th August iFos, at Tuorla, near Abo, Finland, whence Saxons, commanded by Gustavus Adolphus, and the Imperialists she was taken, at the age of three years, to Stockholm. There led by Tilly, September 7, I63r, when the former gained a dle- her novels first appeared in 1835. She visited England, Gecisive victory, which established Protestantism in the N., and many and America, and embodied her recollections of the last secured the freedom of Germany; (2) that between the Swedes country in her hmes of te Wol She died 3st Deunder Torstenson and the Imperialists, led by the Archduke cember 1865. Several of her wors have been translated into Leopold, and Piccolomini, October 2'3, 642, in which the English by Mrs Howitt-among others, se Aezohbours, The Swedes were again victorious. The Imperialists lost the greaterer writings are isti part of their artillery and standards, and all their baggage. (3) guished by sound judgment, keen knowledge of character, a One of the great group of battles between the Allies and Napo- terse and lucid style, and delicacy and vividness of description. leon at Leipsic,.6th October 1813'. They have become widely and deservedly popular throughout Bre'men, a free city of Germnany, next to Hamburg the Europe. The collected editions of her works in Swedish are greatest of German ports, and the chief emporium of the Ameri- the 7?ckn/izgar lr z-vardaergss'fvet (7 vols. Stockh. I835-43), and can trade, lies on the Weser, Somiles from its entrance into the its supplement, Nyua Tzecningeer, shortly after. But the only North Sea. It is divided into three parts-Old B., New B., complete edition is in- German (Gesaonnelke Schrzifene, vols. I-50; and a suburb surrounded by the river, which' separates into Leips. 1857-63). See Frederikas B.'s Lebenschildersu,zu-nd n/achthe Large and Little WVeser before reaching the town, and geacssene Sch/seiflten (2-vols. Leips.. 868), published by her sister, which on leaving it reunites. Communication is kept up by Charlotte Quiding. means of three bridges, one of which was completed in I875. Bremerhaven ('haven of Bremen', a seaport at the mouth The chief public buildings are the cathedral, founded in 050o; the Church of Ansgarius (I229), supporting a tower 370 feet hith, the Weser, on its right bank, 32 mis.N.. of Breme the Gothic town-hall (I41o), with its arcade, statues, and cele- rail, has shipbuilding yards and two harbours, of which one, brated wine-cellars; the old guild-house (Sch/sittieg); the ex- constructed I847-66, can admit the largest war-ships. B., change, the museum, and the observatory (I856), long under which is protected by Fort Wilhelm, occupies a site bought by the care of the famous Dr Olbers. B. has thirty high schools, Bremen from Hanover (IS27) for C23,798. In I871 there with 3841 pupils and 249 teachers;, and twenty-four free schools entered the port 1255 vessels of 1,254,302 tons. Pop. (i873) with 7782 pupils and I99 teachers, besides many technical 10,596. B: has an'emigrants' house' for 3000 persons schools and a public library of 20,000 vols. The city was for- Brenn'er, a mountain in the Tyrolese Alps, between Innsmerly surrounded by fortifications, and these have now given bruck and Sterzing, 6853 feet high, crossed by the lowest of the place to beautiful promenades. Many improvements have been great Alpine passes at al altitude of 4609 feet. The pass is recently made, including the erection of the new city waterworks available at all seasons and on its summit are th e of B. (1872), also of an imperial post-office (1.873), and of an exten- and the B. Lake, where the Eissach, a feeder of the Adige, and sive railway terminus (I875), the last being required by the the Sill, an affluent of the Inn, take their rise. It is crossed by opening of- three additional lines connecting B. more directly a railway, completed in 1867, by which the trade between Venice with Berlin, Hamburg, and the S. of Germany. Owing to its and S. Germany and Austria is greatly facilitated. isolated position as a free city, B. is deprived of the privileges of the German customs union, and its industries have therefore Brenn'us (probably the Cymr. Brenz/sin,'a king'), the title of somewhat declined, although its trade is rapidly increasing. the leader of the horde of Senonian Gauls who in 390 B. c. crossed There are manufactures of soap, sailcloth; and asphalt, besides the Apennines and inflicted a signal defeat on the Romans at which there are 20I tobacco and cigar manufactories, producing the rivulet of the Allia. His troops gave themselves up to cruel cigars to the value of someI,20o,ooo000 yearly; three sugar-refin- and senseless mutilation of the slaughtered Romans, to drunkeneries, several distilleries and rice-shelling mills; fourteen engin- ness and sleep, and it was not till the third day that he entered eering works and iron-foundries, and shipbuilding yards (chiefly Rome. Meanwhile the Capitol had been secured, and B. at Bremerhaven-q. v.) employing about Iooo men. Trade is wreaked his vengeance on the aged patricians, whom he found chiefly carried on with United States, Great Britain, S. America, resolved on not surviving the destruction of the city. The CapiW. Indies, and Burmah; and the imports are cotton, tobacco, tol stood a siege of six months, when B. and his forces agreed to wool, silk, coffee, rice, indigo, hops, coals, and petroleum;; ex- be bought off for i000 lbs. of.gold. With this booty, according ports, woollen and cotton goods, iron and steel wares, cigars, to Polybius, they returned to Gaul. Livy, however, adopting books, ribbons, musical instruments, and toys. In I874, 3407 what Mommsen calls'a legend of late and wretched invention,' vessels of 990o,Io tons entered the port, and 3243 of 903,015 represents them as having been entirely cut off by Camillus, who tons cleared; while the imports (I873) amounted to /26,270,500, suddenly appeared at the head of an army just as the gold was and the exports to /20,38I,goo. The numnber of ships belong- being weighed.-Another B. was the leader of the descendants ing to the port was (I875) 226, of 176, II 5 tons. B. was long of those Gauls who (according to Livy) had recrossed the Rhine, the chief Continental port for emigration, the number of emi- marched eastward, and settled in Pannonia on the Middle grants being (1872) 80o,212, (1874) 30,636; it is now, however, Danube. In 279 he made a double irruption into Greece surpassed by Hamburg in this respect. There is a large river during the absence of Pyrrhus, ravaging Macedonia and Thestrade at B. itself, but the harbour is only seven feet deep, and saly, and finally marched upon Delphi to plunder its wealthy most of the shipping is carried on at Bremerhaven. Pop. (1873) shrine. The Delphians, strongly posted, withstood him with 88, 146. In the reign of Charlemagne, B. was made the see of a 4000 men; the host of B. was routed, and himself wounded. bishop, and iii later times it became a leading Hanse town. He might have escaped; but Pausanius says that, resolving not The French captured it in i 8io, but it regained its freedom in to survive his shame, he quaffed strong wine so copiously as to i8I3, and two years later it was attached by the Congress of bring about his death. Vienna as a Hanse town to the German Confederation. It is now a portion of the German empire, always preserving its Bren'ta; (the Afed'oaczs Afajor of the Romans), a river of N. separate governmental existence.-The small republic of B. has Italy,, has its sources in Lake Caldonazzo, near Trent, in the an area of some Ioo sq. miles, and a pop. (1873) of I30,87I. Tyrol, and enters the Venetian territory at Primolano. Below The government, by Constitution of 2Ist February 1854, con- Padua it becomes: navigable, and falls into the sea at Brondolo. sists of a senate and municipal council. The first comprises Long ago the Venetians, to preserve their lagoons from being eighteen members, of whom two are burgomasters; and the silted up by the floods of the B., cut a channel (B. Nuzovissisma, latter I50, elected for six years. In 1871 the revenue was to distinguish it from a previously cut B. NeVozva) which conr1,767,473, and expenditure /2,678,286; while the public debt siderably relieved the bed of the river. The original bed of the 490 BR.THEE GLOBE ENC YCL OPSEDA. BRE B. was then used as a canal. Navzigio diBrenta morlt or magra, to the French in I807. In ISI3 it was dismantled, and its forand still forms the water communication between Venice and tifications were converted into beautiful promenades. Pop. (I87I) Padua. 207,997, of whom upwards of 45,ooo are Roman Catholics and II,ooo Jews. See S. B. 1lose's Doculmenlirte Geschichte und Brenta'no, Clemens, a dramatic poet and novelist, belong- Bescreijews. ee Se. B. volse's DoBreslIe-83), ae e Luch'se ing to the Romantic school, was born at Frankfurt-on-the-Main, 9th He studied at Frankfurt-on-the-Main, E]ii/~rer dunch B. (3d ed. Bresl. i863). h September I778. He studied at Jena, and after a restless, changeful, and morbid life, died at Aschaffenburg, 28th July Bress'ay, one of the Shetland:Islands, about 5 miles long I842. B. had a fine satiric faculty. His Lustig-en Musikoanten and 3 broad, separated from Lerwick by B. Sound, one of the ('Merry Musicians,' Frankf. I803) and Ponce de Leon (Gbtt. best natural harbours in the world, being almost enclosed by I804) display great dramatic power and brilliant wit; while his land. At its northern entrance is a dangerous sunken rock, Geschichte vone brlavn ACaspar lnad demn schdZen Anznerl (2d ed. called the Unicorn. The pop. of B. in I87I was 878, chiefly Berl. I85I) is an admirable specimen of the novel'in little.' engaged in fishing or in exporting slates. To the E. of B. is a His last worl, Goke?, flinkel, and Gakeleia (Frankf. I838), deli- precipitous and rocky isle, called the Noss, 6 miles in circumneates the follies of his own time with mocking irony. He was ference, and rising to nearly 600oo feet, with a pop. of 24. The so dissatisfied with a collection of poems which he had published Noss is connected with B. by a rope-bridge. at Hamburg in I8I9, under the title Schneeglbkchen, that he bought back the copies for the purpose of destroying them. Brest, a seaport of France, department of Finistere, possessSome tales and poems of his were posthumously published. As ing one of the best harbours in Europe, lies on the N. side the brother of Goethe's Bettina von Arnim, he has a double of the landlocked Road or Bay of B,, which communicates with chance of being remembered. the sea by the strongly-defended channel c;f Le Goulet. It is a fortress of the first rankc, and the greatest naval station of Brent'ford, a market-town of Middlesex, at the junction of France. The town is on a very uneven site, and is divided into the Brent with the Thames, 7 miles W.S.W. of London. It is two parts by the Penfeld, at the mouth of which is situated a a station on a loop-line of the London and Southampton Rail- castle, anciently the residence of the Dukes of Bretagne. The way, and is connected with the Great Western by a small branch principal buildings are the Church of St Louis, begun in the i 7th line. B. consists chiefly of one long, narrow street, has soap c., a splendid marine hospital, a fine new theatre, and a town factories, sawmills, large gas and water works, and extensive library with 25,ooo volumes. A new floating dock, quays, market-gardens. Pop. (I87I) II,O9I. B. is a veryancientplace. and pier were completed in I876 at a cost of 22,500,000 Here, in IoI6, Ironside defeated the Danes; and in I642 the francs. B. has extensive shipbuilding yards, storehouses, and Royalists defeated the Parliamentary forces under Colonel Hollis. barracks, handsome quays, and excellent schools of instruction Brent Goose. See BARNACLE GOOSE. in navigation and marine engineering. Since I867 B. has had telegraphic communication with America by means of a subBre'scia (anc. Brixia), the capital of a province of the same marine cable. The total number of vessels that entered the name, N. Italy, picturesquely situated on the rivers Mella and port in 1874 was 1499 of 88,886 tons, and that cleared, Garza, 6o miles E.N.E. of Milan, on the Milan and Verona I518 of 87,371 tons; while the total value of imports was Railway. It has manufactures of woollens, silks, leather, paper, 4644,474; of exports, /395,963. At the 31st of December and oil, is noted for its wine (/Vino Santo), and is the site of a 1873 B. had belonging to her own port 187 vessels (4799 tons), great silk fair. It contains an old and a new cathedral, the of which the great part are engaged in coasting and fishing. former belonging to the 9th c., the latter built I604-I824, Pop. (I872) 50,833. B. is a town of considerable antiquity, but and containing many beautiful paintings. There are numerous it only rose to importance in the I7th c.'It was strongly fortiRoman remains, the most complete of which is the so-called fled by IVauban in i68o. The English fleet under Admiral Temple of Hercules, excavated in 1822, and now forming a Howe gained a. complete victory here over the French, June I, museum of antiquities. B. has a famous public library (Biblio- I794teca Quiriniana), containing 35,000 volumes and many valuable manuscripts, founded (I75o) by Cardinal Quirini. In 1512 the Bretagne', or Brltt'any, at different times a kingdom, town was almost destroyed by the French under Gaston de Foix. dukedom, and province of France, incltuded a territory (now It resisted the Austrian rule in Lombardy, but was taken by represented by the departments of Finistere, Cotes-du-Nord, Haynau in I849. Pop. (187I) 38,906. Morbihan, Loire-Inferieure, and Ille-et-Vilaine) forming the N.W. angle of the country, and bounded on the N.W., W., Breslau (Lat. V;noaislavioa, Pol. Wiraclzea or Wracislawaz, and N. by the Atlantic and English Channel. At the time or Wra/islavia), the capital of the Prussian province of Silesia, of Cmesar's invasion B. formed a part of the maritime district the third residence of the court, and, next to Berlin, the largest of Armorica, and the names of the principal Celtic tribes who city in the monarchy, is situated at the confluence of the Oder inhabited this district-the Veneti, Redones, and Nannetes-are and Ohlau, I40 miles E. of Dresden, and 195 S.E. of Berlin. preserved in the names of the Breton towns Vannes, Redon, and It is divided by the Oder into the old and new town, con- Naltes. Under the Romans, whose authority, however, was nected by many fine bridges, and has, in addition, five large only partial, it was called Enrovincia Lzgdunensis. After the suburbs. It contains many beautiful buildings, and of the 4th c. it appears as the head of an Armorican confederation oi numerous handsome squares, the chief is the Great Ring, republican states. Soon after kings-appear. In497 the country containing the old town-house, built in the 14th c., the new was conquered by the Frankish King Chlodwig. The Franks one erected in i863, the equestrian statue of Friedrich the now began to call the inhabitants Bettlons,- as indeed the Latin Great (I842) by Kiss, and that of Friedrich Wilhelm III., writers of the 5th c. had already done. These speak of Bizi/anni unveiled in i86i. The two principal churches are the Cathe- and Bri/Z/ones, and designate the land Bnli/an.snia Ciso/arinai/ dral of St Mary's (1288), and the Protestant Chiirch of St (later, Bnit/annia Minozr), in contradistinction to the island of Elizabeth, with a tower 364 feet high. B. has a university, Britain across the Channel, and also in -allusion to the comfounded in 1702, with about Iooo students, and a free library of mon Celtic ancestry of both peoples. The Frankish lordship 300,000 volumes; also a medical school, five gymnasia, and was reasserted, by Charlemagne and his successors. Meanwhile, several Protestant colleges. It has five railway stations, and is though B. was sometimes ruled by native princes who called the centre of the Silesian trade, having great wool and cattle themselves kings (e.g., 824-874), the title at last became exmarkets. There are also important manufactures, chiefly in tinct, and the country was divided into a number of counties, woollens, cottons, linens, lace, silks, spirits, machinery, jewel- as Rennes, Vannes, Cornouaille (Cornwall), &c. The suzerlery, and earthenware. B. is not mentioned earlier than oI8S, ainty of B. passed to the Normans in 912. B. became a and is of Slavic origin. It was the capital of an independent separate dukedom under Geoffroi, Count of Rennes, in 992. In duchy (II63-I335), afterwards a member of the Hanse League, the middle of the I2th c., the succession to the throne was disand a free imperial city; and finally, in I74I, was wrested from puted, but by the marriage of Constance, daughter of one of the Austria, along with the rest of Silesia, by Friedrich the Great. claimants, to Geoffrey, son of Henry II. of England, B. passed Here the peace between Prussia and Austria was signed, June for a time into the possession of the house of Plantagenet; but I I, I742. The Austrians recovered B., November 22, I757, but on the death of Prince Arthur, in I203, Normandy was colnit was retaken by Friedlrich a month afterwards. It capitulated fiscated by the French Iing, and 13. passedc with it under the *s 4ELI~ BRE THEi GLOBE ENC YCILOPEDIA. BRE French crown. It passed in 12I3 to Pierre Mauclerc, Comte great enthusiasm throughout Holland. W\hen prohibited from de Dreux, who had married a daughter of Constance. Claude, preaching, he established a theological college in his own house, daughter of the last Duchess of B., married the Duke d'Angou- which was developed after his death into a monastery of regular leme, who ascended the French throne as Francois I. in I5I5. canons. These were joined by many laymen, who lived together By the articles of marriage Claude ceded her rights to B. to her in a community of goods, but without any monastic vow. husband, and the ancient dukedom was formally incorporated Within fifty years of Groot's death they numbered seventeen with France as a province in I532. See Daru's ~isloire de?. churches in the Netherlands, but the order was extinguished by (3 vols. Par. 1826); Roujoux's Ifistoire'des Rois et des Ducs de B. the Reformation. (2 vols. Par. 1829); De Courson's Lia B. Caz 5mze azt I12z-e Sidcle:Bretig'ny, a village in the department of Eure-et-Loire, (Par. I863). The Breton (Breizonec) language belongs to the Celtic family, France, where, on May 8, 1360, a treaty was concluded between and, along with Cornisll alnd Wlelsh, forlls the Cymric (Cyrz) England and France, by which Edward III. renounced his claim branch. It gradually r-eceived Romlllance elements and after to the French throne, gave up his possessions in the N. of the incorporation of B. with France, it was greatly changed, France and the basin of the Loire, and had his title to Guienme and in Upper B. completely suppressed. In Lower B., on the and Gasconymadeindependent of the French king andJeanII. of France, then a prisoner in England, was released on agreeing other hand, it has maintained its existence till the present day, to pay a ransom a prisoner in Egland, was leleas enabled to in different dialects, of which those of Vannes, Cornouaille, topaya ansom of 3,00o,000 crowns. This heMwasenabled to Treguier, Leon, and St Brieuc are the most important. About do y eceiving fom Galeazzo, Viscoti of ilan, 600,000 gold 1,200,000 people in the province use one or other of these, and ors for the and of his daughter Isabelle. are known, in contradistinction to the French-speaking popula- Bre'ton de los Herre'ros, Don Mlanoel, a popular tlion, as BIretonzs Breionzatzs. They inhabit the departments of Spanish poet, was born, 19th December I8oo, at Quel, Lagroulo. Morbihan, Finistere, and Cotes-du-Nordl. Educated at Madrid, he served in the army (1814-22), and afterThe Bretonz literatlure in its earliest stage (from the 5th to the Nards held several Government appointments. The success of his 12th c.) may be said to be identical with that of the Cymraeg A lt Veyje Virszeeas, a comedy in three acts, represented 24th Octoof Wales. The works of the'bards' belong to ioth sides of the ber I824, determined his career. During the next eleven years Channel, and several of them are believed, at least by German he produced 20 dramatic pieces-a he produced 12b dramatic piecesya fecundity intelligible when and French critics, to have originated in B. rather than in Wales. it is known that many of these were adaptationsof old Spanisl B mut after tahe mI2t c., wlext Normans, Anglo-Normans, and plays, or translations from the French and Italian. A recent French, more and more extended their authority over the district, n French, dtstsict,? -. * r production, La Desvergiienza (Mad. 18s5), is a poem of great and allied themselves with the leading families, the bards gradu- length an, full of humour. B. has been a member of the Royal ally folndcL coutenance only among the gentry of Lower B., or Academy of Spain since 1837. A collection of his works, in 5 even as wandering minstrels sought the favour of the common vols., revised by himself; appeared at Madrid(I850-52). His people. Yet the wide sweep of the Arthurian Romance (q. v.) rich comic yein and his causticity are not more remarkable than shows that the Breton literature had powerfully influenced the the easy harmony of his style. W. of Europe; and although the French tongue made rapid strides among the higher classes, the peasantry clung with singu- B-et'schneider, Heinrich Gottfried, a German satirist, lar tenacity to the old tongue of the country, preserving in born at Gera, 6th March I739, and educated at the Hernhutter their hearts and on their lips its ancient songs and legends, Institute at Elbersdorf, and afterwards at Gera. During the and even adding fresh matter to its poetic lore. An admir- Seven Years' War he entered the Prussian army, was takenable collection of these songs was published by Herfart prisoner by the French at the battle of Kolin, and retained in de la Villemarque (Barzaz-ZBreiz, 2 VO1S. Par. I839; new ed. a French fortress till the peace of Hubertsburg in I763. He 1846), while the legends have been worked up by Souvestre in afterwards travelled in England and France, was librarian to the his'Foyer Breton (Par. 1844). More than I50 mystery-plays University of Ofen in 1778, incurred there the enmity of the were composed in the Breton language, and acted and printed Jesuits, though befriended by Joseph II., and, after several in the I6th c. Several priests, too, wrote religious poems and changes of position and residence, died at Krzimiz, near books of instruction for the people. The most celebrated was Pilsen, in Bohemia, ist November i8io. His Almanach der Michel le Nobletz de Kerodern (s577-I65I), whose sermons and Heiligen azsf das Y/ahr 1788 is a trenchant attack on priests songs were received with great enthusiasm. Amnong his succes- and monks. He had previously, in I774, attacked Wertherism, sors, Father Julien Maunoir (I6o6-83) achieved scarcely less then rampant in Germany, in his Eine Entsetzlic/e Afor/dgessuccess. Later names in the department of religious poetry chicshte zon densz 7hngen WerltSer. He is said to have furnished are those of Marzin, Delrio, and Lannion; while Gregoire of Nichola'i materials for his Voyages. Rostrennan, Le Pelletier, but, above all, Le Gonidec (died 1838), have done good service to the study of the language born at Gersdorf, Saxony, ottlieb, a German theologian, by their lesicolls alld grammal. Tle last has given us thle born at Gersdorf, Saxony, lIth February I776, and educated at by their lexicons and grammars. The last has given us the best Breton grammar (Par. 8Io7; 3d ed., by Villenmarque, Chemnitz and Leipsic. In I807 he was appointed chief pastor IS50), an"d tlhe best Breton cdictionary (Angoul. I82I * 3d at Schneeberg; in i8i6 superintendent-tgeneral at Gotha, and in ed., by Vilemarq u, Par. I847). He also publishled a series IS40 Upper Consistorial Councillor. He died 22d January of translations, including one of the entire Bible, into Bre- I848. B.' writings still maintain their place in German theoto1n (I827). Since his time, not only have the earlest literary logy from their learning and impartiality. The HIland&bc/e der earliest'literary Doosnatile der]cvan. Ieth. [firche (2 vols. Leips. i8i4-IS), Leximonuments of the country been collected and published, but journals have been started, and a crowd of poets and littera- coS2 asnzale Gr0aco-oatsn ees iRn Loros N. Testanentti (Leips. tezsrs have come forward using the native tongue. Ricou, I824 and 5840), and Covpzs Reforasatos-zon (vols. i.-xv. Leips. Brizelux, Goesblrand Laouenou, alnd the Abbe Eleclh particu- 1834-38), are among his more important contributions to theolarly deserve mention. See the writings of Villemarque anld logical lterature. Souvestre. Brett'en, a town of Baden, 53 miles E. from Karlsruhe, inBrethren and Sisters of the:Free Spirit, a sect in teresting as the birthplace of Melancthon. Pop. 3352. the I3th c., whose original name was the Ortlibenses and Amalricians, assumed their later name from the words of St Paul in Breughel, Peter, the head of a faous family of Dtch om. viii. 2, I4. On this ground thisey claimed freedoin fromn the painters, born at Breughel, near Breda, was a clever painter of soon rural life (hence his name,'Peasant B.'). His works are distin.guilt of sin. and outward ordinances; andt consequently soon guished for truth and for vivid colour. Of his birth and death lapsed into fanatical lawlessness and licentiousness. They were the dates remain unfixed, but he flourished between the first and dispersedi in thie 14th c. by persecution. last quarters of the I6th c. —Pieter B., the younger, his son, Brethren of the Common Life, or of Good Will, a known also by the surprising sob'riqued of'Hellish B.' on acDutch branch of the sect called the'Friends of God,' was count of the fiends, witches, and robbers who figure in his founded by Gerard Groot, of Deventer (I340-84), a canon of works, died in I625. —Jan B. (' Flower B.'), born at Brussels Utrecht and Aix, who gave up his ecclesiastical position to in I568, was distinguished in landscape and in small figure sudbdevote himself to missionary preaching, by which he excited jects, and died at Antwerp, 1625. He painted the landscapes 492' BRE TIJE GLZOBE ENCYCLOPKLDIA. BRI for the works' Adam and Eve in Paradise' and' Vertumnus and lens,' which, notwithstanding its superiority to the old parabolic Bellona,' in concert with Rubens, who supplied the figures.- reflectors, was not introduced into our lighthouses till I835. He Other members of the family were Abraham, Jan Baptist, took an early and abiding interest in the British Association, and Gaspar B., painters chiefly of fruit and flower pieces. of which he was President in I85o. Knighted in I832, he Bre've, the longest note used in old musical notation, written received the Prussian Oder of Merit 847, as elected a co only. It is not owused, except in a B. (q. v), orforeign Associate of the Institute of France in I849, and commonly l[o[. It is not now used, except in AlIla B. (q. v.), or A/la capella movements. appointed Principal of Edinburgh University in I86o, which post, together with that of President of the Royal Society of Breve. See ANT-CATCHER. Edinburgh, he held at his death, February Io, I868. B.'s most Brevet' is a commission in the army conferring rank above popular inventions are the kaleidoscope and the lenticular that for which the officer receives pay. In former times, B. stereoscope. Of his numerous memoirs, we may mention those promotions were made about once in six years, or upon On the Depolarisation of ight (I813), On t/he Polarisation ef very special occasions of national rejoicing, such as the ending Zight by Reflection (I8I5), On the Production of Polarising of a war or a coronation. But general brevets are now abol- Steructsve it al Substlances by Pressure (I8I6), On the Czws of ished, some particular promotions by B. being, however, re- Polarisation and Douable Refraction in all Regularly Crystallised tained. A lieutenant-colonel by five years' service obtains the Bodies (I8iS), Onz:Elltical Polarisation (I830). Besides these, rank of colonel, but without increase of-pay. Lieutenant-colonels, he wrote treatises on the Tahleidoscope (I819) and on Opt/cs majors, and captains may obtain B. rank for distinguished ser- (83 I), Lives of Euler, Newton, Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and vices in the field, the promotion carrying relative increase of pay, Kepler, Letters on Natral Alagic (i831), and Moo-e Worlds except as regards the lieutenant-colonels. B. rank does not than One (1854). His last memoir, which he left unfinished, was affect the position in a regiment, but is of importance in this On the.llotion, Equilibrium, and Farmos of LiqZid F/minxS. See respect, that colonels rise by seniority alone to be general officers, Home Life,of 3'ir zavid B., by his daughter, Mrs Gordon (Edinb. and, except in the artillery and in the engineers, colonel is a ax869). B. rank only. In the navy there is no B. rank. Brewster, William, the leader of the fllayflozaer Pilgrims, Bre'viary (Lat. breviariucm, from breve, short, and oraorin (?,)was born at Scrooby, 1566, and educated at Cambridge. He a collection of prayers) is a collection of the Psalms, Lessons, left the Established Church, and founded a separate society in Prayers, and Hymns which form the daily offices of divine ser-his house. In I6osl he weli to olland: and opened a school vice, as distinct from the Liturgy. The books from which the at Leyden. He was made ruling elder, and conducted the PilB. was compiled were-( ) The Psalter, including the Psalms of grims in the Mahfozoer to Plymouth, Mass., in 1620. B. was David, the Te Deum, Athanasian Creed, &c. (2) The 4Anti- their only spiritual teacher for some years, but he did not administer the sac-ranients. He died April!6, i644, and is venerated phonariuzm, a collection of short sentences, chiefly taken from the Bible, sung before or after a psalm or canticle as a keynote to as the ruling spirit in the earliest New England colony. its application. (3) The y1,ymnarinum, or hymnal. (4) The Col- Brexia'ceoe, a small order of Dicotyledonous plants, princilectariznz, a book of collects or short prayers to be offered by pally natives of Madagascar. There are in all about six species, the priest in behalf of the people. (5) The Homilarium, a col- belonging to the genera Ba-exia, Ixerba, Roussxa, and Argolection of homilies or religious addresses, founded on passages phyllum; if they possess any use or property, it is unknown. of Scripture, by the most eminent of the Fathers. (6) The Paw- By some botanists they are included among the Saxifragaceee. sionarizum and llarltyrologiumnn, which were books of the acts and sufferings of martyrs, to be read on their anniversary days Brezo'wa, a market-town in the county of Neutra, Iungary, in the churches where they wee buied. The B. was perhaps on the northern slope of the Carpathian mountains, 20 miles in the churches where they wei ~e buried. The B. wasof Leopoldstadt. It is noted for its manufacture of leather, introduced about the 6th c., when St Benedict condensed the N.W. of Leopoldstadt. Itisnoted forits anufacture of leater, daily offices for his rule; the name was in common use in the which is in request all over the Anstlo-Hungarian empire. Pop. time of Micrologus, who wrote a treatise on the service of the (i869) 5886. Mass about Io8o. There have been a great variety of breviaries, Brian Boroih'me (pronounced borei), an Irish king who held but they may all be reduced to four principal classes: the Roman, his court at Kincora, near Killaloe, during the early part of the the Gallic, the Mozarabic or Old Spanish,.and the Anglican. Ioth c. After repeatedly defeating the Danes, he dealt them Lacertilia or a blow in the battle of Clontarf, in IOI4, which irretrievably Breviling'uia, the name applied to those Iaceltila, or crippled their power in Ireland, but in which he himself was Lizardls (q. v.), in which the tongue is thick, fleshy, and po- slain. He was suam Boroie (i..,'tax') from imposing trusible, or capable of being protruded only hwhen the moutha tribute on his subject provinces. is open. This name is used in opposition to the term Fissilin- gunia, which denotes those lizards in which the tongue is bifid or Brian'gon (Lat. BriYanlftium), a strongly fortified town in the cleft or sheathed, and capable of protrusion through a notch in department of Hautes-Alpes, France, on the Durance, 42 miles front of the jaws, even when the mouth is closed. The B. (or S.E. of Grenoble, and commanding the road to Turin by the Mont Pachzllossa) are represented by the geckos, iguanas, &c. Genevre pass. It is 4300 feet above the sea, being the highest Brevipenna't. See BR~cHX'PTERE5. town in France, and has some export trade in talc and cutlery. Brevipenna'tme. See BRACHYPTERES. B. is a fortress of the first rank, the great arsenal and entrepot Brewing. See BEER. of the French Alps, and its approaches are defended by seven Brewing (inl law). Instead of a licence to brew being now forts and many redoubts. Pop. (1872) 1465; with garrison, required, as formerly, duties are levied on the quantity brewed. 3698. The brewer must make specified entries at the nearest excise office. Briansk', a town in the government of Orel, Russia, on the The penalty for omission is /200, with forfeiture of implements right bank of the Desna, 70 miles W. of Orel, with an imperial and materials. Officers may enter any place used for B. at any building-yard and cannon-foundry. It is surrounded by earthen time, in order to inspect. The penalty for obstructing an officer fortifications, and is a depdt for the Black Sea trade. The exin so doing is,Ioo. ports are chiefly grain, hemp, and iron. Pop. 13,881. Brew'ster, Sir David, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., &C., Briare', a town of France, department of Loiret, on the right one of the greatest physicists of this century, was born at Jed- bank of the Loire, with some trade, chiefly in wine and wood. burgh, December i i, 1781, and entered Edinburgh University in It is said to occupy the site of the ancient B-rivoduzrum. The 1793 with the design of becominga clergyman. Though he com- Canal de B. connects the Loire. and Seine, and is the oldest pleted his course, and even made an effort to obtain a charge, his canal in France, having been partly constructed by Sully, and tastes lay in the direction of science, to which he dedicated a long completed in 72) 3799 and valuable life. In I807 he was an unsuccessful candidate for completed n 642. P. (872) 3799. the chair of Mathematics in St Andrews; but in the same year Bri'bery is the giving, offering, or taking of a reward, so as was made LL.D. of Aberdeen, M.A. of Cambridge, and a to influence him who takes it in the discharge of his duty. The member of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Soon after, he offence becomes especially heinous when it affects, or is intended commenced the publication of the Edinburgh Encyclopeedia, a to affect, the administration of justice. Happily in England work completed in i830. In i8i B. invented his'polyzonal this phase of the offence is almost unknown. We may the more 493 BRI TIL-E OBE tENCYCLOPxEYD~I4. BRI congratulate ourselves upon the purity of our Legislature as re- The method of making bricks varies very much in different gards B., as the reverse was the case in comparatively recent parts of the country, but the following will give a general years. In I707 Sir Robert Walpole was appointed Secretary idea of the process. The clay is dug in autumn (this is called at War, and in I709 Treasurer of the Navy. In 1712 he was'clay-getting'), heaped on a level place some feet thick, and found guilty by the House of Commons of'breach of trust left to disintegrate during the winter ('weathering'). In April and notorious corruption,' for which he was expelled from the it is turned over and'tempered,' either by spade or in a House and sent to the Tower. Regardless of this early lesson, the'pug-mill.' Tempering' consists in bringing the clay (mixed, great minister continued to bribe members of the House of Con- if necessary, with any of the materials mentioned above) to a mons wholesale to the end of his political career. We remember homogeneous paste. Sometimes it is necessary to grind the his cynical dictum, that while one man was unquestionably more clay under rollers about this stage of the process, to make it virtuous than another, this only meant that he required a larger thoroughly fit for the moulding, the next operation. This used bribe than the other, and that'all are to be bought;' but, as to be done by hand, one B3. at a time; but the demand for Macaulay says,'We might as well accuse the poor Lowland bricks has increased so rapidly, that machines are now confarmers who paid black-mail to Rob Roy of corrupting the virtue stantly used for that purpose. A machine will mould bricks at of the Highlanders, as accuse Sir Robert Walpole of corrupting the rate of twenty or thirty per minute. The bricks are then the virtue of Parliament.' But our satisfaction at the happy air-dried in'stacks' for a considerable period, and lastly burnt. change in the morality of our House of Commons is diminished The burning is carried on either in /kilizs-which are essentially when we find that the avenue which leads to it is still often darkly large open B. chambers with flues underneath them-or in clamips, stained with corruption, in wvhbich candidate aotd constituent are in which the bricks are erected into a huge stack, in which the found to be participant. As respects the former, doubtless it is courses of B. are separated from each other by layers of breeze, often difficult for him, with the purest intentions, to avoid con- which serve as fuel for the operations. For brick-making on a tamination: agents must be employed, for whose acts the law very large scale (as, e.g., the Metropolitan Railway), Hoffman's holds him responsible; and the meshes of the law itself are often circular kiln has been employed with great economy and sucso contrived that in the hands of a scrupulous and subtle-minded cess. judge it often requires the utmost wariness on the part of a can-'Marls' or' Maims' is the name given to the best bricks didate to avoid being caught in them. What constitutds B. is'seconds'are an inferior quality of Malms; Red stock (kiln-burnt) plainly a question to which no definite answer can be given. and Grey stock (clamp-burnt) bricks are the kinds commonly Each case must largely depend on its own circumstances. Thus, used; Place bricks are an inferior kind. a proprietor of land who concedes to his tenants a right to shoot Brickwor/e.-The principal points in the construction of brickhares and rabbits before a dissolution of Parliament is announced wolrk are that the different'courses,' or layers of bricks should may be held immaculate as a candidate; but a proprietor con- have surfaces truly horizontal in both directions; that the face ceding the same right after the dissolution has been found, by so and back of the wall should be accurately'plumb' (unless spedoing, guilty of B3. The immense sums generally spent on elec- cially required to have some slope or'batter'); that as few halftions testify to the prevalence of this disease of our representative bricks or'bats' as possible should be used; that the vertical system-a disease fromn which Scotland is almost free. B. at an joints of two consecutive courses should as seldom as possible election for Parliament is.an offence at common law, punishable by lie in the same plane; and lastly, that the corresponding vertical fine and imprisonment; and Parliament has at various times endea- joints in different courses should be exactly one above the other voured by statute to strengthen the power of the law. The Corrupt (this is called'keeping the perpends'). Practices Prevention Act of I854 inflicts penalties on bribing, In order that the wall may have as great lateral stability as treating, and undue influence. Its provisions are most stringent. possible, it is constructed so that the bricks of each course cover Under the Corrupt Practices (Municipal Elections) Act, 1872, the joints of the course below;-this arrangement is called bondB3. at a municipal election is severely punishable. By the Cus- ing, or Breaking Joint (q. v.). Although there are a number of toms' Consolidation Act, the bribing or corrupting of any officer different bonds, only two, the English and the Flemish bonds, of customs or excise makes the offender liable to a fine of /2oo. are used to any great extent. The former is the stronger and better, and although it is not often used in this country, it is Brick is clay moulded into suitable forms, either with or almost universal in Holland and the Low Countries'; the latter without mixture with other ingredients, and dried. It was is considered more ornamental, and is that most commonly used one of the very earliest materials used in building. Bricks in England,.while, oddly enough, it is unknown in the countries dried in the sun seem to have been used at first in Egypt, Assy- from which it takes its name. In English bond the bricks are rina, and other Eastern countries, but in the ruins of Babylon laid in alternate courses of'stretchers' (bricks placed lengthways lkiln-burnt bricks have also been found in plenty. The author of in the face of the wall) and'headers' (bricks placed lengthways Genesis xi. seems also to have been familiar with them. The across the wall). In Flemish bond each course consists of alter, Romans carried the art of building in B. to great perfection, as nate stretchers and headers, thle stretcher in one course coming is abundantly evidenced by the remains of some of their erec- over the header in the course below, and vz'ce zve-sd. The details tions, and they introduced it into this country. Their bricks of the bonding vary with the thickness of the wall, which again differed in form altogether firom those at present in use, which is determined by the dimensions of the bricks used. These are first appear about 500 years ago. approximately 9 inches long, 4~ inches broad, and about 24 The clays of this country are very numerous. They are inches thick; and walls constructed with them are said to be chemical compounds of silicates of alumina, either alone qr with 9-inch,.4-inch, IS-inch walls, &c., according as their thickness silicates of potash, lime, iron, &c.' Clay and sand mechani- is one, one and a half, or two bricks, &c. The thickest walls cally mixed, as they often occur, are called Zoazs, and clay and commonly in use for houses are three-brick walls. carbonate of lime, zmarls. The simplest clays-those com- Briclks should be well wetted before they are used, and care posed almost entirely of silicates of alumina-are almost infu- should be taken to prevent excess of mortar being put in the sible, and are known as fire-clays. Of these, the Stourbridge horizontal joints, and to secure sufficient mortar in the vertical Clay, occurring beneath the coal, is one of the most famous. ones. To prevent the face of a wall absorbing moisture, and to The clays containing the other oxides mentioned above are less give it a neater appearance, the joints are'pointed,' that is, the refractory. Ferric oxide seems to add to the strength and hard- mortar is scraped with a trowel from their outer edges, and its ness of briclks, and it gives them in burning various colours, from place supplied with cement or hydraulic mortar, both of which red to blue-black, according to the proportion in which it exists are impervious to water. In caseswhere specially good work is in the clay. Clays containing lime and no iron burn white, and required, bricks are set in cement throughout instead of in require less heat than any other Ikind to harden them. The mortati. The small B. arches over windows and doors are bricks made from them are not, however, so strong or durable. very frequently set in putty, and constructed of bricks made Every kind of clay has the property of absorbing water and specially to the form required. forming a paste with it: this can be dried bylong exposure to a high In engineering contracts, quantities of briclkwork are commonly temperature, -aud the mass then shrinks and hardens. The purer stated in cubic yards; for house-work the r'od is often used as a the clay the more it shrinks, cracks, and warps in drying, for which standard. This is equal to 3o0 square yards of a wall one and reason the best clays cannot be used alone, but are mixed with a half B. thick, or about ix cubic yards. sand,'breeze,' or some other material which will counteract this. The accompanying illustration is a diamond-shaped firieze in 494 *- -.__.___.- -. —- —. -a THI 2"WE GLOBE ENCYCLOPDIAA. BR I birickwork from Ratzeburg Cathedral, taken from Lubke's Ecce.- early part of this century iron became increasingly used for siastical Art in Germzansy. arches and suspension bridges. There are three principal types of B.-the arched B., the suspension B., and the girder B. In order that an arch may be stable, its abutments have to be sufficiently strong to resist a great lateral thrust; and, in the same way,'anchorages' on shore must be provided to resist the pull in the chains or cables of a suspension B. Neither of these structures, therefore, contains within itself the means of resisting the stresses caused by its own. weight and the load upon it. The girder, on the other hand, is an iznodpelztZe structure, needing no anchorages or abutments, I I I -' I but simply piers strong enough to bear its own weight resting vertically upon them, and has its different members so formed Frieze from Ratzeburg Cathedral. as to resist all the internal stresses just mentioned. Cast-iron girders were.,early used for small railway bridges, up to 40 feet Bride'well, literally the Well of St Bride, has given name span; but besides that this was practically the limit up to which in turn to a palace and a house of correction in Blackfriars, such girders could be constructed, cast-iron is a metal eminently London. The former, built in 1522 by Henry VIII., was gifted unadapted for use in girders. The use of wrought-iron girders in I553 by Edward VI. to the city of London as a workhouse made of plates riveted together marks the most important epoch for the detention and correction' of vagrants and disorderly per- in the history of modern B.-making. Such girders seem to have sons. It was placed under the charge of the Lord Mayor and been employed on a small scale-as joists for flooring-as early corporation of the city. A new House of Correction has been as I832, but the applicability of the system to bridges was not erected for London in the present reign. recognised at the time. Under the heading BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE will be found a statement of the reasons which compelled aBridge (OldO Eng. brysc,; Low. Scot. brig, En Frisa z brie, Dut. Robert Stephenson, In designing that structure (the first wroughtbrtSg, Swed. bry6 go, Ger. briicke), a structure for carrying a iron girder B.), to depart from all precedent, and choose a form road or railway across a river, ravine, another road or railway, previously quite untried. The success of this B. has determined or any other such impediment to its course. The earliest bridges the material and the type of the vast majority of railway bridges seem either to have consisted simply of stones or piers, having the since constructed, wrought-iron girders being now alm6st unispaces between them spanned by large stones or pieces of tim- versally employed. The exact form first adopted by Stephenson ber, or else to have been slight platforms carried upon cords of has not, however, been found the most advantageous; it is not rope or hide, or simply, as in Northern' India and elsewhere, econonical of material, nor does it possess a greater degree of suspended cords carrying a cradle in which a man could be con- stability than other types. Instead of one great tubular girder, veyed from one side to the other. several small'box-girders' were used, carrying a platform upon which the rails were placed. From this the'plate-girder' was developed, by the substitution of a single web for the two sides of each of the'boxes.' The solid web is now generally superseded by a network of Braces (q. v.), some of which are in tension (ties), and some in compression (struts), by which means'____ [, [,.it greater economy of material can be secured. This form of girder is called a' lattice-girder,' and is frequently used; it seems to have been suggested as early as I824, and was used in America before our engineers employed it. The structures of masonry or iron, or both, which support the ends of girders, and support and receive the thrust of arches, are called piers. The use of iron in these piers, and in the substructure of bridges generally, marks almost as great and impor__________i ~tant a change as its use in the superstructure. Piers may either L: r —.- ~-"~- A- _-. --— ~- il11be (a) altogether of masonry, (b) of masonry or concrete, surrounded with a shell of iron to render their construction more easy; (c) of iron filled up (wholly or partially) with masonry or Concrete to give additional stability. Clusters of screw piles are also used as piers in some cases-these are entirely of iron. The principal methods used in excavating foundations for bridges and erecting piers below the water-line are the following:-(a) By enclosing the whole space in a water-tight cofer-dam or enaclosure, from which water can be pumped, and in'which the men Iron Bridge. can work. (b) By sinking iron cylinders, by dredging the soil from their interior and weighting them with stone or' iron. Until the era of railways, with its accompanying development These cylinders form either the pier itself or a permanent casing of engineering skill and extension of engineering possibilities, for it; they are naade in lengths, additional lengths being added the arch remained for centuries the principal and almost the as the sinking takes place, so as to keep the upper cylinder only form in which bridges were built. The arch seems to always above high-water mark. (c) By what is known as the have been used for the first time in a B. about I27 B.C. in the pneumatic method. Here the lower part of the cylinder is conSenators' Bridge at Rome, constructed by Caius Flavius. Some verted into an air-tight Caisson (q. v.), and supplied with cornmold writers speak of arched bridges being used by the Chinese pressed air by pumps. Men can then work in it, removing boullong before this date, but there is no reliable information on ders, soil, &c., just as in a diving-bell. This method has been used the subject. For a long time the art of B.-building was kept in. America for the construction of the foundation of the St Louis alive in Europe by the Romans, and from the fall of the em- B. at a depth of I20 feet below high-water mark, when the men pire until the Iath c.-the time of the B.-building Brother- worked under a pressure of 50 lbs. per sq. inch in addition to the hoods (q. v.)-it made little progress, the only important bridges pressure of the atmosphere. A day's worlk under these circumerected being some built by the Moors in Spain. After this, stances was limited to two spells of three-quarters of an hour the art again languished until the' beginning of last century, each. since when it has made rapid and still continued progress. See also ARCH, BOWSTRING GIRDER, COFFER-DAM, CAISThe first iron B. in this country was a cast-iron arch of Ioo feet SON, PILES, LATTICE GIRDER, and SUSPENSION BRIDGE. span across the Severn at Coalbrookdale, which was built in 1777. Twenty years later than this, iron suspension bridges of |Bridge-Building Brotherhoods, religious fraternities some importance were constructed in America, and during the which originated in the S. of France, and are said to have been 495 * BRI THE GLOBE ENCYCLO'xEDYI. B3R founded by a shepherd, Benezet, afterwards canonised, to whom William Kirby (I835). 4. On/ Geology alzd M1izneralogy, by is attributed the construction of the bridge at Avignon (I I76-88), *Rev. William Buckland, Professor of Geology, University of Their objects were to build bridges, maintain ferries, and esta- Oxford (5837). 5. Thze fnalZ, its _/eechoanisn and Vital Endrowblish hospices near the most frequented fords and crossings. ments, as E vincingf Desigzn, by Sir Charles Bell (I837). 6. On thze SdaAptationz of External IVtzture to tzhe Physical Condition of l. Man, by Johns Kidd, M.D., Regius Professor of Medicine, UniBridge'port, a rapidly increasing seaport of Connecticut, versity of Oxford (I836). 7. Asltonomzy and General Physics, U.S., on an arm of Long Island Sound, at the mouth of the consider-ed weith Riefeence to Naltuzlal 7'eeology, by Rev. William Pequonnock, 58. miles N.-E. from New York, has manufactures Whewell (I839). 8. Onz Animal and egetzable Pheysiology, conof leather, machinery, sewing-machines, carriages, earthenware, sidered with/ Refer-ence to NVattr-at Theology, by Peter Mark Roget, and projectiles. It has also a brisk coasting trade, and engages M.D.,- Secretary to the Royal Society. A survey of the animal, in the whale fisheries. Pop. (I870) I8,969. vegetable, and mineral kingdoms was suggested in the trust deed, and the human hand and the digestive functions were speBridg'et, St, properly Birgit or Birgtta, was born in cially mentioned. The authors received each the profits of his Sweden, of royal blood, about I302. Having been of a pious own work as well as the sum of /Iooo. Cheap editions have disposition all her life, on the death of her husband she divided been issued by Bohn. The line of argument, which is legitimate his property among her eight children, and devoted herself to enough for the purpose of defending natural theology, is one pious labours. After founding the double monastery of Wastein, which is now generally repudiated by comparative physiologists. she repaired to Rome, where, with visits to other parts of Italy and to Palestine, she spent the rest of her life. She died in Bridg'man, Laura, was born' in Hanover, New HampI373; and was buried at Rome, but her body was removed next shire, U.S., in I829. When two years old she lost both sight year to Wastein. She was canonised in 139I, but as this was and hearing, but, under the care of Dr Howe of Boston, acquired during the Papal schism, it was thought necessary to have it the power of reading and speaking with her fingers, and subseconfirmed in I4I5. —Bridjidi or Bride, a famous Irish saint, quently received instruction in history, geography, and algebra. was born near Dundalk, 439-453. She was early distinguished She became a skilful teacher of the blind, deaf, and dumb, and for her wisdom, piety, and learning, and became a nun at the has led a life of mental activity and usefulness. age of sixteen or seventeen. After a life spent in acts of piety Bridgorth, a town of Shropshire, on both sides of the and charity, including, it is said, many miracles, she died in Severn, 20 miles SE. of Shrewsbury, and a station on the 525, and was buried at Kildare, where she had founded a monas- Shrewsbury line up the valley of the Severn. Some of its tery. churches are fine, and the. town has about twenty exhibitions Brid'geton, a town of New Jersey, U.S., situated on both to Oxford. Pop. (I871:) 5876. B. is the seat of a thriving sides of Cohansey Creek, 48 miles S. of Philadelphia. It pos- trade in corn, malt, &c. It has large flour-mills and tanneries, sesses upwards of I5,000 tons of shipping, and has manufactures manufactures of carpets and rugs, worsted-mills, &c. As its of woollens, iron, glass, nails, &c. Pop. (i87o) 6830. name implies, it was originally a bridge over the Severn, and is a very old town. It has been subjected several times to the Bridge'town, one of the finest towns in the W. Indies, capi-| horrors of war, being besieged and taklen successively by Henry I. tal of the island of Barbadoes, on the T. coast, in Carlisle Bay. and Henry II., the latter of whom almost destroyed its castle, It has been four times destroyed by fire, and once (1780) by hur- which belonged to the Earls of Shrewsbury. B. was the birthricane. Pop. 21,384. The Bishop of Barbadoes and the Gover- place of Bishop Percy, and of the less admirable Francis Moore, nor-General of the Windward Islands reside here. author of a once famous almanac of the prophetical sort. Bridgewater, Francis Egerton, third Duke of, the Bridg'water, a seaport of Somersetshire, on both banks of'father of British inland navigation,' was born in I736.. With the Parret, 12 miles from its entrance into the Bristol Channel, the help of James Brindley, the engineer, he in I758-6I con- and 30 S.W. of Bristol.- The name is said to be a corruption structed, under parliamentary powers, the first navigable canal of' Bridge of Walter,' a Norman follower of the Conqueror, to in Britain, which connected his coal measures at Worsley with whom the place was given. B. is certainly a very old town, and Manchester, crossing the Mersey and Irwell Navigation by an formerly had a massive castle, erected in the reign of King John, aqueduct 39 feet above the water, and 200 yards in length. The and dismantled in I645 by General Fairfax during the civil wars. effect was to reduce by one-half the price of coal in Manchester. The Duke of Monmouth was proclaimed king at B. just before the He next constructed a canal from Manchester to Runcorn on battle of Sedgemoor (i685), and the inhabitants suffered severely the Mersey, which, joining the Grand Trunk Navigation at Pres- at the hands of Judge Jeffreys and Colonel Kirke. The river, ton Brook, connects Manchester with Birmingham as well as here crossed by a bridge, is navigable for vessels of 200 tons, but Liverpool. The Duke and his brother-in-law, the Marquis of is subject to a'bore' or tidal wave, six feet high, by which the Stafford, were the chief promoters of the Grand Trunk. The shipping is often damaged. B. possessed 154 vessels of 1o,I40 Duke was remarkable for perseverance and for simplicity of tons in I874, and 4686 vessels of 240,437 tons cleared the port. life. He died 8th March 1803. See Phillip's History of Inland Pop. (1871) I2,0II, Brid'lington, or Burlington, a seaport town in the East Bridgewater, Francis Henry JEgerton, eighth Earl Riding of Yorkshire, N. of B. Bay, S. of Flamborough Head, of, born IIth November I756, is chiefly to be remembered as and about 40 miles E.N.E. of York. It is a station on the the testator who left 800ooo to be held at the disposal of the Scarborough, Bridlington, and Hull section of the North-Eastern President of the Royal Society of London, to be paid to the Railway, and has some export trade in corn, malt, and bones. person or persons nominated by him who should write, print, B. (the name was once written Br-ellington) is very old. There and publish Iooo copies of a work on the power, wisdom, are many traces in the neighbourhood of conflicts between the and goodness of God, as manifested in the creation. The Pre- Danes and the English-tumuli, earthworks, &c. The ruins still sident, Davies Gilbert, divided the work into eight portions, exist of a once wealthy priory, founded by a grand-nephew of which he assigned to the gentlemen mentioned in next article. William the Conqueror. B. is also noted geologically; and in B.'s will was dated 25th February i825. He died 25th Feb. the lacustrine deposits in its vicinity were found the bones of a ruary 5829. large extinct elk, whose branching horns measured eleven feet between the extremities. Bridgewater Treatises, The, consist of the eight following works, which had at one time great popularity, but which the Bridport, an old town and port of Dorsetshire, situated at modern theory of development has tended unduly to discredit:- the junction of the rivers Asker and Brit or Bride, 2 miles I. The Adaptation of External NVaure to the M/oral and Intel- above the entrance of their joint stream into Lyme Bay, 24 miles leclual Constitution of Man, by Rev. Thomas Chalmers, Profes- W. of Dorchester by railway. It has considerable manufactures sor of Divinity, University of Edinburgh (I833). 2. Chemistry, of twine, cordage, sailcloth, &c., and some shipbuilding. In Meteorology, and the Eninction of Dig-estion, considered with ]te- 5873 there entered the port 69 vessels of 6386 tons, and cleared feyrence to Natzral Theology, by William Prout, M.D. (I834). 36 of 3526. The sandy cliffs near B. present a fertile field for 3. Onz the History, Habits, and Instincts of Animals, by Rev. the geologist. Pop. (T87I) 7670. 496 3 —------ _3 —-- 4 BRI THE GIOBE EC YCLOPEDIA. BRI Brief, a word in the practice of the English bar, denoting judge, ordering trial to be made by a jury of certain points stated the summary of his client's case made out by his solicitor for the. in the B. These writs seem at one time to have been the founinstruction of counsel. A B. is also any writing issued out of dation of almost all civil actions in Scotland; but it is in the the superior courts commanding something to be done in judicial appointment of tutors to minors, in inquiries as to lunacy, course. There is also a Church.-B., or Queen's Letter, author- in ascertainment of Widow's Terce (q. v.), and in dividing ising a collection for a special charitable purpose. property among HeirsBrief or Breve, Papal, is a term used to denote an official Pobrievs are now v.), thatiefly communication of the Pope, regarding matters not considered of in use. There was also sufficient importance to require consideration from a conclave of the use. of Inquest, the cardinals-such as dispensations, releases from vows, &c. More t ofwhich was judi important matters are disposed of by the Papal Bull. (See BULL.) lly t ascertain the The B. differs from the Bull in detail of form. The former is heir of a deceased perdated'from the day of the Nativity,' and is written in modern son; but for this purRoman character on the smooth side of the parchment. The s t for latter is dated'fromn the day of the Incarnation,' and is written dure is now by petition in ancient Gothic character on the rough side of the parchment. f serview bSep SEit of service. See SERBrieg (Slav.'the ridge'), a thriving commercial town in VICE. Prussian Silesia, on the Oder, 27 miles S.E. of Breslau by rail- Brig, the general way. It has a Church of St Nicholas, built in I287, four other term for a vessel with churches, an old castle, and manufactures of linens, woollens, two masts, having a leather, and tobacco. It has also an active transit trade and Brig. important cattle-markets. Pop. (I872) 15,372, of whom IIo9 otherwise square-rigged. B. is perhaps an abbreviation of Brig. are military. Near B. is the village of Mollwitz (pop. 645), the antine (q. v.). scene of an important battle, April Io, J74I..scene of an important battle, April 0, 1741. Brigade' (Ital. brigala, a company, troop, crew), a military Brielle' (properly Breede-eHil), a fortified haven of the Neth- term meaning a temporary grouping of regiments or battalions eriands, province of South Holland, on the island of Voorne, in the field into one body. Two of these may form an infantry near the mouth of the Maas, I4 miles W. of Rotterdam. It is B.; but three or more are quite common. A cavalry B. connotable on account of its association with the founding of the sists usually of three regiments; but the famous charge of the Dutch republic and the expulsion of the Spaniards, its capture Light B. in the Crimean war was made by five-the 4th and by William de Marck (1572) being the signal of revolt against I3th Light Dragoons, the Sth and IIth Hussars, and the I7th Philip II. B. was (I585-I6I6) one of the towns which formed Lancers. The Royal Artillery Regiment (q. v.) is divided into a security to England for sums advanced to the States. It was brigades and batteries; a B. usually comprising eight batteries also the first town of Holland which in I813 freed itself from the of horse, ten of field, or seven of garrison artillery. The French yoke without assistance. B. is-a town of pilots and phrase'Household B.' extends to the Life Guards, the Royal fishermen, and has a good harbour. Pop. (I874) 4068. Horse Guards, or Blues, and the Foot Guards. The word B. Brienne' Napoldon, a town in the French department of has acquired a very precise signification by the Army ReorganiAube, situated on the Aube, I9 miles W.N.W. of Troyes. It is sation Act of I872. It consists of two line battalions of the formed of two parts, B.-la- Ville and B.-ie-C-hCieauc, and is a place regular infantry, and the militia and volunteers of the B. district. See BATTERY and MILITARY DISTRICT. of great antiquity. The old castle of B. was replaced in the I8th c. by a more imposing building. The town has an educational Brigade Major, an officer, usually chosen from among the convent founded by the Minims in I625, which was transformed captains on the field, to convey orders, inspect pickets, and in I776 into one of the twelve military schools of France. keep the Roster (q. v.). He also superintends exercises and evo. Here Napoleon I. received his early training (I779-84) under lutions while in discharge of his temporary duties. By the new Pichegru. But B. is chiefly noted as the scene of a bloody con- Army Act of 1872, a B. M. is appointed to each of the three in. flict between the Prussians under Blticher and Napoleon (29th fantry brigades and one to the cavalry brigade permanently assoFebruary I814), in which the town was almost entirely burned. ciated with the Aldershot military district. Pop. (I872) 1850o.'thicket' or copse)atownofSwit Brigadier'-General, or Brigadier, a temporary rank in Brienz' (brenitia,'thicket' or'copse'), a town of Switzer- active warfare, in which a colonel or lieutenant-colonel is made land, canton of Bern, at the foot of the Rothhorn, and on the a general officer in command of a Brigade (q. v.) for a special N. shore of the lake of B., to which belong the best of Swiss service. It is considered a step towards being made a majorwood-carvers, and the handsomest of fisher-maids.. Pop. (I870) general. Each of the three infantry brigades permanently asso2605. The lake of B., 8 miles long, 2 broad, and 856 feet above ciated with the Aldershot military district by the Army Act of the sea-level, is an expansion of the Aar. In parts it is fully I872 is commanded by a B.-G.; the cavalry brigade being 2000 feet deep. The Giessbach Fall and other picturesque cas- under a major-general. cades, and the magnificent views to be had from the surrounding mountains, make the lake a favourite resort of tourists, for whose rig'and e, a kind of scale-armour, consisting of an assemaccommodation a steamer plies between B. and Interlaken. The blage of iron plates sewed upon a quilted linen or leather tunic, Rothhorn towers above B. to the height of 77IO feet. and covered with the same material. It was worn by the Brigans-the name of the light troops or skirmishers of the middle Bri'erly Hill, a market-town and ecclesiastical district in ages, derived from the Low Latin broga, strife. Staffordshire, England, 2 miles N.N.E. of Stourbridge. The Brigan'tes, the largest of the early British tribes, held nearly district abounds in coal, iron, and fire-clay, and consequently all tie country between the Humber and Hadrian's Wall, York. collieries, ironworks, &c., are numerous. Pop. (IS71) 11,046. shire, and the northern English counties. Eboracum (York) was Brieuc, St, a seaport and episcopal city, near the mouth of their capital. the Gouet, department of C6tes-du-Nord, France, 97 miles N.N. W. Brig'antine, a small vessel, partly square-rigged and partly of Nantes, and 250 W. S. W. of Paris by railway. Its principal schooner-rigged; from Ital. brigante, a pirate, hence originally a building is a cathedral of the I3th c. The site of the ramparts, piratical cruiser. demolished in I788, now forms a charming promenade planted with lime-trees. The town is said to have risen round a monas- ra ggs, W ey ry, a disting1ish ed man was bo tery built here in the 5th c. It possesses shipbuilding-yards, at Warleywood, near Halifax, in 1556, and died January 26 and has manufactures of linen, woollen stuffs, and leather, and I63I, at Oxford, where he had held since I6I9 the Savilian extensive cod and oyster fisheries. Pop. (I872) O,7I18. chair of Geometry. B.'s great work was his practical improvement upon Napier's system of Logarithms (q. v.). He published Brieve, or Breve, is in Scotch law a writing issuing from in I624 his A4rithmteica Logzarithmica, and his Trigozometric-a Chancery (q. v.) in the name of the sovereign, addressed to a Britanzznica was published in I633 after his death. 63 497 * -' _ BRI. THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP.tEDIA. BRI Bright, John, a great English politician and orator, was the blood, producing convulsions and death. (See UREMIA.) born November I6, I8II, at Greenbank, near Rochdale, Lan- Both forms of B. D. are very serious affections, and the advice cashire, where his father, IMr Jacob B., was a cotton-spinner of a physician should be had at once. and manufacturer. B. first showed his powers as a speaker by lectures he delivered before a literary institution in Roch- Bright'on (formerly Brigl'Zelms/one, and originally Bildale. The formation of the Anti-Corn Law League, in 1839, elnmes-slan), a fashionable watering-place on the coast of Sussex, 50 brought him into prominence; he joined it, and was soon recog- miles S. of London by rail, lies on a slope, and is sheltered by the nised as the chief orator in it, and, after his friend Cobden, cliffs of the S. Downs. It is handsomely built, extending along its leading spirit. He entered Parliament in 1843, as member the shore upwards of 3 miles, and has a beautiful beach, and many for Durham, his opinions being those of an advanced Liberal Popular attractions. The chief of these is the aquarium (opened and financial reformer. In I847 he was elected for Manchester, in 1872), which stands below the cliff of the Marine Parade, and which he represented for nearly ten years. Being rejected in a has a length of 715 feet and a breadthof Ioo. It has threecorricontest which took place in his absence on the Continent, he dors and over fifty tanks, ranging from II to Ioo feet in length, was returned in 1857 for Birmingham, and still continues one of and there is also a magnificent conservatory, fitted up as a lounge. its mem~bers. Both in Parliament and out of it, B. has been B. has two piers, a wooden one raised on piles (I865-66), and a known as the opponent of protection, and the advocate of par- chain-pier (I 534 feet long and 53 wide), which, together with the chain-pier (I 134 feet long and 13 wide), which, together with the liamentary reform. For many years he took a great part in liamentary reform. For many years he took a great part inl'parades,' afford ample scope for promenading. The principal agitations throughout the kingdom for household suffrage, and building is the Pavilion or Marine Palace, a partly graceful, these may be said to have been crowned with success by the partly grotesque pile of domes, minarets, and pinnacles. It was passing of the Reform Act, I867, forced upon the Conservative originaly built for George IV. (1784), but was bought for Government by the previous action of their opponents. We ~53,ooo by the corporation (I849), who have opened it and its may mention among the incidents of B.'s parliamentary life, beautiful pleasure-grounds to the public as places of recreation. his opposition to the game-laws, his denunciations of the B. has also the N. Steyne Enclosures, the Lovel, and the Queen's Crimean war, his support of the motion against the second Parks. There is, however, a scarcity of trees everywhere, owing reading of the Conspiracy Bill, which, in I857, overthrew to the adverse sea-breezes. The town has no important trade the Government of Lord Palmerston. his exertions on behalf of but derives its revenues from the ceaseless influx of holiday visitors. the natives of India, and the aid that he gave to the movement There are numerous splendid hotels, boarding-houses, and schools. which resulted in the disestablishment of the Irish Church. B. sends two members to Parliament. Pop. (1871) 90,011. When, after the general election of I868, Mr Disraeli retired from Brignoles', an old town of France, department of Var, on office, and Mr Gladstone became Premier, B. was appointed the Calami, 23 miles W.S.W. of Draguignan. It has an antique President of the Board of Trade. Ill-healtll, however, com- palace of the Counts of Provence, an old house of the Templars, pelled him to resign this post, and to retire from active life. and a beautifiul building bearing date of the I2th c. There are Recovering his health, B. was able in I875 to reappear in manufactures of silks, broadcloth, brandy, soap, leather, &c., Parliament. In the same year he took the chair at the meet- and trade in wines, prunes, and other fruits. Pop. (I872) 4626. ing of Liberal members of Parliament which unanimously elected the Marquis of Hartington as successor to Mr Glad- Brihue'ga, an old and once walled town of New Castile, stone in the leadership of the Liberal party in the House Spain, on the Tajuna, 20 miles E.N.E. of Guadalajara. It has of Commons. B. is the head of the firm of'John B. & manufactures of linen, woollens, glass, leather, &c. Pop. 4500. Brothers,' cotton-spinners in Rochdale. Like his father, he is a Here, in I7Io, the English general Stanhope was compelled to member of the Society of Friends, although he has abandoned surrender to the Duc de Venddme. those peculiarities of speech by which Quakers are usually known. A selection from the Speeches on Questions of Public Policy of B., thus, b at Antwerp in 55, removed to Rome and laoured was published ill two volumes in i868, under the editorship of th~cus, born at Antwerp in 155o, removed to Rome and laboured was published in two volumes in B., a youner the editorshiper of B., in the galleries of the Vatican, where he painted several frescoes. wasfor many yearsone of the representatives of Manchester inPar- He died in I584. Paul B., his younger brother, but the greater liament, where he took the management of a bill for the removl Titia ad Aibalt Antwerprracc. Hi s works, onspiuous for teir of the electorial disabilities of women. He was rejected by Man- Titian and Annibal Carracci. His works, conspicuous for their c athesr atthe general election of I874, and rIet uwrntedC in 1876. fine sky-lights and for their air of rest and solemnity, are to be met with in the Louvre, at Dresden, Florence, Diisseldorf, &c.; Bright's Disease, a name given somewhat vaguely to any but his mastepieces are at Rome. His'Martyrdom of St Cledisease of the kidneys, of which the most marked symptoms are ment,' a fresco 68 feet long, is in thePope's gallery, Rome. le albumen and dropsy. It is so named after the distingushe sopinted landscapes of exquisite delicacy ancd finish on copper. physician who first described it. B. D. is generally applied to B. died at Rome in I626. an affection of the kidneys, which consists essentially of a disease Brill (Rhombus vul/aris), a species of Pleuronecicdzr, or' flatof the cells lining the tubes of the kidneys, in which these cells fishes,' belonging to the turbot genus (Rhombtus), in which the become altered, and speedily desquamate, and thus obstruct the eyes are on the left side of the head, teeth existing in the jaws tubes. This causes serum and fibrine to be exuded into the and throat, and the dorsal fin commencing in front of the eyes. urine, and hence when heat is applied to such urine it becomes These fishes, it is to be noted, are onlyflat in the sense that the white and thick, owing to the coagulation of the Albumen (q. v.) sides of the body are more compressed than in other fishes, and contained in it. The urine becomes scanty, of a dark colour, both eyes, by the twisting of the bones of the head in early and fiequently contains casts of the tubes and cells. On account life, come to be placed on one side of the head. The B. aveof the functions of the kidneys not being properly performed, rages about six or eight pounds in weight. It is not so broad serum is poured into the various cavities of the body and into as the turbot, and is coloured sandy or reddish brown on the the cellular tissue, producing local and general dropsy, with a upper side, spotted with white. The B. forms a characteristic swollen and puffy face. This disease is generally ushered in British food-fish. with shivering, headache, thirst, pain in the small of the back, and vomiting. It may be caused by intemperance, exposure to Brill'iant, the name given to a diamond when cut in a parwet and cold, &c. It frequently follows scarlet fever. Treat- ticular form which displays its lustre to the best advantage. ment consists in warm clothing or confinement to bed, low diet, See DIAMOND. plenty of milk, barley-water, &c., poultices or hot fomentations Brim'stone (formerly brenstone, from Old Eng. byrn, to to the loins, with a dose of purgative medicine, as jalap or scam- brn), the com mercial name for sulphur in stics or rolls. mony. After a few days, steel drops, quinine, and other tonics may be given. The above affection is often called acute B. D. Brin'disi (anc. Bruzndisium), a rapidly-increasing seaport in There is also a chironic form of B. D., sometimes called gouty the province of Lecce, S. Italy, on the coast of the Adriatic, 70 kidney. This disease comes on slowly, may be the result of miles S.E. of Bari by railway. It lies between two headlands acute B. D., but is more frequently the result of gout or some at the mouths of the Patricio and Masina, is surrounded by walls allied affection. Here.iron tonics will be of great benefit. and bastions, and protected by the island-fort St Andrea. B. is A common result of B. D. is the retention of Urea (q. v.) in the seat of a bishop, and has a splendid harbour and roadstead. 498 4 * 3BRI TfE GLOBE EACYICL OPSDA. BRI The harbour consists of an E. and W. inner dock, nearly sur- with his mistress, is understood to have been unwilling to become rounding B., and a strait passage or canal connecting these with her husband. St Croix became the victim of his own crimithe outer docks. These docks have been deepened, walled, and nality, having died suddenly in I672, from accidentally breathing defended by the Government since I866, and are now in an the effluvia of a poison he was preparing. He left papers which excellent state. In- I87o, B. was made a port of embarkation pointed to the guilt of the marchioness, but she escaped to Engin the English overland route, and in I874 the chief Meditella- land, and afterwards resided for some time in a convent at Liege. nean coaling station of the Oriental and Peninsular Company. Here she was captured and conveyed to Paris. Her sentence, In I874 there entered the port 940 vessels of altogether 3IO,I86 that she should be beheaded and her body burnt, was carried tons, and cleared 939 of 380,o6g tons; while the imports into effect July I6, I676. The poison used by B. is thought to amounted to 4363,ooo, exports to /I72,400. The articles of have been common arsenic. See the Histoire du Procks de Za import are chieflyJapanese silkworms' eggs, wheat, flour, coal, Moaruise de B. (Par. I676). raw silk, and cattle; exports, dried fruit, manufactured silk, and coral, olive oil, wine, and jewellery. A marsh near B. (Fiunze BrLoude' (tle ancientuBaivas), a town in the department of Piccolo), the cause of much malaria, was being drained and filled Haute-Loire, France, situated near the Alliel, 29 miles N.W. up iln 875- Pop. (0870) 9105. B. was in very early times a of Le Puy. The principal building is the Byzantine church of chief town of the Sallentines; and the Romans, having taken it St Julien, originally built in the time of Constantine, and rebuilt in 267 B.C., made it a colony in 244, when it rose rapidly into in the ith and I2th centuries. This structure is richly ornawealth and importance, from the fertility of the territory and the ented with the most delicate sculpture. B. has also beautiful excellence of its port both for commercial and naval purposes. fountains of the I3th c. There is a small lace industry, and a trade in wine and maize. Pop. (T872) 4484i B. was the birth. It was called in the native dialect of the Messapians Brention or tade in wine and maize. Pop. ( Brentesion, i.e.,'stag's head,' on account of the configuration of place of Lafayette. its harbour. The chief Roman naval station in the Adriatic, Bris'bane. —. A county in the S.E. part of Queensland.-2. such was its importance, that Hannibal attempted unsuccessfully A river in Queensland, which, after a course first S. and then E. to seize it. The Roman generals embarked and disembarked here the troops that were to cross the Adriatic, as it was the of 170 miles, flows into Moreton Bay (q. v.), in 27' 40' S. lat., most convenient point of communication between Rome and the l5d 43' E. long.-3 An episcopal city, the capital of Queensmost convenient point of communication between R~ome and the land, situated on both banks of number 2, about 25 miles fi'om eastern provinces. Pacuvius the tragic poet was born at B. about its outh, in 27o 2o S. lat., 153 6E. loabout 25s founded as 220 B.C., and here Virgil died 19 B.C. The fall of the Latin its mouth, in 27' 28' S. lat., I53~ 6' E. long. It was founded as Empire reduced the importance of the town. When the Nor- a penal settlement in I825, but was not open to free settlers till 1842. It is pleasantly situated, the river being a quarter mans wrested it from the Greek Empire, in the IIth c., it be- of a mile broad, and the ery picturesque. B. is well laid came the great port of embarkation for the Crusades. The haven of and the scenery picturesque B. is well laid was afterwards greatly destroyed by Duke Anton of Tarentum, o and later by the Venetians. See Cora, Za B. a Suez (Casale ing the Houses of Legislature, which cost /oo,ooo; the I869);* and Andree,'. izn seuller Bdeuungfzr die Ueasaret- viceregal lodge, post-office, and custom-house. None of the i869); and Andree, 80. in seiner Bedeuunffir die Ueberlandc- thirty-one churches is particularly deserving of notice. B..-olite (Stuttg. I870)- possesses some excellent charitable and educational institutions, Brindley, James, a great mechanician and engineer, born and supports four newspapers, two of which are published at Wormhill, in Derbyshire, in I7I6. When forty years old his daily. It is lighted with gas and well supplied with water. attention was turned to inland navigation in connection with Vessels drawing more than sixteen feet cannot come up to B., on the Duke of Bridgewater's canal between Worsley and Man- account of the bar at the mouth of the river. Pop. (I871) chester, and the remainder of his life was devoted to this sub- I9,413. All the foregoing are named after the subject of the I ject, the difficulties of which he grappled with and overcame as succeeding article. no one had done before him. B. died at Turnhurst, Staffordshire, 3oth September I772. Brisbane, General Sir Thomas Maktdougall, G.C.B., was born at Brisbane House, Largs, 23d July I773, entered the Brine is the name given to a strong solution of common salt army in I789, and served under the Duke of York in Holland, in water. and under Sir Ralph Abercromby in the W. Indies. In I812 he Brine Shrimp (.Arlemi salina), a curious genus of Crus- joined Wellington at Coimbra, and distinguished himself at Vittacea, belonging to the section Branchiopoda (q. v.), and to toria and Nives, his conduct in this last action procuring for him the order Phyllaopoda. It derives its name the thanks of Parliament. On the abdication of Napoleon, B. from the fact that it inhabits the brine-pans was sent to N. America in command of a brigade, but wvas of saltworks, and also occurs in natural recalled after the escape from Elba, though not in time for salt lakes, as in the Great Salt Lake of Waterloo. In I8i6 he was elected a corresponding member of Utah. In the Lymington saltpans of Eng- the Institute of France; in I82I, on the recommendation of land, these forms inhabit a briny solution the Duke of Wellington, he was appointed Governor of New of a strength sufficient to pickle beef. The South Wales, where he remained four years. His administration feet are numerous, and bear the branchite was marked by many wise reforms. At an observatory which or gills, and during their development he erected I4 miles from Sydney he catalogued 7385 stars preshrimps then undergo a definite metamor- viously little known, and for this he received the gold medal of p/hosis, and multiply with great fecundity. the Royal Astronomical Society. On his return from Australia \ Brinvill'iers, Marie Marg-L-erite| he erected an observatory at Makerstoun, adding a magnetic d Iotriou forherg ie observatory in I841. On the death of Sir Walter Scott in I833, Iarquise de, notorious for her gallantries B. was elected President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. allnd crimes, wais the daughter of Dreux lHe died 27th January I86o. (Transactions of the Royal Sociely d'Aubray, Municipal Lieutenant of Paris, of Edinburgh, vol. xxii. pp. 589-605.) and was married in i651 to the Marquis de B., who introduced her to a handsome officer, Briss'ot de Warville, Jean Pierre, one of the best of the named St Croix, for whom she conceived an French Revolutionists, was born at Chartres, 14th January 1754. uncontrollable passion. To separate the Although educated for the bar he devoted himself to authorship, lovers, her father imprisoned St Croix in for which his passion for literary studies, particularly history, the Bastille, where he learned from an politics, and political economy, peculiarly qualified him. His Italian named Exili the art of mixing poison. Bibliothzque des Lois Criminelles gained him great reputation as a On his liberation he taughlt his mistress the jurist, and his abilities were recognised by Voltaire and D.'Alemfatal secret. She practised first on her father, bert. His enthusiasm for freedom brought him under the suspiwho died in eight months; she then turned cion of the French court, and he had to take refuge for a time, Brine Shrimp. her art against her two brothers, and next first in England and then in N. America. The outbreak of the against her husband the marquis. But he was Revolution, however, brought him back to Paris. He became saved by antidotes given him by St Croix, who, though he had the representative of Paris in the Constituent Assembly, and his no scruple in wasting in extravagance her paternal inheritance patriotism and ability soon mnade him4the real chief of the party BRI. T~E GIOBE ENC YCL OPsDIA. BRI known as the Girondins. B., however, made a political mistake Chatterton and Southey the poets, Bowdich the African traveller, when he attempted to stem the tide of revolution and save the and many other men of eminence. See B. anzd its Envi-ons, by life of the King. Such was the agitation, credulity, and terror the Local Executive Committee of the British Association of the public mind, that to be moderate in those frenzied days (Brist. 1875). was to court destruction. He and his party fell before the Bristol Bay, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean, on the N. side fiercer faction of the Mountain, and B. was guillotined October 30, 793. B's treatises were published along withis oires of the peninsula of Alaska, U.S. It receives a river of consi30, 1793. B.'s treatises were published along with his Ae'inolr"s derable size, on which there is situated a fort or station. (I829-32) on political and social questions, but they are long forgotten. Bristol-Board is a kind of card-board used in sketching, Bris'tles are modifications of hairs found in various imam- and formed by pasting together two or more thicknesses of white mals. B. differ from hairs chiefly in the denser and firmer paper. nature of their epidermis or horny outer cells. They are ob- Bristol Channel, the largest inlet in Britain, forming an tained chiefly from the backs of wild and domesticated swine, expansion of the estuary of the Severn, and separating S. Wales and are largely imported into Britain from Germany, Poland, from the N. coast of Somerset and Devon. It is about 8o miles Denmark, and Russia, for the purposes of the brushmaker. long, extends from 5 to 48 broad, and receives a drainage area Russia is the great exporting country, the Ukraine B. being of II,ooo square miles. Numerous rivers enter it, the chief of accounted of finest quality. The'lily'-coloured B., used for which are the Severn, Avon, Axe, Parrot, Taw, Torridge, Towy, making shaving and other soft brushes, are the most valued; Taff, Usk, and Wye. The tide, which rises 35 feet at Bristol, other colours being black, grey, and yellow. In I864 Britain 40 at King's Road, and occasionally 70 at Chepstow, flows so imported from Russia I,958,II2 lbs., valued at /252,923; from rapidly as to produce in the mouths of the rivers, and in the Hamburg 207,274 lbs., worth /26,772; from France, Prussia, estuary of the Severn, the phenomenon of the bore, in which the and other parts of Europe, I84,749 lbs., valued at /24,336. water advances in a single wave some 8 feet in height. In I867 the total import amounted to 2,378,526 lbs. Brit'ain. See GREAT BRITAIN. Bris'tol, a cathedral city, the third seaport of England, and the western commercial centre, forms a county in itself, and is Britann'ia was the ancient name of S. Britain and Calesituated between the counties of Gloucester and Somerset, 120 donia. Its derivation has been keenly disputed, and is still miles W. of London by railway. It lies partly in the sheltered doubtful. Tile Celtic brith or brin,'painted,' is extremely imvalleys and plains of the Avon and the Frome, partly on rising probable. A Briton who painted his body would not call attenground and steep slopes, and gains from the irregularities of its tion to the circumstance by a name. A foreigner might have position a singularly picturesque appearance. The site rises done so, but he would hardly have used a Welsh word for the and falls on every side, and there is a difference of 300 feet be- purpose. Isaac Taylor's supposition that the word is mainly tween the highest and lowest levels. Overlooking B. from a Iberic or Basque, and merely signifies a country or district, does hill-top on the opposite side of the Avon is the now incorporated not seem a happy conjecture. Caesar invaded Britain in 55 suburb of Clifton, with which communication is held by means and in 54 B.c. Plautius, Ostorius, and Vespasian under Clauof a magnificent suspension bridge, 702 feet long, and 245 feet dius, and Suetonius under Nero, by their victories, especially above the river at high tide. Some half a million sterling has those over Caractacus and Boadicea, subdued the southern been expended on recent city improvements in the older part of and awed the northern Britons. In 6I A.D., Agricola, under B., but a good deal still remains to be done in this way. B. Vespasian and Domitian, successfully led his legions into the has been called'the city of churches,' and among its principal N., secured his conquests by chains of forts between the Tyne public buildings are the cathedral, which has recently received and the Solway, and between the Forth and the Clyde; penethe addition of a beautiful nave, costing 4o0,000ooo; Redcliffe trated beyond the Forth, sailed round the island, and closed Church,'the finest parish church in England,' with its newly- his seventh campaign, A.D. 84, by the defeat of Galgacus at completed spire and its muniment-room, in which Chatterton Mons Grampius. In II9 A.D., Hadrian drew the frontier of professed to have found the pseudo-poems of Rowley; and the his dominions from the Tyne to the Solway, by strengthenTemple Church, the peculiarity of which is its leaning tower. ing the works of Agricola on that line; but in A.D. I39, There are also some 150 other churches. Of other fine build- Lollius Urbicus once more attempted to maintain the advanced ings may be mentioned Clifton College, erected in I867, the frontier of the Forth and Clyde by strengthening the defences of B. General Hospital, Colston Hall, the West of England Bank, Agricola. In 208 A.D., however, Severus retired on the old the Guildhall, a handsome theatre (I867), and the new Cen- line of Hadrian, and threw up beside it a second earthen ramtral Railway Terminus. A part of the old castle and walls of part. Thereafter, till their final withdrawal from B. in 4IoA.D., B., razed during the civil wars, are still in existence. The har- the Romans ruled the southern portion of the island alone, and bour has been greatly extended and improved, and there are even there they suffered much from the unceasing inroads and now (I876) nearly a mile and a half of quays. B. has manu.- cruel depredations of the Scots and Picts, and of the Saxons. factures of cotton and linen goods, chemicals, leather, floor- At the beginning of the 5th c., B. was divided into five procloth, and earthenware. There is also much sugar-refining, and vinces, Maxima Caesariensis, Flavia Caesariensis, B. Prima, B. an important shipbuilding industry. But it is as the seat of Secunda, and Valentia. These were governed by consulars an old and extensive foreign commerce that B. has risen to and presidents, subject to the Vicarius, at Eboracum (York), the importance. It long monopolised the W. Indian trade, in which seat of the Roman government. At that time also there were one of the chief commodities was the African slave, and now ninety-two considerable towns, protected by the Romans, and possesses a rich share of British commerce. In 1873 there of these thirty-three were cities; and the British Church might entered the port II45 vessels in the foreign and colonial trade reckon thirty or forty bishops. The antiquities of B. are partly (408,999 tons), and 8208 coasting vessels (I87,773 tons); cleared, British and partly Roman. The former consist of barrows, 469 vessels in the foreign and colonial trade (650,072 tons), and earth-mounds, monoliths, cromlechs, and cairns; the latter, of 839I coasting vessels (855,266 tons). Pop. (I871), municipal, pavements, altars, metal implements and ornaments, pottery, 182,552; with suburban districts, 204,040. B. returns two mem- encampments, walls, roads, coins, and inscriptions. bers to Parliament. It is first mentioned in early records by the Britannia Metal, a compound metal of a white, silvery old British name of Caer-oder, and after being a Roman station, aspect, of considerable malleability, extensively used for the was re-occupied by the Britons, who were expelled in 584 by the cheper class oftea-pots, spoons, hot-water jugs, &. It is cor English, by whom it was called Bricgstow (' the place of the heaper class of tea-pots, spoons, hot-water jugs, &c. It is com6 gi b o w al 1igo h lco h posed of equal parts of brass, tin, antimony, and bismuth. See bridge'), hence its present name. In these early times, even, it posed of equal parts of brass, tin, antimony, and ismuth. See acquired a reputation for trade, especially in British slaves. In 1372 Edward III. made it an independent city and county, and it Britannia Tubular Bridge, a bridge carrying the Cheswasconstituteda bishop'ssee byHenryVIII. The BridgeeRiots ter and Holyhead Railway over the Menai Straits. It was took place in 1793, but were far eclipsed by the famous Reeform designed by Mr Robert Stevenson, commenced in I846, and Bill Riots of I831, in which some 500 persons were killed, and completed in I85o. The difficulties in its construction were Ioo houses burned, including the mansion-house, the prisons, and numerous, among which the piincipal were that the nature of the bishop's palace. B. is the birthplace of Cabot the navigator, the site rendered it necessary that the two principal spans should ^ 500 BRI THE GLOBE ENCYCLOPEDIA. BRI each have a clear width of 460 feet, and that the parliamentary of the line; the departmental corps. The royal marines, when committee insisted that the under side of the roadway should acting with the troops of the line, take rank next to the 49th nowhere be less than Io3 feet above high-water mark. The regiment. The rifle brigade ranks next to the 93d regiment. latter condition rendered it impossible to use an arch, and it did The militia regiments have precedence after those of the line, not seem practicable to stiffen a suspension bridge sufficiently to according to their respective numbers, as fixed by lot. There render it safe for railway traffic. The girder bridges, now uni- are, in addition to these, other component elements which do versally used, were unknown, and the theory of beams imper- not remove the men, making them up from their rank as civilians. fectly understood. Under all these difficulties and disadvantages, Besides the militia, there are the yeomanry cavalry, the volunteer Mr Stevenson conceived the idea of making the bridge of huge artillery and rifles, the enrolled pensioners, and the dockyard hollow beams, through the centre of which trains should run, battalions. The corps raised in and belonging to the principal and proved its practicability by an elaborate series of experiments colonies, and the troops maintained out of the revenues of India, on the strength of tubular beams, in which Sir William (then also belong to the army of the British Empire, if not to the B. Mr) Fairbairn, Mr Eaton Hodgkinson, and Mr Edwin Clark A. Under various laws of army reorganisation, which were took part. The tubes of which the bridge consist are made of completed in 1873, Great Britain and Ireland are partitioned wrought-iron plates riveted together (a method of construction into ten military districts, or general officers' commands, which then almost as novel as the design of the bridge), the top and are further subdivided into sub-districts, the division varying with bottom of the tubes being cellular. The four tubes composing the arms of the service. There are sixty-six sub- or brigade-disthe two centre spans each weigh about I8oo tons; they were tricts for the infantry, commanded by line colonels; for the constructed on shore, floated on pontoons to the piers, and then artillery there are twelve sub-districts, commanded by artillery raised by hydraulic presses into their places at the rate of about colonels; and there are two districts for the cavalry, commanded 6 feet per day-the speed being limited by the rate at which by cavalry colonels. The brigade of an infantry sub-district conbrickwork could be built up underneath the tubes as they were sists, as a rule, of two line battalions-one generally abroad and lifted. The total cost of the bridge was over f6o,ooo, and it the other at home-two militia battalions, the brigade depot, w-as completed in less than five years. rifle volunteer corps, and infantry of the army reserves. An arritannic Insul was th nam givn by writrs earlier tillery sub-district contains, in addition to the royal artillery, the rithann'ic In'sutwael was the ilname gisven by writers militia artillery, the artillery of the volunteers, and that of the than Cesar to the two large islands, Albion and Ierne, and the miii numerous smaller ones around them. Albion was England armyreserve. The cavalry colonel commands the cavalry regiand Scotland; Ierne, Ireland. Coesar first calls Albion Brit- ents within his district, and also the yeomanry, volunteers, and annia, as opposed to Ierne. Ptolemy calls Ierne Little Britain; regiments n th(See B. A. has varied very little number of regiments in the B. A. has varied very little since I820. orand Alion, Great Britain. Henc the legend onour coins, Britt., There are at present (1875) 3i regiments of cavalry, 2 of artillery and engineers, and 113 of infantry —46 regiments in all. The Brit'ish Army. The basis of the modern B. A. is the Bill number of men in the army is enlarged or lessened, not by emof Rights, which became law in I69o, as the legalised form of bodying new regiments or disbanding any of those which exist, that Declaration of Rights (q. v.) which the Prince and Princess but by varying the number of battalions in a regiment, of comof Orange accepted along with the British crown. It enacts that panies in a battalion, or of men in a company. The effective the raising and keeping up of a standing army in time of peace, numbers of the B. A. in I874 were: officers, 9780; soldiers, without consent of Parliament, is contrary to law. From the 215,055: total, 224,835. There were 26,453 horses for men in time of the passing of that Act to the present, the number of the cavalry, and 4177 officers' horses: total, 30,630. The reserve troops required for the security of the kingdom, and its posses- forces-including the yeomanry cavalry, the militia, and the sions and dependencies, as well as details of the cost of different volunteers-counted 302,868 officers and men, with 19,420 branches of the service, has been sanctioned annually by a vote horses. The total number of the regular army and the reserves of the House of Commons. The Government of the day, from in that year, then, was 527,702 men, and 50,050 horses. Ara.political view of the state of affairs at home and abroad, fixes, rangements were completed in 1875 for a complete mobilisation at a meeting of the Cabinet, held shortly before the beginning of of the B. A. (See MOBILISATION.) The total cost of the B. A. a parliamentary session, the amount of military service required for the year ending March 3I, I874, was,I3,23I,400. The for the coming year. The Secretary of State for War then establishments for educational purposes in the same year were frames his Army Estimates (q. v.), and these are discussed and reckoned in the army estimates to costI133,930. These comfinally settled for the year early in the session by the House of prise the council of military education, the academy at WoolCommons. The Mutiny Act (q. v.), first passed in I689, and wich, the college at Sandhurst, the asylum and normal school which has to be annually renewed, supplies Parliament with at Chelsea, the military school at Dublin, the department for inanother important means of controlling the B. A. Soldiers, in struction of military officers, the military medical school, and a time of war or rebellion, being subject only to martial law, are varying number of garrison schools and libraries. obnoxious to that law for mutiny, desertion, or any other military offence, and may be punished by it accordingly. But when the British Association for the Advancement of Science army began to be maintained in time of peace, questions of dis- is an association of scientists eminent in their several departcipline arose, and it was decided in the courts of law that, in the ments, and was primarily formed with the intention of giving absence of any statute specially applicable to their circumstances, an impetus to scientific inquiry and discovery, of publishing over a soldier was amenable only to the common law of the country: the whole country the latest results of such research, and of exif he deserted, he could be punished for breach of contract; if citing in the mihnd of the British public a desire for more thorhe struck his officer, he was liable merely to an indictment for ough acquaintance with scientific facts and theories. The B. A. assault. The authority of Parliament became, therefore, neces- was established by Sir David Brewster, Sir R. J. Murchison, sary for the maintenance of military discipline, and the Mutiny and others; but its conception and foundation must in great Act invests the crown with extensive powers to make regulations measure be ascribed to Brewster, through whose exertions the for the good government of the army, and to frame the articles first meeting was held at York on September 27, I83I. At this of war which constitute the military code of laws. As to the meeting the society was divided into several sections, laws and supply of men to fill its ranks, the B. A. differs from that of nearly bylaws passed affecting its constitution, its next place of meetevery other military power in Europe. Service in it is voluntary. ing determined, and subjects proposed on which reports were Subjects of the crown, of their own choice, enlist in it for a then to be read. The president delivers an inaugural address, specified number of years-twenty-one years' service securing a which is usually an enumeration and criticism of the latest and pension. The only service which is forced by ballot is in the most striking discoveries. The place of meeting for I876 is Militia (q. v.). The following order of precedence, contained in Glasgow (for I877, Plymouth), and the president-elect is Sir the Army Regulations published in I873, presents also the prin- Robert Christison. The B. A. embraces at present seven sections, cipal component elements of the B. A. The order of precedence thus named-Section A, Mathematics and Physical Science; B, *of the several regiments and corps in Her Majesty's service is: Chemistry; C, Geology; D, Zoology and Botany, including Phythe regiments of life-guards and the royal regiment of horse- siology; E, Geography and Ethnology; F, Economic Science guards; the royal horse-artillery; the cavalry of the line; the and Statistics; G, Mechanical Science and Engineering. The royal artillery; the royal engineers; the foot-guards; the infantry Proceidin gs (I831-75) form a valuable scientific library. 50i * K.. 4 + BRI THE GLOBE PNCY~CLOP/~DIA. BRI British Gum, or Dextrine, is obtained either by heatingstarch brief notice of the contents of the several departments is subby itself to a temperature of I 50, or by maintaining a mixture of joined:I part of starch, 3 of water and ~ of oil of vitriol for some time at' I. Printed Books.-These form the largest department in the a temperature of go' C. Dextrine is a solid amorphous sub- museum. The Sloane collection, and a much smaller one bestance, soluble in water in all proportions. Its solution in water queathed to the nation in 1738 by Major Edwards, formed the is mucilaginous, and is much used as a substitute for gum arabic, nucleus. In I757 George II. gave to the museum the library colespecially by the calico-printer, as a vehicle for colours. Its lected by the Kings of England from Henry VII. downwards, the chemical composition is identical with that of starch, both hay- giftincluding the libraries of Cranmer and Casaubon. With the gift ing the formula C5H100; it differs from starch in colouring of the royal library, the same sovereign conveyed to the museum dilute solutions of iodine red, whereas starch colours them blue, the right to a copy of every publication entered at Stationers' Diastase (q. v.), or dilute sulphuric acid, causes it to take up Hall. A number of private donors, chief among whom were water to form glucose, or grape-sugar. Dr Bentley and Sir Joseph Banks, swelled the contents of the C6H1001 + H20 = C611206 library. In 1823 came the gift of George IV. already mentioned. Its value was nearly 200oo,ooo, and by the terms of the gift it is Dextrine. Water. Glucose. kept separate from the other books, being known as the King's Library. In 1846 the Right Hon. Thomas Grenville bequeathed British Museum, a national collection of the greatest value, to the museum his own library, containing more than 20,000ooo situated in London. It dates its origin from a bequest by Sir volumes. At the present time (1875) the entire library of the Hans Sloane in I753. Sir Hans directed that his library, con- B.. M.'consists of about Soo,ooo volumes, besides a much larger sisting of 50,000 volumes, and his valuable collection of antiqui- number of parts of volumes. During 1874 there were added to ties and works of art, should be handed over to the Government it 37,000 volumes, of which 28,000 were purchased. These on condition of /20,ooo being paid to his family. By means figures include music and newspapers. More than 4o,00ooo parts of a lottery the sum Of 694,194 was raised, and the required of volumes were also added during the same period. The /20,000 -was thereupon paid for the Sloane collection. This, average daily number of readers in the reading-room in 1874 was with the Hamilton collection of Roman antiquities, and the Cot- 358. More than 29,000 volumes firom the general library were tonian and I-Iarleian collections of MSS., was placed in Mon- consulted, besides 825,ooo000 taken by students from the shelves of tague House, the Duke of Montague's town residence, which the reference library. Permission to use the reading-room is was bought for the purpose. Thenceforth the new institution now easily obtained, but originally the en/r9e was confined to a bore the name of'The B. M.' It was opened to the public for privileged few. In July 1759 the reading-room was attended by the first time on I5th January I759. Large and valuable addi- only five readers. Accommodation is now provided for 300 tions being rapidly made to the contents of the museum, the readers, each of whom is allotted a space four feet three inches accommodation afforded by Montague House soon became quite long. The B. M. library contains upwards of twenty-five miles insufficient. At length, on the library formed by George III. of shelves, on wlich are to be found the rarest and most precious being presented to the nation by George IV. in 1823, it was re- books, among them being copies of the first edition of almost solved to erect a new building. The plans were prepared by Sir every famous English work extant. Of some books there are R. Smirke, and the eastern side of the present edifice was com- copies of many editions-e.g., of the Pilgrimn's Progress, seventypleted in 1828. By 1845 Montague House had disappeared, five in English, and twenty-nine in other languages; of the and the new building been erected in its stead. Further addi- Paradise Lost, seventy-two in English, and fifty-two in other tions have been made to the building at various times, the most languages; and of Robinson Crusoe, one hundred, of which important being the new reading-room and adjoining libraries. seventy-four are in English. The catalogues form quite a library The reading-room was erected in the three years 1855-57, at a in themselves, as may be conceived from the fact that the headcost of aboutfI5o,ooo. Iron has been principally employed in ing'William Shakespeare' alone fills two folio volumes. its construction, the main ribs resting upon brick arches. The 2. A Lanuscyiipts.-These are principally bound in volumes, dome is o106 feet in height, and I40 feet in diameter. The and comprise many priceless treasures. The collection has been quantity of glass used is about 6o,ooo square feet. Great pains added to at different times by various donors. Among its conhave been taken to ensure proper ventilationm Thie building tents may be enumerated the original Aflagna C/larta, a mortcomprising the reading-room and library, is situated in the inner gage-deed signed by Shakespeare, Milton's contract for the quadrangle, and in order to lessen the danger from fire, the disposal of the Paradise Lost, and the original MSS. of many building is separated from the rest of the museum by a clear famous English works; many precious documents of much space of 28 feet. This inner building occupies an area of 48,000 greater antiquity, such as the Codex Alexandrintus (a transcript square feet. The exterior edifice belongs to the Ionic style of of the Bible in uncial Greek, dating from the 5th c.), and the architecture. It is in the form of a square, the southern face, earliest copies of the.liad and Odyssey; likewise autographs of towardls Great Russell Street, being the principal one. It con- celebrities of many ages and nations. sists of a columnar facade 370 feet long, with a grand entrance 3. Oriental Antiquities-In this department are included portico at the centre. Including the houses of the chief officers, Egyptian and Assyrian antiquities, The former comprise sculpsituated one at each end of the front of the building, the entire tures of all kinds and sizes inscribed with H-ieroglyphics (q. v.), face of the museum is 570 feet in length. idols, articles of dress and furniture, mummies, &c. One of the The museum.is under the management of forty-eight trustees, most interesting and valuable of the objects exhibited is the celethe chief of whom are the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Lord brated Rosetta Stone (q. v.). The Assyrian antiquities include Chancellor, and the Speaker of the House of Commons. During the sculptures brought from Nimrud, Khorsabad, and KouyunI875 the staff of the museum consisted of 23 principal officers, 87 jik by Layard and others, many of them being covered with plcassistants, I45 attendants and servants, and 67 artisans, &c.-in torial representations of historical events, and inscribed with all, 322 persons. The total sum voted for the maintenance of cuneiform characters. In i873-74 valuable additions were made the establishment and all other expenses during the financial to this collection in the shape of a large number of burnt clay year 1875-76 was'107,451. The museum is open free to the tablets, excavated at Kouyunjik by Mr George Smith. These public every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, as well as every tablets have been in part deciphered by Mr Smith, who has Saturday during the summer months. During 1874 the museum found them to contain Chaldean legends of the creation, fall, was visited by 6o01,843 persons, including those by whom the deluge, building of the Tower of Babel, &c. The tablets were reading-room was used. presented to the museum by the proprietors of the Daily 7eleThe contents of the B. M. were originally divided into three graph, at whose expense Mr Smith's labours in Assyria were departments-viz., Printed Books, MSS., and Natural History. conducted. At the present time there are, in addition to these, eight other 4. British and Mediceval Antiquities nld Eehnog,,raphy. -1I departments-viz., Oriental Antiquities, British and Medimeval this department are to be found antiquities anterior to the Roman Antiquities and Ethnography, Greek and Roman Antiquities, occupation of Britain, antiquities of the Roman period, AngloCoins and Medals, Botany, Prints and Drawings, Palmontology Saxon anticluities, and sculptures, carvings, metal-work, enamels, and Mineralogy. Each of these departments is under the im- glass, pottery, &c., of different European nations down to the mediate charge of an'under-librarian,' the head officer of the 17th c. There is also a small collection of antiquities found in entire establishment being styled the'principal librarian.' A the catacombs of Rome, and relating to the early Christians. 502 - __ I~ ------— o2 —------ BRI THEE GLOBE ENC YCLOPi.EDIA. BRI The ethnographical collection includes both the antiquities and the ablest naval architect England had produced, lived during the the objects in modern use belonging to all nations not of Euro- reign of James I., and the art of shipbuilding was indebted to hinm pean race. for many improvements. At the death of James, in 1625, the B. 5. Greek and Roman Antiquities.-The most famous of the N. consisted of 33 ships, their tonnage measuring I9,400. Charles Grecian antiquities contained in this collection are —the Lycian I. divided the navy into rates and classes. At the beginning of Gallery, consisting of a number of bas-reliefs, friezes, &c., his reign he caused several new ships to be built,-among others, brought from the ancient cities of Lycia in Asia Minor in the Soverezgn of the Seas, IOO guns, I637 tons, the largest 1842-46 by a British Government expedition under the direction ship that had ever been built in England. But it was under of Sir C. Fellows; the Elgin Marbles (q. v.), collected by the Cromwell that the ratings were clearly defined, and that regular seventh Earl of Elgin in I80I-3, and purchased from him in system was established which remains in force to the present I8i6 by the nation for 635,ooo; and the Hellenic marbles, time. At the Protector's death, in I658, the ships in the navy numobtained in various parts of Greece (exclusive of Attica) and its bered I57; their tonnage, 2I,9IO; and they carried 50,ooo men. colonies. The most valuable of the last is a collection known as A new era in the B. N. began at the Restoration. of Charles II., the Phigalian Marbles, discovered in I812 amongst the ruins of in I66o. Under the energetic administration of the Lord High the temple of Apollo Epicurius, near the ancient city of Phi- Admiral, the Duke of York, the royal fleet became a fine armagalia, in Arcadia. In I874 there were added a number of ment. Notwithstanding the decay into which it had been valuable inscriptions excavated by Mr Wood on the site of the allowed to fall during a portion of his reign, at the death of Temple of Diana at Ephesus. Of the Roman collection, one Charles, in I686, the navy amounted to I79 ships, of 103,558 of the leading features is the gallery containing the Townley tons. During this reign great advance was made in mechanical Marbles, purchased for ~20,000 in 1805, after the death of Mr science, and it was at once applied to naval architecture. When Charles Townley, by whom they were collected. They consist the Duke of York mounted the throne, as James II., he conof a number of statues and busts. The other Roman antiquities tinued to evince a warm interest in the B. N. At his abdicaconsist principally of vases, called Etruscan, bronze ornaments tion, in I688, it was a force of 173 vessels, of IOI,892 tons, and weapons, lamps, urns, &c., as well as architectural frag- 6930 guns, and 42,003 men. Under William and Mary, 99 new ments. ships were added to the fleet; and it was the celebrated en6. Coins and Medals.-In this department is arranged an gagement off Cape la Hogue, in I692, which gave the B. N. its immense number of coins, &c., of every age, the Roman and ascendancy over that of France. At her accession, Queen Anne Anglo-Saxon collections being the most noteworthy. The came into possession of a navy consisting of 272 vessels, of I 59,020 arrangement of the department is most excellent. tons; and during her reign many measures adding to the strength 7. Botany.-To the bequest of Sir H. Sloane, consisting of and efficiency of the fleet were adopted. At her death, in about 800o species, many valuable additions were made in suc- I7I4, there were I98 ships, Io,6oo guns, I67,II9 tons,-fewer ceeding years, both by bequest and by purchase. Chief among vessels than at the beginning of her reign, but a tonnage larger the bequests was that of the splendid herbarium of Sir Joseph by 8I99. New dimensions for several classes of ships were Banks in 1820; and among the purchases may be mentioned established during the reign of George I., at whose death, in that of Professor Nuttall's collection in I86o. There is also on I727, the navy consisted of 203 ships, of I70,862 tonnage. The view a large collection of woods and other vegetable structures wars during the reign of George II., and the signal successes not suited to a herbarium, achieved by the B. N., led to considerable augmentation of it. 8. Prints and Dr)awings.-Up to I840 the collections of this A scale of increased dimensions was established; and when department consisted entirely of bequests, but since that date ex- that monarch died, in I760, there were 412 ships, measuring tensive purchases have been made, and there are now to be seen 32I,I04 tons, the vote for the naval service of that year being here drawings and engravings illustrative of all the schools of f5,6II,508, 51,645 sailors, and I8,355 marines. The progress European art. of the navy during the long reign of George III. was unpre9. Paneontology.-This department contains a valuable and cedented. The struggle with America and revolutionary France interesting collection of fossil animals and plants, obtained in all led to an immense increase of the B. N., the result being its parts of the globe. undisputed sovereignty of the seas. From the commencement Io. Mlineralogy,.-The collections of this department occupy of hostilities with France in I793 to the peace of 1815, the four rooms, and among their most interesting features may be British took from their enemies I55 line-of-battle ships, and mentioned the meteorites, including one weighing 3. tons, found 586 smaller war-vessels; while their enemies took from them at Cranbourne, Australia. 5 of the former, and 15I of the latter class of war-ships. I. Aaznuad His'tory.-This department received by gift, Since 18I5 the B. N. has been reconstructed by the building made during I874, Mrs J. E. Craig's collection of shells, of larger ships, the introduction of steam power, and-the adopcomprising I2,000 specimens, representing 4000 species. In tion of armour-plated vessels. Many of these iron-clad ships the same year there was purchased for its use Mr Edward revive an ancient mode of warfare by being used as'rams;' Saunders's collection of beetles, numbering 7267 specimens. the metal prows and screw propellers, however, are something The zoological collections at present occupy three galleries, infinitely more destructive than the peaked galleys of the ancients. but as this space is quite inadequate to their requirements, a (See RAM.) The most recent feature of naval reconstruction has new building, intended specially for their accommodation, is been a decrease in the number of guns simultaneously with an in course of erection adjoining the South Kensington Museum. enormous increase of their power and range. A heavy armourThe total cost of this new building will be ~395,oo000o, and it will plated war-sloop of the present day, it has been estimated, probably be completed in I877. See Edwards' Lives of the would be more than a match for a fleet of the class of first-rates Founders of the B. A. (2 vols. Lond. I870), and Nichols' Handy- known to Nelson. In the iron-clad fleet the heaviest guns and book of the B. M. for Everyday Readers (2d ed. Lond. I870). armour are carried by Turret Ships (q.'v.). The number of seamen and marines provided for the naval British Navy, the materiel and personnel of the war-fleet of service of Great Britain in the estimates for I873-74 was as Great Britain. A naval force in time of peace was first main- follows: —Seamen, 34,000; boys, including 3000 for training, tained in this country by King Henry VII., who built the Great 7500; marines afloat, 8o00; on shore, 600ooo-total, 55,000. For HAary, a three-masted ship, carrying 80o guns, the first line-of- the coastguard, the officers and men on shore numbered in the battle ship of the B. N. Henry VIII. matured very consider- estimates 4300; and I200 were reckoned for Indian service. ably his father's plans for the establishment of a permanent fleet Adding these to the total given above, 6I,ooo officers and men of ships of war. Among others, he caused to be built the Regenzt, were the Jersonnel of the B. N. in I874. In the same year the the Marie Rose, and the celebrated Henri Grdce de Diev, 72 fleet consisted of 57 armour-plated vessels, about 300 steam and guns, 700 men, and Iooo tons burden. At the end of his reign, 170 sailing vessels-total, 527. The expenditure on the navy in 1547, there was a navy comprising 71 vessels of all sorts, and for the year ending March 3p, I874, was estimated at ~9,872,725. measuring II,268 tons. The naval force of England was con- As in the army, the naval force of the United Kingdom is residerably diminished during the reign of Edward VI. and Mary; cruited by voluntary enlistment. The men are divided into two but the exigencies of the long reign of Elizabeth caused it to classes, those who engage for ten years' continuous service, and revive greatly; and at her death, in I603, the fleet counted 42 those who volunteer for shorter periods, the former being paid at ships, measuring 17,055 tons, and 8346 seamen. Phineas Pett, a higher rate. _503 BRI T7HE GLOBE ENCYCLOPADIA. BRO The government of the navy is vested in the Board of Admir- Broad'sword, a sword with a broad blade. Being used for alty. It consists of five members:-The First Lord, who has cutting only, it has no sharp point for stabbing, like the sabre, supreme authority, all questions of importance being left to his and is very little used in the British army. decision; the Senior Naval Lord, who directs the movements of the fleet, and is responsible for its discipline; the Third Brocade', a tissue of silk on which a damask figured pattern,w hdand superi is woven. Brocades are chiefly used as an upholstery cloth for Lord, who has the management of the dockyards, and superinfurniture and hangings. tends the building of ships; the Junior Naval Lord, who has to do with the victualling of the fleets and the transport department; Brocage. See BROKER. and the Civil Lord, who is answerable for the accounts. and the Civil Lord, who is answerable for the accounts. Brocage Bonds are, in England, bonds by which a reward British Wine. See GINGER-WINE. is stipulated for on account of the promotion of a particular marriage, by means of influence to be exerted over one of the parties. They are legally void, as being contrary to the freedom of marBritt'lestar, a genus of starfishes (Echinodermalia) included riage. in the order Ofjhiuroidea of that class. They are distinguished Brocc'oli, a garden variety of the common cabbage (B. from common starfishes by the fact that the viscera or organs oleracea), said originally to have been brought to Italy or other of the body are confined to the central disc or body, and do parts of Europe from the island of Cyprus in the i6th c. It is not extend into the rays; whilst the ambulacral or'walking' a variety of the Cauliflower (q. v.), differing from it in having system of tube feet is rudimentary, and not adapted for loco- coloured instead of white heads, and in having a deeper tinge of motion. The brittlestars form the genus Ophiocoma, and the colour in the leaves. It is also cultivated in much the same way familiar species are the common B. (O. rosula), 0. neglecta (the as the cauliflower. There are various varieties, the most esteemed'grey B.'), 0. pu)nctata, and 0. filiformis. They derive their of which, especially for late sowing and spring use, are the Cape popular name from their curious habit of breaking off their rays broccolis. when irritated or touched; and, from this peculiarity, it is a rare occurrence to secure a perfect specimen. The arms are Brochure' (Fr. brocher, to stitch), a word imported from the five in number, and of simple form. French, strictly denotes a small printed work, not bound, but only stitched together; but in England, at least, it is applied loosely Brittlewort. See DIATOMACERE. to any publication bearing on a question of the day, whether Britt'on, John, a topographical and antiquarian writer, born bound or not. 7th July I77I, at Kingston-St-Michael, Wiltshire. Deprived of Brock'en (Lat. Mons Melibrocus), the loftiest peak in the sufficient education by the death of his parents, he led a precari- Hartz Mountains, situated in Stolberk-Wernigerode, Prussian ous life until he was engaged by the editor of the SjortingMlaga- Saxony, is popularly known as the Blocksberg (q. v.), and is a zine to prepare the Beauties of Wiltshire. After writing descrip- centre of German legend and fairy-tale. It is 3740 feet high, tions of other counties, B. devoted himself to producing magni- consists chiefly of granite, and has a wild, barren summit, from ficent illustrated works on old buildings in England and the which in clear weather there is a splendid prospect. The wellContinent. His chef-d'cuvre is The Cathedral Antiquities of known phenomenon of the Brockenoe.s6ent, or spectre of the B., England (14 vols. I814-35), with more than 300 plates. In all, is caused by the level light of sunrise or sunset throwing the B. produced nearly ninety works. He died Ist January I857. shadow of intervening objects on the dense mist by which the.Brive-la-Gaillarde, a town in the department of Correze, peak is frequently veiled. At the base of the dome-like summit, France a-Gaill rde, Xthlfba of An the.orr.epazn o, a n iy and 3250 feet high, lies the Bro2ckenfeld, an extensive morass, in France, on the left bank of the Corrize, and on the railway be- which the rivers Bode, Ocker, Raday, and Oder take their rise. tween Bordeaux and Lyon, 15 miles S.W. from Sulle. It has a fine collegiate church, St Martin, of the I3th c., and is some- Brock'haus, Friedrich Arnold, a great German publisher, times called the capital of the Bas-Limousin, at the S. base of born at Dortmund, formerly a free imperial town, now in the which it lies, in a region fertile in fruits, wheat, maize, and wine. Prussian province of Westphalia, 4th May 1772. In I808 he B. has an active export trade in millstones and slates. Pop. purchased the copyright of the Conversations-Lexicon, of which (I872) 80oi6. the first edition was completed in I8Io, and the second in i812.'these were published at Altenburg. In I817 he transferred his 3Brix'ham, Upper and Lower, a market-town and seaport business to Leipsic, where he was very prosperous. B. died of Devonshire, England, on Tor Bay, 5 miles S. of Torquay.20th August 1823. He was an enlightened patriotic and lovThe Dartmouth and Torquay branch of the S. Devon Railway able man. The publishing business was carried on at first by his has a station at Brixham Road, two miles from the town. Its sons, Friedrich B., born 23d September i800, at Dortmund, prosperity depends chiefly on its fisheries. Upwards of 2oo and Heinrich B., born 4th February 1804, at Amsterdam, vessels are engaged in trawling, and large quantities of turbot, along with Karl Ferdinand Bochmann (died 12th February I852); sole, mackerel, and other fish are exported to London, Bristol, but on the ist of January I850 Heinrich B. undertook the sole Exeter, &c. B. has also, however, a number of vessels engaged in management and responsibility. He is assisted by his two sons, coasting and foreign (chiefly Mediterranean) trade. Pop. (i87) Heinrich Eduard B., born 7th August 1829, and Heinrich 4941. B. is historically interesting as the landing-place of Wil- Rudolf B., born I6th July 1838, and has not only sustained, liam of Orange, November 4, 1688. but even extended, the reputation of the firm. To him we owe Brizure', Brize, Bris6, in heraldry, a difference or mark of the ioth and IIth editions of the Conversations-Lexicon, the cadency, indicating that a charge is broken. former of which appeared in I853-55, and the latter in I864-68, with two supplementary volumes in I872-73. H:Eermann B., Broach, or Broche, in architecture, is a term applied to a third son of Friedrich Arnold B., was born at Amsterdam, 28th spire which springs direct from the tower without any interme- January I8o6, and since 184i has been Professor of Sanskrit at diate parapet. Leipsic. He has written and edited many valuable works, and Broach. See BAROACH. since I856 has been the editor of that colossal work, still unfinished, the A4lgenmeine Encyclopi'die of Ersch and Gruber. Broad Arrow (-) is the Government mark or stamp cut into or affixed to all solid material in dockyards and elsewhere Brock'ville, a flourishing town in the Gominiod of Canada belonging to the crown. The origin of the lmark is not known. province of Ontario, and a station on the Grand Trunk Railway, Any one in possession of goods so marked is liable in heavy lies on the left bank of the St Lawrence, 65 miles S. of Ottawa. penaltiesIt has extensive hardware manufactures. Pop. about 65oo00. penalties~~~~~~~. ~All the steamers plying between Montreal, Kingston, Toronto, Broad-Bill. See SHOVELLER. and Hamilton stop at B., and a steamer leaves daily for Chicago and intermediate ports. Broad'side, in a sea-fight, is the discharge at the same instant of all the guns along one side of a ship of war; and by the Bro'die, Sir Benjamin Collins, a distinguished surgeon, weight of shot and shell capable of being fired at one time the was born June 9, 1783, at Winterslow, near Salisbury, Wiltfighting power of a ship is sometimes estimated. shire, studied under Sir Everard Home at St George's Hospital, 504 dar Gr —--------— ~~ BRO THE GLOBE ENC YCLOPEDIA. BROC where he subsequently became surgeon, was created a baronet in process. The meat should be brought quite close to the fire, 1834, and appointed serjeant-surgeon to the Queen, and died by which it is rapidly scorched on the surface, and frequently 21st October I862. B. is the author of Lectures on Local lerv- turned, either by turning the apparatus or with a small pair of ous Aftections (I837), Lectures Illustrative of Subjects in Pathology tongs; but it should not be pierced with any instrument, ag and Surgery (I840), Psychological nquiries as to lmenttal Faculties thereby the nutritive juices would be allowed to escape. In a (1854), and several other works. See Autobiography of Sir very few minutes the meat is sufficiently cooked, and the process B. B. (Lond. I865). His son, Sir B. C. B., born in 18I7, is thus a rapid means of procuring a savoury and nutritious was appointed Professor of Chemistry at Oxford in I855, and has meal. contributed several scientific papers to the Philosophical Trans- actiozs, and to the yolwzgral of the Chemical Society. Bro'ken Xnees (in horses), an injury or abrasion of the actions, and to the 7ournal of the Chemical Society.'knee'-which, however, in reality is the horse's carp/us or Brodie, William, born at Banff, 22d January I815, com- wrist-resulting generally from a fall or severe bruise. The in. menced modelling in Aberdeen in I840, went to Edinburgh in jury naturally varies much in its character and in the effects 1846, and studied at the art schools there. He exhibited first in which it leaves, as exhibited in the form of cicatrices or unsightly I847, was elected Associate in I852, and Academician in I859. scars. The'broken-kneed'or'scarred' horse has thus a greatly In his statues, busts, and imaginative subjects he has shown fine depreciated value. The causes of this accident are due to whatever fancy and delicacy of treatment. Among his ideal statues are impairs the sure footing of the horse-such as imperfect shoeing,'Corinna,' in the possession of Mrs Baird of Stitchell;'C Enone,' stumbling on stones, &c. The treatment of this accident par. belonging to Lady Ashburton;'Hecamede,' executed for Lord takes of that adapted for ordinary contusions. Great attention Taunton;'Summer and Winter,' for J. Young, Esq. of Kelly, should be paid to the thorovugh cleansing' of the wound from par&c. Among his public statues are those of the late Prince Con- tides of dirt, stones, &c. The wound is then to be washed sort at Perth, Sir David Brewster and Sir James Y. Simpson with cold water, and to be bandaged with cold-water cloths, freat Edinburgh, the late Master of the Mint (Dr Graham) at quently renewed. If the joint has been opened into-the worst Glasgow, &c.; while among his busts and portrait-statues are form of this injury-and a feverish condition ensues, a free purge, those of Her Majesty the Queen, Lady Kiinnaird, Lord Barcaple, mashes, and low diet should be given, as in antiphlogistic treatSir Robert Christison, Dr Guthrie, and Principal Candlish. ment generally; whilst the wound should be poulticed to thor. oughly clean it, if foreign bodies are still contained within the Bro'dy, formerly Lubnitz, a thriving free town of E. Galicia, deep wound. During the later stages, and when the wound is Austria, near the Russian frontier, with manufactures of leather healing, mild, stimulating, or astringent washes of zinc or copper and linen, and a large trade in the products of Poland, Russia, sulphate, or of acetate of lead, should be used. The hair may and Turkey, It is guarded by a castle. Pop. (I869) I8,743, of sometimes be induced to grow on a cicatrix byusing mild canthawhom two-thirds are Jews. ridine ointment. B. K. constitute merely a blemish, and are not in law regarded as evidence of unsoundness. Brog, Brogue, a rude kind of shoe formerly worn by the Celts of Ireland and Scotland. The term B. is also applied to Broken Wind (in horses), the. name given to a functional the Irish pronunciation of the English language. affection of the breathing organs in horses, which seems to consist in a difficulty in respiration, probably depending upon some Brogl'ie, an ancient French family, originally from Quiers in spasmodic affection of the larynx or bronchi. By some authors Piedmont. It has produced many distinguished men, among the affection is regarded as consisting chiefly in palpitation of whom may be reckoned several archbishops, bishops, gover- the heart, whilst others refer it to a form of asthma with other nors, and three marshals of France. It was composed of four respiratory complications. The syntlomatology of the complaint branches. —Albdric de Broglio, a famous captain of his time, respiratory complications. is of obvious kind; the horse is generally thin, the abdominal after having captured the city of Assisi, left Turin, and fixed muscles are relaxed, the respiration is quick, heavy, and himself at Rimini, where he founded the first branch.-Simon laboured, and the muscular movements are irregular and spasde Broglio (dead before I394) is the father of the three other modic in their nature; cough is generally present, the pulse branches, of which the first established itself in Provence, the is rapid; the heart's action quick and enfeebled; and the second in Paris, and the third in Piedmont. To the last belongs entire aspect of the animal indicates a condition of prostration the present Duc de B., though his family has been settled in and weakness. The causes of the disorder are attributed to bad France for some centuries. -Allbert, Due de B., son of Achille feeding and injudicious dietary. Coarse food given at improper Leonce Victor Charles, Duc de B., a politician of note in the times, by loading the stomach, and impeding digestion, together reign of Louis Philippe, and grandson of Claude Victor, Prince with inattention to watering, are said to be the chief causes. de B., who was guillotined in I794, was born at Paris, 13th Low-bred horses are more subject to B. W. than high-bred ones. June I821, and at an early age made a name for himself as a The treatment is limited to free purgation, careful attention to political writer. He commenced as a contributor to the Revue diet, and rest. Good oats, bruised, and in quantities of from des Deux Mondes, and was afterwards one of the chief writers in 8 lbs. to 12 lbs. daily, with hay, form the curative dietary. Nart the CorresSondant. Equally opposed to the one-sided doctrines cotics and sedatives (opium, camphor, &c.) do little or no good; of mediaeval papistry and modern rationalism, autocracy, and and the modern treatment is therefore, at the best, onlypalliademocracy, he has been an able defender of Catholic interests live. If left unheeded, congestion of the lungs, or even suffoca. and of moderate constitutional liberalism. His principal lite-tion, may result. This disease constitutes legal unsountess in rary work is L'tglise et l'oEmpire aRomtain ane 4me Sille (2 vols. the horse, and it is frequently temporarily and fraudulently disPar. 1 856). Two other works may be regarded as continuations guised bygiving the horse shot or lead in its meals preparatory of it, d7ulien I'Apostate and Theodose le Grand. He became the to its being sold-the weight in the stomach, curiously enough, head of the family on the death of his father, January 25, 1870, having an effect in temporarily mitigating the symptoms. and a political career was opened to him by the fall of Napoleon III. In 1872 he was appointed by M. Thiers French ambas- Bro'ker is an agent who buys and sells shares and goods for sador to London during the negotiations on the treaty of com- others, being paid by commission, that is, a percentage on the merce, a post which he held only for two months, and which he value of the transaction. There are various kinds of brokers. insisted on resigning because of having been reproached with I. Those who act as agents for the sale of commodities or of want of respect for the prevailing form of government. stock in the public funds. 2. Shipbrokers (q. v.). 3. Insurance brokers, who negotiate between the merchant and freighter and Broil'ing, a kind of rapid roasting process employed in the the underwriter in settling for loss or damage. (See, under INcooking of meat and the smaller white and cured fish. The SURANCE, Maritime Insurance.) 4. Sharebrokers, who transact process is conducted on a gridiron, called in Scotland a brander, business and effect transfers in shares in general. The laws, rehence the process in that country is generally known as'bran- gulations, and mode of transacting business of this body are of dering.' B. should be done over or in front of a bright, glow- much importance to the public. (See EXCHANGE, STOCK.) 5. Bill ing fire of smokeless embers, and hence a coke fire is most Brokers (q. v.). 6. Persons who appraise goods, sell or distrain suitable for the process. Meat cannot be broiled in large masses, furniture for rent, are called brokers, though their occupation is and it is only rump steaks and chops, white or yellow haddocks, totally different from that of any of the former classes. The or whitings, and similar fish, that are generally prepared by the Fraudulent Trustees' Act, 2 and 21 Vict., c. 54, applies to brokers. 64 505 + -- BRO THiE GLOBE ENC YCLOPR-EDIA. BRO It inflicts penalties on those who appropriate funds intrusted MgBr2 + C12 = MgC12 + Br2 to them... Bro'kerage is the remuneration allowed to a Broker (q. v.). Bromide Chlo- Chloride Bromof mag- rine. of mag- ine. To stock and share brokers the usual allowance on our stock nesium. nesiuom. exchanges is at the rate of about ios. per ~ioo on the value B. is a heavy red liquid(sp. gr. 29),having a peculiar and disagreebought or sold. A shipbroker's charges are generally about 2 able odour, whence its name (b;rdmos, Gr. stink'). It readily per cent. upon the gross receipts. An insurance broker charges volatilises, even at ordinary temperatures, as a deep red gas. 5 per cent. on the premium and 2 pe r cent. deducted fiom claims It boils at 580 C., and solidifies to a grey metallic-looking mass recovered from the underwriters. See STOCK AND SHARE at 22~ C. B. combines with all the elements, and has a special BROKER, SHIPBROKER, and INSURANCE BROKER. affinity for hydrogen; it chars organised substances, and is an Brom'berg (Pol. Bydgoszez, whence the Lat. Bid0 oslia), a irritating and corrosive poison. Its most important compound town of Prussia, province of Posen, on the Brahe, 6 miles above its is bromide of polssizm, which is largely used in medicine as a junction with the Vistula, and 60 miles N. E. of the city of Posen. sedative. The atomic weight of B. is o80, and its chemical It is a station on the Eastern Prussian Railway, and is also con- symbol is Br. nected by rail with Warsaw. The B. Canal connects the Brake Brom'sebro, a village of Sweden, in the lhn of Calmar 29 and Netz. B. has manufactures of linen, woollens, tobacco, miles SW. of Calmar, possesses a historical interest as the Prussian blue, &c.; also distilleries, breweries, corn-mills. In place where treaties were drawn up between Sweden and Den. the I4th c. it was a very flourishing place, and after a period of mark in t541, 1641, and 1645. decline is again rapidly rising. By the T7)eaty of B., I6th November 1676, Poland surrendered the sovereignty of Preussen Broms'grove (earlier, BremJesgrave), a once prosperotis but to Brandenburg. Pop. (I871) 27,734. now declining market-town of Worcestershire, England, Ii miles Brome'graws (Bromnus), a genus of grasses allied to the N.E. of Worcester, in a beautiful valley near the Birmingham and Worcester Canal, and i~ miles from a station on the BirFescue (q. v.). There are many species, of which seven are i a sto alay T e in stri the minatives of Britain. The soft brome (B. mollis) grows wild, and finatram ano Bristole aile ay. The chiefindustry is the manuis eaten by cattle, but is little esteemed by farmers as a pasture- factre of nails, needles, and buttons. Pop. (87 6967 grass. Its seeds, as well as those of B. /urt, and B. catharticzs Bron'chi are a continuation of the Trachea (q. v.), and are (the first a native of N. America and the latter of Chili), are said to formed by the trachea or windpipe dividing into two-the right be deleterious, and the two latter emetic and purgative. B. l/zohis and left B. -one going to each lung. The right B, is the wider is a good grass for poor soil; and the same may be said of the and shorter, being only one inch in length, whereas the left B. is smooth B. (B. racenosus), which, as well as B. mollis, is said to two inches in length. The B. in structure resemble the trachea, be a variety of B. arvenlsis (the field brome). The tall brome (B. being composed of rings of cartilage somewhat imperfect behind, g-igan/eus) grows to the height of four or five feet, but is not much bound together by fibrous tissue. The number of rings in the relished by cattle. Rye-like field brome (B. secalinus, perhaps right B. is firom six to eight, and in the left B. firom nine to also a variety, according to Bentham, of B. arvenzsis) is a trouble- twelve. On entering the lung, the B. divide and re-divide, besome weed, especially in rye-fields. Its seeds are erroneously coming smaller and smaller, until they ramify throughout the said to be poisonous. Poultry are very fond of them, whole lung substance, and end in dilated sacs called the air cells Bromeia'ce, a atural order of Moncotyledonous plants he lungs. (See LUNGS.) Through the B. the air is transmitted rmostly found in the tropicsal of rderi ca, W. Africa, otyledoand the Es, into all parts of the lung, and brought into close contact with the mostly found in the tropics of America, W. Africa, and the E blood. See RESPIRATION. Indies, though they appear to have been naturalised in many of the countries where they are now found from W. Africa and the E. Bronchi'tis, or inflammation of the lining membranes of the Indies. There are about iSo species, and the order is important bronchial tubes, may be acute or chronic, may affect one or both on account of the edible fruits and the useful fibrous material oh- lungs, the whole or only portion of a lung. It affects most fretained from some of the species. Ananassa sativa is the Pine- quently the upper lobes of the lung. Aczute B. is a dangerous Apple (q. v.). Bilbergia tinctoria of Brazil yields a yellow disease, the inflammation often extending to the lung tissue. colouring agent from its roots. Bromzelia Piniumz is a vermi- The symptoms are fever, tightness about the chest, rapid breathfuge, and its leaves yield a good fibre. The juice of its firuits ing, wheezing, and cough. On coughing, a glairy mucus is exaffords a cooling drink, given in the W. Indies, when mixed pectorated, and afterwards the expectoration consists of puruient with water, to patients in fever and dysentery. Tillandsia us- matter. The pulse is quick, the tongue foul, and often there is neoides is the Tree Beard or Old Man's Beard, so called from its much constitutional disturbance. When B. is confined to the dark fibres hanging from some of the S. American trees, like the larger bronchi, the disease is not generally dangerous, but when Usncea and other northern lichens. It is imported under the it extends to the small air tubes (capillary B.), the disease is name of Spanish or New Orleans moss, and is used, when mixed very serious and often fatal. Capillary B. is common in children, with horse-hair, for stuffing cushions, &c. rare in middle life, and not unfrequent in the aged. B. is comBro'mine is the only element, except mercury or quicksilver, mon in this country, and in all damp, cold climates. T7reatmeznt liquid at ordinary temperature. It was discovered by Balard -confinement to bed in a warm room; steam is to be inhaled. (I826) in the mother liquors or Bittern (q. v.) of the salt- Beef-tea, milk, and mucilaginous drinks are beneficial. At the springs of Montpellier. Combined with sodium or magnesium, outset an active purge often does good. Mustard to the chest, and B. occurs in small quantities in sea-water, in certain mineral some medicine which will produce free sweating, are often very springs —especially in those of Theodershall, near Kreuznach, valuable. Sometimes rubbing the chest with a liniment of croton in Prussia-in some specimens of Chile saltpetre, and along with oil or tartar emetic ointment will afford relief. Of internal iodides in efelp (q. v.). Bromzide of silver is occasionally found medicines, ammonia, chloroform, squills, and senega are the as a rare mineral in Mexico. B. is prepared either friom kelp or best. Chroute B. is common in advanced life. Constantcough, from the bittern of the salt-springs. From either of these mate- shortness of breath, and abundant expectoration of mucus, not rials the chlorides and sulphates are got rid of as far as possible unfrequently very fetid, may be regarded as the chief symptoms. by fractional crystallisation, and the remaining liquor is distilled Treatment-chloroform, ammonia, senega, ipecacuan, squills, with a mixture of hydrochloric acid and binoxide of manganese, or turpentine in small doses. Cod-liver oil, stimulants, as wine when B. accompanied by water passes over. In this process and brandy, and good noprishing food, will often benefit the chlorine is produced by the action of the hydrochloric acid on patient. the binoxide of manganese- Bron'chocele. See GOITRE. MnO2 + 4HCI = MnCl + 2H.0 + CI ~ MnO +4H,rn2 + 2H20 + Cl Br2ncd'sted, Peter Oluf, a Danish antiquary and philologist, Binoxide Hydro- Chloride Water. Chlo- was born 27th November I780, at Horsens, Jiitland. He studied of man- chloric of man- rine. at Copenhagen, went in ISo6 to Paris, and afterwards travelled ganese. acid. ganese. in Italy and Greece. His excavations in Greece, executed in and the chlorine thus produced displaces the B. contained in the company with Haller von Hailerstein, Linckh, and Von Stackmetallic bromide- elbe rg, did much to illustrate classical antiquity, and an account 506 BRO THiE GLOBE E~NCYCL OMPYDiIA. BRO of his researches was published at Paris in 2 vols. 4to (1826-30), ingredients. As the quantity of tin increases, the alloy becomes simultaneously in Danish and French. B. was appointed Pro- harder and at the same time lighter in colour. In the manufacfessor of Greek at Copenhagen in I815, and subsequently was ture of B. care must be taken to fuse the metal as rapidly appointed rector of the University, and died 26th June I842, as possible, otherwise the tin becomes oxidised and lost; in consequence of a fall from his horse. His professorial lectures and immediately before casting, the metal must be stirred to were published after his death (2 vols. Copenh. I844). ensure uniformity of composition, and rapidly cooled in the Brongniart, Alexandre, a distinguished French mineralo- mould, otherwise there is a danger of the ingredients separating gist and geologist and naturalist, was born at Paris, 5th February highly prized on other. ornaments, is prodced by t action of'7 highly prized on B. ornaments, is produced by the action of I77o, and was appointed in I8oo director of the porcelain manu- atmospheric air and moisture, but may be imitated by repeatedly factory at Sevres, which post he occupied till his death, which washing the clean object with a solution of sal o and took place October 4, 1847. B. held other appointmellts. In washing the clean object with a solution of sal ammoniac and too plae as appointed Chief Engineld other apointmes, and in I822 salt of sorrel in vinegar. B. has been known from early ages, and i8i8 he was appointed Chief Engineer of Mines, and in I822 Professor of Mineralogy at the Natura History Museu of at one time was employed in the manufacture of almost every Professor of Mineralogy at the Natural History Museum of article now made of iron. That perod has been called the Paris. He and Cuvier worked together in some departmentsa Paris. He and th Cuvier wored togetheir is n some departmentsogrh, Bronze Age (q. v.). The art of casting B3. was first introduced and the result of their labours was B.'s Essai sur la Geogramie by Theodoros and Roccus of Samos, about 700 B.c. The Minalogiue des LEnvironsZ de 1Pa'ris (Par. iSi i; new ed. with following shows the composition of the more important kinds enlargements, IS22; 3d ed. 1835). Among his other works of B. may be mentioned his Essai d'une Classification des Reptilcs (Par. Copper. Tin. I805), his Traitg' gi8mentaire de Mineralogie (Par. I807), and Copper coins of the present day. 95e0 4'0 his Traiti des Arts Ceramiques (Par. I845; 2d ed. I854) —B. Ancient sword-blade from Ireland. ~ 91'4 8'4 Adolphe Th6odore, son of the preceding, and a foreign mem- Gun-metal.. 905 9'5 ber of the Royal Society of London, was born in I80o, and has Bell-metal. 780 22'0 been Professor of Botany at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Speculum metal.. 666 33'4 Paris, since I833. His principal work is Histoire des Vtauxuld be remarked that B. for ornamental purposes is Fossiles (2 vols. Par. 1828-47). It Epossiles (2 VOlS. Par. I828-47). It should be remarked that B. for ornamental purposes is generally alloyed with small quantities of zinc, lead, and iron. Bronn, HEeinrich Georg, a German naturalist, was born a March 3, I8oo, at Ziegelhausen, near Heidelberg, where he Bronze Age, the term applied by pal ontologists and became professor in I828. He died 5th July I862. B.'s chief archeologists to the middle division of the human or recent wrorks are SystcmZ dcer unreltic/e/2a Koachylien (I824) * Letiaj period in geology, distinguished by the presence in the recent Geognzostica (1852-56, 6 vols. with atlas); Geschichte der A5ltur formations of instruments of bronze which were used by primitive (I84I-49); All/gezeine Zoologie (I850); and Die Klassen snid or prehistoric man. This classification or division of the human Or-duitnZ9gen des 7lhiereichs (1858). period into the ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron, is founded on the method employed by the Danish antiquaries. The term Bron'te, a town of Sicily, in -the province of Catania, at the B. A. is rendered by the Danish Broncealderen. The refoot of Mount Etna, in a rich wine district, has manufactures searches incidental to the history of primitive man at this point of cottons, woollens, oil, paper, &c. Pop. II,8oo. In i779 are undertaken conjointly by the geologist and antiquary. The Lord Nelson was created Duke of B., with a yearly income of B. A., in Sir John Lubbock's classification of the human about ~3750 (6000 oncie), by the Neapolitan Government. period (see his Prehistoric AlZfan), would be included in his Neolithic division, or the newer epoch of the period. The instruBronzte, Charlotte, a distinguished novelist, widely known byments characteristic of the B. A., it is to be remarked, were her works, and by the touching story of her lonely and noble life, awuas born at Thornton, inl Yorkshire, 2Ist April I8I6i. In I82I not formed solely of that metal, since stone implements of improved shape are frequently found associated with the bronze the family removed to Haworth, and the parsonage of this little ones, and indicate that whilst the use of metals was known and village was the scene of their sad domestic tragedy. In 1822, ones, and indicate that whilst the use of metals was known and Mrs B., and, a few years later, her two eldest daughters, died. vated, the bronze implements did not wholly supersede the The father was erratic and injudicious. The son's irregular life ruder stone weapons. The classification into the age of Stone, was the cause of hardship and anxiety. The three surviving Bronze, and Iron, whilst a convenient one, is not therefore to be The three survivin taken as strictly meaning that during these respective periods daughters, Charlotte, Emily, and Anne, were constrained to en- non stAt the deavour to earn a livelihood by teaching, a struggle for which none but stone, bronze and iron weapons were used. At the they were not well prepared. Charlotte had spent a year at same time, the arrangement serves to show that an actual proCowan Bridge School-afterwards introduce had spent a year a gress from the ruder stone to the fashioning of metals existed, owood-anan Bridge School- yeafterwards introduced into kindly canere of and typified the rise of primitive man from rude barbarism to a Miss Wooler. Thyeir experinceas gverr hnesses did not enoue semi-civilised state. In the peat-mosses of Denmark, especially age them to persevere, and the sisters netuised to their home at in their newer or more recent portions, bronze implements occur, rage them to persevere, ieune tome and in the later Pfahlbarten, or he BA aworth. InI I846 they published a volume of poems under is also represen later Pfb en, or Swiss lae-dwelliapo ngs, the B. deA. the assumed names of Ellis, Acton, and Currer Bell, and imme-is aso represented by characteristic weapons. In British dedliately afterwards wrote respectively, fndCtheri Bl Heigfs, Agnes posits, the progress from the Stone to the B. A. and the use of Grety, and The Professor. In I847, _7ane Eyre,'that master metals less satsfactorily traced. work of a great genius,' appeared, and was at once successful. Bronze Wing, Bronze-Winged Pigeon, Bronze PiThe author's heart was, however, saddened by the death of her geon, the popular names of certain kinds of pigeons in Ausbrother, and of her sister Emily in i848, and of Anne in the fol- tralia, belonging to the family Peristerina, and natural order lowing year. In i850 she paid a visit to London, of which Columbidez. The bronze-winged ground-dove (Phaps or ColThackeray writes:' New to the London world, she entered it umba chalcoptera) is the most common species. It is about 15 with an independent, indomitable spirit of her own. She gave inches long, and is found in most parts of Australia (except the me the impression of being a very pure and lofty and high- extreme S.), as well as in some of the South Sea Islands. It minded person. A great and holy reverence of right and truth frequents sandy spots, and is usually seen on the ground, though seemed to be with her always.' Shirley had appeared in 1849, occasionally it perches on shrubs. It coos very loudly. Of the and was followed in I852 by Villette. In I854, Charlotte was other species of B. P., the chief are the Little B. P. (P. or married to Mr Nicholls, her father's curate, and, after passing a C. elegans), which has a more southerly range than P. chalczpbrief evening hour of life in happy repose, died 3Ist March tera, and frequents marshy places; and the Harlequin B. P. (P. I855. See lThe Life of C. B. by Mrs Gaskell (2 vols. Lond. or C. histrionica), found in the northern parts of New South i857). Wales. See PARTRIDGE-PIGEON. Bronze. Under the general denomination B. are included Bron'zing is a term used to denote the imparting of a bronzeall the Alloys (q: v.) of copper and tin. The most important like appearance to articles of metal, wood, plaster, &c., by of these are gun-metal, bell-metal, speculum metal, B. for orna- means of bronze powders. Finely-divided gold forms an ingrements, and B. for coins. The colour and other physical proper- dient in some of the more expensive powders. Coppier powder is ties of the different bronzes vary with the proportion of the two prepared from a saturated nitrous acid solution of copper, by _ ____ __ - 507 4+ —------------ 4* Bl3O STHt GLOBRE rNCYCOPMEDIA. BRO inserting into the liquid small iron bars, which precipitate the tongue, and published in 1789 Reliques of risk Poehty, consistcopper in a pulverised state. Gold size is commonly applied to ing ojf Heroic Poems, Odes, Elegies, and Songs, translated into the article to be bronzed before laying on the powder, and to Englislz Verse, witzi Notes Explanatory and Historical, and the prepare it gum animi, in a fine state of division, is boiled with Originals in the Ziish Character. She also edited an edition of linseed oil, vermilion being added to render it opaque before her father's works and wrote his Life. Miss B. died 29th March use. In the process of B., the article is covered with gold size I793. diluted with turpentine, and when nearly dry the powder is Brooke, Sir James, born at Bengal in 1803, was educated applied with a piece of soft leather as a brush; when quite dry in England, and served some time in the Burmese war of I822-24. the superfluous powder is wiped off. An agreeable reddish- Having resolved to attempt the suppression of piracy in the brown colour may be communicated to copper medals and other Malay Archipelago, in the inhabitants of which he had become articles by boiling them in vinegar containing two parts of ver-interested, he set sail from London i November 1838, in his digris and one part of sal-ammoniac. Peroxide of iron, made yacht Royalist, with a crew of seventeen seamen, a naturalist, into a paste, with dilute solution of acetate of copper, rubbed and a surveyor, and reached Sarawak, in the N.W. of Borneo, over copper vessels, on heating, imparts to them a thin film of in August 1839. The district was then disturbed by revolt against sub-oxide of copper, which greatly improves their appearance. the Sultan Omar Ali-Sapudin, represented in Sarawak by the Gun-barrels are browned with chloride or butter of antimony Rajah Muda Hassim. B. accordingly spent the next year in a rubbed on the slightly.heated iron. voyage round the Gulf of Boni, in Celebes, where he obtained much interesting information, both geographical and bearing on Brooch (Fr. broche, a spit or knitting-needle), an appendage the habits and institutions of the Bugis, Wajo, and Winhoka inof dress, at once useful and ornamental, composed essentially of habitants. Returning to Sarawak in I840, after a long negotiaa pin or skewer mounted in a ring, boss, or other metallic frame. tion, B. got himself appointed rajah, and immrediately published The modern brooch is the representative of the fibela which a code, addressed to Malays, Dyaks, and Chinese, guaranteeing was used by the ancient Romans. Brooches are, and have al- free communication and free trade (except in antimony), enforcways been, made usually of gold or silver, worked in highly ing the ondong-ondong (or ancient written law of Borneo) against artistic patterns; and further, in modern times, they are set with murder and other heinous crimes, and promising a currency. The jewels and precious stones. From their employment in fasten- Dyak customs of'taking heads'and of Babuhid presented much ing the cloak, mantle, or plaid at the neck or over the shoulder, difficulty. In I843 the sultan made the cession of Sarawak per. they have been in all times a characteristic and essential orna- petual. B.'svigour in repressing piracyby'head-money'created ment of both sexes of the Celtic races. Many interesting Celtic a feeling against him in England, which had disappeared when brooches belonging to prehistoric and to early Christian times he visited this country in I847, received the Order of the Bath, are in public institutions, or kept as prized heirlooms in families, and was made Governor of Labuan, a post he held for many some of them showing wonderful artistic skill and workmanship. years along with his rajahship. In I857 the Chinese, who had One of the most famous is the B. of Lorn, belonging to the previously acted most dishonestly with reference to the antimony concessions, and who were now enraged by the restrictions on the opium trade, made a serious revolt, which, however, B. completely crushed. He then returned to England, and by lectures and deputations urged on Lord Derby's Government, as he had previously suggested to Sir R. Peel, that they should acquire Sarawak f-rom him, and thus extend the treasures of coal they had found in Labuan, and open up a junk trade with China. The project was not entertained, although B. had made Sarawak a place of thriving trade, which, standing on the Indian-China steam-route, is destined to have great influence on the trade between Europe and China. B. was succeeded by his son as rajah, and died in England, I3th June I868. See Mundy's Narrative of Rlenlt L'vents in Borneo, 1848; Pri'vate Letters of Sir. B'. (3 vols. Lond. 1853); and the NVarrative of Captain Keppel. Brook'lime (Veronlica eccabunnga), a species of Speedwell (q. v.), found in streams, ditches, and wet places in Britain. The _______ t ehe.leaves and young shoots are frequently used in salads, and sold with watercress. In Scotland it is sometimes called the Watcr Brooklyn, a city on Long Island, state of New York. It is separated from New York city by the East River, an arm of the sea connecting Long Island Sound with New York Harbour. It is named from Breuchelen ('broken land'), in Holland, and Loin trooch. Irewas first settled by the Dutch in 1625; but in i8oo its pop. was only 3298; in 1830 it was 15,292; in I85o, 96,850; in i870, 396 105; and 1875, 482,687. B. has a bold blufflooking towards family of Macdougal of Loin, which, traditi on s ays, was left iness, and lfamiy of Macdourya of Lorn, which, tradition says, was left in New York called the tHeights, on which are many fine residences. the hands of a fothe eian by Robert Bruce when he was defeated A great many New Yorkers reside in B., and this accotnts for ~~~~~~~~at Methven. ~the number of its churches, on account of which it is called Brooke, Hlenry, dramatist and novelist, was a native of Ire- the'City of Churches.' It has a navy-yard covering 45 acres, besides possessing magnificent docks. B. has also many ferries He was educated for the bar in London, where he became the across to New York, distant three-quarters of a mile. A lofty friend of Swift, Pope, and Lyttleton. bridge is now being built to span the East River and join the two friend of Swift, Pope, and Lyttleton. From an early age he had cities. shown a faculty for making verses, and in 1732 published a poem called Universal Beauty, in which he was believed to Brooks, Charles Shirley, journalist and litterateur, was have been assisted by Pope. His next work was the unequal the son of an architect, and was born at Brill, in Oxfordshire, drama of Gustavus Vasa, b7 which he made /Iooo. Return- about the year I816. After leaving school, he was articled to ing to Ireland in I740, he obtained the post of Barrack-master, an attorney, but soon took to literature as a profession. For wrote numerous books, and died in Dublin, Ioth October 1783. a long time he wrote the'parliamentary summary' for the The only one of his works which has survived to the present Alforning Chronicle, and otherwise contributed to that journal. time is his novel of The Fool of Quality, of which the late Canon He also produced plays, such as Our New Governess, and Kingsley published an edition in 859. —Charlotte B., daugh- novels, of which The Gordian Knot and Aspen Court are among ter of the preceding, was an enthusiastic student of the Irish the most popular. B. was an active contributor to Punch from BRO THE GL OBE ENCYCLOPMDIA BPO its commencement, and succeeded the late Mr Mark Lemon as and cockie-leekie, a broth prepared from the flesh of fowls and its editor in I870. IHe died February 23, I874. He was a leeks, to which the judicious add prunes for flavour. singularly painstaking author and a genial man. Broth'erhoods, Religious, lay associations, instituted for Broom, a popular name given to various closely-allied genera, pious and benevolent purposes, probably in imitation of the Genisia, Cytisus, and Spartitum, of the natural order Legudli- spiritual orders, were very numerous during the middle ages, nosre (sub-order PqailionacecP), but in Britain generally limited especially in Italy-Rome alone having more than a hundred. to the common B. (C'ytisus or Saro/hainiztes scoparius). The Some came into existence and continued under the patronage of twigs are bitter and nauseous, but powerfully diuretic, and are the Church, while others either did not seek her countenance, accordingly used in dropsy. The plant is also slightly laxative, or lost it, and some even fell under her displeasure and were and, in large doses, emetic. The genus Cytisus is a large one, severely persecuted. Some of the best known are-the Beguines extending over Europe and the Mediterranean region to the (q. v.) anid Beghards, the Brethren of the Cross,-=-of the Free Canary Islands. The Irish B. of gardens (C. patenzs) is not a Spirit,-of the Common Life, -of Alexius or the Lollards, &c. native of Ireland, but of Portugal. The Spanish B., also known as the B.-rush (though this name is usually reserved for Vimli- Brothers and Sisters of Charity were associations at naria), is Spar-tullz jizncceeumz; it possesses properties much the first of lay brothers and sisters for tending the sick and the destisame as the common B. The Portugal or white B. (C. albits) tute. The order of Brothers of Charity was founded at Seville is a native of the Mediterranean countries. Another white- in I54oby the Portuguese JoIo di Dio, afterwards canonised, and flowered species cultivated in our shrubberies is S. mionosgpermizum, received the rule of St Augustine from Pope Pius V. 1572, and a native of the sandy coasts of Spain, and of Africa S. of the all the privileges of the mendicant orders in I624, when it was great desert. Like C. albus, its twigs, when beaten, steeped, divided into two congregations, a Spanish and an Italian one. The and washed, yield a good fibre. There are various other culti- European brothers wear a black dress, those in America wear vated species of B., many from the Canary Islands. African B3. brown, and have a distinct General. The order of the Sisters of is a common name for Aspla/tihzes; Dyer's B. is Genista tinc- Charity was founded (I634) in France by Vincent de Paul, assisted toriae; New Zealand B., Carl-zic/z/lia Australis, &c. by Madame le Gras. It was recognised by the Pope in I655, and in I685 had 224 convents. Nearly destroyed by the ReBroom-Corn, a cultivated grass, probably a variety of the volution, the order was restoredby Napoleon in I8o 7, and now sorghum (S. saCc/haratauit) from which sugar is manufactured volto, the order was rete by aol in It snow ets s cunltivated inm N. America, in whichtu does good service in supplying elementary education in rural It i now extenively cultivated in. America, into which it France. Branches of the same order or associations very similar was introduced by Benjamin Franklin, for the purpose of mak- ave also hospitals in most of the principal cities of Christening whisks or brooms from the tops of its stems and branches. c Though originally brought from the E. Indies, it now flourishes in the United States, where the religious sect of Shakers devote Brothers, Law of Succession among. By the law of much of their attention to its cultivation. In I86o, about England, if A die, leaving no descendants, his father is his heir30,000 acres, chiefly in the states of Ohio, New York, and at-law; but failing his father, A is succeeded by his eldest Illinois, were devoted to this crop-the value of the produce brother and his descendants; then comes A's next brother and being about 1,390,ooo dollars. Since then the acreage under descendants, and so on to the youngest brother and descendants. broom-grass has much increased. See Relmort of the CotmmLission Failing these, then A is succeeded by his sisters equally as coof Ag`iczcltz tre U.S..A., I874. parceners. In Scotland, the law is different. A would not be succeeded by his father; nor, unless A was the eldest son of`Broo~m-Rape. See ORO~BANCHE. his father, would he be succeeded by his oldest brother. IIe is Bro'ra Beds, a series of strata of the same age as the infe- in all cases succeeded by the brother immediately younger than nlor oolite of Yorlkshire, occurring at Brora, in Sutherlandshire, himself, followed by that younger brother's descendants. On and its neighbourhood. One of the oldest known workable de- the exhaustion of A's younger brothers and descendants, A's posits of oolitic coal was opened there at the close of the I6th c. immediately older brother and descendants come in, and so on up It is coal of fair quality, the seam being 31 feet thick. to A's eldest brother, who is the last of all in the succession. There is an exception, h1owever, to this order of succession in Bros'imum. See BREAD-NUTS, Cow-TREE, and SNAKE- Scotland, where the estate has been purchased by the deceased WOOD. brother. In this case it is called Contueest, and it goes to the Brosses, Charles de, a French historian and archmeologist, immediately elder brother, on whose death it goes according born at Dijon, 17th June 1709. As the result of a visit to to ordinary rules. See INTESTACY; STATUTES OF DISTRIBUItaly, he published at Dijon, in I750, Lettles sur l'EtatActlel de TION; KIN, NEXT OF; SUCCESSION. la ViSlte d'feirula nesm, the earliest treatise on the subject. Brothers, Lay, an inferior class of monks, employed as His ri/t de la Foaina/on Micaniqui e des Lenguesi (2 vols. I765) servants in Monasteries (q. v.).. Though not in holy orders, has been of essential value to subsequent investigators, though they were bound by monastic rules. some of its hypotheses have not been accepted. Other works e are fistoire de Navigationz asmx Terres Azeus/ales (2 vols. 1756), Brothers, Richard, a half-crazed visionary, born about Disser/anion suir le Czdte des Dietux Fe'iches (1760), and His- 1760, attracted much attention by his warnings and prophecies. toihe dez Se//timr Sicl/e de lae Re'zpblique Reomaine (3 vols. Dijon, He styled himself the'nephew of the Almighty and prince of I777). His attempts to supply the iac.unce of Sallust from a the Hebrews, appointed to lead them to the land of Canaan,' recension of about 700 fragments which he had collected oc- and his chief writings were A Revealed Iotozowledge of the Pr-ocupied a great portion of the life of B., but the work was not phsecies and Tinzes (I794) and Adz Exposition oft/he TDinity (I795). completed at his death, March I7, 1777. His was a busy life. He was confined for some time in Newgate, and later in Bedlam, In addition to his labours as an author, he performed the func- but was ultimately released, and died January 25, 1824. tions of a magistrate, was president of the Parliament of Dijon, a member of the Academy of In'scriptions, and carried on an Brougham, aEsenr e, Baron Broughan and E aur, a extensive correspondence with the savans of the day. See consplcuous lawyer and statesman, was born in Edinburghl, Igth Villemain's Tableau de lta Lifte/irare audix-hzditiinzeSi/le. B.'s September I778. His father was Mr Henry Broughsam, a memcorrCespondelnce with Voltaire was published in i836. ber of an ancient Westmoreland family, and his mother, Eleonora Syme, a niece of Robertson the historian. B. was educated at Broth, a kind of food prepared by boiling together fresh the High School and University of Edinburgh, distinguishing meat, culinary vegetables, and frequently barley or rice, in a himself in mathematics, and passed at the Scotch bar in I8oo. large proportion of water, till the vegetables are perfectly soft, He had, however, little or no practice in Edinburgh, and his and in a condition to be easily assimilated. The principal vege- most notable achievement there was helping Jeffrey, Sydney tables used in B. are onions, leeks, green peas, carrots, and Smith, and Horner to start (i802) the ELdinsbuzzrgi Reviezo, to turnips; but cabbage and greens are also sometimes used, and which he became one of the most active and vigorous contributors, in certain districts of Scotland' kail' is made in which greens and on almost every subject under the sun. B., after waiting only is used. Two favourite dishes of Scotch nationality are seven years in Edinburgh, betook himself to London, passed at hotchpotch, an olla p;odrida of vegetables with chopped mutton, Lincoln's Inn in i8o8, and soon obtained a considerable practice, 509og BRO THfE GLOBE ENC YCLOMPDD A. BRO attracting especial attention by an appearance he made at the bar Brown, a pigment formed of unequal proportions of red, blue, of the House of Commons, where he appeared for some merchants and yellow, tbe former being in excess. In painting, the mineof Liverpool to ask the repeal of the Orders in Council. Enter- rals asphaltum, bistre, umber, terra di sienna, Mars B., Cassel ing Parliament in i8io, he at once took a high place there as an earth, B. madder, &c., are employed either in a raw or orator, an advocate of political and social, more especially educa- burnt state. A B. colour is communicated to pottery and porcetional, reform, and as an opponent of the slave trade. By the lain by chromate of iron or antimony, lead, and manganese. In manner in which, along with Denman, he conducted the defence dyeing and calico-printing, B. is produced from catechu, madder of Queen Caroline (1820-2I), he became for a time the most with mixture of iron and red liquor mordants, and with the anipopular man in England. His boldness in this trial, however, line B. commercially termed Bismark B. excluded him from professional promotion until 183o, when he became Lord Chancellor in the reforming ministry of that year. Brown, Charles Brockden, an American author, was born In this post he distinguished himself as the pioneer of law reform of a Quaker family, in Philadelphia, January 17, 1771; studied while his audacity and eloquence aided greatly in passing the or the legal profession, but soon devoted himself exclusively Reform Act of i832. On the fall of the ministry of which he was to literature. In 1797 he published his first work, Alcin, a a member in I834, he retired from office, and never returned to it, dialogue on te rits of women. In 1798 followed ln. although his vieasfqnyedshersDuring the same year the city of New York was scourged with although his voice was frequently heard as the fearless advocate of pirogress and law reform, and the critic of all administrations, yellow fever, and B. bravely remained to nurse his friends, and Outside of Parliament he continued to display that interest in to be himself prostrated by the plague. He afterwards emto be himself prostrated by tile plague. He afterwards emsocial matters which he had shown as a member of the House of i ri n e i r/n M Commons, when he took a leading part in the establishment of the in writing, and threw off Orn r Lztly, Te SleeUniversity of London, and in the starting of those mechanics' insti- Walker, Clara Howard, ane Talbot, in rapid succession. In tutes which have done something (if not much) for the technical i8o6 he brought out the first Annual Register in America. He education of the country. Towards the close of his life many died at Philadelphia, February 22, I8io. honours were bestowed upon him, among them being the honorary B. had a morbid but rather powerful imagination, with a posts of Lord Rector of Glasgow University, and Chancellor of tendency to psychological romance. His works, once much that of Edinburgh. B. died at Cannes, in the S. of France, May iecl both in his own country and in ngland, and un7, m868. Fleliadmarried, 1i819, Mary liiEden, the grand- doubtedly exercising a certain impress on some American daughter of a baronet in the county of Durham, by whom he had authors, have now'fallen into the portion of weeds and outworn b~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~uhrhv o fallnit h oto fweds adouwr two daughters, who both died before their father. The peerage has descended to the family of a brother of Lord B. B.'s lead- Brown, Ford M3adox, an English painter, at one time an ing characteristic was his enormous energy. It showed itself in ally of the pre-Raphaelites, born at Calais in 182I, was eduhis oratory; he surpassed every speaker of his time in declama- cated on the Continent, and exhibited two cartoons at Westtion and invective, and it must also be added in diffuseness and minster Hall in I844. His' King Lear,' a work of wonderful rhodomontade. It showed itself in his capacity for reading and power, feeling, and technical dexterity (1849), was followed by writing vigorously about all, even the most abstruse subjects; he' Chaucer at the Court of Edward III.' (I85I), and'Christ was equally at home in theology, metaphysics, and physical scienlce. Washing Peter's Feet' (1852), both of which received the LiverB. was a wonderful example of what can be done by a strong head, pool prize of/5o. An exhibition of B.'s works, which was opened backed by an equally strong will, that sets itself to master a in London in 1865, included, among many other pictures,'The great variety of subjects. Nevertheless, it is more than doubt- Last of England' (a work of fine pathos and humniour, representful if he has made a single original or important contribution to ing character and incident on board an emigrant ship passing any of the sciences Wvith which his fervent intellect grappled. the Dover cliffs),' The Autumn Afternoon,'' Work,' and'WilHis works (II vols. i868) were published by Messrs A. & C. helhnus Conqucestor;' and since that time his chief works have Black, Edinburgh. See also B.'s A4uobiograr)qhy, published by been'The Coat of many Colours,'' Romeo and Juliet,''Corthe same firm under the title of Lzfe and Ti7mes (3 vols. 1871). delia's Portion,''Don Juan,' and'Jacopo Foscari.' His son, Brough'ty-Ferry, a town of Forfarshire, 4 miles E. of Oliver li3adox B., author of Gabriel Denver (I873), and a Dundee, connected with Ferry-Port-on-Craig by a railway-ferry painter and i//era/cur of great talent and promise, died in 1874. across the Firth of Tay, thus bringing the Dundee and Arbroath His literary remains were published, with an accompanying and Dundee and Forfar railways into conjunction with the Fife memoir, by William Rossetti (2 vols. Load. 875). lines. An old castle, lately repaired for the defence of the Tay, Brown, John, of Haddington, was born in 1722, at Carstands oi the shore. On the slope N.'. of the town are nume- po, Abernethy, Perthshire. His father was in humble life and rous fine villas, the residences of Dundee merchants and manu- of limited acquirements, and the son spent but a short tine at facturers. Pop. (1871) $817. school. At the early age of eleven B. lost both his parents, and Brousonet'ia, a genus of plants belonging to the natural became a'herd' under the charge of a pious shepherd named order Mforacete (q. v.). B. papyrfra (the paper mulberry) is Ogilvie. In the midst of pastoral employments he prosecuted used in China, Japan, &c., for the manufacture of paper. From the study of Latin and Greek with untiring diligence. Then lihe its inner bark the South Sea Islanders make a kind of cloth. became a pedlar, was afterwards a teacher, and studied philosophy and divinity under Ebenezer Erskine of the Secession Brouss'ais, Franpois Joseph Victor, a celebrated French Church. In June I751 he was ordained over the Burgher Secesphysician, was born at St Malo, December I7, I772. He was sion congregation in Haddington, and in I768 was appointed educated at Dinon, and after serving as naval and military Professor of Divinity in his denomination. He died i9th June surgeon, became Professor of Pathology at Paris in i832. He I787. B. was an ardent student, with a liberal passion for lanwas elected member of the Institute, and died at Vitry, Novem- guages, and in the course of his life acquired a respectable knowber 17, I838. B. called his doctrine A/[decine Physiologique, and ledge of Arabic, Syriac, Persian, Ethiopic, French, German, it was adopted by a school of physiologists. He regarded irri- Dutch, and Italian. I-He first appeared as an author in I758, zabili/y as the fundamental property of all living animal tissues, with an Essay on/ the Confession of Fai/h. Ten years later he and declared that every malady proceeded from an increase or published a Dic/tiznary of /he Bible, which plain people still find diminution of that property. JZainy na/ion was held to be the useful. In 1778 he produced Thie Self:-nterprezing Bible, which secret of functional and organic disorders; and for that, local has made his name a household word in Scotland, and in 1783 a phlebotomy was practised as a remedy. B.'s theory is now con- Concordance oft/he Bible. B. wrote many other works which no sidered partial and extreme, but in France was widely prevalent. longer merit notice; but his life and character are more than His chief works are Hlistoire des Phlegmasies chroniques (Par. admirable. Though not a man of genius, or even of great intelISo8); Exanmen de la Doct-ine Me'dicale ge'nralemenl ado/pte lect, he had excellent sense, pure feeling, and genuine piety. (u8s6), and T'ai/ddePhysioloiee anpplique'e la Pa/hologie (I822). He was a typical Scot and Presbyterian, both in the circumSee _Eloge de B., by Dubois d'Armiens, and Zistoire Critidqute de scription of his mind and the strength of his convictions. Perla Doc/rine Physiologique de B., by Costez. B.'s son, Casimir haps the greatest, certainly one of the most accomplished, of the B., born in I8o3, is author of several memoirs supporting his Scotch Seceders, he has left a profound impres4ion of his worth father's views. lIe died in 5847.. on the mind of the graver portion of the Scottish people. 554 BRO THE GZ OBE ENCYCL OPzEDIA. BRO Brown, John, D. D., grandson of the above, was born July Edinburgh University became vacant, and B., who was a candi12, 1784, at Whitburn, Linlithgowshire, and was ordained mini- date, unfortunately staked his success on proving the isomerism ster of the Secession U.P. Church, Biggar, in 18o6. Translated of carbon and silicon. Having failed in his experiments, he to Edinburgh in 1822, he was appointed Professor of Exegetical withdrew his application, and, with a certain sad sternness, Theology to his denomination in 1834, an office which he con- devoted himself to a life of hopeless experiment in his laboratory tinued to hold when the'Secession' joined with the Relief at Portobello. He was cheered in his austere' retirement by the (I847) to form the U.P. Church. He died October I3, 1858. friendship of Hamilton, Carlyle, Emerson, and De Quincey, and B. was a man of fine, even noble, presence, had great power sometimes came forth to lecture on scientific subjects. He died as a preacher, and gave a fresh impulse to the exegetical of consumption, September 20, 1857. B. had a fine poetic and study of the Scriptures in Scotland. His best works are. The philosophic genius, which was never destined to find adequate IResu~rrection of Lfe, EaZxository Discourses on the Epistles of expression on earth. His Tragedy of Gaileo (I 850) was unquesPeter, on Galatians, and on Romans. Two of his sons have tionably a failure; but the searching and subtle quality of his attained distinction-(I) John B. (born I8Io), author of Horm genius is visible in his Lay Sermons on the Theory of Christianity Sebsecivt (I858), containing, among other things, Rab and his (I841-42), and in his Lectures on the Atomic Theory, and Essays 1iiiends, a character sketch of singular power and pathos; Scientific and Literary (2 vols. Edinb. 1858). (2) A. Crum B. now (I876) Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh~. Brown, Thomas, the well-known Scottish metaphysician, was born at Kirkmabreck, in Kirkcudbright, January 9, I778. brown, Captain John, of Harper's Ferry insurrection, was He was educated in London, and in 1794 entered the University born in Torrington, Conn., U.S., May 9, i8oo. An enthusiast of Edinburgh, where he pursued various studies, and from which in the cause of anti-slavery, he went to Kansas in 1854. There in 1803 he received the degree of M.D. He subsequently prachlie entered earnestly into the contest with the South, and had tised medicine for some years in partnership with Dr Gregory of a son killed. He then came E., revolving some larger plans for Edinburgh; but his devotion to literature and philosophy led freedom, and in October I859 surprised the country by making to his being selected, in I8Io, as the colleague and successor of an assault on the arsenal of Harper's Ferry, Virginia. B. had Dugald Stewart in the chair of Moral Philosophy in the Univercollected a force of seventeen whites and five blacks, and with sity of Edinburgh. After filling this position for ten years, his this small force he captured the arsenal, but was soon over- health declined, and he died in London, April 2, I820. His first powered. He was tried for high treason, and hung, December work, entitled Observatiolns on the Zoonomia of Dr Darwin,'the 2, 1859. There were moral elements of a high kind in B., and almost unmatched work,' says Sir James Mackintosh,'of a boy he became the prophet and hero of the impending conflict for of nineteen,' appeared in 1798. This was followed in 1803 by the freedom of the blacks. See Greeley's American ConP7ict two volumes of poems; and between 1814 and 1819 he pub(1865). lished six poetical works, but his poetry was never popular. He was one of the founders of the Edinburgh Review, and wrote the:brown, RIobert, son of Anthony B. of Folthrop," Rut- g eiw n rt h Brownz, Rtobert, son of Anthony B. of Folthrop, Rut- article on Kant in the second number. His pamphlet on the land, was born at Northampton in 1549. He was educated Lle ontos aeed nub g at le a Leslie controversy appeared in 18X8, greatly enlarged as AnL at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, and became a preacher Iiry ino the lateion of Caause and Jgect The work, howInquiry into the ]&elation of Cause and Lffect. The work, howand teacher at Islington. About 158o he began to declaim ever, by which he is best known is the Zectures on the Philosophy against the polity and Liturgy of the Church of England, and delivered to his college class. They were hastily comfounded an Independent church in Norwich. He was arrested, posed at first, and were not subsequently altered, but they were but his friend Cecil set him free. He then went to Holland and listened to with enthusiasm, an ave passed through numerous listened to with enthusiasm, and hlave passed thrrough numerous formed a church at Middleburgh. Returning to England in editions.. criticised and edeavored to supesede te psy1589 heentredtheChuch f Eglad, nd as resnte toeditions. B. criticised and endeavoured to supersede the psy1589, he entered the Church of England, and was presented to chologyof Reid and Stewart, insisting particularly that all the the ectoy o Ounle n Nothaptonhir in 590 buthischology of Reid and Stewart, insisting particularly that all the the rectory of Oundle in Northamptonshire in 1590; but his mental plenoiena gave the mind itself existing in different conformity was of short duration. After a long, turbulent, and, states, that consciousness is merely a geneal name, expresive of on te wole disredtabe caeer li die inNorhampon ailstates, that consciousness is merely a general name, expressive of on the whole, discreditable career, he adied in Northampton jil the whole variety of our feelings, that our muscular frame is truly in 1630, whither he had been sent, at the age of eighty, for maltreat3ing e a cosabe. B wrote at treatie on eformtio, f an organ of sense, that our knowledge of the primary qualities of maltreating a constable. B. wrote a treatise on Reformation, matter is derived from a inuscular affection, and that sensations matter is derived from a muscular affection, and that sensations and another on the LZ/~ and ~lalnniers of 7~'u~e C~rixtian;. He and another on the Life and anners of Te Christians. e and perceptions equally can be nothing else than they are felt to was the founder of the sect of'Brownists,' who afterwa:ds, under be The lectures owe their chief charm to their acute anaysis, JohnRobisonbecae th Indpendnts r Puitan andbe. The lectures owe their chief charm to their acute analysis, John Robinson, became the Independents or Puritans, and refined feeling, and fervid, if somewhat florid, eloquence. B.'s planted the New Englandi Colonies. B. boasted that he had teen thi w te ing d onit ay m teri theeay e id Life was written by Dr Welsh, and a searching criticism of his been thirty-two times in prison; but any merit there may be in contributions to philosophy is contained in Sir William Hamilthis is destroyed by what Fuller tells us, that B. had a wife with ontibios whom he did not live, and drew the revenues of a church in's Discussions. which he did not preach. Brown Coal, or Lignite, a variety of coal which may be Brown, Robert, a distinguished botanist, born at Mon- considered to occupy an intermediate place between peat and trose, 21st December 1773, and educated at Aberdeen and Edin- bituminous coal, found in the more recent geological formations, tros, 2~t Deembr I73, ad edcatd atAbereenand dinburgh University. After serving as an army surgeon, he devoted, indeed, restricted by some authorities to the products of himself solely to botany, and, as naturalist, accompanied an ex- Tertiary deposits. It is mostly of a yellowish or brown colour, pedition sent to explore the Australian coast in i~oi. On his "and frequently retains a good deal of the structure and appearreturn he brought with him nearly 4000 species of plants, many ance of wood. Deposits of. C. are widely distributed thuhof which were absolutely new to botanists. Appointed librarian out the world, and those in Germany are of much industrial imto the Linnoan Society, lie was elected F. R. S. in i8i r, D.C. L. lportance, as some of them yield on distillation a very large perin 1832, and President of the Linnoean Society in 1849. He centage of paraffin. B. C. is a highly hygroscopic substance, de iLodnJue1 88.B'boaiainetgtnswhich depreciates its value as fuel. Excluding ash and water, adied i London, June io, 1858. B.'s botanical investigations the following is the composition of the B. C. of Bovey, Devonand his contributions to the Tr-ansactions of various societies shire:-Carbon, 69'53; hydrogen,'9;oyeannirg, established his right to the title bestowed on him by Humboldt; hydrogen, 591; oxygen and nitrogen,'Bolanicorumfacilep2rincepss.' Through B.'s example and influ- 2456. ence the natural system of Jussieu was substituted for that of Brown Spar, a name applied by mineralogists more espeLinnueus. Among his worlts are Podromus Flocev, 2Nove Hol- cially to those varieties of brown crystallised Dolomite (q. v.) landice, and Gene-al Remarhks on the Botany of Terra Aus- which contain carbonate of iron. But generally B. S. is a magnetralis. sian carbonate of limestone tinged by oxide of iron and manganese. Brown, auel,.D., son of Samue B., founder of itine- It is sometimes called pearl star, owing to its pearly lustre. rating libraries, and grandson of John B. of Haddington, was Brown University, a flourishing institution in Providence, born in that town, February 23, 1817. He entered the Edin- Rhode Island, U.S., was founded in 1764, under the name of burgh University in 1832, and took the degree of M.D. in 1839. Rhode Island College, being the seventh in point of age among Having chosen chemistry for his life study, he aimed at recon- the colleges of the United States. It afterwards received a structing the science of atomics. In 1843 the chair of Chemistry in large gift from Nicholas Brown, Esq., and took his name. B. U. 511 BRO THE GLOBE ENC YCL OP.EDIA. BRO is under the control of the Baptists, but the professorships are to write for the stage, but the failure of Strafford (i837) and of open to all Protestants. E. G. Robinson, D.D., LL.D., is pre- Sordello (I 839) showed him to be deficient in the constructive sident (1875). faculty. But in his Men and Women (1855) a wonderful power of analysing thought and passion, and a rapidity, certainty, and Browne, Charles Foster ('Artemus Ward'), was born brightness of conception, are conspicuously shown. Those who at Waterford, Maine, U.S., about i834, and began to write for place B. above Tennyson in point of genius find here the best the press while settled in Boston. Afterwards he went to evidence for their estimate. Ronmances and Lyrics (1845), and Toledo and Cleveland, Ohio, where his letters, by'Artemus A Soul's 7}aqedy (I846), are less notable performances. There Ward,' attracted attention. In I86o he became a writer to Vani(y is much elaborate conceit in his later works, of which may be Fair, a comic paper in New York, and subsequently lectured at mentioned Dramatis Persona (I864), The leing and the Book Salt Lake City and California. In I866 he came to London, (I868), Balaustion's Adventure (I87I), Prince Hohenstiel. lectured on the'Mormons,' and wrote for Punch. IIe died at Schwanzgau (I87I), Fifne at the Fair (I872), Red Cotton Aight. Southampton, March 6, I867. B. was of an amiable character, cap Contray (1873), Aristophantes' Apology (1875), and The Int and had great social qualities. His chief works are Arteuzs Album (I875). This last work, in which B. returns to the old tVard, his Book, and Arteemus Ward among the Mormons. method and feeling of his'dramatic pieces,' is a powerfully told Perhaps the most humorous chapters are those on the Shakers, tragedy. and on Sacrificing his Relatives for the War. The crazy oddities of his spelling have induced fastidious critics to deny his humour, Bruce, the surname of a celebrated Scotch family that took but it was really genuine, though not rich or deep. its rise in Robert de Bruis, a Norman knight who accompanied Browne, Sir Thomas, one of our most original prose writers, William the Conqueror to England. His grandson, also Robert as born at Londo, t October 65. Aftr 6 At studying at Wins de Brus, received from King David I. of Scotland a part of the chester, Oxford, and on the Continent, he settled as a physician lordship of Annandale, which, however, he gave up to his son at Norwich, where he spent the rest of his life. During the Robert on the outbreak of the war between Stephen and Macivil wars and the Protectorate he remained in learned seclusion, tilda, niece of the Scottish king. The Lord of Annandale had two indifferent to either party. He was knighted in I67I, and died sons-Robert, who died without issue, and William, whose son on his birthday, i9th October i682. B.'s chief works are Robert, fourth Lord of Annandale, by marrying Isabel, second gi(i642), Pseudoxic Epidemica, or inqiry into daughter of David, Earl of Huntingdon, younger brother of YaglaRel and C g1o Errors (I646), Id rionagiado, oor Indoiry into William the Lion, become the founder of the royal family of B. Vulgar and Common Errors (1646), Ilydriotaphia, or the Urn He died in 245 Burial, and The Garden of Cyrus (I658). De Quincey ranks fifth Lord of Annan B. with Jeremy Taylor as the most rich and dazzling of rhetodale, and competitor with John Baliol for the crown of Scotricians. His writings contain passages of gorgeous eloquence and profound solemnity, but his style is encumbered by unique land, was born in M20. During the minority of Alexander Latinisms and recondite allusions. His rich, sombre imagina- III., he was one of the fifteen regents of Scotland, and in tion loved to brood upon dim mysteries, antique grandeurs, fan- 1290, when the throne became vacant by the death of Margaret, the' Maiden of Norway,' he claimed it, as being the grandson, tastic oddities, and quaint, insoluble riddles. His gloomy medi-'Maiden of No rway,' he claied it, as being the grandson, tations on life, death, time, and oblivion, are at once pathetic by his mother Isabel, of David, Earl of Huntingdon, younger and impressive. The best account of B. is that in Bulwer Lyt- brother of Williaesca the on. Edward I. decided iing fealty to his ton's Quarterly Essays. A complete edition of B.'s works was Baliol, I292. To escape the indignity of swearing feal to his successful rival, B. resigned the lordship of Annarndale to his published at ~London (4 vols. 1836). son. He died at his castle of Lochmaben in 1295. Browne, William, a pastoral poet, was born at Tavistock, ROBERT DE B., EARL OF CARRICK, eldest son of the above, Devonshire, in I590. He studied at Oxford and at the Temple, was a great favourite of Edward I., and accompanied him to became tutor to the Earl of Carnarvon, and died at Ottery-St- Palestine in I269. In I271 he married Martha Margaret, CounMary, Devonshire, in I645. His works consist of Britannia's tess of Carrick, and thus obtained the title by which he is known. Pastorals (I613 and I6i6), The Shepiherd's Pipe, from which He lived chiefly in England after Edward I. decided the Scotch Milton is said to have borrowed in Lycidas, and The Inner succession against his father, and became Constable of Carlisle. Temple Masque (I620). B. was a follower of Spenser, whom He fought against Baliol when the latter revolted, and asked the lie resembles in sensuous richness of description and diffuseness crown, but was refused. HIis death took place in I304. of style. In Britannia's Pastorals, which are written in heroic ROBERT B., the greatest of the kings of Scotland, and son of couplets, B. excels nearly all his contemporaries as a pleasing Robert, Earl of Carrick, was born March 2I, I274, at (it is gene. and truthful painter of English scenery. His works were edited rally believed) Lochmaben. l In 1296, as Earl of Carrick, he swore by Davies (Lond. 1772), and are found in Anderson's English fealty to Edward I., and for many years occupied a somewhat Poets. For a critical estimate of B., see Leigh Hunt's 7ar of doubtful position in Scotland, sometimes siding with the other ffioneyfronm Mount Hybla. Scotch leaders in their efforts to secure the independence of Brown'ie, in Scotland a spirit corresponding to the English their country, and then returning to his allegiance to Edward. In Puck or Robin Goodfellow, and the Irish Leprechaun. See 1306 a quarrel with John Comyn, commonly known as the Red FAIRIEs. Comyn, nephew of John Baliol, and a rival claimant of the throne, which ended in his stabbing him (4th February) in the church of Brown'ing, Elizabeth Barrett, the greatest English the Minorite or Grey Friars, Dumfries, compelled him to draw poetess hitherto, born in London in I809, was the most highly- the sword for his countiy, and throw away the scabbard. He educated and cultured woman of her time, and published a publicly asserted his rights to the throne, and was crowned king translation of the Prometheus of A;schylus in I833. In I838 ap- at Scone (27th March). At first, however, misfortune attended peared her Seraphim atend other Poems, in the chief of which the his efforts. Defeated in Perthshire (I8thJune) by a superior Engartistic form is Greek, while the thought is Christian. Married lish force under the Earl of Pembroke, and again in the wastes to Robert Browning in 1846, she cultivated the poetic art with of Athole by Alexander Macdougal, Lord of Lorn uncle of the increased assiduity in subsequent years. Her later works are Red Comyn, he was reduced to such straits that he had to take Casa Gzuidi Wind'ows (I851), Aurora Lezph (1856), Ploems before refuge during the winter in the island of Rathlin, off the N. coast C'ongreass (I860). She died at Florence, 29th Jrune IS6I. The of Ireland. His queen fell into the hands of the English, his first collected edition of her poems appeared as early as.1844; estates were confiscated, he was excommunicated, and even belater and completer editions are those of I 850, I853, and I864-66. lieved to be dead. -In the spring of 5307, however, he landed on Her verse is remarkable at once for spontaneous tenderness and the Carrick coast, and captured his own castle of Turnberry from artistic ingenuity. Many of her lyrics and minor pieces, to- the English. to increase in numbers, gether with the Portuguzese Sonnets are imperishable. the English. His followers now began to increase in numbers, gether with the Po e Sonne, are imperishableand on May Io, I307, he overthrew his former op.ponent, the Browning, Robert, poet, was born at Camberwell in I8I2, Earl of Pembroke, at Loudon Hill. This was the first of a studied at London University, and published the dramatic poem series of successes, which in five years cleared all Scotland, exof Paracelsus in I835, which some praised, but few read. Pippa cept a few fortresses, of the English. B. now retaliated on Passes, which appeared in I842, obtained a kind of dim recog- England by invading it, and reduced the Isle of Man. The nition from a perplexed public. In the interval B. attempted decisive conflict of the war, however, did not take place till 552 * 4 BRU THE GLOBE EVC YC'LOPFlEDIA. BRU I314, when Edward II., marching at the head of an enormous Edinburgh University; but died of consumption, 6th July 1767, force, numbering, it is said, Ioo,ooo men, to relieve Stirling at the age of twenty-one. His few poems are in a strain of chasCastle, held by Sir Philip Mowbray for England, was completely tened sadness; and his best-known, the' Elegy,' written shortly routed (24th June) on the field of Bannockburn, with the loss before his death, has a pathos peculiarly affecting. The first of 30,000 men, by the Scots, who numbered, including camp- edition was published by his friend Logan (Edinb. I770), who followers, about 40,ooo, and whose king that day displayed all unfortunately inserted some pieces of his own, and hence a con. the skill of an accomplished commander, and all the reckless troversy, not yet decided, regarding the authorship of one of the daring of a private soldier. The war did not end then. Several finest and most popular poems in the English language, Ode to invasions of England had to take place, and Edward had to be the Cuckoo. See Grosart's edition of B.'s poems, with memoir beaten once again at Biland Abbey, Yorkshire, before a truce (Ediub. I865). was agreed to; nor was it until March 4, 1328, in the reign of Edward III., that a final treaty was ratified by a Parliament at Bru'cea, a genus of shrubs belonging to the natural order Northampton, which recognised the independence of Scotland Sziaznrzubacea (q. v.), though by some referred to the allied orlders and B.'s right to the throne. The iron frame of the king had, Xonst/oxylacc (q. v.) and RHuacel (q. v.). The root of S. uteshowever, been wasted by years of hardship and struggle, and suc- sqoides, a native of the Himalayas, is used as a substitute for cumbedl to the disease of leprosy. IIe died at Cardross Castle, quassia. The leaves of B. antidysenterica of Abyssinia, and B. n thbe northern banks he of thepFirtf Clyde, June 7, 32 in the, Sumnatrana of the Indian Archipelago, China, &c., are said to on the northern bank of the Firth of Clyde, June 7, I329, in the fifty-fifth year of his age, and twenty-third of his reign. He wasbe tonic, astringent, and useful in dysentery. succeeded by his son David, whose mother was his second wife, Bruch'sal (' the bridge over the Sal'), a walled town in the Elizabeth, daughter of Aymer de Burgh, Earl of Ulster. By his circle of Carlsruhe, Baden, on the Salbach, 25 miles S. of Heidelfirst wife, Isabella, daughter of Donald, Earl of Mar, he had a berg by rail. It has a considerable wine trade, and contains an daughter, Marjory, who married Walter, High Steward of Scot- old castle, a palace of the Grand Dukes of Baden, and a large land, and became the mother of Robert II. B.'s body was in- reformatory and prison. Pop. (I873) 9762. terred in the Abbey Church of Dunfermline, where his bones were discovered in I8i8. His heart was delivered to his trusty fol- Bru'cine is an Alkaloid (q. v.) contained along with strychlower, Sir James Douglas, to be taken to Palestine and buried nine in the different varieties of strychnos, and in considerable in Jerusalem; but Douglas, falling in battle against the Moors quantity unaccompanied by strychnine in the false Angostura in Spain, the heart was brought back to Scotland, and buried in bark (formerly supposed to be Brucia antidysenterica, whence the the Monastery of Melrose. For everything relating to the career name of the alkaloid). B. is a colourless crystalline substance, of B. we are indebted to Barbour (q. v.), whose work was at and combines with acids to form crystalline salts. Its action on once accepted by his countrymen as a truthful narrative of the the animal economy is similar to that of strychnine, but is less great struggle. See Burton's History of Scolland, Palgrave's energetic. A drop of nitric acid colours its solution deep red Documents illustrating the History of Scotland, and Freeman's (difference between it and strychnine). Its chemical composi]Hislorical Essays (' Relations belzoeen the Crowns of England and tion is expressed by the formula C23H26N204. Scotland'). Briick'enau ('Brook-bridge'), a village of Bavaria, on the EWAD B., the gallant but too impetuous brother of Sinn, 36 miles N. E. of Wiirzburg, noted for its baths, which are Robert I., distinguished himself greatly in the Scotch WVar of situated in a beautiful valley encircled with fine woods, 2 miles Independence. In 13I5 he crossed with 6oo000 men firom Ayr W of the village. Pop. 1571. to Ireland, to assist the native se/ts or clans against the English, was crowned King of Ireland at Carrickfergus, and for a Bruges' (' the place of bridges'), a walled city, capital of the time more than held his own. He was defeated, however, at province of W. Flanders, Belgium, 8 miles from the sea, and 12 Athenree in 1316, and fell in battle near Dundalk, October 5, 13I 7. WV. of Ostend by railway. It has been the see of a bishop since DAVID B., son of King Robert B., succeeded him at the 1559, is oval shaped, and has broad streets, which wear, however, age of five in 1329, and, along with his wife Joanna, daughter of a semi-deserted appearance. A great part of B. dates from the Edward II., was crowned king at Scone in 133I. Driven from middle ages, and its houses are often richly ornamented. Its the throne by Edward Baliol in 1333, he was sent for safety to notable public buildings are the Church of Notre Dame, which France, whence he returned in 1342. Taking advantage of the ab- has a tower 400 feet high, and contains in one of its chapels the sence of Edward III. in France, B. invaded England in 1346, but beautiful gilded statues of Charles the Bold and his daughter was defeated and taken prisoner at Neville's Cross, near Durham. wife of Maximilian; the Hospital of St John, in which are He was not released till 1350, when he was ransomed for Ioo,ooo Memling's finest pictures; the cloth and flesh markets (the marks. B. died February 22, 1371, in Edinburgh Castle. Halles), built in 1364, over which rises to a height of 348 feet Bruce, James, a famous traveller, was born at Kinnaird the famous Belfry of B., with the finest peal of bells (forty-seven) House, Stirlingshiire, December 14, i730, and educated at in the world; the Gothic town-hall, of date 1377, the repository Harrow School and at Edinburgh University, where for some of a public library of 15,000 volumes and 580 MSS., the facade time he studied law. He did not, however, follow the profes- of which supports 48 statues of the Counts and Countesses of sion, but in 754 entered into partnership with a e Mr Alla, a Flanders; the Craenenburg, now a tavern, where the Emperor sion, but in I754 entered into partnership with a Mr Allan, a London wine merchant, whose daughter he married in the same Maximilian was imprisoned for six weeks in 1488; and the palace year. Within a few months his wife died, and in 1758, by the of the Counts of Flanders, built in 1534, and now used as death of his father, he succeeded to the Kinnaird estate. He archives. The Gothic Cathedral of St Sauveur, an interesting withdrew from trade in 176I; was appointed consul-general at building of the 13th c., no longer exists. The B. Academy conAlgiers in 1763; remained there for nearly two years studying tains a rare collection of the works of Van Eyck, Memling, &c., Oriental languages and medicine; and in 1768 set out to explore and the town library is remarkable for numerous works printed the Nile sources. After crossing the desert from Cairo to the by Colard Mansion, the teacher of Caxton. Within the town Red Sea, and wandering for some time in Arabia Felix, he there are as many as 52 bridges-a circumstance from which it successfully traced the Bahr-el-Az'ek (Blue Nile), then regarded has taken its name, B. being a French form of the Dutch birn6 as the mainstream, to its source. He reached Gondar, the capital (Ger. briicke),'a bridge.' B. formerly employed some I6,000 of Abyssinia, where in I770 he captivated the Emperor by his skilled artisans, and has still manufactures of linen, c'ttons, skill in physic, and served for some time in the army, making "woollens, lace, sugar, spirits, leather, and tobacco. Its harbour, his escape with difficulty after two years' residence. In I773 he Slays ('sluice'), lies 9 miles N.E., in Zeeland, on the Zwin, with returned to England, and published hirs' Yaesi to Discover tile which B. is connected by a canal navigable for large ships. B. Sourceds of tze N dile ain tle Years 1763-73 (5 vols. 4to, i 790), is also one of the Belgian railway centres, and the place where containing much curious and startling information, received with the Ostend, Ghent, Ypres, Nieupoort, and Veurne canals cona widespread incredulity which recent travel has shown to be verge. The women have always been famed for their beauty. unjust. B. died at Kinnaird, April 27, 1794. Pop. (i870) 47,621, of whom about one-third are military. B. is supposed to have been a place of some note as early as the 3d Bruce, lMichael, a Scottish poet, was born 27th March c., and probably received the gospel from St Chrysolus. It was 1746, at Kinnesswood, Kinross-shire, of humble parentage. De- the capital of Flanders in the 7th c., and in the I2th c. had bestined for the ministry, he was educated in spite of poverty at come a haven of importance. In the following century it was the 65 513 +....... BRU THE GLOBE ENVCYCIOP/EDIA. BRU chief of the Hanse towns, and monopolised the English wool B. was for some time in prison during the French Revolution, trade. It reached its greatest prosperity at the beginning of the in which he was engaged on the popular side. He died June i5th c., by which time it had become the foremost commercial 12, I803. city in the world, and had over 200,000 inhabitants. The Brune, Guillaume Marie Anne, a marshal of France, splendid court of the Dukes of Burgundy was then held at B., born at rives-la-Gaillarde, March 13, 1763, and though of good and there also resided here as many as twenty foreign ambas- family, was originally a printer, but rose to be one of the first sadors. The subsequent decline of B. was partly due to the rise generals of his time. In 1796 he was made general of brigade of Antwerp. In 1794 it fell into the hands of the French, re- in the army of Italy under Napoleon, defeated the Swiss in 1798, turned to the Netherlands in i8I5, and remained with Belgium established the Helvetian epublic, crushed the Anglo-ussan established the Helvetian Republic, crushed the Anglo-Russian. in 1830. See Weale, B. et ses lEnvirons (new ed. Brug. i875). forces at Bergen, forced the Duke of York to capitulate on huniBrugg, or Bruck ('the bridge'), a fortified town in the liating terms at Alkmaar, October I9, I799, and vanquished the chiefs of the Vendde in I8OO. Hle was appointed commanderSwiss canton of Aavgau, on the Aar, IO miles N.E. of Aarau. n-chiefs of the armyVende in red I8. taly (ie was oo) appointed commthe fall ofderIn its vicinity is the Castle of Habsburg or Hapsburg, and the in-chief of the army which entered Italy (ISoo) after the fall of Abbey of Konigsfelden, founded in I3Io, in the vaults of which Berne, and governor-general of the Hanse towns in i806, but are bouied many of the Austrian royal family. Pop. (1870) 1338. was disgraced for having omitted Napoleon's titles in the text of B. occupies the site of the ancient Vindonissa, one of the most the treaty by which the island of Rugen was ceded by Sweden important towns of the Alemanni, and later on a episcopal see, to France. After a long period of retirement, he joined Napoleon which disappeaned during the devastations of the dark ages. during the' Hundred Days,' and took part in the battle of Waterloo. B. was put to death at Avignon, August 2, I8IS, by Briihl, an old walled town of Rhenish Prussia, about 9 miles an infuriated mob, on the false charge of being a'terrorist of S. S.W. from Cologne, has a splendid chateau, erected by Elector I793.' See La Vie dut Marechal B. (Par. I82I). Clement Augustus of Bavaria in the beginning of the I8th c. Pop. (I872) 2293. Mazarin resided here after his banishment Brunel, Sir Marc Isambard, a famous engineer, was born from France in 1651. at Hacqueville, in Normandy, April 25, I769. Educated for the Church, he early showed his passion for science, and was Briihl, Heinrich, Count von, favourite and prime min- placed in the navy, as likely to prove a more congenial career. ister of August III., King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, During the Revolution he was compelled to take refuge in born at Weissenfels in 1700, commenced life as a page at the America, where he supported himself as a civil engineer. In court of Elizabeth, Duchess of Sachsen-Weissenfels. His en- I799 he came to England, and induced the Government to adopt gaging manners secured for him the patronage of August II. and his machinery for making ship-blocks, previously made by hand. August III. in succession, and in I747 he became prime minis- This machinery was marvellously perfect and ingenious, and still ter and factotum, to use Carlyle's expression, to the latter. He remains in use. B.'s mechanical inventions were both very nucompletely controlled the king by ministering, at the expense of merous and highly original. IHis greatest work, however, was the state, to his love of ease and luxury. He did not neglect to the Thames Tunnel, to the carrying out of which (undaunted enrich himself, however, and maintained a retinue of 200 ser- by two previous failures and abundance of evil prognostications) vants, and an establishment more magnificent than that of his he devoted his best energies for many years. It was begun in master. He had a suit of clothes for every day of the year, and 1824, and opened, after many difficulties, in I843. B. was a kept twelve tailors continually sewing for him. His reckless Fellow, and afterwards a Vice-President, of the Royal Society, extravagance so exhausted the public finances, that the puny and was knighted in I84I. He died Decembei 12, I849. See army he equipped for his master against Friedrich of Prussia Beamish's Aleozoir of Sir _Marc Isamrbard B. (Lond. I862).was captured with its camp. Augustus and B. fled to Poland, Isambard Kingdom B., son of the preceding, was born at carrying with them the pictures and the porcelain, but abandoning Portsmouth in I8o6, and became one of the most eminent enthe national archives to the conqueror. B. died at Dresden, gineers of his day. He assisted his father greatly in the con28th October 1764. His library of 62,000 vols. (sold for 6o,ooo struction of the Thames Tunnel. lHe became engineer of the crowns) forms an important part of the royal library of Dresden. Great Western Railway, and there introduced the broad gauge. See Justi's Leben uznd Character der Grafen vonZ B. (3 vols. He was the engineer of the Grealt [estern, Greal Britain, and I760-64), and Carlyle's Friedrich IA, passim. Great Eastern steamships-each of them the largest vessels of their day-and was an early advocate of iron ships and screw Brumaire' (Lat. bmrvma,'winter'), a month in the French propulsion. B. died I5th September I859, his life having been Revolutionary calendar. On the celebrated i8th B. (November shortened by over-exertion. 9), 1799, Napoleon overthrew the Directory, and on the follow-g day was proclaimed First Consul. Brunelles'chi, Filippo, an Italian architect, born at Floing day was proclaimed First Consul. rence in 1377. His genius was wonderfully versatile. lie Brumm'el, Beau, a consummate dandy, who took society studied in turn painting, mathematics, mechanics, and perspecby storm in the early part of the present centur;y, was born in tive, the last of which he taught to Masaccio, the first painter I778. He resolved to be the best-dressed mall in London, de- who knew its principles scientifically. A careful study of the voted the most assiduous care to his toilet, and saw the fashion- ruins of Rome fillets him with the desire of reviving the archiable world bow before his creaseless coat and artistic arrange- tecture of the ancients; and when it was proposed in I4I9 to ment of cravat. For a time he rivalled in celebrity Lord Byron, complete the cathedral of Florence, B. suggested the construcwho sarcastically pronounced him to be a very great man. He tion of a cupola 130 feet in diameter, and 330 feet from the floor was intimate with the Regent, and was courted as an authority to the cross, a proposal considered at the time so impracticable on matters peculiar to polite society; but, after ten years of that B. was regarded as a madman, but which he nevertheless social success, was ruined by gambling, and died in poverty and succeeded in carrying into effect. The dome of St Peter's at imbecility at Caen, in i840. He fully realised Carlyle's descrip- Rome, executed a century and a half later by Michael Angelo, tion of a dandy-' a man whose trade, office, and existence con- was a reproduction of the idea of B., who owed much of his suc. sists in the wearing of clothes.' His life was written by Captain cess as an architect to'his knowledge of mathematics. The Jesse (I844), and is a valuable satire on his times. churches of San Lorenzo and San Spirito at Florence are also:Brunck, Richard Franpois Philippe, an eminent phi- striking testimonies to the originality of his genius. He died in;Brunck, ~Eichard Fra~gois Philippe, an eminent p 4 See Quatrenkre de Quincy's Vies des Arcninenctps. lologist, and a most subtle, though frequently rash, critic, was See Quatremre de Quincy's Vies des Archietes. born at Strasburg, December 30, 1729. He was educated by the Brutni, Leonardo, known as Areti/no, from being a native Jesuits, and took part for a time in the Seven Years' War, but of Arezzo, was one of the famous Italian humanists who brought subsequently returned to his native city, and ardently devoted about the revival of Greek learning in Western Europe. Born himself to the study of the Greek authors, and to the emenda- in 1369, he devoted himself ardently to Greek literature, abantion of their writings. IHis first work was the Analecta Veteram cloning for it the study of jurisprudence. After having been secPoetarum Greecorum (1772-76); and he subsequently issued retary to four popes, he returned to Florence on the deposition editions of Anacreon (I 785), Apollonius Rhodius (1780), Aristo- of John XXIII., and was for the second time chancellor of the phanes (178I-83), the Poete Gnzomici (I784), Virgil (I785), and republic, at his death, gth Marchl I444. His Iisorice F/loreaSophocles (I786-89), the last named being especially famous. tiznce, written in Latin, was printed at Strasburg in I6Io, but an 514 ~~~ A —---- ---- 13M-U rrtri_ GL OBP EZINOC'~LOP DiAj. BRT~ Italian translation by Acciajuoli was published at Venice in many. He was born in 925, and had for tutor Baldric, Bishop 1473. His other works, which are numerous, are now almost of Utrecht. B. was famed for his learning and piety, and wrote forgotten. Among these are his Comleiitarihts Aer;ult suo Term- a Commnteieaiy on the Evang$lists and On tAhe Life of MoseS, Lives tore Gestarumt (Ven. I476); Vile di Dantee del Pehrarca (Perugia, of Saints, &c. The Emperor Otto I., his brother, made him 167I), &c. B. translated into Latin Aristotle, Plutarch, and Duke of Lorraine. He died at Rheims in 965. other Greek authors. Bruno, St, was born at Cologne about the middle of the Brinn (Slav. Brnto), the capital of Moravia, in the Austro- I Ith c. Disgusted with the immorality of the times, he retired Hungarian empire, lies at the confluence of the Zwittawa and to a desert near Grenoble, called Ctse, and fouded (86) t1fom aeetnea Grnolae, carthC~atete~adfusian (.ov6)Schwarzawa, 6o miles N. of Vienna by rail. The principal an order of mnonks-called, from the place, Carthusian (q. v.)buildings are the cathedral, the Gothic church of St Jakob, with adopting the rule of St Benedict, with the addition of a number a tower 276 feet high, built 1318, a Protestant church erected of very austere precepts. B. was invited to Rome in 1092 by in i867, and a museum of antiquities. There are also many Pope Urban II., but found the life there so little to his mind palaces, and to the west of B. stands the Spielberg (formerly that he retired to the wilds of Calabria, where he established the castle of the Markgraf), since I740 a state prison, and still a another monastery, and where he died in IIOI, See Le Pere citadel. It has important manufactures of woollens, cottons, Tracy's Vie de Saint Birito (Par. 1786). silk, ribbons, leather, dye-stuffs, tobacco, soap, and glass. The town has fourteen suburbs. Pop. (Behm and Vaguer, BevbT- Brunswick, Duchy of, a N. German state, with an area kerungz der Erde, I875) 73,771. of 1420 sq. miles, and a pop. (1871) of 312,170. It consists 1875)a vilgntecno fcwzwte chiefly of three isolated portions-(I) the principality of WoltBrunn'e, a villagote in the oLcanto, of Schwyz, Switzeriand, fenbtittel, subdivided into the circles of B., Wolfenbiittel, and at the S. E. bend of the Le of Lucerne, and historically interherelmstedt; (2) the Harz and Weser region, subdivided into the esting as the place where the deputies of the Forest Cantons circles of Gandersheim and Holzminden; and (3) the princi. circles of Ganedersheim. and Holzminden; and (3) the princiconstituted their free commonwealth in I315. Pop. (1870) 2274. pality of Blankenburg, in the Lower Harz. There are also Brunnow', 7Prnst Phil. von, a distinguished Russian dip- five small demesnes, the largest of which is Calvbrde, in the lomatist of German origin, was born at Dresden, 3Ist August Magdeburg territory. Wolfenbtittel, the most northerly part I797. I-le began his studies at Leipsic in 1815, entered the Rus- of B., is chiefly an elevated plateau, covered with elmn and sian service in i818, assisted at the congresses of Troppau and beech forests, and watered by the Oker. The other two diviLaybach, was secretaryto the embassy at London, and was present sions are traversed by the Harz Mountains, and contain the in the campaigns against the Turks in I828 and 1829. In 1839 peaks Wormberg (3200 ft.) and Achtermannshdhe (2800oo ft.). he was sent on a special mission to London, and accredited as The Weser forms the boundary on the W. of Holzminden. ambassador in I840o. In July of this year he brought about a Chief among the natural products are flax (yearly, 84,000 Ger. treaty with England on the Eastern question, and in 1849 stones), hops, timber, potatoes, tobacco, and fruit. Silver, lead, was employed in settling the terms of the Navigation Treaty. copper, coal (near Helmstedt), and iron are extensively mined B. was one of the representatives of Russia at the conference and there are quarries of marble, alabaster, and limestone. The held at IParis in February 1856 to re-establish peace. After cities B. and Holzminden are the most active industrial centres, holding for some time the appointment of ambassador at Berlin, and the principal manufactures are yarn, linen, paper, glass, he was again sent in 1858 as Russian ambassador to London, wooden wares, sugar, tobacco, and porcelain. There are also some and created a count by the Russian Emperor in April 1871. ninety-six breweries, and many foundries and machine factories. Hie died at Darmstadt, ith April I875. The inhabitants are in great part of the'Old Saxon' stock, Bru'no, Giordano, a philosopher whose unhappy fate has to which also belonged in part the Low German conquerors of added to his fame, was at Nola in 1548. was for some Britain. They are mainly Lutherans, there being besides (1872) added to his fame, was born at Nola in 1548. He was for some n 73Cahic,29adentofheRordCuc, time a Dominican, but rejecting transubstantiation, he left the only 7030 Cathoics, 293 adherents of the Reformed Church, Church, and wandered through Geneva, Paris, England, Marburg, II71 Jews, and 574 members of small sects. There are over Frankfurt, &c., lecturing against the logic and physics of Aris- 400 village schools, six gymnasia, a university at G-ttingen, and totle, and maintaining the Copernican theory. In England several technical and other schools. In I873 there were throughout B. over 150 miles of railway, entirely the property (1583), where he composed his chief Italian works, he knew Sir ra Philip Sidney and was patronised by Queen Elizabeth. He of the state. B. is a limited monlarchy by decrees of October describes Oxford in Cena delle Cene-i, or'Evening Conversations 12, 1832, and November 22, 23, 1851, and the legislature is on Ash Wednesday.' At Frankfurt (1588-90)., he published vested in the Duke and an elective assembly of forty-six deputies, three Latin worls. On coming to Venice, he was denounced elected for six years. The assembly only meets once every three to the Inquisition, and sent to San Severina, the Grand Inquisitor yes, a permanent committee of seven deputies being appointed at Rome. lie submitted to the Church, and professed penitence to cmary on the incidental business of the state, while the aas regards heresy on dogmatic points, distinguishing between ministration is in te ands of three ministers. It sends two metaphysical discussion and practical faith. But he would not members to the National Bundesrath, and three deputies to the members to the National Bundesrath, and three deputies to the retract his scientific doctrine of the plurality of worlds. In the Reichstag. The revenue for the triennial term 873-75 was Venetian account of the charge against B., it is said that he 6433,38i, and in 1873 the public debt amounted to.,63,97I,666, of which;C~,32X, ~I O has been contracted on railways. praised the Queen of England and other heretic sovereigns, and of which,321, has been cotracted on railways. had written things concerning religion which were not becoming, B. formed part of Charlemagne's Saxon'dukedom,' incoreven though he spake philosophically. After lying in the dun- porated with the Frankish empire after yeals of hard fighting, porated with the Frankish empire after years of hard fighting, geons at Rome from I593 to i6oo, he was burned in the Campo ad shrec its fortunes, passing to te Gelphs of Sabia i di Fiora on I7th February of the latter year. B.'s contributions II37. Along with Ltineburg it remained the hereditary possesto patheism are contained in hs books Della us inip ion of Heinrich the Lion till his death in I195. Otto, nephew td05o panthis arel contine UdVs i e h~is bosdellay Ciusa bynif Uo and Del lito Uiiso e lilo. ois deity is by f Otto IV. of Germany, and grandson of Heinrich the Lion, necessity immanent in nature; and he has therefore been called dcyi 25 h oso to oanadAbehwr necessity immanent in nature; and he has therefore been calledi procured a grant from Friedrich II. by which B. was raised to a the'successor of the Neo-Platonists and the precursor of Spi- duchy in 1235. The suns of Otto, Johann and Albrecat, were noza' (Lewes). He opposes Pythagoras, Plato, and Lucretius to respectively the founders of the ich;e-Lnbne and iteethe authority of Aristotle. Among his lighter works, the aggres- Bnszezer lines, the fomer of which became extinct in sive satire against a'superstitious orthodoxy without morality 1369. The reigning house of B.-Wolfenbtittel was founded in and without belief,' Spaccio della Bestia i-iozfante (translated 1569 by Heinrich, Duke of B.-Ltineburg-Dannenberg, and from by Tolal into English in 173), is the mostcharacteristic. B. his brother Wilhelm sprang the B.-Liineburg line, which later employs humorous dialogue, and sometimes a sonnet, to advance became the house of anover (q. v., and has given kings to his argument. The best edition of his worlks is that by Adolf Great Britain since the beginning of the 18th c. See the hisaer (eip 830) Te most elaborate criticism is by tories of Havemann (3 vols. Gbtt. i853-37), Schaumann (Hanov. Wagner (Leips. 1830). The most elaborate criticism is by 84 adLmrct07 Bartholiness (2 vols. Par. 1848). There is also a life by Berti 1864), and Lambrecht (I874). (Flor. i868). Brunswick (Ger. Braunschzweig,'Bruno's shed,' or town of Bruno, called hze Great, Archbishop of Cologne and Duke B.), the capital of the duchy, on the Oker, in a fertile plain, o105 of Lorraine, was son of Heinrich the Fowler, Emperor of Ger- miles W.S.W. of Berlin, and directly connected by rail with ~~P 1~~1-` —~~ ~~~ —~~ —I —~~~~ ~~- - -.~~~-.51 K1BRU THE GLOBE -ENCYCLOAOPEDi. BR Hanover, Harzburg, and Magdeburg. B. has a Gothic town- museum, a Hospice de Vieilcards for 700 inmates, splendid market hall, a handsome town-church, a Church of St Andrew, with a buildings, and an astronomical observatory (I830). The old steeple 316 feet high, a medical college, a polytechnic school, walls of B. have given place to pleasant boulevards, and the a museum, and a theatre. In the principal public square are Allee Verte, a much-frequented avenue of lindens, leads to the statues of Heinrich the Lion and of Lessing, the latter Laeken, a suburb (pop. 9200), where there is a royal castle, built by Rietschel. It has large manufactures of woollens, linens, in 1782, with a park and garden. Of the public squares of B., beet-sugar, chicory, tobacco, and papier-mache, while its beer the most notable are the Place Royale, with a large statue of (mtummlze) is celebrated. Pop. (1871) 57,883, of whom 46,000 Godfrey de Bouillon; the Place Mich/d or Place des.Martlys, are Lutherans. B. was founded in 86i by Bruno, one of the containing a monument to the'martyrs' of 1830; the Place early Dukes of Saxony, flourished as one of the original five Naatiozale, where there is a statue of Leopold I., and the old towns of the Hanse League, but declined during the I5th c. Congress Hall, &c. The two principal streets are Rue Royale It was conquered in I67I by the Duke Rudolf August, and and Rule de Madelaine. Among the manufactures of B. may be has been the residence of the ducal family since I753. The mentioned point and Blondel lace, gold- and silver wares, Duke's palace, destroyed by fire in I830, and again in i865, cottons, woollens, carriages, glass, and crystal, needles, hats, was rebuilt in 1869, and is a beautiful edifice, with a quad- paper, and chemicals. B. has a great international trade, and rangle designed by Rietschel. See Diirre, Geschichte B.s (Bruns. is a commercial and railway centre. It has some twelve daily i86i). newspapers, of which the Ind&fendance Belge has a European Brunswick Bay, the estuary of Prince Regent river, on the lreputation. To the W. lies Anderlecht (pop. II,663) with large N. B. coast of Aust alia. cotton factories and breweries. About one mile S. begins the N. W. coast of Australia. Wood of Soignies, a splendid park, the Bois de Boulogne of B., Brunswick Black, composed of lamp-black and turpen- 449 acres in extent, intersected by avenues and alleys. Between tine, is employed for imparting a jet-black appearance to this park and the Dyle is the battlefield of June I815, and three grates and other iron articles. A finer variety is called Berlin miles farther off lies the village of Waterloo (q. v.), in which black. there is now one of the largest beet-sugar factories in the country. Pop. (1873) o, 180,I72, of whom 6ooo were Protestants. IncludBrunswick Green, a native earthy carbonate of copper, ing nine suburbs, the pop. was 365,404. B. is first spoken of yielding a beautiful green colour, is employed in oil-painting in chronicles of the 8th c. An established fact in its early under this nanie. Real B. G. is an oxychioride of copper, history is the existence of a church here in 966. Otto II. prepared by acting on that metal with hydrochloric acid; it held his court at B. in the ioth c., and the town was fortified in has a pale bluish-green hue, and is useful in the arts. the century following. Its palace, built in I300, was long the Bru'sa, Brusa, or Bursa, capital of the vilayet of the residence of the Dukes of Brabant, and in it Charles V. of Spain same name, at the base of the Mysian Olympus. It is a abdicated in favour of Philip II. in I555. The subsequent clean town, with channels of water running through many of cruelties of the Duke of Alba and the Inquisition, of which B. its streets. A mountain stream divides the Turkish from the swas the centre, drove some Io,ooo of its citizens to seek refuge Armenian quarter, while a ravine separates the latter from the in England. During the Franco-Spanish wars of the I7th c. Greek quarter. There are good bazaars, well stocked with:B. was more than once partly destroyed, but in later times made Manchester and other European goods. Many of the houses are rapid progress in the peaceful reign of Maria Theresa. In 1792 of wood, but there are several handsome buildings, the most it was taken by the French, who made it capital of the departremarkable of which is the great mosque. The environs are ment of Dyle. B. was subsequently one of the capitals of the beautiful, the city standing on a slope facing a plain, variegated ingdom of the Netherlands, and was made the capital of Belwith mulberry plantations, gardens, clumps of cypress, kiosks, gium at the Revolution of I830. baths, &c. Its hot springs, famous in antiquity, are still used. Brussels Carpets. See CARPETS. Pop. estimated at 6o,ooo, mostly Turks, though there are many Armenians, besides Greeks, Jews, and Franks. B. has an ex- Brussels Sprouts, one of the cultivated varieties of the tensive trade in raw silk, and a striped satin is manufactured here, Cabbage (Brassica oleracea, q. v.). The'sprouts' consist of from which the under-garments of the Easterns is made. There little clusters of leaves which form miniature cabbages in the axils is an important trade in corn, opium, and meerschaum clay, of the leaves. It is cultivated in much the sanme way as the and its commerce is increasing. Its port is Gemlik. B. is the cabbage. It is said to degenerate in Britain, and accordancient Pirzusa, and is said by Strabo to have been built by ingly the seed, which is sown in February or March, is by some Prusias, who carried on a war against Crcesus; but according cultivators imported from Belgium. to Pliny it was built by Hannibal. Its importance commenced after its capture, in 1326, by Orcan, son of Osman I., who Bru'tus, Lucius Junius, an early Roman hero, whose story made it the capital of the empire of the Osmanlis, which it re- f purely legendary character, was te supposed founder of mained for fully a century. The vilayet of B. has an area of the family of that name He escaped death at the hands of his 28,870 sq. miles; and a pop. of upwards of I,000,ooo. uncle Tarquin, the Proud, by feigning idiocy,-hence his surname, Brutus, or stupid. The oracle- at Delphi intimated that Bruss'els (Fr. BJruxelles, anc. Bruochsella,'the seat of the he would take the place of his cousins, Titus and Aruns, as marsh'), the capital of Belgium, province of S. Brabant, on the ruler at Rome. When Lucretia was killed by her father, after Senne, a branch of the Dyle, lies partly on a hill and partly in her foul outrage by Sextus, son of Tarquin, B. roused the people, a plain of great beauty. The modern or upper town is the obtained the banishment of the Tarquins, and was elected one of residence of the higher classes, and has a fine park, the resort the first consuls. He put to death his two sons for taking part in of the fashionable, of I8 acres, around which are situated many a conspiracy to restore the Tarquins. He died fightingwithAruns, of the most notable buildings, such as the palaces of the King and the Roman matrons mourned him for a year.-Marcus of the Belgians, of the Duke of Brabant, of the Prince of Junius B. was born 85 B.C., and was educated under the care Orange (now the Palais des Beaux Arts), and the Palais de of his uncle and future father-in-law, Cato. B. joined Pompey Nation, the house of the Legislature. In the low-lying part of B., at the outbreak of the civil war in B.C. 49; but after the battle inhabited chiefly by Flemish merchants and shopkeepers, there of Pharsalia he submitted to Cesar, and even served him, while are many old and picturesque buildings. Among the chief Cato still stood out. By the influence of Cassius over his weak public buildings of B. are the Palace of Industry, the Mint, the and vain nature, B. was prevailed upon to join the conspiraUniversity (since 1834), the Academy of Science and Art, a tors who murdered Cresar, B.c. 44. When the feeling at Rome fine cathedral of St Michel and St Gudule, built in the 13th c., against the assassins became manifest, B. retired to the E., having beautiful coloured windows; the National Bank, of date where, after passing some time at Athens, he took possession 1864; the town-hall, with a tower 373 feet high; the bazaar of df Macedonia. Having by various means obtained men and St Hubert, and the Hospital of St John, with beds for 6oo patients. money, he joined with Cassius to oppose the triumvirs, OctaviThe city also possesses a military school, a music conserva- anus, Antony, and Lepidus; but in the second battle of Philippi, toire, a school of painting and architecture, a botanical school B.C. 42, B. was defeated by Antony, and fell upon his own and garden, the royal library, including the Bibliotheque de sword. — Decimus Junius Albinus B. served under Caesar Burgogne, with 22,000 volumes, a picture gallery, a valuable in Gaul, and was held by him in such esteem, that B.'s name r- T BRU THE GL OBp NCCYC LOPYE/Di!A. BUB was found in his will as one of his heirs in the second degree. the name of white B., or mandrake root; the true Mandrake B., however, foully betrayed his generous patron, and took a Root (q. v.) is, however, that of Mnfanzdra'ora officinalis. In leading part in his assassination. Thereafter he kept up for a large doses it is poisonous. B. Americazna and B. Afrishort time a struggle with Antony for the province of Cisalpine calza have similar properGaul. He was finally deserted by his soldiers, betrayed by Cam- ties. The root of B. epic ae illus, a Gaulish chief, and put to death by Antony's orders, 43 B.c. is employed by the natives Brux, or Brix, a town of Bohemia, at the foot of the Schloss- of India as an alterative in berg, on the Bila, Io miles S.W. of Teplitz, with cotton manu- yphilis, &c., and is confactures. Near it are coal-mines, the mineral springs of Piillna sidered, though probably and Seidlitz, and deposits of sulphate of magnesia. Pop. (1869) erroneously, a powersul 1e6308. medy in snake-bites. The ~~~~~~~~~6308'-~~ ~root of B. Abyssinica when Bruyire, Jean de la, a famous French author, was born boiled, can, it is said, be at Dourdan, in Normandy, in I644, where he held for some time eaten with impunity. The the post of Conseiller-tlresorier. Coming to Paris, he was, by the so-called black B. is Tamus influence of Bossuet, appointed teacher of history to the Dau- communis, an entirely difphin (Duke of Bourgoyne). He lived chiefly at Chantilly, Ver- ferent plant, belonging to sailles, and the Hotel CondO. In I687 he produced his cele- the Yamn order (Dioscoreabrated Les CaracPOres aie Y7dophraste, tradluits du Grec avec les cece). It has a large, fleshy, Caractlres, o ls M rsMz-s de ce Siecll. The court society, under the somewhat acrid root,which, Maintenon rule, afforded him abundant subject for satire, which he like that of the true B., is ryoa threw into the form of abstract delineations, under such titles sometimes applied exteras La Belle, La Cour, Des Fervmmes, Des Esprits Forts. His Dia- nally to bruises. Internally it acts as a diuretic, and is also logucs susr le QzictEisme were published in I699. He writes them used as an emetic and cathartic. The shoots of this species and as the friend of Bossuet, and against his felPow-tutor, Fenelon. T.. cretica, when boiled, can be eaten like asparagus. The seeds B. died IIth May I696. See his Life by Sicard, prefixed to of B. callosa are used in India as a vermifuge, and yield an oil the Paris edition of I827. used in lamps. Bry'ant, Jacob, an English scholar, born at Plymouth in Bryoph'yllum, a genus of plants of the natural order I7I5, and educated at Cambridge. He became secretary to the CrassulaceP (q. v.). B. calycbzum, a shrubby succulent species, Duke of Marlborough, whose tutor he had been; refused the a native of the MoluB. calys,, a shr b succule for abtually producMastership of the Charterhouse that he might have leisure for ing buds on the edges of the leaves. These buds can produce study, and settled at Cypenham, near Windsor, where he spent independent plants. The bog orchid ( xis ), nearly half a century in the toils and pleasures of literature. He variety of oter plans, have also the same habit. In eos nd d November 5804. B.'s chief writings, which are more a variety of other plants, have also the same habit. In the died i4th November R804. B.'s chief writings, which are more Radick Islands the natives rear Arum esculeneumnt by planting learned than critical, are Aialysis of ntciezt Mythology (52774-76), the leaves. The leaves of Gloxinia Gesnera, Achimenes, &c., Troy (dici 796)and Te (Set776), Dissettiozf hio-azt Concerning the will also produce plants if a notch is cut in the thick veins. Troy (I796), and The Sentiments of Philo-~jdr&ess Concerning the Brown's aneal, pp. i8s, 200, 369. Logos (1797). His last publication was Dissertations on the Pro-pp. I8 phecy of Balaam; the Standing Still of the Sun atthe Command of Bryozo'a (Gr. bruon, moss; zobnz, animal), the name for7oshua; the Victory of Samson over the Philistines. merly applied to the Polyzoa, a class of Alolluscoida or Lower Bryant, WCilliam Cullen, the Nestor of American poets, Alolluzsca, represented by the Fludstri or'sea-mats,' and allied was born at Cummington, county Hampshire, Massachusetts, organisms (e.g., Bozerbankia, q. v.). The term was applied to U.S., November 3, I794. He was the son of Peter B., a local these truly animal organisms from their generally plant-like physician; published translations from the Latin at ten, an conformation and form. See MoLLUscA and POLYZOA. original poem, The Elmbadio, at thirteen; and entered Williams' Bry'um, a genus of mosses, many of which are natives of College, Massachusetts, at sixteen. Two years later he com- Britain. They grow in dense patches, on wet rocks, wet posed Thanatopsis, a poem of beautiful gravity, but pagan rather earth, bark of trees, &c., and are among the most beautiful than Christian in its resignation to the universal doom. B. studied forms of their order. law, and practised in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, but in I825 went to New York as an editor. In the following year he rzesc Ltov'ski, a fortified town of Russia, government commenced his connection with the Eveningt Post, which he still of Grodno, on the Bug, IoS miles S. of Grodno. Pop. (i867) controls. It was at that time on the Democratic side; in later 22,493, mainly Jews. From its position B. was always an object years it has been Republican, but was always an advocate of free of contention between the Russians and Poles; and here in I794 trade. The first collected edition of his poems appeared in I832. Suwarrow defeated the Polish general Sierakovski. It has an In I869 the veteran came forth with a metrical translation of the active trade, and manufactures of leather and soap. Iliad, and in I871 of the Odyssey. His poetry gained him a Brze'zan, a town of Austrian Galicia, on the Lipagnita, 51 high reputation not only in America but in Europe. Something miles S.E. of Lemberg, has an old castle, and considerable leather of Wordsworth's love of nature, something of Hemans's tender- 1manufactures. Pop. (I869) 7299. hess of reflective sentiment, a classic purity of phrase, and a genuine love of the scenery and life of the New World, gave a frze it y, or Brshesi'ofy, a towW of PolandP government fi-esh and peculiar charm to verse whose strongest point is not trkov, 62 miles SW. of Warsaw, with some manufactures originality. B. visited the Old World in I834, and has made of woollen cloth. Pop. 6000. several visits since. A few years ago lihe purchased the old home- Buaze', a S. African plant, of which no perfect specimen has stead in Cummington, fitted it up as a country residence, and yet reached Europe, but which is described by Livingstone as greatly improved the land by cultivation and the planting of having a fibre finer and stronger than flax: a thread of it will trees. cut the fingers rather than break. Bry'ony (Bryonia), a genus of plants belonging to the natural Bu'balus, or Bubalis, a genus of Antelofes (q. v.), inhabitorder Cucurzbiacew. The only British species is B. dioica (the incg Barbary and N. Africa, and occasionally found in Egypt. common B.), a frequent climber in the hedgerows of England, The name B. is now scientifically employed to denote the Buffalo but not a native of Scotland or Ireland. The plant abounds (q. v.) genus, the B. of the present article being similarly termed in fetid, acrid juice, and is purgative and emetic. B. alba of (Antilope or Alcezyhalus bubalis). It is popularly known in its middle Europe has similar properties, and the root of both is native haunts as the'Bekker-el-Wash,' or wild ox, and posapplied externally to bruises, and at one time was much in use sesses an elongated head, with the ringed horns curved outas a cattle purgative, though unsafe from its uncertain and vio — wards, so as somewhat to resemble the prongs of a pitchfork. lent action. This is owing to the presence of a bitter extrac- It is a gregarious animal. It averages a stag in size, and is tive principle, boyonin. The young shoots of both species are coloured yellowish or light-brown, the tuft of the tail being eaten like asparagus. The fresh root is sold by herbalists under coloured black. 4I7 a+- - - X BUB THE GIOBE IVNCYCLOP/EDIA. BUT Bubas'tis, an Egyptian goddess called Pasht, whom the family in numerousways, till Anne of;B. married the unfortunate Greeks identified with Artemis, was erroneously said to be the James, Duke of Monmouth, and the pair were made Duke and daughter of Osiris and Isis. The name B. is the Egyptian Pasht Duchess of B. When her husband was beheaded in I685, the with the Coptic article prefixed, and the whole Grzecised. The Duchess retained her titles and estates. Her grandson Francis, chief temple of the goddess was at Bubastis (q. v.). The animal who succeeded his grandfather, and who adhered to the name of sacred to B. was the cat. Scott, succeeded to the title of Duke of B. on her death, married Bubastis, an ancient Egyptian city, remains of which are a daughter of James, second Duke of Queesberry, and obtained found at Tel Basta,' the mounds of Pasht,' so called from its with her a portion of the Queensberry estates. His son Henry, high mounds, about 14 miles to the N. of Belbeys. B. is the whose tutor was Adam Smith, devoted great attention to the imPi-beselth of Ezek. xxx. 17. The splendid temple of the goddess provement of his estates and the amelioration of the position of B. was here, and an annual procession was held in her honour. his tenants, and was much esteemed in Scotland. The grandson of the latter, Walter Francis, fifth Duke of B., and present Bubb'le, a name applied to any fraudulent or deceptive joint- representative of the family, was born in I8o6, and bears the titles stock project, started with an exaggerated prospectus of corn- of Duke of B. and Queensberry, Marquis of Dumfriesshire, Earl of mercial success, for the purpose of enriching the promoters at Drumlanrig, &c., in Scotland, and Earl of Doncaster in England. the expense of the public. After the bursting of the South Sea His income from landed property in Scotland, which is situated Company (q. v.), the B. Act was passed with the hope of pre- in various counties, is larger than that of any other nobleman in venting similar swindles on the public. But difficulties in con- the country. Like his grandfather, he is honourably noted for struing the Act led to its being repealed; and projectors of corn- his exertions for the good of his tenants and the improvement of panies are now only amenable to common law. his property. Among the latter we may include the creation of Bubble-Shell, a name popularly applied to the genus of Gas- the deep-water harbour and port of Granton, on the Firth of tei;ojodous mollusca known as Bulla (q. v.). Forth, near Edinburgh, at a cost of/32o,ooo. The Duke of B. Bu'bo is the name given to inflammationl of one of the glands was one of the chief patrons of Church livings in Scotland, but ofthegrobp0inO. It may be gna simple inflammatioon, or duetothewaived all claims to compensation when the Patronage Abolition of the groin. It may be a simple inflammation, or dueto the Act of 1874 was passed. His eldest son, Walter Henry, member of Parliament for the county of Midlothian, bears the Bubo. See OwL. courtesy title of Earl of Dalkeith. Bucaneers', a maritime confederacy of English and French Bu'centaur, the gorgeous state galley in which the Doge of adventurers, banded against Spain and her American colonies Venice annually, on Ascension Day,'married the Adriatic' by from an early period in the I6th to the close of the I7th c. dropping a ring into the sea, and wedding it in the name of the The word is derived from the Indian boucan (dried meat); boat- republic. The ceremony arose in II77 from an honour bestowed cantier thus meaning one who dries or smokes meat in the Indian on the Doge Ziani, who defeated the fleet of Barbarossa. fashion. At first restricted to certain settlers at Tortuga, the name was eventually applied to that strong piratical organisation Buceph'alus (Gr. Bcepas, from baceAalos,' ulIwhich harassed Spahish power in the New World by sea and headed'), the favourite horse of Alexander the Great. Alexland. These'brethren of the coast' had laws and com- ander, when a boy, tamed it, and, after carrying him through manders; and, from their unity of system, could inflict grave ma"y victories, it died in India. Bucephalia, a town on the defeats on the Spaniards. Among their most distinguished cap- Hydaspes, was founded by Alexander in its memory. tains were Montbar, a gentleman of France (called by the Bu'cer, MVartin, one of the most zealous fellow-labourers Spaniards II ~xtel-tinador-); De Busco; Van Horn, a native of of Luther, was born at Schlettstadt, in Alsace, in I49I. His Ostend; and, greatest of all, Henry Morgan, by birth a Welsh- original name was a/h-/hosrn, of which B. is the Greek equivaman. Under his leadership the B. performed their most re- lent. At the age of fourteen he entered the Dominican order of nowned feat, the taking of Panama in I670. Terrible atrocities monks; but, being converted to Protestantism by Luther, left it stain the annals of these allied freebooters; but many of their in I52I; after which he settled at Strasburg, where he became exploits show a reckless daring which approaches the heroic. pastor and Professor of Theology. His talents for controversy Among the last of the B. was the famous Dampier; but as the and negotiation fitted him for occupying an important place in confederacy loosened, its character degenerated. The capture of his party. HIe excelled in subtle distinctions, and was fertile in Carthagena ii 1697 was their final great achievement; and on softened expressions to which each party could accommodate the outbreak of war between England and France, and after the itself, and in flexible principles which favoured all. He thus peace of Ryswick, this remarkable association broke up. Its played an important part in the controversy between Luther and remnant appeared in the vulgar pirates that continued to infest Zwingli, seeking' by exhortations, explanations, and perhaps also the Spanish main, and are hardly yet a thing of the past. See by shrouding the opinions of both parties in ambiguous language,' Dampier's Voyages, Burney and Thornberry's Ilistories, and the to mediate between the two, but without giving satisfaction to Narranives of Ringrove and Sharp. either party. In I549 he was called to England by Cranmer, Bucc'ari, a free haven of Croatia, Austria, on the Bay of where he became Professor of Theology at Cambridge, and took Boccaricza, Gulf of Quarnero, 5 miles E. S.E. of Fiume, with ship- part in helping forward the Reformation, along with Paul building, linen manufacture, and tunny fishing. It has a good Fagius and other Reformers from the Continent. He died at trade in wine. In I87I there entered the port I29 vessels of 7352 Cambridge, 27th February I55I1 Some years later his bones were tolls; cleared, 127 vessels of 7 1I6 tons. Pop. (I869) 2II9. exhumed and burned by order of Mary. A complete edition of B.'s writings in ten vols. was undertaken by Hubert, of which Buccina'tor, the name of a small thin muscle situated in the only one volume appeared (Basel, I577). See Baum's riogw I/y wall of the cheek. It is by the action of this muscle that the of B., prefixed to an edition of his works published in I858. exit of air from the mouth is regulated when the mouth is filled with air, as in whistling or playing on a wind instrmnent; hence Bu'ceros, the genus of lorubills (q v.). it is called'trumpeter's muscle,' from bucciina, a trumpet. Buch, Leopold von, an illustrious German geologist and Bucci'no, a town of S. Italy, province of Salerno, 33 miles pleontologist, was born April 26, 1774, at Stoipe, in Prussia, E. of Salerno city, on the projected line of railway intended to educated at the Miling Academy of Freiherg, and travelled connect Eboli and Potenza. Marble of a fine grain is quarried in pursuit of his science through Germany, Scandinavia, Great in the vicinity. Pop, 5493. Britain, France, Italy, and the Canary Islands. He died at Berlin, March 4, 1853. His chief works are-Geognos/. PeoBucci'num, the [V/ze/le genus. See WH1ELK. I bachtungen oacf Reisen duchZs Deutschland eund Italien (2 vols. Buccleuch'. The Scotts, Dukes of B., are one of the most Berl. 1802-9); 1]eise dauch Norzwegen und Lappland (2 vols. ancient Border families of Scotland, tracing their descent aIs far Berl. I8io); Ueber den 7ura in DeUtschaZnd (Berl. I839); beback as the reign of Alexander III.; but the first who attained dis- sides several monographs on ammonites and other fossils, and a tinction Awas Sir Walter Scott of Branxholm, a Border chieftain beautiful geological chart of Germany in 42 sheets (2d ed. I832). whose name is well known to readers of Scottish minstrelsy, and 3B.'s collected works were published in I870. who lived in the reign of James V. His son was in 1I66 raised to Buch'an, the N.E. district of the county of Aberdeen, lying the peerage as Lord B. Dignities and wealth poured in on the between the Ythan and the Doveran. The chief towns in it 5i8 q,~~~~~~~ BUG THE GLOBE ENC YCLOPEPIA. BUG are Fraserburgh and Peterhead. Some portions of the coast admiration at home and abroad. The best editions of B.'s works are very precipitous, and almost five miles to the S. of Peter- are Ruddiman's (2 vols. Edinb. I715) and Burman's (2 vols. Leyhead are the famous Bullers of B., an immense well in the gra- den, 1725). nite margin of the sea, into which the sea rushes by a natural Buchanan, James, the fifteenth President of the United archway, and in storms dashes up the sides with violence. B. States, was born in Franklin county, Penn., April 22, I791. was once an earldom of the old Scotch family of the Comyns, His father came from Donegal, Ireland. B. graduated at Dickand remains of several castles belonging to them, as well as inson College, studied law, was admitted to the bar NovemDruid circles, and the old Abbey of Deer, are still pointed out. ber I7, I812, and obtained a lucrative practice in the legal It has developed a variety of the Aberdeen dialect of English, profession. He commenced political life as a Federalist, but possessing a very respectable body of popular literature, and in- became a Democrat under President Jackson. Entering Conteresting from a philological point of view. gress in 1820, he was appointed Minister to Russia in 1831, returned to the United States Senate in I833, and opposed Buchan'an, George, one of the greatest scholars of the the rising anti-slavery agitation. President Pierce sent him to I6th c., was born at the farmhouse of Moss, on the banks of the English court, and he returned to assume the Presidency in the Blane, near Killearn, Stirlingshire, in February I5o6. His I857' His administration was disturbed with the troubles of father, Thomas B., belonged to an ancient family, but died in Kansas, the Fugitive Slave Law, the John Brown raid, and the the flower of his age. His maternal uncle, James Heriot, sent Southern Secession. B. tried to avert the storm by a peaceable himl to the University of Paris at the early age of fourteen, policy, but failed; and his long success ended in eclipse. He where he remained for two years. In I523, he served in the died June I, I868. army of the Regent Albany, and took part in an invasion of England. Next year B. entered St Andrew's University, where Buch'anites, a strange sect which arose in the W. of Scothe took the degree of B.A. in I525. Soon after, he again pro- land in 1783. Its founder was Elizabeth or Elspeth Simpson, ceeded to Paris, joined the Scots College in 527, and gradu- born in Banff, 1738, of Scottish Episcopal family. She marated M.A. in I528. Some time after he became Professor in rned Robert Buchan in Glasgow, who was a Burgher Seceder. the College of St Barbe, and tutor to the Earl of Cassillis. B., In I779 sh began to prophesy the end of the world, and soon who was essentially a humanist-i.e., a lover of the exquisite literature of antiquity-was probably at no period of his life a devout 1782, with the Rev. Hugh White, minister of the Relief Church Catholic; but about this time he seems to have privately adopted thereee views. I May I784 the people iobbed the doctrines of the Reformation; and, on his second return to he. house, and drdve'Lucky' Buchan and her followers from Scotland (I537), after an absence of ten llyears, he composed, town. White, his wife, and others, male and female, and while residing in Ayrshire with his pupil, Gilbert, Earl of Cassillis, their mother in the Lod, forty-six in all, marched through Ayrthe Somniuzt, a poetical satire which gave mortal offence to the shire to Nithsdale, and rested in a barn at New Cample, be Franciscans, against whom it was directed. A new Erasmus tween Thornhil and Closeburn, all dwelling together. They appealed to be let loose on these solemn impostors, and their rage were led out to a hill top to be translated, but returned to the was so alarming that B. seriously thought of escaping to Fralce. barn, where they indulged in promiscuous sexual intercourse, and committed infanticide. At length some left, but others reJames V. stepped to the rescue, gave him one of his illegitimate and commit ted infanticide. At length some left, but others resons (afterwards the famous Regent Moray) to educate, and in- maned faithfl. These took a fam in ikcudbrightshire, and stigated him to write his second satire, Franciscanus, which pro- built a house in Crochetford, where the last died in 1846, having vokded such a storm of hate among the priesthood, that the the hones of the prophetess interred with him. Elspeth herself King was unable or afraid to protect him; and in I539 B. was died in 179I. SeeJoseph Train's bI8c/4anlit6esf-aom First to Lost forced to seek safety abroad. Cardinal Beatoen, it is said, wished (Edinb. 1846). to have him assassinated. The truth is, the Franciscalzus is Buchan-Ness (the'nose' or promontory of Buchan), the obscenely abusive. B. now spent many years in Paris, Bor- most easterly point in Scotland, a promontory in the N.E. of deaux, and Coimbra in Portugal, engaged in teaching, suffer- Aberdeenshire, 3 miles S. of Peterhead, and 25 N. of Aberdeen, ing much from the priests, but by his learning securing hon- lat. 57~ 28' N., long. I~ 46' W. The Buchan Deeps is the name our and protection from the great. While a prisoner in a Por- of a vast grove in the sea-bottom, 50 to 90o fathoms deep, and tuguese monastery on a charge of heresy, he translated the 25 miles broad, extending about seventy miles along the coast. Psalms of David into Latin verse (Psalmorum Zavid-is Parsa- On B.-N. stands a lighthouse 135 feet high. jAzrasir Poetica), a splendid triumph of the classic muse, whicl he Buch'arest, or Bukarest (Wallach. Bucuresti,'tie city of afterwards dedicated to Queen Mary in verses that deserve their delight'), the capital of Wallachia, and residence of the Princes fame. During this third residence on the Continent, B. also com. f Roumania, on the Dembovitza, a feeder of the Danube, lies posed his Latin tragedies on Jephtha and the Baptist, translated 6 miles W. of the shores of the Black Sea, and 244 N. Of into the same tongue tlhe Medea and Alcestis of Euripides, and 36 miles W. of the shores of the Black Sea, and 244 N.N.W. of into the same tongue the Medea and Alcestis of Euripides, and wrote numerous ocdes and other poems. Restored to liberty ill Constantinople. It is the see of a Greek archbishop, and has a I ho e first went to England, then back Rto France, andt fiall university, founded in I864. The town is for the most part meanly 1552, he first went to England, then back to France, and finally, built, but there is an active trade in grain, wool, cattle, timber, in 156o0, returned to his native country, which he never again salt wx, and honey. B is the entrept for the trade between quitted. B.'s fame as a brilliant scholar and poet precededi Austria and Turkey, with both of which countries it has railway him. Mary, who admired genius, appointed him her classical communication. The treaty of B. between riussia and the tutor; but his religious politics rendered it impossible for him Polte, signed ay 28, 1812, to be her friend. In 1566 he was made Principal of St Leonard's College, St Andrews, and in the following year gave to the former Bessarabia i E Moderator of the General Assembly-the only layman that ever thed parut of Moldavia, and fixed held that office. His Detectio Afari/e ScotoruzIt egice, dedi- teenuth as the bo undary es. Pop. cated to Queen Elizabeth, is rather an ignoble performance for a (iS66) I41,754, many of whom leal Scot, and, if its grossly slanderous contents were not concealed ill a dead language, would even now evoke indignation. In aie ermans. i 1570, B. was appointed tutor to the young king, James VI., and Buck, the term usually ap- \ forced him, under penalties duly exacted, to receive a consider- plied to the male Fallow Deer able share of learning. To James, B. dedicated his De tJAre Regni (q. v.), the female being named anud IScotos, through which blows the keen air of classic liberal- the' doe.' The male Roebuck, ism. The last years of his life were spent in the composition of (q. v.) is also, though not so __. his Rerum Scoticarut Jistoria, on which his fame as anll author generally, named B., the male chiefly rests. He died September 28, I582. B. has long been of the red deer being similarly -<-.SO'~,_,. reckoned the most exquisite Latinist of modern times, not only termed a hart or stag. See on account of the Augustan purity of his style, but also for the DEER. Roebuck vitality and strength of genius which he threw into the ancient Buck-Bean, Bog-Bean, or Marsh Trefoil (MAenyan. mould. Through him Scotland won a distinct and independent tihes trifolinta), a plant of the natural order Gentianacee, found place in the learned world of Europe, and his name still awakens all over the colder parts of the northern hemisphere, and com4 5 *I 9 BUO THE GIOBE ENCYCZOPEDIA. BUO mon in Britain. It grows in marshy places, and, with its beauti- Buckingham, James Silk, traveller and author, was born ful flesh-coloured flowers with fringed petals, is one of the hand- near Falmouth in I786. After a chequered youth, he settled in somest of British plants. From the bitter leaves is prepared an Calcutta in I8i6, and established the Calcutta Daily ournal. extract, which is tonic, astringent, and in large doses cathartic He secured the favour of the Marquis of Hastings, and his paper and emetic. Until lately it was admitted into the official phar- became successful. But on account of its severe censures of the macopceia as a remedy in cases of dyspepsia and bowel com- Government it was at length confiscated, and B. returned to plaints; at one time it was also used in intermittent fever. In England. Here he started the At/ehezeeum, and entered into some parts of Germany and Sweden it is sometimes used as a various schemes and reforms. B. travelled extensively in Europe substitute for hops. The rhizome contains starch, which in Lap- and America, and was unwearied in his efforts to give the world land is sometimes extracted and used as food. the benefit of his views; but he was something of a visionary, Buckeye. See HORSE-CHESTNUT. and his influence was transient. He sat in Parliament for Sheffield during 1832-37. B. died June 30, 1855. Buck'hound, a variety of hound, so named from its being for- Buckingham (Old Eng. ccing,'te ome or place merly much used in hunting the Buck (q. v.), or male fallow deer. Buckingham (Old Eng. Btcciogchan,'the home or place The breed has of lateyears been much neglected. It resembles of beech-trees'), the chieftown of London by rail, with some manufacOuse, 6r miles N.W. of London by rail, with some manufactures of machinery, agricultural implements, manures, leather, Buck'ingham, George Villiers, Duke of, favourite of straw-plait, and lace. It is almost encircled by the Ouse, which James I. and Charles I., was the third son of Sir George is here crossed by three bridges. The chief buildings are the Villiers, and born at his father's seat of Brookesley, Leicester- parish church, built in I780, and to which a fine Gothic chancel shire, August 20, I592. His handsome person attracted the was added in i866; a chantry chapel of the I3th c., used as a attention of James I. shortly after the disgrace of his first grammar-school since the reign of Edward VI., and repaired by favourite, Carr, and he soon became more than Carr had ever Mr Gilbert Scott in 1588; and a fine Congregational church been.'Steenie,' as James called him, and of whom the king erected in I857. B. is a very old place. It is mentioned in the was so fond that he used to loll on his neck and slobber his face Chronicle under date 918, and again in iroI. When Domesday with kisses, was in the course of two years elevated through Book was drawn up it was already a borough. The Earls of B., all the ranks of the peerage, was made first Marquis and then soon after the Norman conquest, built a castle here, and the family Duke of B., and was appointed to innumerable offices, such seat (Stowe) now lies about three miles to the N.W., being conas that of Lord Admiral of England, Master of the King's nected with the town by a fine avenue of trees which forms a Bench Office, and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports; and favourite promenade. Pop. (I87I) 7545. B. returns one meneduring the last years of the reign of James I., and the first of ber to Parliament. that of Charles I., was the sole director of the policy of Britain. Buckinghamshire, a county of England, in the basins of Although the latest historian of this period, Mr S. R. Gardiner, the Great Ouse and Thames, with an area of 78 sq. miles, has been able to show that B. was an abler man than was gene- res, and a lop. (18I) of 175,879. It is one rally believed, his arrogance and luxury were intolerable. As a or 467,oo9 ac politician he was a failure, and he instilled into the mind of of the most fertile parts of the kingdom, has an undulating Charles I. notions which ruined him and his family. His ill- surface, is well wooded, and is watered by the Thames, Ouse success (I623) in bringing about a marriage between the Infanta Ousel, Colne, and Thame. In the S. extend the Chiltern Hills, of Spain and Charles I., coupled with his ostentation and his and in the N. thele is much ising ground, while the centre is lavish expenditure of the national treasures, roused the Com- occupied by the rich vale of Aylesbury. The formation in the laim on s, headed by Elliot and Pym, against him, and the would N. is Oolitic, and in the S. consists of greensand and chalk. have been impeached and probably brought to the scafdfold, had Upwards of two-thirds of the surface is cultivated, the chief not the kinog who told B. he would die with him, dissolved crops being wheat, barley, oats, beans, and peas; and I544 Parliament. B. arranged the treaty of marriage between acres are occupied as orchards. There is much pasturage, and Charles and the Princess Henrietta Maria of France. He was in I873 the number of cattle was 66,931; of horses, I5,923; of disastrously beaten in an expedition for the relief of Rochelle sheep, 288,34I; of pigs, 43,30o. The lbondon market receives in I627, and when on the point of embarking on a second at firom B. a great quantity of wool, butter, cheese, and poultry. Portsmouth, was stabbed to death by a discontented naval The towns Buclkingham, Aylesbury, Marlow, and Wycombe are Portsmolieutenant, named ohn Felton, Aust 3, 628. See S. R. the chief seats in the county of the manufactures of paper, strawlieutenant, named John Felton, August 23, i628. See S. R. Gardiner's Hisftosy ofEnglandunder the Duke of sRchin,hma2nZ d plait, and thread-lace; and among the means of communication C'ha-rles. (Lond. I875). are the Great Western and the North-Western Railways, and the Grand Junction Canal. The county returns three members to Buckingham, George Villiers, Duke of, one of the Parliament, besides which five members are returned by the wittiest, most versatile, and most profligate members of the court boroughs. In the reigns of Stephen and John, B. was the of Charles II., was the son of the preceding, and was born at scene of the civil contest, though not of any event of special Wallingford House, January 30, i627. He studied at Cam- importance. It was also the headquarters for a time (I644) bridge, fought in the royal cause during the civil war, was pre- of the Royalist troops during the great struggle between Charles sent at the battles of Dunbar (i650) and Worcester (I65 I), and on I. and his Parliament. Its antiquities are few, consisting chiefly venturing to make his appearance in London (I657) during the of the remains of Notley Abbey, now partly converted into a Protectorate of Cromwell, was thrown into prison, and only re- farmhouse; Burnham, Missenden, and Medmenham Abbeys, leased on the abdication of Richard Cromwell. At the Restora- and the churches of Stewkley, Hanslope, Chetwode (containing tion (i66o), he recovered his estates, which had been confiscated, some of the finest stained glass in the kingdom), Olney, and was made Master of the Horse, and by his wit and debauchery Chesham Bois. There are few traces of the baronial castle of obtained a first place in the favour of Charles II. He was feudal times, but the still older remains of several British and instrumental in bringing about the downfall of Clarendon, Roman roads exist. and formed one of the celebrated'Cabal.' In i666 he wasdisgraced for taking part in a conspiracy against the king, Buckland, Willam, D.D., F.R.S., a distinguished geolobut was soon, by his address, restored to all Isis offices, gist, was born at Axminster, Devonshire, in 1784, and studied and was made ambassador to France. He was engaged in the at Oxford, where in I818 he became Reader of Geology. In Popish plot, and assisted the Nonconformists in opposing tle'822 he received the Copley medal for his discoveries in Test Act. On the death of Charles, B. retired to his mansion the Kirkdale Cave, was President of the British Association of Helmsley ill Yorkshire. He died of a fever at Kirkby in I832, was appointed Dean of Westminster in 1845, and died Moorside, April I6, I688, and was buried in Westminster August I4, I856. His chief works are R>elizuie D)ilviance Abbey. With him became extinct the ducal branch of the old (1823), Geology and Mineralogy Considered with Reference to family of Villiers. The modern Dukes of Buckinghan are Gren- istual Theology (1836), one of the Bridgewater Treatises villes. Besides being a politician and a debauchee, B. dabbled (q. v.), and Annals of Philosophy. in chemistry, and wrote some poems and plays, of which last the Buckland, Francis Trevelyan, son of the preceding, born best is The Rehearsal. B. is perhaps best known as being the December 17, 1826, was educated at Winchester and Oxford. original of Zimriz in Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel. where he graduated B.A. in I848. Having studied medicine, 520 O z 5 BUC THE GI OBE ENC YCL OP1EDIA. BUD and held for some time the post of House-Surgeon in St George's Buck'thorn (Rhamtnus), a genus of shrubs or small trees Hospital, he was appointed Assistant-Surgeon to the 2d Life belonging to the natural order Rhvamnaceer (q. v.), very generGuards in I854, but retired in I863. He has made natural ally distributed over the world. The common B. (R. catharhistory a special study, and among his principal contributions ticus) is found over Europe, Russian Asia, and N. America, is not to the advance of this branch of science are his Curiosities of abundant in England or Ireland, and rare in Scotland. The Natural fistory (new series, Lond. 1866), and Fish-Hatching bluish-black nauseous berries are violently purgative, but are (Lond. I863). B. was appointed Inspector of Salmon Fisheries rarely used in medicine. The alder B. (R. frangula) is more for England and Wales, and in this office has laboured success- frequent than the common B., but still rare in Scotland. Like fully for the naturalisation of British salmon in colonial waters, the former species, it was at one time used in medicine, and has especially in those of New Zealand and Australia. been recommended in intermittent fevers. In addition to a bitter extractive principle, it contains a volatile oil with hydro. Buckland'ia, a fine tree, with the general aspect of a poplar, belonging to the natural order a elidc, or witch-hazels. cyanic acid, and a yellow colouring matter called ]ihamnin; the belonging to the natural order Hamamelidacece, or witch-hazels berries are violently purgative. The wood is used, under the It is a native of the Himalayas, but might probably be naturalised mistaken name of'dog wood,' for the mistaken name of'dog wood,' for making the fine light charcoal in Britain (Hooker). It is named in honour of Dr Buckland the used by the gunpowder makers. The bark, leaves, and berries geologist. are used for dyeing. The unripe fruits of Dyeri's B. (R. infecBuck'le, Henry Thomas, historian, was born at Lee, in torieus), and probably other species also of the S. of Europe, Kent, 24th November 1823. His life was spent in intense study, yield a brilliant yellow dye. The berries and inner bark of R. its only remarkable feature being that he attended no school or tinctorius of Hungary are also used for dyeing yellow, while university, but owed much to his mother. In I857 he produced the'Chinese green indigo,' used in Lyon for dyeing silk, is prethe first volume ofT7he History. of Civilisation in England, in pared from the bark of R. utilis and R. chlorophorus. French which he considers the physical influences, such as food, climate, berries, Avignon berries, or yellow berries, are the fruits of R. &c., which he regards as controlling statical conditions of national inefectorius, R. saxatilis, R. amyigodalina, and R. Clusii, and are character, and the intellectual development of man, which he used by the dyers. The sea-B. (h-ippophSiae rhamnzoides) is a regards as the source and measureof progress. These principles plant of another order (Eleagnacece). (See SALLOW THORN.) are then verified by a general survey of the political and intel- The evergreen Alaternus of our shrubberies is a species of B. lectual history of England, France, Spain, and Scotland, the (R. alaternus), a native of the S. of Europe. whole forming merely the introduction to a projected history Buck'u, or Buchu, a name given to several species of the of English civilisation in detail. B. is remarkably skilful and genus Barosmc. (natural order'utacee), natives of the Cape of accurate in his tableaux of important facts, but his capacity for good Hope. The leaves of several of them are aromatic, stimu ist marredy san intrense fanaticism, pro-Good Hope. The leaves of several of them are aromatic, stimujust or sage inference is marred by an intense fanaticism, pro- lant, anti-spasmodic, and diuretic, and exercise a specific influence bably engendered by his cloistered training and solitary study. on the urinary organs. Their properties are owing to a itter B.'s main principle-i.e., of the subordination of the physical, principle (Diosmin or earosmin), and a scented volatile oil. moral, and political condition of society to the state of the The species used in the pharmacopreia are B. betul, B. crenuspeculative faculties-was first clearly stated by J. S. Mill in the ta, and B. se olin. The iottentots perfume themselves Logic of Moral Science (Logic, vi.). B. died at Damascus, 29th with the leaHottentots perfves of B. May I862. A large collection of posthumous papers, with a Memoir of B., was published by Miss Taylor. See also Pilgrimo Buck'wheat (Fagof5yrum), a genus of plants of the Memstories (Lond. 1874), in which Mr Stuart Glennie reports natural order Faggoyracete. The fruit differs from that of his conversations in the East with B. Polygonum by not being enveloped in the perianth. The common B. (F. esculenteum), is a naBuck'ler, a shield worn or buckled on the left arm. The common B. (E. esculeteui ), is a naRoman B. was oblong, padded inside with sheepskin and linen, in many parts of Eunope where it is covered outside with metal plate. In the middle ages it was cultivated for the sake of its mealy covered z.s rcultivated for the sake of its mealy round, oval, or square, and generally was made of hide or wicker- seeds, which, when ground, form work, strengthened in various ways with iron. nutritious meal, inferior to wheat, yet Buck'les, fastenings for belts, straps, boots, and other articles superior in feeding qualities to rice. In of attire, besides harness, trunks, and many kinds of leather the United States it is largely employed work. The essential part of a buckle consists of a tongue as human food, but in Britain it is only which rests on the upper side of a frame, through which the grown to a small extent for the purpose strap to be fastened passes, the fastening being made by the of feeding pheasants (Treasuzy of point of the tongue passing through a pierced hole in the Botany). Tartarian B. (F. Tartaricum) strap. B. were a very fashionable appendage of shoes during the is a very productive species, a native of last century, and they were frequently costly and elaborate in Siberia, and well adapted for growing in make. They began to be first generally used on shoes in the cold localities. Among other species time of William III., but occasional allusion is made to the may be mentioned F. emarginatum of fashion much earlier. In Pierce the Plouzghman's Crede, a work China, F. cymzosunt of Nepal, and the of the I4th c., the Franciscans are denounced for their pride in common blackbine (F. convolvulus), wearing buckled shoes. The caprices of fashion still occasion- a frequent weed in our cornfields. ally induce the wearing of buckled shoes by ladies, and gentle- The ground seeds are familiar in the Buckwheat. men wear B. as a part of court dress. form of black specks in oatmeal. Buck'skin, a strong twilled woollen fabric for trouserings. Bucol'ic (from Gr. boukolos,'a herdsman'), an epithet applied rhe web is usually about 27 inches wide, and when finished to pastoral poetry, first by the Greeks and afterwards by the the pile or nap is so shorn that the texture is seen through it. Latins. Buck'stone, John Baldwin, a clever dramatist and popuBuck'stonle, John Baldw~in, a clever dramatist and popu- IBuczacz', an old town in Austrian Galicia, on the Strina, lar comedian, was born near London in 1802, took to the stage a tributzaz, an old town in Austrian Galiia, o Stanislavov, at the age of nineteen, and so rapid was his success, that in two a tributary of the Dniester, 30 miles E.N.E. of Stanislavov, years he became chief'low comedian' at the Adelphi Theatre, notd s the place where the treaty of peace between the Poles while he also wrote such pieces as Luke the Labourer. Since and Turks in i672 was signed. Pop. (i869) 9763. then his career as an actor and writer of plays has been very Bud, the form in which the flower or leaves exist previous successful. He carefully studies all his parts, and is without a to being expanded. There are therefore flower-buds and leafrival as a representative of some of the best characters in Shake- buds, the former being generally easily distinguishable exterspeare and Sheridan. For upwards of twenty years B. has been nally by being rounded, while the latter are more elongated. lessee of the Haymarket Theatre. He has written an enormous Buds are terminal and lateral; the former, produced at the extrenumber of pieces for the stage, of which some, such as the mities of the branches or stem, serve to carry on the plant Green Bushes, Good for Nothinzg, and the Irish Lion, are still upwards or outwards; the latter, produced on the sides of the very popular. B. is treasurer of the General Theatrical Fund. stem or branches, prolong the plant laterally in the form of 66 521 + +- A 4~ —------------------—. - BUD THE GL OBE ENCYCL OP-EDIA. BUD branches and branchlets. The latter are also called axillary, died 23d August I540. It is pretty clear that B. was of doubtfrom being produced in the axils of leaves, though in reality ful orthodoxy. He was wont to speak contemptuously of the both kinds are. Buds vary considerably in their nature and doctors of the Sorbonne, and his widow and children went size, and even in the depth of winter the buds will serve to over to the Reformed faith. B.'s first works were translations distinguish various trees and shrubs. In some cases they are from Greek into Latin, and it was not till 15I4 that he laid naked, in others covered with scales, or with a gummy, waxy, or the foundation of his great scholastic reputation by the pubresinous exudation, which serve to protect them from rain; or lication. at Paris of his treatise De Asse et Parlibus ejus, which in another case the interior is lined with a non-conducting was followed in II9 by his Coltmentaril Lingoue Grccce. He kind of down or wool, which protects the young leaves wrote fifty-six letters in Greek, which were translated into Latin and other structures from cold during the winter season. in I574. Hi-s collected works were published at Bale in 1557, Most palms and other monocotyledons produce no lateral in 4 vols. fol. The fourth vol. contains his Greek commentaries. _ buds, and accordingly, if the terminal B. which prolongs the B. left in MS. a Greek-Latin lexicon, which was printed at stem upwards is destroyed, the plant dies. Sometimes, as in Geneva in 1554, and again in 1562, and assisted Henry Stephens the case of the lilac, there-are two opposite terminal buds. The considerably in the compilation of his Thesaturus. See Vie de way leaves are folded up in the B. is called prefoliation or verna- Buds, by Leroy (I541). tion, just as that of the flower-buds is cestivation, and a variety Buda'on, a town of British India, in the Rohilcund division of names are applied to express this, and also the relation the different leaves in the B. bear to each other. The eyes of potatoes of the N.W. Province, on a small tributary of the Ganges, 140 are subterranean leaf-buds produced on the tub. Leaves in miles N.W. of Lucknow and 30 E. of Alleygurh. During the are sbteranea lea-bud prodced n th tubr. LMutiny the Europeans were forced to flee from B., which was, temperate climates begin to be formed in the axils of the leaves Mutiny the Europeans were forced to flee from B., which was, as soon as the young branches on which they are borne have been however, retaken- by General Whitelock, o9th April 1858. properly developed, but may never go beyond the rudimentary Pop. (1872) 31,044. The executive district of B., which is level, proprly eveoped butmayneve gobeyod th ruimenaryand fertile in cotton, wheat, and barley, has an area of x96o sq. stage. In addition, there will occasionally appear adventitious ad fertile in cotton, wheat, and barley, has an area of 60 sq. buds on indeterminate portions of the stem, at the extremity of a miles, and a pp. (72) f 934,348 medullary ray, or at a place where an incision is made in the Buddh'ism (from the title of'the Buddha,' the enlightened, bark, and thereby a determination of sap directed to the place; assumed by its founder), a system of religion founded about 2500 they will even appear on leaves, as in Bryophyllum (q. v.). years ago in India, and which, though it has now disappeared from the land of its birth, is professed by 455,ooo000,000ooo of Bu'da (probably the Magyar form of the Slavic b'udin, a people, being more than 31 per cent, of the human race, in Cash-'hut' or'dwelling,' though it is also said to have been ca.lled Z3 ei o a a h ecl mere, Nepaul, Thibet, Tartary, Mongolia, Japan, Siam, Burafter Buda, the brother of Attila), is the name of a Hungarian mah, and Ceylon. The reputed founder of the system figures city on the right bank of the Danube, connected with Pesth te legend of his life as the son of Sudhodana, king of on the opposite bank by a suspension bridge I246 feet long.i h eedo i iea h o fSdoaa igo on the opposite bank by a suspension bridge 246 feet long. Kapilawastu, a region in Central India at the foot of the moun. B. is built round the Schlossberg, from the centre of which tains of Nepaul; and at his birth (the date usually assigned to rises the fortress (Festung), enclosing the royal palace, the rises the fortress (Fstng, enclosing the royal palace, te which is 543 B.c., though later research places it sixty years Church of the Assumption, and the public offices. To the after) is said to have received the name of Sidhartha. Is after) is said to have received the name of Sidlhartha. IHis S. of this rises the Blocksberg, which is strongly fortified. father, we are told belonred to thefamily of the Sakyas; ence, B. has six suburbs, Raizenstadt or Taban, Christinenstadt, in allusion to the mode of life he adopted, he is sometimes called in lluionto hemode of life be adopted, he is sometimes called Landstrasse, Neustift, Wasserstadt, and Alt-Ofen (A4uinczulz), Sakya-mouni (Sansk. muni,'a solitary'); and as the family bea market-town of i6,ooo inhabitants, which since I85O has longed to the chain of the Gautamas, he is also called Gautamabeen incorporated with B., and where are the dockyards and Buddha. But te legends of his life, ancestry, and youthful builingyars o th DaubeStea NaigaionComany InBuddha. But the legends of his life, ancestry, and youthful building-yards of the Danube Steam Navigation Company. In builditong d to the Dablicb inues Navga tionedCocareer are not satisfactory even as legends, and the tendency of addition to te public buildings already mentioned, there are all later criticism (see M. Senaat's tzdes Bouddiyues, Par. r875) sixteen churches, five monasteries, the arsenal, theatre, c. is to destroy their value as historical documents. Many of the South of the Schlossberg is the Josephsberg, containing the grave circumstances belonging to this period of his life are probably of te Tukishderish UI Bba, itha moqueto wichcircumstances belonging to this period of his life are probably of the Turkish dervish Gi/l Baba, with a mosque, to which pilgrims from Turkey and Persia still repair. A Gothic not legendary in the true sense at all, but parables or allegories, prmonument has been erected to the memory of General containing slight vestiges of real history. After B. left his father's muentzi, who fell in defence of the town in lem o B. has Gume- n palace, he became the pupil first of one Brahmin teacher, then Ilentzi, who fell in defence of the townm in 1849. B. has nume- o nte;fo hmh ere osbu iebd n rous charitable institutions. At the foot of the Blocksber of another; from them he learned to subdue the body and rous cilaritable institutions. At the foot of the Bokbr ae s l ht ss Blocksherg to discipline his mind by constant and well-directed medi. are several hot sulphur-springys, Bruckbad, Raizenbad, BlocksZ e la Raizenbad, Blocks- tation. During six years, spent partly in practices of great bad; Kaiserbad to the N., and KIinigsbad, the Roman Aquae austerity, he failed to obtain the deliverance sought. After calide su~eriores, in Wasserstadt. From one of these, with a temperature of I 170 F.,is derived the German name of the town long meditation and ecstatic visions, however, hlie at last, Ofen (oven). B. has a trade in silk and leather, and has spn- by sheer force of thinking, arrived at the knowledge of the spn- truth. H-e discovered the causes of all the changes inherent ning-mills and machine-works. But the principal industry is in human life, by whic means the fear of them was entirely tile tile ~~~~~~~~~~in human life, bywhcmentefarotemasniel the manufacture of wine, the vineyards in the neighbourhood removed. He now desired to make known to mankind the producing the celebrated' Ofenerwein,' to the amount of nearly valuable secret which he himself had learned, and having as. 5,000,000 gallons annually. Pop. 53,998, of whom 46,979 are suined the title of'the Buddha' (the enlightened), he set out Roman Catholics and 2554 Jews. Roman Catholics and 2554 Jews. for Benares, the sacred city of the Brahmins, where he preached B. was at first a Roman colony. The present town grew with great success. After travelling over the most of India, round the castle, built in I247 by King Bela IV. During 300 making many converts wherever he went, he died at the age of making many converts wherever he went, he died at the age of years it suffered twenty sieges, and it was in the hands of the eighty, while sitting under a tree near Kusinagara. Turks from 1541 to i686, in which year it was wrested from eihty, while sitting uder a tree near Kusingara. them by Karl of Lorraine. ItagainsuThe most striking feature in the history of B. is its power of thu Kanrel of L.It again suffered severely in the proselytising, a power arising from the universal sympathy and Hungarian revolt of I848-49. sm brotherhood which it inculcated. By the middle of the 3d c. Budc'us, or Bude'us (the Latinised form of the name B. c. —i.e., in the time of Asoka-it was the established religion of B2ud), the most learned Frenchman of his time, and the friend the country. Missionaries were sent to other countries, who went and rival of Erasmus, was born at Paris in 1467. His early upon a regular system of preaching, teaching, and disseminating education was defective, but at the age of twenty-three he con- the sacred doctrines. The first country converted was Ceylon. ceived an ardent desire for study, and became profoundly versed If we can still trust the Mlahawanso (though its authority is now in Greek, then almost unknown in France. B. was patronised being seriously questioned), this conversion took place soon after by three monarchs in succession. Charles VIII. made him Asoka's time. Ceylon has adhered to the Buddhist religion as one of his secretaries; Louis XII. made him a member of a a country down to the present day. From Ceylon it spread to legation to Rome on the accession of Pope Julius II.; and it Siam and Burmah. It reached China (according to the best was to the influence of B. with Fran~ois I., whom he accom- authorities) about the Ist c. B.C., and before the close of the Ist panied on his travels, that the College of France owes its c. A.D. was declared one of the state religions. Streams of pilfoundation. He had also charge of the royal library. He grims now flowed from China to India, which was regarded as 522 IBU1D THE GLOBE ENIYCGLOPMDIA. BUD the Holy Land, while the religion spread largely into Central mind-covetousness, malice, scepticism. Five other evils to be Asia. But in the early centuries of our era there was a revival avoided-drunkenness, gambling, idleness, improper associations, of Brahminism in India, before which B. was forced to give way the frequenting of places of amusements. In connection with in that country. By the end of the 4th c. it was beginning to these there are five great commandments binding on all-not to decline in the eastern part, although in the 7th c. it was still kill, not to steal, not to lie, not to get drunk; next comes not to flourishing throughout the country. But from this time its de- commit adultery. Five others for those entering on the direct dine must have been very rapid (though the 7th c. marks its pursuit of Nirwana-to abstain from unseasonable meals, from triumph in Tibet), for in the I2th c. the last trace of it almost public spectacles (music, dancing, singing), from expensive had disappeared from the country. dresses, ornaments, and perfumes, from having a large or soft The Buddhist Holy Scriptures, containing the tenets of the sys- bed, and from receiving gold or silver. For the regular recluses, tem, the canon of which was said to have occupied the attention ascetics, or monks, a number of observances of the severest of a council held after the death of Buddha, and to have been character are prescribed-to wear only clothes made of rags fixed by a council in Asoka's time, and confirmed by a council in sewed together with their own hands, to live only on alms, Cashmere in the beginning of our era, are called the Tripitika to take only one meal daily, and that before noon, to live in (three baskets), and are divided into three classes:-(I) The forests or deserts, approaching human dwellings only to get Sutras, or discourses of the Buddha, not written down by himself, alms, to seek no shelter but trees, to rest only sitting at the but by his chief followers immediately after his death; (2) The root of a tree, and even sleep there without lying down, to Vinaya, comprising all that has reference to morality or disci- meditate at night among the tombs on the vanity of all things. pline; (3) Abhidarma, or metaphysics. The worship connected with the religion consists of adoration B. can only be called a religion at all in a very peculiar sense, of the statues of the Buddha and of his relics, chief of which since it is theoretically a pure atheism. It ignores the exist- are his teeth. In theory, however, it may be distinguished in ence of a deity. Nevertheless the moral code of the system is one the popular mind from simple worship; the ritual is strictly comof the purest in the world. The basis of its ethics, which are so memorative; the worshipper's desire is to set before himself the inextricably mixed up with the metaphysics that the two cannot'example of him who trod the path that leads to deliverance.' be considered separately, is what the Buddha called the Four The great authority on B. is still Burnouf, Introduction ci Verities-(I) That pain exists, (2) that the cause of pain is attach- I'Histoire du Boudhisme (Par. 1845). See also Wassilieff's ment to existing objects, (3) that pain can be ended by Nirwana Buddhism, its Doctrine, Histo;y, and Literature, and Professor ('extinction,' but of what is still matter of dispute), (4) the way Keru's Dissertationl on the Era of B. and the Asoka Inscri.'ions that leads to Nirwana. The way to Nirwana consists of eight (Amst. 1873). For a popular account, the reader may consult parts-(I) Right faith (orthodoxy), (2) right judgment, (3) right Eitel's Lectures on B.; Beal's Catena of Buddhist Scriptures, fjont language (truthfulness), (4) right purpose (uprightness), (5) right the Chinese (I87s); Spence Hardy's Alanual of B.; Legends practice (the pursuit of a religious life), (6) right obedience (to and 7 heories of the Buddhists; and St Hilaire's Le Bouddha (3d all the precepts of the Buddhist law), (7) right memory, (8) right ed. I862). Childers, Max Miiller, Lassen, Koeppen, &c., have meditation. The supreme controlling power of the universe is written works on Nirvana, &c. MM. Senaat, Feer, and Barth Karma, that is, a chain of linked processes, which continually (all members of the Asiatic Society of Paris) are the most recent and necessarily recur in uniform regularity of sequence, by which and the best guides for a critical treatment of the legends of B. all things are determined. The Buddhist believes that he has existed in many myriads of previous births (see TRANSMIJGRA- Budd'ing, a mode of grafting in which a leaf-bud is used as TION), and may have passed through all possible states of beings, a graft instead of a young shoot. See GRAFTING. from the highest to the lowest (of men, and also of animals, and Budding, or Gemma'tion, in zoology, a name applied to even of inanimate objects), and that he is in this life under the the asexual process of reproduction, whereby new animals are influence of all that he has ever done in all these previous exist- produced by a process analogous to that of B. in plants. ences. This is his Karma, the arbiter of his fate. Further, no one B. in animals may be continuous or discontinuous. In can tell in what state his next birth may be appointed by his the former case (seen in Hydrozoa or zoophytes, sea-mats, or Karma, for although he might live till the day of his death the Polyzoa, &c.), a complicated and connected animal colony, made most meritorious of men, and although there will certainly be a up of numerous separate animals or zooids, is produced. In the reward for all that is good, that reward may be long delayed, latter ease, buds are detached, and form the beginnings of new and there may be in his Karma some sin or crime committed colonies, or live a separate and single existence. B. occurs in ages ago but not yet expiated, and he may have to pay the Protozoa, Caelenterata, Echinozoa, in a few Annulosa, and in penalty in the next life by being born as some degraded creature, lower AMollusca. or, if that be not enough, in one of the 136 Buddhist hells. The two important points in this system are, that existence Buddlei'a, a large genus of shrubs of the natural order Scrois an evil, and that the continuance of existence is unavoid- phulariacece, containing about eighty species, two of which (B. able except by the attainment of Nirwana. Now it is teaching Neemda, a beautiful plant, a native of India, and B. globosa, of to mankind how this may be attained which is the prerogative Chili) are cultivated in our gardens. and the special mission of a Buddha-a Buddha being not 3Bude Burner and Bude Light. See BURNERS. a deity in any sense of the term, but simply a human being of an exalted nature-which may be attained by any other ud'get (Fr bozcente, Ital. baln enc), the na me of a small human being by the practice of certain virtues. And a great or wallet, with its contents, and hence applied metaphorically part of the veneration paid to Gautama-Buddha is due to the to a miscellaneous store of things, as a B. of news. In its supposition that, when he had it in his power to attain to Nir familiar sense it means the annual financial statement made by wana himself, he voluntarily endured indescribable afflictions the Chancellor of Exchequer to the House of Commons in a in countless ages and successive births that he might attain to committee of ways and means, embracing a general view of the the Buddhaship, and thereby gain the power to free mankind public revenue and expenditure, an estimate of the probable from the misery of existence. This, then, is the basis on which expenditure of the ensuing year, and a declaration of what taxes all Buddhist morality is founded: w~hat the Buddha taught man- it is intended to reduce or repeal, or what new ones it is found kind was how they might gain'the other shore;' that other ecessaryto impose. shore is Nirwana; so that, in other words, all virtue is to be Budhan'uh, a town in the district of Mozuffernuggur, N. W. practised, not for its own sake, but merely as a means to enable Province, British India, 20 miles N. of Delhi, in a fertile and the person to escape from existence. At the same time it must woody country. Pop. (I872) 6750. not be overlooked that Nirwana is to a great extent the abstraction of a theological metaphysic; the hope of the masses is the Budt s or Budph sch Hegy, a steep isolated mountain of bliss of heaven, which is believed to be the reward of virtue, the Carpathians, in the S.E. of Transylvania, situated on the The eight parts of the way to Nirwana given above were boundary-line between the districts Csik and Haromszek, and developed into a set of practical rfioral and religious precepts. rising to a height of 3005 feet. It is of volcanic origin, and has These depend on the different classes of sins. There are three many sulphur-springs and caves containing sulphurous vapours. sins of the body-murder, theft, adultery. Four of the speech- Bud'weis (Bohem. Budejowice,'the place of huts'), the capilying, slander, abuse, unprofitable conversation. Three of the tal of a circle of the same name in the extreme S. of Bohemia, 523, BUD THE GLOBE ENCYCLOP1DM4. BUF on the Moldau, 77 miles S. of Prague, and a station where the and well built. Its most notable buildings, besides several of railway to Linz and Vienna diverges. It is partly fortified, con- its seventy churches, are the State Arsenal, the U.S. Customtains a cathedral, and has an active transit trade. There are house, the City Hall, and four markets. B. is well situated for also manufactures of woollens, machinery, stoneware, chemi- receiving the trade of the lakes and the great West. It is a cais, and lead-pencils. Near B. is the fine old Schloss Frauenberg great railway centre, and the Erie Canal (364 miles) connects (Hluboka), and also a spacious new Gothic castle, both the pro- it with the Hudson. The receipts of grain have immensely perty of Prince Schwarzenberg. Pop. (1869) I7,413. The dis- increased of late years, in consequence of the erection, since trict of B. has an area of I754 sq. miles, and a pop. (I869) of 1842, of some thirty immense storing warehouses, called eleva240,790. tors. Total imports and exports, about Ioo,ooo,ooo dols. B. has extensive spirit distilleries, oil-refineries, and flour-mills, Buen. Ay're, or Bonaire, one of the Curagao Islands, in while its smelting furnaces and numerous engine and nail works the Caribbean Sea, lat. I2' 20' N. and long. 68~ 27' W. It is are among the largest in the States. Its harbour is acces20 miles long by 4 broad, has 3300 inhabitints, and exports sible to vessels drawing I4 feet of water, and there is now a cociea The group beongs to the Dutch. pier I500 feet long, which supports a lighthouse. The accumuBuen'os Ay'res (Span.'fine airs'), the capital of a province lation of ice at the end of the lake impedes navigation during of the same name, seat of the Argentine government, and the winter. B. publishes some twenty-eight newspapers. It was great centre of trade for the whole republic. It lies on the right founded as a military frontier station in I8oi, and was destroyed bank of the Plata estuary, 150 miles from the sea, is built in great by a party of British and Indians in I814. It was rebuilt in part of wood, having granite-paved and regularly arranged streets. 1814, incorporated as a city in I832, and has now (1I875) a pop. The chief public buildings are the cathedral, a university (founded of I34,238. 1821), a military college, a large market with shops under arched Bufalo (Bos or Bubalus babis), a genus of Bovkde or oxen, colonnades, the new Government offices, the custom-house, an represented typically by the common B., vhich exceeds the exchare, several banks, andafine theatre. A thorough scheme represented typically by the common B., which exceeds the exchange, several banks, and a fine theatre. A thorough scheme common ox in size. Its original habitat appears to have been of drainage and of water-supply is being carried out (I875), the common ox ill size. Its original habitat appears to have been onteractage for whic wamoute-su y io abe cout ~. T here are India, but it has extended its distribution, being now found in contract for which amounts to about /3,ooo,ooo. There are Persia, Arabia, Egypt, S. Africa, Greece, Italy, and other parts numerous tramways throughout the city. Owing to the shallow- esia, Arabia Eg ypt, S. Africa, Greece, Italy, and elsewher parts ohe river, sea-going vessels have to anchor within from o S. Europe. It is employed in India, Italy, and elsewhere as hess of the river, sea-going vessels have to anchor within from a beast of burden. The fore7 to I5 miles W. of B. A., and the cost of transport to the shore head is convex, and bears two is occasionally greater than the freight from Europe. To obviate horns, which are of black colthis, the Government projected (I874) an extensive series of our, and tred outwards and docks, but little has yet been done beyond dredging the channel. The town is situated to command the overland Chili trade, lightly backwards, and have a and is the emporium for an immense tract of pastoral country. ominent ridge n front. The country...hair is coarse and scanty, except There are thirteen regular lines of steamers sailing between on the cheeks and throat, and B. A. and Europe, touching at the ports of Brazil and Monte a'ewl exists. The tail is Video. The exports are chiefly wool, hides, animal oil, horns,'dewlap' exists. The tai is elevated Buffalo. hair, cured and salted meat, bones, and ostrich feathers. Of t1e he back i elevated Buffalo. imports the most important are coal, iron, wood, agricultuders, so as to imporlements the most portant are coal, iron, wood, agricultural give the animal a somewhat'humped' aspect. These creatures implementts, and varnous manufactured goods. In 1872 the im- are gregarious in habits, and live chiefly in marshy districts. port of wines, beer, and spirits amounted in value to /i,,85o,ooo, They never appear to attain a great degree of domestication. and that of woven fabrics to /2,6oo,ooo, while the total value of The flesh is coarse, the milk, however, being esteemed. The Ghtee, importwas ain 173 was rdI,886,86, and of exports 6,886,506. a butter-like compound in repute among the natives of India, is There was also received (1872) 38,ooo000,000ooo feet of timber, made from B.'s milk. The Cape B. (Bos or Bubalus Cafer), mostly from Canada, and g2,000 tons of coals. B. A. is mostly from Canada, and 92,000 tons of coals. B. A. is another species, inhabits S. E. Africa, and extends as far N. as the terminal centre of four railway lines, and has com- Guinea. It exists in numerous herds. The horns are very large, mnunication with the various towns of the republic by means their flattened bases forming a bony plate covering the top of (I875) of 4500 miles of telegraph-wire. A submarine cable the head. The coat is of a brown colour, the horns being is being laid (1876) between B. A. and Brazil, to connect coloured black. In length, this species averages eight feet, the formler directly with Europe. Pop. (i869) I7,787, Of and in height at the shoulders about five feet. These whom many are English, French, and Italian. A fort was founded here by Pedro de Merndoza iln 1535, but was de- animals are very ferocious, especially when irritated or stroyed by the Indians four years later, and not rebuilt until pursued. They are hunted for the sake of their flesh and I580. It thereafter prospered, was made a bishopric in i620,hides; the latter being manufactured into shields by the r580 It h rprospered, w bishopric i 1620, Caffres, and into other articles. The American B. or bison and became the capital of the Spanish viceroyalty of La Plata Caffes and intos) is described n the article Bso. The bison in I776. In I86, it was twice taken by the English, and sohuge Arnee of India (q. v.) is presumed to be a variety of as often recovered by the Spaniards. Another effort to take the the Aree of Idia q v) presumed to be a variety of town in I807 entirely failed; and General Whitelock, com-rn. mander of the besieging force, on his return to England was Buffalo'ra, a small town in the province of Pavia, N. Italy, in consequence cashiered for incapacity. B. A. was several on the Ticino, 25 miles N.N.W. of Pavia, historically interesttimes the scene of contest during the Argentine civil wars, which ing as the scene (June 4, i859) of a fierce conflict between the terminated in the peace of S860. It was visited by a seveie French under Macmahon and the Austrians, in which the former yellow-fever epidemic in I87I. The province of B. A. is the were victorious. Pop. 1257. most productive and populous in the whole republic, and has an area of 63,o00 sq. miles, and a pop. (I869) of 495, 107, of whom Buff'et is a French term applied to any article of furniture 15I,24I are immigrants, some 70 per cent. of the whole being which serves the purpose of a cupboard or sideboard. It has engaged in grazing and agriculture. The country is very flat, given rise to a curious corruption in English. See BEEF-EATER. and the climate is generally healthy, with a tendency to sultriness. Some 400 miles of railway (1876) traverse the province, Buff Leather is prepared from ox-hides by the process of radiating from the capital in four different lines. A few indus- oiling, without the use of any tanning material. It forms a soft, tries, as the preserving of meat, and the manufacture of cloth, pliant material with a porous texture, but it is at the same time soap, and leather, have been introduced of late years. See Wil- strong and durable. The hides to be prepared as B. L. are limed, cocke, History of B. (Lond. I8o6); Balcarce, B. A. (Par. I857). unhaired, and scraped, as in the ordinary tanning process, after which it is handed over to the currier, who works a quantity of Buff'alo, a city and port of entry in the state of New York, cod-oil into it in the trough of a fulling-mill. After the oil has at the mouth of B. Creek, on Lake Erie, near the head of been absorbed, and the skins operated on have a dry-like Niagara river. It is 22 miles S.S.E. of Niagara Falls, and appearance, they are again sprinkled with oil and the stocking 293 N.W. of New York. The city extends from some low repeated, which process goes on for several days, decreasing ground to a high plateau, and the streets are spacious, clean, however in frequency of oilings. The skins, after the oiling is S24 ~UFt SITHE GLOBE ENC YCLOPJ9DIX. BUH complete, are hung in a drying chamber heated by steam-pipes, Other species of bugs infest the lower vertebrate animals, and in which they undergo a slight fermentation, *which induces a some inhabit and suck plant-juices. Several tropical species more thorough incorporation of the oil. The excess of oil is re- attain a large size, and are proportionately annoying in their moved by treating with a weak potash-lye, washing out, drying, blood-sucking habits. The field-bugs of Britain also form typical stretching, and smoothing with pumice. The buff colour is given examples of these insects; a well-known species of the latter by dipping in an infusion of oak-bark. B. L. is largely used for forms being Acanthosomna grisea, which is noted for its attention military belts, house shoes, and other purposes. to its young. Buff'on, George Louis Leclerc, Comte de, a famous Bugeaud', de la Piconnerie, Thomas Robert, Marshal French naturalist and physicist of the I8th c., was born September of France, was born at Limoges, in France, October 15, I784. 7, I707, at Montbard, in Burgundy. He studied law in Dijon Although he entered the army illn 1804 as a private, he rose at the college of the Jesuit fathers, but laid aside legal for rapidly, and was a colonel before the fall of Napoleon. After mathematical subjects, for which he showed a marked pre- the revolution of I830, B., having turned Liberal, became a dilection. Lord Kingston, an English nobleman, met B. at favourite of Louis Philippe, but was unpopular with the Paris Dijon, and to the influence of this gentleman may be ascribed populace from his declaring against universal suffrage and the the initiation of B. into scientific studies. B. acquired English freedom of the press. Appointed Governor-General of Algeria, in this country, and amongst his earliest literary productions he gained, August 14, 1844, a great victory over the Emperor may -be enumerated translations of Newton's Fiuxions and of of Morocco at Isly, and was created Duc d'Isly; but the cruelty Hale's Vegetable Statics. It is as a naturalist that B. is chiefly of some of his proceedings made his name detested throughout celebrated, although his studies also included observations on Europe. B. stuck to the last by Louis Philippe, but under the the inorganic portion of natural objects. He contributed to Presidency of Louis Napoleon was made general of the army of the French Academy of Sciences in I733 original memoirs the Alps. He died of cholera at Paris, June 9, I849. on zoological subjects, and was appointed in I 739 curator or keeper of the Royal Garden and Museum.. He worked uthlan, Johann (Pomerans), a Geman Protestant successfully in his day and generation to establish systems of theologian, born at Wollin, Pomerania, 24th June I485, and arrangement and classification in zoological science; and his studied at wald. In 5he became rector of the school large book Histoire MAaturelle (15 vols. Par. 1749-67) consti- of Treptow, but was led by the perusal of Luther's De Captitutes a memorable epoch in natural history literature, as being vitate Babylonirc to repair to Wittenberg, and take an active among the first attempts on a large scale to remodel the insuffi- part in the Reformation. There he was appointed Professor of cient and inaccurate systems of zoology that had hitherto pre- Theology in 1522, and then pastor of the town church. B. vailed. B. was created Comte de B. by Louis XV., whose proved an admirable organiser of the new churches, and for this favour, with that of Louis XVI., he enjoyed. He died in Paris, purpose was called in I537 to Dennlark by Christiern III. He April i6, 1788. B.'s literary style is marred by certain grandiose performed his task so satisfactorily that the king offered him the mannerisms. As an observer he was acute and quick to discern rich bishopric of Schleswig, which B. refused. He died 20t1 but lacked patience and perseverance. His works were im- April I558. B. assisted Luther in his translation of the Bible, mensely popular, and have been translated into almost all the and wrote several treatises, among which are Historia Clristi languages of Europe. The two best editions are those of Richard and Expicatlo Psotmorumt, published at Frankfurt in i614, (Par. i824, et seq.), and Farne (Par. i837-39). See Flouren's which evince great exegetical ability. He also turned Luther's Bgffoir, ilistoire de sa Vie et de ses Ouvrages. High-Dutch Bible into Low Dutch (Liib. 1533) for the use of the Lower Saxons. See Engelken, 7oh/. B., Pomrmer. (Berl. Buffoon' (Fr. boeton, Ital. bzffine), a common jester or 1817); and Zietz, 7oh. B. (Leips. I829; 2d ed. 1834). mountebank, probably so called on account of his horseplay and vulgar pleasantries; the most likely origin of the name being Bu'gle, a wind instrument, similar in principle to the trumthe buj7/z of the middle age Latin, from buffare,'to puff the pet, cornet, &c. Its special peculiarity is that the tube increases cheeks.' The Italian bufib is the name given to a humorous in diameter very gradually through a great part of its length, actor, and a burlesque play is called a cormznedia bufta, and a while in the trumpet the tube is nearly parallel throughout, comic opera an opiera bzqfa (Fr. opera bozffe). In Italian opera swelling.suddenly at the bell. The form of the tube modifies there is a bifo cantante, with a good voice, usually bass, who is the quality (or klang) of the notes produced, making them (in distinct from the btio comico, or regular scaramouch. this case) more mellow and round, and less brilliant and piercing than in the trumpet. Bug, the Western, is the largest tributary of the Vistula, rises in Galicia, forms a part of the W. boundary of Russia, Bugle (Ajuga), a genus of the natural order Labiate, spread and joins the Vistula i8 miles N.W. of Warsaw, after a course over Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia, but unknown in of 450 miles. The Eastern B., the ancient Hyfpanis, rises near America. There are many species, of which three-A. replats the confines of Volhynia, and joins the Dnieper 25 miles below (the creeping B.), A. Chama-pitys, and A. Genevensis (pyramidalis) Nicolaiev. Both are in part navigable. -are found in Britain. A. Altina is found in the Alps. Most Bug, a name popularly applied to insects belonging to the of the species of Ajuga have beautiful flowers. order IIeitaesprae, including the Geocoridz or Land Bugs (eg., Bug'loss (Lycopsis), a genus of the natural order Boragiazcee, bed-B., &c.), and the Hydrocores or Water Bugs (e.g, Boat- though the name is also popularly applied to Antchusa or alfly, q. v., &c.). These insects are more properly included in kanet, &c. Only one small L. arvensis is found in Britain, but the Heteropterous group of the order Hemitiptera, or those pos- the name of Viler's B. is given to the genus L'chiuZit. sessing the front wings horny in part, with the rostrumt or beak springing fioom the front of the head. The mouth in all Buhl, or Boule-Work, surface ornament consisting of toris specially adapted for piercing the skin of animals or plants, toiseshell inlaid with brass and white metals, employed in and contains pointed bristle-like organs representing the jaws. adoning furn iture, and introduced into France du;ing the reign The house or bed-B. (Cinmex lectularius) is wingless, possesses of Louis XIV. by Andre Charles Boule. This costly style of a flat, oval body, and averages 6 to I of an inch in length. The decoration is yet occasionally adopted in workboxes and small colour is reddish, and the mouth is suctorial in form. These in- toilette articles. sects exhale a disagreeable odour, especially when touched or Buh'reach, or Bharaich, the capital of an executive discrushed. The young of the B. resemble the parent save in size, trict in the province of Oude, British India, on the Sarju, 65 ai are active througout tei metamorphoss or development, miles N.E. of Lucknow. It has considerable trade in rice, which is of the incomplete or heminmetlabolic kind. The B. was sugar, cotton, indigo, and tobacco. In its vicinity is the tomb believed to have been first brought to England in American of the Moslem saint Selar. Pop. (1869) 18,889. The district timber after the Great Fire of London in i666; but this idea is of B. has an area of 271o square miles; pop. (I872) 774,640. erroneous. These insects infest furniture and the crevices of swalls by day, but are active during the night, and then suck the Buhr'stone, or Burrstone, a hard, granular, siliceous blood of man or other animals. The bestpreventive is thorough sandstone, used for making millstones for grinding meal and cleanliness, whilst corrosive sublimate solution, turpentine, and flour, and for powdering cements, manures, &c. They are com. other remedies, are said to be destructive to these insects. posed of almost pure silica, with only sufficient lime to bind 525.* 4 —--------- -- ----------— ~t BUI TWiE GLOBP ~PNCYCLOP/DIA. BUKi I them together, and they form very durable grinding surfaces. classes of B. (B.) S.-the terminating and the permanent. By The buhrstones mostly used in this country come from the Ter- the Act of I874, a terminating society is declared to be one tiary deposits of the Paris basin (Seine et Marne), and are of a which, by its rules, is to end at a fixed date. A permanent porous texture, with a light-yellow colour. They obtain their society is declared to be one which has by its rules no fixed date name from the'burr,' or grooved surface, which has either to be for ending. A society receiving a certificate under the Act from picked or cut with diamond into them to give sharp grinding the registrar is a body corporate. It is empowered to receive edges. For making millstones, blocks of B. have to be carefully money at interest from members or others, but the deposits are jointed together, and backed with a thick coating of concrete. not to exceed two-thirds of the amount for which the society Buhrstones are also imported from S. America. holds security from its members. If any society constituted under the Act receives loans on deposit in excess of the preBuil'ding. The erection of a house, or other such structure, scried limit, the directors or committee of magement are requires generally the co-operation of several professions. The liable for the exess. The society may invest fund not immeliable for the excess. The society may invest funds not immedesign of the whole work is prepared by an architect, who also d. makes out detail drawings and a complete specification. The ciately required in real securities and in the public funds. Judi-..makes o u dti,ai g an..m lt seicao. Tcial winding up may be voluntary, or on a petition of threeactual execution of the work is undertaken by a builder, who is fourths of the mem bes present at a g eneral meetion of three paid.eiher a fxed sumon account of the whole contract, or fourths of the members present at -a general meeting. See paid either a fixed sum on account o the e contract, o BENEFIT r FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. from a schedule of prices agreed on at the commencement for each particular kind of work. A'clerk of the works' is ap- Building Leases. In English law, these are dentises of pointed to superintend their construction in the interest of the land for long periods-usually ninety-nine years or more-for owner and architect. The architect himself is commonly paid the erection of houses or other tenements. They are granted by a commission on the value of the work. In the large struc- under authority of the Court of Chancery. In Scotland, the tures, in which much iron is employed (railway stations for ex- term is limited to a lease for building purposes of land entailed. ample), now so fiequiently erected, the civil engineer has to a By 13 and 14 Vict., c. 48, special provisions are made in favour great extent taken the place of the architect, and the builder has of the building of schools and churches, with playground and been superseded by the contractor. The result is not always burying-ground attached, on entailed estates. quite satisfactory from an Esthetic point of view; but, regarded as pieces of engineering, nothing could be much finer than some Building Stones. Many varieties of stone, of both igneof the immense iron roofs for stations erected within the last ous and sedimentary origin, are used in construction, but those few years. In parts of London (and elsewhere) a practice has most universally employed and generally suitable are the sandgrown up among builders of erecting houses'on speculation'-, stones or freestones, limestones, and marbles. A good building becoming their own architects and clerks of works. The result stone resists disintegration or peeling on exposure to the weather; has been disastrous as regards the public, the houses being too it should be easily worked, uniform in texture and colour, and frequentlycarelessly put up, badly drained, and altogether inferior. free from joints or cracks. Sandstones or freestones suitable for building purposes occur in most of the older geological Building Act, Metropolis. See METROPOLIS LOCAL formations, beginning with the old red sandstone, which in MANAGEMENT ACT. Scotland, besides furnishing the celebrated Caithness and ForBuilding Company. Of recent years an immense number farshire flagstones, yields excellent common B. S. of various of companies have been constituted, chiefly under the Companies' colours, the prevailing tint, however, being red. The building Act of i862 and the Amendment Act of i867, with the pro- sandstones of finest texture and colour are yielded by the strata fessed object of facilitating the building and purchase of houses the carboniferous formation, out of which the towns of Edinby the public. These companies have to building societies burgh and Glasgow are chiefly built. The stone of Craigleith relationship analogous to that which a Mutual Assurance Life quarry, in the vicinity of Edinburgh, stood second on the list Society has to a Life Assurance Company. In the societies, profit of the commissioners who inquired into the question of stones or loss on the business is divided among the members. In the suitable for the new Houses of Parliament. Limestones are companies it is divided among shareholders. The B. C. takes not nearly so largely used as a building material, but the money on deposit, for which it pays a somewhat hialhler rate magnesian limestone of the Anston quarries in Yorkshire was than can generally be had on money available at call. T the stone selected for the Houses of Parliament-an unfortunate than can generally be had on money available at call. The depositors have the security of the subscribed capital of the selection, for although it has an excellent colour, and is practicompany, and of the real property on which their funds are lent. cally imperishable in a pure atmosphere, it weathers rapidly in Loans are repaid by instalments, the rate of interest paid being, the air of London. The Bath onlite is very largely quarried in ile money is at an ordinary vale, about 5 per cent. In te Somersetshire and Wiltshire, and is a fine, compact, pure-colwhile money is at an ordinary value, about 5~ per cent. In the difference between the rate charged to borrowers and the rate oured building stone. The oolite limestone of Caen is a beau paid to depositors lies the profit to the company. Borrowers tiful material, and much prized for ornamental structures. Many lhave, of course, to pay the legal expense of getting their loan, marbles capable of receiving a good polish are found in Ireland, and the company has, of course, to pay its expense of manage- Derbyshire, Devonshire, &c., and used for constructive purposes. imnenmt. The Purbeck marble was formerly in great repute for internal These companies undoubtedly have useful functions,; but it is work. Granite is only used as a building material in localities to be kept in views that to some usextent they give anll a;cia where it is abundant and less hard stones scarce. The town of i to be kept in view that to some. extent they give an ailt6cial Aberdeen is built of it, and in a polished state it is very frestimulus to building houses. Money taken on deposit at 3 or Aberdeen is built of it, and i a polished state it is verye4 per cent-which is a tempting rate to depositors-must be quently employed in decorative structures. Granite is also very employed so as at least not to cause loss to the company; and extensively employed in the construction of harbours and seaif public requirenment for house accommodation does not keep walls, and as paving blocks. The basalts, polphyries, and pace with the amount of capital thus necessarily employed in greenstones are little used in house-building, but they are emhousebuilding, the result must be at least a diminution in the ployed in pavements, and some porpyries polish into very numbers and profits of building companies. Building (Benefit) Societies. These are benefit societies Bujalan'ce, a walled city in the province of Cordova, Spain, established for the purpose of raising funds to enable the mem- 25 miles E. of Cordova, has manufactures of glass and pottery, bers to build or purchase dwelling-houses, or other real or lease- and exports agricultural produce. Pop. gooo. hold estate by means of loans, each member being entitled to a Bukkur', a town in the province of Punjab, British India, loan to the value of his share. The debt is secured by mortgage I90 miles W. of Lahore. It lies in a fertile district near the E. to the society, until the whole of it with interest, and fines or bank of the Indus, and has some trade and a pop. of 5000. other dimes, has been paid off. Formerly, under the Act of There is also a fortress of this name in Scinde, on an island in the Parliament, shares were not allowed to exceed I150 each, the Indus, between Roree on the left bank and Sukkur on the right. corresponding monthly subscription for which was not to be more than twenty shillings. But under the Act of I874, which Bukowi'na, an Austrian crown-land, lies S.E. of Galicia, came into operation on 2d November of that year, this restriction and has an area of 4035 sq. miles, and a pop. (I869) of 513,404, was done away with, the contribution and ultimate value of a of whom 56,ooo are Roman Catholics, II,400 Protestants, and member's share being now at his own discretion. There are two 48,000 Jews. It lies among the Carpathians, and is mostly 526 BUL THE GLOBE ~ENCYCL OPEDIA. BULI highland, rising from E. to W. in a series of terraces. The chief Danube after the 4th c., and made destructive raids on the river is the Pruth, both banks of which are well cultivated, Byzantine empire; but it was not till 68o that they finally sub. yielding especially heavy crops of maize. There is much mining dued the old Moesian population, and established a powerful of rock-salt (at Kaczika), iron, and copper. The chief town is kingdom in the present B. They soon, however, became so Czernowitz, and the principal industries are mining and wood- blended with the conquered Slaves that nothing distinctive re. cutting. Formerly a part of Transylvania, it was conquered mained but the name of the victorious race. In the 9th c. they (1482) by Stephan V., Prince of Moldau, and came under Turk- even adopted the Slavic language. After a long struggle the ish rule in 1529. It next became a subdivision of Austrian Gali- Bulgarians were themselves forced to acknowledge the authority cia. In the Russo-Turkish war of I769, B. was occupied by the of the Byzantine'emperors in ioi8. In 1391 the country was Russians; in 1775 it *was ceded to Austria; in 1786 it was conquered by the Turks, and has since remained part of the united to Galicia, and in 1849 erected into an independent Ottoman empire. The Bulgarians have suffered much from the crown-land. harsh rule of their masters, and have more than once broken out Bulacan', a town of Luzon, Philippines, on the Bay of Man- into partial revolt, but hitherto unsuccessfully. In religion they illa, 20 miles N. W. of Manilla. Silken mats are the chief articles are Christians of the Greek Church. See Vretos, La Bulgarie of manufacture; sugar-boiling is also carried on extensively. ancienne et moderne (St Petersb. 1852), and the later work (i868) Pop. about Io,ooo. of Kanitz. Bulak', a town of Egypt, on the right bank of the Nile, in Bul'garin, Thaddeus, a Russian journalist and romance the neighbourhood of Cairo, of which it is the port. It is con- writer, born in Lithuania, 789. He served for seven years in nected by railways with Suez and Alexandria, and has a custom- the army of his native country, and afterwards in that of France house, a bazaar, a central college of dervishes, a medical school, till the overthrow of Napoleon in I8I4, when he exchanged a military hospital, an engineering college, and some silk andthe word for the pen, publishng hi s fir st effrts in verse at cotton manufactures. It has also a Government printing-house, the first ever introduced into the East by a native ruler. This St Petersburg, and founded (I825) the Northern Bee, the tales was founded by Mehemet Ali in 1829-30, and still flourishes, and humorous sketches in which soon procured for B. a wide the Khedive talking a deep interest in its prosperity. Books are reputation. His best romances are The Russian GilBlas (4 vols. issued from it in Arabic, Turkish, Persian, French, and English. St Petersb. I829); Peter Ivanovitch and The False Demetrius (St There are at present (I875) 300 Piersons employed in it and Petersb. I83o), all of which have been translated into French. in the paper-mills adjoining, which supply paper for the press. B. is perhaps still better known by his Russia in its Zistorical, Pop. of B. about 20,000. Statistical, Geographica, and Literary Aspecl (Ger. transl. Riga, I839-41), and by his Memoirs (6 vols. St Petersb. I846-50; Ger. Bulb. This is usually described as'a permanently abbre- 1858-61). He died-at Dorpat, September 13, 1859. viated stem, mostly shorter than broad, and clothed with scales which are imperfect thickened leaves, or more commonly the Bulge'ways, timbers placed under the sides of a ship while it thickened and persistent basis of leaves.' New buds are formed iS building, and which supply a steadying power when it is being in the axils of the scales, which develop at the expense of the launched. parent B., and finally destroy it.:Bulk'heads, in a ship, are transverse partitions which serve Small bulbs, or bulblets, are produced in the axils of the leaves the double purpose of strengthening the ship transversely, and of the Ziizum bulbiferum and other plants, which fall off, take of affording additional security in the event of leakage occurring root and develop into plants exactly the counterpart of that through injury to the hull. In order that the latter object may which produced them, showing their identity and also that of be gained, each bulkhead must be made watertight, and any bulbs with buds, though these are usually described as under- doors in it must be arranged so that they can be closed ground stems. Many bulbs are used as food (e.g., those of the watertight. In this way the ship is divided into compartments, onion,garlic, shallot, scallion, chive, the Camassia (q.v.) of N.W. and in the event of leakage occurring in any one of them, it can America, while others are cultivated for the sake of the beautiful be separated from the others, the buoyancy of which may enable flowers which the plants produce. the ship still to float in safety. Bul'bul, the American name for the Nightingale (q. v.), but Bull (Lat. bulla), any object swelling up, and thus becoming also applied to the Insessorial birds scientifically known as round-(I) the capsule of the seal appended to letters from the the Pycnonoltrs hcemorrhous and P. jocosus, belonging to the papal chancery; (2) the seal itself; (3) the instrument or Dentirostral section of the order. These birds occur in the E. decree itself. Bulls are written on parchment, to which a leaden Indies, and are readily domesticated. The bill is short and seal is affixed-by a grey hempen cord if the B. is touching compressed, the ridge of the upper mandible being curved. matters of justice, but by a yellow or red silken band when it The gape or mouth is provided with bristles. The nostrils are'touches matters of grace. The publication of a B. is termed placed in a groove. The food consists of food and insects. fulmination; the seal bears on the obverse side the arms of the Bulga'ria, a province of Turkey in Europe, now the vil Pope and on the reverse, his name and the year of his pon. of Tuna (Danube), bounded on the N. by the Danulbe, on the tificate; and in the interim between the election and consecraE. by the Black Sea, on the S. by the Balkan range, and on tion of a pope, the seal bears no arms. Bulls are designated by the W. by Servia. Area, upwards of 33,000 sq. miles; pop. the first words of their text, as the B. UniGenitus; De Salute (1864) I,995,243, the majority of whom are Slaves. It is flat Animarum; ll Ccend Domini, &c. The Golden B. of the and fertile in the N., comprising the southern half of the great Emperor arl IV., of which the Latin oriinal is still pre plain of the Danube. The coast region (Dobrudscha) at the served at Frankfort, was so mouth of the Danube is specially productive, and is known as cappenlled from the goldlecn seal the'granary of Constantinople.' The Ballkan Mountains attain appended to it. A collection on the southern frontier an elevation of 6oo0 feet. They are tra- of papal bulls is a bu/iarilum. versed by numerous defiles, well wooded or clothed with luxu- A diminutive of B. is the Fr.'. riant pasture, through which flow affluents of the Danube. From bulletin (It. bulletino), applied the Balkans the country slopes more or less abruptly to the to the brief despatches of banks of the Danube, and a smaller plain slopes E. to the Black generals, such as the an. Sea. Corn, flax, hemp, and tobacco are grown; a considerable nouncements of victories or quantity of wine is produced, and roses are extensively culti- defeats, to authenticated revated for the manufacture of perfume. Timber cut in the defiles ports on the health of impor- E-.i A d ". is floated down to the Danube, and large herds of cattle are tant public personages, c. reared, as are also horses, sheep, and goats, and swine. The Bull, the name given to. f i manufactures, which are coarse and for home consumption, are the males of the Bovide or trifling, and the imports consist of manufactured goods, spices, oxen, which are distinguished coffee, sugar, &c. The capital is Rustchuk (q. v.), and the prin- from the female animals by their usually larger size and more cipal seaport is Varna (q. v.). The Bulgarians, a race of Ugrian ferocious disposition. The bulls of some varieties of oxen pos. Tartars from the banks of the Volga, repeatedly crossed the sess horns, whilst the females are hornless 527 4kAs~~~~A BUL THE GI OBE ENCYCLOPEDIA. BUL Bull. See EXCHANGE. well on the top of the head; the muzzle short, abrupt, and fleshy; the back short and well arched, whilst the stem should Bull, George, D.D., a distinguished theologian and prelate, be of moderate length. This breed has been mingled with born at Wells, Gloucestershire, 25th March 1634, educated atTwis- many others, in order to impart that dogged determination and ton and Oxford, and ordained at the age of twenty-one. Having courage for which the bulldogs are famous; but the breed, of obtained various preferments, and the degree of D.D., he was itself, is not now propagated with the same interest as in former made Bishop of St Davids in 1705. He died February 17, I7IO. years, when'bull-baiting' was so greatly in vogue. Not naturHe published a number of theological works, of which the most ally fierce or vindictive, these dogs are made so from the treatimportant were Harmonia Aposlolica, Defensio Fidei Nicente, ment to which they are subjected. The breed is believed against Arians, Socinians, Tritheists, and Sabellians, and urdi- by some naturalists to represent a cross between the mastiff ciumr Ecclesizae Catholicce, for which he was thanked by Bossuet and hound, or as a mere variety of mastiff. The general and various others of the French clergy. As a prelate, B. was colour is reddish, or white and brindled. The bull-teririer is distinguished for his candour and toleration. a smaller variety of this breed, probably intermingled with the terrier. Bull, Ole Bornemann, a great Norwegian violinist, was born at Bergen, 5th February i8Io, and studied for a short time Bull'er.-x. A large river in the province of Nelson, in the (1828) at the University of Christiania, from which he'is said to middle island of New Zealand. It rises in Lake Howick, in S. have been expelled for becoming leader of an orchestra at one lat. 419 30', and E. long. 172~ 40'. It flows first N. then N.W., of the theatres. In I829 he went to Cassel to study the violin then S.W., and finally W. during the greater part of its course, under Spohr, but was so coldly received that he took to law at falling into the Pacific at the town of Westport (see NELSON), G6ttingen University. He was subsequently at Minden, from after a course of toomiles. It is a deep and rapid stream, and whence, in consequence of a duel, he fled to Paris (I83I), where is liable to sudden and heavy floods.-2. A district in the he lived for a time in direst misery. An unsuccessful attempt same province, forming the basin of the river B. It is very to drown himself in the Seine is the turning-point in his life. mountainous, and the arable land is confined to the valleys. It Thereafter he acquired the patronage of a lady of rank, and is one of the principal gold-fields of New Zealand, and the rapidly rose to fame as a violinist. His playing was original largest nuggets obtained in the colony have been found in this and strange-in the style of Paganini-and his performances district. The chief centres of population are Westport, I,yell, were received most enthusiastically throughout Europe and and Reefton. At the two last, rich reefs of auriferous quartz, America. In the latter country he retired from public life with are worked. Silver, lead, copper, and iron have also been a fortune (I869), and married a German lady in Wisconsin in found in'the district. Coal of the best quality abounds, but is I870. only beginning to be worked. Bulla', a genus of Gasteropodous mollusca, the shells of which, Bull'et (Fr. boulet, dimin. of boule; Lat. bulla, any round from their light texture, are familiarly known as' Bubble-shells.' object, a bubble, &c.), a projectile made of lead, and having a The shell is rounded, and may be partly or wholly external. spherical, ovoid, or conical form, fired from small arms. With Its lip is sharp. The animal possesses a large head, which is the introduction of the Brunswick rifle into the British army the bilobed posteriorly; the side lobes are of large size, and the B. was altered from a spherical to a conical form, and at the same hind-lobe covers the spire of the shell. The foot is also large time increased in weight. The conical B. of the Minie rifle, and four-sided. The' Water-Drop,' or B. hydatis, is a familiar adopted in I85i, had an improvement, in so far as in its base species of the British coasts, and B. ampulla, B. oblonga, B. there was a conical chamber into which was fitted an iron cup, aspersa, and B. nebulosa, are species as noted by various obser- which by the explosive force of the gunpowder was driven forvers. Theyabound chiefly in the tropic seas. Thegenus forms ward, expanding the B., and causing it to take the grooves the type of the family Bulladc, which in turn is included in the of the rifle. In the modified Mini6 B. of 1853 the iron cup was, Opisthobranchiate section of the Gasteropoda (q. v.). See also replaced by a boxwood plug, and the weight was reduced from MOLLUSCA. 670 to 530 grains; the projectile was I'o95 inch in length, and Bull'ace (Prunus insititia), a variety of the common sloe or'56 inch in diameter. A B. the same as the last was at first blackthorn (P. commucnis, q. v.), rare in Scotland, but common used in the Enfield rifle, but afterwards to allow for windage the ill the English bedgerows, banks, and coppices. Its fruit, after dimeter was reduced by A of an inch. A later change was having been mellowed by frosts, though acrid, is not unplea- effected, on the score of as great efficiency and less expense, in sant, and is in some parts of the country a favourite fruit for the substitution of a baked clay plug for the boxwood one. The tanrts. B. of the Snider breechloader is o'065 inch in length,'573 inch in diameter, and 480 grains in weight, while the projectile for Bull'as, a town in the province of Murcia, Spain, 26 miles the Martini-Henry rifle has the same weight, but is longer and W.N.XV. of Murcia, has manufactures of linen, hemp, and narrower on account of the smallness of the bore,'45. Per. earthenware. Pop. 5I45. fectly pure lead is employed in making bullets, the action of the compressing machine used in the process being one of the many Bull-Baiting, a once favourite sport in England with all interesting sights at Woolwich arsenal. Bullets are lubricated ranks. The bull was fastened by a rope to a stake and then with pure beeswax. attacked by bulldogs, one by one, trained to pin him-i.e., to seize him by the nose, though they sometimes tried to get under Bulletin. See BULL. his belly. Much of the excitement of the spectators consisted in observing the success of the Bullet-Tree, or Bully-Tree, a species of the genus Miimubull in receiving his assailants sops (natural order Sapotacece, q. v.), a native of Guiana, the on his horns and tossing them heavy, dark - grained wood, and the delicious fruit of which in the air. It was in I835 (about the size of a cherry) are valued. By some authors the put down by Act of Parlia- B.-T. is looked upon as Achras sapota, a member of the same aent, but not without much order. Swuartzia tomentosa, a native of Guiana, is also sometimes opposition, as in some locali- called the B.-T. and the wood beefwood. The bastard B. is ties it had assumed the form Bumelia netusa; the black B., B. ingens; and the Jamaica B., of an annual festival. Lecunma mammozosa. Bulldog (Canis familia- Bullfight, a brutal sport of great antiquity. It was popular ris, variety laniarius). Abreed among the Greeks and Romans, though the spread of ChrisBulldog. of dogs distinguished by the tianity finally brought it into antagonism with the moral sense massive, strong, and broad of the empire. Bishops denounced and popes forbade it, but it fore-quarters, by the short stout neck, and by the thinner hind- appears to have resistless charms for Spaniards of all classes, and quarters. The head in the well-bred B. is round, the skull high, is still witnessed with enthusiasm both in the Old World and the the eye of moderate size, and the forehead depressed between New. From April to November is the season in Madrid for the the eyes. The ears should be semi-erect and small, and placed degrading show, and there is at least one a week. It takes place 528 * 4~~~~~~~~~~~ —----- BUL THE GLOBE ENCYCIOP~EDIA. BUL in the Plaza de Toros, a sort of circus which can accommodate above, greyish-white on the sides, and white below. The fin from I0,000 to I2,000 spectators. The first who take part in the rays are marked white and dark-brown, and the fins with sport are the mounted Picadores, fantastically arrayed like old dark.brown spots. The eyes are yellow, and the pupils are Spanish knights, and armed with lances. They await the first coloured dark-blue. The average length of this fish is four charge of the bull, and if it proves cowardly, stab it to death. or five inches. It hides under stones and in crevices, into If it fights, the Chulos on foot, in bright-coloured cloaks, and which it pushes its~ way by means of its strong flattened head. decked with gay ribbons, stick into its neck their barbed darts. Other species of the B. genus (iCot/us) are marine in habits, and When the bull is thus infuriated, the Matador, the principal per- three familiar forms inhabiting the sea are the C. bubalis, C. former, with a naked sword in his right hand, and in his left the scoipizus, and C. quoad-icornis. The armed B. (Aspidaopho; us muleta, a small stick with a piece of scarlet cloth attached to it, cataphractus), or Pogge (q. v.), belongs to a different genus, and at which the bull rushes wildly, steps forward to finish the busi- is a marine form. The body in the latter is enclosed in ganoid ness. If successful, he kills the bull by running his sword in plates, the body being eight-angled,.and bearing recurved spines between the left shoulder and the shoulder-blade of the animal., on the snout. His triumph is greeted with an applause which is not refused to the bull when it happens to be the victor. The combat-if Bull'ge rieh, was born at Bremgaten, Switzerland, it can be so termed-lasts generally about twenty minutes, but July 18, I504. He was a follower of Zwingli, by whom he had is often repeated eight or ten times in. the course of a day's been converted to Protestantism, and on the death of Zwingli, entertainment. I531, succeeded him as pastor at Zirich, where he died, after a laborious' and useful life, September I7, 15 75. B. had a leadBull'finch (Pyrrhula), a genus of Insessorial birds-belonging ing share in the composition of the second Helvetic Confession, to the Coznirostres, and distinguished, as a genus, by the large and was also the chief medium of communication between the size of the head, the stout- Reformers in Switzerland and in England. Of his numerous ness of the bill, the con- writings, the most important is his Reformaivnnsgeschichte, edited JT~ | fi(