TEE HOME CYCLOPEDIA, OR LIBRARY OF REFERENCE. IN EIGHT YOLUMES, EACH COMPLETE IN ITSELF. I. HISTORY AND OCJEONOLoGY. The World's Progress. By G. P. PUTNAM. II. GENERAL LITEIATURE AND TIE FINE ARTS. By GEORGE RITPLEY and BAYAED TAYLOR. III. TIFH USEFUL ARTs-including Agriculture, Domestic Economy, &c. By D. ANTISELL. IV. UNIVERSAL BIOGRArAHn-a Record of the Names of Eminent Persons. By PARKE Go.. V. UNIVEmSAL GEoGRAPnY-a Comprehensive Gazetteer of the World. By T. C. CALLICOTT. VI. SCIENE.-including Natural History, Botany, Geology, Mineralogy, &c By Professor SAMUJEL ST. Jona, of Western Reserve College. I. Press. FVII. AncmTEcTUiE —Historical, Descriptive, Topographical, Decorative, Thooretical, and Mechanical. By ROBEET STIUART. VIII. CYCLOPEDIA OF EunEOE-a Manual of European Geography-embracing valuable Statistics concerning every important place. By F. L. UNGEWITTE. *.* Thes'e volumes are intended to comprise a comprehensive view of the whole circle of human knowledge-in other words, to form a General Cyclopedia in a portable shape, for popilnr reference, for Faneily Libraries, for Teachers and School Librariea, and for the general reader. NEW YORK: A. S. BARNES & CO., 51 JOHN-STREET. CINCINNATI:-H. W. DERBY. 1854. ile~~~~~~- I es i:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~l F-22,i~X dii I i~~~~~~~ll!~ ~~ ~~~-k ii Ir~~~lrrl: I I~~~i' iii iiiiir Ir I i L i ~~~~~i~~~~iili~~~~~~~~i~~~ili!Ijjl irilll~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~jihljj~~~~~~~~~~fi:j~~~~~~~~~jliii; I~~~~~~~~~~~~iii~ ~ ~ ~~~1 C ),_14i0l e i1 1 HISii K,'I I")jl~i THE IHOXJE YGLOPEDIA. CYCLOPEDIA or OF LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS; COMPRISING COMPLETE AND ACCURATE DEFINITIONS OF ALL TERMS EMPLOYED IN BELLES-LETTRES, PHILOSOPHY, THEOLOGY, LAW, MYTHOLOGY, PAINTING, MUSIC, SCULPTURE, ARCHITECTURE, AND ALL KINDRED ARTS. 00CPILED AND ARRANGED BY GEORGE RIPLEY AND BAYARD TAYLOR. NEW YORK: A. S. BARNES & CO. 51 JOHN-STREET. CINCINNATI:-H. HW. DERBY & CO, 1854. ETFRED, according to Act of Congess, in the year 1854, by A. S. BARNES & CO. In th&e lerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of Now-York. P E F ACE. THE character of this work is fully set forth in the title-page, yet a few words of introduction still seem necessary, further to elucidate its general scope and aim. The design of the compilers has been to furnish the reading community, and more especially the large class of students in our colleges and seminaries of learning, with a comprehensive handbook or lexicon of all branches of Literature and Art. A work of this kind has long been needed. The great aim of all modern systems of instruction is to present knowledge in as concise and accessible a form as possible, and bring the results of many different theories and systems into forms of practical convenience. In this respect the present work will be found adapted to the purposes of the author, the artist, the student of any learned profession, and the reader. No technical term of general use in any of the departments it includes will be found wanting, while many words, which in a strict sense belong neither to literature nor art, have been added on account of some peculiar association or application. In Literature, the work embraces all terms of logic and rhetoric, criticism, style, and language; sketches of works which stand as types of their age or tongue; reviews of all systems of philosophy and theology, both of ancient and modern times; and a complete series of the history of literature among all nations, made up wholly from original sources. All the most important terms of common and international law, all technical words and phrases employed in theology and philosophy, and a number of scientific and historical phrases, which have become familiarized in lterature, have been included. The explanations are not confined to mere definitions; whereever it has been found necessary, illustrative woodcuts have been introduced, which will greatly assist the reader in his knowledge of architectural termas V] PREFACE. In Art, the department of painting, sculpture, and architecture, have been treated as fully and carefully as the nature and limits of the work would permit. While a mere technical array of terms has been avoided, care has been taken to explain all the words; and phrases of art-criticism have been defined at some length, as of interest and value to the general reader, especially since criticism has been recognized as a distinct department of literature. All words relating to the art and practice of music have been likewise retained. In compiling the work, liberal use has been made of Maunder's Literary and Scientific Treasury, and Brande's Dictionary of Science and Art. The Imperial Dictionary, the Leipzig Conversations-Lexicon, the Art-Journal Dictionary, and a number of other works have been consulted; while the article entitled "Literature," comprising sketches of the rise and progress of literature among ancient and modern nations, has been prepared expressly for the present work. The definitions copied from the abovenamed authorities have been adapted to the usages of the United States, and much that was irrelevant, on account of its application to the local laws or customs of foreign nations, has been purposely omitted. The work, therefore, as it now stands, is intended to furnish a thorough vocabulary of Art and Literature, specially designed for the use of schools, colleges,,nd the great reading commlnlitv of fhb TTn;ted States. {EW-YoaK, Sept 1851 11doiniia nd IJrunintetr imA i\)t lilt ldlli the Hebrew calendar. In the Syriac calendar, it is the last of the summer A Is the first letter, and the first vowel, months. The eastern Christians called of the alphabet in every known language, the first day of this month Suurnm bJiriam, except the Ethiopic; and is used either the fast of Mary, and the 15th, on as a word, an abbreviation, or a sign. which day the fast ended, Fathr-./niriam. If pronounced open, as in FATHER, it is ABACIS'CUS, in ancient architecture, the simplest and easiest of all sounds; the square compartments of Mosaic pavethe first, in fact, uttered by human ments. beings in their most infantile state, serv- AB'ACUS, in architecture, is the suing to express many and even opposite perior member of the capital of a column, emotions, according to the mode in which to which it serves as a kind of crown. In it is uttered. A has therefore, perhaps, its origin, it was intended to represent a had the first place in the alphabet as- square tile laid over a basket; it still resigned to it. In the English language tains this form in the Tuscan, Doric, and it has four different sounds: the broad Ionic orders; but in the Corinthian and sound, as in FALL; the open, as in Composite, its four sides are arched inFATHER; the sledder, or close, as in wards, having some ornament in the'ACE; and the short sound, as in FAT. middle.-ABACUS, among ancient matheMost of the other modern languages, as maticians, was a table strewed over with French, Italian, German, &c., have only dust, or sand, on which they drew their the opea, or Italian a, pronounced short or figures.-AnAcus, in arithmetic, an anlong. —Among the Greeks and Iomans, cient instrument for reckoning with counA was used as an arithmetical sign: by ters. It is used in various forms; but the former for 1; by the latter for 500; the most common arrangement is made or with a stroke over it for 5,000. The by drawing parallel lines distant from Romans also very extensively used it as each other at least twice the diameter of an abbreviation; which practice we still a counter; which placed on the lowest retain, as A.M., artiurt rmangister; A.D., line, signifies 1; on the second 10; on anno domzini, 4c'c.-A, a, or aa, in medi- the third, 100; on the fourth, 1000; and cal prescriptions, denotes ana, or equal so on. In the intermediate spaces, the same parts of each.-A, in music, is the nomi- counters are estimated at one half of the nal of the sixth note in the diatonic value of the line immediately superior. scale; in algebra, it denotes a known AB'BE, a French word, literally meanquantity; in logic, an universal affirma- ing aif abbot; but the character denoted tive proposition; in heraldry, the dexter by it, has long ceased to be of any chief, or chief point in an escutcheon; official nature. Before the Revolution, and it is the first of the dominical letters the term designated a body of persons, in the calendar. who had little connection with the church, AAN'CHE, is a term applied to wind but who followed a course of theological instruments with reeds or tongues, as the study, in hopes that the king would conclarionet, hautboy, &c. fer on them a real abbey, that is, a part AA'NES, the tones and modes of the of the revenues of a monastery. They modern Greek music. were employed in various literary purAB, is the 11th month of the civil suits, and exerted an important influence year, and the 5th of the ecclesiastical in on the character of the country. Either ______ _~~ _~ _~___~__ _ _ ___ __~~~____ _______;_ ___ ~ _ S 2 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [ABr in the capacity of a friend or spiritual ABDITA'RIUM, or ABDITORUM, counsellor, an abbe was found in almost in archeology, a secret place for hiding every distinguished family il France. or preserving valuables. AB'BESS, the superior of a nunnery, ABDUC'TION, the crime of unlawfully or other religious community of women. taking away, either by force, or fraud She has the same authority as an abbot, and persuasion, the person of another, but cannot exercise any of the spiritual whether of child, wife, ward, heiress, or functions. womzan generally. AB'BEY, a religious house governed ABE'LIANS, or A'EELITES, a Chrisby a superior, under the title of an tian sect which sprung from the (Gnosabbot or abbess. The abbeys of England, tics. They abstained from matIimony, at their dissolution under Henry VIII., but adopted the children of others, and befame lay-sees; when no less than 190 brought them up in their own principles. were dissolved, the yearly revenue of ABE Y'ANCE, in law, the expectancy which has been estimated at 2,853,0001. of an estate, or possession: thus, if lands At present, an abbey is, in general, the be leased from one person for life, with cathedral or episcopal church of the see reversion to another for years, the latter or diocese in which it stands. estate is in abeyance till the death of AB'BOT, was originally the name of the lessee. It is a fixed principle of law, every aged monk; but, since the 8th that the fee-simple of all lands is in century, it denotes the head of a monas- somebody, or else in abeyance. tery. In most countries, they held a A'BIB, the first month of the Hebrew rank next to that of bishop, and had year, more generally known by the Chalvotes in the ecclesiastical councils. At dean name of Tisan. It is first menpresent they are chiefly distinguished tioned in the 4th verse of the 13th chapinto regular and commendatory; the ter of Exodus. former being real monks or religious, ABJURA'TION, a forswearing, or reand the latter only seculars. nouncing by oath: in the old law it sigABBREVIA'TION, a contracted man- nified a sworn banishment, or an oath ner of writing words so as to retain only taken to forsake the realm forever. In the initial letters. Such abbreviations its modern, and now mlore usual signifiwere in common use with the Romans, as cation, it extends to persons, and docthey are with us, to save time and space. trines, as well as places. -ABBREVIATION, in music, one dash, ABLATIVE case, the sixth case of through the stem of a uminim or crotchet, the Latin nouns implied in English by or under a semibreve, converts it into as the preposition from. many quavers as it is equal to in time: ABLEC'TI, in ancient Rome, a chosen two dashes into semiquavers; three into band of foreign troops, selected from the demisemiquavers; and so on. When e.traordinar ii soc'ioruMm. minims are connected together like qua- ABLEG'MINA, in Roman antiquity, vers, semiquavers, &c., they are to be choice parts of the entrails of victims, callrepeated as many times as if they were ed also prqficice, porricice, prosecta, and really such notes. An oblique dash prosegmina. The ablegmina were sprinthrough the 2d, 3d, and 4th lines after kled with flour, and burnt on the altar; an arpeggio, signifies that it is to be the priests pouring some wine on them. repeated; for quavers, a single dash ABLU'TION, a religious ceremony of being used; for semiquavers, a double washing the body, still used by the Turks one; and so on. and Mohammedans. It originated in ABBRE'VIATORS, officers who assist the obvious necessity of practising cleanthe vice-chancellor in drawing up the liness, for the prevention of diseases in Pope's briefs, and reducing petitions into hot countries; for which purpose it was proper form, to be converted into bulls. made a religous rite; and by an easy ABDICA/TION, properly speaking, is transition of idea, the purity of the body a volunztary resignation of a dignity, was made to typify the purity of the particularly a regal one; and if he in soul: an idea the more rational, as it is whose favor the abdication was made, perhaps physically certain that outward dies, or declines the offered dignity, the wretchedness debases the inward mind. Tight of the abdicated prince is reverted. ABNOPRMAL, contrary to the natural Involuntary resignations are, however, condition. In Art, the term abnormal is also termed abdicationss, as in the case applied to everything that deviates from of Napoleon's abdication at Fontaine- the rules of good taste, and is analogous bleau. to tasteless, and overcharged. ABS] AND THE tINE ARTS. 3 ABOLILA, a kind of military garment fundamental principle of all things. The worn by the Greek and Roman soldiers. question of absolute beauty, i. e. the ABORP[GINES, a name given to the prototype of the beautiful, is the most original or first inhabitants of any coun- important within the reach of Art, intry; but more particularly used for the volving the foundation of i1sthetics, and ancient inhabitants of Latium, when of the philosophy of the beautiful. iEneas with his Trojans came into Italy. ABSOLU/TION, a ceremony practised ABOlITION in a figur-ative sense, any in various Christian churches. In the productioss tha.t does not come to maturity, Roman Catholic, the priest not only or any desi n or project which fails before declares absolution to the repentant sinit is properly matured. ner, but is believed to have the power of ABl'RACADAB'RA, a ternm of incanta- actually releasing him from his sins: tlion, formerly used as a spell or charm, and this authority is declared by the n acl worn about the neck as an amulet council of Trent to belong to him in its against several diseases. In order to full extent. The Church of England, in give it the mnore virtue, it was to be the Order for the Visitation of the Sick, j written as many times as the word con- has retained nearly the e sae words; but tains letters, omitting always the last her authorities seem not to be exactly letter of th' former, and so forming a agreed as to the force and effect of the triangle. But charms and incantatis absolutiosn so conferre. In the daily have had their day; and abracadabra, if service, the words of the absolution are used at all, now serves as a word of jest, merely declaratory. like hocns pocus, and other unmeaning ABSORBEDi, in Italian, Proscinuagibberish. to; in French, LSmbu-. When the oil ABRAX'AS, or ABRAS AX', in church- with which a picture is painted has sunk history, a mystical term expressing the into the ground or canvas, leavingo the s-premne God, unlder wholm the Basilidians color flat or cead, anc the touches inlissupposed 365 dependent deities. It was tinct, it is said to be absorbed. the principle of the Gnostic hierarchy.- ABSORBENT-GROUNDS are pictureABRAXAS, or ABRASAX STONES, are very grounds prepared in distemper upon numerous, and represent the human body, either panel or canvas 8 they have the with the head of a cock, and the feet of a property of imbibing the redundant oil reptile. The name of Abrasax stone is, with which the pigments are mixed, of in modern times, applied to a variety of impasting, and are used principally for gems that exhibit enigmatical composi- the sake of expedition. tions, but have not the true characteristics AB'SIS, or AP'SIS, in ardhitecture, a of the Basilidians. word used by ecclesiastical authors to ABBRIDC'MENT, the briningg the con- signify that part of the church wherein tents of a book within a short compass. the clergy were seated, or the altar was The perfection of an abridgment consists placed. The apsis was either circular in taking only what is material and sub- or polygonal on the plan, and domed stantial, and rejecting all superfluities, over at top as a covering. It consisted whether of sentiment -o- style: in which of two parts, the altar and the presbylight, abridlgents must be allowed to be tery, or sanctuary: at the middle of eminently serviceable to all whose occu- the semicircle was the -throne of the pations prevent theim from devoting much bishop; and at the centre of the diametime to literary pursuits. ter was placed the altar, towards the ABSCIS'SION, in rhetoric, a figure of nave, from which it was separatcd by an speech, whereby the speaker stops short open balustrade, or railing. On the altar in the middle of his discourse, and leaves was placed the cibarium atnd cup. his hearers to draw their own inferences AB'STINENCE, the abstainin or refrom the facts he has stated. frainig from what is either useful ABSENTEE', a word of modern times, agreeable, or pernicious; but more espeapplied to land-owners and capitalists, cially, from eatinig:ned drining. In 4 who expend their incomes in another the Romish church there are "days of country. abstinence," as well as " fast days;" the AB'SOLUTE, whatever is in all re- former importing a partial, and the spects unlimiited and uncontrolled in its latter, almost a total abstinence from own nature: it is opposed to the relative, food. and to whatever exists only conditionally. AB'STINENTS, a sect of Christians Thus the absolute is the principle of who appeared in France about the end entire completion, the universal idea and of the third century, professi:ag celibacy, 4 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [ACO and abstinence from particular kinds of ACAN'THUS, the bear's claw, a plant food, &c. used in Greece and Italy on account of AB'STRACT, a concise but general its beautiful view of some large work; in which sense s. —- - ii. indented it differs from an abridgment only as I |. leaves and being shorter, and its entering less mi-'s g ra ce ful nutely into particulars; and from an ex — growth for tract, as this last is only a particular f " garden plots view of some part or passage of it. m\' and also in ABSTRACTION, in logic, that opera- works of Art tion of the mind whereby it forms ab-'l for the borstract ideas. The faculty of abstraction ders of emstands directly opposite to that of comn- b r o i de re d pounding. By composition we consider I': garments, those things together, which, in reality, -- the edges of are not joined together in any one exist- vases, for wreaths round drinking cups,; ence. And by abstraction, we consider and in architecture, for ornameenting the those things separately and apart, which capitals of columns, particularly those in reality do not exist apart. In its pas- of the Corinthian order, and the Roman, sive sense it implies occupation with one's or Composite, which sprang from it. The self to the exclusion of other objects. type of the Corinthian capital may be ACADEMIICS, certain philosophers found on numerous Egyptian capitals. who followed the doctrine of Socrates ACAT'ALEPSY, (acatalepsia,) among and Plato, as to the uncertainty of knowl- ancient philosophers, the impossibility edge and the incomprehensibility of of comprehendingsomething; uncertainty truth. Academic, in this sense, amounts in science. to much the same with Platonist; the ACCA'LIA, in Roman antiquity, solemn difference between them being only in festivals held in honor of Aca Laurentia, point of time. They who embraced the the nurse of Romulus: they were also system of Plato, among the ancients, called Laurentalia. were called Academici; whereas those ACCENDEN'TES, or ACCENSO'who did the same since the restoration of RES, in the church of Rome, an inferior learning, have assumed the denomina- rank of ministers, whose business it is to tion of Platonists. light, snuff. and trim the candles and ACAD'EMY, in Grecian antiquity, a tapers. large villa in one of the suburbs of ACCEN'DONES, in Rloman antiquity, Athens, where the sect of philosophers officers in the gladiatorial schools, who called Academics held their assemblies. excited and animated the combatants durIt took its name from Acadelmus, a ecle- ing the engagement. brated Athenian, who resided there, and ACCEN'SI, in Roman antiquity, certain became celebrated from its being the supernumerary soldiers, designed to supplace in which Plato taught philosophy. ply the place of those who should be -ACADEMY, in the modern acceptation, killed, or anywise disabled.-ACCENSI is a society of persons united for the also denoted a kind of inferior officers, pursuit of some objects of study and ap- appointed to attend the Roman magisplication, as the Royal Academy of Arts trates. of London, and the Royal Academy of ACCENT, a modification of the voice Sciences of Berlin. The first academy in pronouncing certain words or syllaof science, in modern times, was estab- bles: also, the marks on the words or lished at Naples, by Baptista Porta, in syllables; as, the acute accent, marked 1560. thus (/), the grave accent thus ('), the ACAD'EMY FIGURE, in painting, circumflex thus (^). This is called grama drawing usually made with black and matical accent, but there is also a rhewhite chalk, on tinted paper, after the torical accent or emphasis, which is deliving model. Sometimes Academy-fig- signed to give to a sentence distinctness ure is understood to be one in which the and clearness. In a sentence, therefore, action is constrained, and the parts with- the stress is laid on the most important out mutual connection with each other, word, and in a word on the most imporas frequently happens to those who model tant syllable. When the accent falls on from a study which was only intended to a vowel, that vowel has its long sound, exhibit the development of certain mus- as in po'rous; but when it falls on a cles or members of the body. consonant, the preceding vowel is short, AGO] AND THE FINE ARTS. 5 as in potter. Accents also not only give ACCIACATU'RA, in music, a sweepa pleasing variety and beauty to the ing of the chords of the pianoforte, and modulation of the voice, but often serve dropping sprinkled notes usual in accomto ascertain the true meaning of the paniments. word.-In music, accent denotes a certain ACCIDENCE, a display of the variamodulation or warbling of the sounds, to tions of words according to their governexpress passions, either naturally by the ment or sense. voice, or artificially by instruments. ACCIDENS, or PER ACCIDENS, a Every bar or measure is divided into the term applied to the operations of natural accented and unaccented parts; the for- bodies, in distinction from per se; thus ner being the principal, on which the fire is said to burn per se, but a heated spirit of the music depends. iron per accidens. ACCEPT'ANCE, in commerce, is when ACCIDENT, that which belongs aca man subscribes, signs, and makes him- cidentally, not essentially, to a thing, as self a debtor for the sum contained in a sweetness, softness, &e. bill of exchange, or other obligation, ACCIDEN'TAL, in philosophy, a term drawn upon, or addressed to him; which applied to effects which result from is done by his writing the word "Ac- causes occurring by accident. eopted" on it, and signing his name. ACCIDEN/TAL COLORS, colors deACCEPT'OR, the person who accepts pending on some affection of the eye, a bill of exchange by signing it, and and not belonging to light itself, or any thereby becoming bound to pay its con- quality of the luminous object. If we tents. look for a short time steadily with one AC'CESSARY, in law, a person who eye upon any bright-colored spot, as a aids in the commission of some felonious wafer on a sheet of paper, and immnediaction. There are two kinds of acces- ately after turn the salme eye to another saries, viz. before the fact, and after it. part of the paper, a similar spot will be The first is he who commands and pro- seen, but of a different color. If the cures another to commit an offence; who, wafer be red, the imaginary spot will be thou Ig he be absent when it is con- green; if black, it will he changed into mitte., is now regarded as much a prin- white; the color thus appearing being cipal as the actual offender. The ac- always what is termed the complemencessary after the fact is one who receives, tary color of that on which the eye was comforts, or assists the offender, knowing fixed. him to be such. In the highest crimes, ACCIDEN'TAL LIGHT, secondary as high treason, &c., anc the lowest, as lights, which are not accounted for by riots, forcible entries, &c., there are no ac- the prevalent effect. cessaries, but all concerned are principals. ACCIDEN'TAL POINT, in perspecAC'CESSORIES, objects and materi- tive, the point in which a straight line als independent of the figure in a picture, drawn from the eye, parallel to another aund which, without being essential to straight line, cuts the perspective plane the composition, are nevertheless useful, ACCIDEN'TALS, in painting, are whether under the picturesque relation, those fortuitous or chance effects, occurto fill up those parts that without them ring from luminous rays falling on cerwould appear naked, to establish a bal- tain objects, by which they are brought ance between the masses, to form the into stronger light than they otherwise contrast, to contribute to the harmony would be, and their shadows are conseof colors, and so add to the splendor and quently of greater intensity. This sort richness of a picture; or, under the re- of effect is to be seen in aliost every'ltion of poetic composition, to facilitate picture by Rembrandt, who used them to the understanding of the subject, recall- a very great extent. There are some ing some one of the circumstances which fine instances of accidentals in Ralphael's have preceded, or which will follow the Transfiguration, and particularly in the action; to nmake known the condition celebrated picture, thie Notte of Coregand habits of the figures; to characterize gio, in which the light emanates from the their general manners, and through them infant Christ.-AccIDErNTAS, in music, the age and country in which the action are those flats and sharps which are pretakes place, &c.; such are draperies va- fixed to the notes in a movement, and riously adjusted, trophies affised to the which would not be considered so by the walls, devices, sculptured divinities, fur- fiats and sharps in the signature. niture, carpets, lamps, groups of vases, ACCLAMA'TION, in Roman antiquiarms, utensils, &e.I ty, a shout raised by the people, to tes F.6 CCYCLO PCEDIA OF LITERATURE [ACC tify their appslause, or approbation of on by a current of air from a sort of beltheir princes, generals, Ac. In ages lows, and producing tones very similar to when people were more accustomed to those of the organ. give full utterance to their feelings, ac- ACCOUNT/ANT, or ACCOMPT'ANT, clamations were very ommnon, whenever in a general sense, denotes one whose a mass of people was influenced by one business it is to compute, adjust, and common feeling. We find, therefo're, ac- range in due order accounts in comm-erce. elamations in theatres, senates, ecclesias- In a more restricted sense, the term is tieal meetings, elections, at nuptials, tri- applicable to a person appointed to keep umphs, &c. In the early times of Chris- the accounts of a publin company or tianity, the bishops were elected by c- office: thus, we say the accountant of the clamation. The first German emperors India Company, the Custom-house, the were elected in the same way; and at Excise, &c. the present day, wherever the forms of ACCOU'TREMENTS, the necessaries civilized life are least regarded, approba- of a soldier, as belts, pouches, cartridgetion or disapprobation of proposed public boxes, &e. measures is shown by acclamations of ACCRETION, the increase or growth the assembled multitude. of a body by an external addition of new AC'COLA, among the Romans, signi- parts; thus shells, stones, and various fled a person who lived near some place; other substances are formed. in which sense it differed from incola, the ACCUBA'TION, the posture used inhabitant of such a place. among the Greeks and Romans at their ACCOLADE!, the ancient ceremony of meals, which was with the body extended conferring knighthood, by the kings lay- on a. couch, and the head resting on a ing his arms about the young knight's pillow, or on the elbow, Pulpported by a neck, and embracing him. This familiar pillow. This practice was not permitted expression of regard appears to have among soldiers children, and servants; been exchanged for the more stately act nor wvas it known until luxury had corof touching, or gently striking, with the rupted manners. Their couches were royal sword, the neck of the kneeling called ACCUBITA. knight. The present ceremony of con- A.CEP-I'ALI. a sect of Christians, so ferring the honor of knighthood is evi- called because they admitted no head, or dently derived from it. superior, either lay or ecclesiastic. ACCOM'PANIMENT, an instrumen- ACER'RA, in lRoman antiquity, was a, tal part added to a musical composition small altar erected near the bed on which by way of embellishment, and in order a dead person was laid outl. Incense and to support the principal melody. When perfumes were burnt upon it, till the time the piece may be performed with or of the funeral. The real intention, probwithout the accompaniment at pleasure, ably, was to prevent or overcome any ofit is called accomlpaneirent ad libitium; fensive smells that miglht 9arise about the but when it is indispensable, accom-panci- corpse. ment oblirgato. A'CIERON, the river of sorrow which ACCOM'PLICE, in law, a person who flowed round the infernal realms of is privy to, or aiding in, the perpetration IHades, according to the mythology of of some crime. the ancients. There was a river of ACCO'PLISIMENT, in a general Thesprotia, in Epirus, of the same name, sense, denotes the perfecting, or entirely and also one in Italy, near which Alexfinishing and completing any matter or ander, kingr of the Molossi, was slain; thing; but it more expressly describes bothl of which from the unwholesome and the acquiremnent of some branch of foul nature of their waters, were suplearning, useful art, or elegant amuse- posed to communicate with the infernal ment.-ACCOMPLISHMENT is also partic- stream. ularly used for the fulfilment of a prophl- AC'ME, in rhetoric, the extreme ecy; in which sense, we read of a literal height, or farthest point of pathos, or accomplishment, a mystical accomplish- sentiment, to which the mind is judiment, &c. ciously conducted by a series of im-presACCORDATUTRA, an Italian word, to sions gradually rising in intensity. express the tuning of an instrument. ACOLYTtII, in ecclesiastical history, ACCOR'DION, a new musical instru- denotes candidates for the ministry, so ment, of German invention, but now also called from their continually attending made in this country, consisting of a the bishop. It is also an appellation double series of vibrating tongues, acted given to the Stoics, on account of their ACT] AND THIE FINE ARTS. steady adherence to what they had once produces it.-AcT, among logicians, more resolved. particularly denotes an operation of the ACOUSMAT'ICI, in Gfecian antiquity, human mind; in which sense, compresuch disciples of Pythagoras, as had not hending, judging, willing, &c. are called finished their five years' probation. The acts.-ACT, in law, is used for an instruacousstmatici were instructed by bare posi- ment or deed in writing, serving to prove tive precepts and rules, without reasons the truth of some bargain or transaction.. or demonstrations, and these precepts Thus, records, certificates, &c. are called they called acousmnata. acts.-AcT is also used for the final resoACROAT'IC, in the Aristotelian lution, or decree of an assembly, senate, schools, a denomination given to such council, &c.-ACTS of parliament are lectures as were calculated only for the called statutes; acts of the royal society, intimate friends and disciples of that transactions; those of the French academy philosopher; being chiefly employed in of sciences, memoirs; those of the academy demonstrating some speculative or ab- of sciences at Petersburg, commentaries; struse part of philosophy. The acroatic those of Leipsic, acta eruditorum; the lectures stood contradistinguished from decrees of the lords of session, at Edinthe exoteric ones, which were adapted to burgh, acta sederunt, &c.-Aclr, in the a common auditory. universities, is the delivery of orations, ACiRO'LITHOS, in sculpture, a statue or other exercises, in proof of the prowhose extremities are of stone, the body ficiency of a student who is to take a being made of wood. According to Vi- degree. At Oxford, the time when mastruvius, there was a temple at iHalicar- ters or doctors complete their degrees, is nassus dedicated to Mars, and built by called the act. At Cambridge, the same Mausolus, king of Caria, wherein was an period is called the cosmmenccmen7t.acrolit1han statue of the god. And from ACT, in a dramatic sense, is the name Trebellius Pollio we learn tlhat Calpurnia given to certain portions of a play, inset up an acrolithan statue of Venus, tended to give respite both to the spectawhich was gilt. tors and the actors. In the ancient ACROMONOGRAMMIAT'ICUMA[,,po- drama, five acts were required both in etical composition, wherein each subse- tragedy and comedy; and in what is qaent verse commences with that which termed the regular drama that rule is the verse preceding terminates. still observed, the acts being divided into ACROP/OLIS, the citadel of Athens. smaller portions, called scenes. It was formerly the whole city, and at AC'TA CONSI STO'RII, the edicts or first called Acropia, from Acrops the declarations of the council of state of the founder; but, after the inhabitants were emperors. greatly increased in number, the whole AC/TA DIUR'NA, was a sort of Roman plain around it was filled with buildings, gazette, contaning an authorized narraand the original city became the centre, tive of the transactions worthy of notice, under the denomination of Acropolis, or which happened at Rome. the upper city. AC'TA PUB'LICA, in Roman history, ACROS'TIC, a poem, the lines of which the journal of the senate. It seems to are so contrived, that the first letters of have resembled the votes of the English each, taken together, will make a proper House of Commons, wherein a short acname or other word. count was given to the public of what ACROSTO'LIUM, in the naval archi- passed in the senate-house. tecture of the ancients, the extreme part ACTIAN GAMES, or LeDI ACTIACA, of the ornament used on the prows of were instituted in commemoration of the their ships. It was usual to tear the victory obtained by Augustus over Anacrostolia from the prows of vanquished tony at Actium. They returned every ships, as a token of victory. fifth year, according to the general ACROTE'RIA, in architecture, small opinion, and were sacred to Apollo, who pedestals, upon which globes, vases, or was then called Actius Apollo. Actian statues stand at the ends or middle of years became an era, commencing from pediments. It also denotes the figures the battle of Actium, called also the era themselves placed in such situations. of Augustus. The Actian games conACT, in a general sense, denotes the sisted of shows of gladiators, wrestlers, exertion, or effectual application, of some and other exercises, and were kept genepower or faculty. Act is distinguished rally at Nicopolis, a city built by Augusfrom power, as the effect from the cause, tus, near Actium, for that purpose, with a or as a thing produced, from that which view to perpetugte the fame of his victory. 8 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [ADJ AC'TION, in ethics, something done by ceedings of a court.-ACTUARII were also a free or moral agent, capable of dis- officers who kept the military accounts, tinguishing good from evil. The essence and distributed the corn to the soldiers. of a moral action'consists in its being AC'TUARY, the chief clerk, or person, done knowingly and voluntarily: that is, who compiles minutes of the proceedings the agent must not only be able to dis- of a company in business. tinguish whether it be good or bad in ACU'MEN, mental sharpness, or quick itself; but he must likewise be entirely discernment; great intellectual capacity. free from compulsion of any kind, and at In ancient music, acumnen denotes a sound full liberty to follow the dictates of his produced by raising the voice to a high own understanding.-ACTION, in rhet- pitch. oric, may be defined, the accommoda- ACUTE', an appellation given to such tion of the voice, but more especially the things as terminate in a sharp point, or gesture of an orator, to the subject he is edge: thus, we say, an acute angle, acuteupon.-ACTION, in a theatrical sense, is angled triangle, &c.-AcuTE, in music, nearly the same with action among an epithet given to sharp or shrill sounds, orators; only the actor adapts his action in opposition to those called grave. to an assumed character, whereas the ACYROLO'GIA, in grammar, denotes orator is supposed to be in reality what an improper word, phrase, or expresmson: his action expresses.-AcTION, in paint- it differs a little from the catachresise ing and sculpture, denotes the posture of AD, a Latin preposition, expressing the a statue or picture, serving to express relation of one thing to another. It is some passion, &c.-ACTION, in the mili- frequently prefixed to other words: thus, tary art, is an engagement between two AD HOMINEM. among logicians, an arguarmies, or between different bodies of ment drawn from the professed belief or troops belonging thereto. principles of those with whom we argue. AC'TIVE, in a general sense, denotes -AD LUDOS, in Roman antiquity, a kind something that communicates motion or of punishment, whereby the crimi-nals action to another, in which sense it stands entertained the people, either by fighting opposed to passive.-ACTIVE, among with wild beasts, or with each other.-AD grammarians, an appellation given to VALOREM, in commerce, according to the words expressing some action, as I write, value.-AD INFINITUM, indefinitely, or to I read, &c.-ACTIVE POWER, in meta- infinity. physics, the power of executing any ADA'GIO, a degree quicker than work or labor; in contradistinction to grave time, in music, but with graceful speculative powers, as those of seeing, and elegant execution. hearing, reasoning, &c. A'DEPT, a distinctive term applied to AC'TOR, in a dramatic sense, is a man those alchemists who were supposed to who enacts some part or character in a have attained the great object of their replay. It is remarkable with what differ- searches, or to have discovered the phience actors were treated among the an- losopher's stone. cients. At Athens they were held in ADH-E'RENCE, the effect of those such esteem, as to be sometimes sent on parts of a picture which, wanting relief, embassies to foreign powers; whereas, at are not detached, and hence appear adRome, if a citizen became an actor, he bhering to the canvas or surface. thereby forfeited his freedom. Actors in ADJECTIVE, in grammar, that part the present day have little to complain of speech which i-s annexed to substanof, in regard to the treatment they re- tives, to define more accurately the conceive: according as they contribute to ceptions intended to be denoted by them. the gratification of the public so are they ADJOURN'MENT, the putting off a rewarded; and if their moral conduct be court or other meeting till another day. irreproachable, no persons are more es- In parliament, adjournment differs froum teemed or lauded. prorogation, the former being not only AC'TRESS, a female dramatic per- for the shorter time, but also done by the former. They were unknown to the an- house itself, whereas the latter is an act cients, among whom men always took the of royal authority. parts of women. Nor were they intro- AD/JUNCT, some quality belonging duced on the English stage till the days either to body or mind, either natural or of the Stuarts. acquired. Thus, thinking is an adjunct ACTUA'BITUS, or ACTA'RIUS, in of the mind, and growth of the body. It Roman antiquity, an officer, or rather also denotes something added to another; notary, appointed to write down the pro- i without being any necessary part of it. ADU] AND THE FINE ARTS. 9 Thus water absorbed by a sponge is an Venus and Adonis, weeping, tearing their adjunct, but no necessary part of that hair, beating their breasts, and using cvsubstance. cry token of grief. On the second, they ADJUST'MENT, in a picture, is the sung his praises, and made rejoicings, as manner in which draperies are chosen, if Adonis had been raised to life again. arranged, and disposed. ADO'NIC, a species of verse consisting ADI JUTANT, a military officer, whose of a dactyle and a spondee. It weas incuty it is to carry orders from the major vented by Sapplho, and derived its name to the colonel and serjeants. When de- from being principally sung at the festitachiennts are to be made, he gives the vals in memory of Adonis. number to be furnished by each company ADO'NIS, in mythology, a beautiful or troop, and assigns the hour and place youth, son of Cinyras, king of Cyprus, of rendezvous. He also places the guards, beloved by Venus, and killed by a wild receives and distributes the ammunition boar, to the great regret of the goddess. to the companies, &e. It is, also, the name of a river of Phoenicia, AD'JUTANT-GEN'ERAL, alr officer on the banks of whichl Adonis, or Thamof distinction, who assists the general, by muz, as he is called in the East, was forming the several details of duty of the supposed to have been killed. At certain army with the brigade majors. seasons of the year this river acquires a ADLOCU'TION, or ADLOCU'TIO, in high red color, by the rains washilng up RIoman antiquity, the address made by particles of red earth. The ancient poets generals to their armies, in order to rouse ascribed this to a sympathy in the river their cosurage before a battle. for the death of Adonis. This season AD'I4IRAL, the commander of a fleet was observed as a festival in the adjacent of ships of war; having two subordinate country. commanders, as vice-admiral and rear- ADORA'TION, a mode of reverence admiral; and distinguished into three or worship anciently shown to the gods, classes, by the color of their flags, as by raising the right hand to the mouth, white, blue, and red. The admiral car- and gently applying it to the lips; also, ries his flag at the main-top-mast head; in general, any outward sign of worship, the vice-admiral, at the fore-top-niast by kissing the hand or feet, walking head; and the rear-admiral, at'the mizen- barefoot, or the like. Among the Jews, top-miast head. adoration consisted in kissing the hands, AD'MIRALTY, the Board of Corn- bowino, kneeling, and even prostration. missioners for executing the office of Lord But the posture of adoration most conmIligh Admiral, and having authority mion in il all ages and countries, is kneelover naval affairs generally.-ADMIRAL- ing. TY, COURT OF, in law, is a court of rec- ADO'REA, in ]Roman antiquity, grain, ord, of which the proceedings are carried or a kind of cakes made of fine flour, and on, at least to a certain extent, according offered in sacrifice; a dole or distribution to the course of the civil law; although, of corn, as a reward for some service; as the judge may have in some cases the whence, by metonyvy, it is put for praise assistance ofr a jury, it has also a resem- or rewards in general. blance to the courts of common law. It A'DRIAN, ST., in Christian art is reprehas jurisdiction principally for the deter- sented armed, with an anvil a.t his feet mination of private injuries to private or in his arms, and occasionally with a rights arising at sea, or intimately con- sword or an axe lying beside it. The nected with maritime subjects; and in anvil is the appropriate attribute of St. most cases, to which its authorityextends, Adrian, who suffered martyrdom, having it has concurrent jurisdiction, either with his limbs cut off on a smith's anvil, and the common law courts, or those of equity. being afterwards beheaded. St. Adrian ADONA'I, one of the names of God was the chief military saint of northern used in the Scriptures, and properly sig- Europe for many ages, second only to St. nifying emy lords, in the plural, as ADONI George. He was regarded as the patron does seay lord, in the singular number. of soldiers, and the protector against the ADONIA, solemn feasts in honor of plague. I-He has not been a popular subVenus, instituted in memory of her be- ject with artists. St. Adrian is the loved Adonis, and observed with great patron saint of the Flemish brewers. solemnity by the Greeks, Phcenicians, ADULTERA'TION, in a general sense, Lycians, Syrians, Egyptians, &c. They denotes the act of debasing, by an imlasted two days, during the first of which proper mixture, something that was pure the women carried about images of and genuine. Thus, adulteration of coin, 10 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [AE is the casting or making it of a metal and their own dependents; in which case inferior in goodness to the standard, by they were allowed to present to the using too great a portion of alloy. benefice, subject to the licensing power ADUL'TERY, a violation of the nup- of the bishop and the canons of the tial bed; a crime which has been re- church. garded by all civilized nations with AD'YTUM, the most retired and secret abhorrence, and in ancient times was place of the heathen temples, into which punished as a capital offence. By the none but the priests were allowed to enter. Jewish law, the penalty was death. The adytum of the Greeks and Romiarlns AD'VENT, the coning of our Saviour; answered to the sanctum sanctoreum f also the festival commemorative of the the Jews, and was the place from whence Advent, which falls about a month before oracles were delivered. The terms is Christmas. purely Greek, signifying inaccessible. AD'VERB, a word so called from its AACE'A, in Grecian antiquity, solemn signification and connection with verbs; festivals and games in honor of iEacus, though they are also frequently joined who, on account of his justice upon earth, with adjectives and other parts of speech was thought to have been one of the to modify their meaning. judges in hell. At the end of the soADVERSA'RtIA, a memorandum-boolk, lemnity, the victors in the games used to journal, or common-place book. present a garland of flowers. ADVER/TIS EMENT, any printed pub- iE'DES, in Roman antiquity, besides lication of circunstances, either of public its more ordinary signification of a house, or private interest, particularly that in- or the internal part of a house, where serted in the newspapers. the family used to eat, likewise signified AD'VOCATE, the original pleaders an inferior kind of temple, consecrated of causes at Rome were the Patricians, indeed to some deity, but not by the who defended gratuitously their clients; augurs. but even before the downfall of the re- JEDIC'ULA, a small redes or temple, public, the class had degenerated into a which was erected in every village or profession, its members receiving rewards parish. for their services, although still among /EDI'PLES, a Roman magistrate, whose the most honorable of employments. In chief business was to superintend buildthe later ages of the empire, the advocati ings of all kinds, but more especially pubappear to have formed a distinct class lie ones, as temples, aqueducts, bri.:ges, from the jurisconsulti, or chamber-coun- &c.; and to take care of the highways, sel, and to have much declined in repu- weights, and measures, &c. tation. In France, the avocats, or E'G-IS, a shield, particularly the shield counsel, form a separate order, of which of Jupiter. each member is attached to a particular SNE'/ID, the title of Virgil's epic local court. The lord advocate, in Scot- poem, in which he celebrates the advenland, is a public officer, who prosecutes tures of ZEneas, one of the bravest among crimes before the court of justiciary. the Trojan heroes. The author introADVOW'SON, properly, the relation duces him as sailing from Troy, after its in which a patron stands towards the destruction, in search of the shores of living to which he presents, i. e. the pat- Italy, on which it had been promised by ronage of a church. The earliest pro- the gods that he should found an empire vision for divine worship, in England and destined to be immortal; and the poem in other countries, was derived from the ends with the complete success of /Eneas offerings of the laity, which were dis- over Turnus, king of the Rutuli, whose tributed by the bishop of each diocese dominions he had invaded, and who falls among his clergy, whom he sent from by his hand. The unrivalled force, eleplace to place to preach and administer gance, and beauty of Virgil's style have the sacraments. By degrees he was en- been the theme of admiration in every abled, by the bequests of the faithful, succeeding age, and given him an indisand the customary offering of tithes, to putable right to a niche in the temple of subdivide his diocese, or parochia, as it Apollo, second only to that of Homer. was originally called, into various dis-.EO'LIAN HARP, an arrangement of tricts, and to build churches and establish strings placed in a window and played permanent ministers in each. At the upon by the wind. It produces the effect same time it became a common practice of a distant choir of music in the air, among the nobles to build and endow sweetly mingling all the harmonic notes, churches for the benefit of themselves and swelling or diminishing its sounds AGA] AND THE FINE ARTS. 11 according to the strength or weakness of or action. Also, the overcharging any the blast. part of a composition with an artificial or iJ'RA, or E'RA, a fixed historical I deceitful appearance. period whence years are reckoned: as AFFET rOSO, qaJetto, Ital., in a tender the building of Romne, or the birth of and affecting style; a term employed in Christ. Era and Epoch are not exactly music-books, at the beginning of a movesynonymous. An era is a point fixed by ment., particular people or nation; an epoch, AFFI'ANCE, in law, denotes the muone determined by chronologists and his- tual plighting of truth, between a man torians. The idea of an era, also, com- and a woman; to bind one's self to the prehends a certain succession of years, performance of a marriage contract. proceeding from a fixed event; and an AFFIDA'VIT, an oath in writing, epoch is that event itself. taken before some person who is legally AE'RIAL, in painting, a term applied authorized to administer the same. to the diminishing intensity of color on AFFIN'ITY, in civil law, the relaobjects receding from the eye. Aerial tionship in which each of the parties perspective is the relative apparent re- married stands to the kindred of the cession of objects from the foreground, other. owing to the quantity of air interposed AFFIR'MATIVE, an epithet used by between them and the spectator, and logicians for a species of proposition must accompany the recession of the wherein any predicate is affirmed of its perspective lines. subject; as, a dog is a quadruped;" AER'OMANCY, a klind of divination here "quadrsuped" is affirmed of a dog. amongst the Greeks, andlfromthem adopt- AFFIX, in grammnar, a particle added ed by the Romans, whereby they pre- at the close of a word, either to diversify tended to foretell future events from cer- its form, or alter its signification. tain spectral phenomena or noises in the AFFLA'TUS, in a general sense, a air. By aeromancy, in the present day, divine influence communicating to the is meant the art of foretelling the changes receiver supernatural powers, particularly and variations of the air and weather, by |the gift of prophecy. Among heathen means of meteorological observations. imythologists and poets, it denotes the A'ERONAUT, one who sails in the air actual inspiration of some divinity. in a balloon. Tully, however, extends the meaning of AERONAU'TICS, or AEROSTA'- the word farther, by attributing all great TION, the art of navigating the air, by actions to a, divine afflatus. employing air-balloons, or silken globes, A FORTIO'RI, a term implying that filled with gas lighter than atmospheric what follows is a more powerful arguair. ment than what has been before adduced. IESTIET'ICS, a term derived from AFTER, modelled or drawn after the the Greek, denoting feeling, sentiment, antique, after Raphael, or some other imagination, originally adopted by the great master. It is to copy an antique Germans, and now incorporated into the statue, or some work of the great masters. vocabulary of Art. By it is generally AG'APJE, love-feasts kept by the anunderstood " the science of the beautiful" cient Christians, as a token of brotherly and its various modes of representation; charity and mutual benevolence. In its purpose is to lead the criticism of the course of time abuses crept in, and renbeautiful back to the principle of reason. dered the abolition of them necessary. In beauty lies the soul of Art. Schelling AGAPE'TE, a society of unmarried declares that the province of iEsthetics women among the primitive Christians, is to develop systematically the mani- who attended on and served the clergy. fold beautiful in every Art, as the one At first there was nothing improper in idea of the beautiful. these societies, though they were afterA]S'TITA, summer encampments for wards charged with gross immoralities, the Rolman soldiers, in distinction from and were wholly abolished by the council the ]ibernia, or winter quarters. of Lateran, in 1139.'IES'TIVAL, in a general sense, denotes AG'ATHA, ST., when represented as a something connected with, or belongin martyr, is depicted crowned, with a long to summer. Hence we say estival point, veil, and bearing the instruments of her estival sign, [estival solstice, &c. cruel martyrdom, a pair of shears, with AFFECTA'TION, in the Fine Arts, which her breasts were cut off. As an artificial show arising from the want patron saint, she bears in one hand a of simplicity either in coloring, drawing, palm branch, and holding with the other 12 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [AL a plate or salver, upon which is a female AGNO'MEN, in Roman antiquity, was breast. The subject of her martyrdom the fourth or honorary name bestowed on has been treated by Sebastian del Piom- account of some extraordinary action, virbo. Van Dyck, Parmigiano, and others. tue, or accomplishment. Thus the agnoAGE, a certain period or limit of time, men Africanus was given to Publius Corm.arked for the convenience of chronology nelius Scipio, on account of his exploits and history by some remarkable events. in Africa. Chrouologers usually reckon seven such AG'NUS DET, (LAMB OF GOD,) the ages, namiely, 1. From the creation to oval medallions, which are made either the deluge. 2. Fron the deluge to the from the wax of the consecrated Easter birth of Abraham. 3. From the birth of candles or of the wafer dough. They Abraham to the departure of the Israelites are also sometimes made of silver, and out of Eg,;ypt. 4. From the departure of have on one side the Lamb, with the banthe Israelites to the building of the ten- ner of Victory, or St. John, and on the pie by Solomon. 5. From the laying the other the picture of some saint. They foundation of the temple to the reign of were first made about the fourteenth Cyrus in Babylon. 6. From the reign century. of Cyrus to the coming of Christ. 7. Since A'GON, in the public games of the anthe birth of our Saviour.-Among an- cients, a term used indifferently for any cient historians, the duration of the world contest or dispute, whether respecting was also subdivided into three periods, bodily exercises, or accomplishments of or ages: the first, reaching from the the mind. Thus poets, musicians, &c., creation to the deluge which happened in had their agones, as well as the athletse. Greece during the reign of Ogyges, is -AGON was also used for one of the called the obscure or uncertain age; the ministers employed in the heathen sacrisecond, called the fabulous or heroic, fices, whose business it was to strike the terminates at the first olympiad; where victim. the third, or historical age, commences. AGONA'LIA, festivals in Rome, celeThe poets also distinguished the period brated in honor of Janus, or Agonius, of the world into four ages: the golden three times a year. age, or the age of simplicity and happi- AGONOTHE'TIE, officers appointed at ness; the silver age, which was less pure the Grecian games to take care that all than the golden age, and in which men things were performed according to cusbe(gan to till the ground for their sus- tom, to decide controversies amongst the tennce; the brazen age, when strife and antagonists, and adjudge the prizes. contentions began; and the iron, age, AGRA/'IAN LAWS, statutes, which when justice and honor had left the earth, forbid the possesssion of more than a cerAGI EN'DA, small books are now pub- tain extent of land by any single indilished under this title, in which individuals vidual. That law of the Romans, called, may set down, under their proper heads, by way of eminence, the agrarian law, the things to be daily attended to. was published by Spurius Cassius, about A'-ENT, in a general sense, denotes the year of Rome, 2G8, enjoining a dianything which acts, or produces an ef- vision of the conquered lands, in equal feet. Agents are either natural or moral. parts, among the citizens, and limiting Ntatural agents are all such inanimate the number of acres that each might enjoy. bodies as have a power to act upon other AIR, in music, signifies the melody, bodies, in a certain and determinate or treble part of a musical composition. manner: such is fire, which has the in- The word is also used for a tune, or song variable property or power to warm or itself, that is, for a series of sounds heat. Moral agents, on the contrary, whose movement is regular anid graceful. are rational creatures, capable of reu- -AIR, in painting, the medium in nalating their actions by a certain rule. ture through which every object is viewed, A'GIO, in commerce, a term chiefly and hence to be transferred to the imitaused in Holland and at Venice, to signify tion on canvas. The effects which it the difference between the value of bank- produces are an. indispensable part of the stock and the current coin. knowledge of every artist. It affects the AG'NES, ST., this saint is represented sizes and color of objects according to as a martyr, holding the palm-branch in their distance. her hand, with a lamb at her feet or in AL, an Arabian particle, answering to her arms, sometimnes crowned with olives, the English the, and employed in the and holding an olive-branch as well as same manner to mark anything indefithe palm-branch. nitely. ALE] AND THE FINE ARTS. 13 AL'ABASTER, a well-known sulphate Chamouni; in France, in the tract of of lime, forming a soft, granular, imper- the Rhine; in Tyrol, &c. fectly transparent marble; used for or- AL'BUM, a white table or register, naments in houses, and by statuaries. whereon the Roman prietors had their It is found in Germany, France, and decrees written. There were many of Italy. them in use, and they received their apA LA GRECQUE, (Fr.) an architec- pellations from the various magistrates tural orna- whose names were thereon entered;,as,2wf',yv +? l sment resom- the album jL-dicum., the album dcicutriobling a vari- nm, &c. —The fashionable ALcusiMs of -7 ^ r\\n'^^ ously twisted the present day are derived from the ribbon, when practice adopted in many foreign counit is merely a tries of having a white paper book, in narrow continuous stripe, forming right which strangers of distinction or literary angles, either raised or cut in, and some- eminence were invited to insert their times only painted. This ornament, called names, or any observation in prose or also a labyrinth, may be used for recti- verse, as a memorial of their visit. lineal mouldings. If it be only one stripe, ALCA'ICS, a term given to several it is called the simple labyrinth; but if kinds of verse, from their inventor, the two stripes be twisted into one another it poet Alcsus. is called the double labyrinth. AL'CAIDE, or AL'CALDE, a Spanish ALB, or ALBE, (alba,) in the Romish or Portuguese magistrate, or officer of church, a vestment of white linen, hang- justice, answering nearly to the French ing down to the feet, and answering to prevost, and the British justice of peace. the surplice of the Episcopal clergy. In Both the name and office are of Moorish the ancient church, it was usual with origin. those newly baptized, to wear an all, or AL'CORAN, or the KORAN, the name white vestnment; and hence the Sunday of the volume containing the revelations, after Easter was called dominica in albis, doctrines, and precepts of IMahomet, in on account of the albs worn by those bap- which his followers place implicit confitized on Easter-day. dence. The general aim of the Alcoran AL'BAN, ST., in Christian art, is rep- was to unite the professors of the three resented (as also is St. Denis), carrying different religions then followed in Arahis head between his hands. HIis attri- bia, Idolaters, Jews, and Christians, in butes are a sword and a crown. the knowledge a.nd worship of one God, AL'BATROSS, or Maan-of-War Bird, under the sanction of certain laws, and the Dio7.edes of Linnous, a large and the outward signs of ceremonies, partly voracious bird, which inhabits many of ancient, andc partly of novel institucountries between the tropics. tion, enforced by the consideration of reALBIGEN'SES, a nanme common to wards and punishments, both temporal several sects, particularly the Cathari and eternal, and to bring all to the obeand Waldenses, who agreed in opposing dience of Mahoinet, as the prophet and the dominion of the Romish hierarchy, ambassador of God, who was to establish and endeavoring to restore the simplicity the true religion on earth. of primitive Christianity. They endured AL'DINE EDITIONS, those editions the severest persecutions, and after the of the Greek and Roman classics which middle of the 13th century, the name of were printed by the family of Aldus Albigenses altogether disappeared; but Manutius, first established at Venice fugitives of their party formed, in the about 1490. mountains of Piedmont and in Lombardy, ALEXAN'DRIAN, or ALEXAN'what is called the French Church, which DRINE, in poetry, a kind of verse, con was continued through the Waldenses, to sisting of twelve, or of twelve and thirteen the era of the Reformation. syllables alternately, the pause being alALBI/NOS, or LEUCJE'THIOPS, a vari- ways on the sixth syllable. It is so called ety of the human species, that frequently from a poem on the life of Alexander, occurs ins Africa. The Portuguese first written in this way, by some French poet. gave the name of Albino to the white ALEXAN'DRIAN LIBRARY, this negro, and they formerly described them celebrated library was founded by Ptoleas a distinct race; but modern natural- my Soter, for the use of an academy ists have discovered them. in various that he instituted in Alexandria; and, countries of Europe, viz., in Switzerland, by continual additions by his successors, among the Savoyards in the valley of became at last the finest library in the 14 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATUR-S [ALL world, containing no fewer than 700.000 another place when the act was comrnvolumes. The method followed in col- i mitted. lecting books for this library, was, to AL'IMONY, in law, the maintenance seize all those which were brought into sued for by a wife, in case of a legal Egypt by Greeks or other foreigners. separation from her husband, wherein The books were transcribed in the mu- she is neither chargeable with elopement seum by persons appointed for that pur- nor adultery. pose, the copies were then delivered to AL'LAH, the Arabian name of God. the proprietors, and the originals laid up ALLA-PRIMA, (Ital.) Au PREMIEas in the library. It was eventually burnt coup, (F'.) a method of painting in bvh order of the caliph Olmar, A.D. 624. which the pigments are applied all at ALEXANDRIAN MANUSCRIPT, or once to the canvas, without impasting or COD;EX ALEXANDRINUS, a famous copy retouching. Some of the best pictures of the Scriptures, consisting of four vol- of the great masters are painted in at imles, in a large quarto size; which con- once by this method, but it requires too tains the whole Bible, in Greek, including much knowledge, skill, and decision to tlle Old and New Testaments, with the be generally practised. Apocrypha, and some smaller pieces, but ALLEGOR/ICAL PICTURES are of not quite complete. This manuscript is two kinds: the one comoprehends those in now preserved in the British Museum. which the artist unites allegorical with It was sent as a present to king Charles real persons, and this is the lower rank I., from Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of of allegorical painting. Such are those Constantinople, by Sir Thomas Rowe, of Rubens, in the Gallery of the Luxemambassador from England to the grand bourg, representing the stormy life of seignior, about the year 1628. Mary do Medicis. The other, those in ALEXAN'DRIAN SCHOOL, an acad- which the artist represents allegorical emy for literature and learning of all persons only; and by the position of kinds, instituted at Alexandria by Ptole- single figures, the grouping of many and my, son of Lagus, and supported by his the coumposition of the whole, conveys to successors. The grammarians and math- the mind of the spectator one thought ematicians of this school were particularly or many thoughts, which he cannot concelebrated. In the formier class occur the vey by the common language of his art: noted names of Aristarchus, Rarpocra- this is allegorical painting in the true tion, and Aristophaues; and among the sense of the term. latter were numbered the astronomer AL'LEGORY, a series or chain of Ptolemy, and geometer Euclid. The metaphors continued through a whole grammarians of Alexandria exercised a discourse. The great source of allegory, universal literary jurisdiction, publishing or allegorical interpretations, is some canons of those who were to be considered difficulty, or absurdity, in the literal and standard authors, and revised editions of obvious sense. ancient writers. ALLE'GRO, an' ltalian word used in ALEX'IS, ST., the patron saint of beg- music, to denote that the part is to be gars and pilgrims. In Christian art, he played in a brisk and sprightly manner. is usually represented in a pilgrim's The usual distinctions succeed each other habit and staff; sometimes as extended in the followinsg order: grave, acdagio, on a mat, with a letter in his hand, dying. largo, vivace, alleogro, presto. Allegsro St. Roch is also represented as a pilgrim, time may be heightened, as alleoro assai but he is distinguished from St. Alexis and alleqrissbos, very lively; or loessened, by the plague spot on his body, and in as alleretllo orpoco allegro, alittle lively. being aecompanied by a dog. Pie' aller o is a direction to play or sing AL/GtUAZIL, the title of one of the a little quicker. lower orders of Spanish officers of justice, ALLEMANX NIC, in a general sense, whose business is to execute the orders denotes anythinr belonging to the anof the mas istrate. cient Gerina ns. Thus we meet with AlleA'LTAS, in law, a Latin word signify- mannic history, Allemannic language, ing otherwise; often used in describing Allemannic law, Ac. the accused, who has assumed other ALL-HAL'LOWS, or ALL-SAINTS, names beside his real one. a festival observeds by mnany denominaAL'IBI, in law, a Latin word signify- tions of Christians, in conmmenmoration of ing, literally, elsewhere. It is used by the saints in general. It is'kept on the the accused, when he wishes to prove his first of Noveimber, Gre gory IV. uhaving in innocence, by showing that he was in 835 appointed that day for its celebration ALT] AND THE'INE ARTS. 15 ALLITERA'TION, a figure or embel- mately or immediately, with the Hebrews. lishment of speech, which consists in the Hence a most energetic controversy has repetition of the same consonants, or of existed amongst learned men, whether the syllables of the same sound, in one sen- method of expressing our ideas by visible tence. The Greek and Roman literature symbols, called letters, be really a human afford many instances of this; and in invention; or whether we ought to aItribEnglish poetry there are also many beau- ute an art so exceedingly useful, to an tiful specimens of alliterations; though immediate intimation of the Deity. it must be confessed that it is too often ALPHION'SINE TABLES, a.stronomused without the requisite skill, and ical tables made in the reign of Alphoncarried too far. In burlesque poetry it sus X., king of Arragon, who was a great is frequently used with excellent effect; lover of science, and a prince of rar. though even there the sense should never attainments; but though these tables be sacrificed to the sound. Tastefully bear his name, they were chielly drawn used, it is a most enchanting ornament, up by Isaac }Hazan, a learned Jewish and will equally contribute to softness, to rabbi. energy, and to solemnity. ALSEG'NO, in music, a notice to the ALLU'SION, in rhetoric, strictly, a performer that hie must recommence from covert indication, as by means of a ineta- that part of the movement to which phor, a play of words, &c., of something the sign or mark is prefixed. not openly mentioned and extrinsic to the ALT, in music, that part of the gireat principal meaning of the sentence. scale lying between F above the treble AL'MAGEST, the name of a celebrated cliff note, and G in allissino. book, composed by Ptolemy; being a ALTAR, a place upon which sacrifices collection of many of the observations were anciently oftfered to the Almnighty, and problems of the ancients, relating or some heathen deity. Before temples both to geometry and astronomy. were in use, altars were erected somceAL'MA MA'TER, a title given to the times in groves, sometimes in the highuniversities of Oxford and Cambridge by ways, and sometimes on the tops of their several members who have passed mountains; and it was a custom to entheir degrees in either of these universi- grave upon them the name, proper ties. ensifn, or character of the deity to whom AL'MANAC, a calendar or table, con- they were consecrated. Thus St. Paul taining a list of the months, weeks, and observed aen.altar at Athens, with ani dcays of the year, with an account of the inscription, To the unk!nowrnz God. In rising and setting of the sun and moon, the great temples of ancient Rome, there the most remarkable phenomena of the were ordinarily three altars: the first heavenly bodies, the several festivals, was placed in the sanctuary, at the foot.and fasts, and other incidental matters.- of the statue of the divinity, upon which The NAUTICAL ALMANAC, a most valua.- incense was burnt, and libations oftered ble work for mariners, is published in I the second was before the gate of the England two or three years in advance. temple, and upon it they sacrificed the It was commenced in 1767, by Dr. Mas- victims; and the third was a portable kelyne, the astronomer royal, and has altar, upon which were placed the offerbeen regularly continued ever since. ings and the sacred vessels. The princiALPHABET, the natural or cus- pal altars of the Jews were those of in tomary series of the several letters of a cense, of bnernt-offe'ri'gs, and the altar language. The word is formed from or table, for the show-bread.-ALTAR is alpha and beta, the first and second letters also used among Christians, for the comof the Greek alphabet. It is undoubtedly munion-table. the most important of all inventions, for ALTIS'SIMO, in music, an Italian epiby means of it sounds are represented, thet for notes above F in alt. and language made visible to the eye by ALTIS'TA, in music, an Italian name a few simple characters. The five books for the vocal performer who takes the of Moses are uiniversally acknowledged alto priumo part. to be the most ancient compositions, as ALTO, or AL'TO TENO'RE, in music, well as the most early specimens of is the term applied to that part of the alphabetical writing extant; and it ap- great vocal scale which lies between the pears that all the languages in use mezzo soprano and the tenor, and which amongst men which have been conveyed is assigned to the highest natural adult in alphabetical characters, have been male voice. In scores, it always signithe languages of people connected, ulti- fies the counter-tenor part. 16 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [AMP AL'TO RELIE'VO, in sculpture, a inflicted in France on traitors, parricides, representation of figures and other ob- or sacrilegious persons, who were to go jects against a flat surface; differing naked to the shirt, with a torch in their from basso relievo only in the work heing hand, and a rope about their neck, into a much more brought forward. church or a court, to beg pardon of God AMATEUR', a person having a taste the court, and the injured party. —The for a particular art, yet not professing, modern acceptation of the term indicates nor being dependent on it. that an open apology is made for an ofAM'/ER, a hard, brittle, tasteless sub- fence or injury. stance, mostly semi-transparent, or opa- AM ERICANISM, any word or phrase que, and of a glossy surface. This curious in general use among the inhabitants of production of nature is inflammable, and, the United States, which deviates from when heated, yields a strong and bitumi- the English standard. Of these, a grfeat nous odor. Its most extraordinary prop- proportion are mere vulgarisms and erties are those of attracting after it technical words of local character, origihas been exposed to a slight friction, nally taken from different counties in straws, and other surrounding objects; England, by the first emigrants; others and of producing sparks of fire, visible are words formerly used by the English in the dark. Many thousand years before writers, but which have become obsolete; the science of electricity had entered the while many are of modern coinage, and mind of man, these surprising qualities owe their origin to the caprice of inventors. were known to exist in amber, and hence Every living language is subject to conthe Greeks called it electrum. tinual changes; and it is not to be xpected AM'BIDEXTER, a person who can use that a large community, in a state of both hands with equal facility, and for social and political activity, who are daily the same purposes that the generality of developing new and characteristic feapeople do their right hands.-In law, a tures, will fail to exercise their share of juror who takes money for giving his influence upon that which they naturally verdict. consider as a part of their inheritance. AM'BITUS, in music, signifies the AM'ETHYST, a rock crystal of apurparticular extent of each tone, or modi- pie color. Many ancient vases and cups fication of grave and sharp. are composed of this mineral, and the AM'BO, in architecture, the elevated finer varieties are still much in request place, or pulpit, in the early Christian for cutting into seals and brooches. churches, from whence it was usual to AM'MON, the title under which Jupiaddress the' congregation, and on which ter was worshipped in Libya, where a certain parts of the service were chanted. temple was erected to him, from which AM'BROSE, ST., the patron saint of oracles were delivered for many ages. Milan: but few works of art exist, in AMMJUNI'TION, all warlike stores, which he is so represented. The finest is and especially powder, ball, bombs, guns, the painting that adorns his chapel in and other weapons necessary for an army. the Frari at Venice, painted by Viva- AMNESTY, an act by which two parrini, towards the end of the fifteenth cen- ties at variance promise to pardon and tury, a work of the highest excellence. bury in oblivion all that is past. It is St. Ambrose is usually represented in the more especially used for a pardon granted costume of a bishop. by a prince to his rebellious subjects. AMBIRO'SIA, in heathen antiquity, AMPHIBO'LIA, or AMPHIBOL'OGY, denotes the food of the gods. Hence, in rhetoric, ambiguity of expression, whatever is very gratifying to the taste when a sentence conveys a double meanor smell has been termed ambrosial. ing. It is disting(uished from an equivocaAMBRO'SIAN CHANT, in music, tion, which lies in a single word. so called from St. Ambrose, archbishop AMPHIC'TYONS, in Grecian antiof Milan, who composed it for the church quity, an assembly composed of deputies there in the fourth century: it is distin- from the different states of Greece. The guished from the Gregorian chant by a amphictyons at first met regularly at great monotony and want of beauty in its Delphi, twice a year, viz. in spring and melody, autumn; but in latter times they assemAMEN', in Scripture language, a sol- bled at the village of Anthela, near emn formula, or conclusion to all prayer, Thermopylae; and decided all differences signifying verily, or so be it. between any of the Grecian states, their AMENDE HONORABLE, (French,) determinations being held sacred and an infamous kind of punishment formerly inviolable. INA] AND TIE FINE ARTS. 17,AMPIIITIE'ATRE, in antiquity, a of the body. At other times they were spacious edifice, built either round or neither written nor engraved; hut preoval, with a number of rising seats, upon pared with many superstitious cerewhich the people used to sit and behold monies, great regard being usually paid the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, to the influence of the stars. and other sports. Some of them, as the A'NA, a name given to amusing misColiseum at tome, were calpable of con- cellanies, consisting of anecdotes, traits taining from 50,000 to 80,000 spectators. of character, and incidents relating to The principal parts of the amphitheatre any person or subject. were the arena, or place where the ANAB'ASIS, the title of Xenophon's gladiators fought; cavea, or hollow place description of the younger Cyrus's expediwhere the beasts were kept; podiums, or tion against his brother, in which the projection at the top of the wall which writer bore a principal part. surrounded the arena, and was assigned ANA'CHRONISM, in literature, an to the senators; gradts, or benches, ris- error with respect to chronology, whereby ing all round above the podiumn; caditus, an event is placed earlier thanl it really or entrances; and vomeitorie, or gates happened; in which sense it stands oppowhich termlin.ted the aditus. site to parachronism. AM'P1IORA, in antiquity, a liquid ANACOLUITIION, in grammar or measure in use among the Greeks and rhetoric, a want of coherency, generally Ronmans. The Roeman amphora contained arising from inattention on the part of forty-eight sxctaries, and was equal to the writer or orator. about seven gallons one pint, English ANACREON'TIC VERSE, in ancicni wine-measure; and the Grecian, or Attic poetry, a kind of verse, so callel froms its amphora, contained one third more.-Am- being much used by the poet Anacreon. phora was also a dry measure in use It consisted of three feet, generally sponamong the Romans, and contained three dees and iambics, sometimes nanapssts bushels. and was peculiarly distinguished for softAMPHORI'TES, in antiquity, a sort ness and tenderness. of literary contest in the island of AEgina, ANADIPLO'SIS, a figure in rhetoric where the poet who made the best dithy- and poetry, in which the last woid or rambic verses in honor of Bacchus was words of a sentence are repeated at the rewarded with an ox. beginning of the next. AMPLIFICA'TION, in rhetoric, part ANAGLY'PHIIC in antique sculpture, of a discourse or speech, wherein a crime chased or embossed work on metal, or is aggravated, a praise or commendation anything worked in relief. When raised heightened, or a narration enlarged, by on stone, the production is a cameo. an enumeration of circumstances, so as When sunk or indented, it is a diato excite the proper emotions in the glyphic or an intaglio. minds of the auditors. AN'AGRAM, the change of one word AMPUL'LA, an ancient drinking ves- or phrase into another, by the transposisl; and tamong ecclesiastical writers tion of its letters. They were very it denotes one of the sacred vessels used common among the ancients, and ocelaat the altar. The ampulla is still a dis- sionally contained some happy allusion; tinguished vessel in the coronation of the but, perhaps, none were more appropriato kings of Engltand and France. The vessel than the anagram made by Dr. Burney now in use in England is of the purest on the name of the hero of the Nile, just chased gold, and represents an eagle after that important victory took plaee: with exparnding wings standing on a pe- HORATIO NELsoN, " Ici7mo est ac Nile." destl, lnear seven inches in height, and They are frequently employed slttirically, weighing about ten ounces. It was de- orjestingly, with little aim beyond that posited in the Tower by the gallant Ed- of exercising the ingenuity of their anward, surnamlcd the Black Prince. thors. AM'ULET, a superstitious charm or ANALEC'TA, a collection of extracts preservative against mischief, witchcraft, from different works. or diseases. They were made of stone, ANAL'OGY, a certain relation and metal, animals, and, in fact, of every- agreement between two or more things, thing which fancy or caprice suggested. which in other respects are entirely Sometimes they consisted of words, charac- different. Or it may be defined an imters, and sentences, ranged in a particular portant process of reasoning, by which order, and engraved upon wood, lPe., and we infer similar effects and phenomena worn about the neck, or some other part from similar causes and events. A great 2 18 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERIkTURE [AND part of our philosophy has no other foun- separated, or divided; but the word is most dation than analogy. usually intended to express the cutting ANAL'YSIS, among grammarians, is off a person from the privileg'e, of societhe explaining the etymology, construe- ty, and from communion with the faithful. tion, and other properties of words. — AN'CHOR, in Christian art, is the ANALYSIS is also used for a brief, but me- symbol of hope, firmness, tranquillity, thodical illustration of the principles of a patience and faith. Among those sa;intt, science; in which sense it is nearly synon- of whom the anchor is an attribute, are ymous with what is termed a synopsis. Clement of Rome and Nicolas of Bari. ANAMINE'SIS, in rhetoric, an enume- AN'CHORITE, more properly, anaration of the things treated of before; choret. a hermit, or person who has rewhich is a sort of recapitulation. tired from the world with the purpose of ANAMORPIO'SIS, in perspective and devoting himself entirely to meditation painting, the representation of some and prayer. Such was the case with image, either on a plane or curved sur- many of the early Christians, beginning face, deformed, or distorted; which in a perhaps with such as fled from the percertain point of view appears regular and secutions of Decius and Diocletian, and in just proportion. retired into forests and deserts, at first AN'APEST, a toot in Greek and Latin with a view to security merely, and metre, consisting of two short syllables afterwards continued, from religious mofollowed by a long, being the name of the tives, the mode of life they had there dactyle. adopted. ANAPII'ORA, a rhetorical figure, AN'CIENTS, in the more general which consists in the repetition of the sense of the term, means those who same word or phrase at the beginning of lived long ago, or before the /lMo'derns. several successive sentences. But the term is now usually employed to AN'ARCHY, a society without a gov- designate the Greeks and Romans; and ernment, or where there is no supreme if any other people be meant, it is cusgovernor. tomary to specify them, as the ancient ANASTA'SIA, ST., is represented with Germans, the ancient Jews, &c. the attributes, a stake and fagots; and ANCY'LE, or ANCILE, in antiquity, with the palm as a symbol of her martyr- a small brazen shield which fell, as was dom. pretended, from heaven in the reiogn of ANASTAT'IC, a word derived from the Numa Pompilius, when a voice was Greeksignifying"-'eviving." Arecently heard, declaring that Rome should be invented process, by which any number mistress of the world as long as she of copies of a printed page of any size, a should preserve this holy buckler. wood-cut, or a line-engraving, can be ob- ANDAN'TE, in music, the Italian tained. The process is based upon the term for exact and just time in playing, law of " the repulsion of dissinilar, and so as to keep the notes distinct from each the mutual attraction of similar parti- other.-ANDANTE LARGO, signifies that cles," and is exhibited by oil, water, and the music must be slow, the time exactly gum arabic. The printed matter to be observed, and each note distinct. copied is first submitted to the action of ANDANTI'NO, in music, an Italian diluted nitric acid, and, while retaining a word for gentle, tender; somewhat slower portion of the moisture, is pressed upon a than andante. sheet of polished zinc, which is imme- ANDREW, ST., the patron saint of diately attacked by the acid in every Scotland; also of the renowned order part except that covered by the printing- of the Golden Fleece of Burgundy, and of ink, a thin fin of which is left on the the order of the Cross of St. Audrew of zinc; it is then washed with a weak solu- Russia. The principal events in the life tion of gum arabic; an inked-roller being of this apostle chosen for representation now passed over the zinc-plate, the ink by the Christian artists are, his Flagellaadheres only to that portion which was tion, the Adoration of the Cross, and his inked in the original; the impressions are Martyrdom. tHe is usually depicted as then taken from the zinc-plate, in the an old man, with long white hair and same manner as in lithographic printing. beard, holding the Gospel in his right ANAS"TROPHE, in rhetoric, the in- hand, and leaning upon a trainsverse cross, version of words in a sentence, or the formed sometimes of planks; at others, placing them out of their natural order. of the rough branches of trees. This ANATH'EMA, among ecclesiastical form of cross is peculiar to this saint, and writers, imports whatever is set apart, hence it is termed St. Andrew's Cross. ANT] AND TlE FINE ARTS. 19 AN'GEL, the name given to those order to clear up some passage or draw spiritual, intelligent beings, who are sup- some conclusion from it. posed to execute the will of God, in the AN'NUAL, an epithet for whatever government of the world. It is some- happens every year, or lasts a year: times used in a figurative, and at others thus we say, the annual motion of the earth, in a literal sense.-ANGEL, the name of annual plants, annual publications, &c. an ancient gold coin in England, so called ANN U'ITY, the periodical payment of from the figure of an angel upon it. It money, either yearly, half-yearly, or weighed four pennyweights. quarterly; for a determinate period, as AN'GLICISM, an idiom of speech, or ten, fifty, or a hundred years; or for an manner peculiar to the English. indeterminate period, dependent on a ANOGLO-SAX'ON, the name of the certain contingency, as the death of a people called Angles, who with the Sax- person; or foi an indefinite term, in ons and some other German tribes, flour- which latter case they are called perpetished in Englaud after it was abanldoned ual annuities. As the probability of the by the Romans, about the year 400; and duration of life at every age is known, who introduced their language, govern- so annuities may be purchased for fixed ment,,nd customs.-ANGLO-SAXON LAN- sums during the life of the party. An GUAGE. After the conquest of England annuity is said to be in armrear when it by the Angles and Saxons, the Saxon be- continues unpaid a.fter it is due, and in came the prevalent tongue of that coun- reversion, when it is to fall to the extry; and after the Norman conquest, the pectant at some future time. English language exhibits the peculiar AN'NULET, in architecture, a small case, where languages of two different square member in the Doric capital, unstocks are blended into one idiom, which, der the quarter-round. Also a narrow by the cultivation of a free and active na- flat moulding, encompassing other parts tion and highly-gifted minds, has grown of the column, as in the base, capital, to a powerful, organized whole. &c., which is variously termed fillet, ANT'IMA, among divines and natural- cincturc, <4c. ists, denotes the soul, or principle of life ANNUNCIATION, the delivery of t in animnals.-ArNIMA MoUNDI, a phrase message, particularly the angel's mesformerly used to denote a certain pure sage to the Virgin Mary, concerning the ethereal substance or spirit which is dif- birth of our Saviour. The festival in fused through the mass of the world, or- commlemoration of that event is called ganizing and actuating the whole and the Lady-day, and falls on the 25th of M3arch. different parts. ANOM'ALOUS, in a general sense, is AN'IMAL, a living body endued with applied to whatever is irregular, or desensation and spontaneous motion. In viates from the rule observed by other its limited sense, any irrational creature, things of the like nature.-A1NOMALOUS as distinguished from man. VERBS, in grammnar, such as are irreguAN/IMUS, in metaphysics, the mind or larly formed, of which the Greek lanreasoning faculty, in distinction from guage furnishes numerous examples. ania, the being or faculty in which the ANON'YMOUS, in literature, works faculty exists. published without the name of the author. AN'NALS, a species of history, in Those published under a false name are which events are related in the exact termed Pseudonymsous. The best cataorder of chronology. They differ from logue of anonymous works is that of perfect history in this, that annals are a Barbier (Dictionsnaire des (Eruvraces bare relation of what passes every year, Anonymes et Pseudonymnes, 3 vols. Paris, as a journal is of what passes every day; 1822-1824.) There is also the great whereas history relates not only the work of Placcius, TTheatrstm A1non7ymotTansactions themselves, but also the rumn et Pseudonyamorizt, t. fol. Hamcauses, motives, and springs of actions. burg, 1708. AN'NO DOMINI, abbreviated A.D., ANTA, J. plur., in architecture, a the year of our Lord; the computation pilaster or square projection attached to of time from our Saviour's incarnation. a wall. When they are detached fro It is used as the date for all public deeds, the wall, Vitruvius calls theml parastato. and writings in England and this coun- They are not usually diminished, even try, on which account it is called the when accompanying columns from whose "Vulgar Era." capitals, in all Greek works, they vary. ANNOTA'TION, a brief commentary, ANTANACLA/SIS, in rhetoric, a figor remark upon a book or writing, in ure which repeats the samie word, but in 1 20 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [ANT a different sense; as, "dum vivimus, vi- as animals. Abhorrent and unnatural vamus." as the practice is, there is no doubt that ANTECEDENT, in grammar, the whole nations have been addicted to this word to which a relative refers: thus, practice, and that it still prevails in the " God whom we adore," the word God is South Seas. the antecedent to the relative owhom.- AN'TI, a Greek particle, which enters ANTECEDENT, in logic, is the first of the into the composition of several words, two propositions in an enthymeme. both Latin, French, and English, and ANTECLE'MA, in oratory, is where signifies opposite or contrary to, as in the whole defence of the person accused, antiscorbutics. turns on criminating the accuser. ANTI-CLI'MAX, in literary composiANTEDILU'VIAN, whatever existed tion and oratory, when a writer or speaker before the deluge; thus, the inhabitants suddenly descends from the great to the of the earth from Adam to Noah are little. called the antediluvians. AN'TIDOTE, a counter-poison, or any ANTEPENUL'TIMA, ANTEPEN- medicine generally that counteracts the UL'TIMATE, or ANTEPENULT', in effects of what has been swallowed. grammar, the third syllable of a word ANTIL'OGY, an inconsistency between from the end, or the last syllable but two. two or more passages of the same book. ANTEPOSI'TION, a grammatical fig- ANTIMETAE'OLE, in rhetoric, a seture, whereby a word, which by the ordi- ting of two things in opposition to each nary rules of syntax ought to follow an- other. other, comes before it. ANTIMETATIV'ESIS, in rhetoric, an AN'TIHEM, a piece of music performed inversion of the parts or members of an in cathedral service by choristers who sing antithesis. alternately. This manner of singing is ANTIPIHO'NA, or ANTIPH'ONY, in very ancient in the church; some suppose music, the answer made by one choir to it to have descended from the practice of another, when the psalm or anthem is the earliest Christians, who, according to sung verse for verse alternately. Pliny, were accustomed to sing their ANTIP-I'RASIS, in rhetoric, a figure Hymn to Christ in parts or by turns. of speech, or kind of irony, whereby we ANTIOL'OGY, a collection of choice say a thing by denying what we ought poems, particularly a collection of Greek rather to affirm it to be; as when we say, epigrams so called. The word in its "he is no fool," we mean "he is a man original sense simply means a collection of sense." of flowers. AN'TIQUARY, a person who studies ANTHONY, ST., the events in the life and searches after monuments and reof this saint form a very important class mains of antiquity. There were forof subjects in Christian Art. Among the merly in the chief cities of Greece and most frequent are his Temptation, and Italy, persons of high distinction called his Meeting with Saint Paul. St. An- antiquaries, who made it their business thony has several distinctive attributes to explain the ancient inscriptions, and by which he is easily recognized: as the give every other assistance in their founder of monachism he is depicted in a power to strangers who were lovers of monk's habit and cowl, bearing a crutch that kind of learning.-The monks who in the shape of a T, called a tace, as a were employed in making new copies of token of his age and feebleness, with a old books were formerly called antiquabell suspended to it, or in his hand, to'ii. scare away the evil spirits by which he ANTI'QUE, in a restricted sense, was persecuted; a firebrand in his hand, pieces of ancient art, and by artists usnwith flames at his feet, a black hog, ally confined to such as were made by the representing the demons Gluttony and Greeks and Romans of the classical age. Sensuality, under his feet; sometimes a ANTIQUITIES, all such documents devil is substituted for the hog. of ancient history as industrious and ANTHROPOLOGY, the science which learned men have collected; genealogies, treats of human nature, either in a inscriptions, monuments, coins, names, physical or an intellectual point of view. etymologies, archives, mechanical instruANTHROPOMORIIPHITE, onewhoas- ments, fragments of history, &c. Ancribes a human figure and a bodily form tiquities form a very extensive science, to God. including an historical knowledge of the ANTHIROPOPIAGI, or cannibals ancient edifices, magistrates, habiliments, persons who eat the flesh of men as well manners, customs, ceremonies, religious APO1 AND THE FINE ARTS. 21 worship, and other objects worthy of cu- to the children of the prince who cnriosity, of all the principal nations of the joys it. earth. In England, there are British, AP'ATHY, a term expressive of an Roman, Saxon. and Norman antiquities, utter privation of passion, and an insenmany of which are highly interesting, sibility of pain. Thus, the Stoics affected and serve to throw a light on the man- an entire apathy, so as not to be ruffled, ners and customs of the people. or sensible of pleasure or pain. ANTIS'TPT OPIE, the alternate verse APIIiERE'SIS, in grammar, the takin ancient poetry, which was divided into ing away a letter or syllable from a the strophe and antistrophe. In reciting word. their odes the chorus turned from the left API'OPRISM, a maxim or principle of to the right at the antistrophe, and vice a science; or a sentence which compreversa. hends a great deal in a few words. The ANTITII'HESIS, in rhetoric, a figure aphoristic method has great advantages, of speech, by which two things are at- as containing much matter in a small tempted to be made more striking, by compass; sentiments are here almost as being set in opposition to each other. numerous as expressions; and doctrines "Antitheses, well managed," says Bo- may be counted by phrases. hours, " give infinite pleasure in the pe- APLUS'TRE, or APLUS'TRIA, in the rusal of works of genius; they have naval architecture.of the ancients, an nearly the same effect in language as ornament resembling a shield fixed in lights and shadows in painting, which a the poop of a ship, in which case it difgood artist distributes with propriety: or fered from the acrostolium. the flats and sharps in music, which are APOC'ALYPSE, the Greek name of mingled by a skilful master." The the last book of the New Testament, so beautiful antithesis of Cicero, in his called from its containing revelations second Catilinarian, may serve as an ex- concerning several important doctrines ample: " On the one side stands mod- of Christianity. esty, on the other impudence; on the APOC'OPE, in grammar, a figure by one fidelity, on the other deceit; here which the last letter or syllable of a word piety, there sacrilege; here continency, is cut off. there lust," &c. APOC'RYPIIA, in theology, certain AN'TITYPE, among ecclesiasticalwri- books of doubtful authority which are not ters, denotes a type corresponding to received into the canons of holy writ. some other type or figure. In the Greek APODIC'TICA, in rhetoric, an epithet church it is also an appellation given to for arguments which are fitted for provthe symbols of bread and wine in the ing the truth of any point. sacrament. APODIOX'IS, in rhetoric, a figure ANTONOMA'SIA, a mode of speaking whereby we either pass over a thing in which a person is addressed or de- slightly, or reject it as unworthy of scribed by some appropriate or official notice. designation, but not by his surname; as, APODIX'IS, in rhetoric, an evident in the House of Lords, "the noble lord," demonstration. in the House of Commons, "the honora- APODOSIS, in rhetoric, the latter ble gentleman." part of a complete exordium, or applicaANU'BIS, in mythology, an Egyptian tion of a simile. deity. The seventh, according to the AP'OGRAPI, a copy or transcript of astronomical Theology, of their eight some book or writing. It is opposed to gods of the first class. The Greeks iden- autograph. tified him with Mercury. In Egyptian APOLLINA'RES LU'DI, or APOLpainting and sculpture he is represented LINA'IAN GAMES, in Roman anas a man with the head of a dog. tiquity, were instituted u. c. 542. They A'ORIST, that inflection of the verb were celebrated in honor of Apollo, by a which leaves the time of the action denoted decree of the senate, in consequence of a uncertain. prediction of the prophet Marcius relaAP'ANAGE, an allowance to younger tive to the battle of Cannas. branches of a sovereign house out of the APOL'LO, or PHCEBUS, a heathen revenues of the country; generally to- divinity, son of Jupiter and Latona, in gether with a grant of public domains. Homeric times the god of archery, proA district with the right of ruling it, phecy, music, and medicine. Later poets when thus conferred, is termed paragium. represent him also as the god of day and An apanage, in ordinary cases, descends the sun. The statues of Apollo represent 22 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE LAPP a young man in the perfection of manly A POSTERIO'RI, in logic, a mode of streingth and beauty, with unshorn curling reasoning from the effect to the cause. locks, and a bow or lyre in his hand. APOS'TLE, a person sent forth upon APOL'LO BEL'VIDERE, an ancient any business: hence applied, by way of marble statue of Apollo most exquisitely eminence, to the twelve elect disciples of finished. It was found in the ruins of Christ, who were sent forth by him to Antium, in the 15th century, and placed convert and baptize all nations. In the in the Belvidere gallery of the Vatican first century, the apostles assumed the palace at Rome.! highest office in the church; and the APOLLO'NIA, in antiquity, an an- term apostle during that period was nual festival celebrated by the JEgialians equivalent to bishop in after-times. in honor of Apollo. APOS'TLES' CREED, a confession APOLLONIA, ST., OF ALEXANDRIA, of faith, supposed anciently to have been the events in the life of this saint form drawn up by the apostles themselves, the subjects of some fine pictures, of and deriving the title "Creed" from the which one of the best, painted by Domen- word with which it begins in Latin ichino, is in the Gallery of the Library (credo, I believe). With respect to its at Mayence. She is usually represented antiquity, it may be affirmed, that the as holding the martyr's palm in one greater part of its clauses is quoted by hand, and a pair of pincers, with a tooth, the apostolic father Ignatius; and that in the other, illustrating her martyrdom, the whole. as it now stands in the liturgy, during which all her teeth were pulled out. is to be found in the works of St. AmAP'OLOGUE, a poetical fiction, the brose, in the fourth century. purpose of which is the improvement of APOSTOL'IC FATHERS, the wrimorals. Some writers are of opinion, ters of the Christian Church, who lived that this term ought to be confined to in the apostolic age, or were luring any that species of fable in which brute or part of their lives contemporary with the inanimate things, as beasts or flowers, apostles. They are five: Clement of are made to speak; but this distinction, Rome, Barnabas, HIernmas, Ignatius, and so far from being followed, is generally Polycarp; of whom the last suffered marreversed. It is, in reality, more usual tyrdom, A.D. 147. to give the name of apologue where APOS'TROPHE, in rhetoric, a figure human actors only are introduced. of speech by which the orator or writer APOL/OGY, in literature, a defence, suddenly breaks off from the previous or answer to an accusation. The two method of his discourse, and addresses pieces of Xenophon and Plato, each com- himself in the second person to some monly termed Apologia Socratis, differ person, or thing, absent or present. in character: the first being a defence APOTHE'OSIS, deification, or the supposed to be pronounced by the phi- ceremony of placing among the gods, losopher himself; the last, a narration of which was frequent amnong the ancients his last hours and discourses. Treatises It was one of the doctrines of Pythagoras, in defence of the Christian religion, in which he had borrowed from the Chalits early period, were denominated Apolo- dees, that virtuous persons, after their gies by their writers; as those of Justin death, were raised into the order of the Martyr, Tertullian, and others, both pre- gods. And hence the ancients deified all served and lost. The title has been re- the inventors of things useful to mankind, tained by some writers in modern times: and who had done any important service as by Robert Barclay, in his Apology of to the commonwealth. This honor was Quakerism, and by Bishop Watson, in also conferred on several of the Roman his Apologies for the Bible and for Chris- emperors at their decease. tianity. APOT'OME, in music, the difference APOPII'ASIS, a figure of speech in between the greater and the less semiwhich the orator briefly alludes to, or tone, being expressed by the ratio of 128 seems to decline stating, that which he to 125. wishes to insinuate. APPEL'LATIVE, in grammar, a noun AP'OPHTHEGM, or AP'OTHEGM, a or name applicable to a whole species or short, sententious. and instructive remark, kind, as, a man, a horse. especially if pronounced by a person of APPENDIX, in literature, a treatise distinguished character. or supplement added at the end of a APOPHIYGE, in architecture, the part work, to render it more complete. of a column where it springs out of its APPOGIATU'RA, in music, a small base. note inserted by the practical musician, ARC] AND THE FINE ARTS. 23 between two others, a.t some distance; piers of arcades may be decorated with or a note inserted by way of embellish- columns, pilasters, niches, and apertures mnent. of different forms. The arches themAPPOSI'TION, in grammar, the pla- selves are turned sometimes with rockcing two or more substantives together, worked and sometimes with plain rustic without any copulative between them, as arch stones or voussoirs, or with a moulWellington, the conqueror. ded archivolt, springing from an impost APPRlEIIEN'SION, in logic, the first or platband, and sometimes,-though that or most simple act of the mind, whereby is not to be recommended,-from columns. it perceives, or is conscious of some idea: The key-stones are generally carved in it is more usually called perception. the form of a console, or sculptured with A'PRIL, the fourth month of the some device. year. The name is probably derived ARCA'NUM, among physicians, any from Lat. aperire, to open, either from remedy, the preparation of which is inthe opening of the buds, or of the bosom dustriously concealed, in order to enhance of the earth in producing vegetation. its value. A PPR10oRI, a mode of reasoning from ARCH, a concave building with a the cause to the effect. mould bent in form of a curve, erected to AQUATIN'TA, a style of engraving, support some structure. Arches are either or rather etching, by which an effect is circular, elliptical or straight, as they produced similar to that of a drawing in are improperly called by workmen. ElIndian ink. liptical arches consist of a semi-ellipsis, AQ'UEDUCT, a conduit of water, is a and have commonly a key-stone and construction of stone or timber, built on imposts; they are usually described by uneven ground, to preserve the level of workmen on three centres. Straight water, and convey it, by a canal, from arches are those used over doors and one place to another. There are aque- windows, and having plain straight ecdes, ducts under ground, and others raised both upper and under, which are parallel, above it supported by arches. The Ro- but both the ends and joints point towards mans were very magnificent in their a centre. The term arch is peculiarly aqueducts. In the time of the Emperor used for the space between the two piers Nerva there were nine, which emptied of a bridge, for the passages, of water, themselves through 13,594 pipes of an vessels, &c. —TRIUMPHAL ARCH, a stately inch diameter. That constructed by gate of a semicircular form, adorned with Loluii XIV. for carrying the Bucq to sculpture, inscriptions, &c. erected in Versailles, is 7000 flithoms long. The honor of those who had deserved a triCroton aqueduct, 40 miles long, supply- umph.-ARCi, as a syllable prefixed to ingl the city of New York with water, is another word, denotes the highest degree probably the greatest work of the kind of its kind, whether go.od or bad; as in ancient or modern times. archan.gel, archduke, archbishop, archAR'ABESQUE, or MORESQUE, a fiend, &c. Many of the highest offices in style of ornament in painting and sculp- different empires have this syllable preture, so called from the Arabians and fixed to them. Moors, who rejected the representation ARCHI-EOL'OGY, in general, means of animals. the knowledge of antiquity, but in a AR'ABIC FIGURES, the numeral narrowersense, thescience which inquires characters now used in our arithmetic, into and discovers the mental life of anwhich were borrowed from the Arabians, cient nations from their monuments, and introduced into England about the whether literary, artistical, or mechanieleventh century. cal. Artistic Archeology treats of reARABO-TEDES'CO, a style of archi- mains as works of the Fine Arts, in those tecture, in which the Moorish and Gothic two nations which were models in Art, the are combined. Greeks and Romans; besides these the arA'RZEOSTYLE, in architecture, a sort tistic productions of the Indians, Egypofintercolumniation, in which the columns tians, Babylonians, and Persians, take are at a distance from each other. an honorable place in the Archaeology of AR'BOR SCIEN'TI, a general dis- Art. tribution or scheme of science, or knowl- AR'CIAISM, any antiquated word or edge. phrase. The use of archaisms, though ARCADE', in architecture, a series of generally objectionable, occasionally add arches crowned with a roof or ceiling, to the beauty and force of a sentence. with a walk or passage thereunder. The ARCIBISH'OP, a metropolitan pre 24 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [ARC late, having several suffragan bishops and designs for edifices, conducts the work, under him. In England there are two and directs the artificers employed in it. archbishops-the archbishop of Canter- AR'CIHITECTURE, thwart of inventbury, who is primate of all England; and ing and drawing designs for buildings, or the archbishop of York, who is only the science which teaches the method of styled primate of England. The first constructing any edifice for use or ornaest:blishment of archbishops in Eng- ment. It is divided into civil, military, land, according to Bede, was in the time and naval; according as the erections of Lucius, said to be the first Christian are for civil, military, or naval purking in Britain; but the first archbishop poses; and for the sake of convenience, of' Canterbury was Austin, appointed other divisions are sometimes introduced. A.D. 593, by Ethelbert, when he was con- Architecture appears to have FiA 1 verted. An archbishop consecrates the been among the earliest in- inferior diocesans, as those ordain priests ventions. and its works have -- and deacons, and when invested with his been commonly regulated by dignity, he is said to be enthroned; a some principle of hereditary term which probably originated with imitation. Whatever rude that period of English history, in which structure the climate and the archbishop of Canterbury had some materials of any country of the privileges of absolute royalty. have obliged its early inAR'CI DEiACON, an ecclesiastical of- habitants to adopt for their ficer, next in rank below a bishop. Ev- temporary shelter, the same ery diocese has one, and the generality structure, with all its promimore. Tlhey are usually appointed by nentfeatures, has been aftertheir diocesans; but their authority is wards in some measure kept independent. They visit the clergy, and up by their refined and opuhave courts for the punishment of offen- lentposterity. To Greece we are indebted ders by spiritual censures, and for hearing for the three principal orders of architecall other causes that fall within ecclesias- ture, the Doric, (Fig. 1.) the Ionic, (Fig. tical cognizance. 2.) and the Corinlthianz, (Fig. 3.); Rome ARC.IERY, the art of shooting with added two others, both formed out of the the bow and arrow. Since the introduc- former, the Tusccan, (Fig. 4 ) and the tion of gunpowder, the arrow has ceased Composite, (Fig. 5.) Each of Fi. 2 to be employed as an offensive weapon: these has a particular expresbut in former times it was reckoned of sion; so that a building, or the utmost importance to the military different parts of a building, o i strength of England. The practice of maybe rude, solid, neat, deliarchery was followed both as a recre- cate, or gay, accordingly as ation and a service, and Edward III. the Tuscan, the Doric, the prohibited all useless games that inter- Ionic, the Corinthian, or the fered with the practice of it on holidays Composite are employed. The and other intervals of leisure. By an columns of these several orders act of Edward IV. every man was to have are easily distinguishable to a bow of his own height, to be made of common observers, by reason yew, hazel, or ash, &c.; and mounds of of the ornaments that are peearth were to be made in every township culiar to their capitals; but for the use of the inhabitants. Indeed, the scientific difference conit appears from the use made of the bow sists in their proportions. Fig. 3. by the English at the battles of Cressy, The Tuscan order is characAgincourt, and Poictiers, that their claim terized by its simplicity and to be considered the best of modern strength. It is devoid of all archers can scarcely be disputed. ornament. The Doric (Fig. 1.) A1RCHETYPE, the first model of a is enlivened with ornaments work, which is copied after to make in the frize and capital. -7 another like it. Among minters it is The Ionic is ornamented with used for the standard weight by which the volute scroll, or spinal the others are adjusted.-The archetopal horn: its ornaments are in a world, among Platonists, means the style of composition between world as it existed in the idea of God, the plainness of the Doric, before the visible creation. and the richness of the CorinAR/'CHITECT, one who is skilled in thian. The Corinthian order architecture. The architect forms plans is known by its capital being _____________ _____________________ |~~~~~ I..., C: E I T... C T,~ 17 A (Intel icr of gr t3C e Churcn, N. Y!' 1":t lil IIl, (intileor, lf, Y, Beru i /i j /Jlj U1 x~~ii~~~i I~~~~i~~il II iiiiiiie A I T E C T U P Er jl (Int rio ofGra e C urc, N 7, ARG] AND THE FINE ARTS. 25 Fir. 4. adorned with two sorts of fices the Saxon and Gothic styles still leaves; between these rise maintain the pre-eminence. little stalks, of which the ARCIIITRAVE, in architecture, that volutes that support the part of a column, or order of columns, highest part of the capital, which lies immediately upon the capital; aLre formed. The Composite being the lowest member of the entabla_ is nearly the same as the ture. Over a chimney, this member is Corinthian, with an addition called the mantle-piece; and over doors of the Ionic volute. In their or windows, the hyperthyron. private buildings the Ro- AR'CIIVAULT, in architecture, the manz architects followed the inner contour of an arch, or a frame set Greeks; but in their public off with mouldings, running over the faces elifices they far surpassed of the arch stones, and bearing upon the them in grandeur. During imposts. the dark ages which followed ACIIIVES, ancient records, or charFig.. p the destruction ofthe Roman ters which contain titles, pretensions, __-._ empire, the classic architec- privileges, and prerogatives of a com=^-^^r hSr ture of Greece and Rome munity, family, city, or kingdlon. T: was lost sight of, but ws AR'CHON, the chief magistrates of the again revivedc by the Ital- city and commonwealth of Athens. ailns at the time of the res- ARE'NA, in Roman antiquity, that toration of letters. The part of the amphitheatre where the GothJic style was so called gladiators fought; so called from its l because it was first used by being always strewed with sand, to conthe Visigoths; but at first ceal from the view of the people, the it was vastly inferior to tha.t blood spilt in the combat. which we now call Gothic, AREOP'AGUS, a sovereign tribunal and which exhibits grandeur at Athens, famous for the justice and and splendor, with the most impartiality of its decrees. It was in the accurate execution. The town, on a rock or hill opposite to the Saxon and Norman styles were so called citadel. There are some remains of the because they were respectively used by areopagus still existing in the middle of the Saxons before the Conquest, and by the temple of Theseus, which was heretothe Normans after, in the building of fore in the middle of the city, but is now churches. The Saxon style was dis- without the walls. tinguished by the semicircular arch, which AR'GONAUTS, in Grecian antiquity, they seem to have taken partly from the a company of illustrious Greeks, who Romans, and partly from their ancestors embarked along with Jason in the ship on the continent. The Norman was dis- Argo, on an expedition to Colchis with a tinguished by the following particulars: design to obtain the golden fleece. Some the walls were very thick, generally with- writers imagine, and foremost among out buttresses; the arches, both within them is Sir Isaac Newton, that this exand without, semicircular, and supported pe lition was really an embassy sent by by very plain and solid columns. These the Greeks, during the intestine divisions two styles continued to be the prevailing of Egypt, in the reign of Amenophis, to modes of building in England until the persuade the nations upon the coasts of reign of Henry II., when a new mode the Euxine and Mediterranean seas to was introduced, which was called moder n uake that opportunity of shaking off the Gothic. Whether this was purely a de- yoke of Egypt, which Sesostris had laid viation from the other two modes, or upon them: and that fetching the golden whether it was derived from any foreign fleece was only a pretence to cover their source, is not known. It is, however, true design. supposed to be of Saracenic extraction, AR'GUMENT, in rhetoric and logic, and to have been introduced by the an inference drawn from premises, the crucmders. The style is distinguished by truth of which is indisputable, or at least its numerous buttiesses, lofty spires and highly probable. In reasoning, Mr. pinnacles, large and ramified windows, Locke observes that men ordinarily use with a profusion of ornaments throughout four sorts of arguments. The first is to In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries allege the opinions of men, whose parts the taste for Greek and Roman architec- and learning, eminency, power, or some ture revived, and brought the five orders other cause, have gained a name, and again into use, although for sacred edi- settled their reputation in the common 26 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [ARR esteem, with some kind of authority; AR'MY, in a general sense, is taken this mary be called argumzentru ad for the whole armed force raised for the vereeeun.diamn. Secondly, another way is defence of the country by land. In a to require the adversaries to admit what limited sense, it denotes a large body of they allege as a proof, or to assign a soldiers, consisting of horse and foot, better; this he calls argumeentucm ad completely armed, and provided with arignooalntiam. A third way is, to press tillery, ammunition, provisions, &G., una mtn with consequences, drawn from der a comm mnder-in-chief, h-avin- lionhis own principles or concessions; this is tenant-generals, major-generals, brig:known by the name of argurmenztiun ad diers, and other officers under him. An hominemn. Fourthly, the using proofs army is generally divided into a certain drawn from any of the foundations of number of corps, each consisting of brigknowledge or probability; this he calls ades, regiments, battalions. an d squ:darc-uzmentumn ad.jucdiciuom; and observes, rons; when in the field, it is formed into thalt it is the only one of all the four, lines; the first line is called the vanthat brings true instruction with it, and guard, the second the main body. the advances us in our way to knowledge.- third the rearguard, or body of reserve. ARGUMENT, in literature, denotes also The middle of each line is occupied by the abrlidgment, or heads of a book, his- the foot; the cavalry forms the right and tory, chapter, &c. left win of each line, and sometimes ARIO'SO, in musical composition, the squadrons of' horse are placed in the inItalian word for the time of a common air. tervals between the battalions. The nsaARISTOTE'LIAN, something relating teriel of an army, as the French term it, to Aristotle: thus we read of the Aris- consists of the horses,.stores, provisions, totelia.n philosophy, school, &c. The and everything necessary for service. Aristotelians were also designated Peri- Arniies are moreover distingnished acpatetics. and their philosophy long pre- cording to their service, into bloccadins, vailed in the schools, till it gave place to armzy, army of observation, army of rethe Newtonian. serve, (Cc. AR'MOR, a name for all such habili- ARPEG'GIO, in music, is a term imments as serve to defend the body from plying that the tones should be sounded wounds, especially of darts, a sword, a distinctly, as they are heard on the harp. lance, &c. A complete suit of armor an- — ARPEGGIO ACCOMiPANIMENT consists ciently consisted of a casque or helm, a chiefly of the notes of the several chords gorget, cuirass, gauntlets, tasses, brassets, taken in returning successions. cuishes, and covers for the legs, to which ARRANGE'MENT, in the plastic Arts, the spurs were fastened. This they called and in painting, Invention and Arrangearmor cap-a-pie; and was Worn by cava- ment are the groundwork of every comliers and men-at-arms. The infantry position. ARqANC-EMENT is the plcacing had only part of it, viz., a pot or head- together of parts in a manner conformapiece, a cuirass and tasses,; but all of ble to the character and aim of the work; them made light. Lastly, the horses it relates entirely to the form, in which themselves had their armor, wherewith the subject must be worked out so as to to cover the head and neck. Of all this produce an intuitive perception of its furniture of war, scarcely anything is individuality. Artistic arrangement benow retained except the cuirass. longs not only to the object as a whole, ARMOR'-BEARER, the person who but to each part specially, to groups as was formerly employed to carry the ar- well as to single figures, and to the posimor of another. tion and contrast of their limbs. In ARMS, in military phraseology, all painting, it refers to the distribution of kinds of weapons, whether used for of- colors, and the disposition of light and fence or defence.-ARMS, in a legal sense, shade, all of which require a peculiar extend to anything that a person wears artistic arrangement; light, shade, and for his own defence, or takes into his coloring, being the soul of all painting. hand, and uses, in anger, to strike or AR'RIS, in architecture, the intersecthrow at another.-ARMs denote also the tion or line formed by the meeting of the natural weapons of beasts, as claws, exterior surfaces of two bodies, answverteeth, beak, &c. ing to what is called the edge.-ARRIs ARMS, COATS OF, family insignia or FILLET, a small piece of timber, of a distinctions, which had their rise from triangular section, used in raising the the painting of the shields used in war slates against a wall that cuts obliquely before the invention of gunpowder. across the roof. AS] AND THE FINE ARTS. 27 AR'SIS and THESIS, in music, terms ART-UNIONS are societies formed for used in composition, as when a point is the encouragement of the Fine Arts by inverted or turned, it is said to move the purchase of paintings, sculptures, &c. per arsin. et thesin, that is, when it rises out of a common fund raised in small in one point and falls in another; properly shares or subscriptions; such works of speaking, it is the rise and fall of the art, or the right of selecting them, being hand in beating time. distributed by lot among the subscribers AI'T, a system of rules, serving to or members. They appear to owe their facilitate the performance of certain ac- origin to M. I-ennin, a distinguished tions; in which sense it stands opposedl anateur of Paris, who about forty years to science, or a system of merely specula- ago organized a little society for the purtive principles.-T7erms of Art, are such pose of bringing together the unsold words as are used in regard to any par- works of artists, exhibiting them, and ticular art, profession, or science. with the exhibition money, and other ARTICLE, in grammar, a particle in subscriptions, purchasing a selection from most languages, that serves to express among them, which was afterwards disthe several cases and genders of nouns, tributed by lot to the subscribers. In when the languages have not different 1816 this company merpsad into the terminations to denote the different states " Socittt des Amis des Arts." Art-Unions and circumstances of nouns. have been extensively organized in most ARTICULA'TION, in painting and of the German states. The Art-Union sculpture, the movable connection of the of Berlin was established in 1825. The bones, in the representation of which by first Art-Union formed in Great Britain the artist the greatest skill and knowl- was in Scotland, in the year 1834. The edge of anatomy is required. Art-Union of London was established in ARTIL'LERY, a collective name de- 1837, and since that period similar socienoting engines of war, but particularly ties have been established in Ireland, and cannon, mortars, and other large pieces, in many of the principal towns in England. for the discharge of shot and shells. It The American Art-Union of New York is also employed to denote the science has exhibited the most remarkable inwhich teaches all things relating to the stance of rapid growth and prosperity of artillery, as the construction of all en- any similar societies. It was founded in gines of war, the arrangement, move- 1839, and at the close of 1850 the nunmnlnt, and management of cannon and ber of members was 16,310, to whom were all sorts of ordnance, used either in the distributed as prizes, 433 paintings selectfield, or the camp, or at sieges, &c. The ed by a committee, 27 statuettes, 30 same name is also given to the troops by sets of prints, from Col. Trumbull's celewhom these arms are served, the men brated pictures of the Battle of Bunker being, in fact, subsidiary to the instru- Irill, and Death of lMontfgomery, mensurments.-Park of artillery, a place set in 30 inches by 20 inches, 50 sets of apart in a camp for the artillery, and Outlines and Sketches by Washington large fire-arms.-PTrcain of artillery, a Allston, 250 " Trumbull" medals, and 250 set or number of pieces of ordnance "Stualt" medals. mounted on carriages.-Flyina artillery, ARUNDE'LIAN MARBLES, called a sort of artillery, so called from the ce- also the Parian Chronicle, are ancient lerity with which it can be moved. Seats stones, on which is inscribed a chronicle are contrived for the men who work it, of the city of Athens, supposed to have and a sufficient force of horses is applied been engraven in capital letters in the to enable them to proceed at a gallop; island of Paros, 264 years before Christ each horse being rode bya separate driver. They take their name from the earl of AR'TIST, a proficient in the liberal Arundel, who procured them from the arts. in distinction from ARTISAN, or one East, or from his grandson, who presented whno follows one of the mechanic arts. them to the tniversity of Oxford. ARTS, in the most general sense of the ARUS'PICES, or IIARUS'PICES, an word, means any acquired skill. They order of priesthood among the Roimans, are 1usually divided into fine and useful; who pretended to foretell future events by comprising under the former, all those, inspecting the entrails of victims killed the direct object of which is not absolute in sacrifice. They were introduced by utility, as painting, sculpture, music, Romulus, and abolished by Constantine, poetry, &c., in distinction from the arts A.D. 337. called useful, or such as are essential to AS, a vei.ght used by the ancients, contrade and commerce. sisting of 12 ounces: it was also used as a 28 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [ASS coin, and as an integer divided into 12 A'SIARCII, in Grecian antiquity, a parts. governor of the provinces, who used to A'SAPI-EIS, defective utterance. preside over the public games. ASARO'TA, in antiquity, a pavement ASIDE', a term in plays for what is to or floor laid in diinig-rooms, and con- be said on the stage without being heard posed of very small tiles inlaid in differ- by the other performers. cnt colors. ASINA'RIA, a festival anciently held ASBESTOS, or ASBES'TUS, an in- in Sicily, in commemoration of the vicfltammable mineral substance, of which tory obtained over the Athenians, when antianthiuts is one of its principal species. Demosthenes and Nicias were taken This consists of elastic fibres, somewhat prisoners; and was so called from the unctuous to the touch, and slightly trans- river Asinarius, near which it was lucent. The ancients manufactured cloth fought. from the fibres of the asbestos for the pur- AS'PECT, in architecture, the direcpose, as is said, of wrapping up the bodies tion towards the point of the compass in of the dead when exposed on the funeral which a building is placed. The aspectus pile; it being incombustible inits nature. is also used by Vitruvius to denote the ASCEND'ANT, in architecture, an or- external distribution of a temple. Thus nament in masonry or joiner'swork, which he describes seven sorts of aspects of borders the three sides of doors, windows, temples. and chimneys. ASPIIAL'TIM, a bituminous or inASCET'LCS, in ecclesiastical history, flammable substance, found in abundance such Christians in the primitive church in different countries, especially near the as inured themselves to great degrees of Dead Sea, and in Albania; but nowhere abstinence and fasting, in order to subdue in such quantities as in the island of their passions. In short, every kind of Trinidad, where there is a large plain of uncommon piety laid claim to the name it, called the Tar Lake, which is three ascetic. miles in circumference and of an unASCLE'PIA, a Grecian festival, held known depth. It is also found in France, in honor of iEsculapius. It was also Switzerland, and some other parts of called the sacred contest, because poets Europe. and musicians contended for victory AS'PIRATE, in grammar, a character there. in the Greek (marked thus,') to denote ASCLEPIADIE'AN VERSE, a kind that the vowel must be sounded with a of poetic measure socalledfrom Eisclepias, breathing. In English, the letter h is the inventor of it. called aspirate, when it is sounded, in disASCO'LIA, in Grecian antiquity, a tinction to h mute. festival celebrated by the Athenian hus- AS'SAI, a musical term, which indibandmen, in honor of Bacchus, to whom cates that the time must hoe accelerated they sacrificed a he-goat, because that or retarded; as allegro, quick; alle.ro animal destroys the vines. assai, still quicker; adagio assai, still ASCRIPTI'TII, in ancient history, slower. supernumerary soldiers, who served to ASSAS'SIN, one who kills another, supply the losses in the legions. Also, not in open combat, but privately, or in later times, foreigners or aliens newly suddenly. The name is generally readmitted to the freedom of a city. strained to murderers of princes or other AS-I'LAR, in architecture, common political characters; or, to speak perhaps freestones, as they are brought rough more explicitly, to where the murder is and chipped or detached from the committed from some sentiment of haquarry, of different lengths and thick- tred, but in a private and dastardly mannesses. Their usual thickness is nine ner. inches. ASSIGNAT', the name of the national ASI'LERING, in architecture, the paper currency in France during the upright timber ori quarters towards the Revolution. Four hundred millions of rooms or inwards in garrets by which this paper money were first struck off by the slope of the roof is concealed-some- the constituent assembly, with the aptimes it is only two or three feet high, probation of the king, April 19, 1790, to and sometimes the whole height of the be redeemed with the proceeds of the roon. sale of the confiscated goods of the church. ASI-I-WEDNES'DAY, the first day in They at length increased, by degrees, to Lent, so called from the ancient custom forty thousand millions, and after awhile of fasting in sackcloth and ashes. they became of no value whatever. ATH] AND TIE FINE ARTS. 29 ASSIGNEE', in law, a person ap- AS'TRAGAL, in architecture, a little pointed by another to do an act, transact round moulding, in form of a ring, sorvsome business, or enjoy a particular ing as an ornament at the tops and botprivilege.-The person to whom is con- tors of columns. mitted the management of a bankrupt's ASY'LUTM, in antiquity, a place of estate. refuge for offenders, where they were ASSIGN'MENT, in law, the act of as- screened from the hands of justice. The signing or transferring the interest or asyla of altars and temples were very property a man has in a thing; or of ancient. The Jews had their asyla; the appointing and setting over a right to most remarkable of which were, the tomanother. pie, the altar of burnt-offerings, and the ASS'ZES, a meeting of the English six cities of refuge. A similar custom royal judges, the sheriff, and juries, for prevailed both among the Greeks and the purpose of nmaking jail-deliveries, Romans, where temples, altars, and and trying causes between individuals; statues, were places of refuge for crimgenerally held twice in the year. The inals of every description. They had an assizes are general when the justices go idea, that a crinlinal who fled to the temtheir circuits, with commission to take all ple or altar, submitted his crime to the assizes, that is, to hear all causes; and punishment of the gods, and that it would they are special when special commis- be impiety in man to take vengeance out sions are granted to hear particular of their hands. In former times the like causes. immunities were granted by the pope to ASSOCIA'TION OF IDEAS, by this churches, convents, &c. phrase is understood the connection be- ASYN'DETON, in rhetoric or conlpotween certain ideas which causes them to sition, the omission of conjunctions, or succeed each other involuntarily in the other connecting particles of speech, in mind. To the wrong association of ideas order to render the sentence more lively made in our minds by customn, Mr. and impressive. Locke attributes most of the sympathies AT'ABAL, a kind of tabor used among and antipathies observable in men, which the Moors. work as strongly, and produce as regular ATARAX'IA, or AT'ARAXY, a term effects, as if they were natural, though used to denote that. callness of mind they at first had no other origin than the which secures us from all emotions arisaccidental connection of two ideas, which ing from vanity or self-conceit. In this either by the strength of the first im- consisted the summuz-nz bontm, or soverpression, or future indulgence, are so eign good of the Stoics. united, that they ever after keep corn- ATAXY, in a general sense, the want pany together in that man's mind as if of order: with physicians it signifies the they were but one idea. irregularity of crises and paroxysrms of AS'SONANCE, in rhetoric or poetry, fevers. is where the words of a phrase or verse ATE'LIER, a term derived from the have nearly the same sound, or termina- French, and applied specially to the worktion, but make no proper rhyme. room of sculptors and painters, which are ASSUMP'SIT, in law, a voluntary also called STUDIOS. The Dutch and promise by which a man binds himself to Flemish painters have delighted to porpay anythingto another, or to do anywork. tray their Ateliers..ASSUMP'TION, a festival in the A-TEM'PO, in music, Italian for'in Romish church, in honor of the miracu- time,' employed when the regular measlous ascent of the Virgin Mary into ure has been interrupted. heaven.-AsSUIMPTION, in logic, is the ATHENiE/UM, in antiquity, a public minor or second proposition in a categor- school wherein the professors of the liberal ical syllogism. It is also used for a con- arts held their assemblies, the rhetorisequence drawn from the propositions cians declaimed, and the poets rehearsed whereof an argument is composed. their performances. These places, of AS'TERISK, in diplomatics, a sign which there were a great number at in the figure of a star, frequently met Athens, were built in the manner of with in ancient Latin manuscripts, and amphitheatres, encompassed with seats seeming to serve various purposes; some- called cunei. The three most celebrated times to denote an omission, sometimes an Athensea were those at Athens, at Rome, addition, sometimes a passage which ap- and at Lyons, the second of which was peared remarkable on any account to built by the emperor Adrian. the copyist. ATIILE'TAE, in antiquity, men of re 30 CYCLOPEDA. OF LITERATURE [ATI mark able strength and agility, disciplined sisting of an infinity of parts. The first to perform the public games. This was of these theories, which is commonly disa general term, under which were compre- tinguished by the name of the ATOMIC hended wrestlers, boxers, runners, leap- PHILOSOPHY, was originated in Greece ers, throwers of the disk, and those who by Leucippus; it was supported by Dempractised in other exercises exhibited in ocritus, and subsequently improved by the Olympic, Pythian, and other solemn Epicurus and his disciples. The Epicusports, wherein there were prizes allotted reans professed to account for the origin for the conquerors. and formation of all things by supposing ATLAN'TES, TELAMONES, PERCES, that these atoms were endued with grayvGIGANTES, are the athletic male statues ity and motion, and thus come together which we find as supports of parts of an- into the different organized bodies we cient buildings; female figures for the now see. same purpose were called CARYATIDES; ATTACII'MENT, in law, the taking they are not exact imitations of nature, or apprehending a person, by virtue of a but their use is sufficiently justified by writ or precept. It differs from an arthe antique. They were only employed rest, inasmuch as it lays hold of the when pillars were too insignificant for goods, as well as the person; and also the erections; they are suitable to a rich from a distress, which seizes on lands, style, to small screens, fountains, for tenements, and goods; but an attachsupporting a gallery, and for the upper ment on the goods and body. rows of pillars: these should not appear ATTAIN'DER, the name of a law by so heavy as to excite compassion, but the which the estate and life of a traitor are expression should be one of graceful forfeited. A Bill of Attainder is a bill freedom. for attainting persons convicted of high ATLAN'TIS, an island mentioned in treason. A person attainted of high Plato's Dialogue entitled Limseus, as hay- treason forfeits all his lands, tenements, ing once existed in the Atlantic Ocean and hereditaments; his blood is coropposite to the Pillars of Hercules. It rupted, and he and his posterity rendered was said to have exceeded Europe and base; and this corruption of blood canAfrica jointly in magnitude; and after not be taken off but by act of parliament. existing for 9000 years, during which ATTAINT', in law, a writ that lies period its inhabitants extended their con- after judgment against a jury of twelve quests throughout the known quarters men that are charged with having given of the globe, to have been uprooted by a false verdict. prodigious earthquakes and inundations, AT'TIC, in architecture, a sort of and submerged in the ocean. The ques- building, in which there is no roof or tion of the reality and site of this island covering to be seen, as was usual in the has been frequently discussed by modern houses of the Athenians.-The ATTIC, or geographers. ATTIC STORY, is the upper story of a AT'LAS, in geography, a collection of house.-The ATTIC BASE is a peculiar maps; more properly, a book containing kind of column, or support, employed maps of the whole world; so called from both in the Doric and Ionic orders. Atlas, who was fabled to have borne the AT'TICISM, an elegant or conworld on his shoulders. It is also the cise form of expression. Milton, in his name of a chain of high mountains in Apology for Smectymnuus, thus uses Africa, extending from the coast of the it: "They made sport, and I laughed: Atlantic to the border of Egypt. they mispronounced, and I misliked; AT'1OM, in philosophy, a particle of and, to make up the atticism, they were matter, so minute as to admit of no di- out, and I hissed." The tern Sal Attivision. Atoms are the sinni7imca Iatiurce, cum was employed by the Romans at andI are conceived as the first principle or once to characterize the poignancy of wit component parts of all physical magni- and brilliancy of style peculiar to the tude. From. the earliest times of an- Athenian writers, and to designate the tiquity, down to the present day, two liveliness, spirituality, and refined taste opinions directly opposed to each other, of the inhabitants of that city, which have divided the world on this subject; formed the focus and central point of all the one, that matter is composed of an the eloquence and refinement of the assemblage of minute particles, or atoms, Greeks. incapable of farther division; the other AT'TITT-DE, in painting and sculpthat there is no limit to its divisibility, ture, the peoition and gesture of a figure the smallest conceivable portion still con- or statue, s) such a disposition of their AXG] AND THE FINE ARTS. 31 parts, as shall best display some grace or The regular appearance and disappearbeauty, or serve to express the action ance of the birds, and the precision that and sentiments of the person repre- is observable in almost their whole prosented. ceedings, might naturally impress an ATTOR'NEY, one who is appointed by ignorant race of men with a belief that another to do a thing in his absence. A they either inherently possessed, or from public attorney is one who acts in the time to time received, supernatural incourts of law, and is a lawyer by profes- formation. Accustomed to regulat.s by sion. these monitors their rural oceupaitions, AT'TRIBUTES, in theology, the sev- the shepherd and the husbandman were eral qualities or perfectionsof the divine led, by the most excusable association of nature, or such as we conceive to consti- ideas, to consult the same advisers in the tute the proper essence of God; as his few other concerns of life that fell to their wisdom, power, justice, goodness, &c.- lot: and on the foundation laid by superATTRIBUTES, in logic, are the predicates stition, imposture subsequently raissed a of any subject, or what may be affirmed fantastic structure. or denied of anything.-ATTRIBUTEs, in AUGUS'TAN HISTORY, a series of painting and sculpture, are symbols added history of the Roman empire from the to a figure or group, which are character- year 157 A.D. to 285 A.D., written by the istic of the principal subject. Thus the following six authors: i1. Spartianus, eagle is an attribute of Jupiter; a pea- J. Capitolinus, i1. Lampridius, Vulcecock, of Juno; a caduceus, of Mercury; tius Gallianus, Trebellius Pollio, and a club, of Hercules, &c. Flavius Vopiscus. AU/DIENCE, the persons assemubled AUGUS'TINE AGE, a term used to at a theatre, or other public place to see designate the reign of Augustus, the and hear the performlances.-AuDIENCE, most brilliant period in the literary hisa ceremony used in courts at the admis- tory of Rome. The civil wars that had sion of ambassadors or other public long distracted the Roman empire had ministers to a hearing. In England, stifled the cultivation of literature and audience is given to ambassadors in the the arts; and when the battle of Actium presence chamber; and to envoys and had terminated internal commotion, noltresidents in a gallery, closet, or any ing, it was supposed, could so effee!lually place where the king happens to be.- celebrate and adorn the restoration of AUDIENCE is also the name of an eccle- peace and the happy reign of Auus tus, siastical court, held by the archbishop of as the appearance of great national Canterbury, wherein differences upon poets, who might supply the chief defect elections, consecrations, institutions, mar- in the literature of their country, and riages, &c., are heard. create a body of classical works, in which AUDIT, a regular examination of ac- the ancient Roman traditions might he counts by officers appointed for that pur- transmitted to posterity. To accomplish pose. this object, men of genius were flattered, AU'DITOR, an officer of any corporate courted, and enriched, in an unexampled body, appointed annually to examine ac- manner, by the liberality of Augustus; counts. and after a brief interval, the verses of AUGUR, an officer among the Romans, Virgil, iHorace, Propertius, Ovid, and appointed to foretell future events, by the Tibullus resounded throughout the eachattering and feeding of birds. The pire in their respective epic, lyric, -nd aulgurs bore an augural staff or wand, as elegiac strains. The science of jurispruthe ensign of their authority, and their dence then received its full developmne t-t: dignity was so much respected, that they and the boundaries of strict law on tie were never deposed, nor any substituted one hand, and equity on the other, w:fre in their place, though convicted of the respectively ascertained. In this ae, most enormous crimes. too, Rome became the seat of universal AiUG-URY, a species of divination, or government and wealth; and so numnerthe art of foretelling future events, prac- ous and splendid were the architectural tised by the ancients. It was distin- decorations with which itwas embellislbod, guished into five sorts, viz., augury from as to justify the saying of Augustlsappearances in the heavens; from birds; that he found Rome of brick, and left it frorm chickens; from quadrupeds; and of marble. from portentous events. This, like other AUGUS'TINES, a religious order, so human errors, appears to have arisen called from St. Augustine, their founder, from ideas tolerably rational at first. and vulgarly called Austin friars, or 32 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [AI T Christian hermits. Before the Rcforma- of his own mind and heart, and the mantion they had 32 houses in England. ner in which these were swayed by the Among other things, this rule enjoins to destinies of his life; and those in which have all things in common, to receive his purpose is merely to give a sketch nothing without the leave of the superior; of the scenes and events which have ocand several other precepts relating to curred within his own experience, and of charity, modesty, and chastity. There characters withwhichhe ha:s been brounht are likewise nuns of this order. The in contact. Of the first class of iritings, Augustines are clothed in black, and at from the Confession of Saint Augustine Paris are known under the name of the down to the Confessions of Rousseau, and religious of St. Genevieve, that abbey the many works which have since been being the chief of the order. produced in imitation of the lntter, it AUGUSTIN'IANS, a religious sect of may be said that the general defact is a the 16th century, who maintained that morbid spirit of exaggeration. Of the the gates of heaven would not be opened more narrative class of memoirs, it is till the general resurrection. sufficient to say, that where the writer AU'/IC, an epithet given to certain was himself a prominent lctor in passin, officers in the ci-devant German empire, events, they are usually little better than who composed a court which decidel, apologies or self-justifications, suclh as without appeal, in all judicial processes the famous Memoirs of the Cardinal de entered in it. This court, which was Retz, and, in our own times, thii various proverbial for the slow administration fragments of autobiography which have of justice, had not only concurrent juris- been published from the hand of Nadiction with the court of the imperial poleon. clamber, but, in many cases, exclusive AUTOCI'THONS, the Greek term for jurisdiction. The right of appeal, pos- the aboriginal inhabitants of a country, sessed by the estates, existed also in regard implying that they were sprung from the to the judicial decisions of the aulic court. soil. The Athenians, whose territory AURE'OLA, in its original significa- had been held by the same race from tion, denotes a jewel, which is proposed time immemorial, chiefly on account of as a reward of victory in some public its sterility, which offered no incitement dispute. Hence, the Roman schoolmen to foreign aggression, particularly laid applied it to the reward bestowed on claim to this title, in memorial of which martyrs, virgins, &c., on account of their they wore the emblenatic grasshopper works of supererogation; and painters as part of their head-dress. use it to signify the crown of glory with AUTO-DA-FE, properly AUTO-DEwhich they adtorn the heads of saints, FE, a public solemnity held by tlhe Court confessors, &. of the Inquisition in Spain and PortuAUJ'IRIM MOSA'ICUM, a combination gal. It was a jail delivery, at which of tin and sulphur, used by statuaries extracts from the trials of offenders, and and painters, for giving a gold color to the sentences pronounced by the judges, their figures. were read; after which absolution was AUS'PICES, a kind of soothsaying conferred on those who were penitent, among the Romans, by the flight or sing- and discharged: after which, tlose coning of birds. demned to death (relaja dos) were transAUTIIENTIC MEL'ODIES, in music, ferred to the secular authority: and such as have their principal notes con- here the auto, properly so called, ended; tained between the key-note and its oc- the execution of the victims takiing place tave. This term is applied by the Ital- immediately afterwards, under the auians to four of the church modes or tones thority of the civil judle, a secretary to in music which rise a fourth above their the inquisition attending. doumiairnts, which are always fifths above AU'TOGRAPH, an epithet, applied to their finals, that is, rise to complete their whatever is written in a person's own octaves, thus distinguished fiora plagal hand-writing, as an.utogr'aph letter, a melodies, which fall a fourth below their letter of one's own writing. finals. AU'TUMN, the third season in the AUTOBTOGWRAPHY, this word is of year, which begins in the northern hemGreek orioin, and signifies literally the isphere, on the day when the sun enters life of a person written by himself. Libra, that is, on the 22d of Sepltember. These memoirs may be divided into two It terminates about the same day in Declasses: those in which the chief object cember, when the winter ite mnences. of the writer is to illustrate the history Autumn is represented, in painting, by a BAC] AND THE FINE ARTS. 33 man of mature age, clothed and girt with der, known by the name of azure. Azure a starry girdle; holding in one hand a being employed to color starch, is also pair of scales equally poised, with a called starch-blue. globe in each; and in the other a bunch AZ'YMITES, in church history, Chrisof grapes and other fruit. His age de- tians who administer the eucharist with notes the perfection.of this season; and unleavened bread. This appellation was the balance, that sign of the zodiac given to the Latin by the Greek church, which the sun enters when our autumn and also to the Armenians and Mabegins. ronites. AUXIL'IARY VERBS, in grammar, are such verbs as help to form or conjugate others; as, in English, the verbs3 "to have," and " to be." AVA'TAR, a term used by the Hin- B, the second letter, and first consodoos to express an incarnation or descent nant, in the alphabet, is formed in the of Vishnu, their deity: nine of which voice by a strong and quick expression are believed to be passed, and the tenth of the breath, and a sudden opening of yet to come. the lips; it is therefore called a labial, A'VE MAtI'A, the name given to the and its pronunciation differs but slightly angel Gabriel's salutation to the Virgin fro p and. It is often used as an abMary. Also, the chaplets and rosaries breviation for Bachelor, as B.A. Bacheof the Romish church, which are divided lor of Arts, B.D. Bachelor of Divinity, into ave-marias and pater-nosters. &c., and for before, as B.C., Before Christ. AVER'NUS, a lake of Italy 10 miles B, as a numeral among the Roans, west of Naples, celebrated in antiquity stood for 300, and with a dash over it for as the entrance to the infernal regions. 3000. B, in chronology, stands for one This place continued to be the favorite of the dominical letters, and in music for haunt of superstition till the time of the seventh note in the gamut. Augustus, who violated its sanctity, and BA'AL, an idol among the ancient dispelled the impenetrable darkness in Chaldeans and Syrians; supposed to which it had hitherto been enshrouded, represent the sun, and to be the same as by cutting down the surrounding wood, the Bel or Belus of the Greeks. The and connecting it with the Lucrine lake, word signifies also lord or commander; then an arm of the sea. This lake still and the character of the idol was varied exists under the name Lago d'Aver- by different nations, at different times. no; it is about a mile and a half in cir- BABYLON'ICA, in antiquity, a specumference, and in many places 190 feet cies of rich weaving so called from the deep. city of Babylon, where the art of weavAWARD', in law, the judgment of an ing hangings with a variety of colors was arbitrator, or of one who is not appointed first invented. by the law a judge, but chosen by the BABYLON'ICS, in literary history, a parties themselves for terminating their fragment of the ancient history of the differences. world, ending at 267 years before Christ; AX'IOM, in philosophy, is such a plain, and composed by Berosus, a priest of self-evident proposition, that it cannot be Babylon, about the time of Alexander. made more plain and evident by demon- BACCI-IE, the priestesses of Bacchus, stration; because it is itself better known who, crowned witl vine and ivy leaves, than anything that can be brought to and clad in the skins of wild beasts, celeprove it. By axioms, called also max- brated the orgies of their god with frantic ims, are understood all common notions cries and gestures. They were also called of the mind, whose evidence is so clear Mcenades, Bassarides, and 7'hyades. and forcible, that a man cannot deny BACCITANA/LIA, feasts celebrated in them without renouncing common sense honor of Bacchus by the ancient Greeks and natural reason. and Romans. Their times of celebration AZ'URE, the blue color of the sky. were spring and autumn: the former in Among painters, this word originally the city, and the latter in the fields. The signified tlapis-lazculi, and the blue color company personified Silenus, Pan, Fauns, prepared from it. At present it is called Satyrs, &c.; and in this manner apultra-mrarine; and the blue glass made peared in public, night and day, counterfrom the earth of cobalt and other vitri- feiting drunkenness, daneing obscenely, fiable matters, which, when in masses, is committing all kinds of licentiousness called smalt, is, in the state of fine pow- and debauchery; and running over the 3 34 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [BA mountains and forests, with horrible tone. The third pipe is played on by shrieks and lowlings, cryipg out Evoe compressing the bag under the arm. BEacc.e, or lo Bacche. Livy informs us, BAIL, in law, sureties given for the that during the Bacchanalian feasts at appearance, when required, of a person Rome, such shocking disorders were in custody. CommnCon Bail is in common practised under the cover of the night, cases, where any sureties may be taken; and those who were initiated were bound but Special Bail is necessary in matters to conceal them by an oath attended with of greater importance, where special horrid imprecations, that the senate sup- surety of two or more persons must be pressed them first in Rome, and after- taken according to the value of the wards throughout all Italy. cause.-To admit to bail, is to release BACH'ELOR, in its primitive sense, upon security given by bondsmen.-'To means a man who has not been married: justify bail, is to prove by the oath of and in all its various senses it seems to the person that he is worth the sum for include the idea of youth or immaturity. which he is surety beyond his debts. -BACHELOR, in universities, is one who BAILEE', in law, the person to whom. has attained the first degree in the lib- the goods of the one that is bailed are eral arts and sciences, or the first degree delivered. The party who delivers the in the particular study to which he de- goods is termed the BAILOR. votes himself. This degree of honor is BAL'CONY, in architecture, a projeccalled the baccalaureate. At Oxford and tion from the fiont of a house, surrounded at Cambridge, to attain the degree of by a balustrade or open gallery. In bachelor of arts, a person must have large buildings they are susceptible of studied there four years: after three considerable elegance of decoration, and more, he may become master of arts; may be made highly ornamental to the and at the end of another series of seven, edifices to which they are attached. bachelor of divinity. BALD'ACHIN, in architecture, a kind BACK'GROUND, in painting, is the of canopy erected over an altar. space behind a portrait or group of fig- BAL'LAD, a short lyric composition, ures. The distance in a picture is usu- or tale in verse, of a simple and popular ally divided into the foreground, middle- character; set to music, and generally distance, and background. In portrait- in most esteem by the lower classes. It painting, the nature and treatment of originally meant a solemn song of praise. backgrounds have varied in the hands of BAL'LET, a theatrical representaalmlost every master, yet there are cer- tion of actions, characters, sentiments, tain recognized methods which are more and passions, by means of mimic moveworthy of imitation and study than ments and dances, accompanied by muothers. In most of the portraits of sic. The ballet is divided into three Titian, Vandyke, and Rembrandt, the kinds-historical, mythological, and allebackgrounds represent only space, indi-.gorical; and consist of three parts-the cated by a warm brown gray tone, and entry, the figure, and the retreat. this treatment is the most effective. BAL'USTER, (often improperly writBACK-PAINTING, the method of ten bannister,) in architecture, a small painting mezzotinto prints pasted on glass turned column usually introduced bewith oil colors. tween piers, on the upper parts of large BADGE, an exterior ornament of a buildings under windows, and on balcocoat of arms, originally worn by the re- nies, &c. tainers or attendants of the nobility. It BALUSTRADE', a series or row of fell into disuse in the reign of queen balusters, joined by a rail: serving as Elizabeth.-In naval architecture, an well for rest to the elbows, as for a fence ornament placed on the outside of ships or inclosure to balconies, altars, stairnear the stern, containing either a win- cases, &c. dow, or the representation of one. BAN, (bannum,) in the feudal law, a BAD'GER, a quadruped of the genus solemn proclamation or publication of ursus. anything. Hence the custom of asking, BAG'PIPE, a musical wind instrument or publishing the bans, before marriage.used chiefly in Scotland and Ireland. It BAN, in military affairs, a proclamation is of high antiquity, and consists of two made in the army, by beat of drum, parts: namely, aleathern bag, and pipes sound of trumpet, &c., requiring the for admitting and ejecting the air. One strict observance of discipline, either for of the pipes called the drone, with which the declaring a new officer, or punishing the bass part is played, never varies its an offender.-The word BAN also mean an offender~~~~ ~~~~.1-h odBN loma 3BA;] AND TIlE FINE ARITS. 35 an edict of interdiction or proscription. with farmilies of monkeys, and with birds Thus, to put a prince under the ban of of every description, and also with enorthe empire, is to divest him of his digni- mous bats, all of which find luxurious ties,'and to interdict all intercourse and subsistence upon the rich scarlet figs that all offices of humanity with the offender. grow upon it. BAND, in architecture, a term used BANK, in commerce, an establishment to denote what is generally called a face for the receiving of moneys and letting or fascia. To speak correctly, it signifies them out on interest. It may likewise a flat, low, square, profiled member be defined, a place used as a comsmon rewithout respect to its place. That mem- pository of the money of individuals or ber in a cornice on which moodillions or companies. Also, a company of persons dentils are cut is called the modillion concerned in a private bank; or the dibandl in the former, and the dentil band rectors of an incorporated one. The in the latter case. basis of all banking is the profitable use BANDOLEER', a large leathern belt, to which the banker or company can apthrown over the right shoulder, and ply the capital which is deposited. The hanging undler the left arm, worn by an1- first bank was established at Venice cient musketeers, for sustaining their about 1.157, and the name of Banco was fire-arms and musket-charges. given to it in Italian, from the bench BANDIT/TI, a term peculiarly denot- which'the money-changers or bankers ing companies of armed robbers, formerly used to sit upon in their burses or excomm1on in Italy and 1France; but some- changes. times also used, in a more general sense, BANK'ER, a person who traffics in for robbers, pirates, outlaws, or others, money, by receiving the current cash of united for nefarious purposes. individuals free of interest, and negotiatBANGUE, the name of an opiate used ing with it, either in the discount of bills, in the East, made from the leaf of wild or the advance of money on sufficient hemp. It is used by the Mahometans securities. The moneyed goldsmiths in for the same purpose as wine and spirits the reign of king Charles II. first acquired are by the Christians. this name. —The Romans had two sorts BAN'IAN-DAYS, a proverbial ex- of bankers, whose office was much more pression, imported fronm the Asiatic colo- extensive than that of the bankers amlong nies, used for a short or indifferent din- us; theirs being that of public affairs, in ner, or days on which no animal food is whoms were united the functions of a eaten: in allusion to the Banians de- broker, agent, ban.ker, and notary, managscribed below. ing the exchange, taking in money, assistBAN'IANS, a caste of the IIindoos, ing in buying and selling, and drawing whose profession is trade and merchan- the writings necessary on all these occadise; and, in India and Asia, they are sions. the great factors and bankers, as the BANK-NOTE, or BANK-BILL, a Jews are in the West. They believe in promissory note, issued by a banking the transmigration of souls, and not only company, properly signed and counterabstain from eating the flesh of animals, signed, payable to the bearer in the curbut endeavor to release even the most rent coin of the reall, on demand. noxious fromn the cruelty of others. They BA/N'ER, a square flag, or the prinare mlild in temper, and honest in their cipal standard belonging to a prince or dealings; anud are so cautious of having state. conmmunication with any but their own BAN'NERET, an ancient order of caste, that if any of another nation or knights or feudal lords, who, possessing tribe has drunk out of or touched their several large fees, led their own flag or cup, they break it. banner. As the spirit of the feudal sysBAN'IAN-TRBEE, one of the greatest tem declined, persons came to be created wonders of the vegetable kingdom. It bannerets, and hence the institution never dies, and continually extends it- must have become merely titular. The self; for every branch shoots downward, last knight of this description was Sir and, striking into the ground, becomes John Smith, on S whom the honor vas beitself a parent tree, whose branches, in stowed after Edgehill fight, for rescuing like manner, spread. One of them, the the standard of Charles I. On the day Cubbeer Burr, has 350 stems, equal to of battle, the candidate presented his large oaks, and more than 3000 smaller flag to the king or general, who eutting ones, covering space sufficient to shelter off the train or skirt, and making it a 7000 persons. Its branches are crowdedI square, returned it again. Hence, ban 36 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [BAD nerets are sometimes called knights of given her as a sign that those who honthe square flag. ored her could not die without the sacraBAP'TISM, a rite of the Christian re- ment. 2. A tower, her father having ligion, by which the members of its shut her up in one when a child. 3. The church are received into the communion. sword by which she was beheaded. 4. A Almost all sects of Christians style bap- crown which she wears as a symbol of tism a sacrament, and consider its use as victory and reward. St. Barbara, who important; but the manner in which it was the patron saint of Mantua, was a ought to be performed, and the effects to favorite subject with the artists of the be derived from it, have been subjects of middle ages. much controversy. BARBA'RIAN, a name given by the BAP'TISTERY, in ecclesiastical wri- ancient Greeks and Romans to all who ters, a place in which the ceremony of were not of their own country, or were baptism is performed. In the ancient not instituted in their language, manchurch, it was one of the exedrc or ners, and customs. In this sense the buildings distinct from the church itself, word signified with them no more than and consisted of a porch or ante-room, foreigner, not signifying, as with us, a where the persons to be baptized made wild, rude, or uncivilized person. their confession of faith, and an inner BAR'BARISM, in a general sense, a room where the ceremony of baptism rudeness of language or behavior.-In was performed. Thus it continued till grammar, an offence against the purity the sixth century, when the baptisteries of style or language; or a mode of began to be taken into the church-porch; speaking or writing contrary to the true and afterwards into the church itself. idiom of any particular language. BAPTISTS (a contraction of ANA- BAR'BITON, the name given to the BAPTISTS), a Christian sect who practise lyre of Apollo. the baptism of adults instead of that of BARD, the name given to those indichildren. viduals of semi-barbarous tribes, whose BAR, the partition which separates genius or imagination enabled them to the members of a court of justice from describe events in elevated or measured those who have to report or hear. It is language. Homer was one of these also applied to the benches, where the bards among the early Greeks; Ossian lawyers are seated, because anciently another among the ancient Irish; and there was a bar to separate the pleaders their rhapsodies were the foundations of from the attorneys and others. IIence the art of poetry, which has been cultithose who are called to the bar, or li- vated with success by all civilized nacensed to plead, are termed barristers, tions. In the first stages of society, in an appellation equivalent to licentiate in all countries, bards have made a conother countries.-BAR, in music, a stroke spicuous figure; and the "light of the drawn perpendicularly across the lines of song" has been the morning-beam that a piece of music, including between each first broke upon the darkness of ignotwo a certain quantity or measure of time. rance: but nowhere does it appear, did BARALYP'TON, in logic, an indirect ever verse and its professors receive so mode of syllogism, consisting of two uni- much public regard as under the druidiversals and one particular affirmative cal establishment; a regard with which proposition: as, "Every animal is en- they continued to be honored long after dued with sense; every man is an ani- that system had perished. In battle the mal; therefore something endued with bards of the Celtic tribes raised the warsense is man." cry, and in peace they sung the exploits BARA'THRUIM, in antiquity, a deep of their heroes, celebrated the attributes pit, with sharp spikes at the top and bot- of their gods, and chronicled the history tom, into which condemned persons were of their nation. Originally spread over cast headlong, at Athens. the greater part of western Europe, they BAR'BARA, in logic, an arbitrary seem to have been the heralds, the term for the first mode of the first figure priests, and the lawgivers of the free of syllogisms, consisting of three univer- barbarians who first occupied its ancient sal propositions: as, "All animals are forests, until, by the gradual progress of endued with sense: all men are animals; southern civilization and despotism, they therefore, all men are endued with sense." were driven back into the fastnesses of BAR'BARA, ST., the patron saint of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, where the those who might otherwise die impeni- last echoes of their harps have long since tent. Her attributes are, 1. The cup, died away. BAS] AND THE FINE ARTS. 37 BARGE, in naval affairs, a boat of BAR'RISTER, a counsellor learned in state and pleasure, adorned with various the law, admitted to plead at the bar, ornaments, having bales and tilts, and and there to take upon him the proteeseats covered with cushions, and carpets. tion and defence of clients. and benches for many oars; as a cor- BARTHOL'OMEW, ST., the Apostle, pany's barge, an admiral's barge, &c. generally depicted with a knife, and his It is also the name of a fiat-bottomed skin in his hand. The horrible scene of vessel employed for carrying goods on a his being flayed alive, by order of the navigable river, as those upon the river chief magistrate of Albanopolis, who conThames, called west country barges. demned him also to be crucified, has been BAR;NABAS, ST., representations of painted by some artists. this saint are seldom to be met with, ex- BAK/YTONE. in music, a male voice cept in the works of the Venetian artists. the compass of which partakes of the He is usually depicted as a venerable common bass and the tenor, being lower man, of majestic mien, holding the Gos- than the one and higher than the other. pel of St. Matthew in his hand. The BASAL'TES, or BASALT', a stone subjects are chiefly taken from the Acts supposed to be of volcanic origin, black of the Apostles, and from the life of St. or green in color, and found in pillars in Paul. the prismatic form. Columns of basalt BAR'ON, a degree of nobility next be- form the Giant's Causeway, the Isle of low a viscount, and above a baronet. Staffa, and Fingal's Cave, and are always Originally, the barons being the feudato- found near great volcanoes, as Hecla, &c. ries of princes, were the proprietors of It is remarkably hard and heavy, will land held by honorable service: hence, not strike fire with steel, and is a fine in ancient records, the word barons com- touch-stone. prehends all the nobility.-BARONS OF BASE, in architecture, is used for any THE EXCHEQUER, the four judges to whom body which bears another, but parthe administration of justice is committed, ticularly for the lower part of a column in causes between the king and his sub- and pedestal. The base of columns is jects, relating to matters concerning the differently formed in different orders: revenue. They were formerly barons of thus, the Tuscan base consists only of a the realm, but of late are generally per- single torus, besides the plinth; the sons learned in the laws. Doric has an astragal more than the BARON AND FEMME, a term in law Tuscan; the Ionic has a large torus over for husband and wife, who are deemed two slender scotias; separated by two but one person; so that a wife cannot be astragals; the Cor-inthian has two toruses, witness for or against her husband; nor two scotias, and two astragals: the Coinhe for or against his wife, except in cases posite has an astragal less than the of high treason. Corinthian; the Attic base has two toruses BAR'ONET, the lowest degree of honor and a scotia, and is proper for either the that is hereditary, being next below a Ionic or Composite columns. baron, and above a knight. The order BASHAW', PASHA', or PACHA', a digwas founded by king James I. at the nity under the Turkish government. suggestion of Sir Robert Cotton, when Bashaw, used absolutely, denotes the 200 baronets were created at once: to prime vizier; other bashaws, which are which number it was intended that they generally governors of provinces or cities, should be always restrained: but it is being distinguished by the name of the now enlarged at the royal pleasure, with- place under their command. The appelout limitation. lation is given by way of courtesy to BAR'RACKS, large buildings erected almost every person of any figure at the for the security and accommodation of Grand Signior's court. Their degrees of soldiers, whether infantry or cavalry. dignity were marked by their bearing BAR'RATOR, in law, acommon mover, one, two, or three horses' tails. or maintainer of suits and quarrels, either BASIL, ST., representations of this in courts or elsewhere; an encourager of saint, who was Bishop of Cesarca, are litigation. very rare. HIe is represented in Greek BARRICADE', or BARRICA'DO, a pontificals bareheaded, with an emaciated fortification made in haste, of trees, earth, appearance. palisades, wagons, or anything that will BASIL'ICJE, anciently, public halls or obstruct the progress of an enemy, or courts of judicature, where princes and serve for defence or security against his magistrates sat to administer justice. attack. They were at first the palaces of princes, 38 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [RAZ but were finally converted into chuches. uno," alluding to the three cardinal vi.rHence basilic now means a church, chapel, tues-faith, hope, and charity. The orcathedral, or royal palace. der of the bath, after remaining many BASS, (sometimes written base, which years extinct, was revived under George is the correct English word for basso, I. by a solemn creation of a great numbl r low:) the lowest or fundamental part in of knights. nmesic, and important as the foundation BAT'ON', in music, a term denoting a of harmony. — ihroug7 h bass is that rest of four semibreves. which includes the fundamental rules of BATOON', in architecture, a moulding composition. —Ground bass is that which in the base of a column. commences with some subject of its own BAT'TEL, an ancient mode of trial by that is continually repeated throughout single combat, which was introduced into the movement, whilst the upper parts England by William the Conqueror. pursue a separate air.-Counter bass is The contest was had before the judges, on a second or double bass, where there are a piece of ground enclosed, and the comseveral in the same concert. batants were bound to fight until the BAS'SO, in music, the Italian for bass. stars appeared, unless the death of one Thus, Basso conscertante, is the bass of party or victory sooner decided the conthe little chorus; basso repieno, the test. It is but of late years that this bass of the grand chorus; and basso con- barbarous law has been abolished. tinuo, that part of a composition which BAT'TERING-RAM, a military mais set for the organ, &c. chine, with which the ancients made BASSOON'. a musical wind instrument, breaches in fortifications. These engines consisting of a very long tube, with a reed were variously constructed, and of differfor the mouthpiece. ent sizes; but in general the batteringBAS'SO RELIEVO, or BASS RE- ram consisted of a vast beam suspended LIEF, sculpture in which the figures are to a frame, and armed at one end with a represented as projecting not far above head of iron, resembling that of a ram; the plane on which they are formed. from the butting of which animal the Figures cut are said to be done in relief, idea was doubtless derived. This being and when the work is low or flat it is equally balanced, and furnished with a called bass relief, or basso relievo, in number of ropes, at the extremity oppodistinction from alto relievo and mezzo site to the ram's head, a great number relievo. of men threw it forward with violence, BASS VIOL, a stringed musical in- and thus, by a repetition of the strokes, strument of the same shape as a violin, demolished the wall against which it was but much larger. directed. BASTILE', a noted fortress in Paris, BAT/TERY, in the military art, a which was used as a state prison, and in parapet thrown up to cover the gunners which many persons who had incurred and men employed about the guns from the resentment of the French monarchs, the enemy's shot. This parapet is cut or their ministers, had been immured for into embrasures for the cannon to fire life. It was built at the latter part of through. A battery of mortars is sunk the 14th century; and was demolished in the ground, and has no embrasures.by the enraged populace at the corn- BATTEaY, in law, the striking, beating, mencement of the revolution in 1789. or offering any violence to another perBASTINA'BO, a mode of punishment son, for which damages may be recovered. used among the Turks, of beating the It is distinguished from an assault, inasoffender on the soles of the feet. much as the latter does not necessarily BATH, (KNIGHTS OF THE) a mRili- imply a hitting or blow. There may be tary order of knighthood in England, an assault without battery, but battery supposed to have been instituted by always implies an assault. Richard II., who limited the number of BAT'TLE-AXE, a kind of halberd, knights to four; but his successor, Henry first introduced into England by the IV., on the day of his coronation increas- Danes, and much used in the early part ed them to forty-six. This order received of the middle ages. its denomination from a custom of bath- BAT'TLEMENTS, in architecture, are ing before the knights received the gol- indentures or notches in the top of a den spur. The badge or symbol of the wall, or other building, in the form of order is a sceptre, rose, thistle, and three embrasures. imperial crowns conjoined within a circle, BATTOL'OGY, in grammar, a superupon which is the motto, " Tria juncta in fluous repetition of some words or things. BEL] AND THE FINE ARTS. 39 BAY, or BAY TREE, the female laurel what any objects of the same kind have tree, an evergreen which grows wild in in common that it acquires the faculty Italy and France.-BAYS, in the plural, of discerning what each wants in paran honorary garland or crown, bestowed ticular. By such means the artist gains as a prize for victory or excellence, an idea of perfect nature, or what is anciently made of laurel branches. called the Beau Ideal. BAY'ONET, a short pointed instru- BEAU'TY, a general term for whatever ment or triangular dagger, make to fix excites in us pleasing sensations or on the muzzle of a firelock or musket. causes our admiration. Or it may be BAZA'V, or BAZAAR', a kind of ex- defined to be an assemblage of graces or change or market-place among the Turks properties which please the eye and inand Persians. Some of these buildings terest'the mind. The proportion and are remarkable, not only for their ex- symmetry of parts, the regularity and tent, but for their magnificence.-This symmetry of features, the expression of name has of late years been in use to de- the eye, and the complexion, are among note certain large buildings containing a the principal properties which constitute collection of shops or stalls, let to differ- personal beauty. This kind is said to be ent persons, and in which a great variety intrinsic, and immediately perceptible; of " fancy goods" are exposed for sale. but when reflection is requisite to comBDEL'LIUM, a gummy resinous juice, prehend the utility of an object, it is said produced by a tree in the East Indies, of to be crlative: for instance, the beauty which we have no satisfactory account. of a machine is not perceived till we It is brought into Europe from the East understand its uses and adaptation to its Indies, and from Arabia. purpose. Thus, an object may please the BEA/CON, a signal erected on a long understanding without interesting the pole, upon an eminence, consisting of a sense; and on the other hand, we perpitch-barrel or other combustible matter, ceive agreeable sensations, excited by to be fired at night, to notify the ap- some objects, whose ideas are not related pzoach of an enemy. Also, any object to anything that is praiseworthy.serving as an occasional signal, or as a BEAUTY, in architecture, painting, and constant seamark, by means of which other arts, is the harmony and justness ships may be warned of danger, or as- of the whole composition taken together. sured of their port. BEL-ESPRIT/, a term formerly natuBE AD, in architecture, a round mould- ralized in England, applied to those ining, commonly made upon the edge of a dividuals whose conversation or writings piece of stuff, in the Corinthian and Ro- display an agreeable sprightliness or mnan orders, cut or carved in short em- vivacity. bossments. like beads in necklaces. BELLES-LET'TRES, or POLITE LITBEATIFICA'TION, an act of the ERATURE, in its most obvious sense, is Pope, by which he declares a person be- that description of literature which has a atified or blessed after death, and is the peculiar reference to matters of taste: first step towards canonization, or the but according to many writers, the term raising of one to the dignity of a saint; has a much more extensive signification, but no person can be beatified till fifty and is made to comprehend not merely years after his death. every elegant acquirement, but nearly BEAT/INGS, in music, the regular every branch of knowledge. pausative swellings of sound, produced in BEL'LEVUE, a name given in France an organ by pipes of the same key, when to small country-seats, or to arched not in unison, and their vibrations not bowers at the end of a garden or park, simultaneous or coincident. intended for the enjoyment of fresh air in BEAT/ING TIME, in music, that the shade. motion of the hand or foot by which some BELLONA'RII, in Roman antiquity, person marks and regulates the move- the priests of Bellona, who, in honor of ments of the performers. that goddess, used to mnake incisions in BEAU IDE'AL, in painting, that their bodies; and after having gathered beauty which is freed from the defor- the blood in the palm of their hand, give mity and peculiarity found in nature it to those who were partakers of their in all individuals of a species. All the mysteries. objects which nature exhibits to us have BEL-META'LO DI VOCE, in music, their blemishes and defects, though every an Italian expression for a clear and eye is not capable of perceiving them; brilliant-toned soprano voice. and it is onlbyy long habit of observing BEL'EDERE, a name given in Italy 40 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [BID to the cupolas on palaces or large houses, banners, each of which qualifies a bey, which are ascended for the enjoyment and these are all commanded by the govof a fine prospect and the advantage of ernor of the province, whom they also a pure air. This is the name also of call begler-beg, that is, lord of all the a part of the Vatican, where the famous beys of the province. statue of Apollo is placed, and which, on BI'BLE, (THE BOOIK,) a name given by this account, is called the Apollo Belve- way of eminence to the Sacred Writings. dere. The Old Testament consists of the five BENCH, in law, a seat of justice, as books called the Pentateuch; the Histhe Queen's Bench at Westminster. Also, torical, Poetical, and Prophetic books: the persons sitting on a bench, as a bench the New Testament, of the four Gospels, of magistrates. the Acts, and the Epistles. The earliest BENCIHER, a lawyer of the oldest version of the Bible is a Greek translastanding in the inns of court. tion called the Septuagint, and from this BENEDIC/TINES, a celebrated order other translations have been made. It of monks, who profess to follow the rules was first printed in English in 1535. The of St. Benedict. They wear a loose black present authorized version of the Holy gown with large white sleeves, and a cowl Scriptures was completed in the reign of on the head, ending in a point. They James the First, about the year 1603. are the same that are calledBlack-friars. BIBLIOG'RAPHY, the knowledge of BENEFIT OF CLERGY, a privilege, books as to their several editions, time originating in a superstitious regard for of being printed, and other information the church, whereby the clergy were tending to illustrate the history'of literaeither partially or wholly exempted from ture. the jurisdiction of the lay tribunals. It BIBLIOM'ANCY, a kind of divination, extended in England only to the case of performed by means of the Bible, by felony; and though it was intended to selecting passages of Scripture at hazard, apply only to clerical felons or clerks, and drawing from them indications conyet as every one who could read was by cerning future events. the laws of England, considered to be a BIBLIOTIIE'CA, in its original and clerk, when the rudiments of learning proper sense, denotes a library, or place came to be diffused almost every person for depositing books. In matters of became entitled to this privilege. literature, it means a treatise giving an BE'NE PLA'CITO, inmusic, an Italian account of all the writers on a certain term, denoting that the performer is to subject; thus, we have bibliothecas of exercise his own taste. theology, law, philosophy, &c. There BENZOIN', a solid balsam, yielded are likewise universal bibliothecas, which from incisions made in a tree which. treat indifferently of books of all kinds. grows in Sumatra, called the Styrax Ben- BIG/AMY, double marriage, or the zoin. It is hard, friable, with an agree- marrying of two wives or two husbands able fragrant odor, soluble in alcohol, while the first is living. ether, and oil of turpentine. It has been BIGA'RIUS, in antiquity, the charemployed as an ingredient in spirit var- ioteer of a biga, or two-wheeled chariot. nishes by the Italians and Spaniards, but Money or medals stamped with this emndoes not appear to have been an ingre- blem were called biga'ti. dient in oil varnishes. BIG'OT, a person who is obstinately BER'NARDINES, an order of monks, and unreasonably wedded to a particular founded by Robert, abbot of Moleme, and religious creed, practice, or opinion; or reformed by St. Bernard. They wear a one who is illiberally attached to any white robe with a black seapulary, and opinion or system of belief. when they officiate they are clad in a BI'NARY MEASURE, in music, that large white gown, with great sleeves, and in which the raising the hand or foot is a hood of the same color. equal to that of falling, usually called BE'TA, the second letter in the Greek common time. The Italians are aceusalphabet. tomed after a recitative to use the phrase BEY, among the Turks, signifies a gov- c tempo giusto, to indicate that the measernor of a country or town. The Turks ure is to be beat true and correct, which write it begh, or beg, but pronounce it is otherwise conducted in the recitative bey. The word is particularly applied to in order to express passion, &c. a lord of a banner, whom they call san- BIOG'RAPHY, the life of one or more giac-beg or bey. Every province in Tur- individuals whose actions are deemed key is divided into seven sangiacs, or worthy of record. No species of history BLU] AND THE FINE ARTS. 41 can be more entertaining or instructive of the rays falling upon black substances than the lives of eminent men, who by being not reflected but absorbed. There their private virtues or public deeds, by are several species of blacks used in the efforts of genius or the impulses painting; as Frafnkfort black, of which of philanthropy, excite our admiration. there are two sorts, one a natural earth and afford examples for posterity to inclining to blue; and the other made emulate. from the lees of wine burnt, washed, and BIRD'S-EYE VIEW, in the Fine ground with ivory, bones, &c.; lamp Arts, a term used to denote a view black, the smoke of resin, prepared by arranged according to the laws of per- melting it in iron vessels; ivury black, spective, in which the point of sight or made of burnt ivory, and used in miniasituation of the eye is placed at a very tures; Spanish black, madle of burnt considerable height above the objects cork, and first used by the Spaniards. viewed and delineated. In architectural BLACK LETTER, is the name now representations, it is used chiefly for the applied to the old English or modern purpose of exhibiting the disposition of Gothic letter, which was introduced into the different courts or quadrangles and England about the middle of the fourroofs of a building. It is a useful method teenth century, and became the chlaracter of representing battles, as also of giving generally used in MS. works before the a general notion of a small district of a art of printing was publicly practised in country. Europe. On the application of that art BIS, in music, a word placed over pas- to the multiplying of books, about the sages which have dots postfixed to one middle of the fifteenth century, the block bar, and prefixed to a subsequent bar, books, and subsequently those written signifying that the passage between the with movable types, were in this characdots is to be twice played. ter, to imitate writing, and were disposed BISCUIT, a kind of white, unglazed, of as manuscripts; and so perfect was the baked porcelain-clay, much- employed in imitation, that it required great disthe manufacture of statuettes, &c., but crimination to distinguish the printed for this purpose, a much finer and more from the written. The first printed suitable material is the so-called PARIAN. Bible, known as " the Mentz Bible withBiscuit is the term generally applied to out date," was an instance of this. articles of clay, which have gone through BLACK'-MAIL, a certain rate of moonly one "baking" or "firing" in the ney, corn, or cattle, anciently paid, in the oven, and which have not received the north of England, to certain persons conglaze. In this state it is porous, and is nected with the moss-troopers, or robbers, used for wine-coolers, and for other pur- to be by them protected from pillage. poses. BLANK, a void space in any writing BISII'OP, a prelate, or person conse- or printing. This word is applied to vacrated for the spiritual government of a rious objects, usually in the sense of desdiocese. In Great Britain, bishops are titution, or emptiness. nominated by the sovereign, who, upon BLANK-VERSE, in poetry, that which request of the dean and chapter for leave is composed of a certain number of sylto elect a bishop, sends a coenge d'elire, or lables, without the assistance of rhyme. license to elect, with a letter missive, BLOCKADE', in military affairs, the nominating the person whom he would blocking up a place, by posting troops at have chosen. all the avenues leading to it, to keep supBISSEX'TILE, or LEAP-YEAR, a plies of men and provisions from getting year consisting of 366 days, and happen- into it; and by these means proposing to ing every fourth year, by the addition of starve it out, without making any regua day in the month of February, which lar attacks.-To raise a blockade, is to that year consists of 29 days. And this force the troops that blockade to retire. is done to recover the six hours which BLUE, one of/the seven primitive colthe sun takes up nearly in his course, ors into which they are divided when remore than the 365 days commonly allowed fracted through a glass prism. Blue, as for it in other years. a color in painting, is distinguished into BIS'TRE, or BIS'TER, the burnt oil itltrc-mar-ize, from the azure stone, called extracted from the soot of beech-wood, lapis lazuli; P7russian blue, a color next which is used as a brown pigment by to ultra-marine for beauty; blue ashes, painters. used in limning, fresco, and miniature; BLACK, a well-known color, supposed blue verditer, a blue somewhat inclining to be owing to the absence of light, most I to a green; and bice, which is the palest 42 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [BOR of all the bright blues. In dyeing, the course of time the grossest licentiousness principal ingredients for giving a blue was practised during their celebration. color are indigo and woad. BOND, in architecture, the connection BODY, in matters of literature, de- of one stone or brick with another by notes much the same with system, being lapping them over each other in carrying a collection of everything belonging to a up work, so that an inseparable mass of particular science or art, disposed in building may be formed, which could not proper order: thus we say, a body of di- be the case if every vertical joint was vinity, law, physic, &c. over that below it.-BoND, in law, a BOLD/NESS, that quality which dis- deed whereby the obligator, or party tinguishes the artist, who, educated in binding himself, obliges himself, his the soundest principles of art, designs heirs, executors, and administrators, to and executes with fearlessness and de- pay a certain sum of money, called the cision. When under proper control, it penalty, to another (the obligee) at a imparts to all his productions a vigor day appointed.-BOND, ENGLISH, in arthat is sure to charm. It is exhibited in chitecture, that disposition of bricks in a the highest degree in the works of wall wherein the courses are alternately lubens. composed of headers, or bricks laid with BOLOGNESE' SCHOOL, in painting, their heads or ends towards the faces of somnetimes called the Lonmbard school of the wall, and in the superior and inferior painting. It was founded by the Caracci, courses of stretchers or bricks, with their and its object was to unite the excellen- lengths parallel to the faces of the walls, cies of the preceding schools; hence it is as in the margin, in which the upper is occasionally called the Eclectic school. called the heading, and the lower the Among the principal painters which it stretching course.-BONTD, FLEMISH-I, in numbered were Domenichino, Lanfranco, architecture, that disposition of bricks in Corregio, Guido, Schidone, Caravagio, a wall wherein each course has headers Zampieri, Primaticcio, &c. and stretchers alternately, as in the BOMB, a large shell or ball of cast margin.-BOND OR LAP OF A SLATE, in iron, round and hollow, with a vent to architecture, the distance between the receive a fusee, which is made of wood, nail of the under slate and the lower and filled with combustible materials of edge of the upper slate. all kinds. This being done, and the fusee BOND STONE, in architecture, a stone driven into the vent, the fusee is set on running through the whole thickness of fire, and the bomb is thrown from the a wall at right angles to its face, for the mortar, in such a direction as to fall into purpose of binding the wall together in a fort, city, or enemy's camp, when it the direction of its thickness. bursts with great violence, and often with BOND TIM'BER, in architecture, timterrible effect, blowing into pieces what- ber worked in with a wall as it is carried ever may be in its way. up, for the purpose of tying it together BOM'BAST, in literary composition, in a longitudinal direction while the an inflated style, by which, in attempting work is setting. to raise a low or familiar subject beyond BONZE, an Indian priest, who wears its rank, the writer seldom fails to be a chaplet of beads about his neck, and ridiculous. carries a staff, having a wooden bird at BONA DEA, in Roman mythology, a one end. The bonzes of China are the goddess concerning whom a great diver- priests of the Fohists, or sects of Fohi; sity of opinion prevails, even among the and it is one of their established tenets, writers of antiquity. She is represented that there are rewards allotted for the by Macrobius, who treats at length upon righteous, and punishments for the wickher nature and worship, as synonymous ed, in the other world; and that there with the Grecian Rhea or Cybele. The are various mansions, in which the souls Bona Dea had two temples at Rome; but of men will reside, according to their her rites were generally solemnized in different degrees of merit. The number the house of the consul or prqetor. In of bonzes in China is estimated at fifty the celebration of these rites only women thousand, and they are represented as participated, thereby indicating the pecu- idle, dissolute men. liar chastity of the goddess. But a perusal BOOK, a literary composition, designed of the ancient writers will convince the to communicate something which the aumost skeptical that the exclusion of men thor has invented, experienced, or colfrom the solemnities of the Bona Dea lected. to the public, and thence to poswas purely nominal, and that in the terity; being printed, boundin avolume. BOR1 ] AND TIHE FINE ARTS. 43 and published for that purpose.-The five sometimes painted or gilt, and of copperbooks of Moses are doubtless the oldest ilt. on which the picture is placed. The books now extant; and there are none in frame is not only a luxurious ornament, prufane history extant anterior to Io- but it is necessary to circumscribe the mer's poems. A great variety of mate- composition, and to figure the opening rials were formerly used in mnaking through which the spectator perceives the books: plates of lead and copper, the painted objects, which an illusion of perbark of trees, bricks, stone, and wood, spective leads him to think are beyond were among the first materials employed the wall on which the picture is placed. to engrave such things upon, as men were TAPESTRIES, in imitation of paintings, desirous to transmit to posterity. Jo- have also BORDERS, worked in the tapessephus speaks of two columns, the one of try: as these must be proportionate to stone, the other of brick, on which the the size of the picture, which in tapestry children of Seth wrote their inventions are usually very large, they may be orand astronomical discoveries: Porphyry namented with Arabesques, Masks, Camakes mention of some pillars, preserved ieos, &c. The greatest painters have in Crete, on which the ceremonies prac- not disdained this style of composition; tised by the Corybantes in their sacrifices, the borders of many of the tapestries in were recorded: Hesiod's works were ori- the Vatican were executed after designs ginally written upon tables of lead, and by Raffaelle. deposited in the temple of the Muses, in BO'REAS, in Grecian mythology, the Boeotia: the ten commandments, deliv- son of Astroous and Aurora, and usually ered to Moses, were written upon stone; worshipped as the god of the north wind. and Solon's laws upon wooden planks. There are few of the minor Grecian Tables of wood, box, and ivory, were con- divinities of whom so strange and multimon among the ancients: when of wood farious exploits are recorded as of Bothey were frequently covered with wax, reas; and it is interesting to trace to its that people might write on them with source the allegory of all his adventures more ease, or blot out what they had and achievements, and thence to eluciwritten. The leaves of the palm-tree date the causes of his deification. The were afterwards used instead of wooden assiduity, for instance, with which the planks, and the finest and thinnest part of worship of Boreas was cultivated at the bark of such trees, as the lime, the Athens proceeded from gratitude, the ash, the maple and the ellll; from hence north wind having on one occasion decomes the word liber, which signifies the stroyed the fleet of the Persians when inner bark of the trees: and as these meditating the invasion of Athens. A barks were rolled up, in order to be re- similar cause induced the inhabitants of moved with greater ease, these rolls were Megalopolis to consider Boreas as their called volumen, a volume; a name after- guardian divinity, in whose honor they wards given to the like rolls of paper or instituted an annual festival. With his parchment. With regard to the use of usual partiality for mythological allubooks, it is indisputable that they make sion, Milton has given Boreas a place in one of the chief instruments of acquiring his Parcadise Lost:knowledge; they are the repositories of the law, and vehicles of learning of every Nosv from the north r, Of Norumbega, and the Samoed shore, kind; our religion itself is founded on Bursting their brazen dungeon, armed with ice, books, and "without them, (says Bartho- And snow and hail, and stormy gust and flaw, Eln) God is silent, justice dormaut, physic Boreas and Cmcicas and Argestes ouid, lin) God is silent, justice dormant, physic And Thrascias rend the wcoos and sees upturn. at a stand, philosophy lame, letters dumb, and all things involved in Cimmerian Boreas was usually represented with the darkness." Yet, with all the well-merited feet of a serpent, his wrings dripping with eulogies that have been bestowed on golden dew-drops, and the train of his them, we cannot overlook the fact that garment sweeping along the ground. many are frivolous, and some pernicious. BOB1'OUGH, this word originally deIt will therefore be well to bear in mind noted a fortified city or town; but at the opinion of the learned Selden, who present it is given to such town or vilsays that the characteristics of a good lage as sends burgesses or representabook are solidity, perspicuity, and brev- tives to parliament. Boroughs are equally ity. such whether they be incorporate or not; BOR'DER, that which limits or orna- there being several boroughs that are not ments the extremities of a thing. FRAMES incorporated, and, on the contrary, sevin a picture, is a border of carved wood, eral corporations that are not boroughs. 44 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [BOU BOR'RELISTS, in church history, a botanic gardens, the seeds or progeny sect of Christians in Holland, (so called were given out, free of expense, to whofrom Borrel, their founder,) who reject ever in the district to which the garden the use of the sacraments, public prayer, belonged thought fit to apply for them. and all external worship; yet they lead As the useful species and varieties were a very austere life. as much attended to in these gardens as BORS'1-OLDER, among the Anglo- those which were cultivated only in a Saxons, one of the lowest magistrates,scientific point of view, the greatest faciliwhose authority extended only over one ties were thus given to the spread of tithing, consisting of ten families. Each every useful grain, pulse, culinary vetithing formed a little state of itself, and getable, and fruit, over the whole of chose one of its most respectable mem- France. hers for its head, who was called a bors- BOTANOMAN'CY, an ancient species holder, a term derived from two words of divination by means of plants, espesignifying a "surety" and a "head." cially sage and fig leaves. Question. BOSS', this term describes sculptured were written on leaves, which were then objects in their full forms in contradis- exposed to the wind, and as many of the tinction to those which are in RELIEF, letters as remained in their places were or attached more or less to a plane or taken up, and, being joined together, ground. contained an answer to the question. BOS'SAGE, in architecture, a term BOTVTOM RAIL, in architecture, a used for any stone that has a projecture, term used for denoting the lowest horizonand is laid rough in a building, to be af- tal rail of a framed door. terwards carved into mouldings, capitals, BOT'TOTIRY, in commercial law, is in coats of arms, &c.-Bossage is also the effect a mortgage of a ship, being an name for what is otherwise called rustic agreement entered into by an owner or wtor, consisting of stones that seem to his agent, whereby, in consideration of a project beyond the level of the building, sum of money advanced for the use of the by reason of indentures or channels left ship, the borrower undertakes to repay in the joinings. These are chiefly in the the same, with interest, if the ship tercorners of edifices, and are there called minate her voyage successfully; and rustic qwuoins. binds or hypothecates the ship for the BOSS'ES, are projecting ornaments performance of the contract. used in architecture in various situations, BOUIDOIR, in architecture, a small such as ceilings, to cover the points of in- room or cabinet, usually near the bedtersection of the ribs, &c. They consist chamber and dressing-room, for the privariously of fuliage, healIs, armorial vate retirement of the master or mistress shields, &c., and embrace a great variety of the house. of fiuciful shapes. BOUL'TIN, in architecture, a name BOTAN'IC GARDEN, a garden devo- given to a moulding whose section is ted to the culture of a collection of plants, nearly a quadrant of a circle, whose with reference to the science of botany. diameter being horizontal, the contour is The legitimate object of gardens of this convex in respect of a vertical to such description appears to be to collect and diameter. It is more usually called the cultivate, at the public expense, all the egg or quarter round, placed next below species and varieties of plants that can the plinth in the Tuscan and Doric capbe cultivated in the given climate, with ital. or without the aid of glass; and then to BOUN'TY, in commerce and the arts, distribute these to private individuals a premiumn paid by government to the throughout the district by which the producers, exporters, or importers of botanic garden is supported. The most certain articles, or to those who employ complete system of this kind ever es- ships in certain trades, when the profits tablished appears to have been that of resulting from these respective branches France soon after the revolution. All of industry are alleged to be insufficient. the botanical articles that could be pro- BOUSTROPHE'DON, a word descripcured from other countries were sent to tive of a mode of writing common among the botanic garden at Paris; and after the early Greeks until nearly the middle they had borne seeds or been propagated of the fifth century before Christ; viz. in there, the progeny was distributed among alternate lines from right to left and the provincial botanic gardens, of which from left to right, as fields are ploughed there is one or more in every department. in furrows having an alternate direction, After being propagated in the provincial from whence the derivation. BRE] AND THE FINE ARTS. 45 BOUTS-RIMES, a term for certain BRACI'ET, a support suspended rhymes disposed in order, and given to a from or attached to a wall for the purpose poet, together with a subject, to be filled of supporting statuettes, vases, lamps, up with verses ending in the same word clocks, &e. The skill of the artist has and same order. been frequently employed upon this orBOWL'DER, or BOWL'DER-STONE, nament, which is susceptible of great elea roundish stone found on the sea-shore, gance of form and embellishment. or in the channels of rivers, &c., worn BRAII'MINS, or BRAM'INS, the c:ste smooth by the action of water. or hereditary division of Hlindoos pecuBOWL'DER WALL, a wall, generally liarly devoted to religion and religious on the sea-coast, constructed of large science, in the same manner as, among pebbles or bowlders of flint, which have the Jews, the priesthood was ordained to been rounded by the action of water. continue in the tribe of Levi. The famiBOWLS; a game played upon a fine lies of this caste claim peculiar venerasmooth grassy surface, used solely for the tion from the rest, and seem, in their purpose, and denominated a bowling- name of bramins, to claim the merit of green. being the more immediate followers of BOX'ERS, a kind of athletee, who Brahma, their incarnate deity. Some of combat or contend for victory with their them, however, are described as very fists. Among the Romans they were corrupt in their morals; while others live called pugiles; hence the appellation sequestered from the world, devoted to of pugilists to the boxers of the present superstition and indolence. To the bramday. ins we are indebted for whatever we BRACE, in architecture, a piece of know of the Sanscrit, or ancient language timber framed in with bevel joints, to of the country, in which their sacred keep the building from swerving either books are written. way. When the brace is framed into the BRAVU'RA, in music, an air so cornprincipal rafters, it is sometimes called posed as to enable the performer to show a strut. his skill in the execution of difficult pasBRACE'LETS, were with the Ancients, sages. It is also sometimes used for the and are still with the Moderns, the sym- style of execution. bol of marriage. They were generally in BREADTH, this term is employed in the form of a serpent, and some were the lan-guage of Art to express that kind round bands fastened by two serpent's of grandeur which results from the arheads like the girdle of warriors. The ran-gment of objects and of the mode of number of golden and bronze bracelets proceeding in delineating them. In found at Herculaneum and Pompeii, painting it is applied both to Design and show that these ornaments, particularly to Coloring: it conveys the idea of simthose in the form of serpents, were arti- pie arrangement, free from too great a cles of luxury among the females of an- multiplicity of details, following which cient times. Antique bracelets are of the lights and shades spread themselves two kinds, armlets and true bracelets, the over the prominent parts, without dazone worn on the upper arm and the other zling or interfering with each other, so on the wrist or lower arm. Smaller that the attention of the spectator is arbracelets, generally of gold, beautifully rested and kept fixed, and there is breadth worked, and sometimes set with jewels, of efect, the result of judicious coloring were worn on the wrist. Bracelets have and chiaro-oscuro. When a work offers also been found like twisted bands. The these results, we say it has breadth; and Bacchantes wore real serpents instead of'broad touch," and "broad pencil," are serpent-like bracelets. These ornaments terms applicable to this manner of workwere not worn exclusively by women, for ing, when the touches and strokes of the we find that the Roman Consuls wore pencil produce breadth/ of efct. In a bracelets in triumphal processions; they similar sense, in engraving, we say " a were presented by the emperors to sol- broad burin." But although a work of diers who distinguished themselves (AR- sculpture is susceptible of breadth, we do MILL..) The ankles had similar orna- not say " a broad chisel." ments, thence called ANKLETS. BREC'CIA, an Italian name for those BRACHYG'RAPHY, stenography, or stones which consist of hard angular or the art of writing in short hand. rounded fragments of different mineral BRACIYL'OGY, in rhetoric, the meth- bodies, united by a kind of cement, of od of expressing anything in the most which the so-called pudding-stone is an concise manner. example, which consists of flint detritus, 46 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [BRO cemented by quartz. The ancients used BRILLAN/TE, in music, prefixed to a breccia both in architecture and the movement, denotes that it is to be played Plastic Arts. Porphyry breccia, or in a gay and lively manner. Egyptian breccia, is one of the most BRITAN'NIA, the name given by the beautiful varieties of this material, of Romans to the island of Britain, which is which a fine pillar is contained in the represented on their medals under the Mltseo Pio Clementino. figure of a female resting her left arm on 13REED'ING, in a moral sense, denotes a shield. a person's deportment or behavior in the BRITIN'IANS, a body of Augustine external offices and decorums of social monks who received their name from life. In this sense, we say, well-bred, ill- Britini, in Ancona. They were distinbred, a man of breeding, &c. Lord guished by their austerities in living. Sha.ftesbury compares the well-bred man BROCADE', a stuff of gold, silver, or with the real philosopher; the conduct silk, raised and enriched with flowers, and ianners of the one are formed accord- foliages, and other ornaments, according ing to the most perfect ease and good en- to the fancy of the merchants or manntertainment of company; of the other, facturers. according to the strictest interest of man- BROGUE, a defective pronunciation of kind; the one according to his rank and a language, particularly applied to the quality in his private station; the other, Irish manner of speaking English. according to his rank and dignity in na- BRO'KER, a name applied to persons ture. In short, good-breelng is polite- of several and very different professions, ness, or the union of those qualifications the chief of which are exchange-brokers, which constitute genteel deportment. stock-brokers, pawn-brokers, and brokers BREVE, in music, a note of the third who sell household furniture. degree of length. It is equal to two BRON'TIUM, in Grecian antiquity, a semibreves, or when dotted, to three: the place underneath the floor of the theaformer is called an imlperfect, the latter, tres, in which were kept brazen vessels a perfect breve. full of stones and other materials, with BREVET', a military term, expressive which they imitated the noise of thunder. of nominal promotion without additional BRONZE, a mixed metal, composed pay: thus, a brevet major serves a cap- principally of copper, with a small portain, and draws pay as such. The word tion of tin and other metals. The anis borrowed from the French, signifying cients used bronze for a great variety of a royal act granting some favor or privi- purposes; hence, arms and other instrulege; as brevet d'uinvention. ments, medals and statues of this metal, BRE'VIARY, the book containing the are to be found in all cabinets of antiquidaily service of the church of Rome. ties. The moderns have also made much -BRIEF, in law, an abridgment of the use of bronze, particularly for statues client's case, made out for the instruction exposed to accidents, or the influence of of counsel on a trial at law; wherein the the atmosphere, and for casts of celecase of the plaintiff, &c., is to be briefly, brated antiques. Bronze of a good qualbut completely, stated.-Briee in music, ity acquires, by oxydation, a fine green a measure of quantity, which contains tint, called patinla antiqzecr or cer1'ego; two strokes down in beating time, and which appearance is imitated by an artwo up.-Brief apostolical, letters or tificial process, called bronzinLg. written messages of the pope, addressed BROWN, or tan-color, was used both to princes or magistrates, respecting in ancient and medievral times as a sign matters of public concern. of mourning; regarded as a compound BRIGADE', a party or division of sol- of red and black, BISTRE, it is the symdiers, either horse or foot. An army is bol of infernal love and of treason. By divided into brigades of horse and brigades the Egyptians Typhon was represented of foot: a brigade of horse is a body of of a red color, or rather of red mixedl eight or ten squadrons; a brigade of foot with black; everything in nature of a consists of four, five, or six battalions. brown color was consecrated to Typhon. BRIG'ANDINE, a kind of ancient de- In the ancient pictures representing the fensive armor, consisting of thin jointed Passion of Jesus Christ, the personages scales of plate, so arranged as to be pliant are frequently depicted brown. Several and easy to the body. religious orders adopt this color in their BRIGHT, in painting, shining with costume, as the symbol of renunciation. light; a term applied to a picture in which With the Moors it was emblematic of the lights preponderate over the shadows. every evil. Tradition assigns red hair t. ----- -----—. —c —---------- ---------------------------- ------ 7un] AND THE FINE ARTS, 47 to Judas. Christian symbolism appro- hero, or as a thanksgiving for a victory priates the color of the dead leaf for the obtained over an enemy, whose bucklers, type of spiritual death; the blue, the taken in war, were offered as a trophy. celestial color, which gives them life, BUCK'RAM, a sort of coarse cloth is evaporated-they become of a dark- made of hemp, gummed, calendered, and yellow, hence the term " dead leaf." dyed of several colors. It is used in BRU'MAL, the winter quarter of the drapery, garments, &c., required to be year, beginning at the shortest dav. kept stiff to their form. BRUMA'LIA, in antiquity, a festival BUCOLICS, the Greek term for pascelebrated by the Romans in honor of toral poems, meaning literally the songs Bacchus twice a-year; viz., on the twelfth of herdsmen. We have considerable reof the calends of March, and the eighth mains of this species of poetry in the of the calends of December. poems of Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus, BRUTE, an animal without the use of and the Eclogues of Virgil. The metre reason, or that acts by mere instinct, in universally employer is the hexameter which sense it denotes much the same or heroic; but in pastoral poetry an with beast, and comprehends all animals easier flow of the lines was studied than excepting mankind. Philosophers, how- in epics, and this was generally accoinmever, are far from being agreed on this plished by introducing a larger proporsubject; some making brutes mere ma- tion of the metrical feet called dactyls in chilnes, whilst others allow them not only the former than in the latter; but no reason, but immortality. Others take a rules were laid down on this point. This middle course, and allow brutes to have species of poetry has been cultivated also imaglination, memory, and passion; but by most modern nations, and in England, deny that they have understanding or France, and especially in Germany, with reason, at least, in any degree compara- great success. Indeed, the last-mentioned ble to that of mankind. The sagacity of country can boast among others of a many brutes is indeed admirable; yet Gessner, whose Idyls have been prowhat a prodigious difference is there nounced by some modern critics to be between that sagacity and the reason of models of pastoral poetry, combining the mankind! imost finished harmnonv of numbers with a BUCANIER', or BUCCANEER', a simplicity and tenderness of sentiment name given to those piratical adven- and expression worthy of Theocritus himturers, chiefly English and French, who, self. in the seventeenth century, committed BUDD-IISTS, the followers or worthe most excessive depredations on the shippers of Buddha, the founder of a very Spaniards in America. The name had ancient religion in India, which afterbeen given to the first French settlers on wards spread to Japan, Thibet, and Chithe island of St. Domingo, whose sole em- na, where it exists at the present day. ployment'consisted in hunting bulls or Buddha, whose historical name was Tshawild boars, in order to sell their hides kia-muni, was born under the reign of and flesh; and as they smoked and dried Tshao-wang, of the dyna sty of Tsheu, the flesh of the animals according to the 1029 B.C., and died under the reifn of manner of the Indians, which was called Mouwang, 950 B.C. His disciple Mahabu.ccaneering, they thus obtained the kaya succeeded him, and is the first saint name of buccaneers. or patriarch of Buddhism; but a regular BUCCELLA'RII, an order of soldiery dynasty of successors filled this important under the Greek emperors, appointed to station till A.D. 713. Their history is guard and distribute the rations of bread. mixed with the grossest fables; but it is BUCCI'NA, an ancient musical and clear that they devoted themselves to remilitary instrument, somewhat similar to ligious exercises and constant contemplathe modern trumpet.-Hence BUCCINA- tion, and condemned themselves to the TOR, or trumpeter. severest abstinence. Besides many other BUCEN'TAUR, the name of the large nmonuments of the ancient worship of vessel which the Venetians formerly used Buddha, there are two particularly rein the ceremony of espousing the sea. markable-the ruins of the gigantic temBUCK'LER, a piece of defensive ar- pie Boro-Budor, in Java, and the five mor used by the ancients, commonly large subterranean halls, called Pantshcomposed of hides, fortified with plates of Pandu, on the way from Guzerat to Malmetal.-Bucklers, votive, were -those con- wa. Tradition ascribes these astonishing secrated to the gods, and hung up in works of ancient Indian architecture and their temples, in commemoration of some sculpture, which far surpass the skill of 48 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [BUR the modern Hindoos, to the Pandus, the pipe or string that plays it. The bass heroes of Indian mythology. pipe in the bagpipe is so called. Hence, BUD'GET, in a general sense, means that part of a song that is repeated at a condensed statement of the income and the end of every'stanza is called the burexpenditure of a nation, or of any particu- den of it. lar public department. In England, BUREAU', in its primary sense, is a however, the term is usually employed cloth covering a table; next a writingto designate the speech made by the table; and afterwards used to signify the chancellor of the exchequer when he chamber of an officer of government, and gives a general view of the public reve- the body of subordinate officers who labor nue and expenditure, and intimates under the direction of a chief. whether government intend to propose BUREAU'CRATIE, or BUREAUthe imposition or repeal of any taxes, &c. CRACY, is the system by which thr BUF'FO, the Italian for a singer, or business of administration is carriel on actor, when he takes the humorous part in departments, each under the control in comic operas, &c. of a chief, in contra-distinction to those BUH-L, this word is a corruption of systems in which the officers of governBoztle, the name of an Italian artisan ment have a co-ordinate authority. who first introduced this kind of ornament BUR'/ESS, an inhabitant of a borough, into cabinet-work. It is used to desig- or one who possesses a tenement therein. nate that sort of work in which any two In other countries, burgess and citizen materials of different colors are inlaid are used synonymously; but in England into each other, as brass, tortoise-shell, they are distinguished, burgess being pearl, &c.; it is applied to chairs, tables, ordinarily used for the representative of desks, work-boxes, &c. a borough-town in parliament. BUL, in the ancient Hebrew chronolo- BURG'LARY, in law, the breaking gy, the eighth monthof the ecclesiastical, and entering the dwelling of another in and the second of the civil year; it has the night, with the intent to commit since been called Marshevan, and answers some felony, whether the felonious intent to our October. be put in execution or not. The like BULL, PAPAL, an instrument, ordi- offence committed by day, is called housenance, or decree of the Pope, equivalent breaking. to the proclamations, edicts, letters pat- BURGOMASTER, the chief magistrate ent, or ukases of secular princes. Bulls of the great towns in Flanders, Holland, are written on parchment, to which a and Germany. The authority of a, burgoleaden seal is affixed, and are granted master resembles that of the Lord Mayor for the consecration of bishops, the pro- in London. motion to benefices, and the celebration BU'RIN, an instrument used for enof jubilees, &c. The publication of papal graving on copper or steel plates. bulls is termed fulmination; and it is BURLES'QUE, the Italian poesia burdone by one of three commissioners, to lesca, signifies merely comic or sportive whom they are usually addressed. poetry; but the term, in French and BUL'LA, in antiquity, a small round English, is more commonly restricted to ornament of gold or silver, worn about compositions of which the humor consists the neck or breast of the children of the in a ludicrous mixture of things high nobility till the age of fourteen. and low: as high thoughts clothed in BUL'LETIN, an official account of low expressions; or, vice versa, ordinary public transactions or matters of general or base topics invested in thle artificial interest. dignity of poetic diction. The humor of BULL'-FIGHT, an entertainment for- parody or travestie arises from the burmerly frequent in Spain and Portugal, lesque.-Btrletta, a slight comic musical at which wild bulls are encountered by drama, is derived from the same oogin. men on horseback, armed with lances. BURLET'TA, a light, comic species of BULL'ION, uncoined gold or silver in musical drama, which derives its name the mass. Those metals are called so, from the Italian burlare, to jest. either when smelted from the native ore, BUR'SARS, originally clerks or treasand not perfectly refined; or when they urers in convents: in more modern times, are perfectly refined, but melted down in persons enabled to prosecute their studies bars or ingots, or in any unwroughtbody, at a university by means of funds derived of any degree of fineness. from endowments. It is a singular cirBUR'DEN, in music, the drone or bass cumstance that the latter acceptation of in some musical instruments, and the this term originated among the Poles, c] AND THE FINE ARTS. 49 who, even in the 14th century, were ac- BUS'TUM, in antiquity, a funeral pile customed to supply young men of talent on which the dead bodies of the Romans with the means of travelling to Germany, used to be burnt. Hence, BUSTUA'RaI and there studying philosophy under the were gladiators who fought about the guidance of the monks. This practice bustum of any person in the celebration was soon adopted by other nations; and of his obsequies. there is now, perhaps, no civilized coun- BY'-LAVWS, or BYE'-LAWS, private try in which it does not exist, under the and peculiar laws for the good governname of bursaries, fellowships, exhibi- ment of a city, court, or other community, tions. scholarships, &c. These endow- made by the feneral consent of the inemments are of two kinds: either furnishing bers. All by-laws are to be reasonable, the student with the means of prosecuting and for the common benefit, not private his studcies durin the academical curri- advantage of any particular persons, and culumn; or enabling him to devote him- must be agreeable to the public laws in self, without distraction, to literary pur- being. suits even after the expiration of this BYZAN'TINE, a gold coin of the value period. of 151., so called froum being coined at BUR'SCHE, a youth, especially a stu- Byzantium. Also an epithet for anydent at a university. thing pertaining to Byzantiurm, an anBU1RSCIIEN COMMENT, the code of cient city of Thrace, situated on the Boslaws adopted by the students for the phorus. regulation of their demeanor amongst BYZAN'TINE HISTORIANS, a sethemselves, &c. ries of Greek historians and authors, who BUJR'SCIHENSCHAFT, a league or lived under the Eastern Empire between secret association of students, formed in the 6th and the 15th centuries. They 1815, for the purpose, as was asserted, of nmay be divided into three classes: 1. the political regeneration of Germany, tIistorians whose works forn a continuand suppressed, at least in name, by the ous history of the Byzantine ElnEpiro exertions of the governments. from the fourth century of the Christian URS E, PBU'SA, or BASIL'ICA, an era down to the Turkish conquest of Conexchange, or place of meeting for mer- stantinople.. They are nearly thirty in chants to consult on matters of trade, and number, awith various shades of literary to negotiate bills of exchangge. merit; but their works constitute the alBUSIRIS, in Egyptian mythology, a most only authentic source of the history fabulous personage, of whose origin, ex- of that eventful period. 2. General chronploits, and echtracter, Apollodorus, Herod- iclers or historians, whose works, embraotus, Diodorus Siculus, and other ancient cing a wider range than those of the forwriters, liave given a most discrepant mer. treat chiefly of the chronogra.phy of account. His history is blended with the world from the oldest times. 3. Autha.t of Osiris. thors who confined their attention to the BUS'KIN, a kind of boot, or covering politics, statistics, antiquities, manners, for the leg, of great antiquity. It was &c., of the Romans. These two classes part of the costume of actors in tragedy; combined amount also to about thirty, it is worn by Diana in representations of and their writing s give an excellent illusthat goddess, as part of the costume of tration of the times of which they treat, hunters. In antique marbles it is repre- whether as historians, chroniclers, antisented tastefully ornamented. Being quaries, or politicians. laced in front it fitted tightly to the leg. Buskin is used in contradistinction to the sock, (soccus) the flat-soled shoe,(C worn by comedians, &c., and both terms are used to express the tragic and comic C, the third letter and second consonant drama. of the alphabet, is pronounced like k beBUST, or BUS'TO, in sculpture, de- fore the vowels a, o, and s, and like s benotes the figure or portrait of a person fore e, i, and y. Before h it has a pocuin relievo, showing only the head, shoul- liar sound, as in chance, chalk; in chord ders, and stomach, the arms being lopped and some other words, it is hard like k; off. The stomach and shoulders are, but in many French words it is soft bestrictly speaking, the bust. The term is fore h, like s, as in chaise, chagrin, &c. also used by the Italians, for the torso or As a numeral C stands for 100, and C C trunk of the body, from the neck to the for 200, &e.; as an abbreviation it stands hips. for Christ, as A.C. Anno Christi, or Anto. 4 50 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [OAD Christum; also for Companion, as C.B. thracia, whence it was afterwards transCompanion of the Bath. And in music, ferred to Lemnos, Irmbros, and certain C after the cliff, is the mark of common towns of Troas. They were styled the offtime. spring of Vulcan, though their name was CAA'BA, or CAA'BAHI, properly sig- derived from their mother Cabera, daughnifies a square building; but is particu- ter of Proteus. Their number is variously larly applied by the Mahometans to the given. Those who were initiated in their temple of' Mecca, built, as they pretend, rites were held to be secured against all by Abraham, and Ishmail _his son. It is danger by sea and land. Their distintowards this temple they always turn guishing badge was a purple girdle. their faces when they pray, in whatever CACOE'TIES, an ill habit or propenpart of the world they happen to be. sity; as the cacoethes scribcnrdi, an itch This temple enjoys the privilege of an for authorship. asylum for all sorts of criminals; but it CAC'OPI-ONG, in rhetoric, an unis most remarkable for the pilgrimages couth, bad tone of the voice, proceeding made to it by the devout Mussulmans, from the ill disposition of the organs. who pay so great a veneration to it, that CACOPI'ONY, in rhetoric, a defect they believe a single sight of its sacred of style, consisting in a harsh or disagreewalls, without any particular act of de- able sound produced by the meeting of votion, is as meritorious in the sight of two or more letters or syllables, or by God, as the most careful discharge of the too frequent repetition of the same one's duty, for the space of a whole year, letters or syllables: e.g. in any other temple. And oft the ear the open vowels tire.-Pope. CABAL', denotes a, number of persons united in some close design, and is some- CACOSYN'THETON, in grammar, an times used synonymously with faction. improper selection and arrangement of This term was applied to the ministry of words in a sentence. Charles II., from the initial letters of CA'CUS, in fabulous history, the son their respective names, viz., Clifford, of Vulcan, a robber of Italy, whose dwellAshley, Buckingham, Arlington, and ing was in the Aventine wood. Iis exLauderdale. ploits form the subject of a fine episode CAB/ALA, a mysterious kind of science in the 8th book of the 1,eid. lie was pretended to have been delivered by rev- represented as a frightful monster of enelation to the ancient Jews, and trans- ormous strength, who, after a lonC life mitted by oral tradition to those of our of crime, was at length slain by 1-ertimes; serving for the interpretation of cules, from whom he had stolen some the books both of nature and scripture. oxen. To express his gratitude for his CAB'INET, a select apartment set victory, Hercules erected the Ara a11axapart for writing, studying, or preserv- ia; and Evander, with his insflt colony ing anything that is precious. Hence of Arcadians, performed divine honors to we say, a cabinet of paintings, curiosi- Hercules as their benefactor. ties, &c.-Also, the closet or private CA'DENCE, in grammar, the fall of room in the royal palace, where councils the voice; also the flow of verses or are held; likewise the ministers of state periods; in music, the conclusion of a who are summoned to attend such -coun- song, or of some parts thereof, in certain cils. places of the piece, dividing it as it were CABP'RI, certain deities greatly ven- into so many numbers or periods. The erated by the ancient Pagans in Greece cadence takes place when the parts fall and Phoenicia, who were supposed to have or terminate. on a note or chord naturally a particular influence over maritime af- expected by the ear, just as a period fairs. Various opinions have been enter- closes the sense in the paragraph of a tained concerning the nature and origin discourse. A cadence is either perfect or of the Cabiri; but fiom the multiplicity of imperfect. The former when it consists names applied to them, together with the of two notes sung after each other, or by profound secrecy observed in the celebra- degrees conjointed in each of the two tion of their rites, an almost impenetrable parts, the harmony of the fifth preceding veil of mystery has been thrown around that of the key-note; and it is called their history. They seem to have been perfect, because it satisfies the ear more men who, having communicated the art than the latter. The latter imperfect; of melting metals, &c., were deified by a that is, when the key-note with its hargrateful posterity. Their worship was mony precedes that of the fifth without chiefly cultivated in the island of Samo- its added seventh. A cadence is said to Csaj] AND THE fINE ARTS. 51 be broken or interrupted when the bass Vienna, and Munich are on so extensive rises a major or minor second, instead of a scale as to challenge a comparison with failing a lifth. any similar institutions in Europe. In CADET', one who is trained up for the Germany, too, the word cadet has a wider army by a course of military discipline; signification than in England, being apsuch as the cadets at the military col- plied to those persons who, without havleges of Woolwich, Addiscombe, &c. In ing frequented a military school, join the 1 Enland there are three grand institu- army in the expectation of obtaining a tions for the education of cadets: Sand- commission when they have gained a. b hurst for the British line; Woolwieh for competent knowledge of the service. the artillery and engineers; and Addis- In Russia there is a famous academy combo for the Indlian army, both line for cadets, which was instituted by Ann and artillery. The academy at Sand- at St. Petersburg in 1732; and since its hurst was instituted by George II., for foundation has aflfrded instruction in the purpose of affording general and pro- milrary science to upwards of 9000 fessional instruction to the sons of pri- pupils, many eof wnom have acquired vate or military gentlemen, wvih the celebrity in the annals of Russian literaview of their obtaninig commissions in ture. the British army without purchase. Be- In the United States there is one at fore the commission is conferred, the West Point, on nearly the same princi] cadet must undergo an examination be- pie as that at Addiscombe. fore a competent board in the classics, CADET'StIP, the commission given mathematics, military drawing, &c. to a cadet to enter the East India CornThe academy at Woolwich was estab- pany's service. lished with the view of qualifying cadets CA'DI, a civil judge or magistrate in for the artillery or engineers; and to the Turkish empire. this institution the master-general of the CADUCEUS, the staff of Mercury or ordnance has the sole right of granting Hermes, which gave the god power to fly. d admission. The attention of the cadets It was given to him by Apollo, as a reis specially directed to geography; gen- ward for having assisted him to invent eral history, ancient and modern; modern the Lyre. It was then a winged staff; languages; military drawing and sur- but, in Arcadia, Hermes cast it among veyig; mathematics; engineering and serpents, who immediately twined themfortification. After the lapse of four selves around it, and became quiet. After i years, genaerally, the cadets undergo an this event, it was used as a herald of: examination in the above mentioned peace. It possessed the power of bestowi branches of science; when the most dis- ing happiness and riches, of healing the tinguished are selected for the engineers, sick, raising the dead, and conjuring spirthe others for the artillery. its from the lower world. On the silver The college of Addiscombe is estab- coins of the Roman emperors, the Cadulished for the education of officers of the ceus was given to Mars, who holds it in line, artillery, and engineers for the In- the left hand, and the spear in the right, dian army. The plan of instruction to show how peace succeeds war. pursued there combines the two sys- CIELATU'RA, from the Latin cclzuem, terns adopted at Sandhurst and at Wool- the tool used: the art, called also by the with. In order to become a cadet in this Romans, sculptura, or chasing, if we institution, it is necessary to have the mean "raised-work" Cmlat-ura correspromlise of a commission from a director ponds to the Grecian term toenttice, de] of the Eaist India Company; and after a rived from toros, which in its true sense prescribed examination, an appointment means only raised-work. Quintilian exis obtained in one of the branches of the pressly limits this term to metal, while Indian army, according to the merit or he mentions wood, ivory, marble, glass, pleasure of the cadet. and precious stones as materials for enIn France the academies for cadets graving. Silver was the artist's favorite which existed previously to the French metal, but gold, bronze, and even iron, Revolution have been merged in the were embossed. Closely connected with Polytechnic schools. this art was that of stamping with the The Dutch possess two institutions of punch, called by the Romans esccudere. this nature; one at Breda, the other at Embossings were probably finished by Delft. toreutice, of which Phidias is called the In Germany every small state has a inventor. The colossal statues of gold military school; while those at Berlin, and ivory made by hin and by Polycletus L __ ___ ______ _ _ ___ 52 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CAt belong partly to sculpture by the ivory- tament represents as victims of peculiar work, and partly to toreutic art from the divine judgments, were in fact children gold-work, the embossing of which was of the good principle, and enemies of the essential to their character, as also to evil. Some of them are said to have castings: the statue of Minerva was rich- published a gospel of Judas on the same ly embossed. Besides Phidias and Poly- principle. The Quintilianists, so called cletus, Myron, Mys and Mentor are men- from a lady named Quintilia, of whom tioned as great toreutic artists. Arms, Tertullian speaks, were an offset of this armor, &c., were adorned in this manner; sect. other articles, such as goblets and other CA IRA, CA IRA, (literally, it (the drinking cups, were also embossed, partly Revolution) shall go on,) the burden of a with figures in alto-relievo, or with famous revolutionary song, which was figures standing quite clear: also dishes, composed in the year 1790 in denunciathe ornaments of which were set in en- tion of the French aristocracy. The tune blernec, or fastened slightly on as crustce. and sentiments of this song were much Carriages wore ornamented not only with inferior to those of the Marseillaise bronze, but even with silver and gold Hymn (" Allons efpns do la patrie,") embossings. Other articles of furniture, the object of whiclf was to rouse the tripods, disks of candelabra, were thus French to defend their country against ornamented. With this torezutice or em- foreign aggression. bossing, must not be confounded the art CAIRN, a word of Celtic origin, used of inlaying, empai.tike, much practised to denote the piles of stones of a conical in antiquity. form so frequently found on the tops of C/IERI'TES TAB'ULE, in antiquity, hills, &c. in various districts; erected tables or registers in which the censors probably, for the purpose of memorials, entered the names of those citizens, who although some have assigned to them a for any misdemeanor were deprived of peculiar character, as receptacles for the their right of voting at an election. bodies of criminals burnt in the wicker CAI'SAR, in'Roman antiquity, the images of the Druids, &c. According to family name of the first five Roman em- some antiquaries, cairn is distinct from perors, and afterwards adopted as a title carnedd, the Welsh name for heaps of by their successors. It was also used, by stones on the tops of high mountains, way of distinction, for the intended or (Carnedd David, Carnedd Llewellyn, &c.,) presumptive heir of the empire. which are said to have been sacrificial. CIESA'RIANS, in Roman antiquity, Some cairns are undoubtedly sepulofficers or ministers of the Roman empe- chral. rors, who kept an account of their reve- CAISSON, in architecture, a sunken nues, and took possession in their name panel in a flat or vaulted ceiling, or in of such things as devolved or were confis- the soffit of a cornice. In ceilings they cated to them. are of various geometrical forms, and CAESU'RA, a figure in prosody, by often enriched with rosettes or other which a division or separation takes place ornaments. in a foot that is composed of syllables CALAMUS, a rush or reed used anbelonging to different words. ciently as a pen to write on parchments CJ/ET'ERIS PAR'IBUS, a term often or papyrus. used by mathematical and physical wri- CALAN'TICA, CALVATICA, a kind of ters; the words literally signifying the head-dress worn by women in ancient rest, or other thiZngs, being alike or equal. times, and known very early in Greece; Thus of a bullet, it may be said cccteris there were two kinds, nets and cap-like paributs, the heavier it is the greater the bags. Many varieties of these caps are range, supposing the length and diame- to be seen upon ancient vases; sometimes ter of the piece and the quantity and they are of a plain material, sometimes strength of the powder to be the same. having a pattern, and sometimes striped CAI/NITES, a sect of heretics, who or checked; they are either open behind, appeared about 159 A.D. They probably so that part of the hair hangs out, or it originated in some of the various schools covers only the two sides of the head. of Manicheisrn; and, if their doctrines CALVATHUS, the ancient term for are truly reported to us, they are said to the basket in which the spinners kept have asserted that the power which cre- their wool and their work; it was also ated heaven and earth was the evil prin- called TALARUS, and was made of wickerciple; that Cain, Esau, Korah, the people work, with a wide opening at top and of Sodom, and others whom the Old Tes- pointed at bottom. The calathus was a CAL] AND THE FINE ARTS. 53 symbol of maidenhood, advanced to allow this to be done with and in this sense was em- much precision. The Roman calendar -2 ployed by artists, as is continued in a state of uncertainty and seen in the reliefs repre- confusion till the time of Julius Cosar, senting Achilles among when the civil equinox differed from the the daughters of Lycom- astronomical by three months. Under edes. Other antiquesshow the advice of the astronomer Sosigenes, us that these baskets were Cesar abolished the lunar year, and regused for many purposes at ulated the civil year entirely by the sun. the toilet, for flowers, &c. The calathus The Julian year consisted of 36545 days, also appears in the basket-like form of and consequently differed in excess by 1i the capitals of Corinthian pillars. minutes 10-35 see. from the true solar CALA'TOR, in antiquity, was a public year, which consists of 365 d. 5 h. 48 in. servant, and a freeman, such as a bailiff 49-62 sec. In consequence of this differor crier, to summon courts, synods, and ence the astronomical equinox, in the other public assemblies. HIe also attend- course of a few centuries, sensibly fell ed on the priests in. the sacrifices. back towards the besginning of the year. CAL'CEUS, a shoe or short boot used In the time of Julius Ctesar it correby the Greeks and Romans as a covering sponded to the 25th of March; in the to protect the feet while walking; the sixteenth century it had retrograded to term being used in contradistinction to the 11th. The correction of this error sandals or slippers, and corresponding to was one of the purposes sought to be obthe modern shoes. There were two sorts, tained by the reformation of the calendar the calcei lun ati, which were worn by the effected by Pope Gregory XIII. in 1582. patricians, so called from an ivory cres- By suppressing 10 days in the calendar, cent with which they were ornamented, Gregory restored the equinox to the 21st and the calcei emeclli, or red shoes. They of March, the day on which it fell at the came up to the middle of the leg, but time of the Council of Nice in 325; the only covered the sole of the foot. place of Easter aind the other movable CALCOG'RAPIY, an engrtaving after church feasts in the ecclesiastical calenthe manner of a drawing( in chalk. dar havingy been prescribed at that counCALCULA'TION, the act of comput- cil. And in order that the same inconing several sums by means of a,ddition, venience might be prevented in future, subtraction, multiplication, division, &c., he ordered the intercalation awhich took or an estimate formed in the mind by place every fourth year to be omitted in comparing the various circumstances years ending centuries. The G-reforian which influence its determination. calendar was received immediately or CALCULATO'RES, accountants among shortly after its promulg'ation b)y all tile the IRomasins, who used to reckon by means Roman Catholic countries of Europe. The of little stones or pebbles. Protestant states of Germany, and the CAL'ENDAR, a distribution or divis- kingdom of Denmark, adhered to the ion of time into periods adapted to the Julian calendar till 1700; and in Engpurposes of civil life; also a table or re- land the alterAion wals successfully opgister of such divisions, exhibiting the posed by popular prejudices till 1752. In order in which the seasons, months, festi- that year the Julian calendar, or old vals, and holidays succeed each other du- style, as it was called, Iwas formally abolring the year. The word is derived from ished by the act of parliament, and the the ancient Latin verb calare, to call. In date used in all public transactions renderthe early ages of Rome, it was the custonm ed coincident with that followed in other for the pontiffs to call the people together European countries, by enacting that the on the first day of each month, to apprise day following the 2d of September of the them of the days that were to be kept year 1752 should be called the 14th of sacred in the course of it. Hence dies that month. calendce, the calends or first days of the A new reform of the calendar was atdifferent months. The calendars in use tempted to be introduced in France duthroughout Europe are borrowed from ring the period of the Revolution. The that of the Romans. Romulus is sup- commenceInent of the year was fixed at posed to have first undertaken to divide the autumnal equinox, which nearly cothe year in such a manner that certain incided with the epoch of the foundation epochs should return periodically after a of the republic. The names of the anrevolution of the sun; but the knowledsge cient months were abolished, and others of astronomy was not then sufficiently substituted having reference to agricul 54 CYCLOP.EDIA OF LITERATURK |CAX A tural labors, or the state of nature in the among the Saracens or Mahometans, i different seasons of the year. But the vested with absolute authority in all alteiration was found to be inconvenient matters relating both to religion and ant impracticable, and after a few years policy. It is at this day one of the was formally abandoned. Grand Signior's titles, as successor of the CA'LENDS, in the ancient Roman Prophet; and of the Sophi of Persia, as calendar, were the first days of each successor of Ali. The government of the month. The Roman month was divided original Caliphs continued from the into three periods by the Calends, the death of Mahomet till the 655th year of Naloes, and the Ides. The Catlends were the hegira. invariably placed at the beginning of the CALK'ING, or CAULK'ING in paintmonth; the Ides at the middle of the ing, the covering of the back side of a month, on the 13th or 15th; and the design with red chalk, and tracing lines Nones (noveom, nine) were the ninth day through on a waxed plate or wall, so as before the Ides, counting inclusively. to leave an impression of the color there. From these three terms the days were CALL1'OPE, in mythology, one of the counted backwards, in the following man- Muses usually associated with Homer in noer:-Those days comprised between the the statues of antiquity, and thence concalends and the nones, were denominated sidered as the patroness of heroic poedays before the nones; those between try. the nones and the ides, days- before the CALL OF THE HOUSE, a parliaides; and those from the ides to the end mentary term, implying an imperative of the month, (ldays before the calends. call or sunmmons, sent to every member CAL'ICO, cloth made of cotton. It is on some particular occasion. called calico, because originally brought CALO'VIC. the principle or cause of from Calicut, a kin:, lorn of India on this heat, as distinguished from the sensaside of the Ganges,. the coast of Male- tion. bar. These cloths, wv tether plain, printed, CALOTE', a sort of skull cap worn by dyed, stained, or p.ainted, chintz, or mus- the French cavalry under their caps, as a lin, are all includedi under one general guard against the blows of the sabre. denomination. CAL'UMET, a symbolical instrument CAL'IDUCT, in antiquity, a pipe or of great importance among the Indians canal disposed along the walls of a house of America. It is -a smoking-pipe, the for conveying heat from a furnace to the bowl of which is generally made of a soft various anartments. red marble, and the tube of a very long CAL'IGA, in antiquity, a sort of san- reed, ornamented with feathers. This indal worn by the Roman soldiers, whence strument, the use of which bears a great Caligula derived his name. These call-ce resemblance to the caduceus of the were sometimes adorned with gold and Greeks, is a pledge of peace and good silver nails. faith. The calumet of war, differently CALIG'RAPHY, the art of beautiful made, is used to proclaim war. writing. The scribes who made a pro- CAL'VINISM, the theological tenets fession of copying manuscripts, before of John Calvin, who, in the 16th century, the invention of printing, have been flourished at Geneva, where his doctrines termed Caligraphers. Their art con- still subsist. The doctrinal parts of this sisted not merely in writing, but also in system differ from that of other reformers embellishing their work with ornamen- of Calvin's period, chiefly in what regards tal devices, although illumination was the absolute decrees of God, by which, also practised as a distinct employment. according to this teacher, the future and Among the MSS. of the early part of the eternal condition of the human race was middle ages which we possess, there are predetermined. some sumptuous specimens of the art, CALYP'SO, in fabulous history, a written in letters of gold, vermilion, &c., daughter of Atlas, according to Homer, and on leaves of different colors, but that but of Oceanus and Thetys, according to fashion went early out of use; and in Hesiod, was the queen of the island general it may be said, that the current Ogygia. On this island Ulysses suffered writing of caligraphers diminished in shipwreck; and Calypso, by the united beauty and laborious minuteness, espe- influence of her love and spells, prevailed cially in Italy, during the centuries im- on him to remain and share her seeptre. mediately preceding the invention of After the lapse of seven years, however, printing. his desire to revisit his native country CA'LIPH, the chief sacerdotal dignity became irrepressible, and he resolved to CAM] AND THE FINE ARTS. forego his honors in Ogygia. Calypso cient artof stone-cutting, the gems cut in tried every expedient, offering him even relief, called on account of the different the bribe of immortality, to induce him layers of stone camei, are rarer and more to remain; but all her efforts proved valuable than those cut in intaglio. Caunavailing, and on his departure she meos are not mentioned in the history of died of grief. The island of Ogygia, medimval art; they were brought forplaced by Pliny off the Lacinian prom- ward again in Italy in recent times. The ontory, between the Tarentine and Sycil- production of cameos has become an artlian batys, has long since been engulfed in manufacture of considerable importance. the ocean, along with the famous islands CAMERALIS'TICS, the science of of the Sirens. finance or public revenue, comprehending CAMAYEU, CAMAIEU, MONO- the means of raising and disposing of it. CHROME. By this term we understand CAM'EERA LU'CIDA, an optical inpainting with a single color, varied only strument, for the purpose of making the by the effect of c.hiaro-oscuro; we apply image of any object appear on the wall in this term to painting in gray, which, as a light room. either by day or night.well as red, was used by the ancients. Also, an instrument for drawing objects Pictures in two or three tints, where the in true perspective. natural hues of the objects are not CAMiERA-OBSCUTRA, or dark chaincopied, may also be called en camayeu; ber, an optical machine or apparatus, in we speak of brown, red, yellow, green, which the light being collected, and and blue calstayeu, according to their thrown through a single aperture, exprincipal colors. The pictures of Poll- ternal objects are exhibited distinctly, dori Caravaggio, for example, by their and in their native colors, on any white heavy brown tint, give the impression of surface placed within the machine. monochrome painting, and, with all their CAMISADEF, a French term for atperfection, they are but pictures el tacking or surprising an enemy by night. ccmayeu. Drawings in red or black It obtained the name from the soldiers chalk, lead and other pencils, Indian ink, wearing their shirts over their other sepia and bistre, as well as engraving, clothes, that they might be known to each may be called Camayeux. other. CA B'ItIC, a species of fine white lin- CAMI'LET, a sort of stuff originally en, made of flax, said to be named from made of camel's hair and silk mixed, but Cambray, in Jlanders, where it was first now of wool and silk. manufactured. CAMP, the residence of an army restCAML/BER-BEAM, in architecture, a ing in tents; or, the place and order of beam cut hollow or archwise in the mid- tents for soldiers in the field. On the die, commonly used in platforms. continent of Europe tents are abolished, CAM''EO, CAMEI, gems cut in relief and the armies bivouac in the open air, the most expensive class of cut stones. or, if the time will allow it, lodge in huts The custom of ornamenting goblets, era- built of branches, &c. In short, in the tern candelabra, and other articles with progress of the military art, camps have gems, originated in the East; and was become more slight and simple, even with followed at the court of the Seleucidse, the those who still continue to make use of greatest extravagance being practised them. with regard to such ornaments. When CAMPAIGN', the space of time during the image on the stone was not to be used which an army is kept in the field. A as a seal it was cut in relief, and the va- campaign is usually from spring to auriegated onyx was generally selected. tumn; but sometimes armies make a Great attention was paid to the different winter campaign. colors of the strata of the stone, so that CAMPANILE', in architecture, propthe objects stood out light from a dark erly a tower for containing a bell or ground. Some of the cameos preserved bells. Though the word has been adoptto us are wonders of beauty and technical ed in the English language, and applied perfection, showing the high degree of to the bell towers of churches, it more Art to which the Grecian lapidaries had properly belongs to those towers near attained under the luxurious successors churches, but detached from them, to be of Alexander the Great. The finest spe- seen in many of the cities of Italy. The cimen now existing is the Gonzaga ca- principal of these are the Campanile of meo, formerly at Malmaison, now in the Cremona, which is of the extraordinary imperial collection of gems at St. Peters- height of 396 feet; that of Florence, 268 burg. Among the remains of the an- feet high, built from the design of Giotto; 56B CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CAN the Garisendi tower at Bologna, built in CANDELA'BRA, were objects of great 1110, which is 147 feet high, and is 8 feet importance in ancient Art; they were 8 inches out o' an upright; and very near originally used as candlesticks, but after to it in the same city another tower, bear- oil was introduced, they were used to ing the name of Asinelli, 327 feet in hold lamps, and stood on the ground, beheight, and leaning from the perpendicu- ing very tall, from four to seven or ten lar 3 feet 8 inches, but which, seen, as it feet in height. The simplest candelabra always is, in company with the first, were of wood, others were very splendid seems to lean but little. The last we both in material and in their ornaments. shall name is that which is commonly The largest candelabra, placed in terncalled the leaning tower of Pisa, and per- ples and palaces, were of marble with orhaps the most remarkable of all. It is naments in relief and fastened to the 151 feet high, and overhangs 12 feet 9 ground; there are several specimens in inches. Its general form possesses ele- the Museum Clementinum at omre. gance, and is that of a cylinder encircled These large candelabra were also altars by 8 tiers of columns over each other, of incense, the carving showing to what and each with an entablature. The col- god they were dedicated: they were also umns are all of marble, and the upper given as offerings, and were their made tier is recessed back. of finer metals, and even of precious CAMPES'TRE, a short garment fas- stones. Candelabra were also made of tened about the loins, and extending frolm baked earth, but they were mostly of elethence down the legs, nearly to the knees, gantly wrought bronze. They consisted after the manner of the kilt. It wias worn of three parts:-1. the feet; 2. the shaft; by the Roman youths when they exer- 3. the plinth with the tray, upon which cised in public places, also by soldiers and the lamp was placed. The base generally gladiators for the sake of decency when consisted of three animals' feet, ornaexercising. mented with leaves. The shaft was flutCAMP'US IMAII, an anniversary as- ed; and on the plinth often stands a figsembly of our ancestors, held on lMay- ure holding the top, generally in the day, when they confederated together for shape of a vase, on which rests the tray. defence of the kingdom against all its ene- The branching candelabra are valuable mies. as works of Art, and also those where the CAM'PUS MARPTIUS, among the Ro- shaft is formed by a statue, bearing a mans, a field, by the side of the Tiber, torch-like lamp, and each arm holding a where the youth exercised themselves in plate for a lamp. Another kind of canwarlike exercises. It was so called, on delabrum was callaccount of a temple that stood on it, con- ed Lampadarii: secrated to the god Mars. The consuls, these were in the Brutus and Collatinus, made it the place form of pillars, for holding the comitia or assemblies of with arms or people, and, in after times, it was adorned br anc h es from with a great quantity of line statues. which the lamps CANA'BUS, CANEVAS, CANNE'- hung by chains. In VAS, the term by which the ancients the Museo Etrus- designated the wooden skeleton covered co Gregoriano at with clay, or some other soft substance, Rome, are fortyfor modelling larger figures; hence the three candelabra French word canevas. Similar skeletons of various forms, were used as anatomical studies, bypain- which were excaters and plastic artists. vated at Cervetri. CANA'RIUM AUGU'RIUM, in an- Some have smooth, tiquiLy, a sacrifice among the Romans, of and some have fluta red cog, for the purpose of appeasing ed, shafts, on which the fury of the dog-star on the approach is represented a of harvest. climbing animal, CANCELLA'RIA CU'RIA, in arche- a serpent, lizard, ology, the court of Chancery. weasel, or a cat CANCEL'LI. in architecture, trellis, following a cock.' or lattice-work, made of cross bars of Sometimes these l. wood or iron. Also, the balusters or rails shafts bear a cup, encompassing the bar of a court of jus- or branch into tice. many arms, be___ ___ _ __ ________ _ _______________-__ ____ CAN] AND THE FINE ARTS. 51 tween which stand beautiful little figures, or they have plates rising perpendicularly above one another. They gen- erally rest on feet of lions, men, or stags, or they are supported by figures of sa- tyrs, &c. Some candelabra are in the \ t form of a human figure, bearing the\ l plate in the outstretched hand, and sometimes the pillar is supported by caryatides. The most curious specimens of - \! candelabra, as respects form, use, and workmtanship, are those excavated at \ Ilerculaneum and Pompeii. These are all of bronze; and that they were em-/ from the representation, on an Etrus- \ = | can vase, of one which serves to give light to the guests assembled round a banquet table. They are slender in their s ^proportions, and perfectly portable, rare- Candys. Canephoros. ly exceeding five feet in height. It is to be observed, that none of the candelabra Medes and Persians as an outside garhitherto found exhibit any appearance of ment; it was usually of purple or similar a. socket or of a spike at top, fiomn which brilliant color. an inference of the use of candles could CANEPHI1O'OS, the bearer of the be drawn. round basket containinig the implements CAN'DIDATE, a person who seeks or of sacrifice, in the processions of the Dioaspires to some public office. In the Ro- nysia, Panathenea, and other public fesman commonwealth, the CANDIDATI were tivals. The attitude in which they apobliged to wear a white robe, during the pear in works of Art, is a favorite one two years of their soliciting for a place. with the ancient artists; the figure eleThis garment, according to Plutarch, they vates one arm to support the basket carwore without any other clothes, that the ried on the head, and with the other people might not suspect they concealed slightly raises her tunic. money for purchasing votes; and also, CANIC'ILAR DAYS, or DOG DAYS, that they might the more easily show to the name. given to certain days of the the people, the scars of those wounds they year, during which the heat is usually had received in fighting for the defence the greatest. They are reckoned about of the commonwvealth.i forty, and are set down in the almanacs CANDIDATI MIIL'ITES, an order of as beginning on the 3d day of July, and soldiers, among the Romans, who served ending on the llth of August. In the as the emperor's body-guards, to defend time of the ancient astronomers, the rehim in battle. They were the tallest and markable star Sirius, called also Canicstrongest of the whole troops; and were ula, or the Dog Star, rose heliacally, called candidati, in consequence of being that is, just before the sun, about the beclothed in white. ginning of July; and the sultry heat CAN'DLEMAS DAY, the festival ob- which usually prevails at that season, served on the second day of February, in with all its disagreeable effects, among commemoration of the purification of the which the tendency of dogs to become Virgin Mary. It is borrowed from the mad is not one of the least disagreeable, practice of the ancient Christians, who on were ascribed to the malignant rage of that day used an abundance of lights both the star. Owing to the precession of the in their churches and processions, in meme- equinoxes, the heliacal rising of Sirius ory, as is supposed, of our Saviour's be- now takes place later in the year, and in ing on that day declared by Simeon "to a cooler season; so that the dog d.ays be a light to lighten the Gentiles." In have not now that relation to the particimitation of this custom, the Roman Cath- ular position of the Dog Star from which olics on this day consecrate all the tapers they obtained their name. and candles which they use in their CANIC'ULAR YEAR, the ancient sochurches during the whole year. lar year of the Egyptians; so called beCAN'DYS, a kind of gown, of woollen cause its commencement was determined cloth with wide sleeves, worn by the bythe heliacal rising ofthe DogStar. The 158 CYOLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CAN Egyptians chose this star for their obser- tory reasons which can be assigned in vations, either on account of its superior most cases of omission-there are no brightness, or because its heliacal rising additions-distinctly mark the universalcorresponded with the annual overflow of ity of the judgmsent of the early churches the Nile. At a very early period of his- in this smatter.-In music, a perpetual tory the Egyptians had perceived that fugue. This original method of writing the solar year contains 365fl days; for this was on one line, with marks thereon, their common years consisted of 365 days. to show where the parts that imitate were and every fourth year of 366, as in the to begin and end. This, however, was Julian Calendar. what the Italians more particularly call CAN'NON, a piece of ordnance, or a canone c/tiiuso, (shut) or canone in corpo. heavy metallic gun for a battery, mount- CAN'ONESS, a description of roligious ed on a carriage. Guns of this kind are women in France and Germany. Their made of iron or brass, and of different convents were termed colleges. They sizes, carrying balls from three or four did not live in seclusion. The college of to forty-eight pounds' weight. The ex- Remiremont was the oldest establishment plosion being directed by the tube, balls of this order in France. Similar noble and missiles are carried to great distances monasteries still exist in Germany, and with destructive force. In a field of bat- the revenues and dignities of some belong tie they are often drawn by horses on light to Protestants. carriages, and are called field-pieces, or CANON'ICAL HOURS, stated times flying artillery,. of the day set apart, more especially by CANOE', a small boat, made of the the Romish church, for devotional purtrunk of a tree, hollowed out by cutting poses. In England the canonical hours or burning; and sometimes also of pieces are from 8 to 12 in the forenoon, before of bark joined together. It is impelled or after which the ceremony of marriage by a paddle instead of an oar; and is cannot be legally performed in any parish used by the uncivilized nations in both church. hemispheres. CANONIZA'TION, a ceremony in the CAN'ON, a word of various significa- lomnish church, by which holy men detions, of which we can only enumerate ceased are enrolled in the catalogue of the principal. saints. The privilege of canonizing was 1. In cathedral and collegiate churches originally common to all bishops, and there are canons who perform some of the was first confined to the Pope by Alexanservices, and are possessed of certain rev- der III. in 1170. When it is proposed enues connected with them. These are, to canonize any person, a formal process strictly speaking, residentiary canons: is instituted, by which his smerits or deforscigsr canons are those to whom col- merits are investigated. Hereupon the legiate revenues are assigned without the beatificatiosn of the person in question is exaction of any duty. pronounced by the Pope, and his canon2. The laws and ordinances of ecclesi- ization follows upon the production of astical councils are called canons. testimony to miracles performed at his 3. The canon of Scripture signifies the tomb or by his remains. The day of his authorized and received catalogue of the death is generally selected to be kept in sacred books. The canon of the Old his honor,'and is inserted as such in the Testament, as received by the Catholics, calendar. differs from that of the Protestant church- CAN"OPY, a covering of velvet, silk, or es in regarding as inspired those books cloth of gold, extended on a frame, and which they reject under the term Apoc- richly emibroidered with suitable devices, rypha. The catalogue received by the supported and carried by four or miore Jews themselves, which we adopt, was staves of wood or silver, borne in procesfirst enlarged by the Council of Carthage sion over the heads of distinguished perto the extent in which it is held by our sonages, or over the hearse at the fuopponents, and that decision was formally nerals of noble persons. In the religious confirmed by the Council of Trent. In processions of the Catholic church it is the canon of the New Testament, how- borne over the I-ost and sacred reliques. ever, the agreement of,Christian churches According to Roman use they are white, may be considered unanimous. There but in the French and Flemish churches exist a series of enumerations of sacred they are generally red. In England, the books of the latter covenant in the writ- two colors seem to have been used indisings of the first four centuries, the gene- criminately. ral agreement of which, and the satisfac- CANT, quaint or vulgar language, af CAP] AND THE FINE ARTS. 59 fected by particular persons or profes- CAN'TONED, in architecture, is when sions, and not authorized by established the corner of a building is adorned with usage. —In architecture, a term express- a pilaster, an angular column, rustic ing the position of any piece of timber quoins, or anything that projects beyond not standing squae.- Cant moulding, a the level of a wall. mouldinog with a bevelled surface applied CAN'VAS, a coarse sort of cloth, of to the capitals of collumns. which there are several kinds. Amiong CANTAB'ILE, in nmusic, a term ap- others, are, 1. That worked regulIarly in plied to movements intended to be in a little squares as a basis for tapestry: 2. graceful and melodious style. That which is called buckram: 3. The CANTANTE, in music, a term to de- cloth used for pictures: And, 4. That note the vocal part of the composition. employed for sails of ships, tents, &c. CANTA'TA, a song, or composition, Two kinds are prepared for artists' use; I intermixed with recitatives, airs, and the best is called tickiis. It is prinmed'different movements, chiefly intended for with a ground of a neutral gray color, or a single voice, with a thorough bass, with other colors, according to the fancy though sometimes with other instru- of the painter. Certain sizes being in ments. greater request than others, they are CAN'THARTUS, a kind of drinking- kept stretched on firames ready for use; cup with handles, sacred to Bacchus, who for portraits. these are known by the names of Kit-cat, which measures 28 or,/.l- 29sn29 incles by 36 inches; Thrliee-quarters,'el's ( J/ uneasures 25 by 30; Hcalf-lensgth, 40 by ~ _._, — -_ u-.,/,^,,, _50; Bishops' half-lezngth, 44 or 45 by A\'.. ^ -.;.' -—:'~ig,~y J/ " f56; Bislops' whole lenS'th, 58 by 94. _ u,/Iu/ CAN'ZONE, or CANZO'NA, in music, > //= x u'i'n Itahlin, to which music may be composed in the style of a cantata. is frequently depicted on antique vases, CANZONEI', in music, a short song, &c., holding it in his.hand. in one or two parts. CAN'TIC E, ancient dramatic solilo- CAP, a part of dress made to cover the quies, supposed to have been introduced head. The use of caps aind hats is reas interludes. erred to the year 1449, the first seen in CANTICLES the Son of Sons, in ope bein t the entyS of Charles VII. the Bible, supposed to be a Lmarriage into oouen: from that time they began song written by Solomon; to be explained to take place of hoods or chaperons.by compositions of a sinilar nature in CAP, in architecture, the uppermiost part Eastern countries. By other writers it of any assemblage of principal or suboris supposed to be a series of sacred idols, dinate parts.-Cap of' naintenance, one each distinct and independenst of the of the ornamnents of state, carried before other. the kings of England at the coronation. CANTILE'ENA, in music, the treble It is of criisonl velvet, faced with ermline. melody, or upper part of any composi- It is also frequently met with above the tion. helmet, instead of wreaths, under gentleCANTILE'VER, in architecture, a men's crests.-Cap-a-pie, (French) from piece of wood fraied into the front or head to foot. side of a house, and projecting from it, CAtET, the na.me of the French race to sustain the eaves and mouldings over of kings, which has given 118 sovereigns them. to Europe, viz., 36 kings of France, 22 CAN'TO, a part or division of a poem, kings of Portugal, 5 of Spain, 11 of Naanswering to ht in prose is called a ples and Sicily, 3 of ungry, 3 empeors book. In Italian, canto is a song; and it of Constantinople, 3 kings of Navarre, 17 signifies also the first treble, or highest dukes of uruny, 12 dukes of e Brittany, vocal part. 2 dukes of Lorraine, and 4 dukes of CAN'TO-FE'/MO, in music, the sub- Parma. ject song. Every part that is the sub- CA'PIAS, in law, a writ of two sorts; ject of counterpoint, whether plain or one before judgment, to take the defigured, is called by the Italians canto fendant; the other after, which is called fermo. the writ of execution. 60 OC CLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CAP CAP'ITAL, in commerce, the fund or annual games instituted by Camillus, in stock, in money and goods, of a merchant, honor of Jupiter Capitolinus, and in cornnmanufacturer, &c., or of a trading corn- memoration of the preservation of the pany.-A floatilng capital is that which capitol from the Gauls. There was also remains after payment is made for all another kind of Capitoline games, instithe apparatus and implements of the tuted by Domitian, and celebrated every business.-cFictitious capital generally five years, at which rewards and crowns means nothing more or less than exces- were bestowed on the poets, champions, sive ciedits, which throw the manage- orators, historians, &c. ment and disposition of a great deal of CAPIT'ULA RURALIA, asseniblies property into the hands of persons who or chapters held by rural deans and paare not able to answer for the risks of rochial clergy within the precinct of loss from its bad management, or other every distinct deanery. causes.-CAPITAL, in architecture, the CAPIT'ULARY, the body of laws or uppermost part of a columnl or pilaster, statutes of a chapter, or of an ecclesiasserving as the head or crowning, and tical council. placed immediately over the shaft, and CAPITULA'TION, in military affairs, under the entablature. a treaty made between the garrison of a CAPITA'TION, a tax or imposition place besieged and the besiegers, for surraised on each person in consideration of rendering on certain conditions. The his labor, industry, office, rank, &c. It term is also applicable to troops in any is a very ancient kind of tribute, and an- situation in which they are compelled to swers to what the Latins called tributums, submit to a victorious enemy. by which taxes on persons are distin- CAPIT'ULUM, in antiquity, a transguished from taxes on merchandise, called verse beam in the military engines of the vectogualla. ancients, wherein were holes for the CAP'ITOL, a castle, in ancient Rome, strings with which they were set in moon the Ions Capitolinus, where there was tion. a temple dedicated to Jupiter, in which CAPOTE', a large great coat, with a the senate assembled; and on the same hood or cowl, which is sometimes worn by spot is still the city-hall or town-house, sentinels in bad weather. where the conservators of the Roman CAPRIC'CIO, in music, the term for people hold their meetings. The foun- that irregular kind of composition in dations of the capitol were laid by Tar- which the composer, without any requin the elder, in the year of Roume 139: straint, follows the bent of his humor,his successor Servius raised the walls, CAPRICCIO'SO denotes that the.movement and Tarquin the Proud finished it in 221; before which it is written, is to be played but it was not consecrated till the third in a free and fantastic style. year after the expulsion of the kings, and CAP'TAIN, in the army, the comestablishment of the consulate. The cap- mender of a company of foot or a troop itol consisted of three parts, a nave, sa- of horse; and in the naval or merchant cred to Jupiter; and two wings, the one service, the commander of a vessel.-A consecrated to Juno, and the other to Captaien-lieutecnan.t is an officer, who, Minerva: it was ascended by stairs; the with the rank of captain and pay of lieufrontispiece and sides were surrounded tenant, commands a company or troop.with galleries, in which those who were A Post-captaint in the British navy, is honored with triumphs entertained the an officer commanding any man-of-war, senate at a magnificent banquet, after from a ship of the line down to a shipthe sacrifices had been offered to the rigged sloop.-A man eminently skilled gods. Both the inside and outside were in war or military affairs is styled a enriched.with numerous ornaments, the "great-captain," as the Duke of Welmost distinguished of which was the lington. statue of Jupiter, with his golden thun- CAP'TION, in law, the act of taking der-bolt, sceptre, and crown. In the any person by any judicial process. capitol also were a temple to Jupiter the CAPTIV'ITY, in sacred history, a punguardian. and another to Juno; with the ishment which God inflicted upon the mint; and on the descent of the hill was Jews for their vices and infidelity. The the temple of Concord. This beautiful first captivity was that of Egypt, from edifice contained the most sacred deposits which the Israelites were delivered by of religion, such as the ancylia, the books Moses; then followed six captivities durof the sybils, &c. ing the government of the judges; hut CAP'ITOLINE GAMES, these were the greatest and most remarkable were CAiR] AND THE FINE ARiTS. 61 those of Judah and Israel, which hap- deemed sufficient for its defence. When pened under the kings of those different it is practicable they encamp near wells kingdoms. or rivulets, and observe a regular disciCAPUCHIINS', an order of Franciscan pline. Camels are almost uniformly used friars in the Romish church, so called as a means of conveyance, in preferenee from their capuche or hood sewed to their to the horse or any other animal, on achabits, and hanging down their backs. count of their wonderful patience of f.iCAP'ULA, in antiquity, a wooden uten- tigue, and their peculiarity of structurc, sil with two handles for taking oil out of which so admirably fits them for travelone vessel into another. The person who ling through desert wastes. did this office was called the capulator. CARAVAN'SERA, a large public CAR'ABINE, or CAR'BINE, a short builing, or inn, appropriated for the regun used by the cavalry. ception and lodgment of caravans in the CAR'ACOLE, the half wheel which a desert. Though serving in lieu of inns. horseman makes, either to the right or there is this essential difference between left. The cavalry make a caracole after them, that the traveller finds nothing in each discharge, in order to pass to the the caravansera for the use either of hiimrear of the squadron. self or his cattle, but must carry a1l his CA'RAITES, a sect among the Jews provisions and necessaries wvith him. Carwho adhere closely to the text and letter avanseras are also numerous in cities, of the scriptures, rejecting the rabbinical where they serve not only as inns, but as interpretations and the cabbala. shops, warehouses, and even exchanges. CAR'AVAN, a company of merchants, CAR'CANET, in archaology, a chain travellers, or pilgrims, who associate to- for the neck. gether in many parts of Asia and Africa, CARCE'RES, in the ancient Circensian that they may travel with greater secu- games, were inclosures in the circus, rity through deserts aind other places in- wherein the horses were restrained till fested with robbers or exposed to other the signal was given for starting, rwhen, dangers. The commercial intercourse of by an ingenious contrivance they all at Eastern and African nations has from the once flew open. remotest ages been chiefly carried on by CARCIIE'SIUhM, CARCHE'SION, the means of caravans, as the governments name of an antique drinking vessel, and that have sprung up in those continents also of the goblet peculiar to Ba.cchus, have seldom been able, even if they had found on numerous antiques, sometimes had the will, to render travelling safe or in his own hand, as in the ancient reprepracticable for individuals. Since the sentations in whlich the god is clothed and establishment of the Mlohammedan faith, bearded, and sometimes at the B3acchic religious motives, conspiring with those feasts. The carehesium has a shallow of a less exalted character, have tended foot; it is generally wider than it is deep, to augment the intercourse between dif- smaller towards the centre, and wvith hanferent parts of the Eastern world, and to dies rising high over the edge, and reachincrease the number and magnitude of ing to the foot. Its use in religious corethe caravans. Mohammed, as is well monies proves it to have been one of the known, enjoined all his followers to visit oldest forms of goblets. Mecca once in their lifetime; and in obe- CAPRDINAL, which in a general sense dience to a command so solemnly enjoin- signifies principal or pro-eminent, is ed and sedulously inculcated, large cara- formed of the Latin word cardo, a hinge, vans assemble for this purpose in every agreeably with the common expression, country where the Mohammedan faith is in which it is said of an important ma'tter established. There are four regular car- that everything tntt-zs upon it: thus Jusavans which proceed annually to Mecca tice, Prudence, Temperance, and Forthe first from Damascus, composed of titude are called the four cardicnal virpilgrims, travellers, and merchants, from tues.-The cardinal si7gns, in astronoEurope and Asia; the second from Cairo, my, are Aries, Libra, Cancer, and Caprifor the Moihammedans of Barbary; the corn.-The cardinal points of the comthird from Zibith, near the mouth of the pass, north, south, east, and west.Red Sea, where those of Arabia and In- Cardinal numsberss, in grammar, are the dia meet; the fourth from Babylon, ilumrbers, one, two, three, &c., which are where the Persians assemble. Every indeclinable, in opposition to the ordinal caravan is under the command of a chief numbers, first, second, third, &c. or aga, who has frequently under him CAR'DINAL, in the Roman hierarchy, such a number of troops or forces as is an ecclesiastical prince and subordinate 62 CYOLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CAR magistrate, who has a voice in the con- choristers, and the streets with masks. clave at the election of a pope. and who This festival flourishes more particularly may be advanced to that dignity himself. at Venice, where it begins on the second The dress of a cardinal is a red soutanne, holiday in Christmas, and where it boasts a rochet, a short purple mantle, and a red to have had at one time seven sovereign hat; and his title of address, "tHis emi- princes, and thirty thousand foreigners ninmee." among its votaries. CA'RET, in graimmar, a character in CARNIV'OROUS, an epithet applied this fori A, denoting that something has to animals that feed on flesh. been omitted, and. is interlined. CAROLOT'IC COLUMNS, in architecCAWICATURE', in painting, an ex- ture, columns with foliated shafts, deco aggerated representation of any object, rated with leaves and branches winding in iwhich any natural defects are over- spirally around them, or forming crowns charged, so as to make it appear ridicu- and festoons. lens. CARO'LUS, a gold coin struck in the CAWILLONS, a species of chimes fre- reign of Charles I., at that time valued at quent in the Low Countries, particularly twenty shillings, but afterwards"current at Ghent and Antwerp, and played on a at twenty-three. nunmber of bells in a belfry, forming a CAR'PENTRY, in building and archicomplete series or scale of tones or semi- tecture, an assemblage of pieces of timtones, like those of the harpsichord and ber connected by framing or letting themn organ. into each other, as are the pieces of a, CAW'MELITES, an order of mendi- roof, floor, centre, &c. It is distinguishcant friars, very numerous in Italy and ed from joine by by being put together Spain. They wear a scapulary, or small without the use of other edge tools than woollen habit of a browvn color, thrown the axe, adze, saw, and chisel; whereas over the shoulders. joinery requires the use of the plane. CAR'MEN, a Latin term, used, in a CAR/PET, a sort of stuff wrought either general sense, to signify a verse; but in with the needle or the loom, and used as a more peculiar sense, to signify a spell, a covering for the floor. Persian and charm, form of expiation, execration, &c., Turkish carpets are the most costly; but couched in few words, placed in a mystic a variety of other kinds are used, many order, on which its efficacy was supposed of which are both elegant and durable. to depend. CAR/RACK, a large armed vessel emCAR'/MINE, a pigment or powder of a ployed by the Portuguese in the East deep red or crimson color, procured from India and Brazilian trade. cochineal, and used for painting in minia- CARRA'G-O, in the military art of the ture. ancients, a barricade made by carts and CARNA'TIONS, in painting, the parts wagons, which the Gauls and other barof a picture which represent the naked barous nations put in the way to impede limbs, &c. the progress of an enemy. CARNE'IA, a festival observed in CARRA'RA a huard white kind of marmost of the cities of Greece, and especially ble, somewhat resembling the Parian; so at Sparta, in honor of Apollo, surnamed called from the town of Carrara, where Carneius. The festival lasted nine days, it was found. and was conducted in imitation of the CARRONADE', a short piece of ordmethod of living in catups; for nine tents nance, having a large calibre, and a were erected, in each of which nine men chamber for the powder, like a mortar. of three different. tribes lived nine days. CARtRU'CA, in antiquity, a splendid CARNE'LIAN, a precious stone, either kind of chariot or car on four wheels, red, flesh-color, or white. The finest car- which were made of brass, ivory, silver, nelians are those of the East Indies: and sometimes of gold. there are some beautiful ones in the riv- CARTE-BLANCHE, a blank paper, ers of Silesia and Bohemia; and some of signed at the bottoim with a person's a quality not to be despised in Britain. namse, and given to another person with The use to which they are most generally permission to fill it up as he pleases; apapplied is that of seals. plied generally in the sense of unlimited CAR/NIVAL, the feast or season of re- terms being granted. joieing previous to Lent, celebrated with CAR'TEL, an agreement between tao %reat spirit throughout Italy, when feasts, states for the exchange of their prisoners balls, operas, concerts, masquerades, &c., of war.-A casetel-shlp, a ship commisabound. The churches are filled with sioned in time of war to exchange the CAS] AND THE INEs ARTS. 03 prisoners of any two hostile powers; also CAR'TRIDGE, a case of paper or to carry any particular request from one parchment filled with gunpowder, and power to another. The officer who cor- used in the charging of guns. The carmands her is ordered to carry no cargo, tridges for small arms, prepared for batanmmunition, or implements of war, except tie, contain the powder and ball: those a gun for the purpose of firing signals. for cannon and mortars are nade of CARTE'SIAN PIIILOSOPHY, the pasteboard or tin. Cartridges without philosophical system of Ren6 des Cartes, balls are called blank-cartridges.- -The (born 1596,) a native of France, perhaps cartridgce-box is a case of wood covered the most original thinker that country with leather, with cells for cartridges, and has produced. Des Cartes was the con- worn upon a belt thrown over the left temporary of Bacon, and exercised an shoulder. equally powerful influence, though in a CAIVTULAPLY, or CHAR TULARY, a manner widely different, on the progress register-book. or record, as of a monasof philosophy in Europe. What Bacon tery. strove to accomplish by calling lmen's at-' CARVING, a branch of sculpture usutention to experiment and observation of ally liimited to works in wood and ivory, nature, Des Cartes proposed to attain by sculpture, properly so called, being genthe search for a first and self-evident erally applied to carving in stone or marground of all knowledge. This he finds ble. Various kinds of wood were used by in the act of consciousness, involving ne- the ancients, chiefly for images of the cessarily the idea of self or mind. Con- gods, to each of which a different or parsciousness is the act of thought, consti- ticular kind of wood was appropriated; tutes the essence of the soul, and is that as, for instance, the images of Dionysia, which distinguishes it from matter. The the God of Figs, were made of the wood ideas or objects of consciousness are of of the fig-tree. Ivory was also used to three kinds,-acquired, compounded, and great extent by the ancients in their innate. All physical phenomena Des works of Art; and the Chryselephantine Cartes endeavored to account for by his sculpture, or the union of gold with ivory, celebrated vortices-motions excited by was adopted by the greatest artists. For God, the source of all motion. a long period prior to the Reformation, CARTIHAGIN'IAN, a native of an- there was an immense demand for fine cient Carthage, or something pertaining wood-carvings, as the remains in catheto that celebrated city, which was situated drals, churches, colleges, of screens, canoon the northern coast of Africa, about pies, desks, chair-seats; and in baronial twelve miles from the modern Tunis. It halls, of door framecs, staircases, chimiineywas founded by the Phcenicians, and de- pieces, cabinets, picture-frames, suflistroyed by the Romans. ciently show. CARTHIU'SIANS, a religious order, CARYATI'DES, in architecture, colfounded in the year 1080, by St. Bruno. umns, or pillars shaped like the bodies They received their name from Char- of women, and in the dress of the Caryan treuse, the place of their institution. people. They were erected as trophies, They are so remarkable for their austeri- and intended to represent the Caryan woty, that they never leave their cells ex- men who were taken captives by the cept to go to church, nor speak to any Athenians. Other female figures were person without leave. afterwards used in the same manner, but CARTOON', a design drawn upon large they were called by the same name. sheets of paper for the purpose of being CASCADE', a smlll waterfall, either traced upon any other substance, where natural or artificial. The word is apthe subject is to be finished. The most plied to such as are less than a cataractt. celebrated cartoons in existence are those CASE, the particular state, condition, of Ra.phael, seven of which are at Hamp- or circumsstances that befall a person, or ton Court, and were originally designed in which he is placed. Also, any outside for tapestry. covering which serves to enclose a thing CARTOUCII', a case of wood holding entirely, as packing-cases, or knife-cases. about four hundred musket balls, besides Case, in grammar, implies the different iron balls, from six to ten, to be fired out inflections or terminations of nouns, servof a howitzer. Also, a portable box for ing to express the different relations they charges.-In architecture, cartouches are bear to each other and the things they blocks or modillions used in the cor- represent.-Action on the case, in law, nices of wainscoted apartments: also or- is an action in which the whole cause of naments representing a scroll of paper. complaint is set out in the writ 64 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [OAS CASE'MENT, a window that opens on warlike; the third commercial; and the hinges. Also, a hollow moulding. fourth laborers. Persons of the religious CASE-SHOT, musket balls, stones, old caste are universally denominated braimiron, &c., put into cases and discharged ins; the soldiers or princes are styled from cannon. cuttery or rajahs; the traders, choutres CASH, money in hand, or ready mo- or slhuddery; the lowest order, parias. ney. distinguished from bills. CAS'TELLAIN, in feudal times, the CASHIER', a person who is entrusted owner. lord, or governor of a castle or with the cash of some public company. fortified place. In a banking establishment the cashier CAS'TELLANY, the lordship belongsuperintends the books, payments, and ing to a castle; or the extent of its land receipts of the bank: he also signs or and jurisdiction. countersigns the notes, and superintends CAST'ING-, with founders, the running all the transactions, under the order of of metal into a mould: among sculptors, the directors. it is the taking casts or impressions of CASK/ET, the diminutive of cask, a "figures, &c. Plaster-of-Paris is the most small chest or box, for jewels, &c. usual material employed for this purCASQUE, a piece of defensive armor, pose.-In architecture, a term used to to cover and protect the head and neck denote the bending of the surfaces of a in battle. piece of wood from their original state, CASQUETEL', a small steel cap or caused either by the gravity of the mateopen helmet, without beaver or visor, rial, or by its being subject to unequal. but having a projecting umbril and flex- temperature, moisture, or the uniform ible plates to cover the neck behind. texture of the material. Called also CASSA'TION, COURT OF, one of the Warping. most important institutions of modern CASTING OF DRAPERIES, in paintFrance, which gives to the whole juris- ing or sculpture, consists in the proper diction of that country coherency and distribution of the folds of the garments, uniformity, without endangering the ne- so that they appear the result of accident cessary independence of the courts. It rather than of study or labor. The arwas established by the first national as- rangement of draperies sometimes.ives sembly, and has been preserved, in every the artist much trouble, but this is freessential respect, under all the changes quently caused by the material employed of the revolution and restoration. It in the model being of a different subproperly signifies the annulling of any stance to that depicted in the picture. act or decision, if the forms prescribed by CAS'TLE, a fortress or place rendered law have been neglected or justice has defensible, either by nature or art.been perverted. English castles, walled with stone, and CAS'SOCK, the vestment worn by cler- designed for residence as well as defence, gymen under their gowns. are for the most part of no higher date CAST, among artists, any statue or than the Conquest. Those previously part of a statue, of bronze, or of plaster- erected had been suffered to fail into of-Paris. A cast is that which owes its ruin; and many writers have assigned figure to the mould into which the mat- this circumstance as a reason for the fa ter of it has been poured or cast while in cility with which Williasm the Normain a fluid state; and thus differs from a made himself master of the country. It model, which is made by repeated efforts was the policy of this able general tu with a ductile substance, as any adhesive build a considerable nunmber: and in proearth; and from a piece of sculpture, cess of time the martial tonants of the which is the work of the chisel. crown erected them for themnselves; so CASTANETS', instrunents formed of that towards the end of Stephen's reign, small concave shells of ivory or hard we are told that there existed upwards wood, fastened to the thumb and beat of eleven hundred. At this period castles with the middle finger. The Spaniards were an evil of the greatest magnitude and Moors use them as an accompani- to both the sovereign and the subject; ment to their saraband dances and gui- considerable struggles appear to have tars. taken place with regard to their continuCASTE, the general name for the ance; several were demolished; and their tribes of various employment, into which general decline commenced. A complete the Hindoos are divided in successive castle consisted of a ditch or moat, an generations, and generations of families. outwork, called a barbican, which guardThe first caste is religious; the second ed the gate and drawbridge; an artificial CAT] AND THE FINE ARTS. 65 mount; an outer and inner ballium or a tomb or cenotaph, and used in funeral inclosure; and the keep, or lofty tower, ceremonies. That used at the final inin vwhich the owner or governor resided, torment of Michael Angelo at Florence and under whiceh were the dungeons.- was of the most magnificent description, Castle-gtardci a feudal tenure, or knight and perhaps unequalled as to the art service, which obliged the tenant to per- emiployed on it by any used before or formn service within the resam, without since. limitation of time.-Castle-ward, an irn- CATALEC'TIC, in Greek and Latin position laid upon slubjects dwelling with- poetry, a verse wanting one syllable of in a certain distance of a castle, for the its proper length: acatalcctic, a verse purpose of maintainin watch and ward complete in length; hypercatalectic, hlavin the c6astle. ing one syllable too nmany; brachlycatalecCAS'TO)K AND POL'LUX, the name, tic, wanting two syllables. given to a meteor which sometimes ap- CAT'ALEPSY, a disease in which the pears at sea, attached to the extremities functions of the organs of sense and moof the m's ts of ships under the form of tion are suspended, whilst the hecart conballs of fire. When one ball only is tinues to pulsate. The patients are said seen, it is called HIelena. The meteor is to be in a tranmc; and in this state they generally supposed to indicate the ccssa- renailn for some hours, or even days. tion of a storm, or a future calm; but Ammoniacl aind ethereal stimulants are Helena, or one ball only, to portend bad thle most effectual restoratives. weather. CAT'ALOGUE PRAISONNiE', in bibCAS'JUSTRY, the science of resolving liosoraphy, a cataloguc of' books, classed cases of doubtful propriety, or of deter — under the heads of their several sub)jects, mlining the lawfalness or unlawfulness of and with a' general abstract of the contents any act, by rules and principles drawn of works ihere the title does not sutficientfrom the Scriptures, from the laws of so- ly indicate it; thus serving as ma ri:Ln-ual, ciety, or from reason. to direct the reader to the sources of inCA'/SS F (_ED'RIS, the case stipu- formation on any particular topic. The lated by treaty, or which comes within want of alph-beticil arrlangmCent is suptIe toerms of compact. plied by an index at the elnd. Th cataCA'SUS OMIS'SUS, in law, where any logue of the FIrench Bibllot itqule IHoyale particular tlhingS is omlitted, and not pro- (10 vols. fol. 1739-53) is said to bo the vidled for by the statute. best work of this description. CATACtIRE'SiS, in rhetoric, a trope CATAPUL'TA, or CA'APULT, in which borrows- the name of one thing to antiquity, a military engine used for express another. Thus Milton, in de- throwingl arrows, dts, andl stones upon scribhing Raphcl's descent friom tie cm- the enemy. Somne of these engines pyrcil heaven, says, would throw stones of a hundred cweight. ",sse' h h Josephus tales notice of the surprising'IDow~n thither prone in flight effects of thoe-e engines, and says, that He speeds, andt thro' the vs t etherea! slky o t S'aii betw\een worlds and worlds." the stones thrown out of them beaat down the battlements, knocked off the angles So in Scripture we read of the "bloodl of the towers, and would level a whiole file of the grape." A catachresis, in fact, is of men, from one end to the other.. the abuse of a trope, or when a word is CAT'"ARACT, a greatt fall of water over too far wrested from its original signifi- precipice in the channel of a river, cation. caused by rocks or other obstacl.e,, stopCAT'ACO)IB, a grotto or subterrane- ping the course of the strea.l; as that ous plaice for the burial of the dead. It of Niaiga.ra, the Nile, the Dainube, andl is genera ly applied to a vast number of the Rhine. snbterralMeous sepulchres, in the Appian CATA'S'TASIS, in poetry, the third YWay, near Rome; supposed to be the part of the acieint drama, b)eing tlhat cells in which were deposited the bodies wherein the intriguo, or action, is supof the primitive Christian martyrs.,ut ported and ccarried on, and heightened, thlere are now many other catacombs, as till it be ripe for unravelling in the eatasat Paris, &c. trophe. CATADiR'MUS, in antiquity, the CATAS'TROPHE, in dramatic poetry, stadium, or place where races were run. the fourth andl last part in the ancient CATAFAL'CO, in architecture, a tom- dram:t., or that immediately succeefding porary structure of carpentry, decorateid the cetastasiss; and which consists in the waith painting and sculpture, representing I unfolding and winding up of the plot, 5 Is -... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 66 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CAt clearing up difficulties, and closing the may take place. The difference between play. the categories of Kaint and those of ArisCATCH, in music, is defined to be "'a totle is this, that the latter are mere genpiece for three or four voices, one of eralizations from experience, which may which leads, and the others follow in the consequently be multiplied incefinitely; same notes." But perhaps it may be whereas the former result from a profesmore correctly described as a fugue in sedly exhaustive analysis of the human the unison, wherein:to humor soe con- understanding as it is in itself, or formnal ceit in the words, or to give them a dif- ly, that is, apart from all consideration ferent meaning, the melody is broken, of its object-matter and the sense is interrupted in one part, CATENA'RIAN ARCH, in architectand catLught and supported by another. ure, an arch whose form is that of a chord CAT'ECHISM, a form of instruction or chain suspended from two fixed points in religion, conveyed in questions and at its extremities. answers. The catechism of the Church CAT'GUT, the name for the strings of England originally consisted of no made of the intestines of sheep or lamibs, more than a repetition of the baptismal used in musical instruments, &c. Great vow, the creed, and the Lord's Prayer i quantities are imported fromi Lyons and but King James I. ordered the bishops to Italy. add to it a short and plain explication of CATIIE'DRA, in archeology, a term the sacraments. used to denote the pulpit, or the. profesCAT'ECHIST, an officer in'the primi- sor's chair. It originally signified any tive Christian church, whose business it chair.-Amon ecclesiastical writers it dewas to instruct the catechumens in the notes a bishop's see, or throne. Hence' first principles of religion, and thereby ex cathedra is a phrase which is much prepare them for the reception of bap- used among the clergy of the Romish tism. church, in relation to the solemn decrees CATECHU'MENS, a name formerly of the pope. given in the Christian church to such as CATHE'DRAL, the principal church were prepared to receive the ordinance of of a diocese, in which is the throne of the baptism. These were anciently the chil- bishop. The term cathedra was originaldren of believing parents, or pagans not ly applied to the seats in which the bishfully initiated in the principles of the op and presbyters sate in their asseran Christian religion; and were admitted to blies, which were held in the rooms in,this state by the imposition of hands and which the worship of the first Christians the sign of the cross. was also performed before they had liberCATEGOREMAT'IC, in logic, when ty to erect temples for that purpose. In a word is capable of being employed by after-times the -choir of the cathedral itself as a term, or predicate of a propo- church was made to terminate in a semlisition. circular or polygonal apsis;. and in the CATEGORY, in logic and metaphys- recess thus formed were placed the throne ics, a Greek word, signifying originally of the bishop in the centre, and seats of that which may be said or predicated of an inferior class for presbyters. a thing; a general term in reference to: CATIER/INE, ST., oF ALEXANDRIA, a less general one which is included un- the patron saint of Philosophy and the der it. By Aristotle, from whom the Schools. The pictures of her are almost word, and its corresponding Latin term innumerable; as patron saint or martyr, predicate, was borrowed by the school- her attributes are a broken wheel set men, it was applied to denote the most round with knives, and' a sword, the ingeneral of the attributes that may be as- struments of her martyrdom. - signed to a subject. Of these he attempt- CATI'OM IC, an epithet properly siged an enumeration. under the name of nifying universal. Originally this appelsubstance, quantity, quality, relation, lation was given to the Christian church place, time, condition, state or habitude, in general, but now the Romish church action, and passion. The word has been assumes it exclusively to itself; whence revived in modern time by Kant, to ex- the' name of Roman Catholics has been press the most general of the modes in applied, since the Reformation, to the which a thing can be raised from an oh- followers of the Romish doctrine and disject of sense to an object of intellect; or, cipline.-Catholic Majesty, the title givin other words, the forms or conditions en to the king or queen of Spain.-Cath.which must pre-exist in the understand- olic Priest, a clergyman or priest ordained ing, in order that an act of intelligence to say mass and administer the sacra Ec3 AND THE FINE ARTS, | ments, &c. accerdirg- to the rites of the CAV'ALRY, a body of soldiers on. 1omish church. horseback; a general term for light-horse, 4 CATOP'TROMANCY, a species of div- dragoons, lancers, and all other troopas ination among the ancients, which was who are armed and mounted. Their performed for the sick, by letting down a chief use is to make frequent excursions irror, fastened by a thread, into a foun- to the disturbance of the enemy, and intain before the temple of Ceres, to look at tercept his convoys in battle, to support i his face in it. If it appeared distorted and cover the infantry, and to break and ghastly, it was a sign of death; if througrh and disorder the enemy. The fresh and healthy, it denoted a speed3y use of cavalry is probably nearly as anrecoverv3.T. dcient as war itself. At the present dasy CAUSAL'ITY, oi C tUSA./TION, a- the cavalry is divided into ligt' and heavy mong metaphysicians, the action or pow — horse, which are employed for differenit er of a, cause in producing its effect,. purposes. The heavy cavalry, with de- 4 CAUS 1 E, that frosm whence anything fensire armnor (cuirassiers,) is generally h proceeds, or by virtue of which anything employed where force is requisite; the c is done: it stands opposed to effect. We lighter troops are used in small detach- 1.get the ideas of cause and effect from our moents. where swiftness and mcontinued of-' observation of the vicissitude of thingos, fort are required. while we perceive some qualities or sub- CA EAT, an entry in the spiritual slances begin to exist, and that they re- courts, by which the probate of a will ceive their existence from the due appli- letters of administration, license of ma- cation and operation of other beings. riage, &c., may be prevented from beinm That which produces is the cause; that issued withoat the knowledoe, and, if the awhich is produced, the effec-t. -Causes are reason be just, the consent of the party! distinguished, by the schools, into effi- entering the caveat. cient, material, final, and formal. E/fl- CAV'ERN, a natural cavity, or deep ] cient Causes are the agents employed in hollow place in the earth, arising either! the production of anything. lMlaterial from arches accidentally made, or from I Causes, the subjects whereon the agents streams of water flowing under ground. a work; or the materials whereof the thing One of the grandest natural caverns is produced. Finael Causes are the mo- known is Fingal's- cave, in Staffa, one of! tives inducing an agent to act' or the the western islands of Scotland. The design and purpose for which the thing grotto of Antiparos, in the Archipelago, | was done. Causes are again distinguished is celebrated for its ma.gnificence. In into physical and moral; universal, or some parts, immense columns descend to i particular; principal, or instrumental: -the floor; others present the appearance total, or partial; univocal, eqoivocal, of trees and brooks turned to marble. &c.-Cause, anmong civilians, is the same The Peak Cavern, in Derbyshire, is also I Wi ith action; denoting any legooal process a celebratled curiosity of this kind. It is which a party institutes to obtain his de- nearly half a mile in length, and, at its i mand, or by vwhich he seeks his supposed lowest part, 600 feet below the suirface, rirht. Many caves are formed by the lava of CAUTIO'NE ADMAITTEN'DA, in law, volcanoes. In the Cevennes mountains, a writ which lies a gainst a bishop that in France, are caverns and grottoes of holds an excoimmunicated person in prison ireat extent, and which abound in objects s for contempt, after he has offered suffi- of curiosity. But the largest we read of j cient caution or sicurity to obey the or- is the cavern of Guacharo, in South l ders of the church. On receipt of this America, which is said to extend for j writ, the sheriff warns the bishop to take leagues. caution. CAVET'TO, in architecture, a hollow CAVALCADE' a pompous procession member, or round concave tolding. of horsemen, equipages, &c., by way of containing the quadrant of a circle; and | 4 parade to grace a triumph, jaublic entry, used as asn ornament in cornices. or the like. CECIL'IA, ST., the patroness of music, CAVALIER', a gallant armed horse- and supposed- inventross of the organ; | maHn. It was also an appellation given she suffered martyrdom by being plunred! to the party of Charles I. to distinguish into a vessel of boiling. oil. She is somethem from the parliamentarians, who times lepieted ith a gash in her nek, were called Roundheads.-In fortifica- and standing in a cauldron, but mooe tion, a work raised within the body of a frequently holding the model of an orplace, above the other works. gan, and tunting her head towards heal J_______ _____________ —----—. —----—. —------------------------------- I 68 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CEN yen, as if listening to the music of the Among modern improvements, perhaps spheres. few are more deserving of commendation CEIILING, in architecture, the upper than the custom, recently introduced, of part or roof of a room, being a lay or appropriating an eligible spot of ground, covering of plaster over laths, nailed on at a convenient distance from populous the bottom of the joists which bear the towns, for the purpose of human interfloor of the upper room, or on joists put ment. up for that purpose where there is no up- CEN'OTAPI-I, a monument erected to per room, hence called ceiling joists. a.deceased person, but not contaiting the CEL'ARENT, in logic, a ode ofsyllo- remains. Originally cenotaphs were gism, wherein the major and conclusion raised for those only whose bones could are universal negative propositions, and not be found, who had perished at sea, the minor an universal affiruative; as &c., or to one who died far away from "No man that is a hypocrite can be his native town. The tomb built by a saved: Every man who with his lips only man during his life-time for himself and cries Lord, Lord, is a hypocrite: There- family was calledi a cenotaph. fore, no man, who with his lips only cries CEN'SER, in the religious rites of the Lord, Lord, can be saved." ancients, was a vase, containing incense CELEBE, a vase, found chiefly in to be used in sacrificing to the gods. CenEtruria, distinguished by its peculiarly sers were likewise in use amnong the Jews, shaped handles, which are pillared. as we find in the 1 Kings vii. 50. "SoloCEL'ERES, in Roman antiquity, a mon, when he prepared furniture for the regiment of body-guards belonging to the temple of the Lord, among other things Roman kings, established by Romulus, made censers of pure gold." and comnposed of 300 young ien chosen CEN'SOR, an officer in ancient Rome, out of the most illustrious Roman falmi- whose business it was to reform the manlies, and approved by the suffrages of the ners and to value the estates of the peocurie of the people, each of which fur- ple. At first they were chosen out of the nishod ten. senate, but after the plebeians had got the CELES'TIAL, in its first and obvious consulate open to them, they soon arrived sense, denotes something pertainino to, at the censorship. Cicero reduces their or dwelling in heaven. In mythology, functions to the numbering of the people, the term is applied to the residence of the correction andl reformation of manthe gods, supposed to be in the clouds or ners, the estimating the effects of each staIs; and hence the space in which the the i the proportioning of taxes, the stars are situated are commonly called superintendence of tribute, the exclusion the celestial spaces. fiom the temples, and the care of the CEL'ESTINS, a religious order of public places. The office was so considerChristians, reformed from the Bernardins able, that none aspired to it till they had by Pope Celestin V. The Celestins rise passed all the rest. two hours after mlidnight to say matins; CEN'SURE, a judgment which conthey eat no flesh at any time, except demns some book, person, or action, or when sick, and fast often. Their habit more particularly a reprimand from a is a white gown, a capuche, and a black superior.-Ecclesiastical censures are scapulary. penalties by wihich, for some striking CELEUS'MA, in antiquity, a naval malconduct, a member of a church is deshout serving as a signal for the mari- prived of the communion of the church, ners to ply their oars, or to cease from or prohibited from executing the sacerrowing. It was also made use of to sig- dotal office. nify the joyful acclamation of vintagers, CEN'SUS, in Roman antiquity, an and the shouts of the conquerors over the authentic declaration made before the vanquished. censors, by the several subjects of the CELIB'ACY, an unmarried or single empire, of their respective names and state of life, to which, according to the places of abode. This declaration was doctrine and the discipline of the church registered by the censors, and contained of Rome, the clergy are obliged to con- an enumeration of all their estates, lands, form. and inheritances, their quantity and qualCEL'TIC, pertaining to the Celts, or ity, with the wives, children, domestics primitive inhabitants of Britain, Gaul, tenants, and slaves of each citizen. The Spain. Thus we say Celtic customs, census was instituted by Servius Tullius, Celtic origin, Celtic remains, &c. and was held every five years. The CEM'ETERY, a repository for the dead. word census is still used to signify an CER] AND THE FINE ARTS. 69 enumeration of the inhabitants of any duced by Servius Tullius; the first class kingdom or state, taken by order of its contained eighty, to which were added legislature. the ei ghteen centuries of the knights; the CENT, from centumn, " a hundred," is three following classes had each twenty used in commercial concerns to signify centuries, the fifth thirty, and the sixth a hundred pounds. A profit of 10 per only one century. —In chronology, it cent. is the gain of 101. by the use of means the space of one hundred years; 1001. and this is the most common signification CEN'TAUR, in classic antiquity, a of the word. As we begin our common monster, half man and half horse. It is computation of time from the incarnation intinmated by Virgil, and generally be- of Christ, the word is generally applied lieved, that the Centaurs were a tribe of to some term of a hundred years subseLapithre, who inhabited the city of Pele- quent to it. thronium, adjoining to Mount Pelion, CEREA'LIA, in antiquity, feasts of and who first broke and rode upon Ceres, instituted by Triptolemus of Eleuhorses. Nations to whom the sight of sis, in Attica. These feasts were celea man on horseback was new, believed, brated with religious purity; but the as did the Americans of the Spaniards, votaries of the goddess ran about with the horse and his rider made but one lighted torches, in commemoration of her animal. search after her daulsghter Proserpine.CEN'TENARY, the number of a hun- The word also was used to denote all dred, or pertaining thereto. lIence the sorts of corn of which bread is mIade. epithet centeneial for what regularly oc- CER'EMONY, an assemblage of sevccurs once in a century. ral actions, formus, and circumstances, CENTESIMA'TION, a military pun- serving to render a. shing more magnifiishment, in cases of desertion, mutiny, cent and solemn; iirticularly used to &c.. when every hundredth man is selected denote the externapl iites of religious worfor execution. ship, the formality oi introducing amba1sCEN'TO, in poetry, a work wholly con- sadors to audiences, &-c. - laster of the posed of verses or passages, promiscuously Ceremonies, an offecer instituted by taken from other authors, and disposed in James I. for the morle honorable reception a new orlder. of ambassadoirs and strangers of' quality, CENTRAL FIRE, a supposed perpet- and for the regulation of all matters of unl fire, which, according to the theory etiquette in the assemblies over which of somle philosophers, exists in the centre they preside.-Cesremronial of Europesot of the earth, and to which, in ancient Powvers, comprises-1. The particular times, volcanoes and other similar phe- titles due to sovereigns in diffrent states; nomeina were attributed. the imperial title being considered as exCENTUIMVIRI, in Romsn antiquity, pressing some sort of superiority over the judges appointed to decide common royal, and having been in consequence causes amiong the people. Three were assumed by various kings in their public chosen out of each tribe; and though acts (as the king of England since the there were five more than a hundred, union of the crowns.) 2.'The acknowledgthey were nevertheless called centumviri, ment of sovereign titles, the right to confrom the round number ceentu7n. fer which was formerly elarimed by the CENTUC'lION, among the Romans, an popes as their own prero gtive, but they officer in the infantry, who commanded a are now a.ssumed by princes, a'nd confirmed century, or a hundred men. The Roman by the acknowledgment of other sovelegions were. in -act, divided into cen- reigns. 3. The respective prerogatives ftu'ies. of different sovereigns; which species of CEN'TURY, in a general sense, denotes precedence is that which has occasioned a hundred; or anything divided into, or the greatest amount of discussion and disconsisting of, a hundred parts. The Ro- pute when sovereigns, or their represenman people, when they were assembled tatives, have been brought together. In for the electing of magistrates, enacting 1504, Pope Julius II. arranged the rank of laws, or deliberating upon any public of European powers in the following oraffair, were always divided into centuries, der: 1. The Roman emperor; 2. The and voted by centuries, in order that their king of Rome; 3. France; 4. Castile; suffrages mighlt be the more easily col- 5. Aragon; 6. Portugal; 7. England; lected; whence these assemblies were 8. Sicily; 9. Scotland; 10. Hungary; called comezita cenLturiata. This mode of 11. Navarre; 12. Cyprus; 13. Bohemia; dividcing the Rontan people was intro- 14. Poland; 15. Denmaark; 16. Repub ':0 ClYCOLOPEDIA OF LPTERIATURlE [CA lie of Venice; 17. Duke of Britanny; in the civil law, is a voluntary surrendosl i8. Burgundy; 19. Elector of Bavaria; of a person's effects to his creditors, to 20. Saxony; 21. Brandenburg; 22. Arch- avoid imprisonment. duke of Austria; 23. Duke of Savoy; CES'TUS, CAEss, thongs of leather 24. Grand Duke of Florence; 25. Duke round the hands and arms, worn by boxof Milan; 26. Bavartia. 27. Lorraine. ers for offence and defence, to render This arrangement, however, gave birth their blows smore power- to repeated contests. At present, where ful. The cestus was in- preeedence is not considered as established trodneed when athletics between rulers of equal dignity, eaeh con- were generally practised, tY cedes to the other precedence at home; and the name is Roman. and when they meet on the territory of It was a stronger defence a third party, they take precedence al- than the Hismelranles of the ternately until some arrangement is ancient Greeks; the sirmeffected. pie thongs of leather were > CERIN'TIIANS, the followers of Ce- still used occasionally in / rinthus, one of the first heresiarchs in the boxing, and in the exerchurch. They denied the divinity of cises of the Agonistse, and Christ, but they held that a celestial vir- were called Mielichai, betue descended on him at his baptisml in cause the blows they gave the form of a dove, by which he was con- were less formidable than those of the seccrate-d and made Christ. cestus. There are many kinds of cestus, CE-RO'MA, an ointment mRade of oil in some the thongs of leather are studded. and wax, with which the ancient wrestlers with nails. Works of ancient Art abouncl rubbed themselves to render their limbs in which the cestus is represented.more pliant. Cestts, a girdle saidC to be worn by VeCERIOMANCY,;,n ancient mode of nus, to which Homer ascribes the power of divination, by means. of dropping melted exciting love towards the wearer. It was wax in water, and ol;serving the shapes, also a marriage girdle, richly studded, &c., it assumed. with which the husband. girded his wife CEROPLAS'TIC, the art of modelling at the wedding, and loosed again at night. in wax, one of very high antiquity. Ly- CIIACONE', or CIACONE, in music, sistratus, the brother of Lysippus, was a Iind of da.nce resembling a saraband, the first that used wax for modelling the of Moorish origin. The bass of it consists hunan figure. Ite lived in the time of of four notes, which proceed in conjoint Alexander the Great, and was a native degrees, whereon the harmonies are made of Sicyon. with the same burden. Some have deCERTIIF'ICATE, in a general sense, rived this dance fron cceco, a blind man, a testimony given in writing to declare or its supposed inventor. certify the truth of anything. Of these CHAIR, (catihedra), was anciently the there are many which are requisite in suggestumn, or pulpit, whence the priest almost every profession, but more par- or public orator spoke to the people. It ticularly in the law and in the army. is still applied to the place whence proCERTIORA'RI, a writ issuing out of fessors in universities de-liver their leesome superior court, to call up the re- tures; thus we say, the professor's chair. cords of an inferior court, or remove a It is commonly used for a speaker or cause there depending, that it may be president of a public council or assembly, tried in a superior court. as the speaker's chair; and by a metoCESSA'TION OF ARMiS, an armistice nymy, the speaker himself; as, to ador occasional truce, agreed to by the com- dress the cha'i.-Chair, amnong the Roiaanders of arms, to give time for a cap- man Catholics, certain feasts held a-neientitulation, or for other purposes. ly in commemoration of the translation CESSA'VIT, in law, a writ to recover of the see or seat of the vicarage of Christ lands, when the tenant or occupier has by St. Peter.-Curiule &ais-, in Roman ceased for two years to perform the ser- antiquity, an ivory seat placed on a vice which constitutes the condition of his car, wherein were seated the chief ma.tenure, and has not sufficient goods or gistrates of Rome, and those to whom the chattels to be distrained. honor of a triumph was granted. CES'SION, in a general sense a sur- CHALCED'ONY, a kind of quartz, render; but particularly a surrender of semi-transparent, of a bluish white, but conquered territory to its former propri- frequently striped and clouded with other, etor or sovereign by treaty.-CEssION, colors. AGATE is a mixture of chalcedh. CnA] AND THE FINE ARTS. 71 ony and varieties of quartz, often beau- gredient, as the waters of Tunbridge tifully tinted. Chalcedony and agate Wells. Chalybeates act chiefly as absorbwere used for seals and other works of ents and deobstruents. The action of the art. particles of a chalybeate, by their elastiCHALCID"ICUM, in ancient architec- city, together with the momentum they ture, a magnificent hall belonging'to a give the blood by their ponderosity, tribunal or court of justice. makes it not only preferable to most CIIALCOG'RAPHY, a modern term other deobstruents, but also proper in for engraving on copper. other cases; especially where there is a CIIALDEE', or CIIALDA'IC, the lan- viscidity of the juices, the blood impoverguiGac spoken by the Chaldeans, or peo- ished, or the circulation languid. pie of Chaldea: it is a dialect of the Ile- CHAM, or KHIAM, the title of the brew. sovereign prince of Tartary. It is likeCIIAL'ICE, the communion cup, or wise applied to the principal noblemen vessel used to administer the wine in the of Persia. sacrament of the eucharist. The form CHAMADE', in war, a signal made by has undergone many variations in differ- beat of drlum or sound of trumpet, for a cnt ages, always preserving, however, its conference with the enemy, either to incup-like shape. Chalices are made of vite to a truce, or to propose a capitulagold, but more commonly of silver, either tion. ^^. ^ CItAM'BER, in building, any room situated between the lowermost and up_ — _==.= 1 \X\\2 j Jpermost rooms. Chamber, in polity, the - _ ii ccplace where certain assemblies are held; ____ = = also the assemblies themselves. Of these l —--— ~~'.=~ some are established for the administraJ 4i'f r tion of justice, o hers for colmmercial affairs. In many languages, chamnber is used to designate a branch of government whose members assemble in a common apartment.- Priry-chamber. Gentle\ men of the privy-chamber are servants /I \ ~ of the king, rwho are to wait and attend __:______ ~ }s \^/'I \ onl him and the queen at court. ^c2, — =_= - ~t CIHAM'BER.LAIN, a high officer in all:European courts. Originally the whole, or parcel gilt and jewelled. They chamberlain was the keeper of the treashave sometimes been made of crystal, ure-chamber; and this meaning of the glass, and agate, but these nmaterials are word is still preservdd, in the usages of now prohibited on account of their brittle the corporations of London and other nature. places, where the chamberlain is the CtIALI'ZA, in Ilebrew antiquity, the officer who keeps the money belongino to ceremnony whereby a wonman, left a wid- the municipal body. But in modern ow, pulled off her brother-in-law's shoes, times, the court officer styled chamberwho should have espoused her; after lain has the charge of the private apartwhich she was at liberty to marry whom ments of the sovereign or noble to she plcased. whom he is attached.l In England, the CHIAL'LE1NGE, in a general sense, a lord great chamberlain, or king's chamsummons to fight, whether in a duel or berlain, is one of the:three great officers in a. pugilistic contest. In law, an excep- of the king's household. 1-e has the contion to jurors, made by the party put on trol of all the officers above stairs, except his trial: or the claim of a party that the precinct of the bedchamber, iWhich is certain jurors shall not sit in trial upon under the government of the groom of him or his cause. The right of challenge the stole. Under him are the vice-chanis given both in civil and criminal trials, berlain, lord of the bedchamber, &c.; the and extends either to the whole panel, or chaplains, officers of the wardrobe, phyonly to particular jurors. In criminal sicians, tradesmen, artisans, and others cases, a prisoner may'challenge twenty retained in his majesty's service are in jurors, without assigning a cause; which his department, and sworn into office by is called a peremptory challenge. him. He is commonly one of the highest CHALYB'EATE, an epithet for wa- nobility of the country; in virtue of his ters in which iron forms the principal in- situation he precedes dukes. The em 72 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CIIA blenm of office appropriated to the chainm- which was left at the top: they then berlain in European courts is a gold key, made oath that they believed the person generally suspended from two gold but- who retained them to be in right, &c. tons.-The LORD GREAT CHAtM1BERPLAIN They always engaged on foot, and with OF ENGLAND (not of the household) is the no other weapon than a club and a shield, sixth great officer of state. This office and they always made an offering to the belonged for many centuries to the noble church, that God might assist them in the family of De Vere, Earls of Oxford; af- battle.- Champopios of the King- (or terward to that of Bertie, Lords Wil- Queen,) an officer who rides armed into loughby de Eresby and Dukes of Ancas- Westminster Hall on the coronation, ter. In that line it became vested in while the sovereign is at dinner, asnd by coheiresses, by whom the present deputy herald makes proclamation, "That if any chamberlain (Lord G(wydir) is appointed. man shall deny the king's (or queen's) C[IA.fl'BRE ARDENTE, in French title to the crown, he is there ready to history, a name given to the tribunal defend it in a single combat:" which which ewas instituted by Francis I. for the being clone, the sovereign drinks to him, purpose of trying and hurniung heretics; and then presents him with a cup for his and also the extraordinary coimmissions fee. established under Louis XIV. for the ex- CHANCE, a term applied to events anmimation of prisoners, and under the that are supposed to happen without any regent Duke of. Orleans against public known or necessary cause; or, rather, of' officers charged with certain offences which the cause is such that they may against the revenues, and those guilty of happen in one way as well as another. fraud in the matter of Law's 1bank. Thus, when a piece of money is tossed up CHIAMNIRE DES COMIPTES, (Chami - in the air, as no reason can be given why ber of Accounts,) in French history, a it should fall on one side rather than on great court established for various pur- the other, it is said to be an even chance poses; as for the registration of edicts, which of the sides shall turn up. ordinances, letters patent, trealties of CHAN'CEL, that part of the choir of peace, &c. The sovereign chambre des a church between the altar and the baluscomptes was at Paris: there were also trade that incloses it, where the minister inferior courts in ten provincial cities. is placed at the celebration of the conmCHAMIFER, in architecture, the edge munion. The chancel is also the rector's of anything originally right-angled cut freehold and part of his glebe, and thereaslope or bevel, so that the plane it then fore he is obliged to repair it; but where formns is inclined less than a right angle the rectory is impropriate, the improto the other planes with which it inter- priator must do it sects. CTIAN'CELLOR Under the Poman CHAMP DE MARS, in French his- eomperors, a chancellor signified a chief tory, the public assemblies of the Franks, notary or scribe; but in Englaind it which were held in the open air. meansi asn officer invested with high juCHAM'PERTY, in law, a barg'ain dicial powers. —Thc Lord IgI Chantmade with:.ither plaintiff or defendant cellar of Great Britain is one of the prinin any suit, for giving part of the land, cipal ofscers of the civil government, debt, &c., sued for, to the party who un- created without writ or patent, by the dertakes the process at his own expense. mere delivery of the king's great seal CHAM'PION, a person who under- into his custody. He is a privy counseltakes a combat in the place of another: lor by his office, and prolocutor of the sometimes the word is used for him who House of Lords by prescription. He also fights in his own cause. In ancient times, appoints all the justices of the peace when two champions were chosen to throughout the kingdom. Persons exermaintain a cause, it was aIlways required cising this office in former times havinpg that there should be a decree of the been ecclesiastics, and superintendents of judge to authorize the combat: when the the royal chapel, the Lord Chancellor is judge had pronounced sentence, the ac- still styled keeper of the king's consciencec, cused threw a gage or pledge, originally and for the same reason he is visitor, in a glove or gantlet, which being taken up right of the king, of all hospitals and by the accuser, they were both taken into colleges of the king's foundation; and saife custody, till the day of battle ap- patron of all the king's livings under the pointed by the judge. Before the cham- value of 201. per annum in the king's pious took the field, their heads were books. HIe is the general guardia.n of shaved to a kind of crown or round, all infants, idiots, and lunatics; has a CICA] AND TE FINE ARTS. 73 control over all public charities; and a the day, nor moon to enlighlten the night; jurisdiction of vast extent, as the head that the earth was not yet hung in the of the a1v iin his Court of, Chancery; circusmambient air, nor the sea bounded where he decides without the assistance by'any shore; hut that earth, air, and of a jury, but from which there is an ap- I water, were one undigested mass. peal to theo House of Lords. —Chantcellor I CIIAP'EL, a place of divine worvship, of a Dioccse, a lay officer under a bishop, served by an incumbent under the denoolnverst.d in the canon and civil law, who is ination of a chaplain. There are varij ad-e of his court.-Chacncellor of a Ca- ous kinds of chapels; as piarochial c!apels, t/Lcdial, an oilicor who hears lessons in distinct from the mother church; czap.ecls the chirch, inspects schools, hears causes, of case, built in largo parishes for the writes letters, and applies the seal of the acconmod:ation of the inhabitants; free chaptser, keeps the books, &c.-Chancellor i chapels, which were founded by diff'rent of a Ui'versity, an officer who seals the kings; chapels belonging to ptrticuliar diplomtas, or letters of degree, &c. The c collegecs; domcstic chapels, built by nochancellors of Oxford and Cambridge are blemen or gentlemen for the use of their selected fomn among the prime nobility!. families. the florer holds his office for life; the CHIAP'ELRY, the precinct beloeging latter is elected every three years.- to a chapel, in distiction from a parish, CLthacellor of' the ]Exchequer, an officer or that belonging to a church. iwho presides in that court. and takes care CHIAP'LAIN, an ecclesiastic who perof the interests of the crown. He has forms divine service in a chapel; but it power with the lord treasurer to lease the more commonly: means'one who attends crown lands, and with others to compound i upon a king, prince, or other person of for forfeiture o- lands, on penal statutes: quality, for the performance of his clorihe has also great authority in managing cal duties in the private chapel. the royal revenues, and in all matters CIIAPLET, in a general sense, a garrelating to the finances of the stateo.- land or wreath to be worn on tle head.CIIANCEl —MJ EDLEY, in law, the acci- In architecture, a little moulding, carved dental killings of a person, not altogether into round beads, pearls, &c. —Chaplct, a without the killer's fault, though without string of beads used by the Roman Cathoany evil inenntion. lies, by which they count the number of CHANi CERY, the grancd court of their prayers, and are called p]tern.osequity and conscience, instituted to mod- ters. This practice is believed to have erate the rigor of the other courts that been introduced by Peter the HIermit are bou-nd to the strict letter of the law. into the church on his return from the CIANJ''CES, a branch of mathematics, Itoly Land, thle Orientals using a kind which estimates ratios of probability. of chaplet called a chain, and rehearsing CII ANT, in music, sa ecclesiastical one of the perfections of God on each link song usually adapted to the ps'alms and or bead. litanies. There have been several sorts, CHAPiTER, in ecclesiastical polity, is of which the first was the Arnbrosian, in- an assembly for the transaction of such vented by St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan. business as.cones under its cognizance. The Gregorian chant, which was intro- Every cathedral is under the superintendaced by Pope Gregory, is still in use in dence of tlte dean and chaptcer of its the IRoman church, and is the foundation canons. A meeting of the members of of all that is grand and elevated in an order of knighthood is also called a rmusic. chapter. CIIAN'TRY, a little chapel or altar, CIrAPTER-THOUSE, in architecture, commonoly in some church endowed (be- the aspartment (usually attached) of a fore the Reformation) with revenues for cathedral or collegiate church, in which the maintenance of a priest to perform the heads of the church or the chapter prayers for the soul of the founder and meet to transact business. others. CIIARACTER, that which distinC:IA'OSO that confusion in which mat- guishes each species of being in each ter is supposed to have existed before genus, and each individual of each spethe worlld was produced by the creative cies. In man, character consists of the power of Omnipotence; or, in other words, form of the body, stature, and gait, the unforrmed primeval matter of which which distinguish him from other anieverything was miade. The ancient poets, mals. In mankind, the natural or aceiand Ovid in particular, represent chaos deoital peculiarities resulting from sex, thus: that there was neither sun to make I temperament, age, climate the exercise _ _________________...~_-______ ___..J 74 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CIIA of the passions, the position of the indi- horses which drew them. When the wa.rvidual in the social scale, and his mode riors came to encounter in close fight, of living. These peculiarities and differ- they alighted and fought on foot; but ences are, after the study of the human when they were weary they retired into figure in general, the most important their chariot, and thence annoyed their subjects of the study of the painter and enemies with darts and missive weapons sculptor, since upon these peculiarities Besides this sort, we find frequent menand differences depend all the signifi- tion of the currus fL.lcatl, or chariots cance of their compositions. Each genus, armed with hooks or scythes, with whlich each family of animals, has also its gen- whole ranks of soldiers were cut off toeral and particular character. So also gether: these were not only used by the in the inaninmate productions of nature, Persians, Syrians, Egyptians, &c., but trees, rocks, fields, and meadows, which we find them among our British ancesvary in reality as well as in appearance, tors. —The Roman triLcmjphal clariot was according to the climate, season, time of generally made of ivory, round like a day, accidental condition of the sky, and tower, or rather of a cylindrical figure; also according to the modifications they sometimes gilt at the top and ornamented receive at the hands of man, the effect of with crowns; and, to represent a victory time, or by the effect of natural acci- more naturally, they used to stain it with dents. If all these things, observed with blood. It was usually drawn by four sagacity and selected with taste, are white horses, but oftentimes bylions, clefaithfully represented in a picture, we phants. tigers, bears, leopards, &.c. say that the animals. the trees, the rocks C1HARIS'IA, a Romani nocturnal festiof the picture have good character. val and dance kept in honor of the Grac es, CIIARACTERIS'TIC, in a general when sweetmeats, called charrisia, were sense, a peculiar mark or character, distributed among the guests. whereby a person or thing is distinguish- CIIARIS'TIA, a solemn festival among ed firom all others. the Romans kept in the month of FebruCHrARADE', a syllabic enigma, so ary. It was well worthy the imitation named from its inventor, made upon a of Christians; for at this time the relaword the two syllables of which, when tions of each family compromised any separately taken, are themselves words. diffcrences that had arisen between them, It consists of three parts; the two first and renewed their former friendships describing the syllables separately; the upon the principles of pure benevolence second alluding to the entire word. A and good-will. charade can only bo called complete if CIIA'ITY, in a general sense, that the different enigmas which it contains disposition of heart which inclines nmenl to are brought into a proper relation to each think favorably of their fellow-men, and other, and as a whole unite in an epi- to do them good; or liberality and begrammaticpoint. The following charade, nevolence, either in alms-giving or in which we borrow from the Dictionnaire contributing towards public charitable inde l Acadenie F7?nciaise, may be regard- stitutions.-In a theological sense, sued as a good specimen of this species of prene love to God, and universal goodriddle:- My first makes use of my will to men. second to eat my whole;" the solution CI-ARELATAN, one -who makes unbeing chien-deent, (cdog-tooth,) or dog's warrantable pretensions to skill, and grass. The word charade has been ap- prates much in his own favor. The oriplied to this sort of amusement, from the ginal import of the word was an empiric, name of its inventor. or quack, who retailed his medicines on CIARGE, in a general sense, is that a public stage, and drew the people about which is enjoyed, committed, intrusted or him by his buffooneries. delivered to another, implying care, cus- CHARM, some magical words, chartody, oversight, or duty to be performed acters, verses, &c., imagined to possess by the party intrusted. Charge. in civil some occult and unintelligible power: by law, the instructions given by the judge which, with the supposed assistance of to the grand jury.-In ecclesiastical law, the devil, witches and sorcerers have prethe instructions given by a bishop to the tendedto do wonderful things. The word, clergy of his diocese. in its more modern acceptation, is used CHAIVIOT, in antiquity, a car or ve- to describe that which delights and athicle used formerly in war, and called by tracts the heart. the several names of biga, trga, qua- CHA'RON, in mythology, the ferry. driga, &c., according to the number of man of hell, who conducted the souls of CHE] AND THE FINE ARTS. 75 the departed in aboat across the Stygian cannot be altered by parol evidence, allake to receive judgment from (Eacus, though they may be explained by merRiiadainanthus, and Minos, the judges of cantile usage. The instrument expresses the infiernal regions. lIe received an the freight to be paid, and generally, but o.bolus from every passenger, for which not necessarily, the burden of the ship; reason the ancients used to put that piece together with some usual covenants, and cf money in the mouths of the dead. lie others at the discretion of the parties. was said to be the son of Erebus and CH-AR"' ULARY, in diplomatics, a colNight. lection of the charters belonging to a CtIAR'TA, MAG'NA, in English his- church or religioous house. tory. The " Great Charter of the Realm" CIIHARYB'DIS, a much-dreaded vortex was signed by King John in 1215, and at the entrance of the Sicilian straits, confirmed by his successor Henry III. It celebrated for its engrulfing perils, by the is reported to have been chiefly drawn up ancient writers. It is, however, no longby the Earl of Pembroke and Stephen er dreadiful to navigators, who, in a quiet Lamngton. Archbishop of Canterbury. Its sea, and particularly with a south wind, most important articles are those which cross it without danger. provide that no freeman shall be taken CHASE, in law, a part of a forest for or imprisoned or proceeded against. " ex- game, which may be possessed by a subcopt by the lawful judlgment of his peers ject: though a forest cannot. The word or by the law of the land,";and that no chase has also several meanings in marscutage or aid should be imposed in the itime lanuage; as, chase-guns, that lie kingdlom (except certain feudal dues from at the head, to fire on a vessel that is tena;nts of the crown) unless by the coi- pursued, in distinction to stesrn-chasers, men council of the kincdom. The re- which fire on the pursuer.-With huntsmaning and greater part of it is directed men, the chlase is a figurative expression a inst abuses of the king's power as for their sport in general. feuual superior. CHA'SING, in sculpture, the art of CIHARTE, in French history, origi- embossing on metals, or representing fignally used to indicate the rights and ures thereon by a kind of basso-7elievo, privileges granted by the French kings punched out from behind, and carved on to various towns and communities; but the front with small gravers. The metals recently to the fundamental law of the usually chased are gold, silver, and French monarchy, as established on the Ibronze, and among the ancients, iron restoration of Louis XVIII. in 1814. The also. The remains of ancient art show C/carte consisted of 69 articles, and was to what a degree of perfection it was carfounded on principles analogous to those ried; and in owr on times, some very of the British constitution, as embodied fine works have been executed. originally in the Magna Charta, and sub- CIIASSEURS', a French term for a sosequently extended in the Bill of Rights. leet body of light infantry, formed on the CH AR'TER, in law, a written instru- left of a batltalion, and who are required ment, executed with usual forms, where- to be particularly light, active, and courby the king grants privileges to towns. a.geous.-Chassetrs a c/ceval, a kind of corporations,' &c.; whence the ntUme of light horse in the French service. Magna Charta, or the Great Charter of CHA'SUBLE, CHESABLE, CHIESIBLE, Liberties granted to the people of the called also a vestment, the upper or whole realm. last vestment put on by the priest before CIIA'R1TER-PARTY, in mercantile celebrating the mass. In form it is nearlaw, is (lefined to be a contract, by which ly circular, being slightly pointed before the owner or master of a ship hires or and behind, having an aperture in the lets the whole or a principal part of it to middle for the head to pass through, and a freighter for the conveyance of goods, its ample folds resting on either side under certain specified conditions, on a upon the arms. It is richly decorated determined voyage to one or more places. with embroidery and even with jewels. A charter-party is generally under seal; CIHATEAU, a French word, formerly but a printed or written instrument sign- used for a castle, or baronial seat in ed by the parties, called a memorandum France; but now simply for a country of a charter-party, is binding if no char- seat. ter-party be executed. A voyage may CHEF-D'CEU'VRE, a work of the be performed in part under a charter- highest excellence in itself, or relatively party, and in part under a parol agree- to the other works of the same artist. ment; but the terms of a charter-party Thus the Apollo Belvedere, or the Trans '7( CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [(CH igurtlationofRtaffaelIe, are chef-d'oeuvres oscuro means not only the mutable efof sculpture and painting. fects produced by light and shade, but CHlIENTS'CUS, also the permanent differences in brightin works of ancient ness and darkness. rt, ships are seen CitICA'TNERY, mean or unfair arti" i with ornamental fices to perplex a cause or to obscure the prows, shaped to truth; applied either in a legal sense, represent the by which justice is somehow intended to h/ head and neck of be perverted; or to disputatious sophisa. goose, or other try. *aquatic bird; this CIIIEF, a term signifying the head, part was called or principal part of a thing or person...1.t j., choniscus, a n d Thus we say, the chief of a party, the >\ L^'vg was constructed chief of a family, Gc. k,'~] \ of bronze and oth- CIIEF'TAIN, a captain or comman-' er materials.- der of any class, f1amily, or body of men: Sometimes, but thus, the Highland chieftains, or chiefs, rarely, the chenis- were the principal noblemen or gentlemen cus is affixed to of tleir respective clans. the stern of a ship. CHIL'IAD, the sum or number of one - - (I~-:1CHER'I/UBIM, thousand. Hence chiliarchL denotes the' —— """^ in Christian Art, a military commander or chief of a thouhigher class of an.els, the nearest to the saLd men: chilsarch.y, a body consisting throne of God, of which they are the sup- of 1000 men: chiliacldron, a figure of porters. Their forms nre known by the 1000 equal sides: and chliliaoon^, a figure poeticlt writings of the Old Testament. of 1000 angles andl sides. They appear first as guardians of Para,- CHILL'ED. When a cloudiness or dise. whence our first parents were ex- dimness appears on the surfiace of a picpelled by a cherub w-ith a flaming sword. ture that has been varnished, it is called Jehlovah rested between the wings of the blooming, and we say the varnish has cheruxbimn on the cover of the ark; and in chilled. This defect arises fronm the' the history of Ezekiel they are repre- presence of imoisture, either on the sursented with four wings, two of which cov- face of the picture, or in the brush, or in cred the body and drew the chariot of the the varnish itself, and can easily be Lord through the air. In the heavenly avoided by makino the former thoroughhiernrchy the cherubim form one of the ly dry, and the latter hot before it is apthree high angel choirs-seraphim, cher- plied. ubim, acnd angels, which constitute the CHIIMZE'RA, a misshapen monster in first and upper order of angels; they Grecian mythology, lescribed by Homer raink next to the seraphim. as having a lion's head, a goat's body, CIIERSONESE, a tract of land, of any and the tail of a dragon. The chimamra indefinite extent, which is nearly sur- appears in Art as a lion, except that out rounded by water, but united to a larger of the back grow the head and neck of a tract by a neck of land or isthmus. goat, and gigantic carvings of it are CIIEVAL-DE-FRISE, (generally used fonnd on rocks in Asia. Minor, according in the plural, CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE, Fr. to IHomer the native country of the mon — pron. shevo de fr7eez,) spikes of wood, ster. There are innumerable small anpointed with iron, five or six feet long, tique statues of chimarra, and Bellerofixed in a strong beam of wood, and used phon, by whom the chimiera was killed, as a fence against cavalry, or to stop a of which one of the most remarkable is breach, &e. in the Uffigi palace at Florence. In CIfAPR0 OSCU'RO, (an Italian phrase, Christian Art, the chimoxra is a symbol mea.ning clear-obscutre,) is the art of cis- of cunning. It is frequently seen on the tributing lights and shadows in painting. modillions and capitals of architectural The aimn of paintings is to form a picture works executed in the eleventh and by means of light and shade, and by col- twelfth centuries, and again in the fifors and their gradations; the more truly teenth and sixteenth centuries. painting accomplishes this end, the more CHIMES, the musical sounds of bells artistic it will be. Correggio and Rem- struck with hammers, arralnged and set brandt are famnous for their chiaro-oscuro. in motion by clock-work.-In a clock, According to the common acceptation of a kind of periodical music, produced at the term in the language of art, chiaro certain hours by a particular apparatus. Cllm] AND TIHE FINE ARTS. 77 CIITIMNEY, in architecture, a body engrossing the fines, and cutting the of brick or stone erected in a building, parchment in two pieces, is still retained containing a funnel to convey smoke and in the chirogrl.pher's office, in the Court other volatile matter through the roof of Common Pleas. from the grate or hearth. How far the CIIIROL'0OGY, the art or practice of Greek and Roman architects were ac- communicating thoughts by signs malde quainted with the construction of chim- by the hands' and fingers; as a substitute neys is a matter of dispute. No traces for language. of them have been discovered in the CHIh/'OI,[ANCY, a species of divinaruins of Pompeii, and Vitruvius gives no tion, drawn from the different lines and rules for erecting them. The first certain lineaments of a person's lhand.l; by which notice of chimneys, as we now build thei, means, it is pretended the inclinst.ions is believed to be that contained in an in may be discovered. The mlodern word is scription of Venice, over the gate of an palmistry. ediicee, which states that in 1347 a great CIIlRON'OMY, in antiquity, the art many chimneys were thrown down by an of representing any past trainacsltion by earthquake. the gestures of the body, mnore especially C.1-i'NA —WAPE, the most beautiful by the motions of the hands: this iade of all kinds of earthenwares takes its a part of liberal education: it h:d the name from China, whence the Dutch and approbation of Socrates, and was ranked English merchants first brought it into by Plato among the political virtues. Europe. It is also called porcelain, from CIIIS'LEU, the ninth month of the the Portuguese porcellana, a cup or ves- Jewish year, answering to the latter sel. The Japan china is considered supe — part of November and the beginning of rior to all other of oriental manufacture, December. in its close and compact granular tex- CIII'TON, the under-garment of the ture, its sonorosity when struck, its cx- Greekls, corresponding to the tunic of the treme hardness, its smooth and shininglr emans, mentioned as early as lHomer appearance, and its capability of being it was made of woollen cloth. After the used to boil liquids in. AWith the Chinese Greek migration it was called chlitoniscos, potters, the preparation of the clay is while the light loose garment or hiimaconstalntly in operation; and usuaflly re- tion was also called chllania, or ehlanis. mains in the pits froml ten to twenty The Doric chiton, worn by men, was years prior to being used; for, the lon- short and of wool; that of the Athenians ger it remains there, the greater is its and lonians, of linen, in earler times value. The Dresden china has some worn long, but wiith the former people, qualities which render it decidedly supe- after the time of Pericles, it was shorter. rior to the oriental. Its texture exhibits a compact, shining, uniform Imass, re-. semsbling vwhite enamel, while it pos- ~f BJ N sesses firmness, solidity, and infusibility -k' by heat. CII2'NESE lWHITE, an empirical l namse given to the white oxide of zinc, a f i,'/, valuable pigment recently introduced \ l'a into the Arts as a substitute for the prep- arations of white lead. It is little liable il -- - \ Y )/ls A to change, either by atmospheric action or b)y mixture with other pigments. Its\ /l \ l only defect appears to be a waant of body, as compared with white lead., CH[I'ROGRAPH, among( the AngloSaxons, signifiel a.ny public instrument 1 of gift or conveyance, attested by the I subscription and crosses of witnesses.!/ Any deed requiring a counterpart was/ I engrossed twice on the same piece of I /i parchmentt, with a space between, on | i t which was written chirofLraph, through l /'i"-__ i l_':ll / \ which the parchmentl was cut, and onel i5 part givens to each party. It was alsov anciently used for a fine: the manner of k...__.____.__._.~~__... __~~. ~ -~,._... _...~...._,~~.;.~.~~.c~s._ll_....-_ —c..~~~. —~-~..~-~-. 78 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [c1l The chiton, worn by freemen, had two tions, of those who adopted it. The vivisleeves, that of workmen and slaves only fying principle of ancient philosophy was one. A girdle (called, when worn by ideal virtue; that of chivalry, the ideal men, zomai) was required when the gar- point of honor. The origin of chivalry has ment was long, but that of the priests often been traced to the German tribes; nor was not girided. The Doric chiton for has its spirit ever penetrated very deeply women wats omade of two pieces of stuff into the usages of any country in which sewn together, and fastened on the shoul- these tribes have not either produced the doers by clasps. In Sparta. it was not ancestors of the great body of the nation, sewn up the sides, but only fastened, and or at least the conquering and governing had no sleeves. The chiton appears to class, which transfused its habits and have been generally gray or brown. sentiments into that body. Thus Gerc Women fond of dress haid saffron-colored many and France, and England, whose clothing; and the material (cotton or gentry derive their origin from both, fine linen) wa^ striped, figured, or em- have been the countries most distinguishbroidered with stars, flowers, &c. With ed for the prevalence of this institution. regard to statues, we need only remark The martial spirit of the Spaniards was)1 that Artemis, as a huntress, wears a gir- indeed, partly animated by it; but in die over the chiton, which is fastened on their country it always bore something the shoulders and folds over the bosom. of the character of a foreign importation, Pahllas Athene often wears a double modified by the circumstances of their chiton, reachingr to the feet, and leaving juxtaposition with the Arab race. In the arms free. On the statues of ama- Italy, it existed only among those classes zons the chiton is sleeveless, clasped up which imitated the manners of France in two places, leavingo the breast uncover- and Gerrnany, and never entered into ed, and drawn up sufficiently to show even the general character of the natives, notabove the knee. withstanding the popularity of the roCHIV'ALRY, the name anciently iv- mances of chivalry. Among the Slavonic n to knighthood, a military dignity; nations it has never prevailed extensiveialso the martial exploits and qualifica- ly; although the feudal constitution of tions of a knight. Chivalry, as aI military Polish society derived a certain tinacture dignity, is supposed by sonme to have from it, it never penetrated into Russia., taken its rise soon after the death of It haes often been remarked, that it is Charlemagne, anad by others as arising only within the last two or three genseraout of the crusades, because in these ex- tions that the nobility of that country, by peditions many chivalrous exploits were their intercourse -with the nations of performed, and a proud feeling of. hero- Western Europe, have derived something ism was engendered. The general sys- of the spirit of the chivalrous code, so far tern of manners and tone of sentiments as it still subsists among ourselves: the which the institution of. knighthood, point of honor, and its peculiar concomistrictly pursued, was calculated to pro- tant the usage of the duel, were scarcely duce, and did in part produce, during the known in Russia before the present conmiddle ages in Europe, is comprehended tury. It is to the 14th century, and in erin ary lanr uae under the term of especially to that part of its chronicles chivalry. This imsaginary institution of preserved by the true annalist of chivalchivalry, such as it is represented in the ry, Froissart, that we lmust look for the ol romances, had assuredly no full ex- period when the line between real sociistence at any period in the usages of ety and that represented in romances was actual life. It was the ideal perfection most nearly broken down. When the of a code of morals and pursuits.which usages of chivalry were most flourishing%, was in truth only partially adopted; and all men of noble birth, (except the highbore the same relation to the real life of est) were supposed to pass through three the middle ages, which the philosophical orders or gradations. They first lived as excellence aimed at by the various sects pages in the train of nobles and chiefs of of antiquiity bore to the real conduct of high rank; next, as esquires, they attheir professors. But, in both instances, tached themselves to the person of some a system of abstract perfection was pro- individual knight, to whoma they were pounded in theory, which, although the bound by a strict law of obedience, and defect of human nature prevented it from for whom they were bound to incur every bein reduced into practice, yet exercised danger, and, if necessary, sacrifice their a very important influence in modelling lives; and, thirdly, they were promoted the minds, and even controlling the ac- to the rank of knighthood. However cHO] AND THE FINE ARTS. 79 great the distinction might be between CItLA'MYS, in antiquity, a military knights in point of rank and wealth, cus- Ihabit worn over the tunica. It belonged tom established a species of equality to the patricians, and was the same in among all of the same order, which may the time of war, that the toga was in the be said to subsist among' gentlemen of the time of peace. It was a light cloak, or present day. They formed, all over Eu- rather scarf, the ends of wlhich were fasrope, a common corporation, as it were, tened on the shoulder by a clasp or buckle. possessing certain rights, and owing each It hung with two long points as far as other certain mutual duties and forbear- the thigh, and was richly ornamented. ances. They were united, not by the ties with purple and gold. When the fib;la of country, but by those of feudal obe- was unclasped the chlamys hung (n the dience, which attached every knight to the banner of his liege lord, from whom n he held his fee; but little or rather no dishonor attached to knights who were i under no such feudal tie, if they chose - their own chieftain wherever they thought' N.~ t% fit: they were free adventurers, whose order was a passport in every service; and J in the actual conflict, the hostility of knights was moderated by usage. Thus,' it was dishonorable in any knight to take, ll W,// SI il/ a knight's life if disarmed, and not set him free when a prisoner on receiving a fitting ransom. With regard to the point of honor, which forms the most important' feature in the usages of chivalry, the principal objects were religious belief;\ r fealty to the feudal superior; devotion to somse one selected lady; -and, finally, /1 the general character for honor and cour- tesy which it was incumbent on a knight to maintain; for although his imaginary 4 j duties, as a knight errant, to avenge wrong and succor the oppressed on every occasion, were not of course very strictly put in practice, yet his vow to perform left arm, as with Hermes, or served as a those duties attached to his character a kind of shield, as Poseidon, on the old certain degree of sacredness which it was coins, protects his arm with the chlamys. necessary to maintain. Chivalrous honor It is fastened on the rioght shoulder, in was chiefly supported in two ways: first, the statues of Theseus and the heroic by the single combat or duel, whether on Ephebes, in a wrestling attitude, covering account of serious provocation or by way the breast and enveloping the left arm, of trial of strength; secondly, by the which is somewhat raised. The figures performance of vows, often of the most of Heracles and Hermes, are quite covfrivolous and extravagant nature. These ered by the chlamys, even below the latter were generally undertaken for the body,' whence the Hermes pillar tapers; honor of the ladies. - The commencement the right hand-lies on the breast under of extravagances, however, was rather a the cbhlamys, and the left arm, covered sign of' the decline of the true spirit of to the wrist,'hangs by the side; in the chivalry. It decayed with the progress centre of the breast depends a lion's claw of mercenary armies and the decline of at the opening of the scarf. In the feudal institutions through the 15th cent- Hermes' statues, the chlanys, when fesury; in the 16th, it was little more than tenel on the right shoulder, forms a tria lively recollection of past ages, which angle from the neck. knights such as Bayard, and sovereigns CHOIR, in architecture, the part of a such as Francis I. and Henry VIII. church in which the choristers sing divine strove to revive; and finally, it became service. In former times it was raised extinguished amid religions discords, separate from the altar, with a pulpit on leaving as its only relic the code of hon- each side, in which the epistles and gosor, which is still considered as governing pels were sung, as is still the case in the conduct of the gentleman. several churches on the continene. -It 80 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CIlI was separated from the nave in the time that cannot rbe distinctly: represented, of Constantine. In nunneries, the choir Several examples may be referred to by is a large apartment, separated by a the English reader, in the plays of Shiks-4 grate from the body of the church, where peare. In tragedy, the chorus was. at the nuns chant the service. This term is first the sole performeri; at present it is used also in music to signify a band of wholly discontinued on the stage. —Ceosingers in different parts. RUS, in music, is when, at cer'tin periods CIIORA'GIC MONUMENTS, the of song, the whole oe compy are to join small Inonuments to which we apply this the singer in repeating certain couplets term originated in the time of Pericles, or verses. who built an Odeon at Athens for musical CHIREMATIS'TICS, the science of contests, not of single persons, but of wealth; a name given by Continenntal choruses. The richest and most respecta- writers to the science of political econoble man was chosen my, or rather to what in their vielw con^,I!~ > from the ten Athe- stitutes a portion of the science. They nian tribes, as cho- consider political economy as a term moro J.t'~~ ia ragus, to make the properly applicable to the whole range ^/^^'>'~; necessary arrange- of subjects which comprise the material'.. J ments, in return welfare of states a.nd citizens, and chrof' or which distinc- matitics as merely a branch of it. |lj J i1 Jr J.tion he had to de- CHiRESTOMI'ATIIdY, accorlding to the l'i_- f,, i{ l frey the expenses. tyiology, thlat which it is uLseif to l If h is chorus were learn. The Greeks frequently formed | jlttlllli lii victorious, he had commlonplace books by collecting the va-, i mllI!' t also tle right of rious passages to which, in the course j|ii! i'i! placingt upon a of reading, they had afixed the mark it yi gj;; m oonument ereccel x (yXp1r'e), ussefltl) Hence books of x~I,.;c.'-;.~ >t at his own cost, the tracts chosen with a view to utility have tripod, which was received this name. given as the prize. Tle rich citizens CHFIRISM, or CRI-IS'3M, in the Rowhose chorus conquered in these contests mish and Greek churches, a n unction or displayed greasplplendor in their monu- anointini of children, i which Cwas forments, which were so nuimerous that at merly practised as soon as they Iwere Athens there was a street formed entirely born. of them called the "Street of the Tri-i CHRISTENDOM, a word somletimes pods." employed in such a sense as to coinpreCIIORD, in music, the union of two or hend all nations in which Christianity more sounds uttered at the same time, prevails: more. comnmonly, all realins forminig an entire harmony; as a third, governed under Christian sovereigns and fifth, and eightl. institutions. Thus Europe.n Trrkey, CHOREG'RAPHY, the art of repre- although three fourths of its inhabtitants sentiung dancing by signs, as singing is by are Christians, is not in ordinary lannotes. guage included within the term ChristenCHORE'US, in ancient poetry, a foot Idom. of two syllables; the first long, and the CIIRIS'TENING, a term poarticularly second short; the troch ee. applied to infant baptism, denotiino the CHOiRIAiM'US, in ancient poetry, a Iceremnony of admitting, a person into the foot compounded of a trochee and an iamlc- com-munion of the Christinn chulrch by bus. Ineans of baptisml, or sprinkins' with;a.CIIOROG'P1APTIY, the art of delineat- ter. ing or describing some particular country C:HRISTIAN'ITY, the religion of Jeor provincce: it differs from georaplhy sus Christ. From the period wrhen the as a description of a particular country disciples'were called Christians first in differs from that of the whole earth; andi Antioch" down to thle present dc y, the from topogralhy as the description of a main doctrines of the gospel,'Id: tlhe country from that of a town or district. great moral principles wlhilsi it reveals CHL()RUS, in ancient dramatic poetry, and confirms, have been preserved wiithone or more persons present on the stage out interruption in the churchl. But notduring the representation, uttering an witlhstanding this substantial unity, it occasional commentary on the piece, pro- cannot be denied that the chracter of paring the audience for events that are the religion has been very mnatorially to follow, or explaining circumstances colored throughout all its history by the CHRF] AND THE FINE ARTS. 81 circumstances and genius of different na- range of their information, at cording to tions and ages. The foundation of a the succession of years. Christian's faith and practice, his ultimate, CHR:iON'ICLES, the name of two and, in truth, only appeal, must be to the books in the canon scripture. They confacts, t1le doctrines, and the precepts of sist of an abridgment of sacred history the Scriptures, especially to those of the from its commencement down to the reNew Testament. turn of the Jews from the Babylonish CHRIST'MAS, the festival observed captivity, and are called by the beptuain the Christian church on the 25th of gint rapaXtiroe.iteYa, (lit. things olmlitted,) December, in commemoration of our Sa- because they contain many supplemental viour's nativity; and celebrated in the relations omitted in the other historical church of England by a particular ser- books. It has been generally supposed Yvice set apart for that holy day. that the Chronicles were compiled by CII,'ISTOPIIER, ST. We frequently Ezra, though circumstances are not wantmeet with this saint in old woodcuts; he ing to diminish the probability of this is represented as a giant, his staff being conjecture. Eihhlorn gives as his reathe stemi of a large tree, and lie is carry- sons for attributing them to Ezra their ing the infant Jesus on his shoulders similarity in point of style, idiom, and across a river. This was a favorite sub- orthography to the books of Kings and ject with the artists of the middle ages, Ezra; while the opponents of this view and the saint is placed in the side en- base their opinion on the discrepancies trances of German;l churches as the sym- that occur througohout Chronicles and bol of the transition from heathenism to Kings, in regard to facts, dates, numbers, Christianity. The incidents in the life natmes, anl genealogies. of this saint chosen for illustration by CHI1RON'OGRAAM, an inscription in painters, consist of the passage of the which a certain date or epoch is expressed river, the conversion of the heathen at by numeral letters. Samos, and his martyrdom. CIIRONOLVOGY, the science which CII-ROMAT'IC, in music, an epithet determines the dates of events, and the descriptive of that which proceeds by sev- civil distinctions of time. The divisions eral consecutive semitones. of time are either natural or artificial; CHIROME GREEN, a beautiful dark- the natural divisions of time are the year, green pigment, prepared from the oxide month, week, day, and hour, deduced f chl'omiLzzum. Different shades of this from the motions of the hea venly bodies, pigment are used in porcelain and in oil- and suited to the purposes of civil life: painting. Mixed with Prussian blue and the artificial divisions of time are the chrome yellow it is called green cin- cycle or period, the epoch, and the sera nabr. or epoch, which have been framed for the CHIROME RED, the pigment known purposes of history. In order to ascerat present by this name is not prepared tain and register the intervals of time from chrome, but is a beautiful prepa- between different events, two things must ration of red lead. The name chrome necessarily be assumed: 1st, an epoch red was given to it by speculators, in or fixed point in time to which all events, order to secure a good sale and a high whether preceding or succeeding may be price. Red lead is an oxide qf Lad, refeerred; and 2d, a measure or definite while chrome red is a chromate of portion of time, by which the intervals lead, which is a durable pigment, and between the fixed epoch and other events admissible in oil-painting. may be estimated. Of these the first is CHIRO1ME YELLOW, the most poison- entirely arbitrary, and the second arbious of the chrome pigments, and to be trary to a certain extent; for though entirely rejected in oil-painting: it is certain periods are marked out )by the not durable. When mixed wit white recurrence of natural phenomena, yet a lead it turns to a dirty gray. By itself, choice of these phenomiena must be made. and as a water-color pigment, it is less It is on account of the arbitrary n:atlre objectionable. of these two elements, on which all chronCHRPON'IC, an epithet for inveterate ological reckoning depenils, that so much diseases, or those of long duration. confusion and uncertainty exist respectCHR-ON'TCLE, in literature, an his- ing the dates of historical events. The torical register of events in the order of diversity of epochs which have been astime. Most of the historians of the mid- sumned as the origin of chronological die ages were chroniclers who set down reckoning, is a natural consequence of the events which happened within the Ithe manner in which science and civili6 82 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATUPT [CHI-b zation have spread over the world. In necessary to form a civil year, and adapt the early ages the different communities it to the seasons, the solar year not being or tribes into which mainnkind were divided j composed of an exact number of days. began to date their years each from some Most nations had recourse to intercalaevent remarkable only in reference to tions for this purpose. For these reaits own individual hislory, but of which sons, and numerous others that might other tribes were either ignorant, or re- easily be adduced, it is very seldom that garded with indifference. Hence not the precise interval between the events only different nations, but almost every mentioned in ancient history and modern individual historian or compiler of an- dates can be determined with any degree nals, adopted an epoch of his own. Events of certainty, and great discrepancies exist of local or temporary interest were also among the computations of different chroconstantly occurring in every commu- nologers. nity which would appear of greater im- CHIRYSELEPHAN'TINE, religious portance than those which were long images of gold and ivory. These, the past, and constantly be adopted as new earliest images of the gods in Greece, historical dates. The foundation of a were of wood, gilt, or inlaid with ivory, monarchy or a city, or the accession of a whence were derived acrolites, the heads, king, were events of this class; and ac- arms, and feet of which were of marble, cordingly are epochs of frequent occur- the body still of wood, inlaid with ivory, rence in the ancient annals. Religion or quite covered with gold. From this also came in to increase the confusion arose the chryselephantine statues, of caused by political changes. Soon after which the foundation was of wood, covthe introduction of Christianity, the ered with ivory or gold, with drapery various sects began to establish eras, and hair of thin plates of gold, chased; commencing with events connected with and the rest of the exterior was of ivory, the appearance of Christ; but no regard worked in a pattern by the scraper and was given to uniformity. In like man- file, with the help of isinglass. The ivory ner. the Mohasmmsdlms employ dates portion of these works belongs to sculphaving reference to the origin of their ture, and the gold part to toreutic art; faith. All these circumstances have con- they were long in favor as temple statues, spired to render it a task of extreme dif- as marble and brass were used for comficulty for modern historians to ascertain mon purposes. the order of the political occurrences of CHRYS'OCOLLA, (Gr. gold green.' ancient times. But it is not merely the The Greek term for a green pigment number of chronological epochs and the prepared from copper, (green verditer) various origins of eras that have caused and one of the most beautiful ancient the perplexity; the measure by which greens, Armenian green; it was obtained long intervals were compared varied in by grinding varieties of malachite and different countries, and in different ages, green carbonate of copper, also by decomand hence arises another source of confu- posing the blue vitriol of Cyprus, (sulsion in arranging the order of time. In phate of coppe;) as a secondary form the scripture history, the lapse of time of dissolved copper ore. This pigment is frequently estimated by generations is identical in color with our different or reigns of kings. Some of the histori- shades of mountain green; the best was ans of early Greece reckoned by the sue- brought from Armenia; a second lind cession of the priestesses of Juno; others was found near copper mines in Maceby that of the ephori of Sparta; and donia; the third, and most valuable, was others again by the archons of Athens. brought from Spain. Chrysocolla, called Even when the length of the solar year by ancient painters pea or grass gSr'en, began to be used as the measure of time, was valued in proportion as its color apuniformity was not obtained. The length proached to the color of a seed beginning of the solar year is a fixed element in to sprout. nature, and liable to no variation. But CHURCH, in religious affairs, is a neither the commenccement or termina- word which is used in several senses: tion of the year is marked by any con- 1. The collective body of persons prospicuous sign. Its precise length can fessing one and the same religion; or only be ascertained by a long-continued that religion itself: thus, we say, the series of astronomical observations. Rude Church of Christ. 2. Any particular nations were therefore unacquainted with congregation of Christians associating toit; and even when it had become known gether, as the Church of Antioch. 3. A with considerable accuracy, it was still particular sect of Christians, as the Greeb / _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____~ CIU RCH ARCHITE CTUJRE (ShottesborooEk Church. Enigland.) p. 82. OIL] AND THE FINE ARTS. 83 Church or the Church of England. 4. The able ciboria in Italy are the tabernacle body of ecclesiastics, in contradistinction over the high altar of St. Paul's at Rome, to the laity. 5. The building in. which a that in the cathedral at Milan, and that conoregation of Christians assemble. — in the church of the Lateran. Church, in architecture, a building ded- CICERO'NE, a name originally given icated to the performance of Christian by the Italians to those persons who worship. Among the first of the churches pointed out to travellers the interesting was that of St. Peter's at lRome, about objects with which Italy abounds; but the year 326, nearly on the site of the applied universally at present to any inpresent church; and it is supposed that dividual who acts as a guide. This apthe first church of St. Sophia at Constan- plication of the term cicerone has probatinople was built somewhat on its model. bly its origin in the ironical exclamation, That which was afterwards erected by "E un Cicerone," (he is a Cicero,) being Justinian seemis in its turn to have af- elicited from the traveller by the wellforded the model of St. Mark's at Venice, known garrulity of the Italian guides. A swhich was the first in Italy constructed good Cicerone mnust possess accurate and with pendentives and a dome, the former extensive knowledge, and many distinaffording the means of covering a square guished archaeologists have undertaken 1 pla with an hemispherical vault. The this office, which,,while serving others, four most celebrated churches in Europe affords them also an opportunity of makerected since the revival of the arts are, ing repeated examinations of the works St. Peter's at Rome, which stands on an of art, and enabling them to increase area of 227,069 feet superficial; Sta. Ma- their familiarity with them. ria del Fiore at Florence, standing on CIC'ERO'NIANS, epithets given by 84,802 feet; St. Paul's, London, which Muretus, Erasmus, &c., to these moderns stands on 84,025 feet; and St. Genevieve, who were so ridiculously fond of Cicero, -at Paris, 60,287 feet. as to reject every Latin word, as obsolete CIBA'RIAE LE'GES, in Roman histo- or impure, that could not be found in ry, were sumptuary laws, tihe intention some one or other of his works. The of which was to limit the expense of word Cicerosnian is also used as an epithet feasts, and introduce frugality amongst for a diffuse and flowing style and a ve-! the people, whose extravagance at table hement msanner. was notorious and almost incredible. CICISBE'O, a word synonymous with CIBO'RIUM, in architecture, an in- cavalier servcite, and applied to a class sulated erection open on each side, with of persons in Italy who attend on mararches, and having a dome of ogee form ried ladies with all the respect and devocarried or supported by four columns. It tion of lovers. Formerly the establishs ^ is also used to denote the coffer or case ment of a fashionable lady was not conwhich contails the Host. The ciborium sidered complete without a. cicisbeo, whose is often merely an addition to the high duty it was to accompany her to private altar, and is then a synedoche. In the parties and public amusements, to escort early Christian times, the ciborium was her in her walks, and in short to be almerely a protection to the altar table, ways at her side ready for her commands. first a tabernacle, then a balldachin over This practice is now, however, on the dethe altar, of which, the canopy used at cline. solemn processions and under which the CID, the name given to an epic poem priest wears the casida, still reminds us. of the Spaniards which celebrates the exThe ciborittum was generally supported by ploits of their national hero, Roderigo four pillars, and is above the altar; be- Diaz, Count of Bivar. It is supposed to tween the pillars were curtains, which have been written in the 13th century, were opened only while believers made about 150 years after the hero's death; their offerings, but closed in the pres- but unfortunattely the author's name has enee of catechumens or infidels. —-Cibo- not been transmitted to posterity. rinm also signifies a vessel in which the CIIDARIS, in antiquity, the m.nitre used blessed Eucharist is reserved. In form by the Jewish high-priests. it nearly resembles a chalice with an CILI'CITM, in HIebrew antiquity, a a.ched cover, from which it derives- its sort of habit made of coarse stuff, formero ntLme. The most splendid ciboria are ly in use among the Jews in times of I those belonging to ancient German art; mourning and distress. It is the sa-me I the finest of these, which was in the ca- with what the Septuagint and Hebrew thedral of Cologne in the preceding cen- versions call sackcloth. i ury, exists no longer. The most remark- CIM'BRIC, pertaining to the Cimbri, 84 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE \CIR the inhabitants of the Cimbric Chersonese, CINQUE-FOIL, a figure of five equal now Jutland. segments derived from the leaf of a plant CIMME'RIAN, pertaining to Cim- o called, particularly adapted for the meriutm, a town at the mouth of the Palus Mamotis, which the ancients pretended was involved in darkness; whence the phrase "Cimmerian darkness" to denote a deep or continual obscurity. The country is now called the Crimea. CINCTO'RIUM, a leathern belt worn round the waist, to which the swords worn by the officers of the Roman army were suspended. The common men wore their swords suspended from a balteus, which is worn over the right shoulder. CINC'TURE, in architecture, a ring, list, or orlo, at the top and bottom of a representation of the mysteries of the column, separating the shaft at one end Rosary. It is frequently seen in irregufrorn the base, and at the other from the lar windows, one of which is engraved as capital. a specimen. CIN'NABAR, one of the red pigments CINQUE-PORTS, the five ancient ports known to the ancients, called also by on the east coast of England, opposite to Pliny and Vitruvius minium; supposed France, namely, Dover, Hastings, Hythe, to be identical with the modern vermil- Romney, and Sandwich, to which were ion, (the bisulphuret of mercury,) and afterwards added, as appendages, Winthe most frequently found in antique chelsea and Rye. As places where paintings. The Roman cinnabar appears strength and vigilance were necessary, to have been dragon's blood, a resin and where ships might put to sea in cases obtained from various species of the cal- of sudden emergency, they formerly reamlus palm, found in the Canary Isles. ceived considerable attention from govIt is beyond a doubt that the Greeks ap- ernment. They have several privileges, plied the term cinnabari, generally and are within the jurisdiction of the meaning cinnabar, to this resin. Cinna- Constable of Dover Castle, who, by his bar, as well as dragon's blood, was used office, is called Warden of the Cinquein monochrome painting; afterwards Ports. ruddle, especially that of Sinopia, was CPI-IER, or CY'PIIER, one of the preferred, because its color was less da.z- Arabic characters, or figures, used in comzling. The ancients attached the ideas putation, formed thus 0. A cipher standof the majestic and holy to cinnabar, ing by itself signifies nothing; but when therefore they painted with it the statues placed at the right hand of a figure, it of Pan, as well as those of Jupiter Cap- increases its value tenfold.-By cipher itolinus and Jupiter Triumphans. It is also denoted a secret or disguised rmanwas used upon gold, marble, and even ner of writing; in which certain charactombs, and also for uncial letters in writ- ters arbitrarily invented and agreed on ing, down to recent times. The Byzan- by two or more persons, are made to tine emperors preferred signing with it. stand for letters or words. Its general use was for walls, on which CIP'OLIN, a green marble from Rome, much money was spent: in places which containing white zones. were damp and exposed to the weather CIP'PUS, in antiquity, a low column, it became black, unless protected by en- with an inscription erected on the highcaustic wax. roads, or other places, to show the way CINQUE CENTO, this generic term, to travellers, to serve as a boundary, to which is a mere abbreviation forfive hun- mark the grave of a deceased person, dred, is used to designate the style of Art &c. which arose in Italy shortly after the CIRCE'AN, pertaining to Circe, the year 1500, and therefore strictly the Art fabled daughter of Sol and Perseus, who of the sixteenth century. The charac- was supposed to possess great knowledge teristics of this style are, a sensuous de- of magic and venomous herbs, by which velopment of Art as the highest aim of she was able to charm and fascinate. the artist, and an illustration of subjects CIRCEN'SIAN GAMES, (Circenses drawn from classical mythology and his- Ludi,) a general term, under which was tory. comprehended all combats exhibited in CIB] AND THE FINE ARTS. 85 the Roman circus, in imitation of the acute and grave: generally somewhat Olympic games in Greece. Most of the long. feasts of the Romans were accompanied CIRCUMFORA'NEOUS, an epithet with Circensian games; and the magis- for wandering about.-Circusmforaneous trates, and other officers of the republic, musicians, male and female, are daily frequently presented the people with seen at the doors of hotels in France; and them, in order to gain their favor; but sometimes they enter the room, expecting the grand gamles were held for five days, a few sous for ther reward. ANor are commencing on the 15th of September. characters of a similar description by any CI1'CLE, the circle has always been means rare in London ir New York. considered as the emblem of Heaven and CIRCUaMLLOCU'TION, a paraphrastiEternity, hence many figures in Chris- cal method of expressing one's thoughts, tian design are constructed on its prin- or saying in many words that which ciple, such as the Rotation of the Seasons, might have been said in few. which are constantly returning; or the CIRCUMPOTA'TION, in antiquity, a Adoration of the Lamb, and other sub- funeral entertainment which was given jects which are found in the great wheel- in honor of the deceased to the friends windows of painted churches. that attended. It was afterwards abolCIR'CULATING ME'DIUM, a term ished by law. in commerce, signifying the medium of CIRCUMPROTATION, the act of rollexchanges, or purchases and sales, wheth- ing or revolving round, as a wheel. er this medium be gold or silver coin, CIRCUMSTAN'TIAL EV'IDENCE, paper, or any other article; and it is in law, is that kind of evidence obtained therefore of a more comprehensive na- from circumstances which necessarily or ture than the term money. All people usually attend facts of a particular nahave a circulating medium of some de- ture. It is used to eorroborate personal scription, and, accordingly, we find all the evidence. tribes of savages hitherto discovered re- CIRCUIMVALLA TION, or line of ferring to some article in estimating the circumvallatiotn, in the art of war, is a value of the various commodities which trench bordered with a parapet, thrown compose their capital. But from the ear- up round the besieger's camp, by way of liest times, the precious metals, where security against any army that ma.y atthey could be had, have been preferred tempt to relieve the place besieged, or to for this purpose, because they comprised prevent desertion. a sufficient value in a small compass and CIR'CUS, a straight, long, narrow weight to be a convenient medium. building, whose length to its breadth was CIRCUIMAM'BIENT, an epithet given generally as five to one. It was divided to anything that surrounds or encom- down the centre by an ornamented barpasses another on all sides; chiefly used rier called the spinaa, and was used by the in speaking of the air. Romans for the exhibition of public specCIRCUMCISION, the initiatory rite tacles and chariot races. There were of the Jewish covenant; which, as is re- several of these at Rome, of which the corded, was first enjoined to Abraham by most celebrated was the Circus Maximus. God, and after his posterity had neglected Julius Csesar iniproved and altered the it during their wannderings through the Circus Maximus; and that it might serve desert, was solemnly renewed upon the for the purpose of a naumalahia, supplied passage of the Jordan. This custom has it with water. Augustus added to it the been long prevalent among Eastern na- celebrated obelisk now standing in the tions. lerodotus refers to it as the prac- Piazza del Popolo. No vestiges of this tice of the Egyptians and Ethiopians, and circus remain. Besides these were at as borrowed from them by the Phceni- Rome the circi of Flaminius, near the cians and Syrians. It does not appear, Pantheon; Agonalis, occupying the site however, to have been considered by these of what is now the Piazza Navona; of nations in the light of a religious cere- Nero, on ia portion whereof St. Peter's mony. It is enforced by the Koran upon I tands; Florus. Antoninus, and Aurelian, all the disciples of Mahomet, whether i no longer even in ruins; and that of Cafrom an idea of salubrity vulgarly at- racalla, which was 738 feet in length, and tributed to it in the East, or merely as a is sufficiently perfect in the present day distinguishing rite. to exhibit its plan and distribution in the CIR'CUMFLEX, in grammar, an ac- most satisfactory manner. The spectacent serving to note or distinguish a syl- cles exhibited in the circus were called lable of an intermediate sound between the Cireensian games, and consisted chief 86 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [OIO ly of chariot and horse races. The Ro- place. Trade, too, by requiring a rmiumans were passionately fond of them, and titude of persons upon one spot, has more particularly of the chariot races,,always been the foundation of what we which excited so great an interest in the now call cities. Cities usually possess, times of the emperors as to divide the by charter, a variety of peculiar priviwhole population of the city into factions, leges; and these charters, though they known by the names of the colors worn now sometimes appear to be the supportby the different charioteers. The disputes ers of a, narrow policy, were, in their inof these factions sometimes led to serious stitution, grants of freedom at that time disturbances, and even bloodshed.-In nowhere else possessed; and by these the modern times, the word is applied to de- spell that maintained the feudal tyranny signate a circular enclosure for the ex- was broken. —City, (civitas,) among the hibition of feats of horsemanship. ancients, was used in synonymous sense CIST, in architecture and sculpture, a with what we now call an imperial city; chest or basket. It is a term usually ap- or, rather, answered to those of the Swiss plied to the mystic baskets employed in cantons, the republics of Venice, Genoa, processions connected with the Eleusinian &c., as being an independent state, with mysteries. They were originally of wick- territories belonging to it. er-work, and when afterwards made of CIVIC CROWN, (corona civiea,) in metal the form and texture were preserv- antiquity, a crown, or garland composed ed in imitation of the original material. of oak-leaves, given by the Romans to When sculptured on antique monuments any soldier who had saved the life of a it indicates some connection with the mys- citizen. Various marks of honor were teries of Ceres and Bacchus. The cista connected with it: the person who refound at Preneste, and now in the Col- ceived the crown wore it at the theatre; legio Romano, is of surpassing beauty; and when he entered, the audience rose on it is represented the expedition of the up as a mark of respect. Argonauts in a style not unworthy of CIVIL, an epithet applicable to whatGrecian art, but by the inscription ap- ever relates to the community as a body, parently of Italian workmanship. or to the policy and the government of CISTER'CIANS, in church history, a the citizens and subjects of a state. It is religious order founded in the 11th cen- opposed to criminal: as a civil suit, a tury by St. Robert, a Benedictine. suit between citizens alone, and not beCITA'TION, in ecclesiastical courts, is tween the state and a citizen. It is also the same with slm7mons in civil courts.- distinguished from ecclesiastical, which A citation is also a quotation of some respects the church; and from?m.ilitary, law, authority, or passage from a book. which includes only matters relating to CITHIARA, in antiquity, a musical in- the army and navy.-The popular and strument, the precise structure of which colloquial use of the word civil, means is not known. complaisant, polite.-Civil Law, is propCITIIARIS'TIC, an epithet for any- erly the peculiar law of each state, thing pertaining to or adapted for the country, or city; but as a general and harp. appropriate term, it means a body of CITI-ERN, an ancient stringed instru- laws composed out of the best Roman and ment, supposed to bear a resemblance to Grecian laws, comprised in the Institutes, the guitar. Code and Digest of Justinian, &c., and, CITY, a large town, incorporated and for the most part, received and observed governed by particular officers. In throughout all the Roman dominions for Great Britain, it means a town having a above 1200 years. This law is used unbishop's see, and a cathedral; but this der certain restrictions in the English distinction is not always observed in com- ecclesiastical courts, as also in the unimen discourse.-War having rendered it versity courts and the court of admiralty. requisite that cities should be defensible -Civil List, the revenue appropriated posts, the smallness of the space they oc- to support the civil government; also the cupied became a consideration of impor- officers of civil government who are paid tance. Their inhabitants were taught to from the public treasury. —Civil Death, crowd themselves together as much as in law, that which cuts off a man from possible; and among the expedients re- civil society, or its rights and benefits, as sorted to was that of building apartments banishment, outlawry, &e.; as distinover one another, thereby multiplying guished from natural death.-Civil War, the number of dwellings without in- a war between people of the same state, creasing the superficial magnitude of the or the citizens of the same city.-Civi. CLU] AND TI- FINE ARTS. 87 Year, the legal year, or that form of the and seventy strings; and is in the form year which each nation has adopted for of a spinnet. The tone is soft and sweet. computing their time by. The civil year Hence it is a favorite instrument with in England and other countries of Europe nuns. consists of 365 days for the coinmon year, CLAR'ION, a kind of trumpet, whose and 366 days for leap year.-Civil Ar/- tube is narrower, and its tone more acute chiitecture, the architecture which is ap- and shrill, than that of the common trumplied to buildings constructed for the pet. purposes of civil life, in distinction from CLAR'IONET, a wooden musical wind military and naval architecture. instrument, whose mouth partakes of the CIVIL'IAN, a doctor or professor of trumpet form, and is played by holes and the civil law; or in a more extended keys: said to have been invented about sense, one who is versed in law and gov- the year 1600 by John Christopher Denerinent. ner of Leipsic. Like the oboe it is played CLAN, a family or tribe, living under with a reed llouth-piece though it is of one chief. This appears to have been the somewhat different form. original condition of the savages of north- CLASS, a term applied to the scientific ern Europe; and from this we ouglit to division or arrangement of any subject; trace the germ of the feudal system. All as in the Linntean system, where ani-, the members of a clan held their lands mals, plants, and minerals, are divided of the chief, followed him to war, and into classes, each of which is to be subdiwere expected to obey him in peace. vided by a regular downward progresThe clans of the Scottish Highlands are sion, into orders, genera, and species, tribes consisting of many families all with occasional intermediate subdibearing the same surname, which accord- visions, all subordinate to the division ing to tradition descend from a common which stands imnmediately above them. ancestor. But it is more probable that Classes are natural or artificial, accordmost clans were formed of an aggregate ing as they arc founded on natural re- of different families, the inferior standing lations or resemblances, or when formed to the superior in the same sort of rela- arbitrarily.-Class also denotes a numtion as the Roman clients to their patrons, ber of students in a college or school, of and by degrees assuming the same name. the same standing, or pursuing the same Some clans, however, are divided into studies. branches, each possessing a distinct sur- CLASSICAL, in the Fine Arts, a term name. The chieftainship of every clan denoting such an arrangement of a subdescends regularly through heirs male; ject that all the accessories or parts are but in the earliest times of their history suitable to the general design, and such the rights of primogeniture were not that nothing be introduced which does very distinctly defined.-The word clan not strictly belong to the particular class is also sometimes used in contempt, for a under which it is placed. In antiquity, sect or society of persons united by some the lRoman people were divided into common interest or pursuit. classes, and the highest order were, by CLANG, a sharp, shrill sound, imply- pre-eminence, termed classical. Ilence ing a degree of harshness in the sound; the name came to signify the highest and as, the clang of arms. The words clank purest class of writers in any language; and clink denote a more acute and less although, down to a comparatively recent harsh sound than clang. period, the term was used merely to deCLARE-OBSCURE, CLARO-OBscURO, note the most esteemed Greek and Latin Latin; CHIARO-OSCURO, Italian; and authors. Nothing marks more strongly CLAIr- sscBR, French; a phrase in the increased attention to modern literpainting, signifying light and shade. In ature, than the now universal applicapictural criticism, it means the relief that tion of the term to modern langu'ages is produced by light and shade, independ- also, and the establishment, in this manently of color. In the art itself, it de- ner, of a line between those authors whom notes that species of painting or design, we regard as models and authorities in in which no attempt is made to give point of style, and those who are not so colors to the objects represented, and highly esteemed. An author is said to where, consequently, light and shade are be classical if public opinion has placed everything. him in the former order; language, or an CLAR'ICHORD, or CLAV'ICHORD, a expression, to be classical, if it be such as musical instrument sometimes called a has been used in a similar sense and unmanichord. It has fifty stops, or keys, der similar rules of construction by those 88 CYOLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE lCLI authors. The epithet classical, as ap- I timepiece, or water clock; an instrument plied to ancient authors, is determined to imeasure time by the fall of a certain less by the purity of their style than by quantity of water. the period at which they wrote. Thus CLEIR'GY, a general name given to we speak of the classical age of Greek or the body of ecclesiastics of the Christian Latin writing. With respect to the for- church, in distinction from the laity. mer, the classical age begins with Homer, The revenues of the clergy were ancientthe earliest Greek vwriter with whom we ly more considerable than at present. are acquainted. The purest age of Greek Ethelwulf, in 855, gave them a tithe of classical literature may be said to end all goods, and a tenth of all the lands in about the time of the Macedonian con- England, free fron all secular services. quest, or about 300 B.C.; but, in a wider taxes, Ac. The charter whereby this was sense, it extends to the tiime of the An- granted them, was confirmied by several tonincs, and embraces a much larger of his successors; and William the Concatalogue of authors; while the centuries queror, finding the bishoprics so rich, subsequent to that time produced a few, created them into baronies, each barony who, by the purity of their style, deserve containing at least thirteen knights' to be ranked with earlier classics. The fees. Latin classical period is shorter; its CLERK, a word originally used to earliest writer is Plautus, and the lan- denote a learned man, or man of letters; guage may be said to have lost its classi- whence the term is appropriated to cal ch aract.er about the stame time with churchmen, who were called clerks or the Greek, i. e. the reigns of the Anto- clergymen; the nobility and gentry nines; although this limit is arbitrary, being bred to the exercise of arms, and and some later writers, even down to none left to cultivate the sciences but Claudian, are generally included among ecclesiastics. In modern usage, the classics. Within the Latin classical era word clerk means a writer; one who is there is a msore restricted period of the employed in the use of the pen, ill an purest Latinity, comprising the age of office, public or private, either for keepCicero and that of Augustus. ing accounts, or entering minutes. In CLASS'IFICA'TION, in the Fine Arts, some cases clerk is synonymous with seean arrangerent by which objects of the retary, but not always. A clerk is alfine arts are distributed in classes; as, ways an officer subordinate to a higher for instance, in galleries of paintinos, officer, board, corporation, or private the works should be arranged in schools, individual; whereas, a secretary may each school being subject to a chrono- either be a subordinate officer, or the logical order of the masters. In numnis- head of an office or department. matology, the coins should be arranged CLICHE', the impression of a die in a by countries, and these again in chrono- mass of melted tin or fusible metal. Medlogical order of the monarchs; asnd the allists or die-sinkers employ it to Inake like of other branches of the Arts. proofs of their work. to judge the effect, CLAUSE, in law, an article in a con- and stage of progress of their work betract or other writing; a distinct part fore the die is hardened. The termI of a contract, will, agreemlent, charter, clich is also applied to the French ster&Gc.-In language, a subdivision of a sen- cotype casts from woodcuts. tfence, in which the words are insepara- CLFENT, a person who seeks advice bly connected with each other in sense, of a lawyer, or commits his cause to the and cannot, with propriety, be separated management of one, either in prosecutby a point. ing a claim, or defending a suit inl a CLAUS'TRAL, relating to a- cloister court of justice.-Among the Romans, a or religious house; as, a claustral prior. client meant a citizen who put himself CLEF, or CLIFF, a character in music, under the protection of a man of distincplaced in the beginning of a stave to de- tion and influence, who was accordingly termine the degree of elevation occupied called his patron. This relation was in by that stave, in the general claviary or many respects similar to that of a serf system, and to point out the names of the to his feudal lord, but bore a umuch milder notes which it contains in the line of that form. It was the duty of the patron to clef. watch over the interests of his clients and CLEPSAM'MIA, an ancient instru- protect them from aggression, and apthent for measuring time by sand, like' an pear for them in lawsuits. He also frehour-glass. quently made them grants of land on CLEPSYDRA, a Roman and Grecian lease. In return the client was bound to CLO] AND TIHE FINE ARTS. 89 defend his patron, and contribute towards seven and nine. It is certainly singular any extraordinary expenses he might be that usage should have attached in all subject to; as the portioning his daugh- countries peculiar distinction to those ters, thl payment of a fine imposed by years which are denoted by compounds the sttt, c&. HIe might not appear as of the number seven. Thus fourteen hits accuser or witness against him in judicial been fixed for various purposes as the proceedings, a prohibition which was re- epoch of puberty, twenty-one of full age; ciproca.l. If he committed any offence thirty-five has been selected by Aristotle agai'nst his patron, he was obliged to sub- as the period when the body is in its mit to him as his judge; and in ancient Ihighest physical vigor. The same autimes it appears that the power of life tthor supposes the vigor of the mind to be and death was held by the latter. On perfected at forty-nine: sixty-three is the other hand his security against op- Ithe grand climacterical yea r; seventy pression at the hands of his patron lay the limiit of the ordinary age of man. in thle injunctions and authority of rei- Bodinus says that seven is the climactergion, which rendered the bond of unilon icl number in men and six in women. inviolably sacred, as that between father The term clirza.cteric disease has more and son. The origin of this relation can- lately been applied to that declension of not noew be traced; but it seems to bodily and vital powers which is frehave existed, with various modifications, quently observed to come on in the latter throughout Italy and Greece. In Rome period of life, and from which iany perit appears at the foundation of the city sons again rally so as to attain extreme by lionmu!ls, wihen every family not in- old ae. clude-d amlon the patricians was obliged CLiMAX, a figure in rhetoric, conto find itself a patron from their number. sisting of an assemblage of particulars, The body of clients was afterwards in- rising, as it were, step by step, and formcreaseldby the institutionby which foreign- ing a'whole in such a manner that the ers, wh.s a llies of Rome, had a share last idea in the former member becomes in its fianchise, might choose themselves the first in the latter, till the climax, or patrons on their coming to settle in the gradation, is completed. Its strength city. The obligations of clients were he- and beauty consist in the logical connecreditary, and could not be shaken off un- tion of the ideas, and the pleasure the less through the decay of the family of mind receives from perfect conviction; as the patron. This body alone in earlier may be perceived in the following exaumtimes furnished artisans and shopkeepers; pie: " There is no enjoyment of property they had votes in the Coniitia Centuriata; without government; no governlment and thouigh generally confounded with without a magistrate; no magistrate the plebeians, were undoubtedly perfect- without obedience; and no obedience ly distinct f eom them, as we continually where every one nets as he pleases." meet in history with instances of their CLIN'ICAL, n in ts literal sense, means joining' the patricians in opposition to anything pertaining to a bed. Thus, a the former; and when some of the pie- clinical lecture is a discourse from notes beian hoses becaime powerful, they them- taken at the bedside by a physician, selves attached bodies of clients. with a view to practical instruction in CLIMACTER'ICAL YEAR, certain the healing art. Clinical miedicize is years in the life of man have been from the practice of medicine on patients in great antiquity supposed to have a pecu- hospitals, or in bel. And the term clinic liar imlportance, and to be liable to sin- was also applied by the ancient church gular vicissitudes in his health and for- historians, to one who received baptism tunes. This superstitious belief is sup- on his death-bed. posed to have originated in the doctrines CLI'O, in mythology, the muse who of Pythagoras. The well-known notice was usually supposed to preside over hisof the climacterical year, sixty-three, tory, t0ough she sometimes invaded the supposed to be particularly dangerous to province of her sister Calliope, the godold men, in a letter of Augustus Cesar dess of epic poetry. In his magnificent preserved by Aulus Gellius, evinces its ode addressed to Augustus, Horace inprevalence among the Romans. This vokes Clio as the patroness of the flute year has been called by some astrological or the lyre, or in other words of lyric writers "heroicus," as having been pe- poetry. culiarly fatal to great men. The virtue CLOA'CA, an ancient common sewer. of this year seemns to consist in its being CLOCK, a machine for measuring time, a multiple of the two mystical numbers, called, when first invented, a nocturnal ~_____ __ _____ 90 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [(oo dial, to distinguish it from the sun-dial. of a bishop was himself consecratAed a This machine consists of wheels moved by bishop in partibuls nf/ideliuLm. The coleweights. so constructed that by a uniform h brated Cardinal do Retz wats known by vibration of a pendulum, the hours, min- the title of the Coadljntor of Paris during utes, and seconds are measured with the most active period of his career. havgreat exactness; and it indicates the ing the administration of the tesmporalihour by the stroke of a small hammer ties of that see, which belonged to his on a bell. The invention of clocks has uncle the Archbishop de Retz. Coal.djubeen ascribed to Boethius, about the year tors usually succeeded their principals in 510; but clocks, like those now used, their dignities; and hence arose an abuse were either first invented, or revived, which tended towards making ecclesiasbetween two and three centuries ago. The tical dignities hereditary, nephews and clock measures even 24 hours, but the other relatives of' bishops being nlened solar day is unequal, according to the their coadjutors. The institution of cosituation of the earth in its orbit, and the adjutors to bishoprics is preserved by the declination of the sun. Ience the clock French concordat of 1801. is sometimes a few minutes faster or COAD'UNATE, two or more parts slower than the sun. joined together. CLOIS'TER, the principal part of a COAT, a garment worn commonly upregular monastery, consisting of a square, permost. Also, a thin covering laid or erected between the church, the chapter- clone over anyth'ng, as a coat of paint, house, and the refectory, and over which &c.-Coat of arms, in the modern acis the dormitory. In a general sense, ceptation, is a device, or assemblage of cloisters mean covered passages, such as devices, supposed to be painted on a were formerly attached to religious shield; which shield, in the language of houses. heraldry, is called the fielc.-Coat of CLYPE'US, part of the armor worn by nail, a piece of armor made in the frmn the heavy infantry of the Greeks, and a of a shirt, and wrought over with a kind portion of the Roman soldiery, consisting of net-work of iron rings. of a large shield or buckler, circular and COA VES'TIS, TIE COAN ROBE, a garconcave on the inside, sufficiently large ment worn chiefly by dancing girls, courto cover the body from the neck to the tesans, and other women addicted to middle of the leg. It was forled of ox- pleasure, of texture so fine as to be nearhide stretched upon a frame of wicker- ly transparent, and through which the work, and strengthened with plates of forms of the wearers were easily seen. metal; sometimes it was formed entirely CO'BALT BLUE, a beautiful pigof bronze. ment compounded of alumina and phosCOACH, a vehicle of pleasure, distin- phate of cobalt. It was discovered in guished from others chiefly from being a 18,02 by the French chemist Thrnard. covered box hung on leathers. The old- I There is no reason to doubt its durability, est carriages used by the ladies in Eng- although, when imperfectly prepared, it land were called w/hirlicotes; and we find is subject to change. Cobalt is the colorthat the mother of Richard II., who, in I ing matter of smalts. 1360, accompanied him in his flight, rode CO'BALT GREEN, a preparation of in a carriage of this sort. But coaches, cobalt, the green color of which is due to properly so called, were introduced into the presence of iron: it works well both England from Germany, or France, in in oil and water. 1580, in the reign of Elizabeth. In 1601, COCIFINEAL, a dried insect in the the year before the queen's death, an act form of a small, round grain, flat on one was passed to prevent men from riding side, either red, brown, powdered with in coaches, as being effeminate; but in white, or blackish brown. This valtwenty-five years afterwards hackney- uable insect was first introduced into coaches were introduced. Europe about the year 1523. It is imCOADJU;TOR, in ecclesiastical mat- ported from Mexico and New Spain. It ters, the assistant of a bishop or other feeds on several species of cactus. It is prelate, (in some instances even of a canon small, rugose, and of a deep mulberry color prebendary, but the latter usage was or. They are scraped from the plants irregular.) These assistants, in France into bags, killed by boiling water, and and other countries, were instituted by dried in the sun. Those are preferred the pope. A coadjutor was equal in rank which are plump, of a peculiar silvery to the dignitary whose functions he might appearance, and which yield a brilliant on occasion supply; hence the coadjutor crimson when rubbed to powder. This C(E] AND THE FINE ARTS. 91 splendid coloring material is soluble in prisoned souls from returning to the water. and is used for making the red earth. Milton alludes to it thus:lake pigments known by the names carmine, Florentine, and other lakes. Coch- Cocytus iamed of lamentations loud ineal is sometimes adultcerated by the admnixture of a manufactured article cor- CO'DA, in music, the passage at the posed of colored dough. This is detected end of a movement which follows a lenutlhby the action of boiling water, which dis- ened perfect cadence. In some cases it solves and disintegrates the imitation, consists of merely one phrase, in others but has little effect upon the real insect. it is carried to a great extent. At the The principal component of cochineal is conclusion of a canon or fugue, it often a peculiar coloring matter, which has serves to end the piece which might othreceived the names of carmin.ium and erwise be carried on to infinity. cochinelia. CODE, (from codex, a roll, or volume,) COCK, this bird is regarded as the ema- a collection or system of laws. The cotblem of watchfulness and vigilance; and lection of laws or constitutions made by from a very early period its image was order of the emperor Justinian is distinplaced on the summit of church crosses. guished by the appellation of code by A cock, in the act of crowing, is intro- way of eminence.-The Code N'tpoleol, ducedl among the emblems of our Lord's or civil code of France, proceeding from passion, in ll ision to the sin ofSt. Peter. the French Revolution, and the adlminis('OC(KAIE', (tfrom Cocarde,)'a plaume tration of Napoleon, while consul, effected of cock's teathers, witl whichl the Croats great changes in the laws of France. It iotorlied their ctps. A bow of colored was a work of great magnitudce, and will ribbol s an- adopted for the cockade in remnain a perpetual monument of the Fr, L.tle. D1)i';il tihe Frenchl revolution, sta:te of thin-gs as they then existed in tile( tri-coloreIlI cokade became the na- that country. tioulli distinction., COD'ICIL, a supplement to a will, conCOCK'NEY, a contemptuous appella- taining anything which the testator wishes tion of a citizen of London. Various deri- to add; or any explanation, alteration, or vations have been assigned to this word, revocation, of what his will contains. all of which are more listinguished for CODET'TA, in mlusic, a short passage ingenuity than probability. But what- which connects one section with another, ever may be the origin of the term, its and not composing part of a regular secantiquity cannot be disputed, as it is tion. mentioned in some verses generally at- CO'DEX, a manuscript; in its original tributed to IHuh Bagot, Earl of Norfolk, sense (Latin) the inner bark of a tree in the reign of Henry II.:- - hich was used for the purposes of writWere 1 in my castle at Bungy, ing. The word was thence transferred Uponl the river of Waverney, by the Romans to signify a piece of I would not care for the king of Cockeney writing on whatever material; e. g. with c Letidoi, the stylus on tablets lined with wax, or COCK'PIT, the after part of the orlop on a roll of parchment or paper. In deck, or deck below the lower deck, and modern Latin a manuscript volume. altogether below the water. Iere, in Codex rescr iptus, or paltimpsestus, is a line-of-battle ships, are the cabins of sev- manuscript consisting of leaves, from eral of the officers. The cock-pit is ap- which some earlier writing has been propriated to the use of the wounded in erased in order to afford room for the tilme of action. There is also a fore cock- insertion of more recent. MIany such pit in the fore part of the ship, and some- codices exist; and from the imperfect times an after cock-pit.-Cock-pit is the nature of the erasing process, the earlier name given to the place where game- writing ha.s, in sonme instances, been recocks fight their battles. The room in stored. Considerable fragments of clasWestminster in whichher Majesty's privy sical works, previously considered as council hold their sittings is called the lost, have been thus recovered by the cock-pit, from its having been the site of Abate Mai from among the contents of what was formerly the cock-pit belonging the Ambrosian Library at Milan. to the pa.la.e at Whitehall. CE'NA, the principal meal among the COCY'TUS. in mythology, the river of Greeks and Romans. The time of the Lamentations, which was one of the ccena, or supper, was the ninth hour, anstreams that washed the shores of the swering to three o'clock in the afternoon mythologioal hell, and prevented the im- with us, and it consisted of three courses 92 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [COL They made a libation both before and COLPIH'IUM, in antiquity, a sort of after supper, and concluded the evening coarse bread which wrestlers used to eat with much festivity. in order to make them strong and musC(ENAC'ULUM, in ancient architect- cular. ure, the eating or supper room of the COLISETUM, an elliptical amphithealRoinans. In the early periods of the tre, at Rome, built by Vespasian, in Roman history, the upper story of their which were statues representing all the houses, which rarely consisted of more provinces of the empire. and in the midthan two, seems to have been called by dio stood that of Rome, holding a golden this name. apple in her hand. This immense strucCC(ENA'TIO, in ancient architecture, ture was i612 feet in circumference, conan apartment for taking refreshment in tained eighty arcades, and would hold the lower part of the Roman houses. 100,000 spectators. Down to the 13th CliNi'OBI:TE, one who lives under a century, this unrivalled monument of rule in a religious community, as cistin- ancient grandeur remained almost uninguished from an anchoret or hermit, jured; afterwards Pope Paul II. took who lives in solitude. all the stones from it which were used COETA'NEOUS, an epithet denotinr for the construction of the palace of St. of the samee age, or beginning with an- Mark, aInd in later times some other other. The word coeval is synonymous palaces were erected from its fragcments. with it; contemiporary implies, existing At present, care is taken not to touch at the same time. the ruins of the Coliseum, but it is COF'FER, in architecture, a sunk gradually crumbling away of itself, and panel in vaults' and domes, and also in in a few centuries, perhaps, nothing the soffit or under side of the Corinthian more may be seen of its upper part; cornice, usually decorated in the centre the lower prt, however, may safely bid with a flower. defiance to the ravages of time. BeneCOG'NIZANCE, in law, an acknowl- diet XVI. caused a ciross to be erected in edogment of a fine, of taking a distress, the centre of the arena, where, every &c. It also signifies the power which Sunday afternoon, Catholic woriship is a court has to hear and determine a par- performed. The great object of this ticular species of suit. miagnificent building was to exhibit the COGNO'MEN, in antiquities, the last brutal spectacles of the gladiators conof the three names by which all Romans, tencling with wild beasts. Wee accordat least those of good family, were desig- ingly read, that on the triumph of Tranated. It served to mark the house to an over the Dacians, 11,000 animlals which they belonged, as the other two were killed in the amphitheatres at nanes, viz., the prcenonmenl and iosnei, Rome; and 1000 gladiators fought during served respectively to denote the indi- 123 days. The gladiators at first were vidual and the class to which his family malefactors, who fought for victory and belonged. life; or captives and slaves, who were CO)HORT', a military body among the made to fight for their freedom; but Romans, consisting of the tenth of a after a time many lived by it as a prolegion, or from five to six hundred men. fession; and these exhibitions continued, COIN, a piece of metal stamped with with modifications, for above 500 years.certain marks, and made current at a A very large and most ingeniously concertain value. Strictly speaking, coin structed building, erected in the Regent's differs from money as the species differs Park, London, is called the Coliseum, or from- the genus. Money is any matter, Colosseum. whether metal, or paper, or beads, or COLLAPSE', to close by falling toshells, &c., whicl have currency as a gether; as, the fine canals or vessels of medium in commerce. Coin is a particu- the body collapse in old age; or, as a ballar species always made of metal, and loon collapses when the gas escapes from struck according to a, certain process it. called coining. The British coinage is COL'LAR, in Roman antiquity, a chain wholly performed at the Tower of Lon- put round the neck of slaves that had run don, where there is a corporation for the away, after they were taken.-In a modpurpose, under the title of the Mint.- ern sense, it denotes an ornament consistCurrent coin, is coin legally stamped ing of a chain of gold, enamelled, &c., and circulating in trade.-Counterfeit frequently set with ciphers or other decoin., that which is forged or stamped vices, with the badge of the order hangwithout authority. ing at the bottom, and worn by the COL] AND TIlE FINE ARTS. 93 knights of several military orders over the church of St Peter's, Westminster. their shoulders. This was anciently a cathedral; but the COLLATERAL, in genealogy, signi- revenues of the monastery being vested fies descendling from the same stock or in the dean and chapter by act of parliaancestor, but not in a direct line; and is ment, it becaime a collegiate chnrch. therefore distinguished from lineal. —Col- COLLOCA/TIO, in antiquity, a cerelateral security, in law, is security for the mony at the funerals of the Greeks and performance of covenants on the pay- Romans, which consisted of placing the ment of money, besides the principal so- corpse, laid on a bier, near the t heshold curity. of the house, that all might see whether COLLATION, in the canon law, the he had met his death by violence or not. presentation to a benefice, by a bishop, COLLU'SION, in law, a deceitful agreewho has it in his own gift or palronage. ment or compact between two persons to When the patron of a church is not a bring an action one against the other for bishop, he presents his clerk for admis- some fraudulent or unlawful purpose. sion, and the bishop institutes him; but COLO GNE-EARTH, a substance used collation includes both presentation and in painting, much approaehing to umber institution.-Collation, in law, the com- in its structure, and of a deep brown. It parison of a copy with its original, to as- is supposed to be the remains of wood certain its conformity; or the report of long buried in the earth. the officer who made the comparison. CO'LON, in grammar, a point marked Hence, a collator means one who com- thus (:) to divide a sentence. pares copies or manuscripts. And from COLO'NEL, the chief commander of a the same is derived the term Collatinr regiment, whether infantry or calvary.among printers, by which is meant the LIEUTENAN -COLONEL, the second ohfier examining the whole number of sheets in a regiment, who commands in the abbelonging to a book, in order to see if sence of the colonel. they are all. gathered properly. COLONNADE', Ja range of pillars runCOI/LECT, a short and comprehensive ning quite round a building. prayer, particularly such prayers as are COL'ONY, a company or body of peoappointed with the epistles and gospels ple removed from their mother country in the public service of the Church of to a remote province or country, where England1. they form a settlement under the sancCOLLECTA'NEA, in literature, notes, tion of the government. Also, the place observations, or any matter collected fi om iwhere such a settlement is fornmed, as the a variety of works. colonies belonging to Great.Britain in COLLEC"TIVE, in grammiar, an epi- the East and West Indies, North Amerithet for any noun which comprehends ca, &c. many persons or things; as a multitude, COL'OPION, in bibliography, the a cozmpany, a cong, regation., a.n ar my, &c. postscript contained in the last sheet of an COI/LEGE, in its usual, though some- early printed work (before the introducwhat limiited sense, is a public place en- tion of title-pages,) containing the prindowed with certain revenues, where the ter's name, date, &c., is so termed, from several parts of learning are taught, and a fanciful allusion to a Greek satirical where the students reside, under a regu- proverb, in which the people of Colophon, lar discipline. An assemblage of several in Asia Minor, are reproached with beof these colleges is called a university. ing always the hindmost. The establishment of colleges or univer- COL'OR, the type of color is found in sities forms a remarkable period in lite- the prismatic spectruztm or the?reainbow. rary history; for the schools in cathedrals In which we discover that a ray of white and monasteries were confined chiefly to light in capable of being decomposed into the teaching of grammar; and there were three primitive colors-red, blue, and only one or two masters employed in that yellow; these, by their mixture, produce charge; but in colleges, professors are three other colors, which are termed secappointed to teach all the branches of ondary; thus, the union of red with blue science.-There are colleges of physicians yields, when in varied proportions, the and surgeons, a college of philosophy, a different hues of purple and violet; red, college of heralds. a college of civilians, mixed with yellow, yields orange; yel&c. low, with blue, produces green. Every COLLGGIATE CHURCHES, are hue in nature is a compound of two or those that, without a bishop's see, have more of the primitive colors in various the ancient retinue of a bishop; such as proportions. Grays and browns are com 04. CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE CCOL pounds of all three of the primary colors language. The prqofane lnguage of col. in unequal proportions. Black results ors was a degradation from the divine from a mixture of blue, red, and yellow and consecrated languages. of equal intensity and in equal propor- COL'ORATURE, in music, all kinds of tions. Of material colors (pigments) there variations, trills, &c. intended to make a is but one (ultranmarine) that- approaches song agreeable. the purity of the type in the spectrum- COLO'RESS FLORIDI, the name given all the others are more or less impure; by the ancients to the expensive and thus we cannot obtain a pure rod pig- brilliant pigments, as distinguished from nment, since all tare more or less alloyed the four hard rough principal pigments with blue or yellow. If we could obtain of earlier times. The colores floridi were a red and a yellow of the samle purity supplied by the employer, and often purand transparency as ultramarine, we loined by the artist: they were chrysoshould need no other pigments for our colla; indicum (ilndigo introduced into palette, since, by judicious mixture, they Rome in the time of the emperors;) Nwouldl yield every tint in nature.-Local cmruleum (a blue smalt made at Alexcolors are those peculiar to each individ- andria, from sand, saltpetre, and copper;) ual object, and serve to distinguish them and cinnibaris, which was partly natural from each other. — ComlslementaTry colors and partly artificial vermilion; but also are composed of the opposiecs of any given an Indian pigment, procured from the -olor. If this color is a primitive, such sap of the pterocarpues draco, and called as blue, the complemzecta. r color is com- also dragon's blood. Other pigments were posed of the other two primitive colors, called colores austeri. viz., red anid yellow, or orange; the com- COL'ORIST, a painter whose works are plementary color to any secoldary is the remarkable for beauty of color. Titian, other primitive color; thus the comple Corrreggio, Paul Veronese, Rubens, Vanmentary to green (composed of blue and dyke, are in the first rank of colorists. yellow,) is red, anId so on, for the remain- The Venetian and the Flemish schools der. —IHarmony of colors results from an have supplied the greatest number of equal distribution of the three primary colorists, as well as the best; always excolors, either pure, or compounded with cepting Correggio, the founder of the each other, as grays and browns.-Coe- Lombard school, who is by many retrast of color is either simple or com- garded equal to Titian. Color being, as pound. Each of the primitive colors well as design, an essential part of a picforms a contrast to the other two; thus ture, every colorist is, at the same time, blue is contrasted by yellow and by red- more or less a draughtslan. But expeeither of these forms a simple contrast to rience shows, and theory furnishes good blue; but by mixing yellow and red to- reasons for believing, that these two gether, we produce orange, which is a qualities, which many artists possess tocomnpoaund contrast, consequently orange, gether in a moderate degree, are rarely the complemen7ta?s y color, is the most found in an eminent degree, united in the powerful contrast that can be made to same individual, and still less in the blue. Colors are regarded as warm or same picture. cold, positive or negative; thus blue is a COLOS'SAL, in the Fine Arts, a term cold, andc orange a'waram, color. Red, applied to any work of' art remarkable neither warm nor cold. All vcwar? colors for its extraordinary dimensions. It is, are contrasts to cold colors.-Syeobolic however, more applied to works in sculpcolors. Colors had the samie signification ture than in the other arts. It seems amongst all nations of remotest antiquity. probable that colossal statues had their Color was evidently thle first mode of origin from the attemlpt to astonish by transmitting thought and preserving size at a period when the science of promemlory; to each color appertained a re- portion and that of imitation were in ligious or political idea. The history of their infancy. Colossal statues of the disymbolic colors testifies to a triple origin vinities were coinmmon both in Asia and marked by the three epochs in the history Egypt. By the description of the palace of religion —.the divine, the consecra or termple attributed to Semiramis it and the profane. The first regulated the abounded with colossal statues, among costume of Aaron and the Levites, the which was one of Jupiter forty feet in rites of worship, &c. Religion gave birth height. In Babylon we learn from Danto the Arts. It was to ornanment temples iel that the palaces were filled with that sculpture and painting were first in- istatues of an enormous size, and in the troduced, whence arose the consecrated present day the ruins of India present us __ _._ _..,~, _ _ ____ _ _ _.,.,....__..-._._~~~~~~~~~~-._- ~. _... _ __i — - - COM] AND THE FINE ARTS. 95 with statues of extraordinary dimensions. flames with his wings. -threupon she was The Egyptians surpassed the Asiatics in beheaded by order of the Emperor Authese gigantic monuments, considering relian, at Cordova, A.D. 273. The idea the beautiful finish they ga.ve to such a that she was of royal blood appears to hard material as granite. Sesostris, ac- have arisen from the crown, wiich, on cording to history, appears'to have been the contrary, refers to her being a muarthe first who raised these colossal masses, tyr. the statues of himself and his wife, which COLUMBA'RIUM, in architecture, a he placed before the temple of Vulcan, pigreon-house or dovecote. FIronm the having been thirty cubits in height. This similarity the arched nd square- headed exanmple was imitated by his successors, recesses in the walls of cemeteries, which. as the ruins of Thebes sufficiently testify. were made to receive the einerary urns, The taste for colossal statues prevailed were also called columbaria. also among the Greeks. The great Phi- COLUMI BIAN, an epithet for anycias contributed several works of this thing pertaining to America. from its order. The statue of Apollo at Iihodes, having been discovered by Columbus. was executed by Cnares, a disciple of Ly- COL/UMN, in architecture, a cylinsippus, who devoted himself to this object drical pillar, or long round body of wood, during twelve years. It was placed at stone, or iron, which serves either for the the entrance of the harbor, with the right support or ornament of a building. It foot standing on one side the land and consists of a capital, which is the top or the left on the other. It was of brass, head; the shaft, which is the cylindrical and is said to have existed nearly four- part; and the base, or that on which it teen centuries, before the period in which rests. Columns are distinguished as to it fell by the shock of an earthquake. their form into the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, When the Saracens became possessed of Corinthian, and Composite. The Tuscan Phodes, they found the statue in a pros- is characterized by being rude, simple trate state, and sold it to a Jew, by and massy; the Doric is next in strength whom 900 camels were laden with the and massiveness to the Tuscan; the Ionic materials. The colossus at Tarentum by is more slender than the Tuscan and Lysippe was no less than forty cubits Doric; the Corinthian is more delicate in height; and the difficulty of removing in its form and proportions, and enriched it, rather.than the moderation of the with ornaments; and the Composite is a, conqueror, prevented Fabius carrying it species of the Corinthian. In strictness, off with the I-ercules from the same city. the shaft of a column consists of one enBut the proposition made to Alexander tire piece; but it is often composed of of cutting MIount Athos into a statue, in different pieces, so united as to have the one of whose hands a city was to be appearance of one entire piece. —Tlhe placed capable of holding ten thousand word column has also many other meaninhabitants, whilst in the other he was to ings; as, a division of a page, which may hold a vessel pouring out the torrents contain two or more columnrs. A large from the mountain, exceeds all others in body of troops drawn up in order; as, a history. Before the time of the Romans solid colhtnms. Any body pressing on its colossal statues were frequently executed base, and of the sanme diameter as its in Italy. The first monument of this base; as, a colansn of water, air, or mernature set up in Rome was one placed in cury. the capitol by Sp. Carvillius after his COM'EDY. (From the Greek words victory over the Samnites. This was sue- Ke(Ulu village, ancd (iJd, a song; because ceeded in after-times by many others, of the original rude dialogues, intermixed which those now on Monte Cavallo, said with singing and dancing, out of which to be of Castor and Pollux, are well the early Greek comedy arose, were sung known to most persons. In modern times by rustic actors at village festivals.) A the largest that has been erected is that species of drama, of which the characterof S. Carlo Boromeo at Arona near Milan. isties in modern usage are, that its inciThis gigantic statue is upwards of sixty dents and language approach nearly to feet in height. those of ordinary life; that the terminaCOLUMBA, ST., this saint is repre- tion of its intrigue is happy; and that it sented with a crown upon her head, and is distinguished by greater length and standing on a pile of burning wood, an greater complexity of plot from the light. angel by her side; sometimes she holds er theatrical piece entitled a farce. The a sword. According to the legend, the original Attic comedy was a burlesque angel is said to have extinguished the itragedy in form, in substance a satire on 96 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [COMl individuals, and founded on political or and the passing laws and trials for high other matters tf public interest. The treason. 3. The comitia tributa were the modern comedy is derived from the new assemblies of the plebeian tribes.'They comedy of the Greeks, of which Menander were first instituted after the expulsion and Philemon were the principal authors, of the kings; and in them wtere tlrnsand which has been preserved to us acted matters pertaining to the plebeians through the Latin imitations of Plautus alone, as the election of their tribunes and Terence. According to. Bossu, com- and cediles. edy differs from tragedy in this, that COMI' A, in grammar, a point o charcomic writers invent both the names of acter marked thus (,) denotintg the shortthe persons and the actions.hich they est pause in reading, and sepiarating a represent; whereas the tragic writers in- sentence into divisions or mcmbers.-In vent only the latter, taking the former theoretic music, it is a term to show the fron history. Among us, comedy is dis- exact proportions between concords. tinguished from farce, as the former rep- COMMANDANT', the commanding resents nature as she is, the other di- officer of a place or of a body of forces. torts'and overcharges her; but whether CO IMIAND'ER, the chief officer of an it be to recommend virtue or to render army, or one who has the command of folly ridiculous, the real intention and a body of men. The commander-ineffect aec aemusenment. chief in the British armiy is he who has COMT:IITIA, in Roma.n antiquity, an the supreme command over all the land assembly of the people, either in the forces in Great Britain. In the naval Conmtiutcm or Campus Mlartius, for the service the chief admiral in a.ry port or election of m,%gistrates, or consulting on station is so called.-The commander of the important afrairs of the republic. The a ship, otherwise called the mn.ste-, is an people originally gave their votes vivd officer next in rank to a post captain, voce, but in process of time this was su- who has the command of a ship of war perseled by the use of tablets. The under 18 guns, a sloop, &c. comitia were of three kinds, distin- COMMENCE'MENT, an annual pubguished by the epithets, Curiata, Cen- lie assembly of a university, or the day turiata, ancd Tributa. 1. The comnitia on which derees are publicly conferred curiata were the assemblies of the pa- on students who have finished a collegiate trician houses or populs l ts; and in these, education. before the plebeians attained political COMM1END'AM, in ceclesiastical law, importance, was vested the supreme pow- the trust or administration of the reveer of the state. The name curiata was nues of a benefice given to a layman to given because the people voted ir curime, hold as a deposit for six months, in oreach curia giving a single vote represent- der to repairs, &c., or to an ecclesiastic to ing the sentiments of the majority of the perform the pastoral duties till the benemembers composing it; which was the fice is provided with a regular incumbent. manner in which the tribes and centuries In England, the right of granting benealso gave their suffra es in their respec- fices in comnemndam is vested in the tive comitia. After the institution of the crown by a statue of IHenry VIII.-One comitia centuriata, the functions of the who holds a living in commendam is callcuriata were nearly confined to the elec- ed a. commendatory.- Colmendatory tion of certain priests, and passing a law letters, are letters sent from. one bishop to confirm the dignities imposed by the to another in behalf of any of the clerpeople. 2. The comitia centuriata were gy, &c. the assemblies of the whole Itoman peo- COMMiiENTAC'ULUM, in antiquity, a pie, including patricians, clients, and w and which those who lwreo (oing to sacplebeians, in which they voted by cen- rifice held in their hland, to make people turies. By the constitution of the cen- stand out of the way. turies, these comitia were chiefly in the COMIMENTARY, an explanation of hands of the plebeians, and so served oi- the obscure passages in an author; or an ginally as a counterpoise to the powers historical narrative, as, the Commentaries of the comiutia curiata., for which pur- of Cesar. pose they were first instituted by the law- COMIMERCE, in a general sense, is giver king Servius Tullius. These comi- the interc-urse of nationa in each other's tia, quickly obtained the chief importance, produce c- manufactures, iin wvhich the and public matters of the greatest mo- superfluities of one are given for those ment were transacted in them; as the of another, and then re-exchanged with elections of consuls, pritors, and censors, other nations for mutual wants. Com COM] AND THE FINE ARTS. 97 merce is bnth fo"e'.p afnd i{.nrni. For- in distinction to the inferior or non-comeign commerce is the trade which one missioned officers.-In commerce, the nation carries on with another; inland order by which any one traffics or negocommerce, or inland trade, is the trade tiates for another; also the per centage in the exchange of commodities between given to factors and agents for transactcitizens of the same nation. The benefits ing the business of others. of commercial intercourse have been felt COMMIS'SIONER, a person authorand admitted from the earliest times; ized by commission, letters-patent, or but they have never been so highly ap- other lawful warrant, to examine any preciated, or carried to such an extent as matters, or execute any public office, &c. at present. It gives a stimulus to in- COMMIIT'MENT, is the sending a dustry; supplies mankind with enjoy- person to prison by warrant or order, ments to which they would otherwise be either for a crime or contumacy. strangers, tends greatly to obliterate un- COMMIT'TEE, certain persons elected founded prepjueiices between nations; ex- or appointed, to whom any matter or cites a spirit of laudable competition business is referred, either by a legislaanlong all classes; enables one country tive body, or by any corporation or socito profit by the inventions of another; ety.-A Committee of the Legislature, diffuses the blessings of civilization to signifies a certain number of members the most remote corners of the earth; appointed by the house to proceed on enlarges the powers and faculties of the some specific business. The whole house mind; and advances human knowledge frequently resolves itself into a comby the improvements which it carries into mittee, in which case, each member has every art and science. On the other a right to speak as often as he pleases. hand, it cannot be denied that it has con- When the house is not in committee, tributed to nnjust aggressions, and that each gives his opinion regularly, and is the peace and welfare of man have often only allowed to speak once, unless to exbeen made subservient to commercial plain himself.-Standizng conmmittees are avarice. Yet much as the evils attribut- such as continue during the existence of ed to coinmerce have been deplored by the legislature. Special comlmittees are some moral writers, we cannot but adopt appointed to consider and report on parthe sentiments of one who says, " To con- ticular subjects. merce, with all its mischiefs, with all its CO MMODVITY, in commerce, anymercrimes, co-mmitted upon every shore, its chandise which a person deals in.-Staple depopulattion of fields, and corruption of comnmodities, such wares and merchancities, to commierce we must attribute dises as are the proper produce or manu*that growing intimacy between the memn- facture of the country. bers of the human race from which great COM'MODORE, an officer in the navy,. benefits have redounded, and greater still invested with the command of a detachmay spring." ment of ships of war destined for a parCOMMISSARITATE, the whole body ticular purpose.-The Commodore of a of officers in the commissary's depart- convoy is the leading ship in a fleet of ment. nerchantmen, and carries a light in her COMI'MISSARY, in a general sense, top to conduct the other ships. one who is sent or delegated to execute COM'MON, a tract of ground, or open some office or lduty, as the representative space, the use of which is not appropriof his snperior.-In military affairs, an ated to an individual, but belongs to the officer, who has the charge of furnishing public, or to a number. The right which provisions, clothing, &c. for an army. a person has to pasture his cattle on land; There are various separate duties de- of another, or to dig turf, or catch fish,. volving on conmmissaries, and they have or cut wood, or the like, is called consmmon. names accordingly: as the commissary- of pasture, or turbary, of piscary, and of' general, who is at the head of the de- estovers. partment; depuzty-commeissaries, &c.-In COMMON COUN'CIL, the council of ecclesiastical law, an officer of the bishop a city or corporate town, empowered to who exercises spiritual jurisdiction in make by-laws for the government of the distant parts of the diocese. citizens. It is generally used in speakCOAMMIS SION, in law, the warrant, in of a court in the city of London, comor letters patent by which one is author- posed of the lord mayor, aldermen, and ized to exercise jurisdiction.-In mill- a certain number of citizens called comtary affairs, the warrant or authority by mon-councilmen. The city of London is which one holds any post in the army: divided into 24 wards; the chief magis7 98 CYOLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CON trate of each ward has the title of alder- in the other services; but these were the man; the 24 aldermen, with the lord last that have been effected. On the mayor, form the court of aldermen; and accession of William III. another reviscertain inhabitants chosen out of each ion took place, and a considerable numward, for the purpose of assisting the al- her of alterations were proposed and supdermen with their advice in public af- ported by many of the bishops and fairs, form the court of commonl council. clergy; but they were rejected by conCOIMMON LAW, the law that receives vocation, and have never since been reits binding force from immemorial usage vived by authority." and universal reception,.in distinction COM'MONS, the lower house of Parfrom the written or statute law; and liament, consisting of the representatives which chiefly originated in judicial deci- of cities, boroughs, and counties, chosen sions founded on natural justice and by men possessed of the property or equity, or on local customs. qualifications required by law. This COMMONPLACE-BOOK, a register body is called the iHouse of Comnmons; of such thoughts and observations as and may be regarded as the basis of the occur to a person of reading or reflection. British constitution. The origin of this COMMON PLEAS, a superior court assembly ought, perhaps, to be attributed where pleas or causes are heard between to the necessity under which the first subject and subject. Edward perceived himself of counteractCOMMON PRAYER BOOK, the name ing a powerful aristocracy. The feudal given to the collection of all the offices system had erected a band of petty monof regular and occasional worship accord- archs from whom the crown was in pering to the forms of the church of England. petual danger. It is to the struggles of The basis of this book is to be found in these men with regal authority, in the the King's Primer, set forth in 1546 by course of which, in order to strengthen HIenry VIII., which was intended to con- their opposition, they were obliged to vey instruction to the people in the most make common cause with the people, important parts of the church service; that the existence of English liberty msay but contained little more than the Creed, be attributed. In a word, the IHouse of Lord's Prayer, Commandments, and Lit- Commons arose on the ruins of the feuany. This Primer underwent two revi- dal fabric, gained ground as that decayed, sions and republications under Edward pressed on its weaker parts, and, finally, VI., whose second Liturgy approaches levelled it with the dust. Though each very near in its contents to that which member is elected by a distinct body of exists at present. It was at that review people, he is, from the moment of his that the Sentences, Exhortation, Confes- election, the representative, not of those sion, and Absolution were prefixed to the particular persons only, but of the kingDaily Service; the )ecalogue was intro- dom at large; and is to consider himself duced into the Communion Service; and not merely as the organ through which certain remnants of the Romish customs his constituents may speak, but as one were finally abolished, as the sign of the who, having been intrusted with a genecross in confirmation and matrimony, the ral charge, is to perform it to the best of anointing of the sick, and the prayers for his judgment. In performance of this the dead. On the accession of Elizabeth, great function, his liberty of speech is another review of the Liturgy was insti- bounded only by those rules of decency tuted; but the alterations effected were of which the house itself is the judge; little more than in the selection of the and while, on the one hand. he is free to lessons. At the review in the reign of propose what laws he pleases, on the James I., after the conference with the other, he is exposed, as a private man, Presbyterians at Hampton Court, no to the operation of the laws he makes. change of importance was introduced, This assembly is composed of six hunexcept the addition of the explanation of dred and fifty-eight members; and the Sacraments in the Catechisum. Again, though many small boroughs were diswhen on the restoration of Charles II. a franchised by the Reform Bill, the electconference had been held with the dis- ive franchise was given to several places senters at the Savoy, the subject of the of rising importance. and a variety of common prayer book was reconsidered in alterations took place by adding to the convocation; The services for the 30th number of representatives of counties, of January and 29th of May were then &c., so that the total number of memadded, as also the form to be used at Sea. bers remains the same. A few trifling alterations were made also COMMONWEALTH', in a general COIM] AND THE FINE ARTS. 99 sense, applies to the social state of a judge of their agreement or difference.country, without regarding its form of Comsparison of ideas, among logicians, government.-In the usual, though more that operation of the mind whereby it restricted sense, a republic, or that form compares its ideas one with another, in of government in which the administra- regard of extent, degree, time, place, or tion of public affairs is open to all with any other. circumstance, and is the ground few, if any, exceptions. of relations.-Cosmparison, in rhetoric, COMMUT'NION, the act of communia a figure by which two things are concating in the sacrament of the eucharist, sidered with regard to a third, which is or the Lord's Supper. —-CorLmmunio Se- common to them both; as, a hero is like vice, the office for the administration of a lion in courage. Here courage is comthe holy sacrament.-Comnztniotn 7table, mon to hero and lion, and cons,itutes the the table elected at the east end of a point of resemblance. church, round which the communicants COMPART'MENT, in architecture, a kneel to partake of the Liord's Supper. proportionable division in a building, or COMMU'NITY, a society of people some device marked in an ornamental living in the same place, under the same part of the building. laws and regulations, and who have com- COMPENSA'TION, in civil lawv, asort mon rights and privileges. History shows of right, whereby a person, who has been that the establishment of communities sued for a debt, demands that the debt has been one of the greatest advances in may be compensated with what is owing' human improvement: and they have him by the creditor, which, in that case, proved, in different ages, the cradle and is equivalent to payment. the support of freedom. COMPERTO'RIUM, a judicial inquest COMMUTA'TION, in law, the change in the civil law, made by delegates or of a penalty or punishment from a greater commissioners, to find out and relate the to a less; as when death is commuted for truth of a cause. transportation or imprisonment. COMPITA'LIA, a Roman feast celeCOM'PACT, a word denoting an agree- brated in honor of the Lares and Penates. ment or contract, but generally applied Under Tarquinius Superbus, it is said in a political sense; as, a compact or thathuman victims were sacrificed at this agreement entered into between nations solemnity. The gods invoked at it were and states for any particular object. termed Compitales, as presiding over the COM'PANY, in a commercial sense, a streets. society of merchants, mechanics, or other COMiPLEX'ION, among physicians, traders, joined together in a common in- the temperament, lhabitude, and natural terest. The term is also applied to large disposition of the body; but, in general associations set on foot for the purpose use, the word means the color of the skin. of commerce; as, the East India Corn- COM'PLEX TERMS, and COMPLEX pany; a banking or insurance company, IDE'AS, in logic, are such as are com&c. When companies do not trade upon pounded of several simple ones. a joint stock, but are obliged to admit COMPLU'/VIUM, in ancient architecany person properly qualified, upon pay- ture, an area in the centre of the Roman ing z' certain fine, and agreeing to sub- houses, so constructed that it might remit to the regulations of the company, ceive.the waters from the ro3fs. It is each member trading upon his own stock, also the gutter or cave of a roof. and at his own risk, they are called regu- COMPO'SING, that branch of the art lated com?.panies; when they trade upon of printing which consists in taking the a joint stock each member sharing in types or letters from the cases, arsd ar the common profit or loss, in proportion ranging them in such an order as to fit to his share in the stock, they are called them for the press. The instrument in joint stocc companiies.-In military af- which they are adjusted to the length of fairs, a small body of foot, consisting the lines is called a co??posing-s.-tick. usually of a number from 60 to 100 men, COM'POSITE ORltER, in architeccommanded by a captain, who has under ture, one of the five orders of architecture, him a lieutenant and ensign. —Also, the and, as its name imports, composed of I whole crew of a ship, including the offi- two others, the Corinthian and the Ionic cers. Its capital is a vase with two tiers of COMPARISON, in a general sense, acanthus leaves, like the Corinthian; but the consideration of the relation between instead of stalks, the shoots appear sma.ll two persons or things, when opposed and and adhere to the vase, bending round toset against each other, by which we wards the middle of the face of the capi- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ ~ 100 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [COM tal; the vase is terminated by a fillet desire to produce it in art, and require over which is an astragal crowned by an pictures to be organic. This is valid as ovolo. The volutes roll themselves over well in simple composition as in cornthe ovolo to meet the tops of the upper pound, which as a composition of comporow of leaves, whereon they seem to rest. sitions, represents many wholes. All The corners of the abacus -are supported this, though not attained, is at least atby an acanthus leaf bent upwards. The tempted by those who call themselves arabacus resembles that of the Corinthian tists. The following is less acknowledged capital. In detail the Composite is but not less important, viz., every comricher than the Corinthian, but less light position consists of three elements, whose and delicate. Its architrave has usually one-sided predominance in painters and only two fasciee, and the cornice varies connoisseurs produces three schools of from the Corinthian in having double error; while the fervent working together modillions. The column is ten diame- of these elements alone makes the work ters high. The principal examples of this a living whole, and gives it that which is order are the Temple of Bacchus at Rome, expressed by the Latin word compositiothe arch of Septimius Severus, those of a quieting satisfying effect. The artist's the Goldsmiths and of Titus, and that in subject furnishes thee first element. Evethe baths of Diocletian. ry subject has its own law of representaCOMPOSI/TION, in a general sense, tion, which the artist must clearly underthe putting together, and uniting of sev- stand if he would depict it truly upon the eral things, so as to form of the whole one canvas. This comprehension is to be acmass or compound — Composition of ideas, quired only by his forgetting himself in an act of the mind, whereby it unites sev- the contemplation of his subject. It is eral ideas into one conception, or complex the power of doing this which we prize so idea.-In literature, the act of inventing highly in poetry under the term objecor combining ideas, furnishing them with tivity. By thus treating the subject the words, arranging them in order, and com- artist becomes a splendid organ, through mitting them to writing.-In logic, a which nature speaks like a history to method of reasoning, whereby we proceed sentient man: thus followed out, the mafrom some general self-evident truth, to jesty of Rome in Rubens, and the cheerother particular and singular ones. This fulness of nature in Claude, are conveyed method of reasoning is opposed to analy- to posterity. The second element of sis, which begins with first principles, composition is fixed by the given space and, by a train of reasoning from them, which is to be filled by color, form and deduces the propositions or truths sought; light, harmonized according to the laws but composition or synthesis collects the of art; then a history adorning a space scattered parts of knowledge, and com- becomes the property of art. The third bines them into a system, so that the un- element lies in the mind of the artist; as derstanding is enabled distinctly to follow " woman's judgment is tinged by her aftruth through its different stages of gra- fections," so the artist who cannot imbue dations.-In music, the art or act of form- his subject with his own feelings will fail ing tunes, either to be performed vocally to animate his canvas. For thoughevery or instrumentally.-In commerce, an legitimate subject dictates the laws of its agreement entered into between an in- representation, yet every cultivated man solvent debtor and his creditor, by which sees objects in his own light, and no one the latter accepts a part of the debt in may say that he alone sees rightly. He compensation for the whole.-In paint- who knows not how to give that to his ing, this word expresses the idea of a pictures, by which they become, not from whole created out of single parts, and to manner but from subject, his pictures, is this idea the whole ought to conform. In no artist, but a mere copyist, even could the whole there ought never to be too he imitate Phidias or Scopas perfectly. much or too little; all parts must be ne- Excess of individualism leads the artist cessary, and must refer to one another, to depict himself instead of the subject, to being understood only under such rela- sacrifice this is a favorite caprice, and in tionship. This does not imply that every allegorizing his own dreams to confuse part must be co-ordinate, some parts the action as well as the spectator; but must be of more importance than others, if he represent it truthfully, working it and all must be subordinate to a centre- with pictorial effect and stamping it with point, which raises them, while it is raised his genius, he has composed, and his work by them. This quality, which is seen in is completed, satisfying all requisitions. natural landscape, we call organism; we COMPO'SITOR, in printing, the work aON] AND THE FINE ARTS. 101 man who arranges the types in lines and writers on rhetoric, conceits.) Ingenious pages, and prepares them for being thoughts or turns of expression, points, printed off. jeux d'esprit, &c., in serious composition. COMPURGA'TION, an ancient mode In the 16th century, the taste for this of trial both in civil and criminal cases. species of brilliancy, often false and alIn the latter, by the law of the Saxons ways dangerous, spread rapidly in the (which William the Conqueror confirmed poetical composition of European nations, in this respect, at least as to its main especially in Spain and Italy; where the features,) the accused party was allowed name of concetti was applied rather in a to clear himself by the oath of as many good than in a bad sense, the critical of his neighibors to his innocence as taste being much perverted. Tasso is amounted in collective worth, according not free from concetti. After his time to the legal arithmetic of the Anglo- they became offensively prominent in Saxons, to one pound if he could in the Italian poetry for a century afterwards: first instance (being a villein) obtain the Marino and Filicaia offer strong examtestimony of his lord that he had not ples. In France, the mode of concetti been previously convicted, If other- was equally prevalent in the 17th cenwise, he is bound to undergo ordeal, or tury, and was peculiarly in. vogue with wage his law with a greater number of the fair critics of the Hotel Rambouillet, compurgators. Compurgation in crimi- so well known by Moliere's " Pr6cieuses nal cases was abolished in general by Ridicules." In England, Donne and CowHenry II.'s assizes, the ordeal being en- ley are instances of a style full of concetti. forced in lieu of it. CONCIN'NOUS, in music, an epithet CON, in language, a Latin inseparable for a performance in concerts, which is preposition or prefix to other words. executed with delicvvc, grace, and spirit. Ainsworth remarks that coin and cwcm7, CONCIONATOI:'3, in law, the comhave the same signification, but that cum mon councilmen of thie city of London. is used separately, and con in composi- CONCLAMA'TIO, in antiquity, the tion.-In the phrase pro and con, for and funeral cry over the body of a deceased against, con denotes the negative side of person previous to its being burnt; by a question. which it was expected to recall, as it CONCATENA'TION, a term chiefly were. the soul of the deceased from everused in speaking of the mutual depen- lasting sleep. dence of second causes upon each other. CON'CLAVE the place in which the CONCEP'TION, in mental philosophy, cardinals of the Romish church meet for that faculty or act of the mind by which the election of a pope. It consists of a we combine a number of individuals to- range of small cells or apartments standgether by means of some mark or char- ing in a line along the halls or galleries acter common to them all. We may ob- of the Vatican.-Conclave is also used serve, for instance, that equilateral, isos- for the assembly or meeting of the carceles and scalene triangles all agree in dinls when shut up for the election of a one respect, that of having three sides; pope. This begins the day following the and from this perceived similitude we funeral of the deceased pontiff. The carform the conception triangle. dinals are locked up in separat e apartCONCERTAN'TE, in music, a term ments and meet once a day in the chapel expressive of those parts of a musical of the Vatican, (or other pontifical palcomposition that sing or play throughout ace,) where their votes, given on a slip the piece, as distinguished from those of paper, are examined. This continues that play only occasionally in particular until two thirds of the votes are found to places. be in favor of a particular candidate. CONCERTO, in music, a piece corn- The ambassadors of France, Austria, and posed for a particular instrument, which Spain have each the right to put in a veto bears the greatest part in it, or in which against the election of one cardinal, who the performance is partly alone and may be unacceptable to their respective partly accompanied by other parts. courts. CONCES'SION, in rhetoric or debate, CONCLU'SION, in logic, that proposithe yielding, granting, or allowing to the tion which is inferred from certain former opposite party some point or fact that may propositions, termed the premises of the bear dispute, in order to show that even argument. admitting the point conceded, the cause CONCORD, in music, the union of two car be maintained on other grounds. or more sounds in such a manner as to CONCET'TI. (Rendered by English render them agreeable to the ear. Con 102 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [ OlC cord and harmony are, in fact, the same CONDI'TION, in law, a clause in a thing, though custom has applied them bond or other contract containing terms differently; for as concord expresses the or a stipulation that it is to be performeld, agreeable effects of two sounds in con- and in case of failure, the penalty of the sonance, so harmony expresses the agree- bond is to be incurred.-We speak of a ment of a greater number of sounds in good condition in reference to wealth consonance.-In grammar, that part of and poverty, or to health and sickness, syntax which treats of the agreement of &c. Or, we say,-a nation with an exwords in a sentence.-In law, an agree- hausted treasury is not in a condition to ment between the parties in a fine, made make war; religion affords consolation by leave of the court. to man in every condition of life.-ConCONCO RD'ANCE, a dictionary of the ditional propositions, in logic, such sas Bible, in which every word is given with consist of two parts connected together references to the book, chapter, and verse, by a conditional particle.-Conditional in which it occurs, for the purpose of en- syllogis7, a syllogism where the major abling the student to collate with facility is a conditional proposition. one passage with another in the view of CONDOTTIE'RI. in Italian history; determining its meaning. The importance a class of mercenary adventurers in the of this class of works was early appre- 14th and 15th centuries, who commandecd ciated, and a vast deal of labor has been military bainds, amounting to armies, on expended in compiling them. Concord- their own account, and sold their services ances have beeln made of the Greek for temporary engagements to sovereign Septuagint, the Greek Testament, the princes and states. One of the earliest Latin Vulgate, and the English Old and and most famous among those leaders New Testaments. The first concordance was the Englishman Sir John IHawkwood, was compiled by Car.'linal Ilugues de St. who commanded in various Italian wars Cher, who died in 1362. The best Eng- about the time of Edward III. The lish concordance is that of Cruden, which bands under command of the condottieri appeared in 1737, and still maintains its were well arlned and equipped. Their ground as an authority. leaders had, in manny instances, considerCONCOR'DAT, an agreement or con- able military skill; but as they took no vention upon ecclesiastical matters made interest in national contests, except to between the Pope and some temporal receive pecuniary advantages, the wars sovereign, as that between Pius VII. between them became a sort of bloodless,nd Bonaparte in 1802, by which the Ro- contest, in which the only object of each man Catholic religion was re-established party was to take as mnany prisoners as in France; on which occasion the Pope possible for the sake of the ransom. This recognized the new division of France singular system of warfare was only put into 60 sees, instead of the much greater an end to by the more serious military number which had existed before the operations of the French, who invaded revolution, the payment of the clergy Italy under Charles VIII. from the national revenues, and the ap- CON'DUIT, a subterraneous or conpointment of the bishops by the civil au- cealed aqueduct. The ancient Romans thority. Originally the term was applied excelled in them, and formed the lower to agreements regulating mutual rights parts, wheron the water ran, of cerment between bishops, abbots, priors, &c. of such an excellent quality, that it has CON'CRETE. in architecture and en- become as hard as the stone itself which gineering, a mass composed of stone it was employed to join.-Coacduits, in cllippings or ballast cemented together modern times, are generally pipes of through the medium of lime and sand, wood, iron, or pottery. for conveying the usually employed in making foundations water from the main spring, or reserwhere the soil is of itself too light or voirs, to the different places where it is reboggy, or otherwise insufficient for the quired. reception of the walls. CONFARREA'TION, in antiquity, a CON'CRETE TERM, in logic, is so ceremony observed by the Romans in called when the notion derived from the their nuptial solemnities. It consisted view taken of any object is expressed with of the offering of some pure wheaten a reference to, or in conjunction with, the bread, and rehearsing, at the same time, object that furnished the notion; as a certain formula in presence of the "foolish," or "fool." When the notion high-priest and at least ten witnesses. is expressed without any such reference, CONFECTION, a sweetmeat, or anyit is called an abstract term; as, "folly." thing prepared with sugar; it also sig CON] AND THE FINE ARTS. 103 nifies a liquid or soft electuary, of which between the municipal laws of different there are various sorts. countries, in the case of an individual CONFEC'TOR, an officer in the Ro- who may have acquired rights or become man games, whose business was to kill subject to duties within the limit of more any beast that was dangerous. than one state. CONFED'ERACY, in law, a combina- CONFORM'IST, in ecclesiastical contion of two or more persons to do some cerns, one that conforms to the establishdamage or injury to another, or to com- ed church; the seceders or dissenters from mit some unlawful act. which are called NoToz-conformists. CONFEDERA'TION, a league, or CON'GE, in architecture, a mould in compact, for mutual support, particu- form of a quarter round, or a cavetto, larly of princes, nations, or states. which serves to separate two members CONFES'SION, in a legal sense, the from one another; such as that which acknowledgment of something prejudicial joins the shaft of the column to the cincto the person making the declaration. ture; called also apophyge. A confession, according to law, must never CONGO D'ELIRE, (French,) in ecclebe divided, but always taken entire; nor siastical affairs, the king's permission to must a criminal be condemned upon his a dean and chapter in the time of a vaown confession, without other concurring cancy, to choose a bishop. proofs.-In theology, a public declara- CONGE'RIES, a collection of several tion of one's faith, or the faith of a pub- particles or bodies united into one mass lie body. Also a part of the Liturgy, in or aggregate. which an acknowledgment of guilt is CON'GIAIRY, in Roman antiquity, a made by the whole congregation.-Au- present of wine or oil, given to the people ricular confession, a private confession by their emperors, and so called from the or acknowledgment of one's sins made conigius, wherewith it was measured out by each individual in the Romish church to them. Sometimes, however, the conto the priest or father confessor. It is so giary was made in money or corn. called because it is made by whispering CON'GIUS, a liquid measure of the in his ear.-Among the Jews, it was a ancient Romans, containing the eighth custom, on the annual feast of expiation, part of the amphora, or rather more than for the high-priest to make confession of a gallon. sins to God in the name of the whole CONGREGA'TIONALISTS, in church people. history, a sect of Protestants who reject CONFES'SOR, a Roman Catholic all church government, except that of a priest, who hears confessions, and is single congregation, which, they mainempowered to grant absolution to those tain, has the right to choose its own pastor who confess.-The seat, or cell, wherein and govern itself. the priest or confessor sits to hear con- CONIGRESS, an assembly of envoys, fessions, is called the con2fessional. commissioners, deputies, &c. from differCONFIRMA'TION, the act or cere- ent courts, who meet to concert measures mony in the Christian church of laying for their common good, or to adjust their on of hands, by which baptized persons mutual concerns. Having exchanged are confirmed in their baptismal vows. their credentials, the envoys of the differThis ceremony is performed by the ent powers carry on their negotiations bishop; and the antiquity of it is, by directly with each other, or by the interall ancient writers, carried as high as the vention of a mediator, either in a comapostles, upon whose example and prac- mon hall, or in their own residences by tice it is founded.-Confirmation, in law, turns, or, if there is a mediator, in his an assurance of title, by the conveyance residence. These negotiations are conof an estate or right in esse, from one tinued either by writing or by verbal person to another, by which a possession communication, until the commissioners is made perfect, &c.-Confirmation, in can agree upon a treaty, or until one of rhetoric, the third part of an oration, the powers dissolves the congress by rewherein the orator undertakes to prove calling its minister.-Congrgess of the the truth of the proposition advanced in Uneited States of America. The assemhis narration. bly of senators and representatives of the CONFISCA'TION, in law, the condemi- several states of North America, forming nation and adjudication of goods or effects tlh legislature of the United States, is to the public treasury, as the bodies and d(esignated, in the constitution of the effects of criminals, traitors, &c. general government, by this title. It CON'FLICT OF L AWS, the opposition consists of a senate and a house of repre 104 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CON sentatives, each constituting a distinct CONISTE'RIUMI, in ancient archiand independent branch. The house of tecture, a room in the gymnasium and eprresentatives is chosen every second palestra, wherein the wrestlers, having year, by the people of the several states; been anointed with oil, were sprinkled and the voters and electors are required over with dust, that they might lay firmto have the same qualifications as are er hold of their antagonists. requisite for choosing the members of CON'JOINT DEGREES, in music, a the most numerous branch of the state term used of two or more notes which legislature of the state in which they immediately follow each other in the vote. The number of representatives is order of the scale. appointed according to the population of CO N'J OINT T E T R A C II R D S, each state, and is altered every ten years, in music, two tetrachords or fourths, in when the census is taken by authority. which the same note is the highest of one The manner of apportioning the congres- and the lowest of the other. sional reprjesentation was fixed by an act CONJUGA'TION, in grammar, is to passed lMay 23, 1850. After March 3, verbs what declension is to substantives 1853, the House of Representatives, un- -the sum total of the inflexions which less otherwise ordained by congress, is to they admit, corresponding to the various consist of 233 members. The apportion- circumstances of time or mood under ment is made by adding to the number which an action is conceived to take of free persons three fifths of the number place. of slaves: the representative population, CONJUNC'TION, in gramimar, that thus found, divided by 233, gives the ratio part of speech which expresses the relaof apportionment; the representative tion of propositions or judgments to each population of each state, divided by this other. ratio, shows the number of representa- CONJUNC'TIVE MOOD, that moditives to which the state is entitled. To fication of the verb which expresses the the aggregate thus obtained is added a dependence of the event intended on cernumber sufficient to make up the whole tain conditions. number of 233 members; this additional CONNOISSEUR', a critical judge or number is apportioned among the states master of any art, particularly of painthaving the largest fractions. It is, how- ing, sculpture, and the belles lettres. ever, provided by the constitution that The connoisseur is the true friend of Art; each state shall be entitled to at least one he judges of works from their intrinsic representative. The senate is composed of excellence, regardless of the influence or two members from each state: the sena- bias of popular names upon the indistors are chosen for six years by the legis- criminating crowd. Ile is prompt to relature of the state. The house of repre- cognize, seek out, and foster genius in its sentatives chooses its own speaker: the early struggles and obscurity, and help vice-president of the United States is, to occupy that position too frequently ex-oflicio, president of the senate. Bills usurped by the pretender. The qualities for revenue purposes must originate in necessary to constitute a connoisseur are the house of representatives; but are -a natural feeling for art, a keen perliable to the proposal of amendments by ception, and a sound judgment; by study the senate. The senate has the sole pow- and observation he has become familiar cr of trying impeachments; but can only with the technics of art, the manner and convict by a majority of two thirds of the method of various schools and masters. members present, and its sentence ex- He has no prejudices or predilections; tends only to removal from office and in- hence he is impartial. lIe can apprecicapacitation for holding it. The regular ate defects as well as merits, and distinmeeting of congress is on the first Mon- guish an original from a copy. day in December annually. Every bill CON'QUEST, the right over property which passes the two houses is sent to the or territory acquired in war. It presuppresident for approval or disapproval; in poses a just war, and is generally admitthe latter case, he returns it, with his ted as a part of the law of nations. Conreasons, to the house in which it origin- quest may respect either persons or ated: if, on reconsideration, it is passed things: it may apply to a whole nation, again by a majority of two-thirds in each or to a single town or province: and it house, it becomes law. The powers of may be temporary or permanent. Where congress are strictly limited, and sepa- persons are not found in arms, but are rated from those of the various state included as inhabitants of a town or prov legislatures, by the constitution. ince which has surrendered, they are CON] AND THE FINE ARTS. 105 treated generally as subjects. The origi- the beginning of the revolution, declared nal allegiance to their own government is it the duty and honor of every citizen to suspended, and they come under the im- serve in the army of his country. Every plied obligation to the conqueror, to sub- French citizen was born a soldier, and mit to his orders, and to demean them- obliged to serve in the army from sixteen selves, for the time, as faithful subjects. to forty years of age: from forty to sixty Under such circumstances, the conclueror he belonged to the national guard. Evegenerally leaves them in possession of ry year the young men of the military their property, and punishes them only age were assembled, and distributed in for rebellious or traitorous conduct. It the different military divisions; and it is not usual, in modern times, to change was decied by lot who, among the ablce the fundcamental laws of a conquered bodied men of suitable age, should take country; but the sovereign power of the arms. Thus it was that those prodigious conqueror so to do is conceded by the law masses were so quickly raised, and sent of nations. to the field of slaughter. CONSANGUIN'ITY, the relation CONSECRA'TION, the act of devoting which subsists between persons who are and dedicating anything to the service sprung fiomi the same stock or common and worship of God. Among the ancient ancestor, in distinction from affinity or Christians, the consecration of churches relation by marriage. It terminates in was performed with a great deal of pious the sixth or seventh degree, except in the solemnity. In England, churches have succession to the crown, in which case it been always consecrated with particular is continued to infinity. Marriage is pro- ceremonies, the form of which was left to hibited by the church to the fourth de- the discretion of the bishop.- Co.secragree of consanguinity inclusive. lion was also a religious rite amongr the CON'SCIENCE, in ethics, a secret tes- Romans, by which they set any person or timony of the soul, whereby it gives its thing apart for sacred purposes, as their approbation to things that are naturally high-priests; or made it sacred, or a fit good, and condemns those that are evil. object of divine worship; as the emperors, Some writers term conscience the "moral their wives, or children, who were in this sense," and consider it as an original fac- manner enrolled among the number of ulty of our nature; others allege that our their gods. This was sometimes called notions of right and wrong are not to be apotheosis, but on medals it is distindeduced from a single principle or facul- guished by the word consecratio, with an ty, but from various powers of the under- altar or some other sacred symbol. standing and will. CONSEN'TIAN GODS, a term by CON'SCIOUSNESS, the knowledge of which the Latins distinguished their sensations and mental operations, or of twelve chief deities-Juno, Vesta, Minerwhat passes in one's own mind. va, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars, Mercury, CON'SCRIPT, in Roman antiquity, an Jupiter, Neptune, Vulcan, and Apollo. appellation given to the senators of Rome, The origin of these deities was Italian, and who were called coanscript-fathers, on ac- distinct from those of the Greeks; but as count of their names being entered in the the literature of Rome took its tone and register of the senate.-In the French color from Greece, so its mythology was armies, an enrolled soldier, or recruit. mixed up with that of the latter country, CONSCRIP'TION, the enlisting the those deities whose functions most reinhabitants of a country capable of bear- sembled each other being confounded, till ing arms, by a compulsory levy, at the the above names became regarded as pleasure of the government. The name nothing more than the Latin appellations is derived from the military constitution of the Greek divinities. of ancient Rome. Under the consulship, CON'SEQUENCE, that which follows all persons capable of bearing arms were as an inference of truth and reason, from obliged, under penalty of losing their for- admitted premises or arguments. Thus, tune and liberty, to assemble in the Cam- " every rational being is accountable to pus Martiu's, or near the capitol, where his Maker;" man is a rational being the consuls, seated in their curule chairs, the consequence then must be, that man made the levy by the assistance of the is accountable to his Maker. legionary tribunes. The consuls ordered CONSERVA'TOR, an officer appointed such as they pleased to be cited out of for the security and preservation of the each tribe, and every one was obliged to privileges of some cities, corporations, answer to his name, after which as many and communities. The ancient office of were chosen as were wanted. —France, in conservator of the peace is now performed 106 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [ONo by all judges and magistrates, but par- or shoulder-piece: or an ornament cut ticularly by what we now term justices upon the key of an arch, which has a of the peace. projecture, and on occasion serves to supCONSERV'ATORY, a term sometimes port little cornices, figures, busts, and used for a green-house. It is, properly, vases. a large green-house for exotics, in which CON'SOLS, in commerce, funds formed the plants are planted in beds and bor- by the consolidation (of which word it is ders, and not in tubs or pots, as in the an abbreviation) of different annuities, common green-house.-In various parts which had been severally formed into a of Italy and France there are mIusical capital. schools, called conservatories, which are CON/SONANCE, in music, the agreeexpressly'intended for the scientific culti- ment of two sounds simultaneously provation of musical talents, and from which duced, the one grave and the other acute many first-rate composers, as well as vo- CON'SONANT, a letter so named be calists, have attained their proficiency. cause it is considered as being sounded CONSIDERA'TION, in law, the mate- only in connection with a vowel. But rial cause or ground of a contract, with- some consonants have no sound, even out which the party contracting would when united with a vowel, and others not be bound. A consideration is either have a very imperfect sound; hence express or implied; express, when the some are called mcutes, and others semlithing to be given or done is specified; vovels. implied, when no specific consideration is CONSONAN'TE, in music, an Italian agreed upon, but justice requires it, and epithetfor all agreeable intervals. the law implies it: as when a man labors CONSPIRACY, a combination of men for another, without stipulating for wages, for an evil purpose; or an agreement bethe law infers that he shall receive a rea- tween them to commit some crime in consonable consideratio. cert; as, a conspiracy against the governCONSIGN'/MENT of goods, in com- ment. —In law, it signifies an agreement merce, is the delivering or making them between two or more, falsely to indict, or over to another: thus, goods are said to procure to be indicted, an innocent perbe consigned to a factor, when they are son of felony. sent to him for sale, &c. Ie who con- CON SPIR'ITO, in music, an Italian signs the goods is called the conssignor; phrase, denoting that the part is to be and the person to whom they are sent is played with spirit. the consignee. CON'STABLE, a civil officer, anciently CONSIST'ENCE, or CONSIST"ENCY, of great dignity, as the Lord High Conthat state of a body in which its compo- stable of England, and also the constables nent parts remain fixed. Also, congruity or keepers of castles, &c. It is now the and uniformity in opinions and actions. title of an officer under the magistrates CONSISTO'RIUM, in antiquity, a for the preservation of the peace, whose council-house or place of audience. duty principally consists in seizing and CONSIS'TORY, an assembly of eccle- securing persons guilty of tumultuary ofsiastical persons; also certain spiritual fences. In the United States, constables courts are so called which are holden by are town or city officers of the peace, with the bishops in each diocese. At Ronee powers similar to those possessed by the the consistory denotes the judicial court constables in Great Britain. They are constituted by the college of cardinals. invested also with powers to execute civil The representative body of the reformed as well as criminal process, and to levy church in France is styled Consistory; a executions. In New England, they are title and assembly originated by Calvin. elected by the inhabitants of towns in leCONSIS'TORY COURT, the place or gal meeting. court in which the session or assembly of CONSTANT WVIITE, PERMANENT ecclesiastical persons is held by the bishop WHITE, a pigment prepared from the or his chancellor. sulphate of barytes, useful in waterCONSOLIDA'TION, in the civil law, color painting, possessing great body. It signifies the uniting the possession or is very poisonous. profit of land with the property, and CON'STAT, a certificate given out of vice versa. In the ecclesiastical law, it the exchequer to a person who intends to is the uniting two benefices into one by plead or move for a discharge of anyassent of the ordinary, patron, and in- thing in that court. The effect of it is to cumbent. show what appears upon the record. reCON'SOLE, in architecture, a bracket specting the matter in question. CoN] AND THE FINE ARTS. 107 CONSTELLA'TION, an assemblage or words in a rational and consistent consystem of several stars, expressed or rep- struction?." resented under the name and figure of CONSUA'LIA, in Roman antiquity, a some animal or other object, as a bear, a festival instituted by Romulus, and dediship, and the like; whence they have de- cated by him to Neptune, whom he termed rived those appellations which are conve- Census, or the god of counsel, in consenient in describing the stars. The divi- quene of his successful scheme on the sion of the heavens into constellations is Sabine virgins. very ancient, probably coeval with astron- CONSUBSTAN'TIAL, in theology, an omy itself. epithet signifying of the same substance: CONSTIT'UENT, in politics, one who thus, in the articles of the Church of bv his vote constitutes or elects a member England, Christ is declared consubstanof parliament.-Constituents, in physics, tial, or of one substance with the Father. the elementary or essential parts of any CONSUBSTANTIA'TION, a tenet of substance. the Lutheran church, the members of CONSTITU'TION, in politics, any which maintain that after consecration of form or principle of government, regu- the sacramental elements, the body and larly constituted. Constitutions are either blood of our Saviour are substantially democratic, aristocratic, or of a mixed present, together with the substance of character. They are, 1. Democratic, the bread and wine, which is called conwhen-the fundamental law guarantees to substantiation, or impanation. every citizen equal rights, protection, and CON'SUL, in the Roman commonparticipation, direct or indirect, in the wealth, the title of the two chief magisgovernment, such as the constitutions of trates, whose power was, in a certain dethe United States of America, and of gree, absolute, but who were chosen only some cantons of Switzerland. 2. Aristo- for one year. The authority of the two cratic, when the constitution establishes consuls was equal; yet the Valerian law privileged classes, as the nobility and gave the right of priority to the elder, clergy, and entrusts the government en- and the Julian law to him who had the tirely to them, or allows them a very greater number of children; and this was disproportionate share of it: such a con- generally called consul major or prior. stitution was that of Venice. 3. Of a In the first ages of Rome they were electmixed character; to which latter division ed from patrician families; but in the belong some monarchical constitutions, year of Rome 388, the people obtained which recognize the existence of a sove- the privilege of electing one of the conreign whose power is modified by other suls from their own body, and sometimes branches of government, of a more or both were plebeians.-In modern usage, less populous cast. In the United States, the name consul is given to an officer apthe constitution is paramount to the pointed to reside in a foreign country, to statutes or laws enacted by the legisla- protect the interests of trade, and to aid ture, limiting and controlling its power; his government in any commercial transand even the legislature itself is created, actions with such country. Such officers and its powers designated, by the consti- appear to have been first employed by tution.-Apostolic conTstitutions, an an- the Italian republics, to protect their cient code of regulations, respecting the merchants engaged in trade in the cities doctrine and discipline of the church, pre- of the Levant. The consuls of European tended by some to have been promul- states in that region, and in Africa, are gated by the apostles, and collected by at the present time officers of more intClemens Romanus. They appear to have portance than those established in the been at one time admitted into the canon cities of Christendoml: as they exercise, of scripture. Their authenticity has been according to treaties, civil jurisdiction a subject of much dispute. They have over the citizens of their respective states. been printed together with the so-called In general, the consul is not regarded as canons of the apostles. a minister or diplomatic functionary, and CONSTRUC'TION, in a general sense, is subject to the civil authorities of the the pmanner of putting together the parts place where he resides.-Consuls, in of a building, or of a machine, &c.-In French history, were the persons (Bonagrammar, syntax, or the proper arrange- parte, Sieyes, and Ducos) to whom, after ment of words in a sentence. Also, the the dissolution of the Directory in Nomanner of understanding the arrange- vember 1799, was entrusted the proviment of words, or of understanding facts: sional government of the country, and at thus we say, "let us give the author's whose suggestion it was agreed that 108 CYCLOPEDIA O.F LITERATURE S LON France should be permanently subjected troops, was declared a pr WJ, i' i. rar; to consular authority. all property belonging t/'Lt/,,Uihmen CON'SULARS, the title given to Ro- fair prize, and all trade in Sang'..Lh goods man citizens who had been dignified with entirely prohibited. Grei b Britain iiithe ofii e of consul, and consequently mediately directed reprise is against the were honored with a certain precedence Berlin decree; prohibitirg all neutral in the senate. vessels from sailing from one port to anCONSULTA'TION, a council for de- other belonging to France, or one of her liberation; as, a consultation of physi- allies, &c. This was met by counter-recians was called. prisals; and for a long Bime a fierce and CON'TA/GITON, the propagation of spe- most annoying system was carried on for cific diseases from person to person.. Con- the annihilation of British commerce; tagious poisons communicate the prop- the effects of which are still felt, from erty of producing similar poisons: the the rival products and manufactures on small-pox is a characteristically conta- the continent to which the system gave gious disease. By some writers the term rise. has been limited to diseases requiring CONTIN'GENT, in politics, the proactual contact for their communication; portion (generally of troops) furnished by but contagious matter appears often one of several contracting powers in purtransmissible by the air, hence the terms suance of an agreement. immediate and mediate contagion. Where CONTIN'UED BASS, in music, the diseases are propagated through the me- same as thorough bass. It receives the dium of the air, they are generally called name from its continuation through the infectious. whole of a composition. CONTEMPT', in law, disobedience to CONTORNIA'TI, in numismatics, the rules, orders, or process of a court medals supposed to have been struck of competent authority. Contempt in about the period of Constantine the Great court is punishable by fine and imprison- and his immediate successors: they are ment: for contempt out of court attach- of bronze, with a flat impression, and ment may be granted. marked with peculiar furrows. (It. conCONTENTS', anything or things held, torni, whence their name.) They bear included, or comprehended within a limit the figures of famous emperors or celeor line; as, the contents of a cask or brated men. Their object is uncertain; bale, the contents of a book, &c. but they have been supposed to be tickets CON'TEXT, the parts of a discourse of admission to the public games of the which precede or follow the sentence circus in Rome and Constantinople. quoted; for instance, the sense of a pas- CON/TOUR, in the Fine Arts. the exsage of Scripture is often illustrated by ternal lines which bound and terminate a the context. figure. The beauty of contour consists in CON'TINENT, in geography, a great those lines being flowing, lightly drawn, extent of land, not disjoined or interrupt- and sinuous. They must be carefully ed by a sea; or a connected tract of land and scientifically drawn, which cannot be of great extent, as the Eastern or West- effected without a thorough knowledge ern continent.-The continental powers, of anatomy. those whose territories are situated on CON'TRABAND, in commercial lanthe continent of Europe. guage, goods exported from or imported CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, a term into a country against its laws. Contragiven to a plan devised by Napoleon to band of war, such articles as a belligerexclude England from all intercourse ent has, by the law of nations, the right with the continent of Europe; thereby of preventing a neutral from furnishing to prevent the importation of British to his enemy. Articles contraband of manufactures and commerce, and thus to war are, in general, arms and munitions compel the English government to make of war, and those out of which munitions peace upon the terms prescribed by the of war are made; all these are liable to French ruler. The history of Napoleon's be seized: but very arbitrary interprecontinental system begins with the decree tations have been affixed to the term by of Berlin of Nov. 21, 1806, by which the powerful states, when able to enforce British islands were declared to be in a them by arms. Thus, provisions are held state of blockade; all commerce, inter- contraband of war when it is the object course, and correspondence were prohib- to reduce the enemy to famine. But ited; every Englishman found in France, with respect to these and other articles or in any country occupied by French not in their nature contraband, it seems 1._______..___ ~ _. —— _-______ ___________________ ~_______________ CON] AND THE FINE ARTS, 109 to be the practice that the belligerent Wickliffe, in the reigns of Edward III. should purchase them from the neutral and Richard II., and is now usually apfor a reasonable equivalent, instead of plied to a meeting of dissenters from the confiscating. established church.-As the word convenCONTtRABAS'SO, the largest of the ticle, in strict propriety, denotes an unviolin species of string and bowed instru- lawful assembly, it cannot be justly apments, whereof it forms the lowest bass, plied to the assembling of persons in usually called the double bass. places of worship, which are licensed acCON'TRACT, in civil law, the term usu- cording to the requisitions of law. ally applied to such agreements, whether CONVEN'TION, in law, an extraorexpress or implied, as create, or are intend- dinary assembly of the estates of the ed to create, a le gal right, and correspond- realm.-In military affairs, an agreeing liability; such right not attaching to ment entered into between two bodies of the possession of the subject matter of troops opposed to each other; or an the contract, except in equity, and that agreement previous to a defiitive treaty. indirectly, but subsisting both in equity — National convention, the name of the and law against the contracting party. assembly by which the government of CONTRADIC'T O Y P R P 0- France was conducted during a period of SITION, in logic, are those which having the revolution. the samne terms differ in quantity and in CONVER'SION, in a theological sense, quality. Contrary propositions are two that change in man by which the enmity universals with the same terms, the one of the heart to the laws of God, and the negative and the other affirmative. obstinacy of the will are subdued, and CONTRALT'O, in music, the part im- are succeeded by supreme love to God mediately below the treble; called also and his moral government; and a ref-. the counter tenor..ormation of life.-Conversion of a propCON'TRAST, in the fine arts, an op- osition, in logic, is a changing of the position of lines or colors to each other, subject into the place of the predicate, so contrived that the one gives greater and still retaining the quality of the propeffect to the other. By means of contrast osition. energy and expression are given to a CON/VERT. a person who changes his subject, even vwhen employed on inani- religion. Individuals, of what faith somate forms. All art is indeed a system of ever, who abandon their own creed and contrast: lights should contrast with embrace Christianity are called converts, shadows, figures with figures, members in contradistinction to apostates, applied with members, and groups with groups. generally to Christians who adopt anIt is this which gives life, soul, and mo- other religion. tion to a composition. CONVEYi ANCE, in law, a deed or CON'TltATENO'RE, in music, the instrument by which lands, &c., Pre consame as contralto. veyed or made over to another. CONTRIBU'TION, in a general sense, CONVEY'ANCER, one who professes the act of giving to a common stock. In to draw deeds, mortgages, and conveya military sense, impositions upon a ances of estates. This profession requires country in the power of an enemy, which great knowledge of the law, and a solid are levied under various pretences, and and clear understanding; for on conveyfor various purposes, usually for the sup- ancing the security of property greatly port of the army. depends. CONTROL'LER, in law, an overseer CON'VICT, in law, a person found or officer appointed to control or verify guilty of a crime alleged against him, the accounts of other officers. either by the verdict of a jury, or other CON'TUMACY, in law, a refusal to legal decision. appear in court when legally summoned, CONVIC'TION, the act of proving or disobedience to its rules and orders. guilty of an offence charged against a CONVALES'CENCE, the insensible person by a legal tribunal. Also, the recovery of health and strength after dis- state of being sensible of guilt; as, by conease. viction a sinner is brought to repentance. CONVENT, a religious house, inhab- CONVIV'IUM, in antiquity, a banquet ited by a society of monks or nuns. or entertainment given to a friendly CONVEN'TICLE, a private assembly party. or meeting, for the exercise of religion CONVOCA'TION, an assembly of the the word was at first an appellation of clergy of England, which at present is reproach to the religious assemblies of merely nominal. Its province is stated 110 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [COP to be the enactment of canon-law, subject tween two cylinders with great force, the to the license of the king; and the ex- impression of the engraved part is per amination and censuring of all heretical fectly transferred to the paper. and schismatical books and persons; but COP'PICE, or COPSE, a wood of small from its judicial proceedings lies an ap- growth, cut at certain times, and used peal to the king in chancery, or his dele- principally for fuel. gates. It is held during the session of COPTIC, the language of the Copts, parliament, and consists of an upper and or anything pertaining to those people, a lower house: in the upper sit the bish- who are the descendants of the ancient ops, and in the lower the inferior clergy, Egyptians, and called Copthi or Copts, who are represented by their proctors, as distinct from the Arabians and other and all the deans and archdeacons; in inhabitants of modern Egypt. all, 143 divines. COP'ULA, the word that connects any CON'VOY, ships of war which accom- two terms in an affirmative or negative pany merchantmen in time of war, to proposition; as " God made man;" "lReprotect them from the attacks of the ligion is indispensable to happiness." enemy.-By land, any body of troops COP'ULATIVE PROPOSITIONS, in which accompany provision, ammunition, logic, those where the subject and predior other property for protection. cate are so linked together, by copulative COPE, an ecclesiastical vestment, like conjunctions, that they may be all severa cloak (which it originally was, and used ally affirmed or denied one of another. to protect the wearer from the inclemency "Science and literature enlighten the of the weather,) worn in processions, at mind, and greatly increase our intellecvespers, during the celebration of mass, tual enjoyments." by some of the assistant clergy, at bene- COP'Y, in law, signifies the transcript diction, consecration, and other ecclesias- of any original writing, as the copy of a tical functions. Its form is an exact seni- patent, charter, deed, &c. A common circle, without sleeves, but furnished with deed cannot be proved by a copy or couna hood, and is fastened across the breast terpart, where the original may be prowith a morse or clasp. Copes were orna- cured. But if the deed be enrolled, cermented with embroidery and jewels, (ap- tifying an attested copy is proof of the parells,) wrought with elaborate splendor, enrolment, such copy may be given in at avery early period. In the thirteenth evidence.-Copy, among printers, denotes century they became the most costly and the manuscript or original of a book, givmagnificent of all the ecclesiastical vest- en to be printed. Also, when we speak ments. of a book, or a set of books, we say a CO'PECK, a small Russian coin, equal copy; as, a copy of the Scriptures, a copy to about one farthing English. of Sir Walter Scott's works, &c. —Copy, COPER'NICAN SYSTEM, that sys- in the fine arts, is a multiplication or retem of the universe which was anciently production of a work, whether painting, taught by Pythagoras, and afterwards statue, or engraving, by another hand revived by Copernicus, a Polish astron- than the original. If a master copies his omer. According to this system, the sun own picture, we call it merely a repetiis supposed to be placed in the centre, tioe, which the French designate by the and all the other bodies to revolve round term doublette. Copies are of three kinds; it in a particular order; which theory is the most general are those in which the now universally adopted, under the name copyist imitates the original with anxious of the Solar System. exactitude; in this case the difficulty of CO'ING, in architecture, the upper copying is but slight. The second kind is covering or top course of a wall, usually where the copyist avoids exact imitation, of stone, and wider than the wall itself, but renders the original freely in its prinin order to let the rain water fall clear cipal traits. These copies, exact imitafrom the wall. tions in style and coloring, are soon seen COP'PER-PLATE, a plate of copper to be apocryphal pictures. The third, on which figures are engraven; also the and most important kind of copy is, that impression taken from that plate.-Cop- in which the picture is imitated with the per-plateprinting, is performed by means freedom of a skilful hand, but at the samne of what is called a rolling-press. The en- time with a truthful feeling of the origigraved plate is covered with ink, made of nal, and with the inspiration of genius, oil and Frankfort black, then cleanly finding satisfaction not in copying, but in wiped on the smooth parts, and laid on an imitation little short of creation. wet soft paper; and on being passed be- COP'YHOLD, a tenure of landed prop, COR] AND THE FINE ARTS. 111 erty, by which the tenant holds his land girdle or rope, tied with three knots. and by copy of court roll of the manor at the called the cord of St. Francis; but the will of the lord, or rather, according to design of it, they say, is to commemorate the custom of the manor by which such the bands wherewith Christ was bound. estate is discernible. CO DELIERS'. This word, as we have COP'YRIGHT, the exclusive right of seen above, originally signified an order printing and publishing copies of any lit- of Franciscan monks; but it was aftererary performance, either by an author wards given to a society of Jacobins in in his own right, or vested in the hands France from 1792 to 1794, who were so of those to whom he may have assigned called from their place of meeting. They that right. were distinguished by the violence of COQUET/TE, a light, trifling girl, who their speeches and conduct, and contribuendeavors to attract admiration by mak- ted not a little to the execrable crimes ing a display of her amatory arts, from a which disgraced the French name and desire to gratify vanity, rather than to nation during the early periods of revosecure a lover. lutionary anarchy. CO'RAL, a marine zoophyte, which, COR'DON, in fortification, a row of when removed from the water, becomes stones jutting before the rampart, and as hard as a stone. It is of a fine red the basis of the parapet. The word corcolor, and will take a fine polish. It is don is still more used to denote a line or much used for small ornaments, but is series of military posts; as, a cordon of not so susceptible of a high rank in gem- troops. Cordon also signifies a ribbon, as sculpture, as many precious stones. The the cordon bleu, the badge of the order islands in the south seas are principally of the Holy Ghost. coral rocks covered with earth, which COR'DOVAN, leather made of goat have been formed by them from the bot- skin, and named from Cordova in Spain. tom of the ocean. The coral fishery is CORE'IA, in antiquity, a festival in particularly followed in the Mediter- honor of Proserpine. ranean, on the coast of France. The CORIN'THIAN ORDER, in architectcoral is attached to the sub-marine rocks, ure, one of the five orders of architecture. as a tree is by its roots, but the branches, The capital is a vase elegantly covered instead of growing upwards, shoot down- with an abacus, and surrounded by two wards towards the bottom of the sea; a tiers of leaves, one above the other; conformation favorable to breaking them from among which stalks spring out, off, and bringing them up. For this kind terminating at their summits in small of fishing, eight men, who are excellent volutes at the external angles and cendivers, equip a felucca or small boat, tres of the abacus. - The capitals of the called commonly a coralline; carrying Tuscan, Doric, and Ionic orders appear with them a large wooden cross, with added to the tops of the shafts; but the strong, equal, and long arms, each bear- Corinthian capital seems to grow out of ing a stoutbag-net. They attach a strong the column, varying in height from a rope to the middle of the cross, and let it diameter and one sixth of the lower part down horizontally into the sea, having of the shaft to one diameter only; such loaded its centre with a weight sufficient last being the height of the capitals of to sink it. The diver follows the cross, the temple at Tivoli. The entablature pushes one arm of it after another into of this order is variously decorated. The the hollows of the rocks, so as to entangle architrave is usually profiled, with three the coral in the nets; when his comrades fascim of unequal height, though in in the boats pull up the cross and its ac- some specimens there:are only two. conpa.niments. The frieze is often sculptured with COR'BEIL, in fortification, a little foliage, and the cornice decorated both basket, to be filled with earth, and set with.modillions and dentils; the former upon a parapet, to shelter men from the having a sort of baluster front, with a fire of besiegers. leaf under them; and the latter, which COR'BIL, in building, a short piece of are cut into the body of the hand, being timber in a wall, jutting six or eight occasionally omitted, as are sometimes inches, in the manner of a shoulder even the modillions. The principal repiece; sometimes placed for strength mainingn ancient examples of the order at under the semi-girder of a platform. Rome are in the Temple of Mars Ultor, CORDELIEI', in church history, a Portico of Severus, the-Forum of Nerva, gray friar or monk of the order of St. Temple of Vesta, Basilica of Antoninus, Francis. The cordeliers wear a white the Pantheon. &c. &c. 112 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [COR CORI'UM, a leath- lock's horn, which Amnon, the king, gave ern body armor, cut to his daughter Amalthea, the nurse of into scale form, occa- i/.k S] Jupiter. Upon medals, the cornucopia sionally worn by the.r is given to all deities, genii, and heroes, Roman soldiers. A.to mark the felicity and abundance of specimen is here giv- /f.( \JX all the wealth procured by the goodness en fromr Tiraj- J a ~ of the former, or the care and valor of an's column. i'\ the latter. CORN. Ears 1t_ i \\ i COR'OLLARY, a conclusion or conseof corn are the. quences drawn from premises, or from attribute of / /\". what is advanced or demonstrated. Ceres, and also /^ CORO'NA, in architecture, a large flat of Diko (god- / ember of a cornice, crowning the entabdess of justice),h/ / lature and the whole order.-A crown or and Juno Miar- circlet suspended from the roof or vaulttialis, who is represented on a coin of Tri- ing of churches, to hold tapers, lighted on bonianus Gallus with some ears of corn solemn occasions, the number of which is in the right hand. They were also the regulated according to the solemnity of symbol of the year. The harvest month, the festival. Sometimes they are formed September. was represented by a maiden of triple circles, arranged pyramidically. holding ears of corn, and Ceres wore a CORONATION, the public and solemn wreath of them, or carried them in her ceremony of crowning, or investing a hand, as did also the Roman divinity prince with the insignia of royalty, in Bones Eventus. The ears of corn were acknowledgment of his right to govern also useld Ls a symbol of tillage, fruitful- the kingdom; at which time the prince ness, culture and prosperity, and we find swears reciprocally to the people, to obon the reverse of a silver coin of Meta- serve the laws, customs and privileges of pontis, an ear of barley, with a field- the kingdom, and to act and do all things mouse beside it; the barley alludes to conformable thereto. The form of the the sacrifice of golden ears at Delphi, and coronation oath of a British monarch is as the mouse to Apollo Sminithios. follows: "I solemnly promise and swear CORI'NET, a commissioned officer in a to govern the people of this Unite1 Kingtroop of horse, corresponding in rank dom of Great Britain and Ireland, and with the ensign of a battalion of infantry. the dominions thereto belonging, accordI-is duty is to carry the standard, near ing to the statues in parliament agreed the centre of the front rank of the squad- on, and the laws and customs of the ron.-Cornet, in music, a shrill wind in- same; to the utmost of my power to strument formed of wood, which appears maintain the laws of God, the true proto have been in use in the earliest times, fession of the gospel, and the Protestant and remained so till about the commence- reformed religion established by the law; ment of the 18th century, when it was to preserve unto the bishops and the displaced by the oboe. clergy of this realm, and the churches CORNET-A PISTONS, a brass wind committed to their charge, all such musical instrument, of the French horn rights and privileges as by lawr do or species, but capable of much greater in- shall appertain unto them or any of flection from the valves and stoppers them." After this, the king or queen, (pistons) with which it is furnished, and laying his or her hand upon the holy whence it derives its name. Gospels, shall say, "The things which I CORNICE, in architecture, the upper have before promised, I will perform and great division of an entablature, consist- keep; so help me God." ing of several members. The cornice COR'ONER, the presiding officer in a used on a pedestal is called the cap of jury convened to inquire into the cause the pedestal. of sudden deaths. CORNUCO'PIA, or the HORN oF COR'PORAL, the lowest miliitary offiPLENTY, a source whence, according to er in a company of foot, who'has charge the ancient poets, every production of over one of the divisions, places and rethe earth was lavished; a gift from places sentinels, &c.-Corporal, in law, Jupiter to his nurse, the goat Amalthea. an epithet for anything that-belongs to In elucidation of this fable, it has been the body, as corporal pzunish.ment. Also, said that in Libya, the ancient name of corporal oath, so called because the party a part of Africa, there was a little terri- taking it is obliged to lay his hand on the tory, in shape not ill resembling a bul- Bible. COR] AND THE FINE ARTS. 113 CORPORA'TION, a body politic or CORREL'ATIVE, an epithet denoting corporate, so called because the persons the having- a reciprocal relation, so that or miembers are joined into one body, and the existence of one in a certain state deauthorized by law to transact business as pends on the existence of a,nother; as, an individual. Corporations are either father and soni; light and darkness; mospiritual or temporal: spiritucal, as bish- tion and rest; all of which are correlative ops, deans, archideacons, &c., tesnporal, terms. as the mayor, and aldermen of cities. CORRESPON/DENCE, in the fine And some are of a mixed nature, being arts, the fitting or proportioning the composed of spiritual and temporal per- parts of a design to each other, so that sons; such as heads of colleges and hos- they may be correlative, and that the pitals, &c. It has been truly said, that same feeling may pervade the whole the whole political system is made up of composition. a concatenation of various corporations, COR'RIDOR, in architecture, a gallery political, civil, religious, social, and eco- or long aisle round a building, leading to nomictal. A nation itself is the great cor- several chambers at a distance from each poration, comprehending all the others, other.-In fortification, the covered way the powers of which are exerted in legis- lying round the whole compass of the forlative, executive, and judicial acts. tifications of a place. CORPS, (French, pron. kore) a body of COR'SAIR, a pirate or cruiser; at troops; any division of an army; as, a name commonly given to the piratical corps de reserve, the troops in reserve; cruising-vessels of Barbary, which, from corps de bataille, the whole line of bat- the beginning of the sixteenth century to tie, &c. a recent period, infested the M'.iediterCORPUS CHRISTI DAY, a festival ranean. appointed by the church of Rome in CORTE'GE, a French word, signifying honor of the sacrament of the Lord's the train or retinue that accompanies a Supper. person of distinction. CORPUS CULAR PHILOS'OPHY, a CORTES, the assembly of the estates system of physics, in which all the phe- of Spain and Portugal answeringC, in nomena of the material world are ex- some measure, to the parliament of GCreat plained by the arrangement and physical Britain. These estates were framued, as properties of the corpuscules or minute elsewhere, of nobility, dignified 1lergy, atoms of matter. A doctrine of this sort and representatives of the towns. In Arwas anciently taught in Greece by Leu- ragon, they were presided over by a high cippus and Democritus, and is described officer, termed Justiza, with poivers in in the beautiful poem of LucretiLus. some respects sufficient to control the CORIPUSCULE, a minute particle or monarch. The origin of popular reprephysical atom. Corpuscules are not the sentation in the cortes of the se-vsral kingelementary principles of matter, but such domes out of which that of Spain was finalsmall particles, simple or compound, as ly formed, is assigned to a da,e as early are not dissolved or dissipated by ordinary as the 12th century; but thie deputies hea,t. sent by the towns were irregiul.arly sumCOR'PUS JURIS, the collection of the moened, frequently did not attend, and the authentic works containing the Roman numbers which appeared for each town law as cornpiled under Justinian. The frequently bore no proportion to the relCorpus Juris comprehends the Pandects, ative size of the different places. In the the Institutes, the Code, and the Novels 14th century the power of the cortes or Authentics, i. e. the latter constitutions seems to have been at its height, after of Justinian; to which, in somne editions, which it gradually decayed, and under are added a few issued by his successors. the government of Ferdinand and Isabella CORREC'TION, in the fine arts. was reduced almost to a nullity. With the Italians the word, correzione, is COPRTILE, in architecture, an open used to denote an exact acquaintance quadrangular of curved area in a dwelwith the different proportions of the parts ling-house, surrounded by the buildings of a body or design generally: but with of the house itself. us the term is applied to those emenda- CORVE'E, in feudal law, the obligations of inaccuracies or alterations of first tion of the inhabitants of a district to do thoughts, which they call pentimenti, to certain services, as the repair of roads, be seen under the surface of the finished &c., for the sovereign or the feudal lord picture, and which are accounted indica- Some species of corv6e were performled tions of its originality. gratis: others for a fixed pay, but gener8 114 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [COT ally below the value of the labor per- diagonally opposite to them. The specformed. tator views them through convex lenses, CORVET'TE, a French word for any placed immediately in front of each mirvessel of war carrying less than twenty ror. guns. COS'SACKS, the tribes who inhabit the CORYBAN'TES, in Grecian mytholo- southern and eastern parts of Russia, Pogy, were the priests of Cybele; so called land, the Ukraine, &c., paying no taxes, either from Corybas, the son of that god- but performing, instead, the duty of soldess, or from the frantic gestures with diers. They form a kind of military dewhich their devotions were accompanied; mocracy; and have proved highly servthe term corybantes signifying literally iceable, as irregular cavalry, in the Bus"shaking the head violently." They sian campaigns. Their principal weapon used to beat brazen cymbals in their sa- is a lance from ten to twelve feet in length; cred rites: and their whole religious pro- they have also a sabre, a gun, and a pair ceedings were characterized by such ex- of pistols. as well as a bow and arrows. travagant fanaticism as to have enriched The lances, in riding, are carried upright the Greek langlage with several terms by means of a strap fastened to the foot, expressive of mazdness or frenzy. the arm, or pommel of the saddle. Those CORYCE'UM, in ancient architecture, who use bows carry a quiver over the an apartment in a gymnasium whose ex- shoulder. Though little adapted for regact destination is not known. ular movements, they are very serviceaCORYM'BUS, in ancient sculpture, the ble in attacking baggage, magazines, and cluster of ivy leaves, berries, garlands, in the pursuit of troops scattered in flight. &c., with which vases were encircled. They fight principally in small bodies, CO'RYPIHE'US, the leader of the cho- with which they attack the enemy on all rus in ancient dramas; by whom the dia- sides, but mostly on the fianks and in the logue between the chorus and the other rear, rushing upon them at full speed, actors of the drama was carried on, and with a dreadful hurrah, and with levelled who led in the choric song. lances. COSMOG'ONY, the science which treats COS'TUME, in painting and the fine of the origin of the universe. If we ex- arts generally, the observance of that cept the cosmogony of the Indians, the rule or precept by which an artist is enearliest extant is that of IIesiod, which is joined to make any person or thing susdelivered in hexameter verse. The first tain its proper character; the scene, prose cosmogonies were those of the early dress, arms, manners, &c., all correspondIonic philosophers, of whom Thales, ing. The study of costume requires, on Anaximenes, Anaximander, and Anaxa- the part of the artist, the observance of goras are the most celebrated. In mod- propriety in regard to the person or obeern times, a theory of the world has been ject represented; an intimate knowledge produced by Burnet. We do not include of the countries, their history, manners in this list of cosmogonies the researches and customs, arts, and natural producof modern geologists, or the systems to tions; the vestments peculiar to each which they have led. They may be said class; their physiognomy, complexion, to hold the same place in relation to the their ornaments, arms, furniture, &c. old cosmogoners, which the astronomer All should be conformable to the scene or the chemist occupies in reference to of action and historical period. Many of the astrologers and alchemists of ancient the old masters, and not a few of the times. modern, have committed some very glarCOSMOL'OGY, a treatise relating to ing improprieties in their costume; we the structure and parts of creation, the may instance Paul Veronese, while, on elements of bodies, the laws of motion, the contrary, Nicolas Poussin is remarkand the order and course of nature. able for his accuracy in this respect. The COSMOP"'OLITE, a citizen of the observance of correct costume is a great world; one who makes himself at home merit in an artist, at the same time, it everywhere. must be subservient to pictorial effect. COSMORA'MA, a view or series of COTElIE', an old French word, supviews of the world; a comprehensive posed to be derived from the Latin quot, painting. Properly, a name given to a ho/?sczanty, signifying' literally a society species of picturesque exhibitions. It or company. In the 13th or 14th cenconsists of eight or ten colored dra rwincgs, tlury, when merchants wele about to emlaid horizontally round a semicircular bark in any commercial enterprise, they table, and reflected by mirrors placed formed a coterie or company, each oon M0lU] AND THE FINE ARTS. 115 tributing his quota of goods or money, the composition of many words of our lanand deriving his quota of profit. But guage, and generally implies opposition. the term soon acquired a more extended COUNTER-APPROACHIES, in fortisignification, in which, however, the ori- fication, lines and trenches made by the ginal meaning is still perceptible, it be- besieged, in order to attack the works of ing applied to any exclusive society in the besiegers, or to hinder their ap~ which interesting subjects (chiefly liter- proaches. ary and political) are discussed, each COUN'TER-DEED, a secret writing member being supposed to contribute his either before a notary or under a private quota or share for the general edification seal, which destroys, invalidates, or alters or amusement. a public one. COTITUR'NUS, in antiquity, a kind COUN'TEIRDRAWING, in painting, of hilgh shoes, laced high, such as Diana copying a design, or painting by means and her nymphs are represented as wear- of lines drawn on oiled paper, or other ing. The tragic actors also wore them, transparent substance. in order to give additional height to COUN'TERFEIT, that which is made those who personated heroes; the cothur- in imitation of something, but without nuis used for this purpose differing from lawful authority, and with a view to dethe one used in hunting by its having a fraud by passing the false for the true. sole of cork at least four fingers thick. Thus we say, couneterfeit coin, a counterCOUC-I, in painting, a term used for feit bond, deed, &c. each lay or impression of color, either in COUN'TERGUARD, in fortification, a oil or water, covering the canvas, wall, small rampart or work raised before the or other matter to be painted. Gilders point of a bastion, consisting of two long use the term couch, for gold or silver lace faces parallel to the faces of the bastion, laid on metals in gilding or silvering. making a salient angle to preserve the COUN'CIL, in national affairs, an as- bastion. sembly of persons for the purpose of con- COUN'TERMARK, a mark put upon certing measures of state. In England, goods that have been marked before. It that is called the Privy Council, where- is also used for the several marks put in the sovereign and privy councillors upon goods belonging to several persons, meet in the palace to deliberate on affairs to show that they must not be opened of state. When the council is composed but in the presence of all the owners or only of cabinet ministers, it is called a their agents. —The mark of the goldc Cabinet Coucil.-Coun.cil of war, an smith's company, to show the metal to assembly of the principal officers of a be standard, added to that of the artificer. fleet or army, called by the admiral or COUN'TERMINE, in military affairs, general to concert measures for requisite a well and gallery sunk in the earth and operations. running underground, to meet and defeat COUN'SEL, in law, any counsellor or the effect of the enemy's mine; or, in advocate, or any number of counsellors other words, a mine made by the besiegor barristers; as, the plaintiffs or defend- ed, in order to blow up the mine of the ant's counsel. besiegers. COUNT, a title of nobility, equivalent COUN'TERPART, the correspondent to an English earl. —In law, a particular part or duplicate. Also, the part which charge in an indictment, or narration in fits another, as the key of a cipher.-In pleading, setting forth the cause of com- music, the part to be applied to another; plaint. There may be different counts as, the bass is the counterpart to the treble. in the same declaration. COUN'TERPOINT, in music, the art COUN'TENANCE, the whole form of of combining and modulating consonlmt the face, or system of features. This sounds; or of disposing several parts in word has many figurative applications: such a manner as to make an agrceable thus, by the li'ght of God's coucn.tenance, whole of a concert. we mean grace anc favor: so the rebuke COUN'/TEIPR00 F, is an en.gravin of ltis countenance indicates his anger.- taken off from another fresh printed, To keep the countenance is to preserve a which, by being passed throulg t0he rollcalmn, natural, and comuposed look.-To ing press, gives an invereted figiure of the keep in countenance, to give assurance to forler. one, or protect him from shame.-To put- COUNTER-REVOLU'TION, a revoluoft of couenteznance, to intimidate and dis- tion opposed to a former one, and restoreoncert. ing a former state of things. COUN'TER, a term which enters into COUN'TERSCARP, in fortification, 116 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [cOU that side of the ditch which is next the COUP, a French term for a stroke or camp, and faces the body of the place; sudden blow.-Coup de grace, the finishbut it often signifies the whole covered ing blow.-Coup de main, a sudden unway, with its parapet and glacis. premeditated attack.-Coup d'ceil, the COUNTER-SECUR/ITY, security giv- first glance of the eye; with which it suren to one who has entered into a bond, or veys any object at large. - Coup de become surety for another. soleil, any disorder suddenly produced COUN'TERSIGN, a military watch- by the violent scorching of the sun. word; or a private signal given to sol- COUPEE', a motion in dancing, when diers on guard, with orders to let no man one leg is a little bent and suspended pass unless he first names that sign.- from the ground, and with the other a Also, to sign, as secretary or other sub- motion is made forward. ordinate officer, any writing signed by a COUP'LE, two of the same species or principal or superior, to attest the au- kind; as a couple of men, a couple of apthenticity of his signature. pies, &c. A pair is a couple, and a brace COUNTER-TEN'OR, in music, one of is a couple; but a couple may or may not the middle parts between the treble and be a pair or a brace. the tenor. COUP'LET, the division of a hymn, COUNT'ING — OUSE, the house or ode, or song, wherein an equal number room appropriated by merchants, traders, or an equal measure of verses is found in and manufacturers, for the business of each part, called a strophe. keeping their books, &c. COUR'AGE, firmness of mind, inspired COUN'TRY, any tract of inhabited by a sense of what is just and honorable; land, or any region as distinguished from that which, amidst all the dangers and other regions; any state or territory; trials to which human life is incident, and also any district in the vicinity of a enables a man steadily to pursue the diecity or town. Thus we say, This gentle- tates of conscience and prudence. It inman has a seat in the country; America eludes valor, boldness, and resolution; is my native country; the countries of and is a constituent part of fortitude. Europe, Asia, &c. COURAN'TO, a piece of music in COUN'TY, originally, the district or triple time; also, a kind of dance. territory of a count or earl: one of the COU'RIERS, a name given in ordinary ancient divisions of Erngland, which by language to the bearere of public dethe Saxons were called shires. England is spatches or private intelligence by exdivideclinto forty counties or shires, Wales press. The institution of persons to eoninto twelve, Scotland into thirty-three. vey intelligence with celerity and reguEach county has its sheriff and its court, larityis coeval with the earliest history with other officers employed in the ad- of civilized nations. By the Persians ministration of justice and the execu- they were styled ayyapot, by the Greeks tion of the laws; and each lord-lieuten-'isptpoSpoioi, and by the Romans cursores; ant of a county has the command of its and the duties of the ancient couriers militia.-The several states of America seem to have been wholly analogous to are divided by law into counties, in each those of the moderns, and were performed of which is a county court of inferior chiefly on horseback, though the original jurisdiction; and in each the supreme derivation of the name would lead to an court of the state holds stated sessions.- opposite supposition. In the middle ages County-corporate, a title given to sev- couriers were known by the appellation eral cities or ancient boroughs (as South- trottarii, or trotters; and hence perhaps ampton and Bristol,) on which certain originated the English term rtunning kings of England have thought proper to footmnen, of whom history makes mention bestow peculiar privileges; annexing ter- in the 17th and 18th centuries. ritory, land, or jurisdiction, and making COURSE, in its general sense, a mothem counties within themselves, with tion forward, either in a direct or curvtheir own sheriffs and other officers.- ing line; and may be applied to animals, County palatine, a county distinguished and to solid or fluid bodies.-Applied to by particular privileges, and named from the arts and sciences, course denotes a palatio, the palace, because the owner methodical series; as, the author has had originally royal powers in the ad- completed his course of lectures; or the ministration of justice; these are now, medical student has completed his course however, greatly abridged. The counties in anatomy. —Ofcourse, in natural and palatine in England are Lancaster, Ches- regular order; as this effect will follow ter and Durham. of course.-The course of exchange, in cov] AND THE FINE ARTS. 1l'7 commerce, the current price or rate at der the sweep. Its bed is level below which the coin of one country is exchang- and inclined above, receiving the first ed for that of' another; which, as it de- rise or spring of the arch or vault. This pends upon the balance of trade and the word is also used for the ornament in the political relations which subsist between Ionic capital, between the abacus and the twocountries, is always fluctuating. echinus or quarter round, which serves COURS'ING, the act or sport of pur- to form the volute, and is thus called suing any beast of chase, as the hare, &e. because its appearance is that of a with greyhounds. cushion or pillow seemingly collapsed by COURT, a palace; a place where jus- the weight over it, and bound with a tice is administered; also the persons or strap or girdle called the baltheus. judges assembled for hearing and decid- COVE, an inlet on a rocky coast. It ing causes, civil, criminal, &c. Thus we is a term nearly synonymous with harhave a cozrt of law; a court of equity; a bo-; the word cove being generally, court martial; an ecclesiastical court, &c. though not always, used when the indonCOURT-BARVON, a court incident to tation on the coast is too shallow or naranorial.rights. row to admit first class vessels. COUR'TESY, it was at the courts of COV'ENANT, in history, the famous princes and great feudatories that the bond of association adopted by the Scotminstrels and troubadours of the middle tish Presbyterians in 1638. It was framed ages especially delighted to exercise on the model of a similar declaration, their art; and it was there, also, that the which had been twice solemnly subscribed peculiarities of chivalrous life and man- in the early period of the Ieformation; ners were chiefly exhibited. Hence court- but in more violent language, and with esy was a general term, expressive of all more specific obligation to support the the elegance and refinement which the kirk, together with a prohibition and society of those times had attained; in abjuration of the Anglican liturgy and fact, it was synonymous with all the articles. The founders of the Solemn gentler parts of chivalry itself: and it is League and Covenant were Alexander in this sense that it is used both by the Henderson, leader of the clergy, and early trouveres and romancers, and also Archibald Johnston, of Wariston. an adby poets of a later age, when affecting vocate. A new religious covenant bethe use of chivalrous language. The tween the two kingdoms was framed in transition from this wider meaning to 1643, and taken by the English House that in which it is now employed is ob- of Commons and assembly of divines at vious enough.-'Telnre by courtesy, in Westminster. Charles II. subscribed the law, is where a man marries a woman Scottish covenant on his coronation in seized of an estate of inheritance, and 1651; but on his restoration it was dehas by her issue born alive, which was clared null by act of parliament, and capable of inheriting her estate: in this burned by the common hangman. It case, on the death of his wife, he holds formed, however, the watchword and the lands for his life, as tenant by courtesy. bond of union of the discontented party, COURT-LEET', a court of record held or Covenanters, as they were called, in once a year, in a particular hundred, the rebellions of his reign.-Covenanst, lordship, or manor, before the steward of in a theological sense, a promise made the leet. by God to man upon certain conditions; COURT-MAR'TIAL. a court consist- the two grand distinctions of which are ing of military or naval officers, for the emphatically designated the Old and trial of offences within its jurisdiction. New Covenant, or Testament; in each COURT'-ROLL, a roll containing an of which certain temporal or spiritual account of the number, &e. of lands benefits are promised to man upon the which depend on the jurisdiction of the performance of duties therein pointed manor, &c. out.-Covenant, in law, is an engageCOUS'IN, the son or daughter of an ment under seal to do or to omit a direct uncle or aunt; the children of brothers act. Covenants are of many different and sisters being usually denominated species, as in fact and in law, implied cousins or cousin-germans. In the see- and express, &c.; and according to their ond generation they are called second subject matter, or express stipulation, cousins. they are binding respectively on the COUS'SINET, in architecture, the heirs, executors, and assigns, or execucrowning stone of a pier, or that which tors and assigns only, of the covenantor. — lies on the capital of the impost and un- Covenant is also a form of action, which li8 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERtATURIE CRE lies where a party claims damages for wealth, by one individual or set of indibreach of a covenant or contract under viduals to another. The party who lends seal. is said to give credit, and the party wholCOWL, the hoods which protect both borrows to obtain credit. Hlence credit head and neck from the cold. St. Basil may be defined to be the acqLuisition by and St. Anthony commanded their monks one party of the wealth of another ia to wear them, and latterly they have loan, according to conditions voluntarily come into use by travellers, sailors, and agreed on. between them. Very exaggehuntsmen. rated notions are commonly entertained COW'RIES, small shells brought from of the influences of credit: but, in fact, all the Maldives, which pass current as coin operations in which credit is given or acin smaller payments in Hindostan, and quired resolve themselves into a new disthroughout extensive districts in Africa. tribution of wealth already in existence. CRANIOL'OGY, the science which in- The "magical5' effect that is every now vestigates the structure and uses of the and then ascribed to credit is imaginary. skulls in various animals, particularly A party who purchases goods payable at in relation to their specific character and some future date obviously acquires the intellectual powers. One who is versed command of so much of the capital of the in this science is termed a craniologiss. seller of the goods as their value amounts CRANIOM'ETER, an instrument for to, in the same way that a party who neasuring the skulls of animals. The discounts a bill acquires the command of art of measuring them for the purpose of a corresponding portion of the capital of discovering their specific differences, is the discounter. Wealth is not created by called craniometry. the issue of bills: and all that their negoCRANIOS'COPY, the science of dis- tiation does is to transfer already existcovering, by the eminaences produced by ing property from one individCual or party'the brain on the cranuium, the particular to another. In the great majority of parts in which resie the organs that cases loans are male by individuals who influence certain passions or faculties. wish to retire froml business, or who have CRA'NIUM, the skull; the assemblage more capital than they can advantageof bones which enclose the brain. ously elmploy, to individuals entering into CRA'TER, the aperture or mouth of a business, or who wish to extend their convolcano, from which the fire issues, —In eerns and to acquire a gre-ter conmmand antiquity, a very large wine cup, or gob- of capital. The probability is, that capilet, out of which the ancients poured their tal will be Imore likely to be efficiently libations at. feasts. employed by the latter than by the former CRAY'ON, a general name for all class of persons; a ncd the adcvantage of colored mineral substances, used in de- credit, in a national point of view, consigning or painting in pastil; whether sists in that circumstance. Loans mnadoe they have been beaten and reduced to a to prodigals or spendthrifts, or to indi.. paste, or are used in their prinmlitive con- viduals who expend them on unprofitable sistence, after sawing and cutting them undertakings, are, in so far, publicly in. into long narrow slips. jurious; but, speaking generally, these CREA'TION, the act of causing to bear but a very small proportion to the exist. or of shaping and organizing mat- other class of loans, or those made to inter so as to form new beings; as the dividuals by whom they are advantagecreation of man and other animals, of ously expended. Public credit is the plants, minerals, &c.-Also, the act of phrase used to express the trust or confiinvesting with a new character; as, the dence placed in the state by those who crecation of peers by the sovereign. lend money to government. The interest CREDEN'DA, in theology, things to or premium paid by the borrowers to the be believed; articles of faith; distin- lenders depends on a great variety of guished fronm cgendal, or practical duties. eircunmstances,-partly on the rate of CREDEN'TIALS, that which gives a profit that may be made by the employtitle or claim to confidence; as the let- ment of capital at the time, partly on the ters of conmmendation and power given duration of the loan and the security for to an ambassador, or public minister, by its repayment, and partly on the facilithe prince that sends him to a foreign ties given by the law for enforcing paycourt. ment. The only way, indeed, in which a CRED'IT, in political economy, is a government can advantageously interfere term used to express the lending of to encourage credit is by simplifying the wealth, or of the means of acquiring administration of the law, and by giving CRI] AND THE FINE ARTS. 119 every facility for carrying the conditions siastic. In the general sense of the word, of contracts into effect. crimes are understood to be offences CREED, any brief summary of Chris- against society or morals, as far as they tian belief; but more especially either of are amenable to the laws. To this we the three confessions commonly called the may add, in order more clearly to distinApostles', Nicene, and Athanasian. The guish between words often esteemed syterm is derived from the word credo, I nonymous, that actions contrary to the believe; in like manner as paternoster, precepts of religion are called sins; acavemaria, &c., are prayers named from tions contrary to the principles of morals the first word of these formulas in the are called vices; and actions, contrary to Latin tongue. the laws of the state, are called crimes. CRE MO'NA, a general designation of CRIM'INAL, in the sense usually apthe violins made at Cremona in Italy, plied, signifies, a person indicted or during the 17th and 18th centuries, chief- charged with a public offence, and one ly by the family Amati. Cremona is also who is found guilty. a name erroneously given to a stop in CRIM'SON. The color known by this the organ; being nothing more than a name is red, reduced to a deep tone by corruption of krumhorn, an ancient wind the presence of blue. instrument, which it was originally de- CRI/SIS, in medicine, according to signed to imitate. Galen, is a sudden change, either for the CRENOPI'YLAX, in antiquity, a ma- better or the worse, indicative of recovegistrate at Athens, who had the inspec- ry or death. In its more general sense, tion of fountains. it denotes that stage of a disorder from CREO'LE, a name given to the de- which some judgment may be formed of scendants of whites born in Mexico, South its termination. At the approach of a America, and the West Indies; in whom crisis, the disease appears to take a more the European blood has been unmixed violent character. If the change is for with that of other races. The various the better, the violent symptoms cease jargons spoken in the West India islands with a copious perspiration, or some other by slaves, &c. are called Creole dialects. discharge from the system. After a saluCREPUN'DIA, in antiquity, a term tary crisis, the patient feels himself reused to express such things as were worn lieved, and the dangerous symptoms as ornaments by children, as rings, jew- cease.-By a crisis is also meant the els, &c., which might serve as tokens point of time when an affair is arrived whereby they afterwards might be recog- at its height, and must soon terminate or nized, or as an inducement for others to suffer a material change. take charge of them. CRITE'RION, any established rule, CRESCEN'DO, in music, an Italian principle, or fact, which may be taken as term for the gradual swelling of the notes a standard to judge by, and by which a over which it is placed. correct judgment may be formed. CRES'CENT, the increasing or new CRITI'OMANCY, a kind of divinamoon, which, when receding from the tion by means of the dough of cakes, and sun, shows a curving rim of light, termi- the meal strewed over the victims, in annating in points or horns.-The Turkish cient sacrifices. standard, on which a crescent is depicted; CRIT/IC, a person who, according to and, figuratively, the Turkish power or the established rules of his art, is capable empire of the crescent. of judging with propriety of any literary CREST, the plume of feathers or other composition, or work of art, particularly material on the top of the ancient helmet. of such as are denominated the Fine Arts. The crest is considered a greater crite- To which may be added, as within the rion of nobility than the armor generally, province of a critic, that he should be and therefore forms an important subject able to explain what is obscure, to supply in the science of heraldry. what is defective, to amend what is erroCREUX, a French term used in sculp- neous, and to reconcile the discrepancies ture, where the lines and figures are cut he may meet with between different aubelow the surface of the substances en- thors who have treated on the subject graved, and thus stands opposed to re- under review. lievo, which latter term intimates the CRIT'ICISM, has been defined "the prominence of the lines and figures which art of judging with propriety concerning appear above the surface. any object, or combination of objects." CRIME, the transgression of a law, In a somewhat more limited, but still exeither natural or divine, civil or eccle- tensive meaning, its province is confined 120 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CRO to literature, philology, and the fine arts; none,) the name is still confined, in its and to subjects of antiquarian, scientific, most popular signification, to those provor historical investigation. In this sense, inces of research. The criticism of truth every branch of literary study, as well as is of later growth; but as it is regulated each of the fine arts, has its proper criti- for the most part by similar rules and cism as an appendage to it. The elements principles, and as minds which possess of criticism depend on the two principles the faculty of judgment in a high degree of beauty and truth, one of which is the in the one are generally capable, if exerfinal end or object of study in every one cised, of forming right apprehensions in of its pursuits: beauty, in letters and the the other, they may be considered as arts; truth, in history and the sciences. nearly allied in the more essential reThe office of criticism, therefore, is, first spects. For although it is true that in to lay down those forms or essential scientific investigation great knowledge ideas which answer to our conception of of the individual subject is required to the beautiful or the true in each branch constitute a critic, and in the fine arts the of study; and, next, to point out by ref- most gifted mind will require much eduerence to those ideas the excellences or cation and practice to judge of beauty; defects of individual works, as they ap- yet it is equally true in both of these proach or diverge from the requisite branches of study, however widely diferstandard in each particular. Thus, his- ing from each other, that knowledge alone torical criticism teaches us to distinguish (except perhaps in purely abstract scithe true from the false, or the probable ence, in respect of which the name of critfrom the improbable, in historical works; icism seems hardly applicable) will not scientific criticism has the same object in make the critic, and that the habit of diseach respective line of science; while lit- criminating and judging correctly is a erary criticism, in a general sense, has distinct faculty or compound of faculties for its principal employment the investi- in the mind.-Criticism, in a more limited gation of the merits and demerits of style sense, is a branch of belles lettres. Esor diction, according to the received stand- says written for the purpose of commendard of excellence in every language; and, ing or discommending works in literature in poetry and the arts, criticism develops or the arts, and pointing out their varithe principles of that more refined and ous merits and defects, are works in the exquisite sense of beauty which forms the critical department. Thus the term "peideal model of perfection in each. Taste riodical criticism" is used to express the is the critical faculty; that perception of body of writing contained in the various the beautiful in literature and the arts, works under the name of magazines, refor the acquisition of which, perhaps, views, &c., which are periodically pulsome minds have superior natural powers lished in most literary countries. than others, but which can in no instance CRITIQUE', a skilful examination of be fully developed except by education the merits of a performance, with remarks and habit. Among the classical ancients, on its beauties and faults. the criticism of beauty was carried to a CROCK'ETTS, enrichments modelled high degree of perfection. Less encum- generally from bered with a multitude of facts and things vegetable pro- to be known than ourselves, their minds ductions, such as \ t were more at leisure, and more sedulous- vine or other a\ ly exercised in reflecting on their own no- leaves, but some-! tions and perceptions; hence the aston- times animals l'' ishing progress which they made in the and images are fine arts; and hence, in literature, they introduced, emvalued more the beauty of the vehicle in ployed in gothic which sentiments were conveyed, and the architecture to moral or poetical beauty of those senti- decorate the angles of various parts of ments themselves, than the objective ecclesiastical edifices, such as spires, pinbranches of study which it is the princi- nacles. mullions of windows, &c. The pal purpose of literature, in our days, to forms are infinite, almost every kind of convey easily and precisely to the mind. leaf or flower being employed for this purAnd as the criticism which antiquity has pose, generally with some pointed referleft us consists almost wholly of such as ence to local circumstances; thus, at relates to the literature and the arts (in Westminster we find a succession of roses history they had, as far as we know, few and pomegranates; at Magdalen College critical spirits, in the sciences almost Chapel, lilies. They only appear in py CRO] AND THE FINE ARTS. 121 ramidical and curved lines, never in hori- the religion itself. Also, a monument zontal. with a cross upon it to excite devotion, CRIOSES, in English antiquity, pil- such as were anciently set up in market grims bound for the Holy Land, or such places.-In theology, the doctrine of as had been there; so called from a badge Christ's sufferings and of the atonement. they wore in imitation of a cross. The -Cross, in Christian Art, the sole and knights of St. John of Jerusalem, created universal symbol of our redemption, and for the defence and protection of pilgrims, of the person of our Saviour; he is symwere particularly called croises; and so bolized under this form, as he is also were ali those of the English nobility and under that of the Fish, the Lion, or the gentry, who, in the reigns of Henry II. Lamb. The cross is either historic or liclitrd I. Henry III. and Edward I. symbolic, real or ideal; in the one it is were cruce si'nati, that is, devoted for a gibbet, in the other an attribute of the recovery of Palestine. glory. There are four species of cross. CROPtlLECI, in British antiquity, 1. The cross without. -Lsuminit, in the large, broad, flat stones raised upon other form of a T; this is the Egyptian cross, stones set up to support them. They are the Cross of the Old Testament. Many conmmoon in Anglesea, and are supposed to ancient churches, especially the Basilibe remains of druidical altars. Cromlechs cas of Constantine, St. Peter and St. Paul are generally supposed by antiquaries to at Rome, are, in their ground plan, nearhave been constructed to serve as altars. ly of this form. 2. The cross with sumAccording to some, there is a difference mit; it has. four branches; this is the between the cromlechs of the Britons and true cross, the cross of Jesus and of the those of nations of Germanic descent; the Evangelists. This form of cross is divided former being inclined stones. perhaps for into two principal types, which also parthe purpose of allowing the blood shed in take of many varieties; they are knovn sacrifice to run off; the latter thick, round as the Greek and the Latin cross; the stones, standing on small hillocks and first is adopted by the Greek and Oriental covering caves. Christians, the second by the Christians CRO'SIER, the staff of an archbishop, of the West. The Greek cross is coinsurmounted by a cross, and thereby dis- posed of four equal parts, the breadth tinguished from the pastoral staff or being equal to the length. In the Latin crook of a bishop. This staff, according cross, the foot is longer than the sumnenit to Polydore Virgil, was given to bishops or the arms. The Greek cross is an ideal wherewith to chastise the vices of the peo- cross; the Latin cross resembles the real pie; and was called baculus pastoralis, in cross upon which Jesus suffered. 3. The respect of their pastoral charge and su- cross with two cross-pieces and sunmit. perintendence over their flock, as well as from its resemblance to the shepherd's crook. Many au- n 3 L thors contend that the crosier is derived from the lituus or augural staff of the Romans. CROSS, in antiquity, an instru- ment of ancient vengeance, con- sisting of two pieces of timber, crossing each other, either in the form of a T or an X. That on which our Saviour suffered, is represented on coins and other monuments to have been of the former kind. This punishment was only inflicted on malefactors and slaves, and was thence called ser- vile supplficium. The most usual method was to nail the criminal's hands and feet to this gibbet, in 1F j0 an erect posture; though there are instances of criminals so nail-i ed with their head downward.Cross, the ensign of the Christian religion; and hence, figuratively, 122 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CRO 4. The cross with summit and three cross- Christianity. Preaching crosses are genpieces. When the cross retains its sir- erally quadrangular or hexagonal, open ple form, and is' not loaded with attri- on one or both sides, and raised on steps. butes or ornaments, we must distinguish They were used for the delivery of serthe Cross of the Passion from the Cross mons in the open air; such was the of the Resurrection. The Cross of the famous Paul's Cross in London. Jlarket Passion is a real cross, the gibbet upon crosses are well known. JVeepihcg crosses which Christ suffered. This is the cross were so called because penances were in common use in our churches; it is finished before them. Crosses of'vmemoemployed by painters and sculptors; and rial were raised on various occasions* which, in Catholic countries, meets us at sometimes where the bier of an eminent every turn; by the roadside, in the person stopped on its way to burial, in street, chapels. and cathedrals. It is also attestation of some miracle performed on called the Triumphal Cross. The Cross the spot: such are the well-known crosses of the Resurrection is the symbol of the of Queen Philippa. Crosses served also true cross; it is that put into the hands as landmarks; they are especially set of Christ in representations of his resur- up for this purpose on the lands of the rection. It is a lance, the staff of which Templars and Hospitallers. terminates in a cross instead of a pike; CROSSET'TES, in architecture, the it carries a flag or banner, upon which is returns on the corners of door cases or depicted a cross, which is suspended from window frames; called a a a the point of intersection of the arms. It also ears, elbows, anis the cross held by the Paschal Lamb; cones, prothyrides. In \ \ \ it is that carried at the head of religious architectural construeprocessions. It is not a tree, like the tion, they are the small projecting pieces Cross of the Passion, but a staff; the in arch stones which hang upon the adjafirst is the Cross of Suffering, the other is cent stones-a, a, a, a. the Cross of Victory; they are of the CROSS-EXAMINATION, in law. a same general form, but the latter is close and rigid examination of a witness spiritualized; it is the gibbet trans- by the counsel of the adverse party, configared. sisting of cross questions, in order to elicit CROSS-BOW, an ancient weapon, a the truth. great improvement on the wooden long- CROTA'LTJM, an ancient kind of casbow, and brought to Europe by the Crusa- tamnet, used by the Corybantes or priests,ders. It was made of steel, with a pe- of Cybele. This instrument must not be culiar handle, and the string was stretch- confounded with tihe modern crotalo, a ed by means of a small wheel called a musical instrument used chiefly by the gaffle. The bolts or arrows were gener- Turks, and corresponding exactly with ally shod with iron, and were either the ancient evnba.ltln. round, aingular, or pointed. Burning CROTCI'ltT, in music, half a minilm. materials were also discharged from the — In printingo, this mark, [ ], to separate bow, in order to set fire to buildings and what is not the necessary part of a senmachines of war. Those bows made tence. wholly of iron were called ballisters. CROWN, an ornamental badge of reThe share which Art had in the cross- gal power, worn on the head by soverbows of the middle ages may be seen by eign princes.-The top of the head; also a glance into the armnories. The most the top of any elevated object -In archiartistic specimen is the bow which Charles teecture, the uppermost mnemiber of a corV. used for his amusenment. It was in- nice.-Among jewellers, the upper work laid with ivory carved by Albert Durer. of the rose diamond.-An English silver CROSS-BAR-SHOT, a bullet with an coin, of the value of five shillings.iron bar passing through it, and standing Among the various crowns and wreaths out a few inches on each side; used in in use among the Greeks and Romans naval actions for cutting the enemy's were the following: Corona aurea (the rigging. golden crown;) the reward of remarkable CROSS'ES, STONE, in architectural bravery. Corona castrensis; given to antiquities, are of various descriptions, him who first entered the camp of an enaccording to the occasion or purpose of emy. Corona civica; one of the highest their erection. They are said to have military rewards: it was given to him originated in the practice of marking the who saved the life of a citizen. Corona Druid stones with a cross, at the period convivialis; the wreath worn at feasts. of the conversion of the Celtic tribes to Corona muralis; given by the general CRU] AND THE FINE ARTS. 123 to the soldier who first scaled the enemy's in St. Catherine and St. Ursula., the crown wall.. Corona navalis; given to him is both the symbol of martyrdom, and who first boarded and took an enemy's their attribute as royal princesses. The vessel: it was next in rank to the civic Virgin, as' Queen of Heaven,' wears a crown. Corona?nuptialis; a crown or crown. No. 1, in our cut, represents the wreath worn by brides. Corona obsid- Laurel Crown of ancient Rome. No. 2, ionalis; a reward given to him who de- the Mural Crown worn by Cybele. No. livered a besieged town, or a blockaded 3, the radiated Crown of its ordinary army. It was one of the highest military form. No. 4, the square Saxon Crown. honors, and very seldom obtained. Co- No. 5, the Crown of Edgar. No. 6, the rona triunmphialis; a wreath of laurel Crown of William the Conqueror. No. which was given by the army to the ins- 7, the imperial Crown of Germany. No. perator, who wore it on his head at the 8, that worn by Charlemagne. celebration of his triumph.-In Christian CROWN-WO-RK, in fortification, an Art, the crown, from the earliest times, is out-work running into the field, consisteither an attribute or an emblem. It has ing of two demi-bastions at the extremes, been employed as an emblem of victory, and an entire bastion in the middle, with and hence became the especial symbol of curtains. It is designed to gain some the glory of martyrdom. Its form varied advantageous post, and cover the other at different periods; in early pictures it works. is simply a wreath of palm or myrtle, CRU'CIFIX, the representation of the ^~~4.Saviour on the cross, but especially that,~__ (T. A -- y ^ plastic one seen on the altars of Catholic od/l^^ li wr churches, in the centre of which it stands, overtopping the tapers, and only remov)^^ ^ tnt o nH(ed at the elevation of the Host. Its ini Jt kii /tention was to lead the mind back to the (ifxj.i.,'T=^ S ^ly\0tfSt~t cross, which was set up on the altar, or .,1. ~< ^i,,'l in some convenient spot. It was first known in the time of Constantine. and takes the place of the real crucifix in the Eastern church. The latter was not com~2.,^_^ 3'4@t/m mon till the end of the eighth century. ^^^jl^''N tThe Greek church never publicly accepted it, although it appears in the quarrel ____" __a^ about images, but used the simple cross. II^'Xys ^..^ It was not general in the Latin church x, ^1{ vv Ampluntil the Carlovingian era. From the disciplina a.rcani and the early prohibix 6 Q~`tion of ilmages by the Synod of Elvira,'~yi^^f ^iT-) ma} 9,/(i (305,) Lan early use of the crucifix may ^ be supposed, as it referred immediately to the first Christian dogma. At first the d P^l shu cltj^ ^^^0 simple cross was sufficient-crux ismmissa Mill? fc& d g M1 " i or capitala +; crux decussa.ta X; and God C^\1'crux. comimissa T-the Lamb standing under a blood-red cross. The addition of the Saviour's bust at the head or foot li of the cross while the Lamb lay in the centre, was the next step towards the cru/ cifix; and afterwards Christ himself was r7 / l 810 ll 1 o^ represented clothed, his hands raised in prayer, but not yet nailed. At last he appeared fastened to the cross by _______ four nails, (seldom by three,) and on the older crucifixes alive, with open eyes; afterwards it became a coronet of gold on the later ones, (from the tenth to and jewels. Generally, the female mar- the eleventh century,) sometimes dead. tyrs only wear the symbolical crown of Christ was often clad in a robe, having glory on their heads. Martyrs of the the regal crown on his head; more reopposite sex bear it in their hands, or it cently the figure wore only a cloth round is carried by an angel. Sometimes, as the loins, and the crown of thorns. This 124 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CUI representation was continued, and the bosom of the church; monarchs expected crucifix regarded as an indispensable at- victory and increase of dominion; and tribute of churches and altars. The num- their subjects were easily persuaded to her of them increased, as they were par- engage in the glorious cause! Yet army ticular objects of veneration; and large after army was destroyed; and though ones of wood or stone were placed at the some brilliant victories served to exhibit entrances of the church. The altar cru- the soldiers of Christendom as heroes of a cifix was generally of gold or silver, valorous age, and the holy city of Jeruadorned with pearls or precious stones. salem was more than once under their Later artists have enveloped the Saviour dominion, the Christian empire on the in drapery, leaving the body in its cus- continent of Asia was eventually overtomary position; they have also added the thrown, and the dominion of the Mameangel by the side, by which addition lukes and Sultans established. But by these crucifixes intended in the spirit of means of these joint enterprises, the EuChristian iEsthetics for Protestant church- ropean nations became more connected es, become more symbolic representations with each other; feudal tyranny was of Christian ideas. The unpleasant sight weakened; a commercial intercourse took of the nailed feet is avoided by their rest- place throughout Europe, which greatly ing free and unbound on the globe, so augmented the wealth of the cities; the that only the arms are fastened by nails human mind expanded; and a number of to the cross. We are now too much ac- arts and sciences, till then unknown 1-r customed to the naked figure to allow of the western nations, were introduced. the innovation of representing Christ CRYPT, a subterranean chapel or oraafter the old custom; we may also ques- tory; or a vault under a church for the tion whether the great simplicity of the interment of bodies. original crucifix had not more effect. CRYPTOG'RAPHY, the art of writing CRUDE, in painting, a term applied in cipher, or secret characters. to a picture when the colors are rudely CRYPTOL'OGY, secret or enigmatical laid on, and do not blend or harmonize. language. CRUI'SER, a small armed vessel that CU'BIT, an ancient measure, equal to sails to and fro in quest of the enemy, to the length of a man's arm, from the elprotect the commerce of its own nation, bow to the tip of the middle finger. or for plunder. Among' different nations the length of the CRUPELLA'RII, in antiquity, nobil- cubit differed. The English was 18 inchity, among the G-auls, who were armed es, the Roman rather less, and the cubit with a complete harness of steel. of the Scriptures is supposed to have been CRUSA'DES, the name by which the 22 inches. wars or military expeditions were distin- CUE, the last words of a speech, which guished, that were carried on by the a player, who is to answer, catches and Christian nations of the West, from the regards as an intimation to begin. Also, end of the 11th to the end of the 13th cen- a hint given to him of what and when he tury, for the conquest of Palestine. They is to speak. were called crusades, because all the war- CUIRASS', a piece of defensive armor, riors fought under the banner of the cross, made of iron plate, well hardened, and and wore that emblem on their clothes. covering the body from the neck to the The Christians had long grieved that the girdle. The cuirass of plate-armor sucHoly Land, where Jesus hadllived, taught, ceeded the hauberk, hacqueton, &c., of and died for mankind, where pious pil- mail, about the reign of Edward III.; grims resorted to pour out their sorrows. and from that period the surcoat, jupon, and ask for aid from above at the tomb &c., which were usually worn over the of their Saviour, should be in the power coat of mail, began to be laid aside. From of unbelievers. The dawn of civilization that period the cuirass or breast-plate and mental cultivation had just com- continued to be worn, and was the last menced. They were at that period in a piece of defensive armor laid aside in state to receive a strong religious excite- actual warfare. There were cuirassiers ment; the spirit of adventure burned in the English civil wars, and in the within them; and their imaginations French service nearly to the end of the were also easily roused by the reports of 17th century; after this period, the cuirass the riches of the East. The Pope consid- was generally laid aside, until it was ered the invasion of Asia as the means of again employed by some of Napoleon's promoting Christianity amongst the infi- regiments, and it is now, in most services dels and. of winning whole nations to the worn by some regiments of heavy cavalry CUR] AND THE FINE ARTS. 125 CUIS'SES, CUIS'SOTS, CUIS'SARTS, with a few considerable modifications, &c., in plate-armor, the pieces which pro- forms the basis of most of the Eastern tected the front of the thigh. languages. CUL'DEES, in church history, an or- CU'PID, the Roman name of the Greder of priests, formerly inhabiting Scot- cian god of love Eros. There were three land and Ireland. Being remarkable for divinities, or rather three forms of the the religious exercises of preaching and same deity, with this appellation; but praying, they were called, by way of em- the one usually meant when spoken of inence, cultores Dei. After having exer- without any qualification was the son of cised a great influence throughout the Mercury and Venus. Like the rest of country, they are said to have been over- the gods Cupid assumed different shapes; thrown by the increase of the papal pow- but he is generally represented as a er, and the institution of monasteries, beautiful child with wings, blind, and more congenial to the views of the see of carrying a bow and quiver of arrows, Rome. with which he transpierced the hearts of CUL DE LAMP, in architecture, a lovers, inflaming them with desire. Among term used for several decorations, in the ancients he was worshipped with the vaults and ceilings, same solemnity as his mother Venus; his CUILINA, in antiquity, that part of influence pervaded all creation, animate the funeral pile in which the banquet was and inanimate; and vows and sacrifices consumed.-Czlince, a burial-ground for were daily offered up at his shrine. Statthe poor. ues of Cupid formed among the ancients CULLIAGE, a barbarous and immoral great objects of vertu. Praxiteles is said practice, whereby the lords of manors an- to have derived great honor from his ciently assumed a right to the first night statues of this divinity; and in his oraof their vassals' brides. tions against Verres, Cicero has given CUL'PRIT, in law, a word applied in celebrity to one statue of Cupid by this court to one who is indicted for a criminal artist, which formed an object of peculiar offence. veneration to the Thespians. CULTIVA'TION, in a general sense, CU'POLA, in architecture, a roof or the art and practice of tilling and pre- vault risino in a circular form, otherwise paring land for crops; but it means also called the tholuts or dome. The ancients the study, care, andl practice necessary to constructed their cupolas of stone; the the cultitiatio of our talents and the im- moderns, of timber, covered with lead or provellent of our minds. copper. The finest cupola, ancient or CUL'VERIN, a long slender piece of modern, is that of the Pantheon at Rome. ordnance; serving to carry a ball to a Among some of the handsomest modern great distance. cupolas, is that on the Bank of England, CUME'RUM, in antiquity, a large cov- St. Peter's at Rome, the Hotel des Invaered basket, used at weddings for carry- lides at Paris, and St. Paul's, London. ing the household stuff, &c., belonging to CUTRATE, an officiating, but unbenethe bride. fieed clergyman, wvho performs the duty CUNE'IFORM, an appellation given of a church, and receives a salary from to whatever resembles a wedge; as, in the incumbent of the living. botany, a cuneiform leaf. CURA'TOR, in a general sense, signiCUNE'IFORM LETTERS, the name fies a person who is appointed to take given to the inscriptions found on old care of anything. Among the ancient Babylonian and Persian monuments, Romans, there were officers in every from the characters being formed like a branch of the public service to whom this wedge. This species of writing, as it is application was given: thus we read of the simplest, so it is the most ancient of Curatores ftrusmenti, viarztun, operrum which we have any knowledge. It is publicorums, Tiberis, &c. &c., i. e. performed of two radical signs-the wedge sons who distributed corn, superintended and the angle-susceptible, however, of the making of roads and the public buildabout thirty different combinations; and ings, or were conservators of the river.consists of three varieties, distinguished Curator, in the civil law, is the guardian from each other by a greater or less com- of a minor who has attained the age of plication of the characters. It is of Asi- fourteen. Before that age, minors are atic origin; is written from right to left, under a tutor. The guardianship of per-ike the Sanscrit; differs from the ancient sons under various disabilities, and of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, inasmuch as it is estate of deceased or absent persons and alphabetic, not ideographic; and, finally, insolvents is also committed to a curator 126 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [CUT This title is derived from the ancient ocean, in a manner not to destroy the Romans, by whom, as was remarked effect produced by different temperaabove, it was given to various officers tures.-It is well known also that there who acted as superintendents of different are different currents of air. departments of the public service. In CU/RSITOR, a clerk belonging to the learned( institutions, the officer who has court of chancery, whose business it is to charge of libraries, collections of natural make out original writs. history, &c. is frequently styled curator. CUR'TAIN, in a general sense, a cloth CURB ROOF, in hanging round a bed, or at a window, architecture, a roof which may be contracted, spread, or in which the raft- drawn aside at pleasure. Also, a clothers, instead of con- hanging used in theatres, to conceal the tinning straight stage from the spectators.-In fortificadown from the ridge tion, the curtain is that part of the ramto the walls, are at part which is between the flanks of two a given height received on plates, which bastions, bordered with a parapet, behind in their turn are supported by rafters which the soldiers stand to fire on the less inclined to the horizon, whose bear- covered way and into the moat. ing is, through the medium of the wall- CU'RULE CHAIR, in Roman antiquiplate, directly on the walls. It presents ty, a chair, or stool, adorned with ivory, a bent appearance, as in the diagram, wherein the chief magistrates of Rome whence it derives its name. had a right to sit. The curule magisCU'/FEW, a lawintroduced from Nor- trates were the aediles, the pristors, cenmandy into England by William the Con- sors, and consuls. This chair was placed queror, that all people should put out in a kind of chariot, whence it had its their fire and lights at the ringing of a name. bell, at eight o'clock. The word is de- CUSTO'DIA, the shrine or receptacle rived from the French couvrce-feu. for the host in Spanish churches. They CUIRIA, in Roman antiquity, a cer- are frequently constructed of gold and of tain division, or portion of a tribe. Rom- silver, upon which all the riches of the ulus divided the people into thirty goldsmith's art were lavished. cur'iC, or wards; and there were ten in CUS'TOM, in law, long established every tribe, that each might keep the practice or usage, which constitutes the ceremonies of their feasts and sacrifices unwritten law, and long consent to which in the temple, or holy place, appointed gives it authority. for every curia. The priest of the curia CUS'TOMS, in political economy, the was called curio.-Cturia, in law, signi- duties, toll, tribute, or tariff, payable to fies generally a court, but it was taken the government upon merchandise exparticularly for the assemblies of bishops, ported and imported, and which form a peers, &c. of the realm, called solemluis branch of the perpetual taxes. cuzria, cur iapublica, &c. CUS'TOS ROTULO'RUM, the keeper CUR'RENCY, in commerce, bank- of the rolls and records of the sessions of notes or other paper-money issued by the peace, and also of the commission of authority, and which are continually the peace itself. lie is usually a noblepassing current for coin. man, and always a justice of the peace, CUR1'RENTS, in navigation, certain of the quorum in the county where he is settings of the stream, by which ships are appointed. compelled to alter their course, and sub- CUTA'NEOUS, an epithet for whatnlib to the motion impressed upon them ever belongs to or affects the skin; as, a by the current. The causes of currents cutaneous eruption, &e. are very numerous. The waters may be CUT'LERY, a term used to designate put in motion by an internal impulse; by all kinds of sharp and cutting instrua dilffernce of heat and saltness; by the ments made of iron or steel, as knives, ineq'u aaity of evaporation in different lati- forks, scissors, razors, &c. The principal ta(des; and by the change in the pressure seat of the manufacture of British cutatt different points of the surface of the lery is Sheffield; and the articles made ocean. I eThe existence of cold strata, there are held in the highest estimation wlhich have bee v n mt with at great depths in all pa,:'ts of the world. in low latitudes, prove the existence of a CUJT/"'TE, a boat attached to a vessel low current, which runs from the pole to of war, which is rowod with six oars, and the equator. It proves likewise, that sa- is employeed in earrying light stores, pasline substances are distributed in the sengers, &e.-Also, a vessel with one masst CYC] AND THE FINE ARTS. 127 and a straight running bowsprit, which performed the songs and dances of the may be run in upon deck. Dithyrambic odes at Athens. They deCYAN'OGEN, carburetted azote, or rived their name from the circumstance the blue compound of carbon and azotic of their dancing round the altar of Bacgas chus in a circle (KUcXOS) and were thus disCYATH'IFORM, in the form of a cup tinguished from the square (fsropay:oios) or drinking glass, a little widened at the choruses of tragedy. top. CY'CLIC POETS. This terml was anpCY'ATHIUS, in Rolman antiquity, a plied to a succession of Epic poets who liquid measure, containing four Higillas, followed Homner, and wrote merely on the or half a pint.-Also, a cup, which the Trojan war and the adventures of the Romans used heroes immediately coimnected with it, to fill and drink keeping, as it were, to one circle of sLbfrom as many jects. None of their works have come times as there down to us. were letters in CYCLOPIE/DIA, a work containing the name of definitions or accounts of the principal their patron or subjects in one or all departments of mistress. It learning, art, or science. Its arrangeis often met mcnt may be either according to divisions with on paint- into the various sciences, &c., or the subed vases in jeets may be arranged and treated in the hands of alphabetical order. The Encyclopdlie Bacchus; but Frrancoise, or Dictionnzaire E7ccloyp= the vessel pe- clique and the Encyclopredia BritannicaC culiarly sacred have been the most celebrated works of to that divinity is the two-handled cup, this species; but the earliest appears to Cantharus. be the Lexicon Technicumcn of fHarris, CYBE'LE, in mythology, was origin- published in 1706. The great French ally the Phrygian goddess of the earth. work, the Esncycloprdie Methodiqlce, conWhen her worship was introduced among sists, not of one, but of a series of encythe Greeks, they confounded her with clopedias or dictionaries. Rhea, as did the Latins with their Ops. CYCLO'PEAN, an epithet applied to HIer rites, like those of the Asiatic deities, certain huge structures, the remains of in general were celebrated with great which are found in lmany parts of Greece, excitement; her priests, who were called Italy, and Asia Minor, the architecture Galli, Corybantes, Curetes, &c., running of which was totally different in style about with howlings and clashing of cym- from that which prevailed during the bals. historical ages. The epithet originated CYOCLAS, a large robe of thin texture, in the Grecian tradition that assigned with a border embroidered with gold, these edifices to the gigantic strength of worn by the Roman women. It was the Cyclops. It is most probable that worn in the same manner as the pal- they were really raised by the Pelasgians, lium. the predecessors or ancestors of the later CY'CLE, in chronology, a certain Greeks; and a gradual progress maybe period or series of numbers, which regu- traced in them from the extreme of rudelarly proceed from the first to the last, ness to a degree of symmetry that indiand then return again to the first, and so cates an approach to the elegance of circulate perpetually.-Cycle of the sucn, Grecian architecture. or solar cycle, a period of 28 years, in CYCLO'PES, in mythology, a race of which the Sunday or Dominical letter gigantic beings fabled by the Greeks to recqrs in the same order.-Cycle of the dwell in Sicily, where they assistec Vulmoont, or lunar' cycle, a period of nine- can in forging the thunderbolts of Jupiteen years, when the new and full moon ter. They had only one eye, round, and recur on the same days of the month.- situated in the centre of the forehead. Cycle of indiction, a period of fifteen The most celebrated among theom- was years, in use among the Romans, coir- Polyphemus, whose exploits have formed mencing from the third year before Christ a prolific theme for the poets of antiqu-iThis cycle has no connection with the ce- ty. His attachment to the nymph Galalestial motions; but was instituted, ac- tea, is happily described in an idyl of cording to Baroniius, by Constantine. Theocritus; and the ninth book of the CY'CLIC CHO"O!US, the chorus which Odyssey contains a graphic account of his 128 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [cYZ savage propensities, and of the loss of his ancient Phoenicians used to be guided on eye by the stratagem of Ulysses. their voyages: whence it has been borCYMA'TIUM, CY'MA, or SI'MA, in rowed by the language of poetry, in which architecture, a member or moulding of it signifies " a point of attraction:" the cornice, the profile of which is waving, that is, concave at the top and convex at Where perhaps nme eai lies the bottom. When the concave part of the moulding projects beyond the convex CYN'THIUS and CYN'THIA, in mypart, the cymatiumt is denominated a thology, surnames given by the ancient si.ma —recta; but when the convex part poets to Apollo and Diana: from Cynforms the greatest projection, it is a sima- thus, a mountain of the island of Delos, reversa. on which they are fabled to have been CYM'BAL, a musical instrument used born. by the anoients, hollow, and made of CY'PI-ONISM, a species of punishbrass, supposed to be somewhat like a ment frequently resorted to by the ankettle-drum. The modern cymbals used cients, which consisted in besmearing the in military bands consist of two concave criminal with honey, and then exposing metal plates, which are occasionally him to insects. This punishment was carstruck together and flourished above the ried into effect in various ways, but chiefhead of the player. ly by fastening the sufferer to a stake, or CYNSIC, a man of a surly or snarl- extending him on the ground with his ing temper; a misanthrope.-The cynics arms pinioned. were a sect of ancient philosophers who CYRE'NIANS, the philosophers of a valued themselves upon their contempt school founded at Cyrene, a Grecian colof riches and state, arts, sciences, and ony on the northern coast of Africa, by amusements. This sect was founded by Aristippus, a disciple of Socrates. They Antisthenes, a disciple of Socrates, who held, with the Epicureans, that pleasure sought to imitate his master in careless- was the only good and pain the only evil, ness of outward splendor and contempt of and were not at such pains as the latter riches; but his indifference to these things to prove that the first could only attend soon degenerated unhappily into a love on virtuous conduct; -they also differed of ostentation, shown by a display of pov- from them in not considering absence from erty. Thus ho and many of his followers pain of itself to be a pleasure of the highrejected not only the conveniences but the est order. But though these philosophers common decencies of life, and lived in held that pleasure should form the ultirags and filthiness; while they sneered mate object of pursuit, and that it was bitterly at the rest of the world, instead only in subserviency to this that fame, of endeavoring to teach it to cultivate the friendship, and even virtue are to be depure reason of which they professed them- sired, still there were many points in their selves to be the only followers. Of this philosophy calculated to command gensect was the famous Diogenes, whose eral sympathy. It is impossible not to meeting with Alexander the Great is too admit that, with all the defects of the syswell known to require being noticed in tem, its object is to render us happy in this place. relation to ourselves, agreeable and faithCYNOSAR'GES, a sort of academy in ful to our friends, and discreet, serviceathe suburbs of Athens, situated near the ble, and well-bred in relation to those Lyceum; so called from the mythological with whom we are obliged to live and constory of a white dog, which, when Diomts verse. Perhaps the best view of the phiwas sacrificrirg to Hercules, the guardian losophy of this sect is to be obtained from of the place, carried off part of the vie- the Satires and Epistles of Horace, in tim. Besides possessing several temples which the versatility of disposition, poerected in honor of IHercules, Alcmene, liteness of manners, and knowledge of the and other mythological personages, it world that distinguished the Cyrenians was chiefly famed for its gymnasium, in are set forth with great clearness, and which foreigners or citizens of half blood with all the ardor of an enthasiastie disused to perform their exercises; and as ciple. being the place where Antisthenes insti- CYTHER'/A, in mythology, a name tuted the sect of the Cynics, and taught given to Venus, from the island Cythera, his opinions. where she was worshipped with peculiar CYN'OSURE, literally the tail of a veneration. dog, applied by some philosophers to the CYZICE'NA, in antiquity, a magnificonstellation Ursa Minor, by which the cent sort of banqv eting-house, among the DAE] AND THE FINE ARTS. 129 Greeks; so called from Cyzicus, a city sculpture, the inscription of the name of famous for its sumptuous buildings. the artist on a gem. CZAR, the title assumed by the cmpe- DACTYLIOG'IRAPHY, the science of rors of' tIssia.'LTe first that bore this gem engraving. title was:asil, the son of Basilides, un- DACTYLIOM'ANCY, a kind of divider whom the Russian power began to nation among the Greeks and Romans, appear, about 1470. The word is of old which was performed by suspending a Sclavonie origin, and is nearly equivalent ring by a thread over a table, the edge to kin. of which was marked with the letters of CZAXL'NA, the title of the empress the alphabet. As the ring, after its viof Russia. bration ceased, happened to hang over certain letters, these joined together gave the answer. j D. -r\vDACTYLIOTIIE'CA, a collection of engraved genis. DACTYLOL'OGY. or DACTYLON'D, the fourth letter in the alphabet, is OMY, the art of communicating ideas or a dental articulation, having a kind of thoughts by the fingers; or the art of middle sound between the t and th; its numbering on the fingers. sound being formed by a stronger im- DAC'TYLOS, the shortest measure pulse of the tongue to the upper part of among the Greeks, being the fourth part the moth th, tan is necessary in the pro- of a palm. nunciation of the t. D, as a numeral, DA'DO, the die or that part in the denotes 500; as an abbreviation it stands middle of the pedestal of a column befor Doctor, Domini, &c.; as MI.D., Doctor tween its base and cornice. It is also of Medicine; D.D. Doctor of Divinity; the name of the lower part of a wall. A.D., Anno Domini. As a sign, it is one DADU'CH-T, priests of Ceres, who at of the Dominical or Sunday letters; and the feasts and sacrifices of that goddess, in music, it is the nominal of the sec- ran about the temple with lighted torches, ond note in the natural diatonic scale delivering them from hand to hand, till of C. they had passed through the whole comDA'ALDER, a Dutch silver coin, of pany. the value of a guilder and a half or about DIED'ALA, two festivals in Boeotia. 35 cents. One was held by the Plata-^ans in a large DA CAPO, in music, an Italian phrase grove, where they exposed to the air signifying that the first part of the tune pieces of boiled flesh; and observing on is to be repleated from the beginning. It what trees the crows alighted, that came is also usod as a call or acclamation to to feed upon them, they cut them down the musical- performer at concerts, &c., and formed them into statues called to repeat the air or piece which has just Dcedala. The other festival, which was been finished. much more solemn, was observed in difDAC'TYL, a foot in Latin and Greek ferent parts of Boeotia once in sixty years, poetry, consisting of a long syllable fol- when they carried about the statue of a lowed by two short ones; as, dominuils, female, called Diedala, and every city carminze. When combined with the foot and every man of fortune offered a bull called a spondee, consisting of two long to Jupiter, and an ox or heifer to Juno, syllables, it forms a line of hexameter, or the poorer people providing sheep. These, six feet poetry, in which the dactyls and with wine and incenso, were laid upon spondees are tastefully intermingled, the altar, and, together with twelve staDAC'TYLI, priests of Cybele in Phry- tues which were piled thereon, were set gia; so called, according to Sophocles, on fire wholly consumed. because they were five in number, thus DIID'AILUS, in fabulous history, the corresponding with the number of the great-grandson of Erechtlieus king of fingers, from which the name is derived. Athens, is celebrated as the most ancient Their functions appsnear to have been sim- statuary, architect, and mcechanist of ilar to those of the Corybantes and Cu- Greece To him is ascribed the invenretes, other priests of the same goddess tion of the saw, the axe, the plummet, in Phrygia and Crete. and many other tools and instruments; DAC/TYLIC, an epithet for verses and to such a degree did he excel in which end with a dactyl instead of a sculpture, that his statues are fabled to spondee. have been endowed with life. For the DACTYL'IOGLYPIH, in ancient gem alleged murder of his nephew he was 9 130 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [DAG obliged to quit Athens, whence he re- two-edged and pointed, similar in appaired to Crete, then under the sway of pearance to a sword, but smaller. The Minos, by whom he was favorably re- cut exhibits two daggers from the armoceived. Here he constructed the famous ry at Goodrich Court. The first is of labyrinth, on the model of the still more the time of Edward III.; the second, famous one of Egypt; but having assist- which has the more modern improvement ed the wife of Minos in an intrigue with of a guard for the hand. is of Italian Taurus, he was, by a strange fatality, workmanship, of the latter end of the fifconfined to this very labyrinth along with teenth century. his son Icarus. By means, however, of DA'GON, one of the principal diviniwings, which he formed of linen or feath- tic.3 of the ancient Phoenicians and Syriers and wax, Dsedalus and his son con- ans, and more especially of the Philistrived to make their escape. The former tines. The origin, attributes, and even pursued his a6rial journey, and arrived the sex of this divinity, are all wrapt in safely in Sicily; but the latter having the most profound obscurity; but the sasoared too near the sun, in consequence cred writers concur in assigning to him of which the wax that fastened the wing such a degree of authority as must place was melted, dropped into and was drown- him on a level with the Jupiter of the ed in the sea (thence called the Ica:ian.) Greeks and Romans. In Sicily Dedalus continued to prosecute DAGUER/'REOTYPE, the name aphis ingenious labors, and lived long plied to a remarkable invention of M. enough to enrich that island with various Daguerre, of Paris, by which he fixes works of art. From the plastic powers upon a metallic plate the lights and shadof I)Pdalus, the ancient poets used to re- ows of a landscape or figure, solely by the gard his name as synonymous with in- action of the solar light. A plate of copgenious, as in the phrase Dcedaleum per, thinly coated with silver, is exposed opus; and in a somewhat similar sense in a close box to the action of the vapor Lucretius applies it to the earth, in or- of iodine; and when it assumes a yellow der to describe its vernal vegetation. A color, it is placed in the dark chamber of few years ago the name of Dildalus, a camera obscuira, where it receives an which had been appropriated by various image of the object to be represented. It artists in the history of Grecian art, was is then withdrawn, and exposed to the assumed by the constructors of some in- vapor of mercury to bring out the imgenious automata, in memory of the grand pression distinctly; after which, it is impressions which the works of Dcldalus plunged into a solution of hypo-sulphito had produced. of soda, and lastly, washed in distilled DAG'GER, a weapon of various sizes, water. The process is then complete, and the sketch produced is in appearance {<^ |W~ ~ t~ ^something similar to aquatint,but greatly superior in delicacy; and such is the precision of the detail, that the most powerful microscope serves but to display the,perfection of the copy. DA'IS, in architecture,'the platform or raised floor at the upper end of a dining hall, where the high table stood; also the seat with a canopy over it for those who sat at the high table. DALMAT'ICA, a long white gown with sleeves; worn by deacons in the Roman Catholic church over the alb and stole. It was imitated from a dress originally worn in Dalmatia, and imported into Rome by the emperor Commnodus, where the use of it gradually superseded the old Roman fashion of keeping the arms uncovered. A similar robe was worn by kings hi the middle ages at coronations and other solemnities. DAM'AGE-FEAS'ANT, in law, is when one person's beasts get into another's ground, without license of the owner ______. _ _________________._______________________________________________. j. DAN] AND THE PINE ARTS. 131 or occupr of the ground, and do damage this appellation first passed to these of by feeding, or otherwise, to the grass, great lords or barons, and afterwards to corn, wood, &c., in which case the party those of gentlemen, who wore not yet injured may distrain or impound them. knights but, such is the change which DAM/AGES, in law, the estimated language undergoes, that at the present equivalent for an injury sustained; or that day it is only used (and then rarely) when which is given or adjudged by ajury to the speaking of young unmarried women. It plaintiff in an action, to rcpair his loss. occurs frequently in the Scriptures, and in DAM'ASK, a fabric of silk, linen, wool, poetry. also partly or wholly of cotton, woven DANCE OF DEATHI. This edifying with large patterns of trees, fruits, ani- subject is very frequently met with in anmazls, landscapes, & a., and one of the cient buildings, stained glass, and in the most costly productions of the loom. It decorations of manuscripts, &c. The best consists throughout of a body of five or known is that by Hans Hlolbein. It is eight shanks, the pattern being of a dif- frequently found in the margins of early j erent nature to the ground. Damask printed books. One, from the press of weaving first attained perfection at Da- Sinion Vostre, in 1502, has a most intermascus, whence this large-patterned fab- esting series, beautifully designed and ric derives its namne. We find the art executed. The earliest representation of flourishing in the melieval times of Art this impressive subject dates fromn the i t Bruges, and ether places in Flanders fourth century; but it was rapidly mulattempts were also made in Germany tiplied, and introduced into many English i and France. and continental churches. | DAMASKEEN'ING, this term, de- DAN'CING, may be defined to be a rived from the Syrian Damascus, so re- graceful movement of the figure, acco mn owned in Art, designates the different panied by gestures and attitudes indicakinds of steel ornamentation. The first tive of certain mental emotions, and by is the many-colored watered Damascus measured steps in harmony with a piece blades; the second kind consists in etch- of music arranged for the purpose. The ing slight ornaments on polished steel- great antiquity of dancing is attested by wares; the third is the inlaying of steel history, both sacred and profane. It conor iron with gold and silver, as was done sisted at first, probably, of nothing m1ore with sabres, armor, pistol-locks, and gun- than gesticulation and moving in a pro- barrels. The designs were deeply en- cession; in which sense it formed part of | graved, or chased in the metal, and the the celebration of the religious rites of the lines filled with gold or silver wire, driven ancientl ebrews and Egyptians. But the in by the hammer, and fastened firmly. Greeks, who are confessedly indebted to This art was brought to great perfection the Egyptians for the elements of their by the French artist Corsinet, in the religion and literature, thoufh these were reign of Henry IV. afterwards refined by them to such a, deDAME, formerly a title of honor to a gree as nearly to obliterate all traces of woman. It is now seldom otherwise ap- their origin, soon polished and improved plied than to a mistress of a family in the these sacred rites, and introduced them humbler walks of life. into all the festal ceremonies of which DAM'NIFY, in law, to cause hurt or their elegant mythology was composed. damage to; as, to cdaelmif a man in his In this they were, as usual, imitated by goods or estate. the Romans. If we believe Scaliger, the DAMP'ERS, in music, certain parts in early bishops of the church were sty-led. the internal constructign of the pianoforte, pirvsules, because (as the word literally which are covered with soft leather in or- implies) they led off the dance at their der to deaden the vibration, and are act- solemn festivals; and this practice'coned on by a pedal. tinned in the church till the 12th century. DAM'SEL, (from the Fr. datmoiselle,) Almost every country can boast of its a name anciently given to young ladies of national dances peculiar to the inhabinoble or genteel extraction. The word is, tants; which it is rare to see so well perhowever, now seldom used, except jocular- formed when adopted by others. Of these l y, or in poetry.-Dantoisel, or damoi- the best known to us are the tarantella of seca, the masculine of the same word, ap- the Neapolitans, the bolero and faLndcl' i pears to have been applied to young men of the Spaniards, the meazoirsek andl kaof rank; thus we read of damsel Pepin, kowoiaqlie of Poland, the cosaque of Rusdamsel Louis le,ros, damsel Richard, sia, the redoeLac of Bohemia, the quadDrince of Wales. From the sons of kings rillt and cotillon of France, the woltaz i ____________________________________________________i 3 2 CYOLOPEDIA OF LITERATURt: [E.a and gallopade of Germany, and the reel DA'TA, ameng mathematicians, a term of Scotland. As an exercise, or amuse- used for such things and quantities aT ment, dancing is nothing more than a are given or known, in order to find other methodized act instinctive in the human things therefrom, that are unknown frame. To teach dancing, is to teach the Euclid uses the word for such spaces, line? activity of the body to display itself in a and angles, as are of a given magnitude manner regulated by the principles of or to which we can assign others equal. grace, or in imitation of steps and ges- DATE, the notation of the time an tures which others have used with appro- place of the delivery or subscription of bation. By its mechanical effects on the an instrument. The word is derivedfrore body, it inspires the mind with cheerful- the common formula at the foot of in ness; while the music which accompanies struments, "datum," or "data," givu' it has effect upon the body as well as at such a place and time. Dates of timz; upon the mind. are distinguished into definite and in DAN'DY, (from dandiprat, a little definite. The former mark specially tl: urchin, or probably from the French dan- year, and sometimes the month, day, &c. dien, a ninny;) in modern usage, a male the latter only contain a general refei of the human species, who dresses himself ence to some period of time. Thus mann, like a doll, and who carries his character instruments of the earlier part of th.e on his back. middle ages are dated only "Regnnant, DA'NEGELT, or DA'NEGELD, in Domino nostro Jesu Christo;" a.nd verj England, an annual tax formerly laid on often the date contained only mention ot the English nation, for maintaining forces the reigning prince, without reference t. to oppose the Danes, or to furnish tribute the years of his reign. Definite dates to procure peace. It was at first one shil- are various in ancient charters and deeds ling, and afterwards two, for every hide of The Christian Greeks dated generally, land, except such as belonged to the church. down to the fall of Constantinople, by the DANGE'RIA, in old English law, a year of the world; beginning their year payment of money anciently made by the at the 1st of September. The date usec forest tenants to their lords, that they in the oldest Latin charters is conmmonl3 might have leave to plough and sow in that of the indiction, which is also fro the time of pannage or mast-feeding. quently added in the Greek. The Chris DAP-I'NE, in Grecian lmythology, a tian era (under the several names of yeai nymph of Diana., the daughter of the river of grace, of the incarnation, of the reigr god Peneus. She was belovedby Apollo; of Christ, of the nativity, &s., &c.,) began but she resisted all his attempts to excite to be in commlon usage in royal charters in her a mutual attachment, and at last in France about the reign of IHugh Capet, betook herself to flight. On being hotly in Spain and Portugal not until the 13th pursued by the god, she invoked the earth and 14th centuries. In England, the to swallow her up, when her prayer was Saxon kings fiequently dated by the ingranted, and she was immediately chang- carnation; but deeds and charters undes ed into a laurel-tree. the Plantagenet kings generally beat DAPlHNEPHO'RIA, in antiquity, a the year of the reigning prince. novennial festival celebrated by the Boeo- DA'TISI, in logic, an arbitrary tern tians in honor of Apollo, to whom boughs for a node of syllogisms in the third figof laurel were offered. ure, wherein the major proposition is a DAP'PLED, variegated with spots of universal affirmative, and the minor ano different colors; as, a dapple-bay or dap- conclusion are particular affirmatives. ple-g-ray horse. DA'TIVE, in grammar, the third of DARAP'TI, in logic, an arbitrary term the Greek and Latin nouns. expressing the first mood of the third fig- DAUIPHIN, the title of the eldest son ure of syllogisms, where the first two prop- of the king of France. It is said that, in opitions are universal affirmatives, and 1349, Humbe;t II., the last of the princes the last a particular affirmative. of Dauphiny, having no issue, gave his DA'RIC, in antiquity, a Persian gold dominions to the crown of France, upon coin, said to have been struck by Darius, condition that the king's eldest son should and supposed to have been equal to 25s. be styled the Dauphin. sterling. DAVID'S DAY, (St.) the 1st of March, DASH, in music, a small mark, thus I, kept by the Welsh, in honor of St. David, denoting that the note over which it is bishop of Miney, in Wales; who at the placed is to be performed in a short and head of their forces obtained a signal distinct manner. I victory over the Saxons. It is the in bEA] AND THE FINE ARTS. 133 variable custom of the Welsh to wear the clergy. In the church of England, leeks in their hats on this day. the form of ordaining a deacon declares DAWN, the commencement of the day, that it is his office to assist in the distriwhen the twilight appears. bution of the holy communion;. in which. DAY, according to the most natural agreeably to the practice of the ancient and obvious sense of the word, signifies church, he is confined to the administrathat part of the twenty-four hours when tion of the wine to the communicants. it is light; or the space of time between A deacon is not capable of any ecclesiasthe rising and the setting of the sun; the tical promotion; yet he may be chaplain time which elapses from its setting to its to a family, curate to a beneficed clergyrising again being considered the night. man, or lecturer to a parish church.-In The word day is often taken in a larger the Romish church. the deacon's office is sense, so as to include the night also; or to incense the officiating priest, to incense to denote the time of a whole apparent the choir, to put the mitre on the bishop's revolution of the sun round the earth. head at the pontifical mass, and to assist The day is also distinguishsd into civil at the communiun.-In Presbyterian and and astronomical. The civil day is a Independent places of worship, the deaspace of twenty-four hours, reckoned cons distribute the bread and wine to the from sunset to sunset, or from sunrise to communicants. —In Scotland, an overseer sunrise, which is different in different of the poor, or the master of an incorparts of the globe. The astronomical porated company, is styled a deacon. day is the space of twenty-four hours, DEA'CONESS, a female deacon in the reckoned from twelve o'clock at noon to primitive church. This office appears as the noon of the next day.-The nautical ancient as the apostolical age; for St. day ends at the instant the astronomical Paul calls Phoebe a servant of the church day begins; so that nautical time in days of Cenchrea. One pnrit of their office was of the month, is always twenty-four hours to assist the minister at the baptizing of in advance of astronomical time, and the women, to undress them for immersion, civil day is midway between both.-The and to dress them again, that the whole Babylonians began the day at sun-rising; ceremony might be performed with all the Jews at sun-setting; the Egyptians the decency becoming so sacred an acat midnight, as do several nations in tion. modern times, the British, French, Span- DEAD LAN'GUAGE, a language ish, American, &c.-Days of grace, in which is no longer spoken or in common commerce, a customary number of days use by a people, and known only in writallowed for the pay;nent of a bill after it ings; as the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. becomes due. IThree days of grace are DEAN, a dignitary of the church of allowed in Great Britain and America. England, next to a bishop, and head of In other eountries the time allowed is the chapter, in a cathedral or council. — much longer, but the merchants there Dean and ch.apter. are the bishop's very rarely avxil themselves of the time. council to assist him with their advice in DEA'CON, a minister of religion, hold- the affairs of religion, and in the tempoing, in Protestant churches, the lowest ral concerns of his see. degree in holy orders. The first appoint- DEATtI, a total and permanent cessament of deacons is mentioned in Acts vi., tion of all the vital functions, when the where the Apostles direct the congrega- organs have not only ceased to act, but tion to look out seven men of honest hasve lost the susceptibility of renewed report, upon whom they may lay their action. "Men," says Lord Bacon, "fear bands. Their office at this time seeims to death, as children fear the dark; and as have been chiefly the care of the poor that natural fear in children is increased and the distribution of the broad and by frightful tales, so is the other. Groans, wine in the love feasts. We learn, how- convulsions, weeping friends, and the like, ever, from the example of Philip, Acts show death terrible; yet there is no pasviii., that they also had authority to sion so weak but conquers the fear of it, preaclh. In the English church it is the low- and therefore death is not such a terrible est of the three orders of clergy (deacons, enemy; revenge triumphs over death. priests and bishops.) The word is some- love slights it; dread of shame prefers it; times used in the New Testament for any grief flies to it; and fear anticipates it." oie that ministers in the service of God; The alarms most prevalent among manin which sense, bishops and presbyters kind seem to arise from two consideraare styled deacons; but, in its restrained tions, viz., the supposed corporeal suffersense, it is taken for the third order of ing attending it; and the stat that is to 134 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [DGE succeed it. With respect to the supposed viduals for public service, or to pay the corporeal suffering, it may be observed, lenders an equivalent annuity. that death is a mere passive extinction of DE'BRIS, (pron. debree,) ruins or rubthe vital fire, unattended with any exer- bish; applied particularly to the fragtion of the animal functions, and there- ments of rocks.-The word debris is also fore wholly free from pain. The agonies used by the French to express the remrains and sufferings incident to sickness or or wreck of an army that has been routed. wounds, are the agonies and sufferings of DEBUT', in its most general acceptalife, not of death; they are the struggles tion, is applied to the commllencement of of the body to live, not to die; efforts of any undertaking, or to the first step made the machine to overcome the obstacles by in a public career; but it is confined miore which its functions are impeded. But particularly to the language of the theawhen the moment of dissolution arrives, tre, in which it signifies the first appearall sense of suff-ering is subdued by an in- ance of an actor, or his first appearance stantaneous stoppage of life, or by a lan- on any particular stage. guid insensible tainting.-In law, there DECACIHORD, or DECACHOR'DON, is a natulral death and a civil death; nat- a musical instrumlent of ten strings. ural; where actual death takes place; DEC'ADE, a word used by some old civil, vwhere a person is not actually dead, writers in a general sense for the number' but adjudged so by law; as by banish- ten, or an enumeration by tens. ment, abjuration of the realm, &c. DEC'ALOGUE, the ten commandments DEATI'-WATClt, a little insect, which or precepts delivered by God to Moses, at inhabits old wooden furniture, and is fa- Mount Sinai, originally engraved on two mous for striking w-ith its head against tables of stone. The Jews, by way of expaper or some other material, and there- cellence, call these commancdments The by making a tickiln: noise, like the beat Ten Words, whence they afterwards reof a watch, which Iy ignolrant and super- ceived the name of ldecafogue. stitious people is sp>posed tobe a presage I DECAM'ERON, a work containing the of death. ctions or conversations of ten days.DEBATE', oral contention by argu- Decemeron, the name given by Bo.cacmnent and reasoning; or a controversy be- cio to his celebrated collection of tales; tween parties of different opinions, pro- they are supposed to be narrated in fessedly for elucidating the truth.-De- turn, during ten days, by a party of bates in congress, the published report of guests assembled at a villa in the country arguments for and against a measure, in to escape from the plague which raged at either house of congress. Florence in 1348. DEBEN!TURE, a term used at the cus- DECAPITA'TION, a mode of punishtolm-house for a certificate signed by an mnent of great antiquity, ha-ving been officer of the customs, which entitles a practised by the Jews, Greeks, and Romerchant exporting goods to the receipt mans, and some other ancient nations. of a bounty, or a drawback of duties.-It Among the continental nations of modern also denotes a sort of bill drawn upon the times, it has long been the ordinary government. punishment inflicted on all capitally conDEB'IT, a term used in book-keeping victed criminals. During the early peto express the left hand page of ledger, to riod of English history, it was the usual which all articles are carried that are mode of punishing felons; but it aftercharged to an account. wards became a punishment appropriaDEBOUCIHI in military language, to ted only to criminals of the highest rank, issue or march out of a narrow place, or and even to this day it is considered as from defiles. the most honorable death which a, capital DEBOU'CHEMENT, a French term offender can undergo. The last instance for the marching of an army from a nar- of the infliction of this punishment in row place into one that is more open. England occurred in 1745, soon after the DEBT, in law, that which is due from rebellion in Scotland had been quelled. one person to another, whether it be men- DEC'ASTICK, a poem consisting of ey, goods, or services.-In law, used ellip- ten lines. tically for an action to recover a debt. — DE C A S T Y I E, in architecture, a In scripture, sin; that which renders lia- building with an ordnance of ten columns ble to punishment; as, "forgive us our in front. debbs."-National debt, the engagement DECASYL'LABIC, having ten sylentered into by a government to repay a.t lables. In the German and English lana future period money advanced by indi- guages the ordinary heroic verse is deo BEC] AND THE FINE ARTS. 1.35 asyllabic; but a short syllable is some- DECEN'NARY, in law, a tithing contimes added at the end by way of a va- sisting of ten freeholders and their famiriety, and this, in consequence of the lies. Ten of these decennaries constituted structure of those languages, takes place a hundred, the origin of which is ascribed more fiequently in the former than the to Alfred. latter. In the Italian heroic verse the DECEP'TIVE CA'DENCE, in music, eleventh syllable is almost uniformlya cadence in which the final close is added, and hence it is more properly to avoided by varying the final chord. be termed an hendeccsyllabic. In French DECIMA"TION, a punishment inflictversification the decasyllabic line is ap- ed by the Romans on such soldiers as quitppropiated to light compositions, espe- ted their post, or behaved themselves ill in cially tales. the field. The names of all the guilty DECE\I'BER, the last month of the were put into an urn or helmet, from modern year, consisting of thirty-one which a tenth part only were drawn, days; when the sun enters the tropic of whose lot it was to suffer death. Capricorn, and makes the winter solstice. DECK, the planked floor of a ship It was so called from being the tenth from stem to stern. Small vessels have month in the Roman year, which began only one deck; larger ships have two or with March. three decks. Thus, spealking of the size D E i C E M P R I M I, or D E/ C E M of a large ship, we say, she is a two-deckPRIN'CIPES, in Roman antiquity, the er, or a three-decker. ten chief men or senators of every city DECLAIMATION, signified, among or borough. the ancients, the art of speaking indifferDECEM'VIRI, properly any body of ently upon both sides of a question: a ten men appointed for particular pur- species of intellectual exercise resorted -poses. But that which is especially to by the rhetoricians of Greece and known by this name was the commission Rome, as the best means of acquiring elected from the Roman patricians in the facility in public speaking. In modern 302d year after the foundation of the times the smeaning of declantationt is difcity, and invested with all the supreme ferent in different countries. In Gerpowers of the state, for the purpose of many, and in most parts of the Continent, drawing up a body of laws founded, ac- it is often used in a sense nearly synonycording to Roman tradition, on the most mous with recitative. In France and approved institutions of Greece. They England, especially the latter, it is somepresented to the people a number of laws times applied to any grand oratorical engraved on ten tables, containing a sum- display, either in the pulpit, at the bar. mary of the privileges to be enjoyed by in the senate, or on the stage, in which the people, and the crimes to be punished, the voice, gesticulation, and the whole &c. At the same time they informed the delivery of the speaker are in perfect people that their plan was incomplete; keeping with the subject matter of his and accordingly a new commission, to address. But it is employed most usually which the plebeians were admitted, was in a disparaging sense, to indicate the appointed for the next year, with the use of forced emphasis, inflated language, same powers; the result of which was and violent gestures, to withdraw the atthe addition of two more tables to the tention of the auditors from the weakness former ten, thus making up the famous or fallacy of the reasoning. twelve tables, which were the foundation DECLARA'TION, in law, that part of of all Roman law in subsequent times. the process or pleadings in which a stateThe second decemnvirate did not demean ment of the plaintiff's complaint against itself with the same moderation as the the defendant is set forth.-.Declaration first, but sought to prolong its power, and of war, a public proclamation made by a at the same time proceeded to some vio-, herald at arms to the subjects of a state, lent acts of despotism, which so exas- declaring them to be at war with some perated the people as to make its dissolu- foreign power, and forbidding all and tion necessary. Besides these extraor- every one to aid or assist the common dinary commissions, there was a body of enemy at their peril. decemviri chosen for judicial purposes, to DECLENSION, in grammar, the inpreside over and summon the centumviri, fleetion of cases to which nouns are suband to judge certain causes by them- jr~ct. Also, the act of going through these selves. There were likewise decemviri inlections. appointed from time to time to divide DECLI'NATORY PLEA, in law, a lands among the military. I plea before trial or conviction, intended 136 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE IDEE to show that the party was not liable to DECURIO'NES MIUTJIhIPA'LES, a the penalty of the law, or was specially ex- court of judges or counsellors relpresentermpted from the jurisdiction of the court. ing the Roman senate in the free towns 1)ECOLLA'TION, a term in frequent and provinces. use, synonymous with beheading, and DEDICA'TION, the act of consecratused in reference to the decapitation of ing, or solemnly devoting, any person or St. John the Baptist, St. Cecilia, &c. thing to the service of God, and the purDECORA/TION, the ornalmental parts poses of religion.-Feast of dedication, in an edifice, coiprising the columns, an anniversary festival among the Jews, pilasters, friezes, bas-reliefs, cornices, in memory of Judas IMaccabaSus, who festoons, niches, statues, &e., and which repaired and dedicated anew the temple formn the decorations of the facade of a and altar, which had been plundered and palace or temple; and the gilding, ara- profaned by Antiochus Epiphanes. It was besques, paintings, panellings, carvings, observed on the 25th of Chisleu, and conthe draperies, &c., which compose the tinued eight days.-Dedication, in literadecoration of an interior. The discover- ture, a complimentary address to a paries at Pompoii have furnished some very ticular person, prefixed by an author to beafutiful interior decorations, quite clas- his work. Dedications arose out of the sical in taste. dependent situation in which authors DECO'lRUM, in architecture, the suit- have too frequently been placed in referableness of a building, and of its parts ence to their powerful or wealthy patrons; and ornaments, to their respective places and, at no very distant timle, were often and uses. rewarded by pecuniary presents. The DECOY', in a general sense, any lure custom of dedicating works was in use at that deceives and misleads. Also, a sea a very early period. Tihe brightest ornaterm, for a stratagem employed by ships merts of Romnan literature, Horace, Virof war, to draw any vessel of inferior gil, Cicero, and Lucretius, were among force into an incautious pursuit, until she the number of those who practised it. At comes within gun-shot. Decoying is also the period of the revival of letters in performed to elude the chase of a ship of Europe, few works were published withsuperior force in a dark night; and this out dedications; lmany of which are reis done by committing to the sea a light- markable for their elegance and purity ed cask of pitch, which xwill burn for a of style, and from the interesting matte. considerable time, and nmisguide the ene- which they contain are of far more value, my. As soon as the cask is lowered, the than the treatises to which they are preship changes her course, and thus, if at fixed. But the practice became graduany tolerable distance from the foe, es- ally perverted: and many of the authorl capes with facility. of the succeeding generations employed DECREE', the order of an authorita- them chiefly with the view of securing the tive power. In England, the sentence patronage of the great. Dedications were of the judges in the civil courts, and in most abused in France under Louis XIV., chancery, is called a decree. In theology, and in England from 1670 to the accesthe pre-determined purpose of God, whose sion of George III. Dryden vas a great plan of operations is, like himself, un- dedicator, and Johnson wrote dedications changeable. for money. Corneille got 1000 louis d'or DECREET', in the Scotch law, a final for the dedication of Cinna. Some of the decree of judgment of the lords of session, most beautiful dedications with which we from which an appeal only lies to parlia- are acquainted are those prefixed to the ment. different volumes of the Spectator, by DECRESCEN'DO, in music, the term Addison; and in more recent times the for gradually decreasing or weakening poetical dedications with which each canto the sound; as opposed to crescendo. of Sir Walter Scott's JMa-7rionr is preDECRE'TAL, a letter from the pope,'faced. determining some point or question in DEDUC'TOR, a client amongst the ecclesiastical polity. The decretals form Romans, who called upon his patron at the second part of the canon law. his lodgings in the morning, waited upon DECU'RIO, in Roman antiquity, a him from thence to the forum, and atcompany of ten men under one officer or tended him upon all public occasions. leader. who was called a decurion, their DEED, in law, a written contract, cavalry being divided into centuries, ndl sealed and delivered. It must be written the centuries subdivided into ten dect-rie before the sealing and delivery, othereach. wise it is no deed; and after it is once DEG] AND THE FINE ARTS. 137 formally executed by the parties, nothing DEFEND'ER OF TIIE FAITI, a title can be added or interlined; and, there- bestowed on Henry VIII. of England by fore, if a deed be sealed and delivered, Pope Leo X., on the occasion of that with a blank left for the sum, which the monarch's publishing his writing against obligee fills up after sealing and delivery, Luther. When at the Reforma.tion lienthis will make the deed void. Every deed ry suppressed all the monasteries, and must be founded upon good and sufficient convents in England, the pope deprived consideration; not upon a Lisurious con- him of this title; but in the thirty-fifth tract, nor upon fraud or collusion, either year of his reign it, was confirmede by parto deceive bocea jide purchasers, or just liament, and it has been since constantly and lwiful creditors; any of which con- assumed by the sovereigns of England. siderations will vacate the deed. It takes DEFILE', a narrow way, or pass, effect only from the day of delivery; and, through which a company of soldiers can therefore, if a deed have no date, or a march only in file. date impossible, the delivery will in all DEFINT'TION, the ditermining the cases ascertain the date of it. The deliv- nature of things by words; or a brief decry of a deed may be alleged la any time scription of a thing by its properties. It after the deed; but unless it be sealed is generally effected by adding to a goneand regulnrly delivered, it is no deed. rio word the essential and peculiar qualiAnd lastly, it must be properly witnessed ties or circumstances of the thing to be or attested; which, however, is necessary defined; but a strictly accurate definition rather for preserving the evidence, than cannot always be given; and the most as intrinsically essential to the validity simple things are generally the least caof the instrument. pable of definition, from the difficulty of DE FAC'TO, in law, something actually finding terms more simple and intelligible in fact, or existing, in contradistinction than the one to be defined. to de jure, where a thing is only so in DEFIN/ITIVE, a term applied to justice but not in fact; as a king de facto, whatever terminates a process, question, is a person that is in actual possession &c. in opposition to provisional and interof a crown, but has no legal right to the locutory.-In grammnar, a word used to same; and a king de jure is the person define or limit the extent of the significawho has a just right to the crown, though tion of an appellative or common noun. he is not in possession of it. DEFORCE'MENT, in law, the holding DEFAMA'TION, the malicious utter- of lands or tenements to which another ing of ftlsehood with a view to injure person has a right. In Scotland, it deanother's reputation. Defamatory words notes a resisting of an officer in the cxewritten and published, constitute a libel. cution of law. DEFAULT', in law, a non-appearance DEGRADATION, in ecclesiastical afin court without assigning sufficient cause. fairs, the depriving a person of his digni-Defulteer, one who fails to account for ty and degree; as the degrad'tion of a public money entrusted to his care. clergyman by depriving him of holy orDEFEAS'ANCE, in law, a condition ders.-In military affairs, the depriving relating to a deed, which being performed, an officer of his commission.-In painting, the deed is defeated and rendered void. a lessening and obscuring of the appearA defeasance, or a bond, or a recogni- ance of distant objects in a landscape, that zance, or a judgment recovered, is a con- they may appear as they would do to an dition which, when performed, defeats it. eye placed at a distance. DEFECTIVE FIFTH, in music, an DEGREE', in universities, a mark of interval containing a semitone less than distinction conferred on thle students or the perfect fifth. It is also called semidia- members thereof as a testimony of their pente, and flat, lesser, or diminished fifth. proficiency in arts or sciences, and en DEFENCE', in law, the, reply which titling them to certain privileges. This the defendant makes after the declaration is usually evinced by a diploma. The is produced.-In military affairs, any first degree is that of Bachelor of Artts; work that covers or defends the opposite the second, that of MIaster of Arts. Hon. posts, as flanks, parapets, &c. orary degrees are those of Doctor of DiDEFEND'ANT, in law, the party that vsigity, Doctor of Laws, &c. Physicians is summoned into court, and defends, de- also receive the degree of Doctor qf Mlednies, or opposes the demand or charge, icine. The origin of degrees at the uniand maintains his own right. It is appli- versities of Paris and Bologna, the two ed whether the person defends, or admits most ancient in Europe, appears to have he claim and suffers a default. been only the necessary distinction be 138 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [DEL tween those who taught and those who word, are those persons who acknowllearnt. The former were styled (such edge the existence of one God, but diswas at least the case at Paris) doctors or believe in revealed religion. Taking teachers, and masters, as a token of re- the denomination in the most extenspect, indiscriminately. At what time the sive signification, a learned theologian distinction between these two degrees has thus divided deists into four classes. arose we cannot ascertain; but about the 1. Such as believe the existence of an middle of the 13th century we find. at eternal, infinite, independent, intelligent Paris, doctors and masters simply as grad- Being, and who teach that this supreme uates, and not necessarily connected with Being lmade the world, thoiugh he does the business of teaching; those who were not at all concern himself in the imanageso being called regent masters, or simply ment of it. 2. Those who believe not regents. The degree of Bachelor, the only the being, but also the providence of lowest in the several faculties, is certain- God with respect to the ratural awoild, but ly of French origin; from whence it has who not allowing any difference betwseen been argued that the whole system of moral good and evil, deny that God takes academical titles is so likewvise. Degrees any notice of the morally good or evil still continue to bear the same names, iactions of men; these things depending, and, with some variation, the same rela- as they imagine, on the arbitrary constitive academical rank, in most European tutions of human laws. 3. Those who countries; but the mode of granting them, having right apprehensions concerning and their value at different universities as the natural attributes of God, and his alltokens of proficiency, vary greatly. At governing providence, and some notion of Oxford and Cambridge degrees are given his moral perfections also; yet being in arts, divinity, law, medicine, and mu- prejudiced against the notion of the iinsic; but amnong all these the lowest de- mortality of the human soul. believe that gree in arts, viz. that of bachelor, is the men perish entirely at death, and that only one conferred on a substantial exam- one generation shall perpetually succeed ination, and the only one which is attain- another, witlout any future restoration ed by proceeding through a regular aca- or renovation of things. 4. Such as bedemical course of study. The higher de- lieve the existence of a Supreme Being, grees in arts, and those in the other facul- together with his providence in the govties, are attained simply by residence and ernment of the world, as also the olbligathe performaneo of a few unimportant tions of natural religion; but so far only, exercises. Honorary degrees, in the Eng- as these things are discoverable by the lish universities, are generally conferred light of nature alone, without believing. in civil law. any divine revelation. DEGREES of comparison, in grammar, DEI'TY, the nature and essence of the the inflections of adjectives which ex- Supremne Bein; a term frequently used press different degrees of the same qual- in a synonymous sense with God. —Also, ity; as, good, better, best.-Degrees, in a fabulous god or goddess; as, Jupiter, music, the small intervals of which the Juno, Apollo, &c. concords or harmonical intervals are com- DEJEU'NER, a term wholly naturalposed. ized in almost all the languages of rmodDE'ICIDE, a term only used for the ern Europe, not excepting the English, condemnation and execution of the Sa- signifying the morning meal. The mateviour of the world, by Pontius Pilate and rials of which it is composed vary of the Jews. course with the climate and usages of difDEIFICA'TION, the act of deifying, ferent countries; but it is worthy of reor enrolling among the heathen deities. mark that in France itself this term is DEI GRA'TIA, (by the grace of God,) rapidly losing, if indeed it has not already a Latin formula, usually inserted in the lost, its original acceptation, being used, ceremonial description of the title of a particularly by the fashionable world, as sovereign. It was used originally by the synonymous with the English luncheon. clergy. DEL CRED'ERE. a term in commerce DEI JUDI!CIUJM, the old Saxon trial expressive of a guarantee given by facby ordeal, so called because it was sup- tors, who for an additional premium warposed to be an appeal to God. rant the solvency of the parties to whom DEIPNOS'OPHIST, one of an ancient they sell goods upon credit. sect of philosophers who were famous for DELEGATE, a commissioner of aptheir learned conversation at meals. peal appointed by the king to hear apIDEISTS, in the modern sense of the peal causes from the ecclesiastical court. DEN)] AND THE FINTE ARTS. 139 In the United States, a person elected to oracle was the most favorable that could represent a territory in Congress, who well be imagined. Delphi formed at once has the right of debate, but not of voting. the seat of the Amphictyonie council and DELECA'TION, in the civil law, the the centre of Greece, and, as was univeract by which a debtor transfers to another sally believed, of the earth. Hence, in person the duty to pay, or a creditor every case of emergency, if a new form makes over to a third party the right to of government was to be instituted, war receive payment. to be proclaimed, peace concluded, or DELFT WARE, a coarse species of laws enacted, it came to be consulted, not porcel in, originally manufactured at only by the Greeks, but even by the neighDelft in Iolland, whence its name. boring nations; and thus the temple was DEL'ICACY, in the fine arts, minute enriched by an incredible number of the accuracy as opposed to strength or force: most valuable presents and the most slenderness of proportion, great finish, splendid monuments, and the town of and softness are its characteristics. Delphi rose to be one of the most wealthy DELIR'IUM, a state in which the ideas and important of the cities of Greece.of a person are wild land irregular, or do DEL'PHIN, an edition of the Latin clasnot correspond with the truth, or with sics, prepared and commuented upon by external objects. Or it may be defined thirty-nine of the most famous scholars of symnptomlntic derangement, or that which the day, at the suggestion of Louis XIV., is dependent on some other disease, in for the benefit of the young prince (in distinction from idiopathic derangement usumn Delphini) under the superintendor m7ania. ence of Montausier his governor, and his DELIVERPY, a part of oratory, refer- preceptors Bossuet and Huet. ring to the management of the voice; as, DEL'UGE, an inundation or overflowhe has a good or graceful delivery. ing of the eearth, either wholly or in part, DEL'PHI-, OIACLE OF, so called by water.-We have several deluges refrom Delphi, the capital of Phocis, the corded in history, as that of Ogyges, most famous of all the oracles of antiqui- which overflbwed almost all Attica, and ty, sacred to Apollo. The origin of the that of Deucalion, which drowned all oracle at Delphi is wrapt in obscurity. Thessaly, in Greece; but the most memBy some authors it is ascribed to chance; orable was that called the universal delbut many incline to believe that it owed uge, or Noah's flood, from which only its origin to certain exhalations, which, Noah and those with him in the ark, esissuing from a cavern on which it was caped. This flood makes one of the most situated, threw all who approached it into considerable epochas in chronology. Its convulsions, and during their continuance history is given by Moses in the book of communicated the power of predicting the Genesis, ch. vi. and vii., and its time is fixfuture. Be this as it may, these exhala- ed to the year from the creation 1656. tions were soon invested with a sacred From this flood, the state of the world is chlracter; and as their reputation ex- divided into " diluvian" and " ante-dilutended, the town of Delphi insensibly vian." arose around the cavity from which they DEWMAGOGUE, any factious orator issued. The responses were delivered by who acquires great influence with the popa priestess, called Pythia, who sat upon ulace; whom he flatters, cajoles, or leads a tripod placed over the mnouth of the cav- into danger, as best suits his purpose. ern; and after having inhaled the vapor, DEMAIN', or DEMEISNE, in law, a by which she was thrown into violent con- manor-house and the lands thereunto bevulsions, gave utterance to the wished-for longing, which the lord of the manor and prelictions, either in verse or prose, which his ancestors have time out of mind kept wre then interpreted by the priests. Ori- in their own occupation. It denotes also ginlly the consultation of the oracle was all the parts of any manor not in the a matter of great simplicity; but in pro- hands of freeholders; and is frequently cess of time, when the accuracy of the used for a distinction between those lands pre-ictions became known, a series of that the lord has in his own hands, or in temples, each more magnificent than its the hands of his lessee demised at a rackprelecessor, was erected on the spot. rent: or such other land appertaining to Immuense multitudes of priests and do- the manor, which belongs to free or copymestics were connected with the oracle; holders. and to such a height of celebrity did it DEMAND'ANT, in law, the pursuer attain, that it wholly eclipsed all the oth- in real actions, in distinction from tho er oracles of Greece. The position of the plaintiff. 110 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE LDE1M DEMAARCA'TION, LINE OF, every line verse. IHence the Demiurgus, or Logos, drawn for determining a border, which as the same imaginary agent is termed is not to be passed by foreign powers, or in the'Timcceus of Plato, is identified by by such as are at war with each other. the Platonizing Christians with the seeThe word was first introduced in 1493, ond person in the Trinity. when Pope Alexander VI., in order to DEMOCRACY, a form of government, put an end to the dispute, which prevailed in which the supreme power is lodged in betweue the crowns of Spain and Portu- the hands of the people collectively, or gal, relative to their Indian discoveries in which the people exercise the powers ancd conquests by virtue of his pontifical of legislation. authority drew through the ocean an DlEM3OGOR'GON, in mythology, a imanginary line, by which the dominions mysterious divinity of antiquity, of whose of both parties were defined; and thus origin, attributes, and history no satisoriginated the expression line of' dmera- factory account can be given, in consecation. It is onlyin this phrase that the quence of the obscurity in which they word is employed to this day in all the are enveloped. By some writers he is languages of Europe. regarded as the author of creation; othB)El'I, a half fellow at Magdalen ers consider him to have seen a fanous College, Oxford.-Also, a term in compo- magician, to whose, spell all the inhabsition, signifying half; as, demnigod, a itants of Hades were subjected; but all hero who was enrolled among the gods. concur in viewing him as an object rathel DEM'IT-CADENCE, in music, an im- of terror than of sworship. perfect cadence, or one that falls on any DE'MON, or Di)E/MON, a name used other than the key-note. by the ancients for certain supernatural DEM./IDITONE', in music, a minor beings, whose existence they supposed third. They vere spirits or genii who appeared )DEM'IGODS, a general appellation to men, either to do them service or to of the inferior divinities of Greece and hurt them. The Platonists distinguish Rome, more particularly of such of the between gods, demons, and heroes; the mixed offspring of divinities and mortals demons being those since called angels as were afterwards deified. Of these the Socrates and Tasso spoke, in very distant number was almost incredible; and though ages, of being each attended by a demon their worship was not cultivated with so or familiar. In Tasso, this pretension much veneration or solemnity as that of has been referred to an hypochondriacal the superior gods, it prevailed to a greater state of mind; in Socrates, the matter or less extent in every quarter of the has given rise to much speculation. From ancient world, and formed a large part the manner, however, in which the phiof the heathen mythology. losopher is said to have described his deDEIM'IQUAVEIR, in music, a note?tost, there seems good reason to believe equal in duration to half a quaver. that. he spoke figuratively of his natural DEM'ITINT, in painting, a tint rep- conscience or intellect: " it directed him resenting the mean or medium between how to act in every important occasion light and shade; by some called a half of life, and restrained him from impru tint. dence of conduct." The Greeks, from DEMI'SE, in law, is applied to an whom we derive the term in Scriptural estate either in fee, for term of life or language, applied it originally to the years, though most usually the latter.- deified spirits of departed heroes, whlom The death of a king, or a queen regnant, they supposed to have some influence in is termed the demise of the crown, by promoting the good of mankind, and conwhich is implied a transfer of the royal sidered therefore as objects of adoration. authority or kingdom to a successor.- The manner, however, in which demons Demisnse and re-demise, a conveyance are represented in Scripture as evil spirwhere there are mutual leases made from its inflicting iniury on men at the sugone to another of the same land, or some- gestion of the Father of Evil, is conformthing out of it. able to the oriental notion upon such DEMIUR'GUS, Demiurge, in the ori- points; except, indeed, that in the Scripginal sense of the word, as used by clas- tures the general supremacy of God, who sical authors, an artificer employed in suffers evil to exist, is maintained, in opordinary handicraft. In the language position to the eastern dogma of the eterof Platonist writers, it denotes an exalted nal and equal conflict of the good and and mysterious agent, by whose means evil principles. The early fatheyr inGod is supposed to have created the uni- dulged in much specucla*i.-t iiga. teso DEM] AND THE FINE ARTS. 141 subjects; but in modern times the literal man: he describes them as of different interpretation of the agency of demons orders. The mortals who lived in the as referred to in Scripture has been fre- golden age have become diemons of the quently called in question. The demons, first rank; those of the silver age have like the fairies and goblins of other my- inferior honors, and are mortal, although thologies, are represented with various their life is prolonged to a length of characters of beneficence, malice, and many hundreds of human generations. wanton mischief. They were sometimes The heroes form a still inferio.r class of distinguished by the names Cacodemon intermediate spirits. In popular lanand Agathodemnon, according as their in- guage. when hero-worship became widely fluenee was evil or beneficent. spread in Greece, the words hero and DEMO'NIACS. persons possessed by daemon were used without much distineor under the influence of demons or devils, tion; but the more recondite difference of whom mention is made in some pas- appears to have beenl this,-th hero was sages in the New Testament. Some di- the departed worthy himself, such as he vines have supposed that such influence had once lived on earth; the damnon was was permitted to the powers of evil at his immaterial part, converted into a sort one particular time for the greater mani- of abstract principle,-a spiritual agent festation of our Lord's authority in re- of good or evil, favorable or unfriendly buking themir; but it is certain that the to mankind. It is in this sense also that idea of demoniacal possession was very the inferior deities themselves are desigancient among the oriental nations;,and nated as diemons. Thales is said to hcave those to wvhom it seems incredible that defined more accurately the difference it should have been grounded on fact, between gods, heroes as the souls of demust be content with interpreting such ceased mortals, and dnlmons properly so passages of Scripture as a concession to called; and in Plato's theology the dclthe opinions and feelings of the Jewish mons occupyan important place-as interpeople. mediate spirits, closely watching over, diDEMONOL'OGY, the belief in an in- recting', and recording the actions of mortermediate race of beings, between deity tals. By later writers they were divided and humanity, has been a prevalent fea- into many classes: some ministers of ture icn almnost every popular creed; and punishment and revenge, some freeing 1ll tra.dition or speculation respecting it from evils already befallen, some wardmay be said to fall under the general ing.-tf their approach. It was in Egypt term of demonology. Amnong the early and Syria, under the Ptoleomies and Scoriental nations, especially the Persians leucdait, that the Grecian philosophy and and Egyptians, the science of astronomy mythology came in contact with those of appears to have been essentially connect- the ltabbis; and from that union a new ed with this branch of superstition; the mixed system of dceomonology took its heavenly bodies were honored as dtnmons origin. Hence, in the Greek of the New or celestial intelligences. This ancient Testame-nt, the word 6a!utst,1ov is taken, belief appears to have had much influ- without addition or qualification, as an ence on the Jewish rabbinical writers; evil spirit, and rendered by our trarnslaand out of it connected with what is re- tors "devil." Analogous to the decmions vealed to us in the Old Testament of the of the Greeks were the genii of the Roexistence and attributes of angels, they mans; but there were other peculiar and framed their peculiar mythology. The characteristic features about the belief in Greek word daettos, dcmon, is said to be the latter which show it, to be of a. differderived from &ncen,, kncowsing' or intelli- ent origin, probably derived from the gent. In the earliest monuments of the Etruscans, who, as some antiquarians language, its signification is vague and believe, drew their mythology froem the uncertain. In Homer it generally signi- ancient source of Saumothrace. The genii fies a deity: 6dsasolov is anything god- of the Romans were a.n innumerable host like. wonderful, which may have been of spirits: every man, house, or city, had commeunicated or inspired by a deity; an attendant genius. The genius of but, icn the Odyssey, some traces are to every mortal is mortal as himself; acbe found of the meaning "'fortunate" or companies hin into life, and conducts "unfortunate" attached to the word. In him in all its vicissitudes. In this sense, Hesiod, however, we have an express the genius was a favorable companion: mythological account of the dimoens,- to enjoy the good things of life is repreas spirits, in a state between mortality sented as "indulging" or gratifying the and divinity, peaceful and favorable to genius; abstaining from them, as "do 142 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURiE [DEO frauding him. Wine and flowers are ap- the court before any further proceedings propriate offerings to him. But he is can be had in the suit. A demurrer conalso the companion of the mischances as fesses the fact or facts to be true, but dewell as the pleasures of life; unless, as nies the sufficiency of the facts in point the difficulty appears sometimes to have of law to support the claim or defence. been solved, the individual had his pair Demurrers are either general, where no of genii good and bad. And this latter particular cause is shown, or special, should appear to have been the popular where the causes of demurrer are set belief among the Etruscans, as far as we forth. can collect it, in a subject, where all is DEMY', the name of paper of a parva gue and indistinct; and it is impossi- ticular size, of which great quantities are ble accurately to separate the abstract used for printing books on.,creations of philosophers and poets from DENA'RI.US, in Roman antiquity, the the substantive objects of general belief chief silver coin among the Romans, The Etruscans represented the evil geni- worth S pence. As a weight, it was the us' as a dark and frightful figure, attend- seventh part of a Roman ounce.-Deing a mortal on one side, who is protected narius Dei, God's Penny, or earnest or followed on the other by a child or money given and received by the parties youth-the usual emblem of the good to contracts. It was so called because in genius. The genius is often represented ancient times it was given to the church on vases and in ancient paintings as a or to the poor. winged figure: and a genius holding a DENDROPHO'RIA, in antiquity, the torch downwards is the emblem of death. carrying of boughs or branches of trees; The demons of the middle ages were sim- a religious ceremony so called, because ply fallen angels or devils, according to certain priests called froi thence denthe sense of the word in the New Testa- d'ophori, or tree-bearers, marched in ment; and hence demonology, in the procession, carrying the branches of trees language of modern writers, generally in their hands in honor of Baccllc,, CyEignifies the history of the supposed na- bele, Sylvanus, or any other god. ture and properties of such evil spirits, DEN'IZEN, in England, an alien who and of the modern superstition respect- is made a subject by royal letters patent, ing compacts between them and man- holding a middle state between an alien kind. and a natural born subject. lie may DEMONSTRA'TION, a proof of a purchase and possess lands, and enjoy proposition founded on axioms and inter- any office or dignity; yet it is short of mediate proof; called a priori when the naturalization; for a stranger, when effect is proved from the cause, and apos- naturalized, may inherit lands by deteriori when the cause is proved from the scent, which a denizen cannot do. If a effect. It has been remarked that the denizen purchase lands, his issue that knowledge acquired by demonstration, are born afterward may inherit them, though certain, is not so clear and evi- but those he had before shall not; and dent as intuitive knowledge. In every as a denizen may purchase, so he may step that reason makes in demonstrative take lands by devise. knowledge, there is an intuitive knowl- DENOUE'MENT, a French word, by edge of that agreement or disagreement modern custom nearly anglicized, signiit seeks with the next intermediate idea, fying the development or winding up of which it uses as a proof; for if it were any event. not so, that yet would need a proof, since DEN'TIL, in architecture, an ornawithout the perception of such agreement ment in cornices, bearing some reserror disagreement, there is no knowledge blance to teeth; used particularly in the produced. Corinthian and Ionic orders. DEMUR', in law, to stop at any point DEIODAND, at common law. every in the pleadings, and rest or abide on personal chattel which has been the irnthat point in law for a decision of the mediate occasion of the death of a human cause. being, forfeited to the king on the findDEMUR'RAGE, in commerce, an al- ing of a coroner's inquest; to be applied lowance made to the master of a ship by as alms by his almoner. the merchants, for staying in a port long- DEONTOL'OGY, the science of duty; er than the time first appointed. a term assigned by the followers of Jere. DEMTURRPER, in law, a pause or stop my Bentham to their own doctrine of put to any action upon some point of ethics, which is founded on the tendency difficulty which must be determined by of actions to promote happiness. DES] AND THE FINE ARTS, 143 DEPART'MENT, either a division of from another, called its primitive, as territory, as the departmoents of France; manhood from man, &e. or a distinct class of official duties allotted DEROGA'TION, the act of annulling, to a particular person. revoking, or destroying the value and DEPLOY', the spreading of troops; a effect of anything, or of restraininig it3 military term. operation; as, an act of parliament is DEPO'NENT, in law, one who gives passed in derogation of the king's prewritten testimony, under oath, to inter- rogative. rogatories exhibited in the court of Chan- DEROG'ATORY CLAUSE, in a per- cery. son's will, is a sentence or secret characDEPORTA'TION, a sort of banish- ter inserted by the testator, of which hle ment among the Romans, to some island reserves the knowledge to himself, with or other place which was allotted to a a condition that no will he may make criminal for the place of his abode, with hereafter shall be valid unless this clause a prohibition not to leave it, on pain of is inserted word for word. This is done death. as a precaution to guard against later DEPOS'IT, among civilians, something wills being extorted by violence or otherthat is committed to the custody of a per- wise improperly obtained. son, to be kept without any reward, and D E It / V I S E, or D E R'V I S, a name to be returned again on demand. given to various Mahometan priests or DEPOSITION, in law, the testimony monks. Many of the dervises travel over given in court by a witness, upon oath.- the whole of the Eastern world, enterDeposition, the settlement of substances taining the people wherever they come dissolved in fluids; as, banks are some- with agreeable relations of the curiosities times called depositions of alluvial mat- and wonders they have met with. There ter.-Also, the act of dethroning a king; are dervises in Egypt, who live with their or divesting any one in authority of his families, and exercise their trades, of power and dignity. which kind are the dancing dervises at DaDEPOT', a French word for a store or mascus. They are distinguished among magazine for depositing goods or mer- themselves by the different forms and chandise. colors of their habits; those of Persia DEPRIVA'TION, an ecclesiastical were blue; the solitaries and wanderers censure, by which a clergyman is de- wear only rags of different colors; others prived of his dignity. carry on their heads a plume, made of DEPUTA'TI, in antiquity, persons the feathers of a cock; and those of Egypt who attended the army for the purpose wear an octagonal badge of a greenish of carrying away the wounded from the white alabaster at their girdles, and a field of battle, and waiting on them. The high stiff cap without anything round it. armorers were also sometimes called They generally profess extreme poverty, deputati. and lead an ascetic life. DE.P'UTY, in a general sense, signifies DES'CANT, in music, composition in a person appointed or elected to act for several parts. It is either plain, which another; or who is sent upon some busi- consists in the orderly placing of many ness by a community.-In law, a deputy concords answering to simple counter- * is one who exercises an office in another's point; figu rate or florid, wherein disright.; and, properly, the misdemeanor of cords are employed; or double, where the such deputy shall cause the person he rep- parts are so contrived that the treble or resents to lose his office. —By a deputa- any high part may be made the bass, and tion is generally understood the person the contrary. or persons authorized and sent to transact DESCENT', in a general sense, is the business for others, either with a special tendency of a body from a higher to a colmmission and authority, or with gene- lower place; thus all bodies, unless otherral powers. wise determined by a force superior to DER'ELICTS, in law, such goods as their gravity, descend towards the centre are wilfully relinquished by the owner. of the earth.-In law, it means translnisIt also signifies a thing forsaken, or cast sion by inheritance; which is either linaway by the sea; thus, lands which the eal or collateral. Descent is lineal, when sea has suddenly left are called derelict it proceeds directly from the grandfather lands; and vessels forsaken at sea are to the father, from the father to the son, called derelict ships. and from the son to the grandson; colDERIV/ATIVE, in grammar, any lateral, when it does not proceed in a word derived (i. e. taking its origin) direct line, but from a man to his brother, 144 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [DES nephew, or other collateral representa- possessed in a more eminent degree than tive.-Descent, in genealogy, the order of by Sir Walter Scott. All his delineations succession of descendants in a line or of natural scenery are executed with an family; or their distance from a common unrivalled fervor of imagina tion: while progenitor. at the same time they are malrked by DESCRIP'TION, in rhetoric, is used such traits of character and truth that to designate such a strong and lively rep- every object is brought distinctly before resentation of any object as places it the mind, and might without dinficulty be before the reader in a clear and satisfac- transferred to canvass by the artist's tory light. The execution of this task, pencil. as is universally admitted, is attended DESECRA'TION, a word denoting the with great difficulty, and requires no or- very opposite of consecration, being the dinary powers. Indeed, such is the im- act of divesting anything of a sacred portance which some critics of eminence purpose or use to which it has been deattach to the possession of this quality, voted. that they have erected it into a standard DES'ERT, a large uninhabited tract whereby to estimate the productions of of land, or extent of country, entirely genius in every department of literature; barren. In this sense, some are sandy and though such a test may seem some- deserts, as those of Arabia, Libya, and what arbitrary, yet when xie consider the Zaara: others are stony, as the desert of powers indispensably requisite to form a Pharan, in Arabia Petre. " The Desert," good description, we shall not be sur- absolutely so called, is that part of Araprised to find that amid the galaxy of bia south of the Holy Land, where the brilliant productions in other depart- children of Israel wandered forty years. ments with which our literature is adorn- But the term desert may be, and often ed, there are so few aathors who have is, applied to an uninhabited country, attained eminence in this. A good de- covered with wood or overrun with vegescription, is simple and concise; it sets tation incapable of affording sustenance before us such features of an object as on to man. the first view strike and warm the fancy; DESER'TER, an officer, soldier, or it gives us ideas which a statuary or a sailor, who absents himself from his post painter could lay hold of and work after without permission, and with the intenthem-one of the strongest and most de- tion not to return. The crime of desercisive trials of the real merits of descrip- tion has in all ages and countries been tion. Hence among the qualities essen- regarded with peculiar detestation. In tially necessary, and without which, in- Greece and Rome, the deserter, during deed, even mediocrity is unattainable in war, suffered death; during peace, was this walk of literature, are an eye con- deprived only of civil rights: a sound versant with nature in all her aspects, a and enlightened distinction. The uilistrono imagination wherewith to catch tary code of Great Britain inflicts " death her grand and prominent features, and or such other punishments as may be adgreat simplicity and clearness of style to judged by a general court-cmartial" on transmit the impression unimpaired to deserters; thus leaving a proper discre$the imagination of others. There is no tionary power for the exercise of lenity species of composition, prose or poetical, in cases where the motives to the crime into which description does not enter in may bear the most favorable construction. some shape; but the termn has been bor- DESIDERA'TUlM, is used to signify rowed from literature generally, and ap- something wanted to improve or perfect plied more particularlyt to those poetical any art or science, or to promote the.dproductions which are devoted exclu- vancement of any object or study w1vttsively to the description of nature, such soever. The longitude is a desidereatum as Milton's Allegro and Thomson's Sea- in navigation. A tribunal to settle enasons. Hence, although Shakspeare may tional disputes without war is a great with great justice be styled a descriptive desideratum. poet, from the exquisite descriptions of DESIGN', in a general sense, tlhe plan, nature with which his unrivalled plays order, representation, or construction of are interspersed; yet as his chief excel- a building, &c., by an outline or general lence lies in portraying the character view of it. The word desig, in paintling, and pn ssions of man, he does not fall, is used for the first draurpht of' a largo properly speaking, within this category. work, with an intention to be executed By no writer, either of antiquity or mod- and finished in a more elaborate manncer. ern times, was the faculty of description Every work of design is to be considered DES] AND THa FINE ARTS. 145 either in relation to the art that produced the king of Prussia are despotical or ablit, to tile nature of its adaptation to the solute sovereigns; meaning by this, that end sought, or to the nature of the end it all legislative and executive measures is destinec to serve; thus its beauty is seem to proceed from their free will. But dependent on the wisdom or excellence the abstract idea of despotism goes farther displayedl in the ldesign, on the fitness or than this; and means a government by a propriety of the adaptation, and upon the single individual with unlimited power utility of the end. The considerations of over the lives and fortunes of his subjects. design, fitness, and utility, have become The prophet Daniel, in his description of the three great sources of beauty of form. the Babylonian monarch Nebuch adnezThis beauty frequently arises from the zar, has given what is perhaps the best combined power of these expressions. account of this species of government. Every work of art supposes unity of de- "All people, nations, and lainguages, ign, or somie particular end proposed by trembled eand feared before him: whom the artist in its structure/or composition. he wouldl he slew, and whom he would he In forms considered simply as expressive kept alive: whom he would lie ase up, of design, tho only possible sign of unity and whom lie would he put down." But of design is uniformity or regularity, by thouogh this gives a vivid idea of what is which the productions of chance are dis- understood by a pure despotism, it can tinguished from those of desin; and be regarded only as a popular, or rather without the appearance of this. variety poetical account, of a governmen t where becomes confusion. In every beautiful the sovereign is possessed of great power. work of adrt, ve are not satisfied with mere The truth is, that a purely despotical design, — e must have elegant design, of government never had, and never can which the grand feature is variety; it is have, any existence in fact. IHow absothis which in general distinguishes beau- lute or despotsical soever, all sovereigns tiful fromI plain formIs, and without it must conduct their government so as to uniformity is dnll and insipid. procure the concurrence an i support of a DESIGNA'TOR. in Roman antiqui- large, or, at all events, a powerful porties, a species of imaster of the ceremo- tion of their subjects. A despot is, after uies, whose duty it was to assign to each all, merely an individual, and becomes person his proper place in the theatres quite powerless when those masses of inand at the other public spectacles. Ofi- dividuals, in whom the ability to coerce cers with this appellation were employed others really resides, disapprove of his among the lomians on every occasion of poceeedings. The praetorian bands in. anpublic displhay, and in all domestic solem- tiquity, the janissaries of Constantini;ple, nities, whetih1tr of a joyful or mournful and the grenadirs of Petersburg, must, character. Bult the chief occupation of at least, bo led by opinion. But though the desinrators consisted in arranging andl the sanction of the instruments employeed mairshalling the fneirals of distinguished in his government be indispensable to the persons; and in this c:.pacity he was at- existence of a despot, it is but seldom that tended by a troop ofi inferior offcers, all he dares trust to it only. The inost abarrayed in black, whose part it was, solute and tyrannical of the Rilomnan emamonmg aother duties, to keep off the crowd, perors, vwhen they wished to get rid of like the lictors of the magistrates. any obnoxious individual, dared not to DESIRE', a wish to possess some grati- order him to be eecuted, but were oblied fioation or source of happiness which is to suborn fatlse evidence, and to proceed supposed to be obtainsiable. It maay be agairnst himn according to legal forms: either spiritual, intellectual, or sensual; and so it is in all countries. Were the but when directcod merely to sensal en- most absolute sovereign of whom we lihve joyment, it differs little from animal ap- any cern'tasii accounts openly to sseie isi petite. the property of any individual in his diiDES/POTISLi, a form of government minions, or to put him to death, witlout where the monarch rules by his sole and being a.ble to assign some app rently satuncontrolled a. uthority. In popular lan- isfilctory g,-rounds for doinrg so, the foundraguage, all governments are called des- tions of his power would be shaken to the potical that are adi dliistered by one in- very centre; and the repetition of such dividial whose decisions are not con- conduc't vould most likely occasion his trolled by any representative assembly deposition. The strengthof absolute govor reco-nized subordinate authorities. ernments, when they embark in oppresIThus, we are in the habit of saying that sive courses, depends on their being able the iemperors of Austria and uussia and to conceal or pervert the real facts of the 10 1.- -,,~,~-~~,~ —-~ —-----— ~............... 146 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [DEY case. so that the victims of their tyranny by the Romans Fatucm, and by the Greeks may be made to appear to be the victims Avayir, Necessity, or Moapu, a Part, as if of their justice. We may be assured that it were a chain or necessary series of no ruler of any country emerged from the things indissolubly linked together. Acmerest barbarism ever could, for any con- cording to nany of the heathen philososiderable period, openly commit on his phers, destiny was a secret and invisible own responsibility any gross injustice to- power or virtue, which with ineomprehenwards any considerable portion of his sible wisdom regulated all the occursubjects. Those who have done so have rences of this world which to humnan eyes rarely, if ever, failed to expiate their fol- appear irregular and fortuitous. The ly and tyranny by some signal punish- Stoics, on the other hand, understood by men t. Neither the government of Prus- destiny a certain concatenation of things, si;t nor Austria, nor even that of Russia, which from all eternity follow each other can be justly called despotical. Their of absolute necessity, there being no powrulers are controlled to a very great ex- er able to interrupt their connection. To tent by the force of public opinion; and this invisible power even the gods were are influenced by a much more lively compelled to succumb. Jupiter and Vefeeling of responsibility than the sover- nus are represented by the poets as vaineins of limited monarchies, or of coun- ly attempting to withdraw Cssar from tries in which the legislative functions are his impending fate; but, as Seneca obdivided. It is this fear of their subjects serves, it is thus that the Ruler of all that makes them so anxious, by laying things, in writing the book of destiny, has restrictions on the freedom of the press, prescribed the limitation of his own power. to conceal their conduct, or to obtain a DETACIHED. when figures stand out favorable judgment upon it. There can from the background and from each other be no despotism, nor any considerable ap- in a natural manner, so as to show that proach towards despotieal government, there is space and atmosphere between, where the press is free and the people in- we say they appear detaclcl. structed; and it is to their influence in DETACII/MENT, a body of troops sesecuring the freedom of the press, and lected or drawn out from several regiconsequently in enlightening public opin- ments or companies, on some special serion, and making the bulk of the people vice or expedition. Also, a number of acquainted with their real interests, that ships, taken from a fleet and sent on a the advantage of representative assem- separate service. blies and of a popular form of govern- DET'INUE, in law, a writ or action meant is mainly to be found. that lies against a person who has goods DESSERT', a word, of doubtful ety- or other things delivered to him to keep, mology. signifying the last service at din- and who afterwards detains or refuses to ner, consisting of fruits and confections, deliver them up. &c. The modern dessert is probably cquiv- DEUCE, DUSE, or DEUSE, a demon. alent to the mens6s secundce of the Ro- A deviling, or little devil. The ancient mans. If we believe Congreve, the term Germans gave the name of dzusll to cercame into use among the French about tain demons, and it is supposed that the the commencement of the 17th century, singular dusius is a corruption of Drusus, and was soon adopted into and natural- the son of Tiberius. ized in most of the European languages. DEUTERON'OMY, one of the sacred In all the countries of Europe the splen- books of the Old Testament, or the fifth dor of the dessert has ever since the pe- book of the Penateuch. It is so called, riod of its introduction kept pace with the because this last part of the work of progress of refinement and civilization, Moses comprehends a recapitulation of and by many gastroinomes the qualities the law he had before delivered to the and arrangement of a dessert are looked Israelites himself. upon as the most valid test of all that is DEVICE', in painting, an emblem Attic in taste and refined in elegance. or representation of anything, with a DES'TINY, an inevitable necessity de- motto subjoined or otherwise introduced. pending upon a superior cause. This doc- Badges, impresses, and devices, were trine has, under a variety of names, been greatly in vogue in England, from the embodied in almost all the religious sys- reign of Edward I. to that of Elizabeth, terns of antiquity; and even in modern when they began to be disused. times, with a few modifications, it has DEV'IL, the chief of the apostatte anbeen largely adopted by many sects of gels; Satan, the tempter of the human the Christian church. Destiny was called race. )TA] AND T'rE FINE ARTS. 147 DEVISE', in law, is the disposition of tion of a diphthong, or a contracted syllareal estate by will; being distinguished ble into two syllables; as, in Latin, aurais from a bequest of personal estate, that for aurse, &c.; and, in-English, the resobeing termed a legacy. The person to lution of the last syllable of participles by whom a devise is made is called a de- a sound of the final e; beloved, cursid, &c. visee. DIAGNO'SIS, the art of distinguishing DEY, a Turkish title of dignity, given one disease from another. The chara.cto the governors of Algiers (before the teristic symptoms of diseases by which French conquest,) Tunis and Tripoli. they are reconized, are termed their The dey is chosen for life from among diagnostic symptoms. the chief authorities of the place, with DI'AGRAM, the figure or scheme the approbation of the Turkish soldiery. drawn for the illustration of a matheAt Tunis the equivalent title of bey is matical proposition, or the demonstration'nlore usually substituted for dey. This of any of its properties. It is also used teTm is admitted by all philologists to be in other branches of science, and in the of very great antiquity; though it is in- fine arts, for the general purposes of il- possible to assign any precise date to its lustration. introduction. DI/AGRAPtI, a name given by the DIABCRIIT/IC MARKS, marks used to French artists to a recently-invented indistinguish letters between the forms of strument used in perspective. which nmuch similarity exists. Thus n DIALECT, in the philosophical sense and u are distinguished in German run- of the word, any variety of a common ning hand by the mark s over the latter language. Hence, German, English, letter. Swedish, &c., are all strictly said to be DI)IADEM, the frontlet worn by the dialects, as coming all of them from the kings and princes of antiquity, and also same original stock. Commonly, howby their wives. It was made of silk, ever, we limit the application of the wool. or yarn, narrow, but wider in the term dialect to the varieties of a nationcentre of the forehead, and generally al language;`and speak of the dialects white. Those of the Egyptian gods and of English, French, &c. In Greek, the kings are adorned with the emblem of four dialects, Doric, Ionic, 2Eolic, Attic, the sacred serpent. The Bacchic diadem, were the four written varieties of the -.;:~ ^-9 —'-laniguage, each possessing a literature of its own. In this respeet no modern tongue presents a parallel to the Greek; inas- I / mf^"^'s/ ^ \ ~much as, in all, one dialect has been ar-, ^X \[l/) \' ~bitrarily adopted as the standard of polite I2dv -iff ^^'('^ \ writing and conversation; and the writ('\),Xt i )) A \ I ten works which are extant in the other,'GA //i. dialects are regarded merely as exceep~\I'% [r Yv::j.// tnLions to the general rule. DIALECTICS, a name which was ori-'1, 0//,/ ^^ginally used by Plato as synonymous >8,~~~1 _0$Ey -^with metaphysics, or the highest philoso1ie. —._'..?-" phy. Strictly speaking, it can only be reogarded as a preparatory discipline for or credemenon, which the Indian Bacchus such investigations, or at most as a scienwore, consisted of a folded band encircling tifice method of prosecuting them. Thee the forehead and temples, and fastened most splendid examples of dilectical jbehind with hanging ends. With the subtlety that exist are to be found in the Parsees (Persians) the diadem was wound Dialogtues of Plato, especially in those round the tiara, and was bluish white. entitled Parmrenides, the Statessan aocnd The Greeks presented a diadem to every Sophist. Aristotle expresses himself with victor in the public garnes; and it was some contempt of dialectics. It is certain, also an attribute of priests and priestesses. however, that its own loric owes its existThe real diadem, like the sceptre, is ence to the dialectical exercises of tie symbol of power, especially in the repre- Platonic schools; and that it may, in one sentation of Juno, who is thereby desig- point of view, be regarded as a body of nated as the consort of the sovereign of I canons and directions for their legitima.te the gods and men, and partaking of his use. rn modern times various systems power. of dialectics have been propounded in difDI2EP'ESIS, in grammar, the resolu- ferent countries; but by no philosophers, 48 CYOLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [mA either ancient or modern, has this science sisting of two points placed over one of been more successfully cultivated than two vowels, as mosaic, to separate the by tle Germans, who, among a host of diphthong, and show that they must be other names more or less distinguished, sounded distinctly.-In rhetoric, dialysis can boast of a Fichte, Kant, Leibnitz, is a figure of speech in which several IHegel, Schelling, and Schlegel, as the words are placed together, without the propounders each of a peculiar dialecti- aid of a conjunction, as vensi, vidi, vici. cal system. DIAMOND, the most valuahle and DI'ALOGUE, in literature, a compo- the hardest of gems. When pure, it is sition or part of a composition in the perfectly clear and pellucid, and is emiform of a conversation between two or nently distinguished from all other submore persons. The dialogue was the stances, by its vivid splendor, and the form most generally adopted by the an- brightness of its reflections. Though cients for the conveyance of instruction, found of different shapes, and sometimes and was considered equally applicable to accidentally tinfed with several colors, the most grave and philosophical, and to yet it ever carries the same distinguishthe most ludicrous and comical subjects. in characters. Diamonds are generally Thus it was adopted by Plato. Cicero, and very small; but a few large ones have jLucian, with equal success. Plato chose been found, for which incredible prices this form for the conveyance of his phi- have been given. The largest ever losophical sentiments; because real con- known belonged to the king of Portugal; versation had been the mode by which it weighed 1680 carats, and was valued, his master, Socrates, (who left no writ- although uncut, at 224,000,0001. sterling; ing,) gave instruction to the Athenians. the one in the sceptre of the emperor of In the Dialolues of Plato, Socrates is Rlussia weighs 779 carats, and is valued himself introduced as the chief interlocu- at upwards of 4,000,0001., but was bought tor. Among modern writers the philo- by the empress Catharine for about sophical dialosgue has been frequently 135,0001. The Pitt diamond, which, at employed for the same purpose, more es- that time was one of the largest, weighed pecilly by the French, to whose language 136 carats, and cost Louis XIV. 130,0001. and mode of thought it should seem to be The Mogul diamond, called Koh-i-noor peculiarly suited. Among other eminent or Mountain of Light, exhibited at the persons of that country who have enriched G-reeat London Exposition of Industry in its literature with this species of compo- 1851, weighs nearly 280 catrats, and was sition are, Fenelon; Paschal, in his Pro- estimated by Tavernier at 468,9591., or vin.cial Letters; Bouhours, in his Lnztre- a cordinfg to the rule proposed by Jcitiens iste et ist d'Eu.rne'e; Fonctenelle, fries, it would be worth 622,0001. This in his Dialotges of theL Dead, and PlT- diamond formed a part of the spoil taken rality qf VWorlds; Galiani, Sur le Corn- in the Sikh war, on the defeat of Runmrercc des Grains, &e. In England, this jeet Singh, and was presented by tho method of composition has been less fre- East India Company to Queen Victoria. qlently practised; and, perhaps, with The places whence diamonds are brought the exception of Berkeley and Hurd, has are the island of Borneo, and the king rarely succeeded in the hands of those doms of Visapour, Golconda, Bengal, in who attempted it. Both the Germans ithe East Indies; and the Brazils, in the and Italians have attempted to impart a West Indies. These gems consist of pure knowledge of their different philosophical carbon, with a specific gravity of 3'5; and systems in this manner. Among the the hardest tools making no impression latter may be mentioned Machiavelli on them, they are cut and ground by the and Algarotti; and among the former, power of their own substance. In the Tessil ng, Mendelssohn, Schelling, and experiments of modern chemists, the Herder; though the labors of none of diamond has been reduced to ashes by these distinguished persons in this de- the power both of the furnace and the partinent of literature are so important burning glass.-Diamono ds are valuable as to require a.ny particular notice in I for many purposes. Their powder is the this place. The dramatic dialogue differs best for the lapidary and gem engraver, from the philosophical, inasmuch as its and more economical than any other masubject is one of action. The whole of terial for cutting, engraving, and polishmodern dramas is dialogue, with the ing hard stones. Glaziers. use them for exception of occasional monologue or cutting their glass; their diamond being soliloquy. set in a steel socket, and attached to a DIAL'YSIS, amark or character, con- small wooden handle. It is very remark DIA] AND THE FINE ARTS. 149 able, that only the point of a natural temples were erected in her honor would crystal can be used; cut or split dia- comprise every city of note in the ancient monds scratch, but the glass will not world. Among others may be mentioned break along the scratch, as it does when 1 Ephesus, Abydos, Heraclea, Aulis, Erea natural crystal is used. The diamond tria, Samos, Bubastus in Egypt, Delos has also of late years become an article (whence she was termed Delia,) and of great value to engravers, particu- Mount Aventine at Rome. But of all larly in the drawing or ruling of lines, her temples, that at Ephesus was the which are afterwards to be deepened by most celebrated. It was erected at the the use of aqua fortis; for which purpose joint expense of all the states of Asia; steel points, called etching needles, were and according to the accounts of ancient formerly used. authors, it must have surpassed in splenDIA'NA, in mythology, the Latin dor all the structures of antiquity, and name of the goddess known to the Greeks fully deserved to be regarded as one of by the name of Artemis, the daughter of the wonders of the world. A small statue Jupiter and Latona, and sister of Apol- of the goddess, or, as she was termed by lo. She was the virgin goddess of the her votaries, the " Great Diana of the chase, and also presided over health. Ephesians," which was commonly supThe sudden deaths of women were at- posed to have been sent from heaven, was tributed to her darts, as those of men here enshrined and adorned with all that were to the arrows of Apollo. In later wealth and genius could contribute. The times she was confounded with various fate of this temple is well known. On the other goddesses, as Hecate, Lucina, Pro- day that Alexander the Great was born, serpina, and Luna. In the two last of it was set on fire by Eratostratus, from a these characters she was said to appear morbid desire to transmit his name even in the nether world and in heaven re- with infamy to posterity. This edifice spectively, while on earth she assumed was afterwards rebuilt on a plan of simithe character of' Artemis; whence she was lar magnificence; and it remained in full called the three-formed goddess. She possession of its wealth and reputation till was generally represented as a healthy the year 260, A.D., when it was completeactive maiden in a huntress's dress, with ly destroyed during an invasion of the a handsome but ungentle expression of Goths. DIANW'A, in rhetoric, a figure of speech by which a correct interpretation ~/7~,A~ X~: is given to a subject suitable to the oeca~~ seeion. { tand two greater semi-tones.-Diapason, \/'// \ I the fundamental or standard scale by ( (1 \ <^ which musical instruments are made. DIAPEN'TE, in music, a fifth; an inI l/ // 4// \ } (Q/ I terval making the second of the concords, and with the diatessaron, an octave. DI'APER, DIAPER WORK, a kind of 1f —------ [/ ~ ~ ornamental decoration applied to plain surfaces, in which the pattern of flowers or arabesques are either carved or paintcountenance. The homage rendered to ed. When they are carved, the pattern Diana was so extensive that the silver- is sunk entirely below the general sursmith who remarked that she was wor- face; when painted they are generally shipped in all Asia and the world, can of a darker shade of the same color as the scarcely be accused of exaggeration. A plain surface. The patterns are usually catalogue of the various places where square, and placed close together, but 150 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE IDIC | DIATES'SARON, in music, a concord — l(^ — ~>g 0 — \^/ or harmonic interval composed of a great— I( )= -- n — o (t_ | er tone, a lesser tone, and one greater qY ( o./ \p' } V/ (^ _ 4 1 and it is called a perfect fourth.-In theK11 e'y ^y-,'ology, the four Gospels. f) |L t/< | t ^ tf iDIA'TONI, in ancient architecture, -= =-j X9 — o~y \ ^ ^\ / the angle stones of a wall, )which were an explosion; to.fluids, a flowing, issu-, - ing, or throwing out, as water from a ^,/! spring or spout. It also denotes a dis- ~' t missal from office or service; a release from debt, obligation, or imprisoment; and the peSformance of any office, trust:\ J or duty. DISCI'PLE, one who learns anything from another: thus, the followers of any'1teacher, philosopher, &c., are called dis-'" ciples. In the more common acceptation, among Christians, the disciples denote those who were the immediate followers! / and attendants on Christ, of whom there s k,* were seventy or seventy-towo; but the word is also correctly applied to all Christians, as they profess to learn and re- familiar to all by the celebrated statuo ceive his doctrines and precepts. The by the sculptor Myron words disciple and apostle are often syn- DISCONTIN/UAPNCE, in law, an inonymously used in the gospel history, jury to real property, which consists in but sometimes the apostles are distin- the keeping out the rightful owner of an guished from disciples as persons select- estate by a tenant whose entry was at ed out of the number of disciples, to be first lawful, but who wrongfully retains the principal ministers of his religion. the possession afterwards. DISCIPLINA'RIAN, one who is well DIS'CORD, in rmsic, a union of sounds versed in military and na-va1 tactics and which is iinharmonious, grating, and disamanoeuvres; and who exacts a strict oh- greeable to the ear; or an interval whose servance of them from those under his extremes (do not coalesce. It is opposed command. to conecord and harnzouny. The second, DIS'CIPLINE, signifies, primarily, in- fourth, and seventh. with their octaves, struction or government; but it is ap-and, in general, aill intervals, except those plied figuratively to a peculiar miode of few which precisely telrinate the conlife, in accordance with the rules of some cords, are called discords. There is, notprofession or society. It is also used to withstanding, what is termned the har.?rodesignate the punishments employed in ny of discords, wherein the discords are convents, and those which enthusiasts made use of as the solid and substa1ntial undergo or inflict upon themselves by part of the harmony; for by a proper inway of mortification. terposition of a discord, the succeeding DIS'CIPLINE, Boorc OF, in the church concords receive an additional grace. of Scotland, is a common order, drawn DISCOR'DIA, in mythology, a maievup by the General Assembly in 1650 for olent deity, daugcl ter of Night, and sisthe reformation and uniformity to be ob- ter of Erinnys, the Parcla, and Death. served in the discipline and policy of the She is represented as'having been banchurch. In this book episcopal govern- ished from heaven by Jupiter, on account ment is set aside, Kirk sessions are cstab- of the broils she perpetua.lly occasioned. lished, the observance of saints' and oth- This was the goddess who, from disapor holy dtys is condemned, and other pointment at not being invited to the regulations for the internal government marriage of Thetis and Peleus, threw into of the church are prescribed. It is called the miidst of the assembly the golden apthe First Book of Discipline. ple, with the inscription detur pulchriori, DISCLAIM'ER, in law, is a plea con- (let it be given to the fairest;) whilch, as taining an express denial or renunciation is well known, occasioned the famed conof some claim which hlis been made upon test between the goddesses Juno, Mineror by the party pleading. It is more va, and Venus, and ultimately led to the especially taken for the denial, by an al- Trojan war, and the destruction of Troy. leged tenant, of his tenancy. The ancient poets represent this divinity i,,, _ 158 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [DIS with a pale and ghastly look, a dagger in tive syllogrisn, is, when the major propoher hand, and her hair entwined with ser- sition is disjunctive; as, " the earth moves pents. in a circle, or an ellipsis; but it, does not DIS'COUNT, an allowance made for move in a circle, therefore it moves in an the payment of money before it is due, ellipsis." and is equivalent to the interest of the DISPATCH'ES, in politics, a packet principal sum diminished by the discount of letters sent by a public officer on somen durin- the time that must elapse before affair of state or public business. the money becomes payable. DISPENSATION, in ecclesiastical afDISCOIURSE', in rhetoric, signifies in fairs, the granting of a license, or the liits widest acceptation a series of sen- cense itself, to do what is forbidden by tences and arguments arranged accord- laws or canons, or to omit something ing to the rules of art, with the view of which is colmmanded. Also, a systemn of producing some impression on the mind principles and rites enjoined: as the A1oor feelings of those to whom it is ad- saic dispensation, that is. the Levitical dressed. In logic, this term is applied to law and rites; the Gospel dispensation, the third operation of the mind, common- or scheme of human redemption by Jesus ly called reasoning. Christ. DISCOV'ERY, in a general sense, that DISPOSI'TfON, a word of extensive which is discovered, found out, or reveal- application, very generally signifying ed; as, the discovery of America by Co- method, distribution, arralngement, or inlumblus; or the properties of the magnet clination. Thus we speak of the disposiwere an important discovery.-Discovery, tion of the several parts of an edifice; the in law, the disclosing or revealing any- disposition of the infantry and cavalry in thing by a defendant in his answer to a an army; the judicious disposition of a bill filed against him in a court of equity. person's effects; a disposition in plants DISCRE'TIVE, in logic, an epithet to grow upwards; a disposition in aniapplied to a proposition expressing some mal bodies to putrefaction; a person's distinction, opposition, or variety, by dispositiozn to undertake particular work, means of but, thoughl, yet, &Gc.; as, men &c. change their dresses, but not their incli- DISPUTA'TION, in the schools, a connations. test, either by words or writing, on sotne DISCUT'BENCY, the act of leaning point of learning for a degree, prize, or at meals, according to the manner of the for an exercise. Also a verbal controancients. versy respecting the truth of some fact, DIS'CUS, in antiquity, a quoit made opinion, or argument; as, Paul disputed of stone, iron, or coppdr, five or six fin- with the Jews in the synagogue. gers broad, and more than a foot long, DISQUALIFICA'TION, that which ininclining to an oval figure, which they capacitates in law; implying a previous hurled in the imanner of a bowl, to a vast qualification, which has been forfeited; distance, by the help of a leathern thong and not merely the want of qualification. tied round the person's hand who threw DISQUISI'TION, formal or systematic it, and put through a hole in the middle. examination into the circumstances of DISEASEI, any state of a living body any affair, in order to discourse about it, in which the natural functions of the or- and so arrive at the truth. gans are interrupted or disturbed, either DISSEC'TION, the dividing an animal by defective or preternatural action. A body into its substantial parts, for the disease may affect the whole body, or a purpose of examsining its structures and particular limb or part of the body; and uses. Le Gendre observes, that the dissuch partial affection of the body is called section of a human body, even dead, was a local or topical disease. held a sacrilege till the time of Francis DISFRAN'CHISE, to deprive of char- I.; and that he has seen a consultation tered rights and immunities; or to de- held by the divines of Salamanca, at the prive of some franchise, as the right of request of Charles V. to settle the quesvotinff in elections, &c. tion whether or not it were lawful in DISJUNCTIVE, in grammar, an epi- point of conscience to dissect a human ihet for conjunctions, which unite sen- body for the purposes of anatomica.l scitences, but separate the sense, as butt, 1nor, ence. &c. —A disjunctive proposition, in logic,. DISSEIS/IN, or DISSEIZIN, in law, is one in which the parts are opposed to an illegal seizure of a person's lands, teneach other by means of disjunctives; as, ements, or other incorporeal rights. The " it is either dsy or night."-A disjunc- person dispossessing is called the dissei___ -.-. —.- ---.....-_.:~_. —_._-.___.__.~~_.~_~ ____ -_ _._.._.......^.~~~.......,~_........_~~_. ~__...... ~....~~~_..._.~_____~ ~ ~_ j DIS] AND THE FINE ARTS. 159 so-, and the person dispossessed, the dis- when this description of painting was seisee. more extensively employed than at presDISSENT'ER, one who separates from ent, the vehicles for the pigments were the service and worship of any established the sap of the fig-tree, milk, and whito church. In England, therefore, the word of egg. Many of the works of the old is particularly applied to those who do masters were executed in distemper, and not conform to the rites and service of its afterwards oiled, by which process they church as by law established. The prin- became almost identical with oil-paintciples on which dissenters separate from ings, or pictures executed with an olea- | the church of England, are, the right of ginous vehicle. By many persons, unacprivate judgment, and liberty of con- quainted with the processes of painting, science. They maintain that Christ, and distemper is regarded as identical witll he alone, is the head of the church, and fresco painting. The difference is thisthat they bow to no authority, in matters distemper is painted on a dry surface, of religion, but that which proceeds from fresco on uwet mortar or plaster. him. DIS'TICH, a couplet, or couple of DIS'SONANCE, in music, inharmoni- verses in poetry, making complete sense. ous or discordant sounds. DISTINC'TION, in a general sense DISSYL'LABLE, in grammnar, a word means the act of separating or distinconsisting of two syllables only; as, king- guishing. It also denotes elevation of dona, virtuee. rank or character. Thus we say, of mell DISSOLU'TION, the separation of a who hold a high rank by birth or office, body into its elementary principles; or a as well as of those who are eminent fior cessation of the powers by which it was their talents, services, or moral worth held together. We speak of the dissolu- that they are persons of d-istin.ction. tion of animal bodies, when the parts Jlletcaphysicaldistinctionisthenon- sgreeseparate by putrefaction; and of a reduc- ment of being, whereby this entity is not tion of a substance into its smallest parts, that, or one thing is not another. —Disby a dissolvent or menstruum. We also tinction, or distin-ngo, is also used, in the say, the dissolution of the world, when schools, as an expedient to evade an arwe refer to its final destruction; and the gunent, or to clear up and unfold an aIimdissolutliot of government, when it can biguous proposition, which may be true no longer hold together. in one sense, and false in another thus DIS'TAFF, the staff of a spinning- they say, "the respondent was hard wheel, to which a bunch of flax is tied, pressed, but he disengaged himself by a and from which the thread is drawn. distiinuo.'o This implement is of fre- DISTRESS', in law, the distrain.ing \ jtj quent occurrence in ancient or seizing upon a person's goods for the j Art. It was made out of payment of rent or taxes, &c. a cane-stick, of about three DISTRIBUITION, the act of dividing feet in length. At the top or separating; as, the distribution of' /^!iir'it was slit in such a man- property among children; or the distri-:Tij ti/ h ner that it should bend bution of plants into genera and species. i/ open, and form a recepta- -In logic, the cistinguishing a whole \~'' cle for the flax or wool to into its several constituent parts.-In be spun. A ring was put mledicine, the circulation of the chyle J over the top as a kind of with the blood.-In architecture, the cap to keep the ends of the dividing andc disposing of the several cane together. The distaff parts of a building, according to some occurs in representations plan, or to the rules of the art.-In printof the fates, who are enga- ing, the taking a forml asunder, so as to ged in spinning the thread sepalate the types, and place each letter of life. Distaffs of gold in its proper cell or box in the cases.were given to goddesses. Distributive justice, implies, that justice It was dedicated to Pallas, is so administered by a judge, as to give the patroness of spinning. every man his cdue.-Distributive, in DISTEM'PER, DESTEMIPER, DETREM- granmmar, words which serve to distribute Ps (isr'.,) TEMiPERA (Ital.) A kind of things into their several orders, as each, painting, in which the pigments are mix- either, every, &c. ed in an aqueous vehicle, such as size, DIS'TRICT, a word applicable to any and chiefly applied to scene-paintingl and portion of land or country, or to any part interior decoration. In former times, of a city of town, which is defined by law 160 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [DIV or agreement. A governor, a prefect, or of private persons. It is covered with a judge mny have his district; or states costly tapestry, and a number of emand provinces may be divided into dis- broidered cushions leanisng a.ginst the tricts for public meetings, the exercise of wall; and on it the master of the house elective rights, &c.-District, in law, that reclines when he receives visitors. From circuit or territory within which a man this, a kind of sofa hts obtained the name maybe forced to imake his appearance. of divan. It wiould seemt that tlse carliDIStTR[N'GAS, in law, a writ corn- est acceptation in which this word was manding the sheriff, or other officer, to employed is that of a muster-roll or mildistrain a person for debt, or for his ap- itary day-book; and we find it used, pearance at a certain day. especially by the ancient Arabs, who borDITHYRAM'BUS, a sort of hymn an- rowed it from the Persians, to signify a ciently sang in honor of Bacchus, full of collection of poems by one and the smoe transport and poetical rage: any poem author, arranged in alphabetical order; written with wildness. The dithyrambic thus we hear of the divan (i. e. the colpoetry was very bold and irregular, for lected poems) of Sadi, the divan of Hathe poets not only took the liberty to coin fiz, &c. new words for the purpose, but made DIVER'SION, in military tactics, an atdouble and compolund words, hich con- tack on an enemy, by making a imovement tribute;i very much to the wild magnifi- towards a point that is weak a.nd undeconce of this kind of composition. fended. in order to draw his forces off DITlONE, in n music, an interval cor- from continuing operations in another prehending two tones. The proportion quarter. of the sounds that form the ditone is 4: 5, DIV'IDEND, the part or proportion and that of the serni-ditone, 5: 6. of profits which the nmembers of a society, DIT'RIGLYPI, in architecture, an ar- or public company receive at stalted perangerent of intercolumniations in the riods, according to the share they possess Doric order, by which two triglyphs are in the capital or commion stock of the obtained in the frieze between the tri- concern. The termn is applied also to the glyphs thalt stand over the columns. annual interest paid by government on DIT/TO, in book-keeping, more usually various public debts. In this sense, the contracted into do, signifies the same as order by which stockholders receive their that which precedes it. It is derived from interest is called a dividenrl warrant, the Italian word ditto, signifying thc'and the portions of interest unrceived said. are denolminiated unclaiszed dividends. DIT'TY, a word of great antiquity in It also signifies the sun a creditor rethe English language, signifying most ceives from a ba.nkrupt's esttle. usually a simple or pastoral song. Mil- DIVINA'TON, the pretended art of ton, Shakspeare. Dryden, and many of foretelling future events, or such as canthe old classic Engolish writers, have re- not be obtained by ordinary or nateural peatedly given importance to this word. means. The Israelites were always very DIUR'NAL, is the name given to the fond of divination, magic, and interprebook containing those canonical hours of tation of dreams. It was to cure them the Roman Catholic breviary which are of this foolish propensity, that Moses to be said daring the day. It is intend- promised them from God, tha t the spirit ed especially for the clergy of the Romish of real prophecy should not depart from church, and consists generally of four anmongst them; forbade them to consult volumes, one for each season of the year. diviners, astrologers, &c., under very soDIVAN', a council-chanmber, or court vere penalties; and ordered thoso to ba in which justice is administered, in the stoned wiho pretended to have fasmniliai eastern nations, particularly amlong the spirits, or the spirit of divination.-The Turks. There are two sorts of divans, ancient heathen philosophers divided divthat of the grand seignior, called the inatlon into two kinds, natcural and arcouncil of state, which consists of seven ti/cial. INaturaol divination was supposof the principal officers of the empire; ed to be effetced by a kind of inspiration and that of the grand vizir, composed of or divine afflatus; artificial divination six other vizirs or counsellors of state, was efected by certain rites, experiments, the chancellor, and secretaries of state for or observations, which we have explained the distribution of justice.-The word under their respective heads. All the divan, in Turkey, also denotes a kind of ancient Asiatic tribes had lmodes of divistage, wahich is found in all the halls of nation; the Egyptians and Greeks had the palaces, as well as in the apartments their oracles; and, with the Romans, lIV] AND THE FINE ARTS. 1G1 divination and witchcraft weore brought the character of God, his laws and moral into a kind of system, and constituted govern!ment, the duties of man, and the part of their religion. In truth, there way of salvation. has halrdly been a nation discovered, DIVIS'TON, the act of dividing or sepawhich had advanced beyond the lowest rating any entire bodies into parts.barbarism, that did not practise some Division, in music, the dividing the inkinds of diination; and even in the ages terval of an octave into a number of less in which reason has most prevailed over intervals. The fourth and fifth dido i feeling, the belief in the power of fore- the o fctave perety though differently: seeing- Luture cvents has ben entertained. when the fifth is below, and serves. as At the present day, enlightened as the bass to the fourth, the division is calledl world is by science, the desire of prying harlnonacal; but when the fourth is beinto futurity keeps alive many modes of low, it is called carith/netical.-Diisiosn, prognosticatting future events; nor is the among logicians, is the explicition of a practice entirely conlined to the ignorant complex idea, by enumerating the simple and superstitious. ideas whereof it is composed. —In hetDIVINE iRIGHIT, THE, OF KLNGS, in oric, it is the arrangement of a discourse politics, means the absolute and uiquali- under several heads.-A pairt of an army, fted clain of sovereigns on the obedience as a brigade, a squadron, or platoon.of the people; insomuch that, although A part of a fleet, or a select number of they may themselves submit to restric- ships under a commander. anid distintions on their aulthority, yet subjects en- guished by a particular flatg or stanldaLrd. deavoring to enforce those restrictions by DIVORCE', a separation, by law, of resistance to their unlawful acts are guilty husband and wife; and is either a diof a sin. Trhis doctrine, so celebrated in vorce a vinculo mutltrimonoii, that is, a English constitutional history, has been complete dissolution of the marriage asserted oa very difFerent grounds. IIobbes bonds, whereby the partics become as deduced the absolute authority of kings entirely disconnected as those swho hIave from the supposed social contract, where- not been joined in wedlock, or a divorce by men parted absolutely with their nat- a wtens et thoro (from bcd and bboard,) ural righits in exchange for protection. whereby the parties are legoally sepaBut the fashionable political writers and rated, but not unmarried. The Jewish theologians of the times both of Charles law of divorce is founded on the directions I. and I. mataitanel that government given in the 24th chapter of Deuteronhad an existence before property, and omy; but the permission therein conbefore tnuy supposed social contract could tained is subject to ma.ny obstacles and take pla.ce; that it originated in the formalities in modern practice. In patriarichal sway, whicih vwas succeeded Greece, in classical times, the practice of by the regcal, aind tllat no other was au- civorce seems to have varied in dicifferent thorized byScrilpsuroi. states; at Spairta it appears to have been DI'VING. the art of descending under unusual, in Athens greaLt facilities were water to a considerable depth, and re- afforded by the law. In republican raining there for a length of time, as Rome great strictness in this branch of occasion may require. The practice of morals prevailed for a long period, aldiving is resorted to for the recovery of though parties were less impeded in purthings that are sunk, &c.-The most re- suing a divorce by the difficultics immarl-kble diver was Nicolo Peace, who, posed by the law than by public opinion. according to the account given by Kirch- Bnt in the later period of the republic, er, was able to spend five days together and under the emperors, divorce became in the waves, without any other provi- extremely common, and was obthined sions than the fish which he ca,ught and with equal ease by either sex. Our Snaate raw. Ie would swimn from Sicily to viour's declaration to the Plhrisiee, in Calablina carrying letters from the king. the 19th chapter of St. Miatthew, bectume At length he met his fite in exploring the foundation of the laws on this subject the depths of Charybdis, at the instance in Christian countries, and divorces were of the king-; who, after he had once suc- consequently allowed in one particular ceeded in fetchling up a, golden cup that ease only; but after the Roman church had been thrown in, ordered him to re- had erected smatrinmony into a sacrament, peat the experimenIt. they became, as they now are in Catholic DIVIN'ITY, a term applied to the countries, wholly impossible: the only Deity or Supreme Being. It also de- dissolution of marriage being in cases notes theology; the science which unfolds i where it is void ab initio. In most Prot11 162 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [tbOQ estant countries, the facility of divorce DOC'UMENT, any official or authorihas been so much restored in latter tative paper, containing written instructimes as to approximate to the heathen tions, or evidence. practice. DODEC'ASTYLE, in architecture, a DO, is in music, a syllable used by the building having twelve columns on a Italians instead of ut, than which it is by front or flank. them considered more musical and reso- DODO'NA, in antiquity, the seat of nant. the most ancient, and one of the most DOCE'TIE, one of the earliest-hereti- celebrated oracles of Greece, sacred to cal sects; so called from the reality of Jupiter. By sone writers its origin is our Lord's incarnation, and considering attributed to Deucalion, who is said to him to have acted and suffered only in have built the town of Dodona where it appearance. Some-i divines have con- stood; but according to the tralditions of ceived that the express declarations of the priestesses of the temple, it was the nature of Christ in St. John's writ- founded by a dove, which, perching on ings were specially directed against these the branch of an oak, recommended,! in a opinions. human voice, that a temple should be DOCIMAISIA, in Greek antiquity, a erected to Jupiter in that place. The probation of the magistrates and persons situation of the oracle was in an extenemployed in public business at Athens. sive forest, the oaks of which are said to It was performed publicly in the forum, have been endowed with the gift of prowhere they were obliged to give account phecy; and the oracles were most ireof themselves and their past life before quently delivered.by three priestesses, certain judges. who expounded the will of the divinity. DOCK'ET, a small piece of paper or That the responses of this oracle woro parchment, containing the heads of a received with singular veneration, mllay writin'g.-Also, a subscription at the foot be inferred froum the number of votaries of letters patent, by the clerk of the by whom - it was frequented, and the dockets.-A bill tied to goods, containing costly presents which adorned the temple some direction, as the name of the and its precincts. This oracle continued owner or the place to which they are to to utter responses till the time of Augusbe sent.-An alphabetical list of cases in tus, when it ceaised. a court, or a catalogue of the names of DOG, an emblem of fidelity, and genthe parties who have suits depending in a erally introduced at the feet of married court.-In the United States, this is the women in sepulchral effigies with that principal or only use of the word. signification. It also signifies loyalty to DOCTOR, a person who has passed all the sovereign. the degrees of a faculty, and is empow- DOG-DAYS, the period between the ered to practise and teach it; or, accord- 24th of July and the 24th of August; so ing to modern usage, one who has re- called because the dog star (Sirius) durceived the highest degree in a faculty. ing this period rises with the sun; and The title of doctor originated at the samec the heat, which is usually most oplpresstime with the establishment of universi- ive at this season, was formerly ascribed ties; and is either conferred publicly, to the conjunction of this star with the with certain ceremonies, or by diploma. solar luminary. DOCTRINAIRES', a party in the -DOGE, formerly the title of the chief French chamber of deputies, on the see- magistrate in the republics of Venice and ond restoration of the Bourbons, 1who Genoa. The dignity was elective in both would neither rank themselves among places; at Venice it continued for life; the friends of absolute power, nor at Genoa, only for two years. His powamong the defenders of the revolution. er became, by degrees, very limited. They opposed the ultra royalists, and took DOG'GEREL, an epithet given to a a middle course, avowing themselves the kind of loose, irreular, burlesque poetry, supporters of a constitutional monarchy. like that of -Hudlbra.s. DOC/TRINE, a prineiple or position DOG'MA, a principle, maxim, tenet, in any science, that is laid down as true or settled opinion, particularly with reby an instructor therein. Thus, the dc- gard to matters of faith and philosophy; trizes of the Gospel are the principles or as, the doogmas of the church; the dogtruths taught by Christ and his Apostles. mas of Aristotle.-In theology, dogma But any tenet or opinion is a doctrine; has been defined to be a fundaimental therefore doctrines may be either true or article of belief derived from acknowlfalse. edged authority, a d is usually applied DOM] A,'D T'E FINE Alrs. 1B3 to what are considered as the essential signified a part or portion of a meadow, doctrines of Christianity, deduced either where several persons had shares. It now from the Scriptures or from the fathers of means a distribution of alms, or a liberal tlre church.. There are, however, many gift made to the people or to some charither dogmass peculiar to the different table institution. sects into which Christianity is divided. DOI/LAR, a silver coin of Spain and Thus the bulls and decretals of the pope, of the United States, of the value of 4s. together with all the councils both of ear- 6d. sterling, or 100 cents. In Germany, lier and later times, are regarded by the the name dollar is given to several coins PRoeman Catholics with as much venera- of different values. tion as the authority of the Scriptures DOLL'MAN, a kind of long cassock, and tle holy fathers. The Greek church, worn by the Turks, hanging down to the on the other hand, acklowledges the au- I feet, with narrow sleeves buttoned at the thority only of the earlier councils, in iwrist. addition to that of the lscriptures and the DOL'PTIIN, an emblem of love and sofathers; and the Lutheran and other cial feeling, frequently introduced as orPr'otestant t churches have embodied their naments to coronas suspended in churchdogmas in their respective confessions of es. faith and other ecclesiastical standards. DOM, in the middle ages, was a title IDognmatic ikeolggy, as this branch of originally possessed by the pope, and at divinity is called, in contradistinction to a somewhat later period by the dignitamoral and scholastic theology, formis an rics of the Roman Catholic church. In i important object of study in many of the more recent times, it fo rmed a distincontinental universities. In the Protes- guishing title of certain monastic orders, tant'universities of Germany there aro such as the Benedictines, &c.; and it apchairs set apart for the history of dogmace, pears to have been equivalent to the don or, as it is termed, dogmatik; in which of the Spaniards, the -con of the Germans, thei origin and nature of the dorgas of and the de of the French. Mabillon and the various Christian sects are examined, Calnmet are always spoken of as Dom and the lmerit of the arguments by which Mabillon and Dom Calmet. thley are supported DOME, in architecture, the spherical DOG'MATISTS, a sect of ancient pDy- or other figured concave ceiling over a c siians, of which Hippocrates was the circular or polygonal building. A surfirst. They are also called losici, or lo- based or diminlish/ed dome is one that is gicians, from their using the rules of segmental on its section; a szrmolounted logic on professional subjects. Thby laid dwme is one that is higher than the radown defnitions and divisions, rel:ncing dius of its base. The forms of domes are diseases to certain genera, and thu se genu- various, both in plan and section. In - era, to species, and furnishing remtedies the former, they are circular and polygfor them all; supposirg principles, draw- onal; in the latter, we find them semiing conclusions, and applyinga those prin- circular, and semi-elliptical, segmental, siples and conclusions to the particular pointed, sometimes in curves of contrary diseases under consideration. flexuLre, bell-shaped, &c. The oldest cuDOIT, the ancient Scottish penny-piece, pola on record is that of the Pantheon at twelve of which were equal to a penny- Rome, which was erected under Augustus, sterling. Two of them were equal to the and is still perfect. bdle, six to the baoabe, and eight to the D 0 M: E S D A Y. or D 0 0 M S' D A Y-! cheson. BOOK, a book or record made by order DO'LABRA, CELT, an implement of of William the Conqueror, which now ref rrious forms, extensively used both in mains in the exchequer, and consists of ancient and modern times, for similar two volumes, a large folio and a quarto;' purposes as our hatchets and chisels. the former contains a survey of all the T hey abound in museums, and are seen lands in most of the counties in England, depicted on the columns of Trajan n and d the latter comnpreheends some counAntoninus at Rome. They- are usually ties that were not then surveyed. The ormedf of bronze and of flint or other< "Book of Domesday"' was begun by five harIr stone, and to these latter the terum justices, assigned for thaPt purpose in celt is usually applied. each county, in the year 1081, and finishDOLCE, in music, an instruction to ed in 1086. It was of such authority, the performer that the music is to be that the Conqueror himself submitted, inl executed softly and sweetly. ssome cases wherein he was concerned, to DOLE, in the ancient English customs, be determrined by it. Camden calls it the L_______________ ______~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —---- -- 164 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITE'RATURE [DOM Tax-book of king William; and it was year. Now if one of the days of the week, farther called lIagnca RZolla. There is Sunday, for example. falls opposite to E, likewise a third domesday book, made by Monday will be opposite F, Tuesday G, coummand of the Conqueror; and also a Wednesda.y A, and so on; and every fourth, being an abridgment of the other Sunday through the year will be reprebooks. sented by the same letter E, every MonDOM'ICILE, in law, the place where day by F, and so on. The letter which a person has his home. Personal prop- represents Sunday is called the Dominierty, on the decease of the owner, is cal Letter, or Sunday Letter. As the distributable according to the law of the number of days in the week and the country in which he was domiciled at the number in the year are prime to each time of his death; not according to the other, two successive years cannot begin law of the country in which the property'with the same day; hence the Doininical is situate. Residence for forty days con- Letter changes every year. This mode stitutes a domicile as to jurisdiction in of representing the days of the week has Scotland. now fallen nearly into desuetite, and the DOMIICIL'IAPYI, pertaining to an i initial letter of the name of the day is abode or residence. Hence a domiciliary Iplaced in our almanacs opposite the day visit signifies a visit to a private dwell- of the month. ing, particularly for the purpose of DOMINICANS, called also Predisearching it, under authority. cants, or Preaching Friars, an order of DOMIINANT, in a general sense, pre- monks, founded by St. Dominic, a native dominant or governing; as the dominantt of Spain, in 1215. The design of their party or faction.-In music, the domi- institution was, to preach the gospel, nant or sensible chord is that which is convert heretics, defend the faith, and practised on the dominant of the tone, propagate Christianity. They embraced and which introduces a perfect cadence. I the rule of St. Augustine, to which they Every perfect major chord becomes a added statutes and constitutions, which dominant chord, as soon as the seventh had formerly been observed either by minor is added to it. the Carthusians or Prsmonstratenses. DOM/INIC, ST., Dominicus de Guz- The principal articles enjoined perpetual eman, the founder of the Order of Domini- silence, abstinence from flesh at all times, cans; he is represented with a sparrow wearing of woollen, rigorous poverty, and by his side, and with a dog carrying a i several other austerities. In France they burning torch in his mouth. The bird were called Jacobins, becaluse the first refers to the devil, who appeared to the convent in Paris was in the Rue St. saint in that shape; the dog, to a. dream Jaques. The Dominicacn Nuns, who of his mother's, that she gave birth to a were established at the same time, follow black aindl white spotted dog, who lighted similar rules.-A third establishment of the world with a burning torch. This St. Dominic was the military order of dog is also said to be the emblem of Christ, originally composed of knights watchfulness for the true faith, the Domi- and noblemen, whose duty it was to wage nicans being the first and most zealous war against heretics. After the dear,h enemies of heresy; for to them Spain of the founder, this became the order of owes the tribunal of the Inquisition, es- the penitence of St. Dominic, for both tablishled for the purpose of kindling fu- sexes, and constituted the third order of neral piles with the torch of the black Dominicans. These became extremely and white dog. influential; and numbered acnong their DOMIN'ICAL LETTER, for the pur- fraternity some of the most distinguished pose of exhibiting the day of the week scholars, such as Albertus Magnus and corresponding to any given day of the Thomas Aquinas. In course of time they yea.r, the framers of the ecclesiastical were superseded in the schools and courts calendar denoted the seven days of the by-the Jesuits; and the order at present week by the first seven letters of the Al- flourishes only in Spain, Portugal, Sicily, phabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, and G; and and South America. placed these letters in a column opposite DOMIN'IONS, in Christian Art, an to the days of the year, in such a manner order of celestial spirits disposing of the that A stood opposite the 1st of January ofiice of angels; their ensign is a scepor first day of the year, B opposite the tre. 2d, and so on to G, which stood opposite DOI'INO, a long loose cloak of black the 7th: after which A returns to the 8th, silk, furnished with a hood removable at and so on through the 365 days of the pleasure, and worn chiefly at masque DOR] AND THE FINE ARTS. 165 rades lby persons of both sexes by way of his wife and daughters, all with hands general disguise. raised, as if in prayer. Royal founders DOI'INUS, in the civil law, signifies of churches, whose portrait-statues are one who possesses anything by right of placed in or on the buildings they have purchase, gift, loan, legacy, inheritance, founded, bear in their hands the titular payment, contract, or sentene. —Domi- saint and a model of the church, which nzs, in the feudal law, one who grants a latter is also found in the monuments of part. of his estate in fee to be enjoyed by such donors. another. DOOM, the old name for the Last Judg1)O'MO REPARANDO, a writ which rnent, which impressive subject was usulies for a person against his neighbor, ally painted over the chancel arch in pawhose house he fears will fall, to the rochialchurches. In the reign of Edward dama.ge of his own. VI. these edifying representations were DON, a Spanish and Portuguese title, effaced, or washed over, as superstitious. which the king, the princes of the blood, DORPIC, an epithet for anything beand the highest class of the nobility pre- longing to the Dorians, an ancient people fix to their names. The ladies of rank of Greece. The Doric dialect was broad have the predicate donna. The title was and rough, yet there was something venoriginally ecuivalent to that of knight. erable and dignified in its antique style; DONTATION, in law, the act or con- for which reason it was often made use of tract by which a person transfers to in solemn odes, &c.-The Doric order of another either the property or the use of architecture is the second of the five orsomething, as a free gift. In order to ders, being that between the Tuscan and be valid, it supposes a capacity both in Ionic. It is distinguished for simplicity the donor and donee, and requires con- and strength: and is used in the gates of sent, acceptance, and delivery. cities and citadels, on the outside of D O N AT I S T S, a religious faction, churches, and other situations where emwhich arose in Africa in the beginning of bellishment is unnecessary or inapprothe 4th century in oposition to Cecilianus, priate.-The Doric mode, in music, was bishop of Carthage. The Nuumidian bish-'the first of the authentic modes of the anops were indignant at a slight received cients; and grave rather than gay. from him at the time of his consecration, DOR'MANT, an epithet expressive of and declared him informally appointed, a state of inaction or sleep. Hence we on account of their absence fromu the cer- speak of dormant animals. or such as reemony. They also accused him of un- main several months in the year appaworthy conduct during the Diocletian rently lifeless, or, at least, in utter inacpersecution. There are two persons of tivity. The period of long sleep generthe name of Donatus celebrated as lead- ally begins when the food of the animal ers of this party. grows scarce, and inactivity spreads over DO'NATIVE, in the canon law, a ben- the vegetable kingdom. Instinct at this efice given by the patron to a priest, with- time impels the animals to seek a safe out presentation to the ordinary, and place for their period of rest. The bat without institution or induction.-Dona- hides itself in dark caves, or in walls of tire, among the Romarns, was properly a decayed buildings; the hedgehog envelgift made to the soldiers, as coaigriariuWmt ops himself in leaves, and generally conwas that made to the people. ceals himself in fern brakes; and the DON'ON, in fortification, signifies a marmuot buries himself in the ground. In strong tower, or redoubt, into which the this period we observe in the animals, garrison of an ancient fortress might re- first a decrease of animal heat; and sectreats, in ease of necessity, and capitulate ondly, that they breathe much slower and with greater advantage. more uninterruptedly than at other times. DO'NOIl, a terl of the middle ages, The digestion is also much diminished; applied to the giver and founder of a the stomach and intestines are usually work of Art for religious purposes, viz., empty; and. even if the animals are the giver of a church picture, statue, or awakened, they do not manifest symppainted window, &c., the founder of a toms of appetite, except in heated rooms. church, or an altar. If the gift were a The causes of the dormant state of anipicture, the portraits of the donor and Imals have generally been sought in a pehis wife were introduced; the former, culiar construction of the organs; but the attended by his sons, kneels on one side immediate cause producing this torpidity, of the Madonn.a, who is either standing is mostly, if not entirely, the cold Frogs, or enthronede, while on the other side are serpents, and lizards, kept in artificial 166 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [DO cold, may remain for years in this state; DOVE, the dove, in Christian Art, is hence they have been sometimes found the symbol of the Holy Ghost; as suclh, enclosed in stones, in which they have it is represented in its natural form, the been perhaps for centuries. The other body of a snowy whiteness, the beak and lower animals, as snails, insects, &c., are claws red, which is the color natural to also subject to a similar torpidity. A those parts in white doves. The.nimbus, state of partial torpor takes place in the which always surrounds its head, should case of the common bear, the badger, and be of a gold color, and divided by a cross, the racoon. The bear begins to be drowsy which is either red or black. A radiance in November, when he is particularly fit, of light invests a.nd proceeds from the and retires into his den, which he has person of the dove, and is emblematical lined with moss, and where he butorarely of the divinity. It is also sometimes rep awakies in winter. resented, in stained glass, with seven LDOR'MER, or DOIRtMENT, in archi- rays, terminating in stars, significant of tecture, a window made in the yoof of a the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost. The buildin g dove has been constantly adopted in DORtNOCK, a kind of figured linen, of Christian iconography as the symbol of stout ftbric, manufacturedforl coarse table the Holy Ghost from the sixth century cloths. It derives its name from a town until the present day. In the tenth and in Scotland, where it was first made. eleventh centuries the human form was DOI'OTHIEA, ST., this saint is repro- also adopted for the same object. In tole sented with a rose-branch in her hand, a fourteenth and fifteenth centuries we meet wreath of red roses on her head, the same with both together, as the personification flowers and some fruit by her side, or with of the Holy Ghost in the human form, an angel carrying a bsasket,.in which are with the dove as his symbol. The dove three:lpples and three roses. This angel is an emblem of love, simplicity, innois a youthl barefoote 1, land clId in a pur- cenee, purity, mildness, compunction; pie garmient. St. DIorothea suffered mar- holding an olive-branch, it is an emblem tyrdom in the Diocl:tian Persecution, of peace. Doves were used in churches A.D. 303, by being bolheaded. to serve three purposes:-1. Suspended DOIVYPHI'OtI, in antiquity, an appel- over alta.rs to serve as a pyx. 2. As a lation given to the life-guard men of the type or figure of the Ioly Spirit over alRoman emperors. tars, baptisteries, and fonts. 3. As symbolDO'TAGEI, the childishness and imbe- iCal ornaments. The dove is also an emeility of old age. blem of the human soul, and as such is DOU'BLE ENTEN TE, a term applied seen issuing from the lips of dying marto a wordl of two different meanings.- tyrs and devout persons. A dove with Double-entenadre, any phrase which has a I six wings has been employed as a type of covert as well as an obvious neaning. the church of Christ: it has certain peDOUB'LET, among lapidaries, a coun- culiarities. The front of the body is of terfeit stone composed of two pieces of silver, the back of gold. Two of the wings crystal, with a color between them, so are attached to the head. two to the that they have the same appearance as shoulders, and two to the feet. if the whole substance were colored. DOW'AGER, in law, properly a widow DOUB'LING a cacpe, is to sail round or who enjoys a dower; particularly appass beyond it, so that. the point of land plied as a title to the widows of princes shall separate the ship from lher former and nobility. The widow of a king is a situation, or lie between her and any dis- qutecn-dowr-ager. tant observer. I DOW\ ER, in law. the portion which a DOUBLOON', a Spanish coin of the widow has of her husband's lands, to envallue of two pistoles, or 31. 6s. sterling. joy during her life. DOUBT, uncertainty of mind; or the DOWN, the softest and most delicate act of withholding our assent from any feathers of birds, particularly of geese, proposition, on suspicion that we are not ducks, and swans, growing on the neck thoroughly apprised of the merits or from I and part of the breast. The eider duck not being able peremptorily to decide be- yields the best kind.-Also the fine feathtween the reasons for and against it. cry substance by which seeds are conveyDOUCEUR', a present or bribe for the ed to a distance by the wind; as in tho acquirement of any desired object. dandelion and thistle. DOUCINE', in architecture, a mould- DOWNS, banks or elevations of sand, ing concave above and convex below, serv- which the sea gathers and forms along its ing as a cymatium to a delicate cornice. shore, and which serve it as a barrier. DRA] AND THlE FINE ARTS. 167 The term is also applied to tracts of na- of Druidic superstition, entertained a ked land on which sheep usually graze.- similar notion of its nature. The alleThie DoLns is a famous roadstead on the gory of the Dragon has even found a coast of Kent, between the North and place among many nations who have emSouth Foreland, where both the outward braced Christianity. The dragon plays and homeward bound ships frequently as important a part in Art as he does in make some stay, and squadrons of men of Fiction. We find it upon the shield of war rendezvous in time of war. It af- the most famous of the early Grecian fords excellent ancholrae, and is defended heroes, as well as on the helmets of kings by the castles of Deal, Dover, and Sand- and generals. It does not appear amnong wich, as well as by the Goodwin Sands. the Romans until after their strugle DOW'RY, the money or fortune which with the Dacians, by which people it was the wife brings her husband in marriage: regarded as the sign of warfare; and it it is otherwise called maritai-ium, mar- remained with the former people a suborriage-goods, and differs from dower.- dinate symbol, as the glorious eagle Dowry is also used, in a monastic sense, was not to be displaced from helmets for a sum of money given with a female and standards. The dragon was of upon entering her in some religious or- more importa.nce in German antiquity; der. as with the early Greeks, it was the symDOXOL'OGY, in Christian worship, a bol of the hero. In the N~ibelchneen hymn in praise of the Almighty. There Lied, Siegfried killed a dragon at is the greater and lesser doxology; the Worms. It is onund on English shields angelic hymn, " Glory be to God on high," after the time of William the Conqueror. &c., is the greater doxology; the lesser, In modern heraldry it appears on the Glory be to the Father, and to the Son," shield and helmet; and as a supporter it &c. is called a liUndclorm when it has no DRAFT, in commerce, a bill drawn by wings, and serpent when it has no feet; one person upon another for a sum of when it hangs by the head and wings it money.-In military affairs, the select- means a conquered cdragon.-?Dra.'gon, in ing or detaching of soldiers from an army, Christian Art, is the emblem of sin. The or from a military post. Also, the act dragons which appear in early paintings of dranwing men to serve in the militia. and sculptures a5re invariably represenDIRAG'OHMANS, the interpreters at- tations of a winged crocodile. It is the tached to European embassies or consu- form under which Satan, the personificalates in the Levant. The dragoman of tion of sin, is usually depicted, and is the Sublime Porte is an important Turk- met with in pictures of St. Michael and ish officer, who forms the medium of com- St. Margaret, when it typifies the conmunication between his own government quest over sin; it also appears under the and the embassies of foreign countries. feet of the Saviour, and under those of DRAG'ON, in fabulous history, one the Virgin, as conveying the saine idea. of the most famous mythological crea- Sin is represented in the form of a sertions of antiquity and the middle ages. pent, sometimes with an apple in its The position which this being occupies in mouth. The dragon also typifies idolatry. fabulous history presents one of the In pictures of St. George and St. Sylvesmost singular phenomena of the humnan ter, it serves to exhibit the triumph over mind, as its existence was firmly acered- paganism. In pictures of St. Martha, it iteld anong the ancients of almost every figures the inundation of the Rhone, nation, both in the eastern and western spreading pestilence and death. St. John regions of the earth. It occurs in the the Evangelist is sometimes represented sacred allegories of the Jews, and in the holding a chalice from which issues a legends of. the Chinese and Japanese; winged dragon. As a symbol of Satan, and the pages of the classic poets of we find the dragon nearly always in the Greece and Rome teem with representa- form of the fossil Icthyosaurutrs. tions of the dragon. Thus the dark re- DRAG'ON BEAM, in architecture, an treats of their gods and their sacred horizontal piece of timber on which the groves were defended by dragons; the hip or angle rafters of a roof pitch. It chariot of Ceres was drawn by them; and is framed into a short diagonal piece, a dragon kept the garden of the Hesper- w liich ties the plates at the internal anides. In Scandinavian mysteries, the iles of a roof. dragon was the minister of vengeance DRAGONNADES', the name given to under their vindictive gods; and the an- tlhe persecutions instituted by Louis XIV. cient Britons, enslaved in the trammels anrd his successors against the French 168 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [DRA Protestants, from the coercive measures tation; and thus were produced tragedy which were put in force to effect their con- (rpaysoad, the song of the goat, from the version. animal which was led jabout in those fesDRAG'ON'S BLOOD, a resin which tive processions;) and comedy, (cwjAcot&d, exudes from a tree growing in India, the the village song,) which differed from Pterocarpsus draco. It is of a dark the former in that the dialogue of the inblood-rel color, formerly used in minia- terlocators was satirical, and not inythoture paintings, but its color is not dura- logical. The early Greek tragedy was a ble. It is now used principally for col- dramatic representation of some scenes oring varnishes. or events recorded in the national tra Dl-tLAGO0N', a kind of light horseman, ditions, the actors personating those who of French origin, trained to fight either played a part in these events, together in or out of the line, in a body or singly, with a chorus or band of singers, reprechiefly on horseback, but, if necessary, senting such person 1s asmight naturally on foot also. Experience proving that be supposed to have been bystanders at they did not answer the end designed, the occurrence (captive women, old men, they were hardly ever used in infmntry or counsellors, &c.,) who sang at interservice, and now forn a useful kind of vals, during the representations, hymns cavalry, mounted on horses too heavy for to the gods, or songs appropriate to the the hussars. and too light for the cuiras- scenes passing in representation; while siers. the Attic conedy, in its first invention, DRA'LMA, (from the Greek word iSpa/a, must be regarded as a parody on tragedy, a7. action or ti7ng donze; derived fiom in which the personages were either real the verb Spa-', lact or do,) has been de- characters introduced for the purpose of fined a species of poem in which the action satire, or ludicrous personifications. iEsor narrative is not related but represent- chylus, the oldest tra:ice writer, with the ed. The invention of the drama is one exception of Phrynichus, lis contempoof those which should seem to proceed rary, carried the Greek drama at once to most naturally froem the ordinary cus- nearly its highest state of perfection. toms and feelings of men. There is a Sophocles and Euripides introduced adspecies of dramatic action which seems ditional actors into the diaslogue, which, almost instinctive; we naturally imitate at first, admitted only two at the same the tone and gestures of others in reciting time, and turned the naked recitals of their sayings or adventures, or even in events which form the substance of the adopting their sentiments. Yet some na- plays of Eschylus into something moro tions appear lnever to have taken the far- nearly resembling the modern idea of a ther step of doing, methodically and with plot, with contrasted character and incidesitn, what all do involuntarily. In the dents leading to the accomplishment of a accounts which we possess of the ancient main action. Many tragie writers, the Egyptians, for example, we have no trace whole of whose works have been lost, of their having possessed dramatic repre- flourished after Euripides in Athens and sentlation. But among a great number of Alexandria; but they do not seem to tribes, wholly independent of each other, have altered the character of the art we find something approaching to the which they received from their predeeesdramatic art intermingled with their sors. The fate of comedy was different; common or solemn customs, and generally the old Attic comedy was a political or connected with religious observance. This philosophical satire in action, which in was especially the case in Greece, whence form was a burlesque on the tragedy. the namre and substance of the drama have Afterwards, passing through the inter been chiefly derived by the modern Eu- vening stage of the middle comedy, of ropean nations. The history of the devel- which we know little, the art acquired in opment of the dramatic art in Greece is the new comedy of Menander and Philewell known; its elements were found in mon, a character somewhat approaching the religious festivals celebrated from the to that in which it is at present cultiearliest ages in that country. The feasts vated; a narrative in representation of of Bacchus in particular had sacred scenes and incidents in ordinary life of a choruses or odes; these were afterwards light or ludicrous character. The draintermixed with episodic narrations of matic art among the Greeks aimed at events in mnythological story, recited by producing an impression upon the specan actor in the festival with gesticula|- tators by three different means; which, tion; thence again, the next step was to i according to modern phraseology, we introduce two actors with alternate rei- j may denominate poetical effect, dramati DRA] AND TI-IE FINE ARTS. 169 cal effect, and theatrical effect. The calculated for the accommodation of poetry of tle Greek drama was of the several thousand spectt tors; the scene, hirghost order; but it forms a topic to be &c. proportionably large. Dl-am:atic repconsidered apart. Dramatical effect is resentations were, at Athens, the offerthe proper subject, of tile dramatic art; ing of wealthy men to the people; he and, in juding of the efforts of the Greek who contributed the expenses of the enmnind in this direction, we are assisted not tertainment was said tiioca)ici, to bring in only by the study of the dramatic poems the play the poet who prodiuced it whilch we possess, but by the rules of httJ^riv', to teach it, i. e. teach the actors cn'iticiism delivered to us by Greek au- to perform it. A complete represenL. athOrs, eand especially by Aristotle. From tion consisted of four pieces by thie sn.mo these it appears that the parts or charae- author; a triology, or three tras.oedies, teristics of a tragedy, essentially divi- narratingc successive events in the saline ded, were held to be the ftble or story, series of cmythological tradition; and the manners, the style, the sentiment, fourtlh piece, termed t satlyric dl'trna, of the music, and the diction; that the which the chorus consisted of satyrs, and fable should consist of an entire action, the mnythological subject vwas treated in nanely one principal event and the a manner approachingc to burlesque. auxiliary events; and that the proper (Cchincse Drama. —Before proceedinge emotions to be excited by the action are to the dramatic art of modern Euirope, deterror and pity; that its parts of quan- rived as it is from that of Greece, two tity, according to the division of form, oriental nations may boe noticed which were the prologue, being that part of the possess a national draiema of their own. tragedy which precedes the parode or first In China, theatrical entortaimenots form entry of the chorus; the episode, being one of the most popular amusenments, all those several parts lwhlich are included and theatrical writing has been cultivated between the several choral odes; the from a very early period. The Cuhinese oxode, the part which fellows the last drama comprises pieces which we should choral ode; and the chorus itself, or the term both tragical and historical plays, intervening, odes, which also admit of tragi-comeedics, and conedies both of invarious subdivisions. ormainlly consid- trigue and of manners; together with ered, the arrang'ement of the old comedy abundance of low, pantomimic, and farcinearly resembled that of tragedy; in the cal representations. In their regular i new. the chorus was altogether omitted. dranma, however, there appears to be less The unity of action was a remarkable of what we should term connected than characteristic of the Greek dracema, al- of successive action: melny of themo are, thouglh widely different from that pecu- as it were, draimatized imemoirs or biogilar quality, whcih modlern criics lave raphies o individual.-ts, real or fictitious; characterized by the namce; it should the representation of some is said to rerather be termed unity of subject, inas- quire ten dclays. It is rem arkable that, much as in many of our remaining trage- of all national drama.s, the Chinese apdies, and especially those of AEschylus, pears to be the only one in which we there is little or no trace of what we term cain trace no original connection with rea plot, i. e. a main incident, at which ligious observance. we arrive through subordinate incidents lIindoo lraema.-The Hlindoo plays tending to its accomplishment. The which now exist are written for the most unity of time,-viz. that the imaginary part in Sanscrit, altlhoush Cnot a liaving duration of the action should not exceed language at the period wvhen they were twenty-four hours; and that of plaece, comiposed; mixed, however, with othler e namely, that the scene in which the dialects, which, accordinc to 1Iindoo critevents occur should be the same through- ics, are respectively appropriate to difout, are inventions of French critics, not ferent parts of a play. They seem to warrcanted by the remains of Greek art, have been appropriate to the entertainin which both are not unfrequently vio- ment of learned persons, and a.cted only lated; but, although not rules of Grecian on solemn occasions. They are few in discovery, they are easily rendered ap- number; about sixty only are known; plicable to the simple and severe form some containing long mnytholoical na.rof the Greek tragedy. In considering the ratives, others muich complicated incident theatrical effect of the Greek drama, we of a domestic character, in a strain of must remember that the tragedies were tragedy, alternating with comedy, like originally religious solemnities; the the romantic drama of modern Europe. theatre, a vast building open at the top, The dramatic art appears to have flour 170 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [DRA ished in India during a period of several theatre of Italy arose in the 17th century, ages, ending about the 14th or 15th cen- in the musical drama (opera), to which Meturies of our era. Dramatic criticism tastasio, early in the 18th, comnmunicalted was also much cultivated; and the most all the charms of poetry; but since the minute and artificial rules are laid down period of that writer, the operatic part by Hlindoo commentators as to the con- of the dramatic art has again been wholduct of a piece, the requisite ethics, the ly disconnected from the literary, lulnd formal arrangement, and the character the words only serve as vehicles for the which must be introduced. The Iindcoo music. While the higher classes were drama is so widely different from the devoted to the opera, the lower foundl Greek or Chinese, tnat it must be re- their national anmusement in thMe co!ngarded, like them, as a spontaneous off- medic dell' arte; comedies performedI by spring of national genius. masqued characters, which gradually beMlodern E uropean Druama. - For came fixed in the well-known persons of many centuries after the downfall of the Iarlequin, Pantaloon, B3righelle, &c., Roman empire, the dramatic art appears who improvised their parts: Goldoni, in to have been entirely lost. Its first re- the middle of the 18th century, succeeded vival in the middle ages was owing to the in establishing a regular comic dra.ma in solemnities of the church, into which dra- possession of the stage; while his rival, mmatic interludes were introduced in vari- Gasparo (Gozzi, took up the commedie ous countries of western Europe, repre- dell' arte as models, and founded upon senting, at first events in biblical history them a series of amusing extrava.gances. or the lives of the saints, and afterwards But since the period of these two spirited intermingled with allegorical fantasies. writers comedy has fallen allnost cornThe fraimers of these early pieces were pletely into disrepute. At the end of the monks, and the monks were the only pre- 18th century Alfieri, a bold and severe servers of classical learning; but whe- genius, produced tragedies in which the ther we can infer from these facts that ancient classical form (with the exception the idea of these rude representations of the chorus) was aga.in reverted to, inwas suggested, or their details improved stead of the French imitations of it which by classical associations, it is not easy to had long been current in Italy as well as pronounce. At the period of the revival the rest of Europe; and several dramatic of literature, however, the dramatic art poets have since appeared, who adopted was called nearly at once into life in the the same model. four principal countries of western Eu- I Prenzch Dera?'ta.-The early French rope; Italy, France, Spain, and Eng- tragic writers, from the beginning of the land. In the two first of these countries 16th century down to Corneille in the it arose simply classical, and unmixed middle of the 17th, produced nothing but with any original conceptions, or with eunscceessful and somewhat barbarous the sentiments and fashions of the midc- imitations of the Greek tragedly. The die ages; in the two last it partook large- first pieces of this kind represented on ly of both, and was also immlnediately de- the French stage had prologues and chorived from the mysteries and moralities ruses. Corneiile had studied and loved above mentioned: hence, in a historical the Spanish drama; and without introview, arose the distinction, so elaborately ducing much of its varied form and inciexplained by modern critics, between the dent, he transfused a portion of its boldelassical and romantic drama. ness and romantic sentiment into the Itaclian Drnama. —Originated in close French theatre, together with a power imitation of classical models. The So- of energetic declameation peculiarly his f onbisba of Trissino (1515) is not abso- own. Racine, on the other hand. was a Ilately the oldest Italian play, but the pure admirer of antiquity; but with a first which served as a model for subse- taste and delicacy of feeling which until quent composers. PRcellai and many his time had been very rarely found to others followed in the same track; Bib- accompany classical knowledge. The biena, Michiavel, Ariosto, as closely imi- French tragedy grew up with these two tated the model of the Terentian comedy. great writers as models, and Boileau as The pastoral drama of the 16th century, its legislator. A peculiar and rigorous of which Tasso and Guarini. were the system of criticism was introduced, affectmost celebrated writers, furnished the ing both the form and the substance of first novelty in this branch of literature; dramatic writing; and this system bebut these are rather poetical than dra- came established in the minds of the matical compositions. The true national French public, as the natural and not the DRA] AND'THE FIINE ARTS. 171 conventional rule of beauty. It would dicrous or satirical representation, but be impossible to enter into an examina- simply a play of adventure. Comedias tion of the rules of the French drama,; divinas, or spiritual comedies, wvere subsuffice it to say, that they banished from divided into lives of saints, and pieces of the tragic stage all except heroic charac- the holy sacrament: the comedies of hutors and passion; required perfect simn- man life i nto heroic, answerin to the plicity of plot, uniformity of laniguage, triagedy of our early English dramatists, and, in addition, the observance of the although eTen less regular in form; and before-mentioned technical unities of comedies of domestic adventure. Besides place and time. These rules have ever these, the interludes which w-ere played since been scrupulously followed, without between the prologue and the piece posdeviation, on the reular French stage, sess a distinct elchaacter as literary cormanid many of the greatest names in dra- positions. Alinost all pieces have one matic literature have voluntarily subject- favorite invaria.ble character, the graed themselves to their restraints. The cioso or buffoon. Calderon, a greater French comedy, however, is infinitely poet than Lope, and his equal in dramore national e land characteristic than the maitic power, is the only other great French tragody; it originated in that of name in the Spanish drasma. Subsequent Spatin, and was carried at once to a high writers may all be classed as imitators degree of perfection by Moliere,-reject- either of their own older poets, or of the ing the extravagance of the Spanish favorite dramiatists of the French school. dramna, confiinig itself within certain de- En.glisih Drama.-The semi-religious finite limits governed by analogy to those representations out of which the Enlglish established for tragedy, and retaining (drama arose, were called fystery and satire instead of adventure as its leading Morality. One of the latter,'re New principle. Since that period the French Customl was printed as late as 1573; by comic stagoe his been, beyond all contra- lwhich time several regular tragedies and diction, not o0 ly the best, but the model comedies, tolerably approaching to the from which th.it of all other nations has classical model, had appeared. But a been wholly derived. Of the present third species of exhibition soon took posstate of the French drama it is difficult session of the stage, the historical dra.ma, to speak with precision; but the national in which the successive events of a particor regular stage seems to be every day ular rcign or portion of history were replosingo in popularity, while the attempts resented on the stage; and, together with to establish a new one on what is termed it, arose the Eniglish tragedy and comedy. in Fratnce the ronmantic model have hith- The first dramatic poets of England (those erto met with very partial success. before Shakspeare) were scholars; hence Spcttishl Drama. —Spain commenced they preferred the form of the ancient her literary career more independent of driama, the division into acts, &e. But fore-inl aid than any other country. IHer they were also writers, who strove for dramatic art appears to have originatco popularity with the general class of their as early as the 14th century; which pro- countrysmen; hence, instead of imitatilng daced satirical pieces in dialogue, and classical simplicity, and confining themone complete dramatic romance by an selves to a peculiar cast of diction and unknown author (La Celestina,) in addi- sentiment removed from the ordinary tion to the mysteries and miracle plays. course of life, they invented a species of which were exhibited in Spain even more composition which intermingled poetical plentifully th.n elsewhere. The early with ordinary life and langulage. CornSpanish comedies of the 16th century edy, again, became in their hands a repwere conversations, like eclogues, be- resentation of adventures, dinffring, from tween shepherds and shepherdesses; with those of tragedy only by ending generoccasional interludes of negroes, clowns, ally in a happy instead of an unhappy and Biscayans, the favorite subjects of exit, and not materially either in the popular jest. Butthe Spanish drama owed characters or language. Thus the disto one great author, Lope de Vega, what tinctions which they established between the English drama owed to his contem- tracedy, comedy, and tragi-conedy, are porary, Shakspeare,-a rise at a single little more than adventitious; and the boundcfromn insignificance to great richness Shaksperian drama, properly considerand variety; he created, moreover, nearly ed, must be looked on as a miscellaneall its numerous divisions, and has left ous compound, in which actors, lanouage, examples of each. The name comedy, in and sentiments, of a character far rethe early Spanish stage, implied no lu- moved from those of ordinary life, alter 172 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [DRA nato with those of a low and even a ble instances of that less popular form of burlesque character. There is no trag- comedy which almost neglects the interest edy in Shakspeare in which comic scenes of plot, and confines itself to a satirical and ehntriacters are not introduced: there representation of prevailing vices and is only one comedy (7 sh.e A'Ierry Wives follies. of:i'nds;or) without some intermixture German Drama.-The modern Gerof sentim t eappiroaching to tragic. It man drama is founded on the old English con-ttinued to be the chief na tional litera- model; and, although the last in order tuie, as well as the favorite national of time, has risen to a high degree of exaruseient, down to the period of the cellence, the stage in Germany being incivil wairs, when the opinions and legis- comparatbly more national and popular lation of the prevailing party put a stop at the present time-than in other Euroto dramatic representations altogether. pcan countries. While France, England, During' the interval thus created the old and Spain have to look back two hundred Ensglish art was unlearned altogether, years for those names which form the and the new drama, on the model of the glory of their dramatic literature, LesFrench, introduced almost at once on the sing, Schiller, and Goethe are writers return of Charles II. and his courtiers only of the past generation. from the Continent. The distinction be- DRAMATIS PERSO'NAE, the charactween tragedy and comedy was then first ters represented in a dramla. substantially recognized: the former DRAMATURGY, the science or art confined to heroic events and language, of dranmatic poetry and representation; the latter to those of ordinary life. But a word used by German writers. tragedy, subjected to foreign rules DR{A'PEIRY, in sculpture and paintceased entirely to flourish: and Otway, ing, the representation of the clothing of the last writer of the old Encglislh drama, human figures; also hangings, tapestry, who wrote partly on the ancient model, curtains, and most other things that are although iafter the Restoration, is also not flesh or landsca pe. Although it is the last tr agic poet of England who still the natural body, and not some appendoccupies the stage; with the exception age added by human customs and regof Rowe, and of a few austhors of that pe- ulations, that sensibly and visibly repculitar species of composition, the domes- resents mind anod life to our eyes, and tic tragredy, in which the distresses and has become the chief object of the plastic melancholy events of common life are arts, yet the requirements of social life substituted for those of an heroic eharac- demand that the body be clothed; the ter. Comedy, on the other hand, ob- artist fulfils this obliga-tion in such mantamind possession of the national taste ner as shall prove least detrimental to and stage; and although the charm of his ainm. Drapery has, of itself, no depoetry and romantic adventure, which terminate form, yet all its relations are had belonged to the old drama under susceptible of beauty, as it is subordinate either name, was denied to the modern to the form it covers. This beauty, which comedly, it soon attained a high deo ree results from the motion and disposition of of excellence as well as popularity. the folds, is susceptible of numerous cornThe last comedies in verse were written binations very difficult to imitate; inshortly after the Restoration; since deed, casting of draperies, as it is termwhich time, with the exception of a few ed, is one of the most important of an insulated attempts to revive the older artist's studies. The object is to make form, it hais been entirely framed on the the drapery appear naturally disposed, French model. The main element of a the result of accident or chelnce. In anmodern comedy is satire; but it admits cient Art, the feeling and enthusiasm for of a subdlivision into comedy of intrigue corporeal beauty was universal, yet the and comedy of manners,-the forsmer be- opportunities for representing it were ing chiefly directed to the development comparatively rare. Only in gymnastic of a plot, the latter to the delineation of and athletic figures did nakedness premanners; although these qualities ought, sent itself as natural, and becolme the properly speaking, to be united to consti- privileged form of representation to the tute a good play. The most distinguished sculptor; it was soon, however. extended English dramatic writers in the former to statues of male deities and heroes. line are, amongst many, Congreve, Van- Garments that concealed the form were brugh, Farquhar, Colman, Sheridan: in universally discarded; it was sufficient the latter, the writings of Shadwell and to retain only the outer-garment, and Foote, perhaps, afford the most remarka- even this was entirely laid aside when DREI] AND THE FINE ARTS. 173 the figure was represented in action. In merchants are enabled to export comsedent statues, on the contrary, the up- modities loaded at home with heavy duper garmnent is seldom laid aside; it is ties, and to sell them abroad on the sane then usually drawn around the loins; it terms as those fetched from countries denotes, therefore, rest and absence of where they are not taxed. —In a popular exertion. In this way the drapery, even sense, drawback sig-nifies any loss of adin ideal figures, is significant, and be- vantage, or deduction from profit. comes an expressive attribute. Ancient DRAW'ER, and l)RAW'EE, in cornArt, at the same time, loved a compendi- merce, the drawer is he who driaws a bill ous and illusive treatment; the helmet of exchange or an order for the payment denotes the whole armor; a piece of the of money; and the drawcc, the person on chlamys the entire dress of the Ephebos. whom it is drawn. It was customary.at all times to repre- DRAW'ING, the art of representing sent children naked; on the other hand, the appearances of objects upon a flat the unrobing of the developed female surface, by means of an outline which body was long unheard of in Art, and describes their form and sihdow, sitiiawthen this practice was introduced, it re- tion, distance, &c. quired at first a connection with life; DRAW''NG-ROOM, a room app- oprihere the idea of the bath constantly pre- ated for the reception of company at served itself until the eyes became ac- court; or to which, in common cases, customed to adopt the representation with- parties withdraw after dinner. Also, the out this justification. The portrait sta- company assembled at court to pay their tue retained the costume of life, if it also respects to the sovereign. was not raised above the common neces- DREAMS, may be defined to be those sity by the form being rendered heroic trains of ideas which occupy the mind, or divine.-The draperies of the Greeks, or those imaginary transactions in which which, from their simple, and, as it were, it is engaged, during sleep. Dreams still undecided forms, for the most part constitute some of the most curious pheonly received a. determinate character nomena of the human mind, and hoave in from the mnode of wearimn, and, at the all ages presented to philosophers a subsame time, furnished a great alternation ject of most interesting investigation. of smooth alnd folded parts, were espe- The theory of dreams embraces two discially calculated from the outset for such tinct classes of phenomoena, physical and purposes; bat it also becname early anll sycholo1 ical: tile folrer relate to the artistic principle to render the forms of question as to how the body is affocted in the body everywhere as prominent as a state of sleep, how the body in tlbt state possible, by drawing the garments close, affects the mind, and how this lffeetion and lolading the skirts with small weigohts. operates to the production of the pheThe strivin after clearness of represen- nomena of dreams; the latter compretation dictated to the artists of the best hend an inquiry into the laws vwhich regperiod a disposition into large nmasses, ulate the train of ideas that occur during and a subordination of the details to sleep, and the mode in which these laws the leading forms, precisely as is observ- operate, together witlh an extanination ed in the muscular development of the of certain psychological appearances pebody. culiar to that state. To both these classes DRAW, a word used in a variety of of phenomena the attention of some of situations, and in some of very opposite the most distinguished philosophers, both meanings, but in most of its uses it re- of antiquity and of modern times, has tains some shade of its original sense-to been direct.ed; and much labor and inpull, to move forward by the application genuity have been expended in endea.vorof force, or to extend in length. It ex- ing to ascertain the origin and nralture of presses an action gradual or continuous, dreams, and to account for the varionu and leisurely, yet not requiring the toil phenomena by which they are accomnand difficulty which its kindredword drag panied. Among a multitude of other implies. esficient causes, dreams have been aseribDRAW'BACK, in commerce, a term ed to direct impressions on the organs of used to signify the remitting or paying sense during sleep,-to the absence of back of the duties previously paid on a real impressions on the senses,-to a discommodity, on its being exported; so ordered state of the digestive organs,that it may be sold in a foreign market to a less restrained action of the mental on the same terms as if it had not been faeulties,-to the suspension of volition taxed at all. By this device, therefore, while the powers of sensation continue, 174 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERA'i'URE [Otrt and to the succession and unequal relax- number even; for instance,'when an odd ation and cessation of the diffeirent senses crotchet succeeds two or three minims, or at the commencement and daring the an odd quaver two or more crotchets. time of sleep. From the remotest period DROPS, in architecture, the frusta of of antiquity, drelams have also been as- cones in the Doric order, used under the cribed to supernatural a.gency. The rec- tliglyphs in the architrave below the ords of history, both sacred and profane, toenia. They are also used in the under abound in instances of dreams which it part of the mutuli or modillions of the has been thought impossible to account order. In the Greek examples they are for on any other hypothesis than that of sometimes curved a little inwards on the t supernatural interposition; and. as profile. has been well observed, though there DRUG'GET, a coarse woollen fabric, can be no doubt that manzy dretams which used for coverin, carpets, and sometimes have been considered supernatural, as as an article of clothing by females of the revealing facts and scientific truths, may poorer classes. now be explained by mean s within our DRUIDS, the priests or ministers of own knowledge, it can just as little be the ancient Britons and Gauls, resermdoubted that many well-authenticated bling, in many respects, the bramins of dreams are utterly inexplicable by ordi- India. The Druids were chosen out of nary means. This belief in the supernat- the best families; and were held, both by ural character of dreamls is common to the honors of their birth and their office, every nation in a greater or less degree; in the greatest veneration. They are but it prevails more especially in the said to have understood astrology, geomecountries of the East, where, from time try, natural history, politics, and geograimnemooriail, there has existed a class of phy.; they had the administration of all persons whose peculiar occupation con- sacred thinegs; were the interpreters of sists in the interpretation and explana- religion, and the judges of all affairs tion of dreams.'hose who wish for con- and, according to Cesar, they believed in prehensive details on this subject may the immortality of the soul, and its transconsult the writings of Aristotle, Lucre- migration through different bodies. tius, Democritus, &c.; and among modern DRUM, a military musical instrument writers, of Locke, Newton, Iartley, Bax in form of a cylinder, hollow wvithin, and ter, Beattie, and Stewart; and still more covered at the ends with vellum, which is recently, those of Abercrombie and Mac- stretched or slackened at pleasure by the nish, which are extremely valuable for means of small cords and sliding knots the numerous instances of extraordinary It is beat upon with sticks. Some drums j dreams with which their theories are il- are made of brass, but they are conmmonlustrated. ly of wood. There are several beats of DRESS, clothes worn as the covering the drum, as the cha7na.de, -reveiell, reor ornament of the body; and generally, treat, &c. The drum is supposed to be though not always, applied to elegant at- an eastern invention, and to have been tire. —T1o cdess, is a military term for brought into Europe by the Arabians, or arran ing the men in line. perhaps the Moors. The kettle drulm, DRESSING-S, in architecture, mould- the bass drum, and tambourine, are coinings round doors, windows, and the like. mon in the East.-In architecture, the upD)tIP'PIN(G EAVES, in architecture, right part of a cupola either above or bethe lower edges of a roof wherefrom the low a dome. The sanme term is used to rain drips or drops to the ground. express the solid part or vase of the CoDRIV'ING NOT'ES in music, such rinthian and Composite capitals. notes as connect the last note of one bar DRUNK'ENNESS, intoxication. Phywith the first of the following one, so as sically considered, it consists of a preterto nmake only one note of both. They are natural compression of the brain, and a lso used -in the middle of a measlre, and discomposure of its fibres, occasioned by rwhen a note of one part terminates in the the fumes or spirituous parts of liquors; middle of the note of another, in which so that the drunkard's reason is disordercase it is called bindin.n or legalture. ed, and he reels or staggers in walking. Driving notes are also called syncopation, Drunkenness appears in different shapes, wlhen some shorter note at the beginning in different constitutions; some it makes of a measure or half-measure is followed gay, some sullen, and some furious. by two, three, or more longer notes, be- Ilobbes umakes voluntary drunkenness a fore any other occurs equal to that which breach of the law of nature, which directs occasioned the driving note to make the us to preserve the use of our reason. DUE] AND TRE TINE ARTS. 1 75 Paley calls it "a social festive vice;" and ciples of all things to be Water and says, "'The drinker collects his circle; the Night; by others _Ether and Erebus, circle naturally spreads; of those who are Time and Necessity, are severally deemdrawn within it, many become the cor- ed worthy of this distinction., The anruptcrs and centres of sets and circles of cient Greek and Rloman mythology w'as their own; every one countenancing, and evidently constructed on this principle. perhaps emulating the rest, till a whole In its more philosophic form, the dualneighborhood be infected from the con- istic theory was lmaintained among the ta.gion of a single example." Drunken- ancients by Pythagoras and many of the ness is punishable by fine and imprison- Ionian school; aniong the moderns, ment, and in law is no excuse for any chiefly by Descartes. It may be excrime committed during the paroxysm. pressed generally as the assumption of DPIY'ADS, in the heathen theology, a the coeternity and simultaneous developsort of deities or nymphs, which the an- mnent of the formative with the formed, cients thought inhabited groves and of the natnra neaturans with the nat'era woods. They differed from the HIama- natut7ata. So the system of philosophy dryaccds, these latter being attached to which regards matter and spirit as dissome particular tree with which they were tinct principles is a species of dualism, born, and with which they died; whereas as opposed to materialisnm.-In theology, the Dryads were goddesses of trees and the doctrine of the two sovereign princiwoods in general. ples of good and evil is also dualistic DRYVERS, substances, chiefly metallic and the high Calvinistic theory may be oxides, added to certain fixed oils, to im- said to be a species of dualism, viz. that part to thema the property of drying all mankind are divided, in the eternal quickly when used in painting. That foreknowledge of God, and by his sovemost commonly employed for this pur- reign decree, into two classes, —the elect pose is the oxide of lead; but /white cop- and reprobate. pe)rns or white vitriol, (sulphate of zinc,) DU'AL NUMBER, in grammar, is the oxide of manganese, ground glass, oxide name given to that form of the verb aend of zinc, calcined bones, chloride of lime, substantive by which, in the an cient and verdigris, (di-acetate of copper,) have Greek, Sanscrit, aned Gothic,'ted the also been used at various periods in the modern Lithuanian langua.ges, trwo perhistory of Art as dryers. sons or things are denoted, in contrtadisDRY'ING OIL, BoItLED OIL, when lin- tinction to plural, which expresses an seed oil is boiled with litharge, (oxide of indefinite number of persons or things. loead,) it acquires the property of drying DUC'AT, a fireign coin of differeznt quickly when exposed in a thin stratume values, aend which are either of silver or to the air. Its uses as a vehicle and gold. The silver ducat is generally of varnish are well known. 4s. 6d. sterling, and the gold ducat of DIRYY'NESS, this term is applied to a twice that value. style of painting, in which the outline is DUCATOON', a silver coin, struck harsh and formal. and the color deficient chiefly in Italy, value about 4s. 8d. sterin mellowness and harmony. It is not ling; but the gold ducatoon of ollaond incompatible with good composition and1 is worth twenty florins. other high qualities, as may be seen in DU'CES TE'CUM, (bring cwith thee,) some of the works of Holbein, and the in law, a writ commanding a person to earlier productions of Raphael. appear on a certain day in the court of DU'ALISM, a namet given to those Chancery, and to bring with him some systems of philosophy whiich refer all writings, evidences, or other things, existence to tiwo ultimate principles. which the eourtwould view. Dualism is a main feature in all the early DUE, that which one contracts to pay Greek cosmogonies, and is that which or perform to another; that which law distinguishes them from the eastern spec- or justice requires to be paid or done. ulations on similar subjects, which mostly Also, that which office, rank, station, or regard all'things as emsanating- froin a established rules of right or decorun., I single principle. The dualistic hypothe- require to be given or performed. sis was, doubtless, originally suggested DU'EL, signified originally a trial by by the analogy of male and female in battle resorted to by two persons as a animal existence. The earliest forms means of determining the guilt or innos under which the theory appeared are, as cence of a person charged with a crime,' might be expected, rude in the extreme. or of adjudicating a disputed right; but lThl Orphic poets made the ultimate prin- in more modern times it is used to signify..-/ 176 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [1)UM a hostile meeting between two persons, was given to the military governors of arising from an affront given by one to provinces. Froi thence it was borrowed the other, and for the purpose (as is said) by the Franks, who adopted, in many of affording satisftctcion to the person af- respects, the titles tand distinctions of the fronted.'The practice of the duel. as a empire. Charlemagnie is said to have private mode, recognized only by custom, suffered it to become obsolete, but the of deciding private differences, seems to emperor Louis created a duke ofT tiurinbe of comp'aratively recent date, and de- gia in 847. In course of time, actcusding scends by no very direct transmission to the usual progress of feudl. disgnities, from the ancient appeal to the judicial the title became hereditary. In Gerina.ny combat as a final judgment in legal dis- the dukes became the chief princes of the putes. That it originated with the fe- empire;. this title being proper to a!l the dal system is abundantly clear, if it were secular clectors, and to mIost of the only from the eact that in Itussia, where greater feudatories. In other countries that systiem was never known, the cus- their dignity became merely titular. In ton of the duel was unheard of, until Italy and France dukes form the second introduced by foreign oflicers, even within rank in the nobility, being inferior to ~the nmemlory of the present generation. princes: in England they form the first. But it is certain that many antiquarian The title was not known in the latter writers have confused together two very country until the reign of Edward III. different institutiions; the appeal to arms, and the word dux is used by writers beas an alternative for the trial by ordeal fore that period as synonymlous with or by compturgators, appointed by ita- count or earl. ditionary usage from the earliest periods DUL'CIMER, a musical instrument of Germanic history; and the voluntary played by striking brass wires with little challseno's or dclfiacnce, resorted to for the sticks. purpose of clearing disputes involving the DUMB, the most cneral, if net the honor of gentlemnen. This last custom sole cause of dumbness, is the waant of was first elevated to the dignity of an cs- the sense of hearing; and nothingr is tablished institution by Philip le Bel of more fallacious than the id.a, that the France, whose edict regulating the public want of speech is owing to the want of combat between nobles bears the date of mental capacity. The necessity of cor1308: the best comment on which miay ounication, and the want of words, oblige be found in the spirited and accurate rep- hilm wiho is cdumb to observe and imitate resentation, by Shakspoare, of the quar- the actions and expressions which accomrcl between llMowbr.ay and Bolibngbrok. panly various states of mind and of feelDUEN'NA, -the chief lady in waiting ing, to indicate objects by tleir appearon the queen of Spain. In a more gren- anee and use, and to describe the actions eral sense, it is applied to a person of persons by direct imitation, or pantoholding a middle station between a gov- mimic expression. hence what lhas been erness ai.nd companion, and appointed to called the natural sign slanguage has take charge of the junior feiale mem- been adopted by instructors of the deaf ebrs of Spanish and Portuguese families. and dumb, in order to expres s all the DUET' a psiece of mulsic composed for ideas we conve y by articulte sounds. two performers, either vocal or instru- This language, in its elements, is to be mental. found among all nations, and h1ts ever DIlKE, a sovereign prince in Germany, been the medium of communlmi cation beand the highest title of honor in England tween voyagers and the 1natives of newly next to the Prince of Wales. Iis consort discovered countries. The more lively is called a duchiess.-In EInland, among nations of Europe, belonging to the Celtic the Saxons, the commnanders of armies, race, the French, Italieans,, &e., mak &e. were called dukes, duces, without any great use of it, in connection waite words, addition, till iEdwvard IIT. made his son, and sometimes even without them. The the Black Prince, duke of Cornwall; more phle matic people of the Teutonic after who een the e we more made in the race, in England and Germany, are so same mlsnner, the title descendin to their little cisposed to it, that they regslcrd it as posterity. Dulke, at present, is a mere a species of affectation or buffoonery in title of dignity, vithout giving any do- their southern neighbors. The iamethod n main, territory, or jurisdiction over the of instructing the deaf and ldumib, which place from whence the title is talen. The has been most successfully elmployed, title of duke is sa:id to have originated in consists in teaching the pupil the relathe usages of the Lower Empire, where it tion between the. names of objects and DUUJ AND TlE FINE ARTS. 177 the objects themselves, the analysis of DUSK, a middle degree between light words into letters of the alphabet, andd an dai.'kness; as twilight, or the dusk the p:'aticuilar gesture which he is to at- of the evening. IHence the words dusky, tach to ea h word as its distinctive sign- dus/kiniess, &. showing to him also thle neo:ing of col- DUTCIH GOLD, copper, brass, and lectivo words, as distinguished from those bronze leaf is known under this nua me in denoting' individual objects, or parts of commerlce; it is largely used in Holland objects. for ornanmenting toys and paper. DUN, of a color partaking of a dull DUTCHI SCHOOL, in pairintinr, this brown an:d blltek.- o dcIu, to press for school, generally speaking, is fotnded on the pay-ment of money by repeatedly a fttithful representation of nature, withcalling for it. Ience an importunate out attention. to selection or refinement. creditor is ctl.el a du. The idea-s ar e usually low, and the figures DLUN' 1s LK.. a Christian sect, which loctal and vulgar. Its merit lies in colorformed itself into a soeiety under peculiar ing il.d isra-wing with extreme fidelity rules in Pennsyllvania in the year 1724. whalt w;s before the oye'of the artist. The origin of their nine is unknown. The pothouse, the workshop, or the They practise abstinence and iortifica- drunken revels of unintellectual boors, tion, under the idea that such lusterities seem to have furnished its principal subare imeritorious in the silght of God, and jccts. The great appearance of reality effective, Jirst in procuring their own infused into its productions induced iiagesalvati)bn, nilnd further in contributing to dora to call it the School of Truth. Notthat of o'thers. They form a society withstanding its deficiency in all that strictly conoected within itself, and hold tends to raise the mind, it has?aineed an love toasts, in which all assemble to- unspeakable lustre from its great head, gether; but their devotions and ordinary Renmbrandt van Rhyn, to whose nalme business sc carried on in private, nor do mnay be aadded those of De Leide, IHeemsthey recognize a conmmunity of goods. kirk, Polemburg, Wouverumans, (il esThey also deniy the eternity of future ception to our general observations,) Gepunishments; co(nceiving that there are rard Dow, Mieris, tnd Vandievelde, &c. periods of purgation, determined by the DUTY, in commerce, any tax or cxjsabbath, sa..bbatical year, and year of cise; a sum of money required by govjubilee, which are typical of them. eminent to be paid on the inmporta.tion, DIUN'Ni AtE, in commercial navslia- exporta o consumptio n of goods.tion, loose wood la id in the bottom a.nd In a military sense, the business of a agpainst the sides of the ship's hold, in soldier or marine on guard.-In its uniorder to prevent the cargo from being versal applica.tion, diuty includes any n:tinjured in the event of her becoming ural, moral, or legaal obligation; as, it is leaky. the duty of every citizen of a state to pay DUODE'CIMO, having or consisting obedience to its laws; obedience, respect, of twelve leaves to a sheet; or a book in and kindness are the duties which chliwhich a sheet is folted into twelve leaves. dren owe their parents. DUPLI'CITY, the act of dissembling DIUUM'VIRI, in Roman antiquity, a one's resl opinions for the purpose of gener-,l appellation given to magistra.tes, conccalin tihell andc misleading persons commissiomers, and officers, wlher two in the conversation and intercourse of were joined together in the simne fiinclife. stion. The ofice, inity, or gomiernment DUR.AN'TE, in law, During; as du- of two men thus associated, wa.s called a rante bene placito, (during pleasure; dlu- duumvirl ate.-Dulumvri i capitelcs, were rante si7norie cetate, during m yinority; the judges in crimlinal causes: ftom tiheir durantete vita, during life. sentence it was 1avful to appeal to the DU''R.ES,) in law, is restraint or corn- people, who only had the power of conpulsion; as, where person is wrong- demnsing a citizen to dealt - ) —D)u1.viri fully im!nprisoned, or restrained of his mu.niciptales, were two lmngistra:tes in liberty, cont.rary to la;; or is threatened sotne cities of the empire, asunsweriLn to to be killed, vwouneod, or beaten, till lhe what the consuls were at Ronee; they executes a, bond, or other writing. Any were chosen out of the body of the dccubond, deed, or other obligation, obtainecd riones; their office usually lasted five by duress, will be volid in law;.nd in an. yeaurs, upon which account they were action bougllht on the execution of any frequently termed quinquinales mnagissuch deed, tho party nmay plead that it tratuvs.-Duum7viri navales, wero the was brought by duress. commissaries of the fleet. The duty of 12 1'78 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [I their office consisted in giving orders for miserable and heartbroken without it, but the fitting of ships, and giving their cor- the single glass soon loses its efficacy, missions to the marine officers, &c. — and the dose must be gradually increased Dczilnviri saccrorum, were magistrates till they degenerate into regular tipplers, created by Tarquinius Superbus, for the the aspect and characters of whom it were performance of the sacrifice, and keeping needless to describe. Complicated as are of the Sibyl's books. They were chosen the symptoms of dyspepsia, and numerous from among the patricians, and held as are the remedies and modes of treattheir office for life: they were exempted ment proposed for its relief or cure, they from serving in the wars, and from the really resolve themselves into a few simloffices imposed on the other citizens, and pie rules. In the majority of cases, abwithout them the oracles of the Sibyls stinence is the first and most essential could not be consulted. step; the epicure must abstain from the DY'NASTY, a race or series of princes luxuries of the table, eat and drink with who have reigned successively in any moderation, rise betimes, and use due exkingdom; as the dynasties of Egypt or ercise; the woman of fashion must revert Persia. to regular hours, that is, the night and DYSPEP'SIA, or DYSPEP'SY, in the day must be employed as intended by medicine, difficulty of digestion. Hence nature, and not in inverted order; the those who are aflicted with indigestion philosopher and the scholar must occaare termed dyspeptic persons. The dis- sionally, and often frequently and assiduorder of the digestive function is the most ously, divest themselves of their mental frequent and prevailing of the ailments labors, and resort to amusements and octhat afflict man in the civilized state; all cupations of a more trivial character. classes and all ages suffer from its attacks. Those among the lower orders who have But in the higher ranks of society, and once acquired the habit of dram drinking amongst the luxurious and opulent, it is are incurable; for such is the depression a common consequence of over eating, or of mind and body, and such the gnawing of indulgence in difficultly digestible or restlessness that want of the accustomed over-stimulating food, or of want of due stimulus occasions, that without it they exercise and general bodily and mental become miserable and inconsolable, and exertion. In others it results from men- usually fall a sacrifice to mental or bodily tal anxiety and labor associated with a disease, or to both combined; here, theresedentary life; from the fatigues of busi- fore, prevention is the only cure. ness or the influence of debilitating passions. In the lower orders it is the constant result of indulgence in spirituous liquors, combined in many instances with E. want of proper food, the means which ought to be applied to procuring it being E, the fifth letter in the alphabet, and disposed of in the dram shop. The symp- the second vowel, has different pronunciatons of dyspepsia vary, therefore, in the tions in most languages. The French different grades of life. The epicure loses have their e open, e masculine, and e his relish for the most refined dishes, be- feminine or mute. In English, there are comes bloated, plethoric, heavy, and per- three kinds of e: open, as in wear, bear; haps apoplectic; the lady of fashion suf- long, as in here, mere, sre; and short, as fers fromheadaches, flatulence, occasional in wet, kept, &c. As a final letter it is giddiness, and dimness of sight; she be- generally quiescent; but it serves to comes indolent, capricious, and full of fan- lengthen the sound of the preceding vowcies, or, as the old physicians used to say, el, as in mane, canze, thine, which, without she has the vapors; the studious man the final e, would be pronounced san, feel; the intensity of his mind blunted, can, thin. In many other words the final loses his appetite, or at least all enjoy- e is silent, as in examine, deffinite, &o. ment of meals, sleeps ill, and dreams As a numeral E stands for 250. In seamuch, gets whimsical and discontented charts, E stands for East: E by N. and with himself and his friends, and becomes E by S., East by North, and East by a hypochondriac; the lower classes at South.-In music, the third note or defirst take their glass of gin or of ruin be- gree of the diatonic scale, corresponding cause they find it a cheap stimulant, little to the mi of the French and Italians. In thinking of the misery they are laying up the bass clef it is that on the third space for future years; this stimulant soon be- of the staff, in the tenor on the first space, -comes habitual, and they not only feel in the counter tenor on the fourth line, EAR]. AND THE FINE ARITS. 19 and in the treble clef that on the first Evangelist; the symbol of authority, of line. power, and of generosity; it was regardEA'GLE, in history, the symbol of ed by St Gregory as the emblemi of conroyalty; as being, according to Philos- templative life. It is represented drink- tratus, the king of birds. Hence, in the ing fromn a chalice, as an emblem of the Scriptures, a Chaldean and Egyptian strength the Christian derives from the. king are styled eagles. The eagle was Holy Eucharist. The conflict between borne as a standard by many nations of the "state of nature" and the "state of antiquity. The first who assumed it, ac- grace" is represented by apn eagle fightcording t'o Xenophon, were the Persians, ing with a serpent, and by an eagle, the from whom (in all probability through body of which, terminatting in the tail of the medium of the Greeks) it was bor- a serpent, is turned aginst the head. A rowed by the Romans at an early period common form for the lectern, constructed of their history, but first adopted as their of wood or brass, used to support the sasole ensign in the consulate of C. Marius. cred volume in the choir of churches, is Previously to that period they had used that of an eagle.-Elisha, the prophet, is as standards wolves, leopards, eagles. and represented with a two-headed eagle over other animals, indifferently, according to his head or upon his shoulder, referring the humor of their generals. The Ro- to his petition to Elijah for a double porman ea0gles were gold or silver figures in tion of his spirit. relievo, about the size of a pigeon; and EARL, a title of British nobility, bewere borne on the tops of spears, with tween a marquis and a viscount; now their wings displayed, and frequently the third degree of rank. William the with a thunderbolt in their talons. When Conqueror first miade this title hereditary, the army marched the eagle was always giving it in fee to his nobles, and ttllotvisible to the legions; and when it en- ting them for the support of their state camped, the eagle was always placed be- the third peney out of the sheriff's court, fore their prcetorium or tent of the gen- issuing out of all pleas of the shire whence eral. The eagle on the summit of an they had their title. At present the title ivory staff was also the symbol of the con- is accompanied by no territory, private sular dignity. In modern tines an eagle or judicial rights, but confers nobility, standing with outspread wings, is the and an hereditary seat in the House of military emblem of the United States. Lords. In official instrunents, they are During the sway of Napoleon, he caused called by the king,' trusty and well-bethe tricolor flag, which at the outbreak loved cousins," an appellation as ancient of the first French Revolution had become as the reign of Henry IV. For some the standard of France, to be surmounted time after the Norman conquest they with an eagle; and thus constituted it the were called counts, and their wives to the standard of the consular and imperial present day are styled counstesses.-The armies. From this circumstance, and Earl's coronet has no flowers raised from the almost unprecedented career of above the circle, like that of a duke and victory so long pursued by the French a marquis, but only points rising, and a under this standailrd, the expression eagles pearl on each of them. of Napoleon is often used metaphorically EARL MARSHAL OF ENGLAND, a to designate the?armi ses under his com- great officer who had anciently several mand. After the battle of Waterloo the courts under his jurisdiction, as the eagle was supers-eded in France by the court of chivalry, and the court of honor. fieur de lys, the ancient emblem of the Under him is also the herald's office, or colBourbon race. Eagles are frequently lege of arms. He has some pre-eminence found on ancient coins and medals; where, in the Marshalsea court, where he may3 according to Spanlheim, they are emble- sit in judgment against those who offend matic of divinity and providence, but ac- within the verge of the king's court cording to all other antiquaries, of empire. This office is of great antiquity in EngThey are most usuallyfound on the med- land, and has been for several a.ges heals of the Ptolemies of Egypt and the reditary in the family of the Ieowards. Seleucidmf of Syria. An eagle, with the EARN'EST, in commercial law, money word conssecratbe, indicates the apotheosis advanced by the buyer of goods, to bind of an emperor. The eagle is also the the seller to the performance of a verbal badge of several orders, as the black ea- bargain. gle and the red eagle of Prussia, the white EAR'RIING, an ornament worn at the eatle of Poland, &c.-In Christian Art, ear, by means of a ring passing through an eagle is the attribute of St. John the the lobe, with a pendant of diamonds or 180 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE LEAR Fig. 1. Fig. 2. pearls, &c., at- magazine causes a sensible concussion at;r I -taciced..This or- the distance of several leagues. These J namnct has been observations furnish grounds for the cont worn by both elusion, that earthquakes cannot proceed:. sexes, from the from external causes, but arise from cerearliest times, in tain powers operating within the circumoriental coun- ference or crust of the earth. The subtries, but among terranean. thunder-like noises; the shak-. the Greeks and Rornans, its use was ing, raising, and bursting asunder of the confined to females. It was usually con- earth; the emission of fire and flames, structed of gold, of various forms, very and the ejection of mineral, substances;. finely wrought, and set with pearls and all occur, occasionally, in earthquakes as precious stones. The ears in the statue well as in volcanic eruptions, even when. of the Medicean Venus and other statues at a distance from active volcanoes. All are pierced, and probably were at one the observations; in fact, that have been time ornamnented with ear-rings. The made, tend to prove, that earthquakes cut gives examples of two antique car- and volcanic eruptions are effects of the rings. Fig. 1 is an Egyptian one of gold, same chemical process, (so to speak.) hall an inch in diameter, published by which must have its seat at a great, Wilkinson. Fig. 2 is from one of the depth beneath the earth's surface. Syra cusan medallions. There is no portion of the earth's surEA1rT11QIIAKE, a concussion or vi- face, whether it be land or water, that is bration of the ground, usually preceded not more or less subject to earthquales; by a rattling sound in the air, or by a and records of their destructive effects subterraneous rumbling noise; and somne- have been transmitted to us through times accompanied by rents, and by shsl- every age. The first earthquako particing of the surface, so as to swallow up ularly worthy of notice was that which towns and tracts of country. At one time in A.D. 63, destroyed H-rcIulanenum and it is hardly perceptible; at another. it is Pompeii. In the fourth and fifth centuso violent, that'it not only demolishes ries, some of the most civilized parts of the works of art, but changes the appear- the world were almost desolated by these. anee of the ground itself. Sometimes the awful visitations. Thrace, Syria, and surface of the ground remains unbroken; Asia Minor, according to contemporary sometimes it bursts open into clefts and historians, suffered most severely. On chasms; and then occasionally appears the 26th of January, A.D. 447, subterthe phenomenon of the eruption of gases, ranean thuners were heard from the and also of flames, with the ejection of Black to the Red Sea, and the earth was water,' mud, and stones, as in volcanic convulsed without intermission, for the eruptions. Volcanoes are, indeed, only space of six months; and in Phrygia, so many spiracles serving for the dis- many cities and large tracts of ground charge of this subterr:nean fire, when it were swallowed up. On the 30th of May, is thus assembled; and where there hap- A.D. 205, the city of Antioch was overpens to be such a structure and conform- whelmed by a dreadful earthquake, and ation of the interior parts of the earth, 250,000 of its inhabitants are said to that the fire may pass freely and without have been crushed in its ruins. In the impediment from the caverns therein, it year 1346, Asia Minor and Egypt were gathers into these spiracles, and then violently shaken; and in the following readily and easily gets out from time to year severe earthquakes were experitime without sha1king or disturbing the enced in Cyprus, Greece, and Italy. earth: but where a communication is In 1692, the island of Jamaica was viswanting, or the passages are not suffi- ited by a terrible earthquake, in which ciently large and open, so that it cannot enormous masses of earth were detached come at these spiracles, without first forc- from the Blue Mountains; and vast ing and removing all obstacles, it heaves quantities of timber, hurled from their up and shakes the earth, till it makes its flanks, covered the adjacent sea like float way to the mouth of the volcano; where ing islands. It was during this earth. it rushes forth, somietimes in flames of - quake that the city of Port Royal, with vast volume and velocity. Earthquakes a large tract of adjacent land, sunk inare sometimes confined to a narrowspace, stantaneously into the sea. In the folwhich is properly the effect of the re- lowing year great earthquakes occurred action of the fire; and they shake the in Sicily, which destroyed Catania and earthl just as the explosion of a powder- 140 other towns and villages, with 100,00C EAR] AND THE FINE ARTS. 181 of their inhabitants. Since the records quakes, the shocks of whieh were proof history, there have been no earth- tracted for three months, throughout a quakes equal in intensity to those which space of 10,000 square leagues, and levravaged different parts of the world in elled to the ground Accon, Saphat, Balthe eighteenth century. Passing over beck, Damascus, Sidon, Tripoli, and many the convulsion which in 1746 nearly laid other places. In each of these places waste Lower Peru, and those by which many thousands of the inhabitants perin 1750 the ancient town of Concepcion, ished; and in the valley of Balbeck alone, in Chili, was totaIlly destroyed, we come to 20,000 men are said to have been victims 1755, when the city of Lisbon was almost to the convulsion. In 1766, the island wholly destroyed by one of the most do- of Trinidad and great part of Columbia stractive earthquakes which ever occur- were violently agitated by earthquakes red in Europe. It continued only six In 1772, the lofty volcano of Papanday minutes; but such was the violence of ang, the highest mountain in Java, dis the convulsion, that in that short space appeared. and acircumjacent area, fifteen upwards of 60,000 persons are said to miles by six, was swallowed up. In 1783, have perished. The phenomena that ac- the north-eastern part of Sicily and the companieed it were no less striking. The southern portion of Calabria were consea first retired and laid the bar dry; it vulsed by violent and oft-repeated shocks, then rolled in, rising fifty feet or more which overthrew the town of Messina, above its ordinary level. The largest and killed many thousands of its inhabmountains in Portugal were impetuously itants, as well as many persons in Calashzaken fromn their very foundations: and bria. In the same year, the islands of some of them opened at their summits, Japan, Java in 1786, Sicily and the Cawhich were split and rent in a wonderful raccas in 1790, Quebec in 1791, and the manner. huge masses of them being Antilles and Peru in 1797, were violently thrown down into the subjacent valleys. agitated by convullions of this kind. But the most remarkable circumstance Since the commencenment of the present which occurred in Lisbon during this ca- century, various earthquakes have octa.strophe was the entire subsidence of curred both in the Old and New World. the new quay, called Cays de Prada, to In 1811, violent earthquakes shook the which an iiummense concourse of people valley of the Mississippi, by which lakes had fled for safety from the falling ruins. of considerable extent disappeared, and From t~his hideous abyss, into which the new ones were formed. In 1812, Caracquay sunk, not one ofl the dead bodies cas was destroyed, and upwards of 12,000 ever floated to the sarface; and on the of its inhabitants buried in the ruins. spot there is now water to the depth of In 1815, the town of Tombora, in the 100 fathonms. This earthquake excited island of Sumbawa, was completely degrel-t attention from the incredibly great stroyed by an earthquake, which extendextent at which contemporary shocks ed throughout an area 100 miles in diawere experiesncd. The violence of the meter, and destroyed 12,000 persons. In shoks, whvich were accompanied by a 1819, a violent earthquake occurred at terriofc stubterratnean noise, like tle loud- Cutch, in the Delta of the Indus, by whlich, est thunder. was chiefly felt in Portugal, among other disastrous consequences, the Spaoin, and northern Africa; but. the ef- principal town, Bhoog, was converted fecets of the earthqua.ke were perceived into a heap of ruins. In 1822, Aleppo in alhnost all the countries of continental was destroyed by an earthquake. In the Europe, anol were even experienced in same year Chili wa1s visited by a most the1 West Indies, and ol the Lake On- destructive earthquake, from which the tario in North Ameriett. Ships at sea coast for 100 miles is stated to have suswere a'-ected by the shocks as if they had ta.ined an elevation of fromn two to four struck on rocks: and even on some of feet, while about a mile inward from Valthe Selttish lakes, Loch Lomond in par- paraiso, it was raised from six to seven ticular, the water, without the least ap- feet. In 1827, Popayan and Bogota sufparent cause, rose to the perpendicular fered severely from earthquakes, during height of two feet four inches against its which vast fissures opened in the elevatbank, and the- subsided below its usual ed plains around the latter city. In 1835, level. During the next tweTnty years, the town of Concepeion, in Chili, was envarious earthquakes occurred in different tirely demolished by an earthquake. In parts of the world, attended with more 1837, the countries along the eastern exor less destructive consequences, In tremity of the Mediterranean, especially 1759, Syria was agitated by violent earth- Syria, were violently agitated by an earth-. _ _ _ _ _ _._. _.- _.. _,. _ _ _. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ j 182 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE -EA. qualke which caused great damage to the ILatins call it pascha a Hebrew word, towns of Damascus, Acre, Tyre, and Si- applied to the Jewish feast of the passdon, and entirely destroyed Tiberias and over, to which the Christian festival of Safet. Such are some of the most vio- Easter corresponds. Thus, St. Paul says lent earthquakes that have occurred with- "For even Christ our passover is sacriin the period of authentic history. ficed for us." This feast was fixed by the EASEL, an apparatus constructed of council of Nice, in the year 325, to be wood, upon which the panel or canvas is held on the Sunday which falls upon or placed while a picture is being painted. immediately after the full moon which EASEL-PICTURE is a term employed to happens next after the twenty-first of designate a picture of small dimensions, March; and as such it stands in the rubric of the church of England.-The English name Easter, and the German Ostern, are supposed to be derived froma the name of the feast of the Teutonic goddess Oste-a, celebrated by the ancient Saxons early in the spring, and for which, as in many other instances, the first mission^^.Jr i7.~ /aries wisely substituted the Christian festival. /EAST'ERLING, a coin strucklr by Rich/\| t09 // \\ ard IT., which is supposed to have given A\\ / to Englih \mrise to the name of sterling, as applied to English money. t/ I // / \\ \ EASTER-0IOF'FERINGS, or EASTERDUES, small sums of money paid to the 6//,, g x \,\ \/7 parochial clergyman by the parishioners. EAST-INDIA COMPANY, "thle Gov/ 1/ 0 \\\ ernor and company of Merchants of Lon_^__ 1 //_ / \_li \\ \ ^don trading to the East Indies," the most celebrated commercial association either l ^ /J i l ~of ancient or modern times, which has l /r^ / ~' l^ j ^extended its sway over the whole of the _~ l \U'Mogul empire, was incorporated about the 42d of queen Elizabeth, A.D. 1600, such as render it portable.-In Christian and empowered to trade to countries to Art, St. Luke is often represented sitting the eastward of the Cape of Good Hope, before an easel, upon which is a portrait exclusive of all others. A variety of of the Virgin. Our cut of an artist of the causes had been long operating in favor fifteenth century at work at his easel, is of such an incorporation. Several very from a beautiful Illuminattion in the fa- valuable East India ships had been taken mous MS. Rola.nee of the Rose. from the Portuguese and Spaniards by EASE'MENT, in law a privilege or the English fleets, and awakened the cuconvenience which one maLn has of anoth- pidity of merchants to the obtaining a er, whether by charter or prescription, share in a traffic which promised such without profit; such as a way through great advantages. At length, in 1593, his lands, &c. an armament fitted out for the East InEAST, one of the four cardinal points dies by Sir Walter Raleigh, and comof the worcl; being that point of the ho- m andled by Sir Joh.n Borroughs, fell in rizon where the sun is seen to rise when with, near the Azores, the largest of all in the equator.-The word east is indefi- the Portuguese carracks, a ship of 1600 nitely used when we speak of countries tons burden carrying 700 men and 36 which lie eastward of us, as Persia, India, brass cannon; and, after an obstinate China, &e.-In Christian churches, which conflict, carried her into Dartmouth. are generally built east and west, the She was the largest vessel that had been chancel stands at the east end, with an seen in England; and her cargo, consistemblematic reference to Christ, who is ing of gold, spices, calicoes, silks, pearls, called the Sun of righteousness and the drugs, porcelain, ivory, &e., excited the Day-spring. ardor of the English to engage in so opuEAS'TER, a solemn festival observed lent a commerce. About the year 1698, among Christians, in commemoration of application being made to parliament by Christ's resurrection. The Greeks and private merchants, for laying this trade EC] AND THE FINE ARTS. 183 open, an act passed empowering every EBOU'LEMENT, in fortification, the subject of England, upon raising a sum crumbling or falling away of a wall or of money, for the supply of the govern- rampart. ment, to trade to those parts. A great EBULLI'TION, either the operation subscription was accordingly raised, and of boiling, or the effervescence which the subscribers were styled the New East- arises from the mixture of an acid and an India Company; but the old establish- alkaline liquor. ment being in possession of all the forts EC'BASIS, in rhetoric, those parts of on the coast of India, the new one found the proemium, in which the orator treats it its interest to unite; and both, trading of things according to their events or with one joint stock, have ever since been consequences. known under one name, viz. The United EC'BOLE, in rhetoric, a digression East-Indica Company. Many and se- whereby the speaker introduces some vere have been the contests between the other person speaking in his own words. advocates of a free trade to India, and EC'CE I1OMO, (Latin;) " Behold the the friends of the "incorporated corn- man!" a painting which represents our pany;" but at length the long-supported Saviour, with a crown of thorns on his monopoly of that powerful body yielded head, given up to the people by Pilato. to an act of Parliament passed in 1833, The title of it is taken from Pilate's exfor continuing the charter till 1854, clamation, John xix. 5. which, in fact, has put a limit to the Corn- ECCLE'SIA, in ancient history, the pany's commercial character, by enact- great assembly of the Athenian people, ing that its trade to China was to cease at which every free citizen might attend on the 22d of April, 1834, and that the and vote. This assembly, though nomiCompany was, as soon as possible after nlly possessed of the supreme authority that date, to dispose of their stocks on of the state from the earliest times, yet hand, and close their commercial busi- having no fixed times of meeting, was ness. The functions of the East-India but seldom convened at all; so that the Company are now, therefore, wholly po- archons, who were elected from the body litical. She is to continue to govern In- of nobles or eupatridse, had virtually the dia, with the concurrence and under the whole mana gement of the state. But the supervision of the Board of Control, till regulations of Solon, which appointed it the 30th of April, 1854. to meet regularly four times in every EAVES, in architecture, the lowest period of thirty-five days, besides extraoredges of the inclined sides of a roof dinary occasions on which it might be which project beyond the face of the wall convened, called it into active energy. so as to throw the water off therefrom, Solon, however, restricted the subjects that being their office. discussed in the Ecclesia to such as had EAVES'-DROPPER, one who skulks before passed through the senate of five under the eaves of houses, for the pur- hundred; but when the democratic spirit pose of listening to what passes within. of after- times prevailed, this rule was not E'BIONITES, an ancient sect who at all strictly observed. The magistrates believed in Christ as an inspired messen- who had the management of these asger of God, but considered him to be at semblies were the Prytanes, the Prohethe same time a mere man, born of Jo- dri. and Epistates. The first of these seph and Mary. They maintained also sometimes convened the people, and hung the universal obligation of the Mosaic up in a conspicuous place a programme law, and rejected the authority of St. giving an account of the matters to be Paul. The origin of their name is un- discussed. The Prohedri proposed to certain, some deriving it from that of their the people the subjects on which they supposed founder; others deduce it from were to decide, and counted the votes. a Hebrew word signifying poor, and sup- The Epistate, who presided over the pose the title to be given to them in ref- whole, gave the liberty of voting, which erence either to the poverty of the class might not be done before his signal was to which they mostly belonged, or to the given. The forms of their proceedings smeanness of their doctrine, were as follow: -First, an expiatory EB'ONY, a hard, heavy, durable, victim was sacrificed, and his blood carblack wood, which admits of a fine polish. rlied and sprinkled round the bounds of It is the wood of the eben tree, which the assembly. Then the public crier degrows in India, Madagascar, Ceylon, and m- nded silence, and invited all persons the Mauritius. It is wrought into toys, above fifty years of age to speak; after and used for mosaic and inlaid work. that, any one who pleased. After the 184 CYCLOPEDIA OF. LITERATURE [ECH subject was discussed, they proceeded to borrowed from the French, skgnifying the vote on the crier's demanding of them, position of an arimy with one division t whether they would consent to the do- more advanced than nother, soiewhat cree proposed to theml?" The votes were like the steps of a ladder. A battalion commionly given by show of hands, but regiment. &c., marches en ccihelon, if the on some occa.sions by ballot. When the divisions of which it is comrposed do not suffrages hlid been examined and their mearch in one line, but on parallel lines. numbers deelared, the Prytanes dissolved The divisions are not exactly behind each the assembly. In order to incite the other, but each is to the right or left of people to atten-1 the Ecclesia, a small the one preceding, so as to give the whole pay of one or three oboli was given for the appearance of a stairway. This orearly appearance; and a rope, rubbed der is used if the commander wishes to with vermilion, was carried through the bring one part of a mass into action, and agora, to mark such as Ia. ged behind, to reserve the other. The word literally who were accordingly leined. mans a ladder or stairway. ECCLESIAS'TES. one of the canon- ECII)NA, in Grecian mytholory, the iAl books of tile Old Testament, so called daughter of Geryon and the sea-nymph frt m the Greek word signifying apreach- Callirhoe, or of Tartartus andt1 G ia; a er. Solomono is generally supposed t- be miionsterthat devoutredtravellers: parents, the author of this book, though various according to Hoesiod, of thosv well-known opinions have been entertained on the terrors of ancient Greece,-Cerberus, the subject; and indeed t-e whole question Hydra, the Sphinx, and the Nicmean lion. of its author, date, and design is involved IHence some suppose the iiname to reprein such difficulty, that the labors of sent a sort of general typo of monsters critics and commentators serve rather to anc terrific phenomena. perplex than to assist the inquirer. ECII'NUS. the " egg and tonguo" or. ECCLESIAS'TIC, somethin( per- egg and afthor)" ornament, frequently taining to or set apart for the church: in met with in classical architecture, carved contradistintiion to civil or secular, whichlt _ rewards the world. Ecclesiastics are per- - ____ sotis whose functions consist in perforte- i/'f; ing the service or in meiaintaining the dis- S \ ciplhie of the church. ECCLESIAS'TICUS. an apocryphal ___ii!___ ______ li__il_ _ _..!..... book of Scripture; so called fromn its beint read in the church, (ecclesla,) as on the ovolo. The type of this ornament a book of piety and instruction, but not is considered to be derived from the chestof infaillible authority. The author of nut and shell. this book was a Jew, cealled Jesus the son ECH'O, a sound reflected or reverberof Sirach. The Greeks call it the wisdom ated from some hard surface, and thence of the son of Sirach. It was originally returned or repeated to the ear. As the written in Syro Chaldaic, and consists undulatory motion of the air, which conchiefly of meditations relating to religion stitutes sound, is propagated in all direcand the general conduct of hulmani life. tions from the sounding body, it will freIt displays but little regard for method- quently happen that the air, in performical arrangement; but the style is so ing its vibrations, will impinge against highly poetieal,'and the sentimients so various objects. which will reflect it back, profound, that Addison has pronounced and so cause new vibrations the contrary it one of the most brilliant moral trea- way; now if the objects are so situated as tises on record. to reflect a sufficient number of vibraE'CHEA, in ancient architecture, so- tions back, viz., such as proceed different norous vases of metal or earth in the ways, to the same place. the second will formn of a bell, used in the construction of be there repeated, and is called an echo; theatres for the purpose of reverberating and the greater the distance of the object the sound of the performer's voice. They is, the longer will be the time before the were distributed between the seats; and repetition is heard: and when the sound, are described in the fifth book of Vitru- in its progress, meets with objects at difvius, who states that Muommius intro- ferent distances, sufficient to produce an duced them in Rome. after the taking of echo, the same sound will be repeated I Corinth, where lhe found this expedient several times successively, according to used in thie theatre. the different distances of these objects ECHIELON', a term in military tactics from, the, sounding body, which makes ECL] AND TIHE FINE ARTS. 183 what is called a repeated echo. Echoes osophical speculation. Whether or not are not, however, caused by a mere re- it is to be regarded as an evidence of the pulsion of the sonorous particles of air, decay of original power in the age in for then every hard substances would pro- which it appears, must depend on the less duce an echo; but it is supposed to re- or greater coherence in the system wrhen quire a certain degree of concavity in the coimpleted. In one sense of the word, repeillng body, which collects several di- Plato and Aristotle may be regatrded as verginl lines of sound, and concentrates eclectics. They both availed theiselves them in the place wshere the echo is audi- lhorgely of the labors of their predecessors. ble, or, at least, reflects them in parallel Plato, in particular, comprehended in his lines, wvithout weakening the sound, as a schene of philosophy the whole of more concave mIllirror collects in a focus the di- than one foregoing system; as the docvergiln rays of light, or sometimes sends trine of Hteraclitus of the perpetual flux them back parallel. The celebrated echo of sensible objects, and the consecquent at WoodAtock, in Oxfordshire, repeats the uncertainty of sensible impressions. But same sound fifty times. But the most in the hands of those great thinkers tih singular echo is that near Rosneath, a discerpta mncebra are reunited, and enfew 1miles from Glasgow. If a person dued with a principle of vitality as conplaced at a proper distance from this echo stituent parts of a harmonious whole. plays eight or ten notes of a tune with a The same cannot be said of others who trumpet, they are correctly repeated by have adopted a similar method; espleeialthe echo, but a third lower; after a short ly of most of those to whom the term pause, another repetition is heard, in a eclectic has been more particularly aplower tone; and then, after another in- plied. A far more favorable specimen of terval, a third repetition follows in a still the eclectic spirit has been afforded us in lower tone. —Echo, in architeclure, any modern times in the person of M. Victor vault or arch constructed so as to produce Cousin, without doubt the most able aynd an artificial echo. These are generally ingenious thinker of modern iFrne. See of a parabolic or elliptic form; of this his Lectures orn the History qf Philosokind is the whisperilng-fallery in St. plhy, in which eclecticism is presented unPaul's cathedracl. —,cho, in poetry, a sort der its fairest guise, and vindicated with of verse which returns the sound of the the utmost vigor of style and acuteness of last syllable, the elegance of which con- thought. sists in giving a new sense to the last EC'LOGUE, in the original imeaning words. of the word, the select or choice pieces of ECIiOMi'0ETER, among musicians, a an author; or extracts collected out of kind of scale or rule, serving to measure former works, such as were termed in the duration and length of sounds, and to Latin excerpta.. It is not known how find their intervals and ratios. this title was originally given to the lpasECLAI'iTCISSEMENT, the clearing toral poems of Virgil; but from the cirup of ainything not before understood. cumstance of their being so named, the ECLAT', (French,) a burst of applause; word eclogue in modern usage is applied renown or approbation following some ac- to that species of poetry. The persons tion or event. who are introduced conversing in ecECLEC'TICS, those philosophers who, logUes, or whose adventures are recounted without attaching themselves to any par- in them, are shepherds; that is, for thei ticular sect, select whatever appears to most part, imaginary personages, whose them the best and most rational from sentiments, and the external circumeach.-Tlhe Eclectics were a sect of Greek stances ainong which they live, belong philosophers who endeavored to mould rather to an ideal age of gold than to the the doctrines of Pythagoras and Plato, realities of modern life; and their loves and blend them with the theolo-gy of the constitute the main and proper subjects Egyptians, and the tenets of Zoroaster. of the eclogue. Nevertheless various They borrowed many of the principal writers have endeavored, but with little truths of Christianity from the catechetic success, to give an air of greater reality school of Alexandria, and blending these to pastoral poetry, and give their rustics with the mysticism of Pythagoras, the er- more of the costume and diction of actual rors of Plato, and the superstition of clowns; but the result has been a species Egypt, they hoped to reconcile the Chris- of burlesque, not at all answering to our tians and Pagans to the same opinions. conceptions of pastoral poetry; nor can An eclectic spirit, it is evident, can only we easily imagine that the personages of arise ata periodoof some maturity inphil- Theocritus, although the earliest and 186 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [EDI therefore the simplest of pastoral poets, are used in academies and schools by are correct resemblances of the Sicilian students. rustics among whom the writer lived. ECPIIONE'SIS, in rhetoric, a figure The eclogues of Virgil are of various de- of speech used by an orator to give utterscriptions: some of them only have the ance to the warmth of his feelings. true character of pastorals; others con- ECS/TASY, that state of the nlind in tain occasional poems on public and pri- which the functions of the senses a'e vate events of that cay, very slightly either suspended or transported with rap enveloped in the pastoral costume. The tures, by the contemplation of some excharacteristics of this species of poetry, traordinary object. —In medicine, a spe as assumed by the moderns, are, first, the cies of catalepsy, when the person rerepresentation of nature in soft and quiet members, after the paroxysm is over, the scenes of cultivation; secondly, a slightly ideas he had during the fit. dramatic turn either of action or narra- E C S T AT/I C I, a sort of diviners tion; thirdly, characters whose senti- amongst the Greeks, who for a considcraments and language are confined within ble time lay in trances, deprived of all certain peculiar limits; thus, any strong sense and motion, but when they returnemotion, virtue, or vice, would be an ed to their former state, gave strange unfit topic for a pastoral poet to dwell accounts of what they had seen anP upon. In English literature, Spenser, heard during their absence from the body. Philips, and a few others, may be named EC'TYPE, a word sometimes used by as pastoral poets in the strict sense of antiquarians, signifying an impression of the word; others, as Milton in his Lyci- a medal, seal, or ring, or a figured copy das, have assumed the pastoral costume of an inscription or other ancient menuin order to convey a very different class ment. of ideas. It is worthy of remark, that ED'DA, the ancient collection of Scanthis species of composition is among dinavian poetry in which the national those which have wholly disappeared in mythology is contained. There are two the present day: the English have had Eddas: the older is believed to have been no pastoral poet since Gay and Collins; reduced to writing, from oral tradition, and Gesner, in Germany, is the latest in Iceland, between A.D. 1050 and 1133. author who has acquired any degree of It was recovered and published in Dencelebrity in this line. mark in 1643. The new Edda, supposed ECONOMY, the frugal expenditure to have been composed 200 years after of money, with the prudent management the former, is an abridgment of it, with of all the means by which property is a new arrangement of its parts. It was saved or accumulated. It also means, a translated by Resenius in i640, and is judicious application of time and labor. thence called the Reseenian Edda. The In a more extended sense, it denotes the authenticity of these monuments of an regulation and disposition of the affairs early age has been doubted in recent of a state or nation, which is called polit- times, but the latest researches of critics ical ecoienmy. And it is likewise applied (the brothers Grimm and others) seem to to the regular operations of nature in go far towards establishing it. the generation, nutrition, and preserva- E'DICT, an order issued by a prince to tion of animals or plants; as, animal his subjects, as a rule or law requiring economy, vegetable ecozonoy. obedience. In Roman history we freE COR'C HEE, (ANATOMICAL FIG- quently meet with the edicts of the emURnE,) this convenient word, for which perors and the edicts of the proctors, conwe have no equivalent in our language, taining notices to the people in what signifies the subject, man or animal, manner they intended to execute the fltayed, deprived of its skin, so that the laws.-Edicttnu perpetctum was a colmuscular system is exposed for the pur- lection of all the laws which had been poses of study. The word skeleton is yearly published by the prnetors in their limited in its application to the bony edicts. It was so called because it was structure. The study of the muscular intended to continue in force forever, and system is one of the greatest importance serve as a guide and rule in the administo the artist. The difficulties in the way tration of justice throughout the empire. of studying the dead subject are so great, -The Edict of Milanc was a proclamathat it has been found necessary to con- tion issued by Constantine after the construct models in papier-mdchi or plaster, quest of Italy, A.D. 313, to secure to in which the prominent muscles are ex- the Christians the restitution of their hibited and colored after nature, which civil and religious rites, of which they EDU] AND THE FINE ARTS. 187 had long been deprived, and to establish and commentaries to it. 2. Those who throughout his extended dominions the superintend the publication of a work, reprinciples of a wise and enlightened tol- ceiving the manuscripts from one or eration. The most famous edict of mod- more contributors; seeing that the obern history is the Edict of Nantes, issued ject of the work is attained, that the by Henry IV. in 1598, to secure to the language is correct, the illustrations apProtestants the free exercise of their re- propriate, and the facts accurately ligion. This act, after continuing in stated, and that all the parts of the force nearly a century, was repealed by work are properly adjusted and made Louis XIV.; and, as is well known, its subordinate to each other. 3. Those who revocation led to a renewal of the perse- furnish the most important matter, and cutions and bloody scenes which previ- superintend the literary arrangements of ously. to the issuing' of this edict had a newspaper or other periodical publicabeen enacted against the Protestants. tion. The depopulation caused by the sword EDUCA'TION in its most extended was also increased by emigration. Above signification, may be defined, in reference half a million of her most useful and in- to man, to be tflc art of developing and dustrious subjects deserted France, and cultivating the various physical, intelexported, together with immense sums lectual, and mor al faculties; and may of money, those arts and manufactures thence be divided into three brancheswhich had chiefly tended to enrich the physical, intellectual, and moral educakingdon. About 50,000 refugees passed tion. This definition is by no means cornover into England; and there can be plete; but it is used merely as indicalittle doubt that their representations of tive of the manner in which this subject the cruelties perpetrated by the King of has generally been discussed. Under France tended to excite the suspicions of physical education is included all that the English against their own Roman relates to the organs of sensation, and Catholic sovereign, and in some degree the muscular and nervous system. Intelaccelerated the advent of the Revolution lectual education comprehends the means of 1638. In the French law, the term by which the powers of the understanding edict has a wide signification, being ap- are to be developed and improved, and a plied equally to the most momentous and view of the various branches of knouwledge the most trifling proclamations of the which form the objects of, instruction of government. the three departments into which we EDI'TION, means simply the (indefi- have divided education. Moral educanite) number of copies of a work printed tion embraces the various methods of at one time, before the types are distrib- cultivating and regulating the affections uted by the compositor. Any one who of the heart. The influence which eduprepares for publication the writings of cation has exercised in humanizing the another is said to edit them, and is called world is universally acknowledged. Its the editor. In literary language, since importance has been recognized by phithe invention of printing, the editor of a losophers and legislators in every age; work revises, adds notes, prepares for and by all the nations, both of antiquity the press, &c., &c.: the publisher is the and modern times, which have become bookseller who negotiates the sale of the distinguished in history, it has been reimpression. Sometimes (but especially garded as the chief element in the atin classical works) the edition goes gen- tainment and promotion of civilization. erally by the name of the printer or pub- The reader will find, in the writings of lisher, sometimes by that of the editor. Plato, Plutarch, and Quintilian, among Thus, we have the Aldine and Elzevir the ancients, and in modern times of Classics, &c., the houses of Aldus and El- Locke, Rousseau, IBasedow, Niemeyer, zevir having been concerned, both in Rehberg, Cousin, &c., a view of the chief printing and publishing; while Bentley's systems that have been proposed or HEoraece, ireyne's HIom7er, &c., are so de- adopted in reference to this subject.nominated from the name of the editor. Education in Greece and Rome. The -In bibliographical works, editio princeps education of youth was strictly attended signifies the earliest printed edition of an to both amongst the Greeks and Romans. author; editio optima, that which is Their minds and bodies were improved generally regarded as the best, &c. at the same time; their minds by every ED'ITORS, are of different species:- necessary branch of knowledge and 1. Those who merely republish a text, or learning, and their bodies by the manly content themselves with adding notes exercises of the Campus Martius, or pri 188 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [EIS vate contests and trials of skill, agility, on, are sufficient to produce a, picture and strength. It was the chief aim of which at the first view may appear the toillons, as well as Grecians, to strikingly brilliant and true, although make them shine in the senate and in many of the details proper to the subject the field, at the forum and the public are omitted, or the drawing not strictly games. Oratory was an object which correct, or the coloring deficient in harthey kept constantly in view; and what- mony. Such is the state in which most cver w;as their destination, they cndeav- good sketches or designs are made, by oured to ac:quire the arts of elocution and which the ultimate effect of the work a hlltbit of fiient reasoning. La.cedmmon when most carefully executed is judged. trained her hardy sons to despise danger, Effect is also the result of all the pecuendure fatigue, and seem insensible of liar excellencies of the true inaster; the pain-to maintain their honor unstained, ensemble, which is brilliant and striking, to love their country, and hold in con- as in the works of Rubens.-The word tempt riches, and all that train of ener- efects signify personal or nmovable goods. vating pleasures which are the con- EFFEC'TIVE, in military language, panions of affluence. So far all this was an epithet for a body of men that are fit meritorious in a high degree; but how for service; as 20,000 efjective men. circumlscribed must. the space have been EFFEM'INACY, that softness, deliwhiclh was then allowed for intellectual cacy, and weakness, which are characterexertion, when the whole world of science istic of the female sex, but which in men was a terrai in.co-nita. are consi:lered a reproach. E DMUND ST. an Anglo-Saxon king, EFFEN'DI, a Turkish word signifying who in 870 fell a victimn to the Danes, by lord or superior; applied to legal, ecclewhom England was invaded. lie was ta- siastical, or other civil functonaries, in ken prisoner, scourged, bound to a tree, contradistinction to aga, the name by then killed by arrovs; wvhelrefore le, like which high military personages are ldsigSt. Sebastian, is represented as tied to a nated. tree, withli a arrov in his breast, but EFFI'CIENT, producing the effect inbearing a crown. The sword, which is tended. The effiicient cause is that which also one of his attributes, refers to the produces; the./inal cause is that for legend, that he was afterwards beheaded. iwhich it is produced. As St. Ednmund does not always wear the EFFIGY, the literal representation or insignit of royalty, his picture is often image of a person. Although the word mistakren for that of St. Sebastian; but is sometimes applied to a portrait, it is the bearde on the upper lip, cenotinr not synonymous withitt, but conveys an military rank, is the attribute solely of idea of a more exact imitation, a more the latter. striking and authentic resemblance, as EDWARDT, THE CONFESSOR, an Eng- we meet with in wax.figures. The odilish kin,, who died A.D. 1066, is repre- nary application of the word is to the sentcd in royal garments, and with the sculptured figures on sepulchral monusymbols of Justice, a Mace, and also his ments, and to the heads of monarchs, &c., Book of Lawss. lie sometimes bears a on coins and medals. sick person, whom he is said to have EFFLU'VIA, the small particles perhesled by carrying him into a church. pet aally flowing out of mixed bodies in -EDvWARPD, THE MAlARTYR, a killg of the form of vapors, which,are sometimes England. Hev was stabbed at the insti- visible, as in the case of smoke or steam; gation of his stepmother. while in the act and sometimes not perceptible, as the of drinking, A.D. 978. His attributes are, noxious exhalations from putrefying ana goblet, a dagger, and the insignia of imal or vegetable substances. Malig royalty. nant effluvia are assigned, by physicians, EFF ECT, the consequence of a cause, as the cause of the plague and other consometimes simple and visible, sometimes tagions diseases. complicated and invisible, but always EGYPTIAN-BLUE, a brilliant pigsimultaneous with the cause.-Effect, ment, which upon analysis is found to the impression produced upon the mind consist of the hydrated protoxide of copat the sight of a picture, or other work per, mixed with a minute quantity of of Art, at the first glance, before the de- iron. It was long supposed that this fine tails are examined. Thus, some bold blue was an ore of cobalt. outlines indicating the principal forms EISTEDDFOD, the assemblies or seswith the masses of light and shade prop- sions of the Welsh ba.rds were so termed. orly thrown in and the local.colors put They were held at differeint places for ELE] AND THIE FINE ARTS. 189 the minstrels of their respective neigh- all such attempts proved abortive, the borhoods; at Caerwys, at Aberfraw in rumors of its existence continued to be AnIglesea. and Malthravel in Powys. The believed down to the beginninm of last judges were appointed by commissions century. The term then passed into the from the Wcelsh princes, and after the language of poetry, in which it wa s used Conqpest from the English kings. The to express a land of boundless wealti and last was issuedl in 1568. But the Gwyn- felicity, like the ancient Ellysium or the nedigion and Cambrian Societies vehave ohammedan. Paradise; until the recent lately revivel the old custom; and annu- discoveries in California gnave thit counal mneetings for the recitation of prize try a fresh claim to the appella.tion. poems, aend for performances on the harp, ELEAT'IC PIIILOS'OPIY-, a system are now held under the name of Eistedd- owing its origin to Xenophanes, a n tive fed. of Elea (in Latin Vclia,) who li ed about EJECT'MENT, in law, a writ or ac- the year B.c. 530. The most celebrated tion which lies for the recovery of pos- of his followers were PIarmenides and session of land from which t!he owner Zeno, also natives of Elea. The dialectical has been ejected, and for trial of title. charactr of the principal systems of anEjectment may be brought by the lessor tiquity nmay be said to owe its existence against the lessee for rent in armear, or to the Eleatics. The tendency of their for holding over his term; also by the speculations was the direct contrary of lessee for years, who has been ejected be- that which distinguishes the Ionic school. fore the expiration of his term. While the latter fixed their attention on. ELABORATE, an epithet expressive outward nature, and strove to discover of great carce, diligence, &e., used in the the laws which regulate its proglress, execution of any performance. Xenophanes and his disciples confined EL'DER, a peson advanced in life, their thoughts to what they conceived to and who, on account of his age and ex- be the only objects of real knowledg-eperience, is selected to fill some impor- the ideas of God, or Being as it is in ittant office. In Jewish history, the elders self. The world of succession and change, were persons the most considerable for which they designalte under the title of age, experience, and wiscldon. Of this tlhat /whichC becomces (ro litv6,vl) they sort were the seventy men whom nMoses held to be utterly vain andr ililsory; the associated to himself in the government very conception of change itself seeming of his people; such also were those who to them to ilvolve a contradiction. Time, afterwalrds held the first rank in the syn- space and motion s hey regardeld as mere agoguoe, as presidents. In the first Chris- phantasms, generated by the deceiving tian churches, ellers were persons who esenses, and incapable of scientific explaenjoyed offices or ecclesiastical functions, nation. They were consequently led to and the word includes apostles, pastors, distinguish between the pu re reaseo, the presbyters, bishops, or overseers; hence correlative of Beiln, and in one sense the first councils of the Christians were identical with it, eand opinion or commnon caledeipresbyteria, or councils of elders. In understanding, tlh fia.culty whichl judges the mrodern presbyterian churches, elders according to the impressions of sense. are officers, who, with the ministers and Parmenides, in particllar, watis the author deacons, compose the sessions of the kirk, of a philosophical epic, the two books of and havCe authority to inspect and regu- which treated respectively of these tiwo late matters of religion aeld discipline. modes of thinking. For a fall account EL DORA'DO, the name given by the of all that can be gathered from rem.LinSpaniards to an imaginary country, sup- ing fragments of this rigid systeml of raposed in the 16th celntury to be situated tionaaism, the reader must conslllt the in the interior of South America, betwven German writers on the subj'ct: in parthe rivers Oronoeo and Amazon, and, as ticular Brandis and Ritter, in their histhe name implied, abounding in gold and tories of philosophy. Frequent allusion all manner of precious stones. After the is made both by Plato and Aristotle to Spanish conquest of Mexico and Peru, the Eleatic doctrines, athe ors t of' which the most exa ctrated! accounts of the are mentioned by both those philosophers wvealth and riches of the newly acquired in terms of evident respect and veneration. territory wire circulated and believed. Plato has made their system the subject A new rerion was fabled to exist far of a whole dialogue, entitled the Parsurpassing the wealth and splendor of menidcs; perhaps the most striking spePeru; expeditions were fitted out for the cimen of dialectic subtlety which Grecian purpose of discovering it; and though philosophy affords. 190 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERLATURE [ ELI ELECT', in theology, among Calvin- and as a means of reproducing fa-similes ists, a term for those whom they believe of art it is most invaluable. God has chosen, or predestinated to be ELEC'TRUM, the term is applied in saved. —Elect, in matters of polity, sigr ancient art to amber, and to a compound nifies chosen, but not inaugurated. Thus of gold and silver, which resembled amthe President of the United States, before her in color, and was employed for simihis predecessor's term of office has ex- lar purposes to those metals. pired. is called the President elect. ELEEMOS'YNARY, an epithet for ELEC'TION, the act of choosing a per- whatever pertains to the use and nmanageson to fill an office or employment, by ment of charitable donations, whether inany manifestation of preference; and is tended for the relief of the poor or sick, applicable to the choice of members of or appropriated to education. A hospital the legislature, which takes place within founded by charity is an eleemosynary every seven years; to the choice of institution for the sick; a college founded parish officers, annually; and to the ad- by donation is also eleemosynary; and so mission of members into societies. Some- is the corporation which is entrusted with times it is practised by show of hands; the care of such institutions. sometimes by ballot, and at others, by EL'EGANCE, in a general sense, is every elector giving his vote separately, that which pleases by its symmetry, pu with an oath in regard to his right and rity, or beauty; and is select, as distinintegrity.-Election is also the state of guished from what is common.-In literaa person who is left to his own free will. ture, elegance qf comnposition consists in to take or do one thing or another, which well-chosen words and phrases, arranged he pleases.-Election, in theology, divine in an appropriate and happy manner. It choice, by which persons, according to implies neatness, purity, and perspicuous the Calvinistic creed, are distinguished arrangement; a style calculated to please as objects for salvation by the special a delicate taste, rather than to excite adgrace of God, without reference to their miration or strong feeling.-In speaking, good or bad deeds. it includes propriety of diction and rich ELEC'TIVE GOVERNMENTS are expressions with gracefulness of action.those in which all functionaries, from the In painting, it implies a certain manner highest to the lowest, are chosen by the which embellishes and heightens objects; suffratges of a greater or less number of as in Corregio, where, notwithstanding all citizens. Of these the government of the defects as to justness of design, there Athens in antiquity, and in modern times is an elegance even in the manner of the that of the United States, will serve as design itself, as well as in the turn of the examples. When the functionaries of an attitudes, &c. —In architecture, elegance elective government are chosen by a very consists in the due symmetry and distrigreat number, it is identical with a de- bution of the parts of an edifice, or in regmocracy; and-when by a comparatively ular proportions and arrangement.-It is small number, either with an aristocracy also applied to various works of art or or an oligarchy. nature remarkable for their beauty of ELEC'TOR, in law, any one who has form, &c. the right of giving his vote at an election, ELE'GIT in law, a writ of execution, particularly at an election of a member which lies for a person who has recovered of parliament. —Elector, in political his- debt or damages; or upon a recognizance tory, the title of such German princes as in any court, against a defendant that is formerly had a voice in the election of not able in his goods to satisfy his ciedithe emperor of Germany. tors. ELEC'TORATE, the dignity or ter- EL'EGY, a mournful and plaintive ritory of an elector in the German em- kind of poem. The principal writers of pire. legiac verse among the Latins, were ELEC'TROTYPE, the process by which Propertius, Ovid, and Tibullus; the chief works in relief are produced by the agen- writers of elegy among the Greeks, were cy of electricity through which certain Callimachus, Parthenins, and Euphorion. metals, such as gold, silver, and copper, The form of verse in which it was composed are precipitated from their solutions upon was the alternate hexameter and pentamemoulds in so fine a state of division as to ter. In modern times almost all the nations form a coherent mass of pure metal, equal of Europe have practised this species of in toughness and flexibility to the ham- composition; but if we except the elegies mrered metals. The applications of this of Iammond, Milton's Lycidas, and beautiful Art appear almost unlimited, Gray's Elegy among the English, and | LG] AND THE FINE ARTS. 191 Matthisson's Elegie among the Germans, less; the less were preparatory to the it does not appear with great success. The greater. They consisted of a solemn repnoble poem of Tennyson, entitled In le-~ resentation of what was supposed to pass in m.oriam, has, however, recently been the regions of Elysium and Tartarus; placed in the highest rank of this species and their chief design was, by sensible of compositions by the unanimous ver- means, to spread amongo the people a diet of the most enlightened critics. conviction of the immortality of the soul, EL'EMENT, in physiology, a term and of a future state of rewards and punused to denote the original component ishments. To reveal the secrets of the parts of bodies, or those into which they Eleusinian mysteries was looked upon as are ultimately resolvable. In the an- a crime that would not fail to draw down cient and still popular sense of the word, the vengeance of heaven. The person the elements are understoodto be four in who presided at these rites was called number; namely, fire, air, earth, and Iierophantes, or the revealer of holy water; but by the researches of modern truths. science it is fully demonstrated that earth ELEUTI-E'RIA, in Grecian antiquity, is a compound of many earths; air, a a festival celebrated at Platsea, in memcompound of at least two gases; water, a ory of the defeat of Mardonius, the gencompound of hydrogen and oxygen; and eral of Xerxes: and in honor of those fire, only the extrication of light and heat who gallantly sacrificed their lives for during combustion. Modern chemistry the liberty of their country. It was held has, in fact, determined that an element every fifth year, when prizes were conis merely the last result of chemical anal- tended for. ysis, or that which cannot be decomposed ELEVA'TION, in its primary sense, by any means now employed. —Elemen.ts, denotes exaltation; the act of raising in a figurative sense, is used for the prin- from a lower place to a higher; or, ciples and foundations of any art or sci- figuratively, the act of exalting in rank; ence, as " Euclid's Elements," &c.-Ele- as, the elevation of a man to a throne. — merts, in divinity, the bread and wine In architecture, an orthographic or upprepared for the sacrament of the Lord's right draught of a building.-Elevation Supper. of the fost, in the Romish church, that ELEMEN'TARY, an epithet expres- part of the ceremony of the mass which sive of that which is uncompounded, or consists in the priest's raising the host having only one principle or constituent above his head for the people to adore. part. It also denotes rudimentatl, or in- ELF-ARROWS, a name given to flints itiatory; as, an elementar'y treatise. in the shape of arrow-heads, vulgarly ELENUCIUS, in logic, a sophism, or supposed to be shot by fairies. They are fallacious argument, which deceives the frequently met with in Great Britain, hearer under the appearance of truth. and there is reason to believe they were ELEPIAN'TINE, in Roman anti- weapons of offence among the ancient quity, an appellation given to the books Britons. wherein were registered the transactions ELES, or FAIRIES, imaginary beof the senate and magistrates of Rome, ings, honored more particularly by the of the emperors or generals of armies, northern nations, in whose mythology and even of the provincial magistrates, they oclupy a prominent place. They the births and classes of the people, and were divided into two classes-the good other things relating to the census. They and the bad; and their exploits have were so called, perhaps, as being made given rise to a multiplicity of delightful of ivory. stories. ELEUSINIA, in Grecian antiquity, a EL'GIN MAR'BLES, a collection of solemn and mysterious festival in honor splendid basso-relievos and fragments of of Ceres, kept every fourth year by the statuary, which were brought from the Celeans and Philiasians, and every fifth Parthenon from Athens to England, in year by the Athenians, Lacedemonians. 1814, by Lord Elgin, (hence the name.) Parrhaasians and Cretans, at Eleusis, a They are now in the British Museum, borough of Attica. It was transferred having been purchased by the government from thence to Rome by the emperor for.35,000. They are unquestionably Adrian. The Eleusinia was the most some of the finest remains of ancient Art, celebrated and mysterious solemnity of and offer the richest field for study. They any in Greece, and often called by way consist chiefly of the Metopes, represent of eminence?mysteria. The mysteries ing for the most part the combats of the were of two kinds, the greater and the Centaurs and Lapithae; a portion of the I ____________________________________- _.____ ____ 192 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE LELO fiieze of the cella, representing the Pan- debased Italian were jumbled tooether, athenaic procession; and the'statues or produc(ing a singular and azbsurd heteroI frasgments of then, whlich ornamented the geneousness in detail with wondclerfl pictyrmpans of the peditents of the Parthe- turesqueness in general effect. Its chief non or temple of Minerva at Athens. The characteristics are deeply embayed win superiority of the Elgin Marbles to all dows, and gallerics of great le ngth. others, consists in this, that they represent ELIZ'ABETHe, the position whlich the the humnan fra me draped and undraped, mother of John, the precursor of the Savmassive, and beyond the natural size, in iour, occupies in Christian Art, is of inmnearly every attitude, without the artist portance only in relation to the Vrisitahaving in a single instance degenerated tion of t/et Virgisn. She is found in imany into coarseness, inmannerism, or been for- pictures of the Ioly Family, bLt, like getful of absolute truth-beauty ever Anne, is inferior to the mother of the kept in view.'Mlessiah. The pictures of the Visitation ELSI'IA, this prophet is represented are almost innumerable; they consist of with a two-headed eagle over his head, the two women —Elizabeth, who is repor upon his shoulder; referring to his resented as old, and Mary, as youthful, petition to Elijah for a double portion each praising God. of his spirit. The subjects usually chosen ELLIP'SiS, in grammar, a figure of in works of Art in which Elisha appears, syntax, by which one or more words are are that of the Bears destroying the omitted, which the reader miay supply Children; Elisha seizing Elijah's man- as, the horse I rode, for the hiorse uL'ich tile; his Raising the Child; his Interview I rode.-In rhetoric, a figure of speech with the King's messenger; and his Caus- whereby the orator, throueth excessive ing the Axe to Swim. emotion, passes over malny things, which, ELISION, in grammar, the cuttinl had he been cool, ought to h-lve been off or suppressing a vowel at the end of a mentioned. word for the sake of sound or measure, ELOCUTION, in rhetoric, consists of when the next word begins with a vowel; elegance, composition, and dignity: the as, t/' entsanc uincd.fd fecl. first comprehends the purity and perspiELIZABETIF AN ARCHITECTURE, cuity of a language, alnd is the foundaa name given to the impure architect- tion of elocution; the second ranses the words in proper order; and the lhst adds the ornaments of tropes and figures, to give strength and dignity to the whole. To which ma'y be addced. that there:~'~ Mshould be a certain musical cadence or intonation, to render it pleasing to the ear. I -|IJte E'LOGE, a term applied in France to /~/ ^St^ sll \the panegyrical orations pronounced in honor of illustrious deceased persons, and particularly of ienoubers of the Royal and other academies. Formerly the secretaries of the various Freneh literary iJSS^'^' rinstitutions used to conpose. and proi~ ~ 3^^. r nounce the cloge; but Ithis duty is now I1, ^'Sa^ ^l^performed by the new mnemsle e!ected in I! tv'l:l} the room of tho deceased. This practice is no doubt open to cesenre; bust it has been the mcaus of giving to the wo rild llamny interestinn hio~-raplliatIl sleflie s DslIijw IaI peared. ___eloge ism also applied to any,~ j l 1! ~1(1 which wou:ld neve]r o:f{is[ havo alpi Lufldj^rm's II t 1 species of biographical writing in which ii lf~~ s.t?] Ijjl" praise predominates over censure, and gI1 ~ qq ~ thas been much cultivated by FI'rcch and'*t\ iaJ, Italian authors. ELOPE'MIENT, in law, the voluntary Elizabethan Window, Rushton Hall, cir. 1590. depaLture of a vife fro he hsband to il departure of a wife from herl husband to ure of the times of Elizabeth and- James go and live with another iman. In comI., when the worst forms of Gothic and mon acceptation, the secret departure of ELO] AND THE FINE ARTS. 193 any female with her lover, either to be in the following ages there flourished married or to live together illicitly. among others HLermagoras, Athenasus, EL'OQUENCE, the art of clothing Apollonius, Camcilius, and Dionysius, the thoughts in the most suitable ex- their names have been almost without pressions, in order to produce conviction exception rescued from oblivion by a or persuasion. In its primary significa- work which may be regarded as the last tion, eloquence had reference to public expiring ray of Grecian eloquence-the spealing alone; but as most of the rules incomparable treatise of Longinus on the for pablic speaking are applicable equal- Sublime. In consequence of the all-ably to writing, an extension of the term sorbing spirit for military glory with naturally took place; and we find even which the' ancient Romans were animsAristotle, the earliest systematic writer ted, it was long before they found leisure on the subject whose works have come to appreciate the advantages of elodown to us, including in his treatise rules quence; and even so late as the year of for such compositions as were not intend- the city 592, when, by the industry of ed for public recitation. A still wider some Greeks, the liberal arts began to extension of the term was contended for flourish at Rome, the senate passed a deby the ancient rhetoricians, who included cree banishing all rhetoricians from the under it all kinds of literary productions country. But a few years afterwards, (such as treatises on law, logic, &c.,) and when Carneades, Critolaus, and Diogenes whatever might be necessary to illustrate were sent as amblassadors from Athens to and explain them. The invention of elo- Rome, the Roman youth were so charmed quence was ascribed by the Egyptians and with the eloquence of their harangues, the fables of the poets to the god Mercu- that the study of oratory formed thencery; but no certain account can be given forth a branch of a liberal education. when or by whom this art first began to Men of the highest rank were now seen be cultivated. If we may judge fromthe teaching and learningo respectively the eulogiulns which Homer pronounced upon art of eloquence; and such was the imUlysses and Nestor for their attainments petus given to this study, that it made in eloquence, it must have been very the most rapid advances, and was at last early in high esteem among the Greeks. crowned by the appearance of Cicero, to But though. from time to time, there whom critics have concurred in assigning arose in Greece many distinguished wri- a rank inferior only to that of Demlosters upon eloquence, it does not appear thenes. The mighty scale on which that the practice of the art was combined everything was conducted at Rome, and with the theory for public purposes till the enormous interests so frequently at the timne of Pisistfratus, who owed to his stake, were never so wonderfully exhibirhetorical acquirements his elevation to ted as in the age of Cicero; and the unthe throne. Passing from Pericles, (the paralleled exigency found or created in next in order to Pisistratus,) who was him a talent for profiting by its advalntadistinguished at once as a general, a ges or coping with its difficulties. In statesman, and an orator, we find many the succeeding ages of the Riomian ememinent names during the Peloponnesian pire, the despotic character of the gov — war immortalized for their eloquence by ernment checked the growth of the rhethe pen of Thucydides. In the succeed- torical art; but the names of Tacitus, ing age arose the school of rhetoricians, Quintilian, and Pliny are an earnest of or sophists, as they are called, who en- what might have been achieved in this deavored to graft upon eloquence the arena, had circumstances permitted the subtleties of logic; and among the earli- development of their talents. With reest and most eminent of this school were gard to the early history of eloq'uenco in. Gorgias, Isocrates, and Isseus, of whose England, there are found, indeed, the publicly delivered orations there are still names of several distinguished men who ten extant. It was in this age that Gre- in former times directed the resolutions cian eloquence attained its highest per- of parliament; but no pains were taken fection by the genius of Demosthenes, to to preserve their speeches; and the auwhom the palm has been conceded by the thority which they possessed seems to unanimous consent of ancient and modern have been owing to their experience, times. Of all human productions, the wisdom, or power, more than to their orations of Demosthenes present to us the talents for oratory. It was not until the models which approach the nearest to close of the last century that an era perfection. After this period, Grecian arose in the history of British eloquence, eloquence declined rapidly; and though which the genius of Chatham, Pitt, 13 194 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATUTRE [EBIB Burke, Fox, and Sheridan has consecra- language, emancipation is used in a gented and immortalized. The little oppor- eral sense to signify the enfranchisement tunity afforded for a display of forensic of a slave, or the admission of particular or senatorial eloquence by the different classes to the enjoyment of civil rights. governments of Germany has almost en- EMBALM'ING, the opening a dead tirely checked its growth in that country; body, taking out the intestines, and filland the same renmark is applicable to ing the place with odoriferous and desicItaly, Spain, and Portugal; all of which, cative drugs and spices, to prevent its however, have been rich in the eloquence putrefaction. The Egyptians have alof the pulpit. The only two countries in ways been celebrated for their adherence the world whose orators can be put in to this practice, and the skill with which competition with those of Britain, are they performed it. With some variation, France and America. To the pulpit ora- it is still one of the peculiar customs of tory of the former, the illustrious names that nation. It appears to have been a of Bossuet, Bourdaloue, and Massillon metaphysical notion, inculcated as of have given enduring celebrity; while their religion, that the soul continued the popular character of their respective with the body. There naturally followed institutions has formed a host of forensic an affectionate desire to do everything and senatorial speakers worthy a prom- that living creatures can suppose acceptinent place among the orators of antiqui- able to the dead. They were even dety, and modern times. sirous of having the dead bodies of their E'LUL, the name of a Jewish month, parents in their houses, and at their answering to part of August. tables, and believed, as has been suggestELYS'IUM, or ELYS'IAN FIELDS, ed, that their souls were present also; in heathen mythology, the supposed rest- and it was essential to this gratification dence of the blessed after death. The that those bodies should be preserved in poets describe this region as consisting of the mlost perfect manner possible.-Modbeautiful meadows alternated with pleas- ern chemistry has made us acquainted with ant groves; where a serene and cloud- many means of counteracting putrefacless sky was spread over them, and a tion, more simple and more effectual than soft, celestial light shed a magical bril- the laborious processes of the ancients. lianey over every object. The heroes there 1EMBAR'GO, in commerce, a prohibirenewed their favorite sports; danced to tion of sailing, issued by authority on all the sound of the lyre from which Orpheus shipping, either out of port, or into port. drew the most enchanting tones, or wan- It is generally to restrain ships from dered through the most odoriferous leaving a port. groves, where the warbling birds carolled EM'BASSY, the public function or forth their harmony by the side of re- employment of a public minister, whether freshing fountains. There the earth ambassador or envoy. teemed with plenteous fruits, and the EM'BER DAYS, in the Romish calverdure of spring was perpetual; while endar, are certain fasts appointed by all cares, pains, and infirmllties, were ex- Pope Calixtus for imploring the blessing changed for the purest bliss. of the Almighty on the fruits of the EMANCIPA'TION, by the ancient earth, and upon the ordinations perRoman law, the son stood in the relation formed in the church at these times. of a slave to the father. By a fiction of They occur four times a year, or once in that law, the son might be freed from each of the four seasons; being the Wedthis relation by being three times sold nesday, Friday, and Saturday after the by the father. Ience the enfranchise- first Sunday in Lent, after the feast of ment of the son derived from this cere- Pentecost or Whitsunday, after the fesmony the name of emancipation. In tival of Holy Cross on the 14th of Sepcourse of time, various modes of emanci- termber, and after the festival of St. Lupation, both tacit and express, became cia on the 13th of December. The weeks recognized by the Roman jurisprudence. in which the ember days fall are called The word, in countries following that ember weeks. The word embers signifies law, signifies the exemption of the son ashes, which the primitive Christians from the power of the father, either by strewed on their heads at these solemn express act, or by implication of law. By fasts. the present civil law of France, majority EMBEZ'ZLEMENT, the act of fraudu(and with it emancipation) is attained at lently appropriating a thing to one's own 21 years of age; and the marriage of a use, which has been intrusted to one's minor emancipates him. In ordinary care and management. 2MiB]3 AND TIlE FINE ARTS. 195 EM'BLEM, this word is used frequently plaster of Paris, or other vromposition, as a synonym with Attribute, Symbol, and cementing it on the surface of the Image, and Allegorical Figure. So in- wood.-Emnbossing cloth. Cotton, woollen discriminately are these terms employed, cloth, silk, paper, and other fabrics, are that it becomes a task of great difficulty embossed by the powerful pressure of reto point out their special application, volving cylinders on which the required and it must be admitted that the shades patterns are engraved. of difference are so light, that it would be EMBOUCHUIRE', signifies a mouth of most convenient to regard them all under a river; it is used also for the mouththe general term Symbol. Thus the piece of a musical instrument. sceptre is the attribute of royalty, and EMBRA'CERY, in law, the offence of the emblem or symbol of power. The endeavoring to corrupt or influence a Paschal Lamb of the Jews figures the jury; punishable by fine and imprisonLamb without stain, which has expiated ment. the sins of the world; but as Jesus EMBRA'SURE, in architecture, the Christ has been depicted under this em- enlargement made of the aperture of a blem in the New Testament, this emblem door or window, on the inside of the wall. becomes a symbol. And to remove all -In fortification, a hole or aperture in uncertainty in depicting this symbol in a parapet, through which cannon are Christian Art, we give to the Lamb a pointed and discharged. nimbus upon which is figured a cross; or EMBROI'DERY, the name given to the Cross of the Resurr eltion, or simply the art of working figures on stuffs or place a cross above its head; these are muslins with a needle and thread. All the attributes which distinguish it from embroidery may be divided into two other figures of a lamb, which are neither sorts, embroidery on stuffs and on T musemblems nor symbols. An emblem is a lin: the former is used chiefly in church symbolical figure or composition'which vestments, housings, standards, articles conceals a moral or historical allegory; of furniture, &c., and is executed with when accompanied with some sententious silk, cotton, wool, gold and silver threads, phrase which determines its meaning, it and sometimes ornamented with spanhas the same relation as device. gles, real or mock pearls, precious or imEMIBLEMA'TA, the figures with which itation stones, &c.; the latter is employed the ancients decorated the golden, silver, mostly in articles of female apparel, as and even copper vessels, and which could caps, collars, &c.; and is performed only be taken off at pleasure. These belong with cotton. The art of embroidery was to toreutic art, and were generally exe- well known to the ancients. As early as cuted in the precious metals, but some- the time of Moses we find it practised times carved in amber. The Romans successfully by the Hebrews; and long had the Greek term emnblemata, but ap- before the Trojan war the women of Siplied the word crustbe to the ornaments don had acquired celebrity for their skill mentioned above. The Greek term is in embroidery. At a later period, this handed down to us in our word emblem, art was introduced into Greece, probably a sign or symbol. by the Phrygians, (by some considered as EM'BLEMENTS, in law, a word used the inventors;) and to such a degree of for the produce of land sown or planted skill did the Grecian women attain in it, by a tenant for life or years, whose estate that their performances were said to riis determined suddenly after the land is val the finest paintings. In our own sown or planted, and before a harvest. times the art of embroidery has been EMBONPOINT, (Freclih,) a moder- cultivated with great success, more espe ate and agreeable fulness of figure. cially in Germany anld ]rance; and EMBOSS'ING, the forming or fashion- though for a long period it was practised ing works in relievo, whether by raising, only by the ladies of these countries a:L by carving, or by depression. It is, in an elegant accomplishment, it is now re- short, a kind of sculpture, where the garded as a staple of traffic, and furfigures project from the plane whereon it nishes employment for a large portionc is cut; and according as the figures are of the population. In England also it more or less prominent, they are said to appears to have taken deep root, as it be in alto mezzo, or basso relievo.-Em- now forms an accomplishlment of which bossing, wood, as in picture frames and almost every lady is in possession. A other articles of ornamented cabinet great impetus has been given to the cul. work, is either produced by means of tivation of this art, both on the Conti carving, or by casting the pattern in nent and in England, by the invention of 196 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [EMP a machine which enables a female to ex- the modern Buhl, Marquetry; next to ecute the most complex patterns with Toreutic art, (with which it must not be 130 needles, all in motion at once, as ac- confounded,) that branch most practised curately as she could formerly do with one. by the ancients. It consisted in laying EMENDATION, an alteration made threads, or knocking pieces of different in the text of any book by verbal criti- metals into another metal. cism.-In law, the correction of abuses. EM'PEROR, was originally merely the EM'ERALD, a well-known gem of a title of a Roman general; but, on the fall beautiful green color, somewhat harder of the republic it was particularly apthan quartz, which occurs in prisms with plied to the head of the state. The aua regular hexagonal base, and ranks next thority of the Roman emperors was formin value to the oriental ruby and sap- ed principally by the combination of the phire. It becomes electric by friction, is chief offices of the old republic in a single often transparent, sometimes only trans- person; besides which, some extraordilucent, and before the blow-pipe is fui- nary powers were conferred. Thus, Ocble into a whitish enamel, or glass. The tavius held the titles of emperor, proconmost intensely colored and valuable em- sul, andtribune, pontifex maximus or high eratlds are brought from Peru. priest; and was invested with perpetual EME'RITI, the name given to the sol- consular authority, and also that of the diers and other public functionaries of censorship. Besides this, he was termed ancient Rome, who had retired from their prince of the senate, and Augustus, which country's service. On these occasions the designation descended to his successors; parties were entitled to some renumera- but he was much more moderate in his tion, resembling half-pay in the English use of titular dignities than his successors, service; but whether it was a grant of contenting himself with substantial powland or of money has not been accurately er. The provinces of the empire were ascertained. divided between the senate and emperor, E M I G R A' TI 0 N, migratioh is the who appointed their governors, distinmovement of an individual or a number guished by the respective titles of proconof people from one place of residence to sul and propraitor; but this division another emicration, their abandonment threw all the armies into the hands of the of their former home; immigration, (a latter, as he took for his share the fronword of modern coinage,) their settle- tier provinces. The emperors appointed ment in their new one. Emigration is, their own successors, who were dignified in modern times, chiefly regarded in the with the title of Caosar, and in later times light of a mode of relieving a country or enjoyed a share in the government. Diodistrict laboring under excess of popula- clesian first divided the care of the emtion. Emigration from Europe has for pire with a second Augustus in the pertwo centuries been chiefly directed to the son of Maximian, and each of these colUnited States. Of late years, the Cape leagues associated with himself a Ceesar. of Good I-Iope and Australia have begun After the couit was removed to Constanto absorb a small portion of the surplus tinople, the old titles and forms of the repopulation of Great Britain. public vanished by degrees, and the emEMFINENCE, an honorary title given perors assumed tie style of oriental to cardinals. They were called illustris- princes.-Charlemagne assumed the title siZmi and reveresndissimi, until the pon- of emperor after his coronation at Rome; tificate of Urban VIII. and from his time this title (in German E'MIR, a title of dignity among the kaiser) was claimed exclusively, in westSaracens and Turks. It was at first giv- ern Europe, by the rulers of Germany. on to the caliphs, but when they assumed On the dissolution of the German empire the title of Sultan, that of Emir remain- in 1805, the title passed to the emperor ed to their children. of Austria, and, in the same year, NapoEM'ISSARY, a secret agent sent to as- leon assumed it in France; the czars of certain the sentiments and designs of an- Russia claimed it in the reign of Alexother, and to propagate opinions favora- ander. ble to his employer. EM'PHASIS, in rhetoric, a particular EMOTION, in a philosophical sense, stress of utterance, or force of the voice an internal motion or agitation of the and action, given to such parts or words mind which passes away without desire. of an oration, as the speaker intends to When desire follows, the motion or agita- impress specially upon his audience. tion becomes a passion. EM'PIRE, originally the territory or EMPAIS'TIO, inlaid work, resembling extent of land under the command and ENA] AND THE FINE ARTS. 197 jurisdiction of an emperor. The domin- different metallic oxydes, and used in ions under the sway of ancient Rome were enamelling and painting in enamel. the first to which the term empire was Enamels have for their basis a pure applied: they consisted of two grand di- crystal-glass, or frit, ground up with a visions,-the Empire of the East, or, as fine calx of lead and tin, prepared for the it was afterwards called, the Lower Em- purpose, with the addition usually of pire; and the Empire of the West. The white salt of tartar. These ingredients former admitted of various subdivisions baked together, are the matter of all in reference to the different dynasties to enamels, and the color is varied by addwhich it was subject; and the latter be- ing other substances, and melting or in — came, about the end of the 9th century, corporating them together in a furnace. the German or Holy Roman Empire. In Enamels are distinguished into transall these cases the sovereign or chief per- parent and opaque; in the former all son in the empire was named the empe- the elements have experienced an equal ror. But the term empire has in several degree of liquefaction, and are thus run instances been employed to designate a into crystal glass, whilst in the others, large extent qf dosiniozn, without refer- some of their elements have resisted the once to the title of the ruler or sovereign action of heat more, so that their particles of a country; thus we hear of the empire retain sufficient aggregation to prevent of Persia, Hindostan, &c. The dominions the transmission of light. They are used of the Queen of England are invariably either in counterfeiting or imitating predesignated the British Empire; and the cious stones, in painting in enamel, or by epithet "imperial" is officially prefixed enamellers, jewellers, or goldsmiths, in to the parliament of the united kingdom. gold, silver, and other metals. This art The term empire was applied from 1804 is of so great antiquity, as to render it to 1814 to the dominions of France, in- difficult, if not impo,;sible, to trace to its eluding all the countries then incorpora- origin. It was evidently practised by ted with it by the conquests of Napo- the Egyptians, from the remains that leon. have been found on the ornamented enEM1PIR/IC, one whose knowledge is velopes of mummies. From Egypt it founded on experience. The empiric passed into Greece, and afterwards into school of medicine was opposed to the RIome and its provinces, whence it was dogmatic; it appears to have originated probably introduced into Great Britain with Serapion of Alexandria. The ema- as various Roman antiquities have been piries considered the foundation of medi- dug up in different parts of the island, cal science to rest ulon experience, de- particularly in the barrows, in which rived either directly from experiment or enamels have formed portions of the ornafrom chance and imitation. They were, ments.-Painting in enamel, &c. is perhowever, a pretending, and generally ig- formed on plates of gold or silver, but norant sect; so that the term empiric more commonly of copper, enamelled is generally applied to quacks and pre- with the white enamel; the colors are tenders, without reference to its strict melted in the fire, where they take a etymology, which should have limited it brightness and lustre like that of glass. to the study of medicine, in accordance This painting is prized for its peculiar with the principles of Lord Bacon's philos- brightness and vivacity, which is very ophy. permanent: the force of its colors not EMPO'RIUM, a common resort of being effaced or sullied by time, as in merchants for trade; particularly a city other painting, and continuing always as or town of extensive commerce, or in fresh as when it came out of the workwhich the commerce of an extensive coun- man's hands. The town of Limoges, in try centres, co to which sellers and buy- the south of France, has acquired a great trs resort from different countries. name in the history of the art of enamelEMPYRE'UM, or EMPYRE'AN, a ling; it was particularly distinguished in term used by divines for the highest hea- the twelfth century, and its productions ven, where the blessed enjoy the beatific were called Opus de Limoaia and Labor vision.-Hence we have the word empy- Linog im. Many reliquaries of that real, as pertaining to that region of space time are still extant, the sides and slopwhich is refined beyond aerial substance, ing roofs of which are composed of plates where only pure fire or light is supposed of copper, covered with etchings and to exiat. enamel paintings. The most famous ENAM'EL, a kind of colored glass, artist in enamelling was Leonard Limouprincipally formed by the combination of sin of Limoges, from whom the French 198 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [ENO works of Art of that period were called preciseness of the treatment, as well as Limousins: other masters in this art by the firmness of the materials, for a were Pierre Rexmon, Jean Court, called sharp piece of iron might be drawn ove-i Vigier, J. Laudin, P. Nouaillier, the them without injuring the painting. master J. P., who is known to us only by ENCIE'NIA, in a.ntiquity, anniversary his cipher, but whose works are excel- feasts to commemorate the completing or lent, displaying noble ideas, and the mas- consecrating any new and public work, ter P. C., who is held in high estimation. &c. In modern times, this term is used As regards the technical part of painting, for any commemorative festival. the works of these masters rank far be- ENCAMP/MEINT, the act of pitching low those produced in more recent times; tents for the accommodation of an arnmy they are rather illuminated line-draw- in the open country. ings, with a glazed transparency of color, ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, a peculiar or monochrome paintings, the naked fi- mode of painting in wax, liquefied by ures being well modelled and generally fire; by which the colors acquire considof a reddish tint; the ornaments in gold erable hardness, brilliance, and durabiland the gilded lights make the paintings ity. Ancient authors often mention this appear rich and brilliant. In the course species of painting, but we have no anof the seventeenth century the technical cient pictures of this description, and, part of the art of enamel painting im- therefore, the precise manner formerly proved considerably, progressing from adopted is not completely developed, monochrome to that in various colors. though many moderns have closely inTowards the end of the seventeenth and vestigated the subject and described their the beginning of the eighteenth centuries, processes. As the thing chiefly regarded the art arrived at technical perfection, in encaustic painting was the securing of and real pictures wet'e produced with the permanence and durability, by the apsoftest and most d&:licate gradations of plication of fire, the word encaustic has color. But the works of this period were been applied, in a very general sense, to of very small dimensions, the paintings other processes, in which both the matebeing sometimes on silver, but generally rial and the mode of applying the heat, upon gold, and principally portrait me- are entirely different from what is condallions, for which the art was now em- ceived to have been the ancient materials ployed. Much that was excellent was and modes. The moderns have used the produced, but in historical representation termn for painting on porcelain, and work ls the artists followed the degenerate style in enamel; and in the same way it was of the compositions of those days, so that given to the painting on glass of the midthese works, in spite of their technical die ages, such as iA still seen in the winperfection, must rank below those of the dows of some Gothic churches. It has sixteenth century. also been just as erroneously applied to ENAMEL PAINTING oN LAVA, a works in metal; where gold and silver newly-invented style of painting very were inlaid, melted, or laid on, and of serviceable for monuments. This inven- everything which was gilt or silvered by tion of enamelling upon stone, discovered fire; which was called gold or silver enin France, and well known in Germany, caustic. has produced a kind of painting having ENCIIANT'MENT, the use of magic all the advantages of color and treat- arts and spells, or the invocation of dement, and the great recommendation of mons, in order to produce wonderful or being nearly indestructible. The material supernatural effects. used was discovered by Count Chabrol de ENCtIA'SIN G, or C A'SING, the art Volvic; it consists of volvic stone, and of enriching and beautifying gold, silver, lava from the mountains of Auvergne. &c., by some design represented thereon, The method of painting is a new kind of in low relievo. It is performed by punchenamelling, and has been used by Abel ing, or driving out the metal, to form the du Pujol and others in various works of figure, from within side, so as to stand out Art; for example, the altar of the church prominently from the plane or surface of St. Elizabeth, at Paris; it has recently of the metal. been used in architecture by Hittorf of ENCHIYID'ION, a manual or small Cologne, for the exterior of buildings. volume. In Paris there are several tablets paint- ENCLIT'IC, in grammar, a particle ed with figures in the Arabesque and so closely united with any other word as Pompeiian styles, which have excited to seem to be part of it, as gue, in vigreat admiration by the ease and yet rumlque. wF] ~- AND THE FINE ARTS. 199 ENCOMBO'MA, a portion of Greek ENDRO'MIS, a cloak made of warm costume consist- coarse materials like a blanket, used to ing of a kind of throw over those 8i^l -@apron, fastened who were heated / ^ I<.< loosely round the by the foot race-;,v9^ ^ loins by being ga- or, after athletic s thered into a exercises, to pro- Iknot. It was worn tect the wearer (iil K \ chiefly by young from the effects of' maidens; its use exposure to cold. appears to have In more recent 6t>;^ ~ been to keep the times the name X\ fi? tunic clean. The was applied to a -i annexed woodcut luxurious garment representsayoung worn by women, i;I'il / calendar, excepting that the golden num- die to the tu-:,:' e hers are prefixed to the days of the full nic. They moons, instead of the days of the new were of tawo <6.. moons. The epacts are consequently not sorts one of t. used. It is desirable that the custom of plain linen,; reckoning time by the moon, which had and the other its origin in ignorant ages, were aban- embroidered i/ doned, and the civil year adopted for for the high' >:" every purpose. priest. On the part in fiont were two EP'ARCHY, the prefecture or terri- precious stones, on which were engraven tory under the jurisdiction of an eparch or the names of the twelve tribes of Israel. governor. Before the breast was a square piece or EPAIJLE, in fortification, the shoul- breast-plate. der of the bastion, or the angle of the EPII'OPI, in Grecian antiquity, maface and flank; which is often called the gistrates established in ancient Sparta to angle of the epaule. balance the regal power. The authority EPAU'LEMENT, in fortification, a of the ephori was very great: they were work raised to cover sidewise, made of five in number, presided over shows and earth, gabions, &c. It also denotes a festivals, had the care of the public momass of earth, called a square orillon, ney, specially superintended the educaraised to cover the cannon of a casement, tion of youth, and were the arbiters of and faced with a wall. war and peace. EPAULETTES', distinguishing orna- EP'IC, a poem of an elevated characments worn both by military and naval ter, describing generally the exploits of 14 210 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [EP1 heroes. This species of poetry claims a Romanzieri. form a class distinguished very ancient origin, and is universally from the epic by the mixture of the seriallowed to be the most dignified and ma- ous and ludicrous. The old German and jestic to which the powers of the poet can Spanish national poems,-the Romance be directed. There are various theories of the Cid, and the Niebelungen-Lied, regarding the character of an epic poem; especially the latter, which is closely and while some critics claim this title ex- confined to the conduct of one great acelusively for the Iliad and Odyssey of Ho- tion,-although the work of writers unmer, the ~Aneid of Virgil, and the Para- skilled in classical literature, deserve the disc Lost of Milton, others-and particu- title of epic as truly as those of Homer. larly the Germans —embrace in the cata- EP'ICENE, in grammar, an epithet logue of epic writers Scott, Byron, Pope, for the gender of such words as are comMoore, and Campbell. Epic poetry has mon to both sexes. often been compared to the drama; and EPICIIIRE'MA, in logic, a mode. of the essential difference between them is, reasoning, which comprehends the pioof that description is the province of the of one or both the premises of a syllo former-action of the latter. The emo- gism, before the conclusion is drawn. tions which epic poetry excite are not so EPICHIROTO'NIA, in Grecian anfrequent and violent as those produced tiquity, the annual ceremony of revising by dramatic composition; but they are the laws, which was instituted by Solon. more prolonged, and more developed by They gave their votes by holding up their actual occurrences; for an epic poem em- hands: hence the name. braces a wider compass of time and action EPICITHARIS'MA, in the ancient than is admissible in the drama. History drama, the last part of the interlude, or has generally supplied the best epic wri- a flourish of music after the play was ters with themes; but a close attention to over. historical truth in the development of the EPIC REPRESENTA'TION, the Epos story is by no means requisite. Fiction, or epic poem, relates a grand event on invention, imagination, may be indulged which important consequences depend. In in to an almost unlimited extent; pro- plastic art, reliefs on walls, and friezes, vided always the poet be careful to pre- and encaustic, and fresco-painting which serve what the critics call unity, i. e. pro- can be executed on large surfaces as well vided his work embrace an entire action, as oil-paintings, by which a considerable or have a beginning, a middle, and an space on canvas may be filled, are peend..This is the distinguishing charac- culiarly adapted for the representation teristieof the great epic poems. If the of an Epos, or of a great action. But epic is the highest, it is also the most the artist has not, like the poet, the difficult style of poetical composition, and power of representing in connection, that in which mediocrity is least endura- those consequences of single events, ble; and hence few of the writers of epics scenes, &c., which form the whole. The on the classical model have obtained a limits of connection (with the poet ofhigh reputation as national poets in any ten only single words, clever phrases, or language. Virgil is the earliest imitator striking transitions) are denied to the of Homer whose epic has been preserved, artist, and he must therefore limit himand the most successful. The other self to the means at his command, of Greek and Latin epic poets contain pas- showing in the clearest manner possible, sages of great beauty; but their poems, the point of the event from which its conas wholes, are of an inferior order. In sequences are developed. The plastic the English language there are only two artist can and may depict the moment of epics which can be said to form part of an event or a scene, including several the national literature, and those only in events which he may define or suggest. part framed on the classical model: the To choose this moment rightly, to draw Paradise Lost and Regained of Milton. strikingly, and to execute intelligibly, is French epics, including even the Henri- the important task, in the performance ade of Voltaire, so famous in its time, of which the true master and epic artist have no place among the chefs-d'oeuvre are seen. The epic picture, whether it of the national literature. Of the great belong to plastic work or painting, is thus Italian poems, only one (the Jerusalem the representation of an important action Delivered of Tasso) fulfils the conditions of human life, of ancient or modern of an epic. The poem of Dante, however times, of distant or neighboring nations, sublime in style, has no unity of event or of events which have happened or which action: those of Ariosto, and the other have been invented. It must in e tyry ____________________________________________] EPi] AND THE FINE ARTS. 211 case be true or probable, i. e., belonging The precepts and practices of the Epicuto history and reality, or possible; in reans have, however, loaded his memory other words, the circumstances to be rep- with unrerited infamy; and an Epicureresented must be brought out conforma- an, according to the perverted meaning bly to Nature and Art, and have nothing of his doctrine, is one who is devoted to contradictory in themselves. The epic sensual enjoyments, particularly those of work of Art, is always only a fragment the table. (though an important one) of a classic EPIDE'MIA, in Grecian antiquity, or romantic, of a more or less historical, festivals kept in honor of Apollo and Dior of a pure poetic epos, often the quin- ana, at the stated seasons when these dcitessence of an epos, but never tie epos ties, who could not be present every.itself. The plastic descriptive work of where, were supposed to visit different Art is thus limited to the poetical ia- places, in order to receive the vows of portant event, but is in its limitation the their adorers. utmost concentration of history, while it EPIDEMIC, a disease which prevails brings forward a principal action, with a in a place or tract of country only for a short but clear glance of the most im- temporary period, or that attacks many portant preceding and succeeding cir- people at the same season. There are cumstances, so that all forms are arrang- some epidemics which prevail every year, ed in action in their due relation to and which are produced by the various each other, or to the principal point of changes of the seasons. Thus, the spring the picture. If this be undertaken with is accompanied by inflammatory diseases; genius and happily executed by a mas- summer by complaints in the stomach terly hand, the whole will not only at- and bowels; autumn by catarrhs; and tract the eye of the spectator, as a har- winter by intermittents. An epidemic at monious grouping of different details, its commencement is usually mild, and rich in references, and finding a centre becomes more dangerous as it spreads; point of union and conclusion, but will but as it goes off, it again generally asrivet his attention. sumes a mild form. Epidemics are not EPICTE'TIAN, pertaining to Epicte- originally contagious; it is only under tus, the Stoic philosopher; a man who particular circumstances, especially if the was held in such high esteem, that it is disorder is a violent one, and many pasaid his study lamp was sold after his tients are crowded into a small room, so death for three thousand drachmnas. as to form a corrupt atmosphere about EPICURE'ANS, a numerous sect of the sick, that contagion takes place. That philosophers in Greece and Rolme: the which is frequently ascribed to contagion, disciples of Epicurus, who flourished is only the consequence of a violent shock about 300 years B.c. They maintained of the nervous system at the sight of a that sensual pleasure was man's chief fe- sick person, perhaps in a loathsome state, licity; that the world was formed by a whereby the disease, to which the body concourse of atoms, and not governed by was already disposed, is more quickly deProvidence; that the gods resided in the veloped. It is essential to the medical extramundane spaces, in soft, inactive notion of an epidemic that it be of a temease, and eternal tranquillity; that fu- porary, in contradistinption to a permature rewards and punishments were idle nent character. It differs from endemic, chimeras; and that the soul was extin- inasmuch as the latter class of diseases guished with the body. They are men- are of a permanent nature, and prevail tioned in the xviith chapter of the Acts only among certain people, and in certain of the Apostles. Epicurus himself main- districts. tained a more manly philosophy than the EPIG'ONI, the collective appellation generality of his followers; he held, in- of the sons of the seven Greek princes deed, that pleasure was the chief end of who conducted the first war against Thebes human pursuit; and this pleasure he without success. The war subsequently placed in an exemption from pain, and a undertaken by the Epigoni to avenge the perfect tranquillity of body and mind; defeat of their forefathers is celebrated in but the means which he pointed out as history. Their capture of Thebes forms conducive to this end were prudence, the theme of Wilkie's epic poem, the temperance, fortitude, and justice, in the Epigonziad, which was published abcut union of which perfect happiness consists. the middle of the last century, and proHe pursued pleasure, therefore, in its cured for its author great reputation. most rational acceptation, and his life EP'IGRAM, in poetry, a short poem seems to have been stained with few vices. or piece in verse, which has only one sub__________________________________ _______________ ________________ 212 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [EPI ject, and finishes by a witty or ingenious| served on the sixth of January, (the turn of thought; or, to use a more gen- twelfth day after Christmas,) in honor eral definition, an interesting thought of the appearance of our Saviour to the represented happily in a few words. The magi, or wise men, who came to adore first of these definitions, although tolera- him, and bring him presents. The Greek bly correct as to the modern epigram, dif- fathers used the word for the appearance fers, as it will be seen, widely from the of Christ in the world. original sense of the word in Greek. The EPIPHIONE'MA, in rhetoric, a senGreek epigram was, in the first instance, tentious exclamation or remark, not closea short collection of lines actually in- ly connected with the general tenor of scribed on a monument, statue, fountain, the oration, and generally expressed with &e.; and the word was thence transferred vehemence. to such short poems as might serve for EPIPI'ORA, in rhetoric, the emphatic inscriptions: of such the collection termed repetition of a word or series of words at the Greek epigran is almost wholly the end of several sentences or stanzas. composed. Their general characteristic One of the finest instances of this figure is perfect simplicity, and the seemingly in modern oratory occurs in Fox's defence studied absence of that point which char- of himself and his measures in the House acterizes the modern epigram. They are of. Commons after the dissolution of the almost wholly in one form of metre, the Coalition ministry. elegiac. In the poetry of classical Rome, E P I P L E X' IS, a rhetorical figure, the term epigram was still somewhat in- which, by an elegant kind of upbraiding, discriminately used to designate short endeavors to convince. pieces in verse; but the works of Catul- EPIP'LOCE, a rhetorical figure, by lus, and still more the well-known col- which one aggravation, or striking cirl lection of the Epigra7ms of fitartial, con- cumestance, is added to another; as, " He tain a great number which present the not only spared the rebels, but encourmodern epigranmmatic character: and aged them; not only encouraged them, Martial has, in fact, afforded the model but rewarded them." on which the modern epigram has been EPIS'COP.ACY, a form of church govframed. In this class of composition, and emrnent by diocesan bishops. especially where the turn of thought is EPISCOPA'LIANS, an appellation satirical, the French writers have been given to those who adhere to the episfar more successful than those of any copal form of church government and other nation; and the term " piquant" discipline. seems expressly invented to designate the EP/ISODE, in poetry, a separate incipeculiar force of those epigrammatic sal- dent, story, or action, which a poet inlies of fancy of which their literature is vents, and connects with his principal full. action, that his work may abound with a EP'IGRAPIH, also termed motto. In greater variety of events: though, in a literature, a citation from some author, more limited sense, all the particular inor a sentence framed for the purpose, cidents of which the action or narration placed at the commencement of a work is compounded, are called episodes. In or of its separate divisions. epic poetry, there is much more room for EP'ILOGUE, in the drama, a speech the episode than in dramatic, where the addressed to the audience when the play poem is confined to a present action. is ended. In the modern tragedy the The term episode has also been transepilocue is usually smart and lively, in- ferred to historical painting, in a sense tended, probably, to compose the passions analogous to that which it bears in poeraised in the course of the representa- try. tion; but it has been compared to a merry EPIS'TATES, the title of the presijig upon the organ, after a good sermon, dents of the two great councils of the to wipe away any impression that might Athenians, viz., the Ecclesia and the senhave been made by it, and send the congre- ate of the Five Hundred. They were gation away just as they came.-In rhet- both respectively elected from the numeric, the conclusion of a speech, contain- her of the prohedri of the ecclesia and ing a recapitulation of the whole. senate, and their office only lasted one EPIN'CION, in the Greek and Latin day. The latter of these two officers had poetry, is a poem or composition cele- the post of the greatest trust, as in his brating a victory. Also, a festival on ac- hands were placed the keys of the citadel count of a victory. and public treasury. EPIPH'ANY a Christian festival, ob- EPIS'TLE, the use of this word is now EPI] AND THE FINE ARTS. 213 confined to the designation of those writ- soever the epitaphs of the ancient Greeks ten addresses by apostolical writers to and Romans differed in point of number, their Christian brethren which are con- there were three qualities which they tained in the canon of Scripture; a few possessed in common-brevity, simpliothers, either spurious or of high anti- city, and familiarity; qualities which a quity, although not recognized among modern critic, Boileau, has pronounced to inspired writings, are also so denomi- be indispensable in this species of writing. nated. The epistles of St. Paul, and oth- At what period sepulchral inscriptions ers contained in the volume of the New came into use in England has not been Testament, are not arranged according precisely ascertained; though there can to their date, but, in all probability, ac- be little doubt that this practice was incording to the views which those who ar- troduced by the Romans at the period of ranged the canon entertained of the rel- their invasion of Britain. During the ative importance either of the writings first twelve centuries of the Christian era, themselves, or of the parties to whom monumental inscriptions were all written they are addressed. Thus, the epistles in Latin. About the 13th century, the of St. Paul to the different churches, and French language was adopted and conthe Catholic epistles of St. John (i. e. ad- tinned to be used for this purpose till dressed to the universal church,) are the middle of the 14th century; at which ranked before the epistles of those saints time monumental inscriptions in the verto individual Christians. An exception nacular tongue became common, though to this rule is to be found in the epistle the clergy and learned of that time, as to the Hebrews, which is placed last might have been expected, still preferred among those of St. Paul, and seems to the Latin, as their more familiar idiom. have been admitted into the canon at a The modern English. French, and Gercomparatively recent period. The prac- man epitaphs, of which several collections tice of reading a portion of an epistle in have been made, are infinitely more nuthe service of the church is extremely merous than those of any time or nation, ancient, and said to be noticed by Justin and exhibit every variety of style and in his First Apology. sentiment; from the most chaste and EPISTOLOG'RAPIIY, the art or prac- majestic gravity, impressive tenderness, tice of writing letters. and laconic terseness, to the most puerile EPIS'TROPHE, in rhetoric, a figure epigrammatic conceits, pointed satire, and of speech in which several successive sen- heraldic prolixity. tenees end with the same word or affirm- EPITA'SIS, in ancient poetry, the ation, as, " Are they Hebrews? so am I. second part or division of a dramatic Are they Israelites'? so am I. Are they poem, in which the plot, entered upon in of the seed of Abraham? so am I," &c. the first part, or protasis, was carried on, EP'ISTYLE, in ancient architecture, heightened, and worked up till it arrived a term used by the Greeks for what we at its height, called catastasis.-In rhetcall the archiravc ve, viz., a massive piece oric, that part of an oration in which the of stone or wood laid immediately over orator addresses himself most forcibly to the capital of a column. the passions. EP'ITAPH, literally an inscription on EPITHALA'MIUM, a nuptial song, a tomb. As has been well observed, in- sung by a chorus of boys and girls when scriptions in honor of the dead are per- the bride and bridegroom entered the haps as old as tombs themselves; though bridal chamber, and again on the first they were by no means bestowed in such morning after the marriage. This was profusion in ancient as in modern times. the custom in Greece, which was someAmong the Greeks, for instance, this what varied at Rome, where the chorus honor was paid only to the tombs of consisted of girls only, who sang before heroes, as in the case of Leonidas and his the door of the nuptial chamber till midgallant comrades. The Romans were the night. The most perfect examples of first to deviate from this course. Every this species which antiquity has left us Roman family who consecrated a tomb to are by Theocritus and Catullus. their relations had the privilege of in- EP'ITHET, in rhetoric and composcribing an epitaph thereon; and as their sition, denotes a term employed in an tombs were usually situated on the high- adjective sense to express an attribute or way, the attention of passers-by was quality of another substantive term. The sought to be arrested by the words "sta abundance and the propriety of epithets viator"-the formula with which all their I form peculiar characteristics of various epitaphs were prefaced. But how much poetical styles. In the strict rhetorical 214 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE L[EQ sense, epithets are only such adjectives the Hegira of Mahomet, 622 A.D.-The as convey a notion already implied in Christian era, used by alnost all Christhe noun substantive itself, and add no- tian nations, dates from January 1st, the thing to the sense. Thus, the "glorious" middle of the fourth year of the 194tb sun is a mere epithet; while the "rising" Olympiad, in the 753d of the building of or the " setting' sun would, as convey- Rome, and 4714th of the Julian period. ing some additional idea into the sense The Christian year, in its division, folof the passage, not be considered as epi- lows exactly the Roman year, consisting thets. The former sort, however, are of 365 days for three successive years, sometin es called in disparagement by and of 366 in the fourth year, which is writers on rhetoric' otiosa," or idle epi- termed leap year. The simplicity of this thets. form has brought it into very general EPITITII'IDES, in architecture, the use, and it is customary for astronomers crown or upper mouldings of an entab- and chronologists, in treating of ancient lat.ure. time, to date back in the same order EPIT'OME, in literature, an abridg- from its commencement.-See CALENment; a work in which the contents of a DAR. former work are reduced within a smaller EP'ODE, in lyric poetry, the third or space by curtailment and condensation, last part of the ode, the ancient ode being In the later classical period, extending divided into strophe, antistrophe, and through the declining age of the Western epode. The word is now used for any Empire, the practice of epitomizing the little verse or verses, that follow one or writings of older writers, especially in more great ones. history, became very prevalent; and EPOPEE', or EPOPCE'IA. in poetry, while some regard the works of Justin, the fable, or subject of an epic poem. Eutropius, and simi;ur writers, as having EPOP'Ttl, in antiquity, a name given preserved to us mlch historical knowl- to those who were admitted to view the edge which would otherwise have been secrets of the greater mysteries, or relost, others have 1maintained that these ligious ceremonies of the Greeks. laborious compilers have done great dis- EPOT'IDES, in the naval architecture service to literature, inasmuch as the of the ancients, two thick blocks of wood, voluminous works which they abridged one on each side the prow of a galley, being superseded by their more popular for warding off the blows of the rostra of and cheaper compendia, in an illiterate the enemy's vessels. age, have, from that cause, for the most EPULO'NES, in Roman antiquity, part perished. public officers who assisted at the sacriEPIT'ROPE, or EPIT'ROPY, in rhet- fices, and had the care of the epulum, or oric, a figure of speech. by which one sacred banquet, committed to them. thing is granted, with a view to obtain EQUAL'ITY, a term of relation bean advantage; as, "I concede the fact, tween things the same in magnitude but this very concession overthrows your quantity, or quality. Also, the same deown argument." gree of dignity or claims; as, eqaclity EPIZEUX'IS, in rhetoric, a figure of men, in the scale of being; an equalwhich repeats the same word, without ity of rights, &c. any other intervening; such is that of EQUANIM'ITY, that even and calm Virgil, " nunc, nunc, insurgite remis." frame of mind and temper, under good or E'POCH, a certain fixed period, or bad fortune, which is not easily elated or point of time, made famous by some re- depressed. A truly great man bears markable event, and serving as a stand- misfortunes with equanimity, and carries ard in chronology and history.,The prin- himself in prosperity without vain exultcipal are the Creation, 4004 B.c.; the ation or excessive joy. Flood, 2348 B.C.; the birth of Abraham, EQ'UJERRY, an officer of state under 1996 B.c.; the conquest of Canaan, 1451 the master of the horse. There are five n.c.; the taking of Troy, 1184 B.c.; the equerries, who ride out with her majesty; finishing of Solomon's temple, 1104 B.c.; for which purpose they give their attendthe first Olympiad, 776 B.c.: the building ance monthly, one at a time, and have a of Rome, 753 B.c.; the era of Nabonassar, table provided for them. 747 B.c.; the founding of the Persian E'QITES AURA'TUS, a Roman knight, Empire, by Cyrus, 559 B.C.; the death so called because none but knights were of Alexander, 323 B.c; the death of allowed to gild their armor. Cesar, 44 B.c; the birth of Christ, 1, or EQUES'TRIA, a place in the Roman thi commencement of the Christian era; theatres where the knights or equates sac EQU] AND THE FINE ARTS. 215 EQUES'TRIAN GAMES, in Roman reason, exercised by the chancellor or antiquity, (ludi equestres,) horse-races, judge, giving remedy in cases to which of which there are five kinds; the pro- the courts of law are not competent. It dromus or plain horse-race, the chariot will remove legal impediments to the race, the decursory race about funeral fair decision of a question depending at piles, the ludi sevirales, and the ludi law. It will prevent a party from imneptunales.-Equestrian order, the sec- properly setting up, at a trial, some title ond rank in Rome, next to the senators. or claim which would be inequitable. It -Equestrian statue, the representation will compel him to discover, on his own of a person on horseback. oath, facts which he knows are material EQUIPAGE', in ordinary language, to the right of the other party, but which signifies the carriage, horses, and liveries a court of law cannot compel the party to of any gentleman when he appears discover. It will provide for the safety abroad.-Equsipage, in marine affairs, of property in dispute pending litigation. signifies the crew of a ship, together with It will counteract, or control, or set aside, all a ship's furniture, masts, sails, am- fraudulent judgments. It will also exermunition, &c. In the art military, it cise, in many cases, exclusive jurisdicdenotes all sorts of utensils and artillery, tion; particularly in granting special re&c., necessary for commencing and pros- lief beyond the reach of the common ecuting with ease or success any military law. It will grant injunctions to prevent operation. waste or irreparable injury, or to secure EQUIPOL'LENCE, in logic, an equiv- a settled right, or to prevent vexatious alence, or agreement, either as to the litigations, or to compel the restitution nature of the thing, or as to the gram- of title deeds; it will appoint receivers matical sense of any two or more propo- of property, where it is in danger of missitions; that is, when two propositions application; it will prohibit a party from signify one and the same thing, though leaving the country in order to avoid a they express it differently. suit; it will decree a specific performance EQUIRIA, in antiquity, games insti- of contracts respecting real estates; it tuted by Romulus in honor of Mars, and will. in many cases. supply the imperfect which consisted in horse-racing. They execution of instruments, and reform and were celebrated on the third of the cal- alter them according to the real intention ends of March. of the parties; it will grant relief in cases EQ'UITES, amongst the Romans, were of lost deeds and securities; and, in all persons of the second degree of nobility, cases in which its interference is asked, immediately succeeding the senators in its general rule is, that he who asks point of rank. Every eques or knight equity must do equity. In short, its juhad a horse kept at the public charge; risdiction is almost undefined, where the he received also the stipend of a horse- positive law is silent, but substantial jusman, to serve in the wars, and wore a tice entitles the party to relief. ring, which was given him by the state. EQUITY OF REDEMP'TION, in law, The equites composed a large body of is the advantage allowed to one who men, and constituted the Roman caval- mortgages his property, to have a reasonry; for there was always a sufficient able time allowed him to redeem it; for number of them in the city, and nothing although the estate, upon non-payment but a review was requisite to fit them for of the money, becomes vested in the service. mortgagee, yet equity considers it only a EQ'UITY, in a moral sense, is the im- pledge for the money, and gives the party partial distribution of justice. So, in an a right to redeem, which is called his enlarged view, Blackstone observes:- equity qfredemption. "Equity, in its true and general mean- EQUIV'OCAL, an epithet for whatever ing, is the soul and spirit of all law; is ambiguous or susceptible of different positive law is construed, and rational constructions; as, that man's character is law is made by it. In this, equity is sy- very equivocal. nonymous with justice." In English ju- EQUIVOCAL TERM, in logic, a term risprudence, a court of equity or chan- which has several significations, applying eery, is a court which corrects the opera- respectively and equally to several obtion of the literal text of the law, and jeets. A word is generally said to be supplied its defects, by reasonable con- employed equivocally where the middle struction, and by rules of proceeding and term is used in different senses in the two deciding, which are not admissible in a premisses, or where a proposition is liable court of law. Equity then, is the law of to be understood in various senses, ac 216 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [ERS cording to the various meanings of one of nation, who give themselves up to an exits terms. cess in pleasure, or are spoiled by readEQUIVOCA'TION, the use of equivo- ing romances, and rendered effeminato cal terms, which may be understood by by an injudicious education and indothe hearer in a different sense from that lence. in which they are taken by the speaker. ERRAT'IC, wandering, or having no He who is guilty of equivocation, may be certain course; also, not fixed or stationfairly suspected of hypocrisy. ary; hence the planets are called erratic EQ'UIVOQUE, a word or phrase sus- stars; and fevers which observe no regceptible of different significations. ular periods, are denominated erratic ERAS'TIANS, the followers of Eras- fevers. tus, a German divine; a sect which ob- ERRA'TUM, an error of the press; in tained some notoriety in England in the the plural, Errata, a list of which is time of the civil wars. They referred the usually printed at the beginning or end punishment of all offences, civil or re- of a book. ligious, to the civil magistrate; and as- ER'ROR, a wandering or deviation serted that the church had no power to from the truth. An error may be either enforce any acts of discipline, nor to re- voluntary or involuttary; when comfuse the communion of the Lord's Supper mitted through carelessness or haste it is to any one who desired it. a blunder.-Error, in law, is a mistake ERA'TO, one of the muses, whose committed in pleading, or in a process; name signifies lov- whereupon a writ of error is brought to ing or lovely. She remedy it, which carries the suit to anhas much in con- other tribunal for redress. mon with Tcrpsi- ERSE, the language of the descendants \!~ \\ chore —the same at- of the Gaels or Celts, in the highlands of tributes, the same Scotland.-Edrse is a corruption of Irish. ii dress, and frequent- The highlanders were supposed by their M ly a lyre and plec- Gothic neighbors to be an Irish colony, // } 1 trui. She presides and hence the name given to their lanover the songs of guage. The highlanders themselves in(/ 1 lovers. variably call it Gaelic. It first attracted EREBUS, accor- notice after the publication in the English flu/ I w ding to the classic language of the poems of Ossian, said to mythology, the son be derived from it about the middle of of chaos and dark- the last century. These, it was preness, who dwelt in tended, were translated from manuscripts the lowest part of in the translator's possession; but such ink l; va' hell, which is fre- poems in a written form, it is now suimit? —-) quently called byhis ciently known, never had any existence,' —------ name. either in the Irish or Gaelic language. EREMIT'ICAL, (from eremite, a her- Although not committed to writing, or mit,) living in solitude, or in seclusion rather not handed down in writing, these fro the world. poems, committed to memory and handEROT'IC POETRY, a term for ama- ed down from one bard or story-teller to tory poetry. The name of erotic writers another, still exist in the Highlands of has been applied particularly to a class Scotland, and in a dress not remote from of romance writers who belong to the that in which they were rendered by later periods of Greek literature, and Macpherson into English. Their scene is whose works abound in sophistical subtle- sometimes laid in Scotland, but more freties and ornaments. quently in Ireland. In short, they are EROTOM'ANY, a term employed by the Iliad and Odyssey of the Celtic race some writers to denote that modification of the two islands, handed down by tradiof insanity, of which the passion of love is tion only,-what the poems of Homer the origin, and in which the love of a were in all likelihood to the Greeks particular individual constitutes the pre- themselves, before the art of writing was dominant idea, occupying the whole at- known to them. The Erse, although a tention of the patient. It sometimes rude and uncultivated language, is a passes into perfect delirium, leads to sui- nervous and manly one, both as to excide, hysterics, &c. Young people are pression and sound, and well suited to peculiarly subject to it, who have an ex- poetry, whether sublime or tender. The citable nervous system and lively imagi- range of its sounds is very great; for it ESO1 AND THE FINE ARTS. 21'? possesses twelve vowels, and no less than In the case of a negligent escape, the eighteen diphthongs and triphthongs, with sheriff, upon fresh pursuit, may retake forty-one consonants, including aspirates. the prisoner, and the sheriff shall be exMany of the consonants are guttural; cused if he have him again before any acand of these, as well of the vocalic sounds, tion is brought against himself for the there are several utterly unpronounce- escape. In crinminal cases, an escape of able by a stranger: the attempts made a person arrested is an offence against to express such a variety of sounds by public justice, and the party is punishable the Rloman alphabet are, of course, both by fine and imprisonment. awkward and imperfect. As to the ESCARP'MENT, or ESCARP', in the grammar, that of the Gaelic is of complex military art, the exterior slope facing structure, implying a primitive language fortified works; the interior slope being which has undergone little change by ad- the cousnterscarp. mixture with other tongues. ESCIEAT', in law, lands or profits EQUES'TRIAN STAT'UE, statues of that fall to a lord within his manor, either men on horseback, usually formed of by forfeiture, the death of the tenant, or bronze, but sometimes of lead and stone. through failure of heirs. London enjoys the singular eminence of ES'CORT, a guard or company of armpossessing the worst equestrian statues to ed men attending an officer, or baggage, be found in any city of Europe. provisions, or munitions conveyed by ER/MINE, the fur of the animal of land, to protect them from an enemy, &c. this name. It is an emblem of purity, ES'CUAGE, in feudal customs, a kind and of honor without stain. Robes of of knight-service, called service of the royal personages are lined with it to sig- shield, by which the tenant was bound to nify the internal purity that should regu- follow his lord to the wars at his own late their conduct. charge. ERUDI1TION, the attainment of pro- ESCULA'PIAN, (from Xscsulapius found learning and extensive knowledge, the physician,) pertaining to the healing obtained by study and instruction; par- art. ticularly learning in history, antiquity, ES'CULENT, an epithet for such and languages, as distinct from the use- plants or roots as may bo eaten. ful arts and sciences. ESCU'RIAL, a celebrated palace and ESCALADE', in the military art, a monastery in Spain, about twenty miles furious attack made upon a rampart, or from Madrid, built by Philip II. It is in scaling the walls of a fortification, by fill- the shape of a gridiron, and contains the ing up the ditches with bundles of fag- king's palace. St.. Lawrence's church, the ots, called fascines, and entering by lad- monastery of Jerenomites, and the free ders; without proceeding in form, break- schools. It was erected in consequence ing ground, or carrying on regular works of a vow made by Philip, on the day of to secure the men-a mode of attack -the battle of St. Quentin, and dedicated much adopted in the late wars, but gen- to St. Lawrence, whose festival was on erally accompanied with great slaughter. that day. Though the building is imESCALVLOP, an emblem of St. James mensely large and the most superb in the the Great, which is kingdom, its exterior has rather the aus-'Tp ru'\? frequently met with in tere simplicity of a convent than the ele>)l\ \xk churches, dedicated to gance of a palace. It is a quadrangle,'^vS J \V } ^his honor. It is one 740 feet in length by 580 in breadth; and of the attributes and is said to have cost 50 millions of'dollars. -~-,>~ r insignia of pilgrims, ES'DRAS, the name of two apocryphal adopted by them in books, usually bound up with the Scriptheir voyages to the tures. They were always excluded the sepulchre of this apostle, gathered by Jewish canon. them on the sea-shore, and fastened on ESOTER'IC, an epithet applied to the their hoods or hats as a mark of the pil- private instructions and doctrines of Pygrimage. thagoras; opposed to exoteric. or public. ESCAPE,/ in law, is where a person Much dispute has prevailed among the arrested gains his liberty before he is de- learned as to the precise import of this livered by law. In civil cases, after the distinction. By some it was thought that prisoner has been suffered voluntarily to the ancient philosophers had a set of raysescape, the sheriff can never after retake terious doctrines which they communihim, and must answer for the debt; but eated only to the more enlightened of the plaintiff may retake him at any time. their disciples, and another more popular 218 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE LEST doctrine which they promulgated to the united in one collection under the name multitude. In the case of Aristotle, to of The English Essayists. The most whose writings the distinction properly celebrated of these works was the Specapplied, this opinion is, to a certain ex- tutor, to which Addison was the best content, well founded; except so far as re- tributor; and next to it the Rambler, gards the suspicion of intentional conceal- published and almost wholly written by ment implied in it. The exoteric or pub- Samuel Johnson. The title of essay has lished writings of that philosopher appear been also adopted, by way of indicating to have been written in the form of dia- diffidence in the completeness of their lognes, all of which are lost. His esoteric work, by various authors of more exworks, we gather from the synonymous tended performances; as, by Locke (Esterm acrosamatic, were not intended to su say on the Humana Understanding.) persede the necessity of oral instruction ES'SENCE, in philosophy, a scholastic to render them intelligible. This agrees term, denoting what the Platonists called well enough with the brevity, the frequent the idea of a species. The school phirepetitions, and the perplexed arrange- losophers give two significations of the ment of the works of Aristotle which sur- word essence the first denoting the vive. whole essential perfection of a being, and ES'PIONAGE, a system of employing consequently its entity, with all its inspies, or secret emissaries, either in mili- trinsic and necessary attributes taken totary or political affairs. gether; the second denoting the principal ESPOUS'ALS, in law, a contract'or or most important attributes of anything. mutual promise of marriage between a The essences of things were held by many man and woman. to be uncreated, eternal, and immutable. ESPLANADE', in fortification, the ESSENES', a sect among the Jews in glacis of the counterscarp, or sloping of the time of our Saviour, of whom an acthe parapet of the covered way towards count is preserved to us by Josephus and the country. The word is now also used Philo, though they are not mentioned in for a sloping walk or promenade. Scripture. They were few in number, ESPRIT' DE CORPS, a French phrase, and lived chiefly in solitude, taking no signifying that species of attachment with part in public affairs, but devoting their which persons, more especially military lives to contemplation. There were inmen, are animated to the corps or service deed two classes of them, distinguished to which they belong. as the practical and contemplative, who ESQUIRE', anciently a shield or ar- differed in the degree of strictness and mor-bearer; the person that attended a austerity which they observed. They knight in time of war, and carried his believed in the immortality of the soul, shield. It is now a title given to the sons and held the Scripture in the highest of knights, or those who serve the king in reverence; interpreting it, however, after any worshipful calling, as officers of the an allegorical system of their own. king's courts, counsellors at law, &c. It ESSENTIAL PROP'ERTIES, in logic, has, however, become a sort of vague and such as necessarily depend upon, and are undefined compliment, placed at the end connected with, the nature and essence of of a man's name, and may be regardeda thing, in distinction from the accidental. more as an expression of respect than ESSOIN', in law, an excuse by reason anything else. of sickness or any other just cause for one ES'SAY, in literature, an attempt; a that is summoned to appear and answer species of composition. In general, this an action, &c.-The first three days of a title is given to short disquisitions on term are called essoin days, as three days subjects of taste, philosophy, or common are allowed for the appearance of suitors. life. In this sense it has been applied to ESTAB'LISIMENT, in a military periodical papers, published at regular sense, the quota of officers and men in an intervals under a collective name. by one army, regiment, or company, which beor more writers, containing remarks on ing much greater in war than in peace, topics of the day, or on more serious sub- has given rise to the distinctive terms of jects. From the appearance of the Tat- War Establishment and Peace Establishler, in the beginning of the last century, ment.-The word is also used when speakwhich was chiefly written by Sir Richard ing of the ministers of a church estabSteele, this species of literature continued lished by law, as belonging to the EJstabto be a favorite in England for seventy lishmecnt. years, and many similar series of essays ESTACADE', in the military art, a were produced; the best of which are French word for a dyke, constructed with ETY] AND THE FINE ARTS. 219 piles in the sea, a river, or morass, to copper or steel, in which the lines and oppose the entry of troops. strokes are eaten in with aquafortis. See ESTAFET'TE, a military courier, sent ENGRAVING. from one part of an army to another; or ETEIVNITY, everlasting duration, a speedy messenger who travels on horse- without beginning or end; a term exback. pressive of that perpetuity which can ESTATE', in law, the title or interest only be imagined, on account of the isithat a person has in lands, tenements, or possibility of conceiving when time was other effects; comprehending the whole not, or will not be; hence many have in which a person has any property. Es- concluded that there has been an etertates are either real or personal; other- nity of past time, and must be an eterwise distinguished into freeholds, which nity of future time. descend to heirs; or chattels and effects, ETI'ICS, the doctrine of manners, or which go to executors or administrators. science of moral philosophy, which teachThere are also estates for life, for years, es men their duty and the springs and at will, &c. - Estates of the realmt are principles of human conduct. the distinct parts of any state or govern- ETHNOG'RAPHY, the science which ment, as the king, lords, and commons, treats of the particularities of nations, dein England. scribing their customs, peculiarities, &c. ES'THER, a canonical book of the Old Although a peculiar name has been Testament, containing the history of a given to it, it is in general considered as Jewish virgin, dwelling with her uncle a branch of the sciences of geography and Mordecai at Shushan, in the reign of Aha- history. suerus, one of the kings of Persia. Arch- ETIOL'OGY, an account of the causes bishop Usher supposes Darius Hystaspes of anything, particularly of diseases. to be the Ahasuerus of Scripture, and ET'IQUETTE, is the ceremonial code Artystona to be Esther. Scaliger con- of polite life, more voluminous and minute siders him as Xerxes, and his queen Ha- in each portion of society according to its mestris as Esther. Josephus, on the con- rank. The word is derived from the custrary, asserts that Ahasuerus was Arta- tom of arranging places at processions, &c. xerxes Longimanus; and the Septuagint, by tickets delivered beforehand to applithroughout the whole book of Esther, cants. The Byzantine court appears to translates Ahasuerus by Artaxerxes. have carried the practice of ceremonial ES'TIMATE, a judgment or opinion observations to the most inconvenient formed of the value, degree, extent, or and ludicrous extent. But of modern quantity of anything, without ascertain- courtly etiquette, Philip the Good, Duke ing it. Also a computation of probable of Burgundy, is regarded by some as the value or cost, such as is generally pre- founder. HIis desire to conceal his inpared by engineers, architects, and build- feriority in rank, as a great feudatory ers, previous to the commencement of only, to the great sovereigns of Europe, any undertaking. whom he equalled in power, induced him ESTOVERS, in law, a reasonable al- to surround his presence with a multilowance out of lands or goods for the sub- tude of officers and numberless formalisistence of a man accused of felony, du- ties. At no time, probably, was the ring his imprisonment. But it is more spirit of etiquette so predominant and so generally taken for certain allowances of tyrannical as in the court of Louis XIV.; wood made to tenants, and called, from and the IMemoirs qf St. Sirmon are full the Saxon, house-bote, hedge-bote, plough- of the most extraordinary proofs of the bote, &c. subjugation of the minds of men of sense, ESTRAY', a tame beast found without wit, and even independent character in any owner known, which, by the English other respects, to its engrossing influlaw if not reclaimed within a year and a ence,-their pride in attaining any little day, falls to the lord of the manor. point of precedence, and their mortificaESTREAT', in law, a true copy or tion in failing of it. The smaller courts duplicate of an original writing, partic- of Germany caricatured the ceremonial ularly of the penalties or fines to be of that of the Great Monarch, and carried levied by the bailiff or other officer, of its strictness to an absurd extent. At the every man for his offence. present day the ancient etiquette of courts ET CiET'ERA, and the contraction is continually losing something of its etc. or 4f-c., denote the rest or others of strictness. the kind; and so forth. ETYMOL'OGY, a branch of philology, ETCHING, a method of engraving on which teaches the origin and derivation 220 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [EVA of words, with a view to ascertain their EUPHONY, an easy and smooth enunradical or primary signification. In gram- elation of words. A grammatical license mar, it comprehends not only the deriva- whereby a letter that is too harsh is contion of words, but their various inflections verted into a smoother, contrary to the and modifications. One who is well versed ordinary rules, for the purpose of proin the deduction of words from their moting smoothness and elegance in the origin ls, is calledl an etymologist. pronunciation. EUt/ClARILST, the sacrament of the EU'RITIIHMY, in architecture, paintLord's Supper; so called because the ing, and sculpture, is a certain majesty, death of our Redeemer is thereby com- elegance, and ease in the various parts memeorated with thankful remembrance, of a body, arising from its just proportand breatd alnd wine are takeln as emblems tions.-In medicine, eurithlmy signifies a of his fleshl and blood. good disposition of the pulse. EUC-HOL0OGY, a book of prayers; EUSTA'TIIIANS, a sect of Christians, sy-nonymous. in the phraseology of the the followers of Eustathius, an Armenian llomian Catholic church, with emissal or bishop in the fourth century, who, under brevi-ry'l. pret6l'ce of great purity and severity, inEU'CRASY, an agreeable, well-pro- troduced many irregularities. portioned mixture of qualities, by which EU'STYLE, in architecture, a sort of a body is said to be in good order, and building in which the columns are placed disposed for a good state of health. at the most convenient distances from EUlIARMON'IC, in music, producing each other, most of the intercolumniaharmsonsy or concordant sounds. tions being just two diameters and a EU'LOGY, in a general sense, an en- quarter of the column. conmium pronounced on any person for EUTEIRPE, one his meritorious or virtuous qualities; of the muses, conbut, in a more restricted meaning, it was sideredl as presiding used in ecclesiastical history to denote over music, because any present bestowed on the church after the invention of the bavingo been blessed or hallowced. flute is ascribed to EU;INOMIY, equal law, or a well-ad- her. She is usually )/I! justed constitution of government. represented as a EUiPA'"'TRIDE, in ancient history, the virgin crowned with nobles of Attica,, in whose hands in early flowers, having a times all the power of government was flute in her hand, or vested, in consequence of which the lower with various instruorders snnk into a low state of' degrada- ments abouther. As tion, beinmg particularly oppressed by her name denotes, circuimstances compelled them to incur, of pleasure. Il andi which, if not paid, gave the creditor EUTY'CHIANS, ll power over the bodies and liberties of the a religious sect in' ij i debtor and his family. These evils were the fifth centulry, 1 j remedied by the legislation of Solon, who called after one Eu - reduced the interest of debts, and deprived tychus, who maintained, among other the creditor of his power over the body things, that the flesh of Christ differed in of the debtor, and at the same time threw its nature from that of mankind. the judicial and much of the legislative EUTI-IANA'SIA, or ETIIHAN'ASY, power into the hands of the people at a gentle, easy, happy death large. The alterations in the constitution EVAN'GELIST, a general name given of Athens, subsequent to the time of to those who write or preach the gospel Solon, by degrees deprived the Eupa- of Jesus Christ. The word is of Greek tridLe of all their political privileges, origin, signifying one who publishes glad and finally established an unmixed de- tidings, or is the messenger of good mocracy. news. But it is applied principally EU'PEPSY, in medicine, good con- to the writers of the four Gospels, or coction in the stomach; perfect digestion. Evangelia, viz. 3fatthew, Mark, Luke, EU/PlEMISM, in rhetoric, a figure and John.-The word also denotes certain by which things in themselves disagree- ministers in the primitive church, who able and shocking, are expressed in terms assisted the Apostles in diffusing the neither offensive to good manners nor re- knowledge of the Gospel, and travelled pulsive to " ears polite." about to execute such commissions as ___ ____ _________ _____ ___ - i EVI] AND THE FINE ARTS. 22 they were entrusted with, for the ad- SYMBOLS are found variously employed vancemnent of Christianity. in Christian edifices and ornaments of EVAN'GELISTS, in the Fine Arts, on every period in the history of Arrt, and the earliest sculptures the EVANGELISTS they are introduced in Christian design are symbolized by four scrolls, or, with under a great variety of place an1 cirreference to the four streams of Paradise, cumstance, e. g. most appropriately on by four rivers olowing down from a hill, books of the Holy Gospels, enanelled in on which stands a Cross and the Lamb, silver and set on the angles of the covers; the MONOGRAM of Christ. They were af- on crosses, as being the four greatt witterwards represented as the forms out of nesses of the doctrine of the Cross. For Ezekiel, vii. 1-10, viz., a man, a lion, a the same reason, on the four gables of bull, and an eagle, which are mentioned Cruciform Churches; also in cross fi'ontas supporting the throne of God (Rev. iv. als for altars; at the four corners of 6-7.) After the fifth century, the By- monumental stones and brasses in testizantine artists, keeping strictly to bibli- mony of the faith of the deceased in the cal terms, represented the Evangelists (at Gospel of Christ; around images of the first in mosaic) as miraculous animals, Majesty, the Holy Trinity, Agnus Dei, half rmen and half beasts; they had wings Crucifixion, Resurrection, whether paintlike the CHIERUBIM, and were either in ed'on glass, or ceilings and wall, or eruthe act of writing or had a scroll before broidered on vestments or altar-cloths, them. The human face was given only as the sacred mysteries represented are to Matthew or Mark, to which of these described in the Holy Gospels. two was doubtful, even to the time of EVA'SION, the act of eluding or esJerome, with whom originated the pres- caping from the pressure of an argument, ent appropriation of the attributes; the or from an accusation, charge, or interother three had the heads of a lion, an rogatory. ox, and an eagle, with corresponding ErVA'TES, a branch of tihe Druids, or feet. This representation was customary ancient Celtic philosophers. Strabo difor some time in the Greek Church. In vides the British and Gaulic philosophers the latter part of the middle ages the into three sects, Bards, Evates, and DruWestern Church began to separate the ids. lie adds, that the Bards were the human figure from that of the animal, poets and musicians; the Evates, the and to represent the Evangelists only in priests and naturalists; and the Druids the former manner, generally as writing, were moralists as well as naturalists. and three of them with the animals by EVE/NING, or EVE, the precise their sides as attributes. The four ani- time when evening begins is not ascermals are often represented with scrolls, tained by usage. In strictness, evenilng anciently inscribed with the initial sen- commences at the setting of the stun, and tences of each Gospel. In later exam- continues during twilight, and night cormples the names of the Evangelists are in- mences with total darkness. lBut it scribed on the scrolls. In sepulchral sometimes includes a portion of the afterbrasses the Evangelistic symbols are noon; as in the phrase, "the morning found variously arranged, but they are and evening service of the church;" and most frequently placed so as to follow in customary language it extends to bedthe same order. According to St. Je- tilme; as "I spent the evening with a rome's arrangement St. Matthew had a friend." —Figuratively, ve use it for the man or angel by his side, because his decline of life, or old age; as "the eveGospel begins with a genealogy showing ning of life." the human descent of Christ. St. lMark EV'IDENCE, in its most general has a lion, the symbol of the royal dig- sense, means the proofs rwhich establish, nity of the Saviour, and referring to the or have a tendency to establish, any facts desert (Mark i. 13) in which he was with or conclusions. It'may be divided into wild beasts. St. Luke has the ox, the three sorts, mathematical, moral, and symbol of the high priesthood, because legal. The first is employed in the domhis Gospel begins with the history of Zach- onstrations which belong to pure matharias serving in the temple. St. John enatics; the second is employed in the has the eagle, the emblem of the divinity general affairs of life, and in those reaof Christ, and referring to the doctrine sonings which are applied to convince the of the Logos. with which his Gospel cor- understanding in cases not admitting of mences. Christ was thus symbolized by strict demonstration; the third is that the Evangelists, as Man, King HIigh which is employed in judicial tribunals Priest, and God. The EVANGELISTIC for the purpose of deciding upon the 222 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [EXO rights and wrongs of litigants. Accord- solemn invitation or prayer to the gods ing to our system of jurisprudence in of a besieged town, to forsake it and common law trials, it is the peculiar pro- come over to the besiegers. vince of a jury to decide all matters of EVOLU'TION, in military tactics, the fact. The verdict of the jury is, however, complicated movement of a body of men to be given, and the trial is to be had, in when they change their position by the presence of a judge or judges, who countermarching, wheeling, &c. preside at the trial, and are bound to de- EVOVYE, in music, the vowels used cide all matters of law, arising in the with the ending notes of the ecclesiastical course of the trial. Whenever, therefore, tones; it is a word, for brevity's sake, a question arises, whether anything of- formed of the six vowels in the words fered as proof at such trial is or is not seculorum amen, which are subjoined to proper to go before the jury as evidence, the notes in Antiphonaries, &c., to indithat question is to be decided by the cate that those are the ending notes. court, and, unless permitted by the court, EXAGGERA'TION, in rhetoric, a kind it can never legally come before the con- of hyperbole, whereby things are augsiderstion of the jury. Hence, whatever mented or amplified, by saying more than is so permitted to be brought before the the strict truth will warrant.-In paintjury, for the purpose of enabling them to ing, a method of giving a representation decide any matter of fact in dispute be- of things too strong for the life. tween the parties, is in a legal sense, evi- EXALTA'DOS, in Spanish history, the deince, and is so called in contra-distinc- name of the party attached the liberal tion to mere argument and comment. system of politics, corresponding to the This gives rise to a very important dis- "extreme gauche" of the French, or tinction, at the common law, as to the Whig radicals, in English politics. conmpetency and the credibility of evi- EXAMINATION, in its primary dence. It is competent, when by the sense, is a careful and accurate inspecprinciples of law, it is admissible to es- tion or inquiry, in order to discover the tablish any fact, or has any tendency to real state of anything.-In judicial proprove it. It is credible, when, being in- ceedings, an attempt to ascertain truth, troduced, it affords satisfactory proof of generally on the oath of the party exthe fact. It follows, therefore, that evi- amined, by interrogatories.-In schools, dence may be comnpetent to be produced an inquiry into the acquisitions of the before a jury, when it may nevertheless students, by questioning them in literanot amount to credible proof, so as to sat- ture and the sciences, or by hearing their isfy the lminds of the jury; and, on the recitals. other hand, it may be such as, if before EXAM'INERS, in law, two officers in them, would satisfy their minds of the the court of Chancery, who are appointed truth of the fact, but yet, by the rules of on oath, to examine witnesses on either law, it is not admissible. Whether there side. is any evidence of a fact, is a question for EX'ARCH, in antiquity, an officer sent the court; whether it is sufficient, is a by the emperors of the East into Italy, question for the jury. as prefect or governor.-Exarch also deE'VIL, in philosophy, &c. is either notes an officer still subsisting in the moral or natural. Moral evil is any de- Greek church, who visits the provinces, viation of a moral agent from the rules in order to see whether the bishops and of conduct prescribed to him. Some clergy do their duty. make the essence of moral evil consist in EXAUCTORA'TION, or EXAUTHOthe disagreement of our manners to the RA'TION, in Roman antiquity, tempodivine will, whether known by reason or rary dismission from service: thus the e.revelation; others, in being contrary to auctori milites were deprived of their pay reason and truth; and others, in being and arms, without being absolutely disinconsistent with the nature, faculties, charged. affections, and situation of mankind. EXCALCEATION, among the HeEVOCA'TI, soldiers among the Ro- brews, was a law, whereby a widow, mans, who having served their full time whom her husband's brother refused to in the army, went afterwards volunteers marry, had a right to summon him to a at the request of some favorite general; court of justice, and, upon his refusal, on which account they were called by the might excalceate him, that is, pull off one honorable names of.Lmcriti and Benefi- of his shoes, and spit in his face; both ciarii. of which were considered actions of great EVOCATION. in'.oaan antiquity, a ignominy. EXa] AND THE FINE ARTS. 223 EXCA'THEDRA, a Latin phrase; against the country where it rises. In originally applied to decisions rendered London, bills of exchange are bought and by prelates, chiefly popes, from their ca- sold by brokers, who go round to the printhedra or chair: i. e. in a solemn judi- cipal merchants, and discover whether cial manner. Hence applied to every they are buyers or sellers of bills. A decision pronounced by one in the exercise few of the brokers of most influence, after of his peculiar authority: a professor ascertaining the state of the relative supin his lecture room, a judge from the ply of and demand for bills, suggest a bench, &c. price at which the greater part of the EX'CELLENCY, a title of honor for- transactions of the day are settled, with merly given to kings and emperors, but such deviations as particular bills, from now given to governors, ambassadors, &c. their being in very high or low credit, who are elevated by virtue of particular may be subject to. In London and other offices. The title of excellency is in no great commercial cities, a class of middlecase hereditary, or transferable from one men speculate largely on the rise and fall member to another, but always belongs of the exchange, buying bills when they to the office, and is only borne, on the expect a rise, and selling them when a European continent, by ministers in ac- fall is anticipated. —Exchtange. in arithtual service, by the highest court and noetic, is the finding what quantity of the military dignitaries, and by ambassadors money in one place is equal to a given and plenipotentiaries. Foreign minis- sum of another, according to a certain ters are addressed by the title of your course of exchange.- Course of exchange excellency, by way of courtesy, even if is the current price betwixt two places, they have no rank which entitles them to which is always fluctuating and unsetthis distinction; but chare- d'ffaires tled.-Arbitration of exchange is a calnever receive the title. culation of the exchanges of different EXCHANGE', in commerce, traffic by places to discover which is the most profpermutation, or the act of giving one itable.-Exchange of prisoners, in war, thing or commodity for another. The the act of giving up men on both sides, receipt, or payment of money in one upon certain conditions agreed to by the country for the like sum in another, by contending parties. means of bills of exchange. Thus, A in EXCHANGE', (often contracted into London, is creditor to B in New York, to CHANGE,) signifies a building or other the amount of 1001. C in London is place in considerable trading cicies, where debtor to D in New York, in a like sum: the merchants, agents, bankers, brokers, by the operation of the bill of exchange, and other persons concerned in commerce, the London creditor is paid by the Lon- meet at certain times, to confer and don debtor, and the New York creditor is treat together of matters relating to expaid by the New York debtor; and, con- changes, remittances, payments, advensequently, two debts are paid, though no tures, assurances, freights, and other specie is sent from London to New York, mercantile negotiations both by sea and or from New York to London. This is land. the principle of a bill of exchange; and EXCEQ'UER, in British jurispruthe great convenience here represented deuce, an ancient court of record, in which is the foundation of exchange itself. That all causes concerning the revenues and variation above and below par, which is rights of the crown are heard and detercalled the course of exchange, results mined, and where the crown-revenuea from the same causes that act upon the are received. It took this name from the price of commodities of every other kind. cloth that covered the table of the court, If bills upon New York be scarce, that which was party-colored or chequered. is, if New York is but little indebted This court is said to have been erected to London, the London creditor, who by William the Conqueror.-The public wants bills on New York to remit to that Exchequer is under the control of the city, is obliged to purchase them dearly; lords of the Treasury, and of a minister then the course of exchange is above par: called the chancellor of the exchequer.if, on the other hand, London owes less To institute a process against a person to New York than New York owes to in this court, is called to exchequer him. London, New York bills will be proper- EXCHEQ'UER-BILLS, bills for montionably plenty, and the exchange with ey, or promissory notes, issued from the that city below par. Hence, it is a max- exchequer, under the authority of governim that, when the course of exchange ment, and bearing interest. rises above par, the balance of trade runs EXCISE', an inland duty, paid in some 224 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [EXE instances upon the commodity consumed, EXECU'TION, in law, the completing or on the retail, which is the last stage or finishing some act, as of judgment or before consumption; but in others this deed, and it usually signifies the obtainduty is paid at the manufactories. The ing possession of anything received by excise was first introduced in England by judoment of law. Also, the carrying into thllrarliuaent which beheaded Charles eifect a sentence or judgment of court; I. anld its great founder was Mr. Pyrm; as the infliction of capital punishment.and is now one of the most considerable Ea.xection, in painting, is the term given branches of the national revenue. It to the peculiar mode of workino for efwas formerly-farmed out, but is at pres- fect-the manipulation peculiar to each ent managed for the government by com- individual artist; where it predominates missioners. who receive the whole pro- over finish, or where execution exhibits a duct of the excise, and pay it into the studied eccentricity, it degenerates into., exchequer.-The officer who inspects ex- mannerism, which, when it merely excisable comnmodities and rates the duties hibits the manual dexterity of the artist, on them is called an excisemanr. is usually the exponent of mediocrity: at EXCLAMA'TION, emphatical utter- the same time it must be admitted, that ance; or the sign by which emphatical good execution is always aimed at by the utterance is marked: thus (!).-In gram- true artist. All qualities of execution, mar, a wvord expressing some passion, as properly so called, are influenced by, and wonder, fear, &c. in a great degree dependent on, a far EXCOMM IUNICAITION, an ecclesias- higher power than that of mere execution tical censure, whereby a person is ex- -knowledge of truth. For exactly in eluded from communion with the church, proportion as an artist is certain of his and deprived of some civil rights. In end, will he be swift and simple in his the present state of church-governmnent means; and as he is accurate and deep in in Engla.n1d, excommLunication is seldom his knowledge, will he be refined and prcused but as a sort of writ of outlawry on cise in his touch. contempt of the bishop's court, in the sev- EXECU/TIONEPl, the officer who ineral descriptions of causes that belong to flicts capital punishment in pursuance of ecclesiastical jurisdiction. It is published a legal warrant; the colmmon hangman. in the church, and if the offender does not EXEC'UTIVE, in politics, that branch submit in forty days, the civil magistrate of the government whic executes the interposes, and tho excommunicated per- functions of governing the state. The son is imprisoned till he submits, and ob- word is used in distinction from lesislatains absolution.-The Rolman Catholics tive and jzsdicial. The boly that deliberuse the phrase fistlminating- an excom- ates and enacts laws, is leislative;e the nunication. to signify the solemn pro- body that judges or applies the laws to nouncing of an excommunication after particular cases, is judicial; and the body several admlonitions. This fulmination that carries the laws into effect, or superprincipally consists of curses, execrations, intends the enforcement of them, is c.rand other ceremonies; and is called ana- ecutive. In all monarchical states this thelima..-Excoemmsnisicatioss amongst the power rests in the prince. Jews was of three kiinds or degrees. The EXEC'UTOR, in law, a person appointfirst was called lNiddcti, and was a sepa- ed by another's last wvill and testament, ration for a few days. The second was to have the execution of the same after Cheremi, and was a separation attended his decease, and the disposing of the teswith execration and malediction; the tator's goods and effects, according to the third was Shaicwmmatha, and was the last intent of the will. and greater excommlnunication.-Excom- EXEC'UTORY, in law, signifies that mu1zircation amongst the Greeks and Ro- which is to take effect on a future conmans excluded the person, on whom it was tingency; as an executory devise or repronounced, from the sacrifices and tern- mainder. ples, and delivered him over to the Ftries. EXE'DRE, in antiquity, a general EXClUBTIE, in antiquity, the watches name for such buildings as were distinct and guards kept in the day by the Ro- from the main body of the clurelhes, and mans, in distinction from vigilizc, which yet within the limits of the consecrated were kept at night. ground. EX'EAT, in ecclesiastical history, a EXEGE'SIS, a discourse intended ta term employed in the permission which explain or illustrate a subject. The term a bishop grants to a priest to go out of is applied most usually to the exposition his diocese. or interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. EXI] AND THE FINE ARTS. 225 This department of biblical learning has EXER'GUE, a term used by medallists been most assiduously cultivated in mod- to (lenote the little space around and ern times, especially by the Germans, as without the work or figures of a medal the writings of Miichaelis, Schleusner, for an inscription, &c. Roseniutiller, Gesenius, &c., amnply testify. EXIIEPIEDA'TION, in the civil law, EXEMA'PLAR, a pattern or model; the a father's excluding a child from inherideal Inodel which an artist attempts to iting any part of his estate. imitate. That which serves as a model EXHIB'IT, any paper produced or prefor irmitation, or as a warning for others, sented to a court or to auditors. referees, i termed exemplary; as, exemplaryjuss- or arbitrators, as a voucher, &e. -T n tice; esxemp)Clar'y punishment. chancery, a deed or writing produced in EXEQUAIVTUR, an official recognition court and sworn to, and a certificate of of a person in the character of consul or the oath endorsed on it by the examiner commeorcial aen a uthorizing him to ex- or conmmissioner. ercise his powers. EXIIIB[ITION, a public display of EX'ERCISE, the exertion of the body, whatever is interesting either as a matfor heolth, aniusement, labor, or the at- ter of art or curiosity. Also, a benefactainmcent of any art. Exercise increases tion settled for the benefit of scholars in the circulation of the blood, attenuates the universities, that are not on the founand divides the fluids, and promotes a dation. The person receiving this is callregular perspirattion, as well as a due se- ed an exh.ibitioner,.-Exhibitionr was ancretion of all the humors; for it acceler- ciently an allowance for meat and drink, ates the sanimnal spirits, and facilitates such as the religious appropriators made their distribution into all the fibres of the to the poor depending vicar. body, stren-thens the parts, creates an EXHUMA'TION, the digging up of a appetite, and helps digestion. Whence dead body that has been interred. it arises, that those who accustom them- EX'IGENT, in law, a writ or part of selves to exercise are generally very ro- the process of outlawry. The exigent or bust, and seldom slubject to diseases. It e.xiii facias requires the defendant to be should never be forgotten by those of proclaimed in five courts successively, to studious habits, that the delicate springs render himself; and if he does not. he is of our frail nmachines lose their activity, outlawed. and the vessels become clogged with ob- EX'ILE, a state of banishment or exstructions, when we totally desist from pulsion fiomn one's country by authority; exercise; firio which consequences arise or it may be an abandonment of one's which necess.arily affect the brain; mere country, for a foreign ltnd, from disgust studious life is therefore equally prejudi- or any other motive, which is called volcial to the body and the mind. We may untary exile. further observe. that an inclination to EXIST'ENCE, the state of being, or study ought not to be carried to the ex- having an actual essence. 51r. Locke.tent of tiversion to society and motion. says, that we arrive at the fnowledige of The natural lot of lman is to live among our own existenrce, by intuitioen; of the his fellows; and whatever may be his sit- existence of God, by demonstration; and uation in the world, there are a thousand of other things, by sensation. As for our occasions wherein his physical energies own existence, continues he, we perccive may be rendered serviceable to his fel- it so plainly, that it neither needs, nor is low-creatures, as well as to himself. capable of, any proof. I think, I reason, Mary rational causes have therefore giv- I feel pleasure and pain; can any of en rise to the practice of particular exer- these be more evident to me than. my cises; and those legislators who deserve own existence' If I doubt of all eother to be called the most sagacious and be- things, that very doubt makes me pernevolent, have instituted opportunities eeive my own existence, and will not sluffor enabling youth who devote themselves for me to doubt. If I know I doubt, I to study, to become expert also in lauda- have as certain a perception of the thing ble exercises. — l Metal exercise is the ex- doubting, as of that thought which I call ertion of ithe mind or faculties for im- doubt: experience then convinces us, that provement, as in the various branches of we have an intuitive knowledge of our literature, art, andl science.-MiJlitary own existence. exercise consists in the use of arms, in EXT'I, a departure; a term used to marches, evolutions, &c. —Naval exercise denote the action of quitting the stage by consists in the m nanagement of artillery, a player after he has performed his part. and in the evolutions of fleets. Figuratively, the act of quitting this mori; _~ _ 15_~ ~ tal existence. 226 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [EXP EXO'DIA, amongst the Romans, were entirely different from the place where a sort of after-pieces, performed by young they are raised, and therefore can be gentlemen when the play was concluded. preserved for the most part only in greenThey bore no relation to the drama be- houses. fore exhibited; but were intended to re- EX-PAR/TE, in law, on one side, as vive, or rather improve the Fescennine ex-pearte statement, a partial statement, verses, which had fallen into disuse. Pro- or that which is made on one side only. fessional actors never performed any part EXPATRIA'TION, the forsaking one's in the E.xodia. own country, with a renunciation of allee EX'ODE, in the Greek drama, the con- giance, and with a view of becoming a eluding part of a play, or that part which permanent resident and citizen in anotheomprehends all that occurs after the last er country. interlude. EXPECT'ANCY, in law, a state of EX'ODUS, a canonical book of the Old waiting or suspension. An estate in exTestament; being the second of the Pen- pectancy is one which is to take effect or tateuch, or five books of Moses. It con- commence after the determination of antains a history of the departure of the other estate.-Estates of this kind are children of Israel from Egypt; from remainders and reversions. which it received its name. EXPECT'ANT, in law, an epithet for EX OFFf'CIO, in law, the power a whatever has a relation to, or dependence person has, by virtue of his office, to do upon another. certain acts without special authority. EXPECTA'TION. in the doctrine of EXO'MIS, in Grecian costume, a gar- chances, is applied to any contingent ment wor;n chiefly by the working classes, event, upon the happening of which some without sleeves, or with only one sleeve benefit is expected.-Expmectation differs for the left arm, leaving the right and from hope in this: hope originates in depart of the breast exposed and free. It sire, and may exist with little or no varied much in form, sometimes it was a ground of belief that the desired event chiton, at others a pallium, serving the will arrive; whereas expectation is foundpurposes of each. In works of Art it is ed on some reasons which render the usually applied to representations of the event probable.-Expectation, of life, is Amazons, and to Charon, Vulcan, and a term used to express the number of Dcidalus. It was also the dress of old years, which, according to the experience men in the comic plays of Aristophanes of bills of mortality, persons at any age and others. may be expected to live. EX'ORCISM, the solemn adjuration by EXPE'DIENT, a temporary means of which those endowed with certain powers effecting an object, without regard to ulwere believed to be able to subject evil terior consequences. spirits to their obedience: more partic- EXPEDI'TION, the march of an army, nlarly to compel them to leave the bodies or the voyage of a fleet, to a distant place of those supposed to be subject to demon- for hostile purposes; as, the erxpeditions iacal possession. The exorcists form one of the English to Holland; the expcdiof the minor orders in the church of tion of the French to Egypt. Rome. EXPE'RIENCE, the source of knowlEXOR'DIUM, in oratory and litera- edge arising from the faculty of memory, ture, the opening part of an oration; and the power of reasoning by analogy. which, according to ancient critics, should Thus, we learn the instability of human be drawn either from the subject itself or affairs by observation or by experience. from the situation of the speaker; pre- EXPERIMENT, an act or operation senting either brief remarks on the gen- designed to discover some unknown truth, eral character of the topic on which he principle, or effect.-In chemistry, a trial is about to deliver himself, or insinua- of the results of certain applications and tions, (according to the advice of Cicero,) motions of natural bodies, in order to discalculated to prejudice the audience in cover something of their laws, nature, favor of the speaker, and against his ad- &c. —Experimenttal knowledge is the versary. most valuable, because it is most certain, EXOTER'IC, in rhetoric, a term ap- and most safely to be trusted. plied to such of Aristotle's lectures as EXPERIMEN'TAL PHILOS'OPHY, were open to all persons. See ESOTERIC. those branches of science, the deductions EXOT'IC, an appellation for the pro- in which are founded on experiment, as duce of foreign countries. Exotic plants contrasted with the moral, mathematical, are such as belong to a soil and climate and speculative branches of knowledge EXT] AND THE FINE ARTS. 221 The principal expaermental science is pleasing pronunciation, accompanied with Chemistry: but there are many others, action suited to the sentiment. as, Optics, Pneumatics, Iydrostatics, EXPROPRIA'TION, the surrender of Electricity, Magnetism, &c. a claim to exclusive property. EXPERIMENlT UM CRU/CIS, a lead- EXPUR'GATORY, serving to purify ing or decisive experiment. from anything noxious or erroneous; as EXPIA'TION, a religious ceremony, the expurgatory index of the Roman by which satisfaction is made for sins of Catholics, which directs the expunging omission or commission, accidental or in- of passages of authors contrary to their tentional. The chief mode of expiation creed or principles. among the Jews and Pagwans was by saec- EXTANT, an epithet for anything riice.-.Expiatior, in a figurative sense, which still subsists or is in being; as a is applied by divines to the pardon pro- part only of the writings of Cicero are cured to men's sins, by the obedience and extant. death of Christ. EXT E M'PO R E, without previous EXPORTA'TION, that part of foreign study or meditation; as he writes or commerce which consists in sending out speaks extesmpore. Though an adverb, it goods for sale, and which is therefore the is often unnecessarily and improperly active part of trade, as importation. or used as an adjective; as an extempore the purchasing of goods, is the passive.-sermon, instead of an exteimporary or e.We apply the word e.ports to goods or temeporaneous sermon, &c. —To extemepoproduce which are sent abroad or usually rizc well, requires a ready mind well exported. furnished with knowledge. EXPOS'ITOR, one who explains the EXTENT', in law, is used in a double writings of others; it is applied particu- sense; sometimes it signifies a writ or larly to those who profess to expound the command to the sheriff for the valuing Scriptures. of the lands or tenements of oa debtor; EX POST FACTO, (literally, for some- and sometimes the act of the sheriff, or thing done afterwards,) as an ex post other commissioner, upon this writ; but facto law, a law which operates upon a most commonly it denotes an estimate or subject not liable to it at the time the valuation of lands.-Extent ine aid, a law was made. seizure made by the government, when a EXPOSTULA'TION, in rhetoric, a public accountant becomes a defaulter, warm address to a person, who has done and prays for relief against his credianother some injury, representing the tors. wrong in the strongest terms, and de- EXTENUA'TION, the act of repremanding redress. senting anything less faulty or criminal EXPRESS', a messenger or courier than it is in fact; it is opposed to aggrasent to communicate information of an vation. important event, or to deliver important EXTIN'GUISHIMENT, in law, the andispatches. nihilation of an estate, &c. by means of EXPRES'SION, in painting, the dis- its being merged or consolidated with antinct and natural exhibition of character other. or of sentiment in the characters repr- EXTOR'TION, the unlawful act of any sented. The term expression is frequent- person in authority, who, by color of his ly confounded with that of passion, but office, takes money or any other thing they differ in this, that expression is a when none is due. Whenever property general term, implying a representation of any kind is wrested from a person by of an object agreeably to its nature and menace, duress, violence, authority, or by character, and the use or office it is to any illegal means, it is extortion. The have in the work; whereas passion, in word extort has a very wide signification. painting, denotes a motion of the body, Conquerors extort contributions from the accompanied with certain indications of vanquished; officers often extort illegal strong feeling portrayed in the counte- fees; confessions of guilt are extorted by nance; so that every passion is an expres- the rack; promises which men are unsion, but not every expression, a passion, able to perform are sometimes extorted — E.presstioa, in rhetoric, the elocution, by duress, &c. diction, or choice of words suited to the EX'TRA, a Latin preposition denoting subject and sentiment.-In mtusic, the beyond or excess; as extra-work, extratone and manner which give life and re- pay, &c. It serves as a prefix to numerality to ideas and sentiments.-/Theatri- ous English word'.. sal expression, is a distinct, sonorous, and EX'TRACT, in literature, some selee4 228 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [F matter or sentence taken from a book.- tinguish man from the brute. In the In law, a draught or copy of a writing. eye we look for meaning, sentiment, and EXTRAJUDI'CIAL, out of the ordi- reproof; it is the chief feature of expresnary course of legal proceedings. sion. A large eye is not only consistent EXTRAMIUN'DANE, beyond the limit with beauty, but essential to it. Homer of the material world. describes Juno as "ox-eyed." The eye EXTRAORDINA'RII, in Roman an- of the gazelle illustrates the Arab's idea tiquity, a chosen body of men, consisting of woman's beauty, when he compares of a third part of the foreign horse, and a the eye of his beloved to that of this anififth of the foot, which was separated from mal. The timidity, gentleness, and innothe rest of the forces borrowed from the cent fear in the eyes of all the deer tribe, confederate state, with great policy and are compared with the modesty of a caution; to prevent any design that they young girl. In a well-formed face the might possibly entertain against the nat- eye ought to be sunk, relatively to the ural forces. forehead, but not in reference to the face; EXTRAVAGAN'ZA, in music, the that would impart a very mean expresItalian for a kind of composition remark- sion. It is the strong shadow produced able for its wildness and incoherence.- by the projecting eyebrow which gives Irregular dramatic pieces, generally of powerful effect to the eye in sculpture.the burlesque cast, are also sometimes The word eye is used in a great variety called extravaganzas. of senses, both literal and figurative.EXTREME', the utmost point, or fur- Eye, in architecture, is used to signify thest degree; as the extremses of heat any round window, made in a pediment, and cold; the extremes of virtue and an attic, the reins of a vault, &c. —Eye vice.-In logic, the extreme terms of' a qf a dome, an aperture at the top of a syllogism are the predicate and subject. dome, as that of the Pantheon at Rome, Thus, " Man is an animal: Henry is a or of St. Paul's at London; it is usually man, therefore Henry is an animal;" the covered with a lantern.-Eye of the voword animal is the greatest extreme, lute, is the centre of the volute, or that Henry the less extreme, and man the point in which the helix, or spiral of medium.-In music, a word employed in which it is formed, commences. describing those intervals in which the EY'RIE, or EY'RY, the place where diatonic distances arc increased or dimin- birds of prey construct their nests. ished by a chromatic semitone. EZE'KIEL, one of the four principal EXTREMIE' UNC'TION, one of the prophets. Like them, he bears a book; seven sacraments of the Romish church, but his own peculiar attribute is a closed founded upon the passage in the Epistle gate with towers, which is either placed of St. James in which he says, " If any in his hand or standing by his side, and be sick anmong you, let him call upon the which referring to his vision of the new elders of the church, and let them pray temple, is the type of the heavenly Jeruover him, anointing him with oil in the salem, mentioned by St. John in Revelaname of the Lord." The performance of tion. It is one of the oldest symbols of this ceremony is supposed to purify the Christianity, and also alludes to the myssoul of the dying person from any sins tery of the miraculous conception; for that he may have committed, and which we find it together with Moses and the have not been previously expiated by burning bush, Aaron's rod, Gideon's Anparticipation in the other means of gel and Fleece, on the volets of a picture grace. of the Virgin by Van Eyck. of which only EXTREMI'ITY, in its primary sense, a copy at Bruges is in existence. The signifies the utmost point or border of a subjects usually chosen by the painter in thing. It also denotes the highest or fur- which Ezekiel appears are-his Vision thest degree; as the extremity of pain or of the Almighty, and his Vision of the suffering; or the Greeks have endured Resurrection of the. Dead, and in a group oppression in its utfnost extremity.-In with the three other great prophets. painting and sculpture, the extremities of the body, are the head, hands, and feet. EYE. the eye is the most active feature in the countenance, the first of our organs F, the sixth letter of the alphabet, is a to awake, and the last to cease motion. labial articulation, formed by placing the It is indicative of the higher and holier upper teeth on the under lip, and accomemotions, of all those feelings which dis- panied with an emission of breath. Its FAGJ] AND THE FINE ARTS. 229 kindred letter is v, which is chiefly dis- a fable should possess unity, that the tinguished from f by being more vocal. whole tenor of it may be easily seen; The Romans for some time used F in- and dignity, since the subject has a cerverted thus, j, for V consonant, as DIjI, tain degree of importance.-We find that for DIVI. Some have supposed that this fables have been highly valued, not only was one of the three letters invented by in times of the greatest simplicity, but Claudius, but many inscriptions belong- among the most polite ages of the world. ing to periods much anterior to the Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest tile of Claudius exhibit this singular use that is extant, and as beautiful as any of this letter. F, as a numeral, with the that have been made since. Nathan's Romans, signified 40, with a dash over fable of the poor man is next in antiquiit, 40,000. On medals, monuments, &c., ty, and had so good an effect as to convey F stands for FTabius, Fitrius, Felix, instruction to the ear of a king. We find Faulstus, &c. —With merchants, f signi- lEsop in the most distant ages of Greece; fiesfolio (page.) F often stands in medi- and in the early days of the Roman comcal prescriptions and on documents for monwealth, we read of a mutiny appeased iat (let it be made or done.) F also by the fable of the belly and the memstands for felloto, as F.A.S. Fraternita-b ers. To which we may add that although is Antiqlctriorum Socits, or Fellow of fables had their rise in the very infancy the Antiquarian Society.-Fl. is the ab- of learning, they never flourished more breviation for florin, or guilder; and fr. than when learning was at its greatest for franc. —n music, f over a line means height.-Fable is also used for the plot forte;.f, mol/toforte; and F is the nomi- of an epic or dramatic poem, and is, acnal of the fourth note in the natural dia- cording to Aristotle, the principal part, tonic scale of C. and, as it were, the soul of a poem. In FA, in music, one of the syllables in- this sense the fable is defined to be a disvented by Guido Aretine, to mark the course invented with art, to form the fourth note of the modern scale, which manners by instruction, disguised under rises thus, ut, re, mi, fal,. the allegory of an action. FA'BIAN, an epithet signifying that FA'BLIAUX, in French literature, the line of military tactics which declines the metrical tales of the Trouveres or early risking of a battle in' the open field,'but poets of the Langue d'Oil, or dialect of seeks every opportunity of harassing the the north of France; composed, for the enemy by countermarches, ambuscades, most part, in the 12th and 13th cen&c. It is so called from Q. Fabius Maxi- turies. mus, the Roman general opposed to FAB'RIC, in general, denotes the Hannib al. structure or construction of anything; FA'BLE, a fictitious narration, or spe- but particularly of buildings, as a church, cies of didactic allegory, which may be hall, house, &c. It is also applied to the described as a method of inculcating texture of cloths, or stuffs; as, this is practicable rules of worldly prudence or cloth of a beautiful fLbric. wisdom, by imaginary representations FAB'ULOUS AGE, that period in the drawn froi the physical or external history of every nation in which superworld. It consists, properly, of two parts: natural events are represented to have synibolical representation, and the appli- happened. The fitbulous age of Greece cation of the instruction intended to be and Rome is called also the heroic age. deduced from it, which latter is called the FACADE' (pron. fassade',) in archismoral of the tale, and must be apparent tecture, the front or external aspect of in the fable itself, in order to render it an edifice. As in most edifices only one poetical. The satisfaction which we de- side is conspicuous, viz., that which faces rive from fiables does not lie wholly in the the street, and usually contains the prinpleasure that we receive from the sym- cipal entrance, this has been denominabolical representation, but it lies deeper, ted, par eminence, the facade. in the feeling that the order of nature is FACE, in anatomy, the front part of the same in the spiritual and material the head, and the seat of most of the world; and the fabulist, whose object is senses, comprising the forehead, the eyes not merely to render a truth perceptible and eye-lids, the nose, cheeks, mouth, by means of a fictitious action, chooses and chin. The human face is called the his characters from the brute creation.- image of the soul, as being the place Some fables are founded upon irony; whence the ideas, emotions, &e. of the some are pathetic; and some even aspire soul are chiefly set to view. Nor can it to the sublime; but, generally speaking, be denied that the character of each in 230 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [FAO dividual is often strongly marked by the added by the emperor Domitian.-the conformation of the countenance; physi- pruple and the yellow. In the time of ognomy, therefore, in a certain degree, Justinian 40,000 persons were killed in a always has existed. —Face, among paint- contest between two of these factions; so ers and artists, is used to denote a cer- that they were at last suppressed by unitain dimension of the human body, adapt- versal consent. The term faction is aped for determining the proportion which plied, also, in a more general sense, to any the several pcats should bear to one an- party in a state which attempts without other; thuc the different parts of the adequate motives to disturb the public body are sail to consist, in length, of so repose, or to assail the measures of govlmanyfaces.-We also use the word face ernment with uncomepronmising opposiin speaking of the surface of a thing, or tion. In the ancient Greek republics, the side preaented to the view of a spec- faction was carried to an extent unparaltator; as, the face of the earth; theface leled in modern times. The middle ages of the sun; the.face of a stone, &c. were distinguished chiefly by two facFA'CLTS, the name of the little faces tions, the Guelfs and Guibelins. who long or planes to be found in brilliant and rose kept Italy in a state of alarm. In the diamlonds. present day, in England, the term factiorn FA'CIAL LINE OR ANGLE, these is bandied about between the three great termls are used in describing the conform- parties of the country, the Whigs, Tories, ation that exists in the bones of the face, and Radicals, being applied indiscrimi — &c,. and which so strikingly characterizes nately by the adherents of one party to the varieties of the human race. On the those of another. relation of the jaw to the forehead is FACTOR, in commerce, an agent or founded the facial line, discovered by Pe- correspondent residing in some remote ter Camper. Suppose a straight line part, commissioned by merchants to buy dra.wn at the base o'o the skull, from the or sell goods on their account, to negogreat occipital cxaity across the external tiate bills of exchcange, or to transact orifice of the ear to the bottom of the other business for them. It is universalnose. If we draw another straight line ly held in courts of law and equity, that from the bottom of the nose, or from the the principal is held liable for the acts of roots of the upper incisor teeth to the his agent, provided that the conduct of forehead, then both lines will form an the latter be conformable to the common angle which will be more acute the less usage and mode of dealing; but an agent the shape of the face, in brutes, resem- cannot delegate his rights to another so bles that of men. In apes, this angle is as to bind the principal, unless expressly only from 45~ to 600; in the ourang- authorized to nominate a sub-agent. Esoutang. 630; in the skull of a negro, tablishments for trade, in foreign parts about 70; in a European, from 75'> to of the world, are called factories.-The 85~. In Grecian works of statuary, this word factory is now also use(l for a manangle amounts to 90~ in the statues of ufactory on an extensive scale. Jupiter, it is 100~. FACTORAGE, the allowance or perFA'CIES HIPPOCRAT'ICA, in medi- centage given to factors by the mercine, that death-like appearance which chants and manufacturers, &e. who emconsists in the nostrils being sharp, the ploy them; and which is usually fixed by eyes hollow, the temples low, the tips of special agreement between the merchant the ears contracted, the forehead dry and and factor. wrinkled, and the complexion pale and FAC'ULTY, a term used to denote the livid. It is so called from Hippocrates, powers or capacities of the hunman mind, by whom it has been so justly described viz. understanding, will, memory, imagiin his prognostics. nation, &c. —If it be a power exerted by FACSIMILE, an imitation of an the body alone, it is called a corporeal original in all its traits and peculiarities. or animal faculty; if it belong to the The object of fac-similes is various; but mind, it is called a rational faculty. And in all cases their perfect accuracy is in- it may further be distinguished into the dispensable. natural faculty, or that by which the body FACTION, in ancient history, an ap- is nourished; and the vital, or that by pellation given to the different troops or which life is preserved, &c.-Faculty, a companies of combatants in the games of term applied to the different members or the circus. Of these factions there were departments of an university, divided acfour,-the green, blue, red, and white; to cording to the arts and sciences taught which two others were said to have been there. In most foreign universities there FAl] AND THE FINE ARTS. 231 are four faculties; of arts, including hu- distinction between the fairy of the Engmanity and philosophy; of theology; of lish and the Fata or prophetic sibyl of physic; and of civil law. The degrees the Italians, from which last the French in the several faculties are those of bach- Fee is derived; although the French, in elor, master, and doctor.-Faculty, in their romantic mythology, have somelaw, a privilege granted to a person, by what mingled the characteristics of the favor and indulgence, or doing that which, two. The British fairies, also, although by the strict letter of the law, he ought they have something in common with the not to do.-Faculty of advocates, a term Dwergas or Gnomes of the Scandinavian applied to the college or society of advo- mythology, are not identical with them; cates in Scotland, who plead inall actionsthey are in fact peculiar to people of before the court of session, judiciary and Celtic race, and the notions respecting exchequer. them prevalent among the Celtic populaFA1'ENCE, or IMITATION PORCELAIN, tion in Scotland, Wales, and Ireland tally a kind of pottery, superior to the con- to a remarkable degree. The popular mon sort in its glazing, beauty of form, belief, however, was nowhere invested and richness of painting. It derived its with so poetical a character as in the name from the town of Faenza, in Ro- Lowlands of Scotland, where it forms a magna, where it is said to have been in- main ingredient in the beautiful ballad vented in 1299. It reached its highest poetry of the district. The fairies of the perfection in the 16th century; and some Scottish and English mythology are pieces were painted by the great artists diminutive beings, who render themselves of the period, which are highly valued as occasionally visible to men, especially in monuments of early art. exposed places, on the sides of hills, or in FAIR, (either from the Latin ferise or the glades of forests, which it is their forum,) a meeting held at stated times custom to frequent. They have also of the year in particular places, for the dealings with men. but of an uncertain purposes of traffic, to which merchants and unreal character. Their presents resort with their wares. Fairs, in Chris- aresometi-ies valuable; but generally tian countries, were usually held on par- accompanied, in that case, with some ticular festivals; and are so still in Eng- condition or peculiarity which renders land, unless where they have been fixed them mischievous: more often they are to particular days in the month by later unsubstantial, and turn into dirt or ashes grants or privileges. By the English in the hands of those to whom they have law, the king's authority only is supposed been given. Mortals have been occasionto confer the privilege of holding a fair. ally transported into Fairy-land, and Fairs are considered free, unless toll is have found that all its apparent splendor due to the owners by special grant, or by was equally delusive. One of the most custom which supposes such grant. The ordinary employments of fairies. in vulmost important fairs now held are proba- gar superstition, is that of stealing chilbly those of Germany, and particularly dren at nurse, and substituting their own the Leipsic fairs, where books form so im- offspring in place of them, which after a portant a branch of its commerce. But short time perish or are carried away. in no country can they have the im- The popular belief in fairies has been portance they formerly had, because the made the subject of poetical amplificacommunication between different parts tion in the hands of so many of the of a country has become so easy, that greatest writers, from Shakspeare to merchandise may now be readily obtain- Scott, that it is not easy to disentangle ed direct from the places where it is pro- the embellishments with which it has duced or manufactured. been invested from the original notions FAI'RIES, imaginary beings, who oc- on which they are founded. The Fata of cupied a distinguished place in the tra- the Italians, who figures in their romantic ditional superstitions of the nations of epics, and from whom the French have Western Europe, and especially in these made the Fee of their fairy tales, is quite islands. Their English name is proba- a different personage: a female magician, bly derived from " fair," or has the same sometimes benevolent, and sometimes maetymology with that word; and, although levolent, partaking herself of the supersome similarity has been traced between natural character, and peculiarly gifted them and the Peris of the Persians (pro- with the spirit of prophecy. Such is the nounced Feri by the Arabians,) it is not Fata Morgana, to whom the celebrated probable that the resemblance of name optical delusion occasionally produced in is more than accidental. There is also a the Straits of Messina was formerly at 232 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [FAL tributed by popular belief.-Fairy of the mine, an imaginary being supposed to inhabit imines, wa.ndering about in the drifis and chambers, always employed, yet effecting nothing.-lairy ring or circle, a phenomenon frequently seen in the fields, consisting of a round bare path with grass in the -milddle, formerly as- \ cribed to the dances of the fairies. It has | been supposed by some, that these rings. \ are the efect of lightning; but a more l rational theory ascribes them to a kind''.i. of fungus which grows in a circle from. I. - the centre outwards, destroying the grass, as it extends, while the interior of the cile is enriched by the decayed roots of 1 the fungi. FAIT[' I, in divinity and philosophy, the firm belief of certain truths upon the testimnony of the person who reveals them. The grounds of a rational faith are, that the things revealed be not con- but make a vow of poverty, and go from trary to, though they may be above natu- village to village, prophesying and telling ral reason; that the revealer be well fortunes. acquainted with the things he reveals; FAL'CON, a bird nearly allied to the that he be above all suspicion of deceiving hawk, about the size of a raven, and caus. Where these criterions are found, no pable of being trained for sport, in which reasonable person will deny his assent. it was formerly mmuch employed. It is Whatever propositions, therefore. are be- usually represented in coats of arms with yond reason, but not contrary to it, are, bells on its legs, and also decorated with when revealed, the proper matter of a hood, virols, rings, &c. —Falcon, the faith.-Justifying, or saving- faith, sig- attribute of St. Jerome, and of the holy nifies perfect confidence in the truth of hermit Otho of Ariano; the former has a the Gospel, which influences the will, and hooded falcon on his hand, while the latleads to an entire reliance on Christ for ter has it sitting on his head. salvation.-Public faith, is represented FAL'CONET, a small cannon, or piece on medals, sometimes with a basket of of ordnance. fruit in one hand, and some ears of corn FAL'CONRY, the art of training all in the other: and sometimes holding a kinds of hawks, but more especially the turtle-dove. But the most usual symbol larger sort, called the gentle falcon, to is with her two hands joined together.- the exercise or sport of hawking. This Faith, (Fides) in ancient Art, is represent- sport was much practised in Europe and ed as a matron wearing a wreath of olive Asia in the chivalric ages, and continued or laurel leaves, and carrying in her hand in favor till the 17th century; but the ears of corn, or a basket of fruit. In invention of fire-arms gradually superChristian Art, by a female carrying a seded it. In France, England, and Gercup surmounted by a cross, emblernatical many, falconry was at one time in such of the Eucharist, "the Mystery of Faith." high esteem, that during the reign of FA'KIR, or FA'QUIR, a devotee, or Francis I. of France, his grand falconer Indian monk. The fakirs are a kind of received an annual revenue of 4000 lifanatics in the East Indies, who retire vres; had under him fifteen noblemen from the world, and give themselves up and fifty falconers; and enjoyed the privto contemplation. Their great aim is to ilege of hawking through the whole kinggain the veneration of the world by their dom at pleasure. The whole establishabsurd and cruel penances, outdoing even ment, which cost annually about 40,000 the mortifications and severities of the livres, attended the king wherever he ancient Christian anchorets. Some of went, and those who were distinguished them mangle their bodies with scourges for their skill in the sport were loaded and knives; others never lie down; uand with royal favors. In England, falconry others remain all their lives in one pos- was also in high esteem, and there is to ture. There is also another kind of fa- this day an hereditary grand falconer kirs, who do not practise such severities, (the duke of St.'Alban's,) who, by virtue ________- _____ ___ ____ ________ _ ___ ___ __ ___ _ _ _ _ _ FAN] AND THE FINE ARTS. 233 of his office, presents the king, cr queen detected by one unlearned in the subjectregnant, with a cast of falcons on the day matter of the argument, but acquainted of the coronation. A similar service is with the rules of logic. performed by the representative of the FALSE, contrary to the truth or fact: Stanley family in the Isle of Man. The the word is applicable to any subject origin of this celebrated sport has given physical or moral. —False, in music, an occasion to much controversy. It has epithet a.pplied by theorists to certain been said that it was unknown to the chords, because they do not contain all Greeks; it is, however, described by Cte- the intervals appertaining to those chords sins and Aristotle as practised in their in their perfect state. Those intonations time in India and Thrace. Martial and of the voice which do not truly express Apulcius present us with plain indica- the intended intervals are also called tions of the knowledge of this pastime false, as well as all ill-adjusted combinaamong the Romans. In modern Europe, tions. —False, an epithet used also in it appears to have been practised earliest, law, as false inmprisosnment, the trespass or at least with most ardor, in Germany: of imprisoning a iman without lawful the title of the emperor, Henry the Fow- cause.-In mineralogy, as.false diamoicd, ler (A.D. 920,) is said to be derived from a diamond counterfeited with glass.-It an anecdote respecting his fondness for it. is also a word much used in military afIn the 12th century, it was the favorite fairs; as, a false alarm, a false attack, sport of nobles and knights throughout &e.-False flower, in botany, a flower Europe; and in that which followed its which does not seem to produce any fruit. rules were reduced into a system by the -F-'alse -roof, in carpentry, that part of Emperor Frederic II., (Babarbossa,) and a house which is between the roof and by Demetrius, physician to the Greek the covering. Emperor Paleologus. In that court the FALSET'TO, in music, an Italian grand falconer was an officer of distinc- term, denoting that species of voice in a tion; and the title was borrowed from it man, the compass of which lies above his by the western sovereigns. According to natural voice, and is produced by artithe opinion of Strutt, the sport was not ficial constraint. known so early in England as on the Con- FAMILIAR SPIRITS, demons, or evil tinent; yet there are traces of it as early spirits, supposed to be continually within as the 8th century. call and at the service of their masters, FALD'STOOL, a kind of stool placed sometimes under an assumed shape; at the south side of the altar, at which sometimes compelled by magical skill, the kings of England kneel at their coro- and sometimes doing voluntary service. nation; also a folding stool or desk, pro- In Eastern stories, nothing is more corvided with a cushion, for a person to kneel mon than the mention of magic gems, on during the performance of certain acts rings, a&c., to which are attached genii, of devotion; also a small desk, at which, sometimes good, sometimes bad; but in in cathedrals, churches, &c., the litany is modern Christian Europe the notion of enjoined to be sung or said. It is some- familiars has always been restricted to times called a litany stool. evil spirits. FAL/LACY, in logic and rhetoric, has FANAT'IC, one who indulges wild and been defined a; any argument, or apparent extravagant notions of religion, and someargument, which professes to be decisive times exhibits strange motions and posof the matter at issue, while in reality it tures, and vehement vociferation in reis not." Fallacies have been divided into ligious worship. -The ancients called those "in dictione," in the words: and those fanatici who passed their time in "extra dictionem," in the matter. The temples, (.fana,) and being often seized latter of these it is not the province of with a kind of enthusiasm, as if -inspired logic to discover and refute; they being, by the divinity, exhibited wild and antic strictly, instances in which the conclusion gestures. Prudentius represents them as follows from the premisses, and which cutting and slashing their arms with therefore depend on the unsoundness of knives: shaking the head was also comthese premisses themselves, which can mon among thefcanatici; hence the word only be detected by a knowledge of the was applied to different religious sects, subject-matter of the argument. Logical who, on their first appearance amongst fallacies, or fallacies in dictione, are those us, sought notoriety by the extravagance in which the conclusion appears to follow, of their actions, and by pretending to inbut in reality does not, from the prem- spirations. isses; and which, consequently, can be FANDAN'GO, an old Spanish dance, I.____ 234 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [FAS which proceeds generally from a slow terlude of any kind. In England, the and uniform to the most lively motion. farce appears to have risen to the dignity It is seldom danced but at the theatre, of a regular theatrical entertainment and in the parties of the lower classes; about the beginning of the last century; nor is it even then customary to dance it since which time it has formed one of the with those voluptuous looks and attitudes most popular exhibitions, and is usually which distinguish the true fandango. performed, by way of contrast, after a There is another species of fandango, tragedy at the national theatres. The called the bolero, the motions and steps farce is restricted to three acts as its linmof which are slow and sedate, but grow it, but frequently consists only of two or rather more lively towards the end. In one. Of all the pieces of this class which these dances the time is beat by casta- have successively amused English audinets. ences, none have acquired a permanent FANFARE', (French,) a short, lively, literary reputation except those of Foote, loud, and warlike piece of music, corn- -performances in which the license of posed for trumpets and kettle-drums. the theatre in satirizing living persons Also, small, lively pieces performed on was carried to the utmost height. The hunting-horns, in the chase. From its Fabulce Atellancr of the Romans, which meaning is derived fanfaron, a boaster, appears to have been short dramatic enand /ficfaronade, boasting tertainments of a miscellaneous characFANTA'SIA, in music, the name gen- ter, sometimes pastoral, sometimes tragierally given to a species of composition, comic, &c., but not so coarse in plan or supposed to be struck off in the heat of diction as the Mlimes and their Exodia, the imagination; and in which the com- which were satirical dialogues in verse poser is allowed to give free range to his between some set characters or stageideas, unconfined by the rules of the sci- buffoons, appear to have filled in some ence. Some limit the term to mere ex- respects the place of the modern farce. temporaneous effusions, which are trans- On the French stage the vaudeville anitive and evanescent: differing from the swers to the English farce. capricio in this, that though the latter is FAS'CES, in Roman antiquity, bundles wild, it is the result of premeditation, of rods with an axe in the centre of each and becomes permanent; whereas the bundle, carried before the consuls as a fantasia, when finished, no longer ex- badge of their office. The use of the fasists. ces was introduced by the elder Tarquin FANTOCCITNI, dramatic representations in which puppets are substituted in the scene for human performers. FAIRCE, a dramatic piece or entertainment of low comic character. It was originally a droll, or petty show exhib- ited by mountebanks and their buffoons1' in the open streets, to gather the people together. It has, however, long been re- moved from the street to the theatre;'. and instead of being performed by merryandrews to amuse the rabble, is acted by \ i comedians, and become the entertainment of a polite audience. As the aim of a farce is to promote mirth, the dialogue is { H ii; not refined, nor is there any opportunity _ —--- tl lost to excite laughter, however wild or ( extravagant the plot, or however ridicu- ----- lous the characters. The original term A' lli seems to signify a miscellaneous com-!_. pound or mixture of different things. In modern languages it has borne various as a mark of sovereign authority: in significations. Certain songs which were after-times they were borne before the sung between the prayers on the occa- consuls, but by turns only, each having sion of religious worship are said to have his day. These latter had twelve of been denominated farces in Germany, them, carried by so many lictors. during the middle ages; whence the word FAS'CIA, in architecture, a flat memappears to have denoted simply an in- ber in an entablature or elsewhere, like FAT] AND THE FINE ARTS. 235 a flat band or broad fillet. The archi- with their historical or mythological oritrave, when subdivided for instance, has gin. The first six books, containing the three bands, called fascie; of which the first six months of the year. beginning lower is called the first fascia, the middle with January, have come down to us; one the second, and the upper one the the rest are lost. third.-Fascia, a bandage employed in F A STS, occasional abstinence from various ways, 1. As a diadem, worn round food, on days appointed by public authorthe head as an emblem of royalty, the ity to be observed in fasting and humilicolor being white, that worn by women ation. Solemn fasts have been observed was purple. 2. Fastened round the legs, in all ages and nations, especially in especially of women, from the ankle to times of mourning and affliction. Among the knee, serving the purpose of leggings, the Jews, besides their stated fast days, as a protection to the legs of the wearer, theywere occasionally enjoined in the time a practice that was adopted in Europe of any public calamity. They were ob-. during the middle ages. served upon the second and fifth days of FASCINA'TION, a kind of witchcraft the week, beginning an hour before sunor enchantment supposed to operate by set, and continuing till midnight on the the influence of the eye. A belief in fas- following day. On these occasions they. cination appears to have been very gene- always wore sackcloth next their skins, rally prevalent in most ages and coun- rent their clothes, which were of coarse tries. It has been till very recently, and white stuff; sprinkled ashes on their in some remote districts is even yet, prev- heads; went barefoot; and neither washalent among the Scotch Iighlanders, ed their hands nor anointed their bodies and the inhabitants of the Western is- as usual. They thronged the temple, lands, where the fear of the evil eye has made long and mournful prayers, and led to various precautions against its in- had every external appearance of humilfluence; and in Turkey, when a child is iation and dejection. In order to comborn, it is immnediately laid in the cradle plete their abstinence, at night they were and loaded with amulets, while the most allowed to eat nothing but a little bread absurd ceremonies are used to protect it dipped in water, with some salt for seafromi the noxious fascination of some in- toning, except they chose some bitter visible demon. herbs and pulse. The practice of fasting FASHIION, a term used to signify the is recommended in the New Testament prevailing mode or taste in any country, by the example of the Apostles and early the only recognized quality which it pos- Christians, who are frequently representsesses being mutability. It may safely ed as fasting, especially on solemn occabe averred that in proportion to the in- sions, such as when Paul and Barnabas fluence which fashion exercises in any are sent forth by the Apostles to preach country may its claim to civilization be to the Gentiles. The observance of stavindicated, nothing being so character- ted fast days prevailed very early and istic of a rude and barbarous state of universally in the church. existence as a rigid adherence to the cus- FA'TALISM, the belief of an untomls of antiquity. The term fashion has changeable destiny, to which everything generally been considered as applicable is subject, uninfluenced by reason, and chiefly to the adornment of the person, independent of a controlling cause; the in conformity with the prevailing taste doctrine, in short, which teaches that all as introduced by some individual of con- things take place by an inevitable nesideration in society; but it has a much cessity. wider signification, being applied to the FA'TA MORGA'NA, a singular aerial most trivial kind of conventional usages, phenomenon seen in the straits of Messia disregard or ignorance of which is suf- na. When the rising sun shines from ficient in the eyes of the votaries of this that point whence its incident ray forms tyrannical goddess to banish the offender an angle of about 45~ on the sea of Regbeyond the pale of civilized society. gio, and the bright surface of the water FAS'TI, in ancient history, the records in the bay is not disturbed either by the of the Ronman state, in which all public wind or current, when the tide is at its matters, military and civil, were regis- height, and the waters are pressed up by tered by the high priest, according to the currents to a great elevation in the middays on which they took place. The die of the channel, the spectator being Fasti of Ovid is a poem giving an ac- placed on an eminence, with his back to count of the Roman year, and the cere- the sun and his face to the sea, the mounmonies attached to the different days, tains of Messina rising like a wall behind 236 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [FEA it, and forming the back-ground of the is supposed that the Roman Faunus was picture,-on a sudden there appears in the same with the Greek Pan. the water, as in a catoptric theatre, vari- FAUNS, rural deities, among the Roous multiplied objects-nnmberless series mans, represented with horns on their of pilasters, arches, castles, well-deline- heads, sharp pointed ears, and the rest of ated regular columns, lofty towers, su- their bodies like goats. They were the perb palaces, with balconies and windows, mythological demi-gods of woods and forextended alleys of trees, delightful plains, with herds a nnd flocks, arllies of men on foot, on horseback,.and many other things, in their natural colors and proper actions, passing rapidly in succession along the surfice of the sea, during the whole of the short period of time while the abovementioned causes remaini. All these ob- / jects, which are exhibited in the Fata t // Morigan, i are proved by the accurate ob- \ servations of the coast and town of Reg- / gio, to be derived from objects on shore. If, in addition to the circumstances be- fore described, the atmosphere be highly impregnated with vapor, and dense exhalations, not previously dispersed by the actiion of the wind and waves, or rarified/. - \ by the sun, it then happens, that in this --- vapor, as in a curtain extended along the - _ - e' channel to the height of above forty palms, and ne.rly down to the sea, the ests, thence called sylvan deities. The observer sill behold the scene of the same figure is taken from an antique statue in objects not only reflected from the surface the Florentine museum, and represents a of the sea., but likewise in the air, though young faun as a flute-player. not so distinctly or well defined as the FAUX JOUR, (French,) false light; a former oljects of the sea. Lastly, if the term used in the Fine Arts, signifying that air be slightly hazy and opaque, and at a picture is placed so that the light falls the sa;le time dewy, and adapted to form upon it from a different side from that the iris, then the above-mentioned objects which the painter has represented the will appear only at the surface of the sea, light in the picture as falling upon obas in the first case; but all vividly color- jects, or that it is covered with a bright ed or fringed with red, green, blue, and glare, so that nothing can be properly other prismatic colors. distinguished. FATE, destiny depending on a supe- FAVIS'S2E, large vaults underground rior cause and uncontrollable. According in the area of the Roman capitol, where to the Stoics, every event is determined the Romans carefully lodged and deposiby Fate; and in the sense in which the ted with a degree of religious care the moderns use the word, it implies the or- old statues, and other sacred utensils, der or determination of Providence. when they happened to be broken; such FATES, in mythology, the three sister a superstitious veneration did they pay goddesses named Clotho, (spinster,) La- to everything belonging to the capitol. chesis, (allotter,) and Atropos, (unchange- FE'ALTY, in feudal law, an oath taable,) whose office it was to spin the des- ken on the admittance of any tenant to tinies of men, and break the threads when be true to the lord of whom he held his their appointed hours of death came. land. Under the feudal system of tenThey were also called Parcse by the Lat- ures, every vassal or tenant was bound to insI. Their Greek name was MoTpoa, i. e., be true and faithful to his lord, and to "the dispensers." defend him against his enemies: the FAUNA'LIA, three Roman festivals tenant is called a liege man; the land a annually observed in honor of the god liege fee; and the superior, a liege lord. Faunus. The first was kept on the ides FEASTS, or FESTIVALS, in a reliof February, the second on the 1.6th of gious sense, are aniversary times of feastthe calends of March, and the third on ing and thanksgiving, such as Christmas the nones of December. The sacrificeson Easter, Ac. Fea.sts were of divine instithese occasions were lambs and kids. It tution; intended by the Deity to perpet___ _______~~~__._ _ __ _- __ _ _ - __ _- _- - -_- ____ ___j FEE ] AND TlHE FINE ARTS. 23; uate among his chosen people, the Jews, account of the intercalary day added that the memory of his mercies and miracles; year. as well as to keep alive the friendship FE'CIALES, a college of priests instibetwixt the different tribes and families, tuted at Rome by N'uman, consisting of by bringing them together on solemn oc- twenty persons. selected out of the best casions, and offering up their thanksgiv- families. Their business was to be arings in the holy city.-Among Chris- bitrators of all matters relating to war tians, zmovable feasts are those which, and peace, and to be the guardians of depending on astronomical calculations, the public faith. do not always return on the same days FED'ERAL GOVERNMENT, such a of the year. Of these, the principal is government as consists of several indeEaster, which fixes all the rest, as Palm- pendent provinces or states, united under Sunday, Good Friday, Ash-Wednesday, one head; but the degree to which such Sexagesima, Ascension-day, Pentecost, states give up their individual rights and Trinity Sunday. Immnovablefeasts, may be very different, although as rethose which are constantly celebrated on lates to general politics they have one the same day; of these, theprincipal are common interest, and agree to be govChristmas day, or the Nativity, the Cir- erned by one and the same principle. eumeision, Epiphany, Candlermas or the Of such kind is the government of the Purification, Lady-day or the Annuncia- United States of America. tion, AllSaints, and All Souls, and the FED'ERALIST, an appellation in the days of the several apostles. The four United States, given to those politicians quarterly feasts, are Lady-day, or the who wanted to strengthen the fcEdus, or annunciation of the Virgin Mary, on the general government compact, in opposi-;5th of March; the nativity of St. John tion to others who wished to enfeeble it the Baptist, on the 24th of June; the by extending the separate authority of feast of St. Michael, the archangel, on the several states. HIamnilton was a the 29th of September; and Christmas, or chief federalist, Jefferson a leading antirather of St. Thomas the apostle, on the federalist. 21st of December.-The feasts of the cin- FEE, a reward or recompense for procients were conducted with great cere- fessional services; as the fees of lawmony. The guests wore white garments, yers, physicians, &c. Public offices have decorated themselves with garlands, and likewise their settled.fees, for the several often anointed the head, beard, and breast branches of business transacted in them. with fragrant oils. The banqueting FEE-ESTATE, in law, properly signiroom was also often adorned with gar- fies an inheritable estate in land, held of lands and roses, which were hungl over some superior or lord; and in this sense the table, as the emblenm of silence: it is distinguished frorn allodium.i, which hence the commnon phrase, to comnamni- is the absolute property in land. It is cate a thing sub rosa (under the rose.) the theory of the Englishlawv that all the The luxurious Romans drank out of crys- lands of the kingdom, except the royal tal, amber, and the costly murra (a kind domains, are held in fee, or by a tenure, of porcelain introduced by Pompey,) of some superior lord, the absolute or alas well as onyx, beryl, and elegantly lodial property being only in the king, so wrought gold, set with precious stones. that all the tenures are strictly feudal. After the meal was ended, flute players, The most ample estate a person can have femnale singers, dancers and buffoons of is that of.fee-simple; and such an estate all kinds, amused the guests, or the can be had only in property that is inguests themselves joined in various sports heritable, atnd of a permanent nature.and gamees. Fee-farn, a kind of tenure without homFEB'RUARY. in chronology, the sec- age, fealty, or other service, except that ond month of the year, reckoning from mentioned in the feoffment; which is January, first added to the calendar of usually the full rent. The nature of this Romulus by Numa Pompilius. Febru- tenure is, that if the rent is in arrear or ary derived its name from Februa, a unpaid for two years, then the feoffer and feast held by the Romns in this month, his heirs may have an action for the rein behalf of the manes of the deceased, covery of his lands. at which ceremony sacrifices were per- FEEL'ING, one of the five external formed, and the last offices were paid to senses, by which we obtain the ideas of the shades of the defunct. February in solid, hard, soft, rough, hot, cold, wet, a common year consists only of 28 days, dry, and other tangible qualities. This but in the bissextile year it has 29, on sense is the coarsest, but at the same 238 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [PEO time it is the surest of the five; it is be- two children, who, with herself, were cast sides the most universal. We see and into a forest, were nursed by a lioness. hear with small portions of our body; FELLLOW, the member of a college or but we feel with all. Nature has be- of a corporate body.-This word has a stowed that general sensation wherever very wide and opposite meaning; for there are nerves, and they are every- though we say, in speaking of a skilful where where there is life. Were it other- artist, this man has not hisfellow, we alwise, the parts divested of it might be so apply it in the most ignoble sense, and destroyed without our knowledge. All say, such a one is a mean or worthless the nervous, solids, while animated by fellow. their fluids, have this general sensation; FE'LO DE SE, in law, a'person that, but the papillak in the skin, those of the being of sound mind, and of the age of fingers in particular, have it in a more discretion, wilfully causes his own death. exquisite degree. Like every other sense, FELONY, in law, generally includes feeling is capable of the greatest improve- all capital crimes below treason, such as ment; thus we see that persons, born murder, burglary, &c.; and is punished without arms, acquire the nicest feeling with death or transportation, according in their toes; and, in blind people, this to the enormity of the offence. sense becomes so much developed, that FELUC/CA, a light open vessel with six imViidiuals born blind, and acquiring the oars, much used in the Mediterranean. faculty of sight in after life, for a long It has this peculiarity, that its helm may time depend rather on their feeling than be used either at the head or the stern. on their sight, because they receive clear- FEMIE COV'ERT, in law, a married er ideas through the former sense. woman, who is under covert of her husFEET, in Christian Art, the feet of band. By the common law of ]ngland, our Lord, also of angels and of the apos- the legal capacity of a woman to contract, ties, should always be represented naked, or sue and be sued, separately, ceases on without shoes or sandals. marriage; and her husband becomes FEINT, in military tactics, a mock at- liable to her debts existing at that time.tack, made to conceal the true one. Fenme-sole, a single woman.-Femne-sole FELICITAS, the appellation of a merchant, a woman who carries on trade Romsan goddess, a Christian martyr, and alone, or without her husband. a traditional empress, mentioned in ro- FEMINA'LIA, a kind of short panmantie poetry only.-l. Felicitas, a di- taloons or closely-fitting breeches, reachvine being, agreeing with the Eudiemo- ing a short distance below the knees, nia (felicity) and the Eutychia (good for- worn by the Roman soldiers in their extune) of the Greeks, in whom was per- peditions to cold countries; they are seen sonified the idea of happiness arising depicted on the Column of Trajan, and on from blissful occurrences. Thus, Felici- the Arch of Constantine at Rome. tas (Eutychia) means more than Fortu- FEM'ININE, in grammar, denoting na or Tyche, by which was meant chance the female gender. or luck. The Felicitas of the Greeks, FEN'CING, the art of using skilfully Eutychia, is represented on many earth- a sword or foil either in attack or defence. en vessels as announcing to the specta- In the exercise of this art, foils or thin tor the desired result of the action in- swords are used, which, being blunted at tenled. We also meet with it as illus- the points, and bending readily, are rentrative of success in arms, and of happi- dered harmless. ness in marriage. On Roman coins she FEN'GITE, f kind of transparent alais represented with the modius on her baster or marble, sometimes used for head, the staff of Hermes in her hand, windows as in the church of St. Miniato and resting on a cornucopia; but her at- at Florence. tributes differ according to circumstances. FEO'DUM, FEOD, or FEUD, in feu2. St. Felicitas, a Christian lady of Rome, dal law, the right which the vassal had who is depicted with a palm-branch and in land, &c., to use the same, and take cross; she is the patroness of male chil- the profits thereof, rendering unto his dren. She had seven sons, who with her lord such fees, duties, and services, as suffered martyrdom at Rome, A.D. 160. belonged to military tenure. Felicitas was thrown into a cauldron of FEOFF'MENT, in law, is a gift or boiling oil, while her sons' heads were grant of any manors, messuages, lands, cut off and exhibited before her. 3. The or tenements to another infee, that is, to empress Felicitas, a principal character him and his heirs forever, by delivery of in the romance of Count Octavian; her seisin, and possession of the estate grant FET] AND THE FINE ARTS. 239 ed. The giver is called the feofer, and FE'RIO, in logic, a mode in the first the person who is thus invested is called figure of syllooisins, consisting of a unithe feof]ee. versal negative, a particular affirmative, FERA'LIA, in antiquity, a festival and a particular negative.-A similar observed among the Romans on the 21st mode in the third figure of syllogisms, is of Feruary, or, according to Ovid, on the termed ferison. 17th, in honor of the manes of their de- FERULA, in ecclesiastical history, ceased friends and relations. During the signifies a place separated from the church, ceremony, which consisted in making wherein the audicetes were kept, as not presents at their graves, marriages were being allowed to enter the church.-Unforbidden, and the temples of the divini- der the eastern empire, the ferula was ties shut up; because they fancied tha the emperor.s sceptre, as is seen on a during this festival, departed spirits suf- variety of medals; it consisted of a long fered no pains in hell, but were permitted stem or shank, and a fiat square head. to wander about their graves and feast FES'CENNINE VERSES, so called upon the meats prepared for them. from Fescennia, an Etrurian town, where FERENTA'RIA, in ancient Rome, a they first had their origin, were rude exsort of light-armed soldiers. temporaneous pieces of poetry recited by FER'ETORY, this term is applied to the youth of Latium anti Etruria at rusthe bier or shrine containing the reliques tic festivals, especially at harvest home, of saints, borne in processions. The type with gestures adapted to the sense. They of a feretory is a coffin, but the form is consisted principally of raillery and playusually that of a ridged chest, with a ful rustic abuse; a species of humor very roof-like top, usually ornamented by much in vogue with the Grecian and pierced work, with the sides and top en- Egyptian country people also. The Fesgraved and enamelled, and sometimes cennineverses are chiefly remarkable from with images in high relief. They were having given rise to satire, the only class tnade of various metals. 1. Of solid gold of poetry of native Italian growth. and silver adorned with jewels. 2. Of IESTI/NO, in logic, a mood of syllocopper, gilt and enamelled. 3. Of wood gisins in the second figure, in which the overlaid with plates of metal, or richly first proposition is a universal negative, painted and gilt. 4. Of ivory, or of crys- the second a particular affirmative. and tal, mounted in metal and gilt. 5. Of the third a particular negative. wood, covered with precious stuffs and FESTOON', carved ornament in wood, embroidery. stone, &c., usually in the form of a garFE'RIA, in the Romish breviary, is land or wreath, composed of flowers, applied to the several days of the week; fruits, leaves, &c., bound together, and thus, Monday is theferia seccuda, Tues- suspended by the ends. It was employed day the.feria tertia, and so on. by the architects of the middle ages freFE'RI/E, in Roman antiquity, holi- quently with much success in their friezes days, or days upon which they abstained of the composite order. It is usefully from business. Theferice were of several and aptly employed in decoration. The kinds, namely, Ferice statisve, or stated festivals; ferice contceptivce, or movable feasts; ferice imiperative, or occasional s-Z-,ii'r -. festivals enjoined by the consuls or other' - /'. nagistrates on some public occasion; and 1'. ferice denicales, for private occasions. There were also the feciesr Latinw, kept'';..ii by the fifty Latin towns on Mount Alba- _ nus; and the ferie m)unLdince, festivals garland is of greatest size in the middle, kept for nine days on the appearance of and diminishes gradually to the points any prodigy.-It was a pollution of the of suspension from which the ends genefelric, according to Macrobius, if the rex rally hang down. The festoon in archisacrore1um or flamines saw any work done tecture is sometimes composed of an imion them, and therefore they ordered pro- tation of drapery, similarly disposed, and clamation to be made by the herald, that frequently of an assemblage of musical inevery one might abstain from work; and struments, implements of war, or of the whoever transgressed the order was fined. chase and the like, according to the purFERINE, an epithet for such beasts pose to which the building it ornaments as are wild and savage, as lions, tigers, is appropriated. wolves, bears, &c. FE'TICH, FETICHISM, the word fetich 240 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [FEU is said to be derived from the Portuguese, Ias the supreme feudal lord. As there and appears to have been brought into was a graduated scale from the lowest usage from the writings of some travel- vassal to the prince or lord paramrount of lers on the western coast of Africa. It the territory, every man's interest was is now comprehensively employed to sig- involved in the security of the whole; nify any object of worship not represent- and every man vwas a pledge of security ing a living (or rather, perhaps, a hu- to his neighbor. In the midst of that disman) figure; thus excluding idols, prop- interestedness of sentiment which belongs erly so called. This perverted form of to a rude state of society, the connection religion prevails very extensively among of the lord and his vasci'al was of a salubarbarous nations, and especially those tary nature; and, as is the end of all of the Negro race. Among the latter, social combinations, each individual contribes, families, and individuals have tributed to support that strength by their respective fetiches; which are often which he was protected. But besides objects casually selected, or chosen under these feudal grants, which were held only the influence of some occasional super- on the terms of military service above sitiion, as stones, weapons, vessels, plants, mentioned, there were others called allo&c., ct. dial, which were given upon more enIFEUD, an inveterate quarrel between larged principles. To these every free families or parties in a state. The word man had a title, and could not only claim is not applicable to wars between differ- his territory as well as the rest, blt disent nations, but to intestine wars and pose of it at his pleasure. A part of their animosities betveen families, clans, or freedom consisted in liberty to go to the tribes. wars; for this, in the times to which we FEU'DAL SYSTEM, a form of gov- are referring, was the only way to acquire eminent anciently subsisting in Europe, any degree of renown. Only the serfs or and which, about twelve centuries ago, villeins, were destined to follow the arts was so universally received, that Spelman of peace. The feudal vassals, properly calls it "' the law of nations in our western so called, constituted the army; while the world." The origin of this system, is to national militia was composed of the be found in- the military policy of the allodial proprietors. It has, however, Celtic or northern nations, known by the often been argued, that the bare theory names of Goths, Vandals, Franks, Huns, of feudal government, as a permanent inand Lombards, who overran Europe on stitution, however fair-seeminu, is holthe declension of the Roman empire, and low; that the family connection it supbrought it with them from the countries poses could be but a source of minute, out of which they emigrated. According domestic tyranny; and that in their best to the feudal scheme, a victorious leader period, the customs enumerated must allotted considerable portions of land, have been liable to the grossest abuse. called.feoda, Ji fs, orfeuds, to his princi- In process of time, the evil incressed to pal officers, who in their turn, divided an enormous height; and even the polittheir possessions among their inferiors; ical value of the system decayed. In its and the condition upon which these re- vigor, it had at least constituted a reguwards were given, was that of faithful lar, powerful, and compact system of govmilitary service both at home and abroad. ernment; a unanimity had pervaded the To this they enga.ged themselves by an various departments of the state; and oath of fealty; in the event of a breach while the power was internally diffused, of which, either by not performing the it presented to foreign nations a united service agreed upon, or by deserting their and formidable front. As the ideas enlord in tine of battle, &c., the lands were gendered by property advanced, and the to return to their original possessor. great grew more avaricious of money than Every person, therefore, who was a feuda- of glory; and when. it ought perhaps to tory, i. e. who had received lands, was be added, iman's notions of right and bound to do everything in his power to order became more correct, notling was defend the lord of his fee; while, on the heard of but the enormities of the powerother hand, the latter was no less subor- ful, and the sufferings of the humbler dinate to his immediate superior; and so classes; and the strength of feudal govon up to the prince himself. Thus the ernment declined amidst a spirit of disseveral orders of vassals formed a system affection too universal to be checkedof concentric circles, of which each was Mr. Hallam in his work on the Middle under the influence of the next, and all Ages, ably exhibits a picture of the admoved around a common centre, the king, vantages and disadvantages of the feudal FIC] AND THE FINE ARTS. 241 system. If, says he, we look at the feu- alty; alike distinguishable from the studal polity as a scheme of civil freedom, pid devotion of eastern slaves, and from it bears a noble countenance. To the the abstract respect with which free citifeudal law it is owing, that the very zens regard their chief magistrate. Men names of right and privilege were not who had been used to swear fealty, to swept away, as in Asia, by the desolating profess subjection, to follow, at home and hand of power. The tyranny which, on in the field, a feudal superior and his every favorable moment, was breaking family, easily transferred the same allethrough all barriers, would have rioted giance to the monarch. It was a very without control, if, when the people were powerful feeling which could make the poor and disunited, the nobility had not bravest men put up with slights and illbeen brLave and free. So far as the sphere treatment at the hands of their sovereign; of feudality extended, it diffused the spirit or call forth all the energies of disinterof liberty, and the notions of private right. ested exertion for one whom they never The bulk of the people, it is true, were saw, or in whose character there was degraded by servitude; but this had no nothing to esteem. In ages when the connection with the feudal tenures. As a rights of the community were unfelt, school of moral discipline, the feudal in- this sentiment was one great preservative stitutions were perhaps most to be valued. of society; and though collateral or even Society had sunk, for several centuries subservient to more enlarged principles, after the dissolution of the Roman eu- it is still indispensable to the tranquillity pire, into a condition of open depravity; and permanence of every monarchy. where, if any vices could be selected iEUIL'LANS, an order of bare-footed as more eminently characteristic than monks, who observe the same rules with others, they were falsehood, treachery, the Benardines. and ingratitude. In slowly purging off FIAT, in law, a short order or warrant the lees of this extreme corruption, the signed by a judge, for making out and alfeudal spirit exerted its ameliorating in- lowing certain processes.-P-iat jclstitia fluence. Violation of faith stood first in are the words written by.the king on his the catalogue of crimes most repugnant warrant to bring a writ of error in parto the very essence of feudal tenure, most liament, &c. severely and promptly avenged, most FIB'ULA, a brooch, buckle, or clasp, branded by general infamy. The feudal used for fastening together various parts law-books breathe throughout a spirit of of male and female attire, as well as for mutual obligation. The feudal course of ornament. They were made of ivory, jurisdiction promoted, what trial by peers gold, bronze, precious stones set in gold, is peculiarly calculated to promote, a and sometimes of silver, and of every vakeener feeling and a readier perception riety of form, upon which the most elabof moral as well as of legal distinctions. orate ornament was frequently bestowed. And as the judgment and sympathy of In ancient Art we see the fibula employed mankind are seldom mistaken in these to pin together the two parts of a cloak great points of veracity and justice, except or scarf, (chlamsys, palliunm, &c.,) so as through the temporary success of crimes or to fasten them over the right shoulder. the wants of a definite standard of right, Sometimes, but rarely, we see it on the they gradually recovered themselves, breast. In female costume it is seen when law precluded the one and supplied worn on both shoulders, and sometimes the other. In the reciprocal services of on the sleeves, breast, and to fasten the lord and vassal, there was ample scope tunic when tucked up at the knee. for every magnanimous and disinterested FICTILIA, TESTA, the term applied energy. The heart of man when placed to all ancient pottery, from domestic utenin circumstances which.have a tendency sils to architectural ornaments, coarse or to excite them, will seldom be deficient in fine, burnt, or only hardened by exposure such sentiments. No occasions could be to the air. The most plastic species of more favorable, than the protection of a clay for the finer kinds of pottery was faithful supporter, or the defence of a found in Etruria, and the earthen table beneficent suzerain, against such powerful vessels of Arretium maintained their suaggression, as left little prospect except of periority even to the time of Pliny. sharing in his ruin. From these feelings,Among the Greeks, the pottery of Athens, engendered from the feudal relation, has and of the island of Samos, was the most sprung up the peculiar sentiment of per- famed, the finest, and of the most caresonal reverence and attachment towards fully washed earth; it was called SSamnian a sovereign, which we denominate oy- clay, and produced the hardest ware. 16 242 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE tFI0. FIC'TION, in law, a supposition that called the fifth, as containing five terms a thing is true without inquiring whether or sounds between its extremes and four it is or not, so that it may have the effect degrees; so that in the natural scale of of truth, as far as is consistent with equity. music it comes in the fifth place or order FICTOR, a term applied to any artist from the fundamental. The ancients who works in wax, clay, or other plastic called it diapente, and the Italians at material, as contradistinguished from one present call it quinta. The imperfect, who works in bronze, marble, wood, ivo- defective orfalse fifth, called by the anry, or other solid substances. cients semni-diacpe'te, is less than the fifth FIEF, a fee; an estate held of a su- by a lesser semitone. perior on condition of military service.- FIFTI- MONYARCHY-MEN, a fanatSee FEUDAL SYSTEM. ical sect, who formed a principal support FIELD, in heraldry, the whole surface of Cromwell during the Protectorate of the shield or escutcheon.-Feield, in They considered his assumption of power military tactics, the ground chosen for any as an earnest of the foundations of the battle.-Field, in painting, the ground or fifth monarchy, which should succeed to blank space on which anything may be the Assyrian, the Persian, the Grecian, drawn. and the Roman, and in which Jesus Christ FIELD-MAR'SHAL, the highest mili- should reign with the saints on earth for tary officer in England. —Field-qofice, a the space of a thousand years. Upon the military officer above the rank of a cap- restoration of the royal family, and the tain, as a major or colonel. —Field-col- return of the kingdom to its former prinors, in war, are small flags of about a ciples in church and state, a party of foot and a half square, which are carried these enthusiasts, headed by a man of the along with the quarter-master general, name of Venner, made a desperate insurfor marking out the ground for the squad- rection in the streets of London, which rons and battalions.-Field-pieces, small was put down with.the slaughter of a cannons, from three to twelve pounders, great number of them. carried along with an army in the field.- FIGURE, in physics, denotes the surField-staff, a weapon carried by the gun- face or terminating extremities of any ners, about the length of a halbert, with body; and, considered as a property of a spear at the end; having on each side body affecting our senses, is defined, a,ears screwed on, like the cock of a match- quality which may be perceived by two lock, where the gunners screw in lighted of the outward senses-touch and sight.matches, when they are upon command.- Figure, in dancing, denotes the several Field-worls, in fortification, are those steps which the dancer makes in order thrown up by an army in besieging a for- and cadence, considered as they mark certress, or by the besieged to defend the tain fig'ures on the floor. —Figure, in place. rhetoric, a mode of speaking or writing FI/ERI FA'CIAS, in law, a judicial in which words are deflected from their writ commanding the sheriff to levy the ordinary signification, thereby expressing debt or damages on the goods of one a passion with more emphasis and beauty against whom judgment has been had in than by the ordinary way. Rhetorical an action of debt. figures are often highly serviceable as FIFE, a small wooden musical wind well as ornamental, and serve to awaken instrument of the flute species played by and fix attention; but they are to be used holes, exceedingly shrill in tone, and rare- with prudence and caution; for whatever ly used except in military bands. is described in a multitude of words, or is FIF'TEENTI, an ancient tribute or carried on to a disproportionate length, tax laid upon cities, boroughs, &c., fails of the end proposed, and grows tirethrough all England, and so termed be- some rather than pleasing. The princicause it amounted to a fifteenth part of pal figures of rhetoric are the metaphor, what each city or town had been valued allegory, simile, and personification; at; or it was a fifteenth of every man's which, with their further divisions into personal estate according to a reasonable hyperbole, climax, antithesis, &c., will be valuation. In doomsday-book, there are found under their respective heads.certain rates mentioned for levying this Figure, in painting and designing, detribute yearly. notes the lines and colors which form the FIFTH, in music, one of the harmoni- representation of any animal, but more cal intervals or concords. It is the second particularly, of a human personage. Thus in order of the concords, the ratio of the apainting is said to be full of figures, chords that afford it being as 3: 2. It is when there are'many representations of 1 FIN]? AND THE FINE ARTS. 243 men and a landscape is said to be with- (tlhruss?) formed the usual fringes, to out figures, when there is nothing but which an ornamental appearance was natural scenery. given by twisting and crossing the threads, FIL'ACER, an officer of the common and the production of a net-like form, pleas,. so called from his filing the writs Fringes were also made of gold thread on which he makes out processes. There and other materials, which were attached are fourteen of these officers, who are sev- to the garments, &c. erally allotted to particular divisions and FI'NAL CAUSES, the purposes or counties, and make out all original pro- ultimate ends in view. The effcient cause cesses, real, personal, and mixed. is that which produces the event or efFILLAG REE WORK, or FIL'I- feet; the.final cause is that for which GRANE, a delicate and elaborate man- anything is done. ufacture, primarily executed in threads FINA'LE, the concluding part of a of gold and silver, but lately imitated musical composition. In instrumental with colored and gilt paper. In Suma- pieces, it has mostly a character of vivatra, manufactures of fillagree-work are city, and requires a quick movement and carried to very great perfection. In Chi- lively performance. ha also, where the fillagree is mostly of FINE, in law, a penalty or amends silver, many beautiful articles are pro- made in money for an offence; also, duced. money paid for the renewal of a lease,. FIL'LET, in oarchitecture, a little and a conveyance of lands or tenements, square member, ornament, or moulding, ia order to cut off all controversies. used in various places, but generally as FINE ARTS, a term somewhat inia corona over a great mnoulding.-Among definite in its meaning, but generally appainters and gilders, a little rule or line plied to those arts which depend on the of leaf-gold, drawn over certain mould- mind and imagination: opposed to the ings, or on the edges of frames, panels, mechanical. &c. - FINESSE', may be defined simply as FIL'LIBEG, A dress reaching a peculiar aptitude of discovering, in any PHIL'LIBEG, A business, the best means of attaining the object in view; or as the power of embracing in one comprehensive glance the various interests of any subject. together with ingenuity to devise and tact to carry.:1~~.09~~~ Sout the plan best calculated to obtain success. FINE STUFF, in architecture. plaister used in commnon ceilings and walls for the reception of paper or color. It is composed of lime, slaked and sifted through a fine sieve, then mixed with a due quantity of hair and fine sand. A mixture of lime and hair, used in the t.j.first coat and floating of plastering, is i' * J # t 0 called coarse stff. t(-'-ix~ FIN'GER BOARD, in music, the black K -'.~, i U iii board attached to the neck of instruments r "I3t.,,~,i < of the viol class, on which the strings are pressed by the fingers for the purpose ~..~ ~_ l~.... ~of adjusting their lengths, so as to produce the different sounds. FIN'GERING, in music, the act of disposing of the fingers in a convenient, natural, and apt manner, ii tlhe performonly to the knees, worn in the Highlands ance of any instrument, but more espeof Scotland. cially the organ and piano-forte. Good FIM'BRIA, FRINGE, by the Greeks fingering is one of the first things to and Romans, fringes and tassels were which a judicious master attends; for to ornaments but little worn, except on the a facility in this branch of the performgarments of females, by whom they were er's art must a pupil look, as the means sometimes attached to the tunic. The of acquiring a facile and graceful exeextremities of the threads of the warps cution, and the power of giving passages I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ 244 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [FIIt with articulation, accent, and expres- no longer confounded under the same sion. name.-Fire, fiame, the attribute of St. FIN'IAL, an ornament employed in Florian, the protector against conflagraGothic architecture, as a termination to tion; of the hermit Anthony, because the pinnacles, pediments, canopies; it con- tempter appeared to him from the fire; sists of a bunch of foliage, and therein of Bishop Basil, who saved a poor boy, closely resembles the crocket: and some- by burning his compact with the devils; times finials are composed of four or more of St. Bridget of Scotland, over whose crockets, united together. Church spires, head a flame was seen from childhood; when perfect, are frequently terminated of St. Columba of Cordova, who saved an with finials. angel from death by fire; of St. Patrick, FIN'ISH, the last touches applied to before whom fire sprung out of the earth, a picture or. other work of Art. It al- upon his drawing a cross upon it with his ways constitutes the difference between staff; of the Dominican, Peter Gonzales, excellence and mediocrity. Small pic- called St. Elmo, who enveloped in a mantures require the most careful finish, but tie, lay upon burning coals, whence the in larger works, too much attention to expression St. E'lmo'sfire; and of many high finish detracts from the boldness Christian martyrs condemned to die by and vigor demanded by works on a large fire. scale. FIRE-ARMS. a general designation FIN'ISHING COAT, in architecture, for all sorts of guns, fowling-pieces, blunthe best coat of stucco work when three derbusses, pistols, &c., which effect their coats are used. When in the third coat discharge by the combustion of gunpowfine stuff is used for paper, it is called der. setting. FIRE, GREEK, a destructive compo FIN'TO, in music, a feint or an at- sition, used in war from the 7th to the tempt to do something and not to do it; 13th century. When the Arabs besieged as cadenza.zfito, when having done every- Constantinople in 668, the Greek archithing proper for a true character, instead tect Callinicus of IHeliopolis, deserted of falling on the right final, a higher or from the caliph to the Greeks, and took a lower note is taken. with him a composition, which, by its FIRE, in former times, fire obtained a wonderful effects, struck terror into the place among the elements, and was for a enemy, and forced them to take to flight. long time considered to be a constituent Sometimes it was wrapped in flax attachpart in the composition of all bodies, and ed to arrows and javelins, and so thrown to require only the concurrence of favor- into the fortifications and other buildings able circumstances to develop its activ- of the enemy, to set them on fire. At ity. Its all-consuming energy, the simn- other times it was used in throwing stone ilarity of its effects to those of the sun, balls from iron or metallic tubes against its intimate connection with light, its ter- the enemy. The receipt for the comporible and yet beneficent power,-easily sition of the Greek fire was long supposed explain how it happened that, in times to be lost; but the baron Von Aretin of when cause and effect, form and essence, Munich has, it is said, discovered in aLatwere not yet distinctly separated, fire in MS. of the 13th century, in the central became an object of religious veneration, library in that city, a dissertation on the a distinguished element in mythology, Greek fire, which contains the receipt. an expressive symbol in poetry, and an FII'MAMENT, in Scripture, denotes important agent in the sstems of cos- the great arch or expanse over our heads, mogony. When natural philosophy was in which are placed the atmosphere and treated in the schools, theories were the clouds, and in which the stars appear adopted to which little attention is paid to be placed, and are really seen.-In the in the present age, when all science is Ptolemaic astronomy, the firmament is founded on facts and observations. Ca- the eighth heaven or sphere, with respect loric, be it a material agent or the conse- to the seven spheres of the planets which quence of vibratory motion, is at present it surrounds. It is supposed to have two considered the cause of the phenomena motions; a diurnal motion, given to it by which were formerly ascribed to fire; and the primumr mobile, from east to west though its nature is as unknown to us as about the poles of the ecliptic; and that of fire was to the ancients, the sub- another opposite motion from west to stitution of one of these terms for the east, which last it finishes, according to other has introduced a greater precision Tycho, in 25,412 years; according to of language, and cause and effect are Ptolemy, in 36,000; and according to Co FLA] AND THE FINE ARTS. 245 pernicus, in 25,800; in which time the fixed FITCH, among the brushes used in stars return to the same points in which painting, some are made of the hair of they were at the beginning. This period the sable, a kind of weasel; others of is commonly called the Platonic, or great the badger, and of white hog's bristles; year. but among the best are those of the fitch FIR'MAN, in the Persian language, or polecat, which are black in color, elassignifies a command, and is the name tic and firm, though soft. They are made given in Turkey, Persia, and India to both flat and round, and are used also for mandates or certificates of the sovereign, varnishing. issued for various purposes. Those best FLAG, a general name for colors, known to Europeans are given to travel- standards, bearers, ensigns, &c.-To lers, and serve as passports. The ferman strike or lower the iag, is to pull it down has placed at its head in Turkey the ci- upon the cap in token of respect or subpher of the reigning sultan, written in a mission.-To strike the fagc in an encomplicated manner, affixed by the chief gagement, is the sign of surrendering.secretary of the sign manual. To hang out the white flag, is to ask FIRST-FRUITS, offerings made to quarter; or in some cases, it denotes that God by the Hebrews, or part of the fruit the vessel has no hostile intention, but of their harvest, as an acknowledgment comes to trade, &c. The red flag is a of his sovereign dominion. They were sign of defiance and battle.- To hang the called first-fruits because they were of- flag half-mast high, is a token or signal fered in the temple before any part of of mourning. the crop was touched.-First-frcits. in FLAGEL'LANTS, a sect of enthusithe church of England, are the profits of asts who first appeared in the middle of every spiritual benefice for the first year, the 13th century, and being then repressaccording to the valuation in the king's ed, sprang up again with renewed viobooks. lence in the 14th. Beginning first at FISC, or FIS'CUS, the treasury of a Cremona in Italy, the contagion of the prince, or state. It differs from the aera- example spread in a few years throughrium7, which was the treasury of the pub- out Europe; and every city was infested lie, or people: thus, when the money by multitudes who went naked from the arising from the sale of condemned per- loins upward, and inflicted upon themsons' goods was appropriated for the use selves several daily flagellations, with of the public, their goods were said to be the idea of obtaining thereby merit in the publicari; but when it was destined for eyes of God. They formed themselves the support of the prince, they were into a society, and at first were at least called conrfiscari. innocent in their behavior; but as their FIS'CAL, in the. civil law, something numbers increased, they gave way to relating to the pecuniary interest of the great excesses, and were eventually supprince or people. The officers appointed pressed by a holy war proclaimed against for the umanagement of the fisc, were them by Pope Clement VI. called procurcatores fisci, and advocati FLA'GEOLET, a wooden musical wind fisci. instrument, played with a mouthpiece, FPTSI, a fish has been employed as a the holes and keys whereof are stopped symbol of our Lord from the earliest with the fingers, in the same way as the times, (it is found depicted in the tombs flute. of the Roman catacombs,) by whom St. FLAKE WHITE, a white pigment Peter was called a "fisher of men;" and extensively used in oil-painting; like the faithful were sometimes represented nearly all the other white pigments, it is by fish, with reference to the waters of prepared from the carbonate of the oxid& baptism in which they were born, and of lead, obtained by exposing sheets of fish were therefore frequently carved on lead to the vapor of acetic and carbonil the baptismal fonts. Fish are used as acids. It derives its name from the fornm emblems of Chastity; it is an attribute in which it appears in commerce-that of the Apostle Simon. The VESICA PIscis of flakes or scales. As a pigment it posis a symbolical figure, consisting of two in- sesses great body, and enters largely into terseeting segments of circles, employ- numerous compound tints. ed also as an emblem of the Saviour from FLAMBOYANT, FLAME-LIKE, a term the fourth century. The seals of abbeys, applied to.those contours of which the incolleges, and other religious establish- flexions have a resemblance to those of ments were all invariably Il ade of this flame; and by antiquaries of France to form. that style of architecture which was con 24G CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [FLE temporary in that country with the per- D b signifies a semitone bel'ow D natupendicular in England. from the flame- ral (Q.). On keyed instruments the short like wavings of its tracery. It is regard- keys are the representatives of these fiats ed by some as a vitiated decorated rath- and sharps. The system, however, does er than a distinct style: in rich works, not strictly produce what it represents the intricacy and redundancy of the or- it is only an approximnation. naments are frequently truly surprising. FLAT FIFTH, in music, an interval FLA'MEN, in Roman antiquity, the of a fifth depressed by a flat, called by namle of an order of priests, instituted by the ancients semidiapente. Romulus or Numa; authors not being FLEECE, ORDER OF THE GOLDEN, agreed on this head. Originally there one of the most distinguished among Euwere three priests so called; the Plamen ropean orders of knighthood. It was Dialis, consecrated to Jupiter; FlamLen founded by Philip III.. duke of BurgunMa.rtialis, sacred to Mars; and Flamen dy, in 1430; and as by its foundation his Q uirinalis, w ho superintended the rites successors were declared to be hereditary of Quirinus or Romulus.. grand lmasters, that title passed, with the FLAMME'UM, the yellow veil worn Burgundian inheritance, to the house of on the wedding-day by Roman brides. It Austria; thence after the death of Charles was sufficiently large to cover the wear- V., to the Spanish line of that house er from head to foot. It was removed but when the monarchy of Spain passed by the husband upon their arrival at to the Bourbons and the Spanish Nethertheir home. lands to Austria, the archdukes of Austria FLANK, the side of an army, or a claimed the grand mastership; and claims battalion encampped on the right and are made on it at present both by the left. —In fortification, that part of a bas- emperor of Austria and king of Spain; tion which reaches from the curtain to the order is consequently conferred both the face; or any part of a work that de- at Vienna and Madrid, and is, in both fends another work along the outside of courts, the highest in point of rank. As its parapet. its nominal object is the protection of reFLAT, in music, a character of this ligion, it is rarely conferred on any Protform b), which depresses the note before estants, with the exception, by courtesy, which it is placed a chromatic semitone. of Protestant sovereigns. Flats and sharps were originally contrived FLEET, a squadron of ships of war, to remedy the defects of musical instru- belonging to any prince or state. It also ments whereon temperament was re- denotes any number of trading ships, quired, the natural scale of music being employed in a particular branch of conmlimited to certain fixed sounds, and ad- merce. Merchant-fleets generally take justed to an instrument in many points their denomination from the place they defective; for we can only proceed from are bound to, as the Turkey-fleet, Eastone note to another by a particular order India-fleet, &c. These, in times of peace, of degrees. Hence, from one note to go in fleets for their mutual aid and asanother, upwards or downwards, w-e can- sistance: in time of war, besides this senot find any interval at pleasure. To curity, they procure convoys of men of supply or remedy this defect, musicians war, either to escort them to the places have had recourse to a scale proceeding whither they are bound, or to a certain by twelve degrees, making therefore thir- place or latitude.-It is also the name teen notes to an octave, including the ex- of a prison in London, where debtors are tremes, which, though it does not make confined; and to which persons are comnthe instrument perfect, leaves little room mitted by the courts of chancery and for complaint. In instruments whose common-pleas. sounds are fixed, a sound or note dividing FLEMISH SCHOOL, in painting, the it into two unequal parts, called semi- school formed in Flanders. The works tones, is placed between the extremes of of this school are distinguished by the every tone of the natural scale; so that most perfect knowledge of chiaro-scuro; we have twelve semitones between thir- high finishing without dryness; by an teen notes in the compass of an octave. admirable union of colors well blended In order, then, to keep the diatonic series and contrasted, and by a flowing, luxuridistinct, the inverted notes answer for the ous pencil. Its defects are somewhat name of the natural note next below, with similar to those of the Dutch school. The this character $, called a sharp; or the Flemish painters, like the Dutch, repname of the natural note next above it, resented n'fture as they found her, and with this character b, called a flat. Thus not as she should be. Rbeens and Van FLO] AND THE FINE ARTS. 247 dyke, (the glory of this school,) though FLOR'IN, a coin of different value; men of the greatest genius, were not free the silver florin of Holland is worth about from this defect, and the former espe- is. 8d. Most of the gold florins are of a cially. Teniers was another great mas- coarse alloy, weighing variously from ter of the school in question; to it also be- about fourteen to seventeen carats. longs Snyders,'Steenwick, Nefs, Schwa- FLO'TA, a name given by the Spanneveldt, Van Eyck, &c. iards to the ships that formerly sailed FLESH, FLESH TINTS, the colors which together, or under convoy, from Cadiz best represent the human body, sometimes and the other ports of the peninsula, autermed the carnations, but employed in thorized to trade directly with the transa lmore extended sense than this latter atlantic possessions of Spain. ters, which better expresses the more FLOTIL'LA, literally a little fleet; delicate portions of the body, such as the in which sense, however, it is seldom face, bosom, and hands. used, being, applied almost invariably to FLE'TA, the title of an ancient trea- a fleet, how large soever, composed of tise on English law, attributed to the reign small vessels. Thus the term flotilla was of Edward I., and named (according to given to the immense naval force with tradition) from its composition by a judge which Napoleon meditated the invasion in the Fleet prison. of Great Britain, and which consisted of FLEUR DE LIS, the royal insignia 2365 vessels of every description,'was of France. Its origin is disputed; by manned by about 17,000 sailors, and carsome it is supposed to represent a lily, tied 160,000 soldiers, and 10,000 horses. by others, the iron head of some weapon. In Spain, the name flotilla is given to It is of frequent occurrence in English a number of vessels appointed to anarmory. nounce to the home government the deFLORA'LIA, a feast kept by the Ro- parture and nature of the cargo of the mans in honor of the goddess Flora. flota or mercantile ships from foreign This feast began April the 25th, and con- ports on their homeward voyage. tinued till the 1st of May, during which FLOT'SAM, in law, a term for goods time the Ltudi Florales were celebrated. lost by shipwreck, but which are floating FLORENTINE FRES'CO, FRESCO on the sea.-There are two other uncouth SEcco, a kind of painting first practised terms made use of to describe wrecked at Florence during the flourishing period goods, viz., jetsam and lagan; the forof Italian Art for decorating walls. Like mer, when the goods are sunk; and the common fresco the lime is used wet, but latter, when they are sunk, but tied to a in this case it can be moistened and kept cork or buoy to be found again. damp and fit for painting on. FLOUR'ISH, in music, a prelude or FLOR'ENTINE LAKE, a pigment preparatory air, without any settled rule; prepared from cochineal; it is now obso- also the decorative notes which a singer lete; the greater durability in oil-paint- or instrumental performer occasionally ing of the lakes prepared from madder introduces.-In military language, it is having entirely superseded those pre- the sounding of trumpets on receiving an pared from cochineal. officer or other person of distinction. FLORENTINE MOSA'IC, the term FLOW/ERS. Flowers are employed applied to the art of inlaying tables and in Art as attributes. 1st. Of mythologiother plane surfaces with pietra dura, cal persons-Aphrodite, the Hours, and carried on principally at Florence. Very Zephyr. 2d. Among legendary personbeautiful patterns are thus produced by ages-of St. Dorothea, who is represented the combination of precious stones, form- with flowers and fruits by her side, or in ing the most difficult branch of mosaic art. a basket; also with a branch of roses in FLOR ID STYLE, in literary compo- her hand, or crowned with those flowers; sition, that which is.too much enriched of St. Sophronia, upon whose corpse birds with figures and flowers of rhetoric. and flowers are strewed; of St. Rosa de Longinus uses the terms florid and qf- Lima, who was named Rosa on account fected style indifferently, and describes of her beauty, and has a rose with a them as quite contrary to the true sub- broken crown of thorns; of St. Rosa of lime.-Thefiorid style of architecture, or Viterbo, who holds roses in her hand or florid Gothic, an elaborate kind of Gothic in her apron; of St. Elizabeth of Iunarchitecture, filled with points, ramifica- gary, who has roses in her lap or in a tions, mullions, &c.-Florid, in music, b:ssket; of St. Casilda, who generally any composition or performance of a rich wears a wreath of white roses on her and embellished kind. head; of the holy pair Ascylus and Vic 248 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [FON toria, both crcwned with roses; of St. pressed in the Chinese language with Angelus, from whose mouth fall roses sufficient exactness by the term FO-thau, and lilies; and of St. Hugo, who holds pronounced Fpudah; but, as is usual in three flowers in his hand. For the lily, China with proper names, the last syllable the attribute of many saints. was subsequently dropped. FLUTE, the coznmzon or English, a FOIL, among jewellers, a thin leaf of musical wind instrument, consisting of a metal placed under precious stones, to intnbe about eighteen inches in length, crease their lustre and improve their furnished with holes at the side for the color. Hence anything of a different purpose of varying its sounds by stopping color or quality, which serves to adorn or and opening them with the fingers.-The set off another thing to advantage, is German. flute is formed of several joints termed a foil.-In fencing, an elastic or pieces screwed into each other, with piece of steel, or sword without a point, holes at the side, and the addition of to fence with by way of exercise. The several brass or silver keys, to temper foil usually has a button or piece of cork the tones to the various flats and sharps. at the end, covered with leather. FLUTES, or FLU'TINGS, in archi- FOLD, in painting, the doubling or tecture, perpendicular channels, or cavi- lapping of one piece of drapery over ties, cut along the shaft of a column or another. pilaster. They are chiefly effected in the FO'LIAGE, in architecture and sculpIonic order, where they had their first ture, a group of leaves of plants and rise; though they are also used in the flowers, so arranged as to form archiricher orders, as the Corinthian and Con- tectural or sculptural ornaments; as in posite, but seldom in the Doric, and friezes, panels, and also in the capital of scarcely ever in the Tuscan. Each col- the Corinthian order. umn has twenty-four flutes, and each FO'LIO, in account books, denotes a flute is hollowed in exactly a quadrant page, or rather both the right and left of a circle. The Doric, however, has but hand pages, these being expressed by the twenty. Between the flutes are little same figure.-Folio, a book of the largest spaces that separate them, called stria, size, the leaves of which are formed by or lists; though in the Doric, the flutes once doubling a sheet of paper. are frequently made to join to one an- FOLI'MOTE, a word used in England other, without any intermediate space at before the Norman conquest to denote an all; the list being sharpened off to a thin annual assembly of the people, answering edge, which forms a part of each flute. in some measure to a modern parliament. Fluted columns are sometimes, though Some authors, however, allege that the improperly, termed reeded. folkmote was an inferior court, or comFLUX'IONS, a method of calculation mon council of a city or borough. invented by Sir Isaac Newton. In this FONT, the vessel used to contain the branch of mathematics, magnitudes of consecrated water in baptism, usually every kind are supposed to be generated constructed of stone and lined with lead; by motion. This science is employed in and in the earlier ages of the church the investigation of curves, in finding the were always large enough to allow of the contents of solids, and computing their complete immersion of infants. The forms surfaces; in finding the centres of gravi- of fonts have generally varied in differties and oscillation of different bodies; ent ages, and often exhibit exquisite the attractions of bodies under different richness both of design and ornament. forms; the direction of wind, which has Fonts were required to be covered ana the greatest effect on an engine; and in locked; originally these covers were simthe solution of many other interesting ply flat, movable lids, but they were and important problems. subsequenttly very highly ornamented, FLY'ERS, in architecture, stairs that assuming the form of spires, and endo not wind, but are made of an oblong riched with various decorations in the square figure, and go straight forward, form of pinnacles, buttresses, &c. —Font the second standing behind the first, and or Fount, a complete assortment of printso on. ing types of one size, including a due FO, the name given by the Chinese to proportion of all the letters, points, figBuddha, by one of those phenomena in ures, accents, &c. literature whereby appellations are in- FONTINA'LIA, in Roman antiquity, troduced from one language into others a religious feast celebrated Oct. 13, in with which it has little or no affinity. honor of the nymphs of wells and founOriginally the name Buddha was ex- tains. The ceremony consisted in throw________________________ ________ _ ___ ________ FOR] AND THE FINE ARTS. 249 ing nosegays into the fountains, and put- FOOT, in poetry, a certain number of ting crowns of flowers upon the wells. syllables, constituting part of averse; as FOOL, in ordinary language, signifies the iambus, the dactyl, and the spondee. one who is deficient in intellect, or FOWAGE, all kind of provender for who pursues a course contrary to the die- cattle, especially for horses in time of war. tates of reason. In Scripture, the word -A foraging party, those who are sent fool is often used for a wicked or de- out by the general in order to collect proprayed person. But in its most legiti- visions either for the horses or for the mate sense, the term fool means one who troops. is destitute of reason; either from hEa- FORCE, in mechanics, the energy or ing been born an idiot; or become idiotic impulse with which one body affects anfrom som1e injury done to the brain.- To other, with reference to the direction of play the fool, to act the buffoon, to occu- motion, and the centres of the malsses. It py one's time in absurd trifling. consists in the transfer of the imotion of FOOLS, we frequently meet in ancient one body to.another.-Ph!ysical force, is churches, especially under the seats of the force of material bodies. —Moral force, choir-halls, representations of men in is the power of acting on the reason in grotesque costume, and in various pos- judging and determining.-Force, in la, tures, with a fool's cap and bells. The signifies any unlawful violence offered to introduction of these and other ludicrous, persons or property. —Aforcible entry, is or even indecent images, in the very a violent and actual entry into houses, or buildings dedicated to the solemn wor- lands; and a forcible detainer, is a vioship of God, has long been a subject of lent withholding the possession of lands, inquiry among the learned, ar.c of sur- &e., so that the person who has a right of prise and scandal to the generality of entry is hindered therefrom. —The word persons. The source of many of these force has numerous other meanings; as representations may be traced to the pa- strength or power for war —virtue —efligan orgies of the Saturnalia and Luper- cacy-validity-destiny-necessity, &c. calia. It is necessary to draw a great FORECLOSE', in law, to exclude oi distinction between the burslesque figures, bar the equity of redemption on mortand symbolical representations of the gages. &c. vices and virtues, which are often intro- FORE-SSIORT'ENING, the trt of repduced under the guise of animalls whose resenting objects on a plano surface as nature corresponds to the passion or vir- they appear to the eye, depending upon tue represented; henoe human beings a correct knowledge of form, perspective, may be depicted with heads of beasts and and chiaroscuro. It is one of the most birds, such as foxes, lions, or hawks, to difficult studies in the art of design, and.denote cunning, courage, or rapacity. when executed with skill constitutes the Again, animals are frequently introduced excellence of the master. iMichael Anwith the same intention, and most ad- gelo, Rubens, and Correggi,. were distinmirable moral lessons are imparted under guished among other rasr qualities for the same types as have been selected by their skill in fore-shorteniig.% They prac-!i sop and his imitators. tised modelling for assistal ce in attaining FOOLS, FEAST OF, a festival an- this art. ciently celebrated in almost every church FORESTALLING, the act of buying and monastery of France, on New Years' or bargaining for any prorisions or merDay, in which every absurdity and even chandise, before they reaci:: the market to indecency was practised. It was equiva- which they were going. with an intent to lent to the Saturnalia, among the Ro- sell the same again at higher prices. mans, whence indeed it is said to be de- FORFEITURE, in law, the loss of rived. This festival received some mod- some right, privilege, or estate, goods, ifications in the different districts where lands, or employments, &c., for neglecting it was celebrated, and acquired various to do one's duty, or for some crime comdesignations according to the multifarious mitted. ceremonies of which it consisted. Several FO'GERY, in law, the fraudulent bishops and councils attempted, though making or altering any deed, or writing, in vain, to abolish this festival; but at &c., to the prejudice of another man's length about the 15th century it became right, particularly the counterfeiting the less generally observed, and soon after signature of another with intent to defell into almost total disuse, though its fraud. characteristic absurdities are still main- FORLORN-HOPE, in military affairs, tainedinthe Carnival of the present times. a detachment of men appointed to lead 250 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [FOR in an assault, to storm a counterscarp, en- by the single letter F. If two F F's, ter a breach, or perform any other ser- thus, are used, the part is to be played vice attended with great and imminent or performed fortissimo, very loud. peril. FORTIFICA'TION, the art or science FORM, the external appearance of oh- of fortifying a place, o oof putting it in jects; the quality that distinguishes one such a posture of defence, that every one thing from another. —Form, in painting, of its parts defends, and is defended, by signifies especially the human body. The some other parts, by means of ralpa.rts, study of forms, and the changes they un- parapets, moats, and other bulwarks; so dergo by muscular contractions, require that a small number of men within mlay on the part of the artist the utmost at- be able to defend themselves for a considtention and assiduity. The conscientious erable time against the assaults of a nuartist ought scrupulously to avoid any merous army without.-Ancient fortifitendency to exaggerate the superficial cation, at first consisted of walls or deforms of the body: nothing is more sirm- fences made of the trunks land large ple, more calm; nothing shows a grander branches of trees, mixed with earth, to breadth of design than the human body; secure them agsainst the attlacks of the the muscles assist by their reunion in enemy. This was afterwards altered to the production of general forms the spe- stone-walls, on which were raised breastcial forms are scarcely visible.-Forn, works, behind which they made use of in physiology, the essential and distin- their darts and arrows in security.-filodguishing modification of the matter of ern.fortiication, is that which is flanked which any body is composed.-Forsm, in and defended by bastions and out-works, a moral sense, the manner of being or the ramparts of which are so solid, that doing a thing according to rules: thus we they cannot be beat down but by the consay, a form? of government, a form of tinual fire of several batteries of cannon. argument, &c.-ffornm, in law, the rules The principal works belonging to a fortiestablished and requisite to be observed fication are, the ditch or trench maide in legal proceedings.-Forms. in me- round each work; the rampart, or elevachanics, a kind of mould in which any- tion of earth, raised along the faces of thing is wrought. — Essential form? is any work, to cover the inner part; the that mode of existence which constitutes parapet, or that part of a rampart which a thing what it is, and without which it serves to cover the troops planted there; could not exist.-Form, in printing, pages the bastion, that part of the inner enor columns of type, properly arranged. closure of a fortification making an angle and enclosed and locked in an iron frame towards the field; the counterscarp, the called a chase, for the purpose of being slope of the ditch facing the body of the put to press. There are two forms re- place; the covert way, the space extendquired for every sheet, one for each side; in, round the counterscarp; and the glaand each form consists of more or fewer cis, the part beyond the covert way, to pages, according to the size of the books. which it serves as a parapet. In recent -In schools, a class. times, however, fortification has underFORM'ALIST, one who observes the gone important changes, and engineers outward forms and ceremonies of worship, have adopted different systems; but those for appearance' sake, without possessing which have acquired the greatest reputathe life and spirit of pure religion. tion in Europe, are the systems of Count FORM'ATIVE ARTS, those arts which, Pagan, the Baron de Coehorn, Von Scheiindependently of external wants and aims, ter, and Marshal Vauban. yet, on the other hand, bound to the imi- FOR'TITUDE, the basis or source of tation of nature, represent life by means coolness and intrepidity in danger, of paof the forms naturally connected. tience in suffering, of forbearance under FOR'MULA, in mathematics, a general injuries, and of magnlanimity in all contheorem or literal expression for resolv- ditions of life. In fine, fortitude is the ing any part of a problem. —Formula, in virtue of a rational and considerate mind, theology, a profession of faith. founded on a sense of honor and a regard FORT, in the military art, a small for- to duty. The motives to fortitude are tified place, surrounded with a moat, many powerful, and this virtue tends rampart, and parapet; or with palisades, much to the happiness of the individual, stockades, and other means of defence. by giving composure and presence of FORTE, in music,' a direction to the mind, and keeping the other passions in performer to execute the part loudly to due subordination. which the word is affixed. It is indicated FORTU'NA, in mythology, the god FRE] AND THE FINE ARTS. 251 dess who presided over the destinies of great universities of Oxford and Caminmalkind, and, generally speaking, over all bridge are noble examples of the last the events of life. She was represented species of foundations; and by far the as blind, with winged feet, and resting greater number of the grammar and free on a w heel. The goddess was not known schools in most parts of England, and inin tie more ancient systems of the Greek deed of Europe, owe their origin to the theogony: all the guidance of human same source. A great deal of property affairs, for instance, is entrusted by IIo- has also been bequeathed by benevolent mer to destiny; but in Italy, and chiefly individuals in this and other countries at Rome, Actium, and Prseneste, her for the erection and endowment of hosworship was most assiduously cultivated. pitals, or foundations of various descripFO RUM, in Rome, a public place tions, for the relief and assistance of the where causes were judicially tried, and poor; and not unfrequently also proporations delivered to the people. There erty is appropriated, or foundation instiwere six of these forums, viz., the Ro- tuted for the amusement and recreation 7manm2 tL, Jlianums, Au ststum, Palladi- of the public. u7, TIrojaLnut, and Salutsteiiforum. The FOURTI, in music, one of the harchief of these was the forum Romac7anum, monical intervals; so called because it called, by way of eminence, the.fbruim. contains four sounds or terms between In this was an apartment called the ros- its extremes, and three intervals; or as tra, where the lawyers pleaded, and the being the fourth in order of the natural'orators harangued the people, &c. Here 6r diatonic scale fronm the fundamental. was also the comiti'u.n, or hall of justice, FRANC, a French coin, worth twenty with the sanctuary of Saturn, the temple so!s, or ten-pence sterling. of Castor, &c., altogether forming a most FRAN'CHISE, in a general sense, sigsplendid place. The word forum was nifies some privilege or exemption from also applied to a place of traffic, or mar- ordinary jurisdiction. A franchise may ket-place: of these there were vast num-, be vested either in bodies politic, or cor bers, as theforums piscariusm, olitorium, por ations; in borough towns, or in indi&c. These were generally called fora viduals; as the electoral franchise. Corveltalia, in distinction from the former, porate liberties being usually held by which were called fora civilia.-In the charter, are all said to be derived from law, foxruz i signifies a court of justice, the crown, but some lie in prescription the place where disputed rights are set- without the help of any charter. tied; hence forusem competens, a compe- FRANCIS'CANS, Friars-Minor, or tent jurisdiction; fo7rLu7 in.competens, a Gray-Friars, the religious order of Saint court not authorized to try the cause, &c. Francis, by whom they were founded IFOUNDA'TION, in architecture. the about the year 1200. lower part of a wall, on which the insistent FRANK'INCENSE, an odoriferous, wall is raised, and always of much greater dry, resinous substance, procured from thickness than such insistent wall. A the juniper-tree in Turkey and the East practice has lately been introduced of Indies. It is of a pale yellow color, very laying foundations (if not in water)- on a inflammable, and is used as a perfume. bed of what is called conscrete, which is a FRANKS, an appellation given by the mixture of rough small stones or large Turks, and other nations of Asia, to all gravel stones with sandl and stone, lime the people of the western parts of Euand water, vith just enough of the lime rope, English, French, Italians, &c. to act as a cementitious medium, with FRATERNITIES, in the middle ages, the best effect. consisted of pious laymen who formed FOUNDA'TIONS, in political econo- societies for the purpose of relieving the my, the generic name given to institu- sick and destitute, and performing other tions established and endowed by indi- Christian duties, viduals, associations, or the public, for F R A TR A G E, in law, a partition the promotion of what is believed to be, among brothers or co-heirs coming to the at the time when the foundation is made, same inheritance or succession; also that sone useful or benevolent purpose. In part of the inheritance that comes to the most old-settled and rich countries there youngest brothers. a.re foundations for a vast variety of ob- FREE'BOOTERS, a name given to jects. During the Middle Ages, it was some adventurers of all nations, but esvery common to bequeath property for pecially of France and England, who the foundation of monastic institutions have obtained a place in history by the and scholastic establishments. The two courage and intrepidity which they dis 252 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [FRE played in executing the most difficult en- FREEMA'SONRY, a term applied to terprises. The origin of their history is the organization of a society calling merged in obscurity, and it is impossible themselves free and accepted masons, and to ascertain precisely whence their name all the mysteries therewith connected. is derived; but the filibstiers of the This society, if we can reckon as one a French naval historians are identical number of societies, many of which are with the btccazee7rs of our own language. unconnected with each other, though they The South American islands formed the have the same origin, and a great simichief theatre of their depredations; and larity in their constitution, extends over such wa.s the relentless hostility with almost all the countries of Europe, many which they visited the Spaniards, that parts of America, and some other parts during the latter half of the seventeenth of the globe. According to its own pecucentury, which embraced the most for- liar language, it is founded on the pracmidable period of the freebooter's career, tise of social and moral virtue. It their commercial operations in the Indian claims the character of charity, in the seas were nearly destroyed. At the con- most extended sense; and brotherly love, mencemrent of the 18th century, the free- relief, and truth are inculcated in it booters sustained in their expedition a The first societies of antiquity with whiclt series of disasters, which sensibly dimin- free mr7asonry appears to stand in histori ished their numbers; and since that pe- cal connection, are the corporations ot riod the designation has been applied in- architects, which, with the IRomans, ex discriminately to any individual who re- isted under the names of Collegia and gards "the universe as his property," Corpora, first established in the time of and appropriates to himself either fur- Numna. Our distinct historical informatively or forcibly the possessions of an- tion on the subject merely amounts to other. this, that the fraternity of architects or FREE'HOLD, that land or tenement builders in the middle ages extended over which is held in fee-simple, fee-tail, or all Catholic countries, and was especially for term of life. It is of two kinds; in patronized by the see of Rome. It is to deed and in lawt. The first is the real this craft that we owe the magnificent possession of such land or tenement; the Gothic edifices dedicated to religion, last is the right a man has to such land which contrast so strongly with the baror tenement, before his entry or seizure. barous efforts of those ages in most other More properly, a freeh.old is an estate in departments of art. It is said that this lands or tenements, in fee-simple, or in association was introduced into Scotland tail, for the term of the life of the holder, in the 13th century, and about the same or for the life of another person, in dower time into England, it being ascertained or by the courtesy. —;Feehold is also that the Abbey of Kilwinning in the extended to such offices as a man holds former country was raised by this fraterin fee or for life. It is also taken in op- nity; and it is believed to have continued position to villenage. In Scotland, a to exist, although small in number, in freehold is an estate held of the crown these two countries after it had disapor prince. In the United States, a ree- peared from the Continent. The Kilwinhold is an estate which a man holds in ning and York lodges are respectively the his own right, subject to no superior nor most ancient in either country. But the to conditions. mode and period in which the association FREE/HOLDER, one who owns an es- became changed from a mere professional tate in fee-simple, fee-tail, or for life; fraternity to a society of persons of all the possessor of a freehold. In Scotland, descriptions connected by secret symbols, a freeholder is a person holding of the is unknown. It certainly excited great crown or prince; but the title is, in modern attention, and numbered individuals of lanmguage, applied to such as, before the high rank as honorary members, as early passing of the reform act, were entitled as the 15th century. The Scottish masons to elect or be elected members of parlia- appointed St. Clair of Roslin as their ment, and who must have held lands, ex- hereditary grand-master in 1630; and tending to a forty shilling land of old the office was resigned by his descendant extent, or to ~400 Scots of valued rent. in 1736, when the grand lodge of ScotFREEIMAN, in ancient law, one free land was instituted. In 1725, the first from servitude, as distinguished from a French lodge was established; in 1730, vassal or bondsman. In Great Britain, the first American; in 1735, the first a freeman is one who enjoys the freedom German. Pope Clement XII. excommuof a city or borough. nicated the freemasons in Spain and Por FRO] AND THE FINE ARTS. 253 tugal: until recent events, their name consisting of two lists or small fillets was synonymous with that of deists and variously interlaced or interwoven, and revolutionists. But the most singular running at parallel distances equal to chapter in the history of the society re- their breadth.-F'ret-work is sometimes lates to its fortunes in America; where used to fill up and enrich flat empty it has given origin to two political par- spaces, but is mostly practised in roofs, ties. The story of the abduction and which are fretted over with plaster-work. murder of William Morgan, suspected of -Frets, in music, certain short pieces of having revealed the secrets of the frater- wire fixed on the finger-boards of guitars, nity, made a great sensation in the Union, &c. at right angles to the strings, and and is not cleared up at this day. which, as the strings are brought into FREE-THINK'ER, a term applied to contact with them by the pressure of the those who reject the ordinary modes of fingers, serve to vary and determine the thinking in matters of religion. It is pitch of the tones. Formerly, these frets almost synonymous with deist. Free- or stops consisted of strings tied round thilnking, in England, first appeared in the neck of the instrument. the form of opposition to abuses in the FRIAR., (from the French frerc, a church, which were attacked in the reign brother,) a term common to monks of all of Jamnes II. and William III. orders; there being a kind of fraternity, FREIGHIT, in navigation and com- or brotherhood, between the several remerce, the hire of a ship, or a part there- ligious persons of the same monastery. of, for the conveyance and carriage of Friars are generally distinguished into goods from one place to another; or the four principal branches, viz., 1. Minors, sum agreed on between the owner and gray friars, or Franciscans; 2. Augusthe merchant, for the hire and use of a tines; 3. Dominicans, or black friars; vessel. In a more extended sense. it 4. White friars, or Carmelites. means the burden of such ship. FRI DAY, the sixth day of the week, FRETNCH-IORN', a musical wind in- so called from Frea, or Flriga, a goddess strument made of copper. It possesses a worshipped by the Saxons on this day. range of three octaves, and is capable of FRIEND'SHIIP, a noble and virtuous producing tones of great sweetness. attachment between individuals, springFRES'CO PAINT'ING, a method of ing from a pure source; this is true painting by incorporating the colors with friendship. PFalse friendship may subsist plaster before it is dry, by which it between bad men, as between thievesbecomes as permanent as the wall it- a temuporary attachment springing from self. This method of painting is exe- interest, which may change in a momnent cuted with minaeral and earthy pigments to enmity and rancor. upon a freshly laid stucco ground of lime FRIEZE, in architecture, the member or gypsumI. Vegetable pigments cannot in the entablature of an order between be used for fresco-painting even when the architrave and the cornice. It is almixed with mineral pigments; and of the ways plain in the Tuscan; ornamented latter, only those are available which with triglyphs and sculpture in the Doric; resist the chemical action of the lime. in the Ionic it is occasionally, in modern Burnt pigments' are the best for this or Italian architecture, swelled; in which style of painting; they are generally case it is called a pulvinated or cu.shioned ground with clean water, and rendered frieze; and in the Corinthian and Colnso thin, that they can be worked with the posite. it is variously decorated, according brush; to some are added lime, milk, &c. to the taste of the architect. The pigments unite with the lime or FRIG'ATE, a ship of war, light built, gypsum ground, and are therefore ex- and a good sailer. Frigates have two tremely durable; but as this ground, decks, and generally mount from twenty after standing a night, is unfit for paint- to forty-four guns. ing on, there nmust be only a sufficient FRIGATOON', a Venetian vessel built quantity for one day prepared. Fresco- with a square stern, without any foremast; painting is therefore difficult, as it can- it is used in the Adriatic. not be retouched. This art, which is em- FRONDE', WAR OF THE, that main. ployed generally for large pictures on tained by the malcontent partisans of the walls and ceilings, was understood by the parliament in France, under the regency ancients, but first made of real impor- of Louis XIV. against the government of tance by the Italians in the sixteenth Cardinal Mazarin. The name of Fronde century. (sling) was given to this war in conseFRET, in architecture, an ornament quence of some incidents of a street quar 254 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [IUt rel, which have been differently repre- FU'GITIVE, in literature, short and sented. The party opposed to govern- occasional compositions either in poetry ment was called that of the Fronde; and or prose; written in haste or at interthe word Frondeurs has hence acquired vals, and considered to be fleeting and in the French language the signification temporary. of discontented politicians. FU'GLEMAN, or FLU'GELMAN, a FRON'TAL, in architecture, a little non-commissioned officer, appointed to pediment or front-piece over a small door take his place in front of a regiment as or window. —Frontal. the hangings or a guide to the soldiers in their moveornamental panel in front of an altar, ments of the drill. The word is derived were of three kinds: 1st, of precious from the German filugel, awing. metals, adorned with enamels and jew- FU'GUE, in music. a piece of cornpoels; 2d, of wood, painted, gilt, em- sition in which the different parts follow bossed, and often set with crystals; 3d, each other, each repeating in order what of cloth of gold, velvet, or silk embroider- the first had performed. ed, and occasionally enriched with pearls. FUNC'TION, any office, duty, or emFRONTIER', the border, confine or ployment belonging to a particular staextreme part of a kingdom or province, tion or character; as the functions of a bordering on another country. Frontiers judge, a bishop, &c. —Functions, applied were anciently called marches. to the actions of the body, are divided FRON'TISPIECE, in architecture, the into vital, animal and natural. The vital face or fore front of a house; but more functions are those necessary to life, and usually applied to the decorated entrance without which the individual cannot sub | of a building. —This term is also used for sist; as the motior of the heart, lungs, the ornamental first page of a book, be- &c. The natural functions are such as ing, as the derivation imports, that part we cannot subsist any considerable time which first ineels the eye. without; as the digestion of the aliment, FRUIT-PAIN TING, may be consid- and its conversion into blood. Under ered to have originated with Zeuxis, who animalfunctions are included the senses of painted a bunch of grapes so naturally touching, tasting, &e., memory, judgthat the birds came and pecked at them. ment, and voluntary motion, without Since the introduction in modern times of which an animal may be said to exist, pictures of still life, fruit and flower- though under great privations. In short, painting has become a distinct branch of all parts of the body have their own art. cultivated principally in the Nether- functions, or actions, peculiar to themlands. selves. Life consists in the exercise of FRUIT-WORK, this branch of art at- these functions, and health in the free tained some excellence in antiquity, al- exercise of them. though used only for architectural orna- FUNDS, a term adopted by those who ments. Workers in clay and bronze also speak of the public revenue of nations, to imitated fruits, aind in the time of Mar- signify the several taxes that have been cus Varro, there lived at Rome a clay- laid upon commodities, either by way of modeller who imitated apples and grapes duties of custom, or excise, or in any so exactly, that at first sight they were other manner, to supply the exigencies of not to be distinguished from nature. the state, and to pty interest for what Festoons of fruit were also carved in sums it may have occasion to borrow.stone for the decoration of temples. The The capital stock of a banking institumost celebrated specimen in bronze is a tion, or the joint stock of a commercial colossal pine-apple, formerly on the tomb or manufacturing house, constitutes its of the Emperor Hadrian, but now in the funds; and hence the word is applied to great Pzmanhe niche, at the end of the the money which an individual may posgarden of the Belvedere at Rome. We sess, or the means he can employ for carfind the capitals and friezes of buildings rying on any enterprise or operation.of the middle ages, carved with grapes, The Futsnding system commenced in Enand inthe ale of the Renaissaencewe meet land shortly after the Revolution of.with festoons of fruits, which afterwards, 1688, and as the sums were at first borin the age of Rococo, were employed too rowed for short periods, and partially re~ frequently in decoration. At Florence, paid, the first transaction which assumed beautiful imitations of richly colored the character of a permanent loan was fruits, such as purple grapes, &c., were when, at the establishment of the Baink made in Pietra dura, or Florentine Mo- of England, in 1693, its capital, then aio. amounting to 1,200,0001., was advanced __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ __ _ __ _ GABJ AND TTIE PINE ARTS. 256 to the government.-A sinking fund is mentioned in the oaths taken at the Area sum of money appropriated to the pay- opagus. ment of the public stock, or the payment FUR'LOUGH, leave granted to a nonof the public debt. commissioned officer or soldier to be abFU'NERAL GAMES, the celebration sent for a given time from his regiment. of these games among the Greeks, mostly FUSILEER', a soldier belonging to consisted of horse-races; the prizes were what is termed the light infantry: they of different sorts and value, according to were formerly armed with a, fusil; but the quality and magnificence of the per- they are not now so distinguished, their son that celebrated them. The garlands, muskets being like the rest. given to victors on this occasion, were FUS'TIAN, in literature, an inflated usually of parsley, which was thought to style of writing, in which high-sounding have some particular relation to the and bombastic terms are used, instead of dead. Among the Romans, the funeral such as are natural, simple, and suited to games consisted chiefly of processions; the subject. but sometimes also of mortal combats of FYL'FOT, a cross of peculiar form, fregladiators, around the funeral pile. quently introduced in decoration and emEU'NERAL PALLS, the palls in an- broidery during the middle ages. It occient use, especially at the funerals of curs on monumental brasses anterior to persons of distinction, were of the most the accession of Richard II., being found costly materials and beautifully orna- on the girdle of a priest of the date A.D. mented, being constructed of velvet or 1011. It is considered to have been in cloth of gold, embroidered with heraldic use at a very remote period as a mystic devices and imagery. The form was symbol amongst religious devotees in Inusually square, sometimes with lappets, dia and China, whence it was introduced with a cross extending the whole length into Europe about the sixth century. and width, formed of a different material from the pall itself, and generally enriched with ornaments or appropriate G. inscriptions. The color of the palls varied at different periods. In the six- G, the seventh letter in the English al. teenth century, and perhaps earlier, phabet; but in the Greek, and all the black was used; they were frequently oriental languages, it occupies the third made of red, purple, green and blue vel- place. It is a mute, and cannot be soundvet, or cloth of gold, with reference to ed without the assistance of a vowel. It the heraldic tinctures that were peculiar has a hard and a soft sound, as in gamne, to the deceased. and gesture; and in many words, as in FU'NERAL RITES, ceremonies ac- sign, reignt. &c., the sound is not percompanying the interment or burial of ceived. As a numeral it formerly stood any person. These rites differed among for 400, and with a dash over it. for 400,the ancients according to the different 000.-G, in iusic, is the nominal of the genius and religion of each country. fifth note in the natural diatonic scale of The ancient Christians testified their ab- C, and to which Guido applied the monohorrence of the pagan custom of burning syllable sol. It is also one of the names the dead, and always deposited the of the highest cliff. body entire in the ground; and it was GA'BIONS, in fortification, baskets usual to bestow the honor of embalming made of osier-twigs, of a cylindrical form, upon the martyrs, at least, if not upon six feet high, and four wide; which, beothers. ing filled with earth, serve as a shelter FU'RIES, in mythology, called by the from the enemy's fire. Greeks Erinnyes and Eumenides, were GA'BLE, in architecture, the vertical the avenging deities, who punished gods triangular piece of wall at the end of the and men for their transgressions against roof, fron the level of the caves to the those whom they were bound to esteem summit. and reverence. Their number was not GA'BRIEL ST., one of the three archfixed, though sometimes they were con- angels, the "messenger;' the;' angel of sidered to be three sisters. The Atheni- the annunciation;" in pictures representans, who, according to Plutarch, were ing this mystery, he is frequently repreparticularly addicted to this art of eu- sented in royal robes, bearing a sceptre, phemism, called them also the venerable or a lily, and kneeling. In some ingoddesses, their true names being consid- stances, he is represented floating in the ered ominous. By this name they were air, with his hands crossed over his breast. 256 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [GAL GADS, or GADLYNGS, in. armor, are used by the Spaniards and Portuguese. the bosses or In more recent times, those vessels were small spikes of called galleons, in which the Spaniards steelwithwhich transported treasures from their Ameri\ln,/ i^Cn> t h e knuckles can colonies. *J([,. 4fi'/ we were a r m e dc. GtALLERY, in architecture, a long,, The gads of the narrow room, the width of which is at gauntlets o f least three times less than its lengh,; by E d wa r d the which proportion it is distinguished from Black Prince are of brass, and made in a saloon. Corridors are sometimees also the shape of lions or leopards. called galleries.-Gallery, in fortifcaGAE'LIC, is the name of that dialect in tion, a covered walk across a ditch in a the ancient Celtic language, which is spok- besieged town, made of strong planks and en in the Highlands of Scotland. It is a covered with earth. It was formerly generally received opinion, that the Celtic, used for carrying a mine to the foot of at the time of the Roman invasion, was the ramparts.-Gallery, (of a mine,) a universally spoken over the west of Eu- narrow passage, or branch of a mine carrope; for, although divided into a variety ried on underground to a work designed of dialects, yet they all show the clearest to be blown up.-Gallery, (in a ship,) a proofs of a conmmon origin. The Gaelic, balcony, projecting from the stern of a which, from a variety of causes. has re- ship of war, or of a large merchantman.tained much of its original purity, is bold, Gallery, in the Fine Arts, a term applied expressive, and copious. It derives no to a collection of works in painting or assistance from the languages either of sculpture. The earliest gallery of which Greece or Rome, from which it differs in there is any record was that of Verres. its structure and formation. More than It is described by Cicero, and was rich in two thirds of the names of places in Great pictures as well as sculpture. In EuBritain and Ireland are of Celtic origin, rope, at the present day, the gallery of which, if other proofs were wanting, would the Louvre, though much reduced in 1815 establish the fact of its once having been by the restoration of many works of art the language of the country.-See ER.E, which conquest had enabled the French GAIL'LIARDE, an ancient Italian to acquire, is the finest in Europe, if dance, of a sportive character and lively taken as a whole. That founded at movement. It was sometimes called Ro- Florcnce by Cosmo II. long enjoyed the manesquce, because it was said to. have first rank, but must be now considered come originally from Rome. secondary to the French collection. The GAL'AXY, in astronomy, the Via Lac- other principal galleries of Europe are tea, or Miilky f Vay; a long, white, lu- those at Munich, Dresden, Berlin, and, minous track, which seems to encompass though last not least both in size and the heavens like a girdle; forming near- importance, that of the Vatican at Rome; ly a great circle of the celestial sphere. which, however, is more generally called This, like every other phenomenon of the Museum of the Vatican. nature, has supplied the poet with many GAL'LEY, a naval vessel of large size, a fantastic, and many a beautiful dream. long and narrow, usually propelled by The invention of the telescope has con- oars, with occasionally the addition of firmedl the conjecture of science, that it sails. Most of the ships employed by the consists in a multitude of stars, too re- ancients may be termed galleys, and acmote to be separately distinguished by cording to the number of banks of rowthe naked eye. ers were birem.es when with two banks, GALL, the gall of the ox is used in triremes when with three, and so on, water-color painting, mixed with the pig- up to as many as forty, but those with ments to make them flow freely upon pa- more than four or five banks must be reper which has a greasiness of surface. garded as curiosities. Galleys were in To fit it for this purpose, the gall is use in the Mediterranean until the close strained and exposed to a gentle heat un- of the eighteenth century, for coast navitil nearly solidified; it is then of a dark gation, the largest of which were aboult olive-brown color, scarcely fit to mix with 160 feet long and 30 feet wide, with 52 the pure blue or red pigments. Colorless oars. Among-the Venetians there was in ox-gall should be prepared by boiling the use a kind of large galley, with a very crude gall with animal charcoal, and fil- lofty poop, called galeazza. The state tering the liquid. galley of the Doges was termed BuUCENGAL'LEON, vessels of war formerly TAUR.-The punishment of the galleys, GALl AND THE F1 E ARTS. 257 GAL'LIOT, a small galley or Dutch vessel, carrying a main and \ mizenmast, and a large gaff-mainsail; built very slightly, and de0i17 \ signed only for chase. It can both,^jg\ c \0^ \\ sail ani row, and has sixteen or, @3S 1 * 1$ i twenty oars. All the seanmen on \fiN5QIIClA'board are soldiers, and each has a I"<' _... musket by him bu n quitting his GALLOPADE', in the manege, a sidelong or curveting kind of _ gallop. Also the term fora sprightly and active kind of tdance. i. e. the employment of condemned crim- GALL-STONE, a concretion found in inals in the toilsome employment of row- the gall-bladder of the ox, which is eming them, is said to have originated under ployed as a pigmnent in water-color paintthe Greek empire; as well as the name ing. It yields a fine golden-yellow color, Fahcapoti or galley slaves-in French ga- similar to Indian yellow. It is not perIdriens. It was used by all the nations manent. bordering on the Mediterranean. In GAL'LY, in printing, a wooden or France, under the old jurisprudence, the metal frame, into which the compositor punishment of the galleys was the se- empties the lines out of his com12osin.gverest after that of death. About the stick, and in which he ties up the page end of the reign of Louis XIV., when when it is completed. galleys themselves began to be disused, GAL'VANISNIM, electrical phenom-ena, the galley slaves were employed in hos- in which the electricity is developed pitals, public works, &c.: and the name without the aid of friction, and in which of the punishment was changed by the a chemical action takes place between constituent assemibly (1793) to travanu. certain bodies. It includes all those forces, compulsory labor, whence the electrical phenomena arising from the word/ brFa.t for a criminal so condemned. chemical agency of certain metals with Under the code of the empire the pun- different fluids. Volta discovered the ishment was accompanied with forfeiture means of multiplying those elfects; hence of property, infamy, and branding. By the science has also. been called voltaisz, an alteration of the law effected in 1832, or voltaic electricity; and, from its action the brand was abolished; and the crim- on the muscles of animals newly killed, inals, who had hitherto been intermingled arnimal electricity. The galvanic battery in the three penal fortresses (Toulon, or pile, is an instrument of vast power, Rochefort, and Brest,) were classified, and admits of extensive application in Toulon was appropriated to those con- the wide field of chemical research, and dlelmned for 10 years and under; Brest, accordingly the acquisition of it has led to those from 10 to 20; lRochefort, to the to important discoveries. The electricity condemned for life. produced by the galvanic battery is much GAL'LL, the priests of Cybele were so less intense- than that produced by an named at Rome from the country (Gala- ordinary electrical machine, but it postia or Gallo-Grocia) in which Pessinus, sesses this great advantage, that its acthe head-quarters of her worship, was tion may be kept up for any length of situated: also termed Curetes, Cory- time, in a continuous manner; whereas, bantes, and Idai Dactyli. Cybele, the in a highly chlrged electric battery, the mother of the gods, was introduced to whole of the electric power is expended Rome from Asia on the occasion of a pes- as soon as the circuit is completed. The tilence by the rAdvice of the Sybilline ora- effects of galvanism imay be distinguished cles, and her -(orship became in time one into the thre clas es of physiological, oftthe imost popular in the city. chemical, and physical. WYith respect to GAL'~LICAN, anything belonging to the physiological effects, we may refer to France: thus the term gallican church the marvellous cures said to have been denotes the church of France, or the as- effected by currents of electricity-to the semblv of the clergy of that kingdom. facts recorded of animals recently killed, GAL'LICISM, an idior or. phrase of exhibiting meany of the signs of life, so the French language, introduced in speak- long as they are placed between the poles ing 0o writing another language. of the pile. Animals stupefied by breath17 -- --------— ~`^`'"-~`~ ~~ ~"~"~'~~" 1` — l —-11..D ~ —-— ~^-L ~ - ~-~-1 1 -- 258 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [G AN ing the fumes of charcoal, may be brought classes the right of hunting and shooting at once to life by placing them between wild birds and animals, and preventing the poles of the pile. Among the chemi- their being destroyed or sold in the marcal effects produced by the galvanic pile, ket; and it is believed that nothing has the decomposition of water, of oxydes, been so fertile a source of crime, amnon and the alkalies, are the most remarka- the lower orders, as these enactments. ble. Among the physical effects we may GAMES,. in antiquity, were public remark the production of heat, light and diversions, or contests, exhibited on cermagrnetism. This last effect, and the tain occasions, as spectacles for the gratimutual action which the currents exert fication of the people. Such, amlong the on each other, constitutes the science of Greeks, were the Olympic, Pythian, Isthelectro-magnetism. Galvanism is heat, mian, and Nemman gamies; and, among light, electricity, and magnetism, united the Romans, the Apollinarian, Circenin combination or in simultaneous ac- sian, Capitoline, &c. The Pomans hadl lion; sometimes one and sometimes an- three sorts of games, viz., sacred, honco other of them predominating, and thus ary, and ludicrous. The first were instiproducing more or less all the effects of tuted in honor of some deity or hero; the each-usual means of excitement, con- second were those exhibited by private tact of dissimilar bodies, especially of persons, to please the people; as the metals and fluids. combats of gladiators, the scenic games, GALVANOG'RAPTIY, ELECTROGRA- and other amphitheatrical sports. The PHY, this is one of the most beautiful ludicrous games were much of the same and successful inventions of modern times, nature with the games of exercise and as by its means plastic objects, e. g., wood, hazard among us; such were the ludusi stone, coins, plaster casts, &c., and copper Trojanuzs, tessere, &c. By a decree of plates for engravings, may be exactly the Roman senate, it was enacted that copied in copper, and bronzed or gilt. the public games should be consecrated, The invention is especially valuable for and united with the worship of the gods copper-plate engraving, as by its means as a part thereof: whence it appears, any number of duplicates of the original that feasts, sacrifices, and games, made plate may be obtained. Galvanography, up the greatest part, or rather the whole, after many experiments, has produced of the external worship offered by the works of Art far surpassing the expecta- Romans to their deities. tions at first entertained, and the uses to GAM'UT, or GAM'MA UT, in music, which it may be applied are multifarious, a scale whereon the musical notes are disfor since the first galvanic plate was taken, posed in their several orders, and marked it has been used in all branches of en- by the monosyllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, graving, having been found to unite all la. Its invention is attributed to Guido the known methods of the graver and Aretino, a monk of Tuscany; it is also etching needle, aqua tinta, scraper, and called the harmonical hand, from Guido roulette work, &c., and, moreover, is very having made use of the figure of the easy of execution. hand to demonstrate the progression of GAMBE'SON. or WAMBEYS, in armor, his sounds. a body-covering stuffed with wool and GANT'LET, or GAUNT'LET, a large padded in parallel lines of needle-work. kind of glove, made of iron, and the fingers GAM'BOGE, a gum-resin broughtfrom covered with small plates, formerly worn the East, which yields a fine yellow pig- by cavaliers, armed at all points.-L T ment, very useful in water-color paint- throw the gantlet, is a proverbial phrase, ing. The finest quality is the pipe-gam- signifying to challenge or defy. The exboge, brought from Siam. It dissolves pression derives its origin from the days readily in water, is very transparent and of chivalry, when he that challenged an glossy when dry. It is indispensable in opponent in the lists threw down his glove, water colors, forming, with the various land he that accepted the challenge took blues, excellent compound greens. This it up. pigment would be useful in oil painting, GANT'LOPE. or GANT'LET, in millas it resists for a long time the action of tary affairs, an old punishment in which strong light, provided the resinous part the criminal, running between the ranks, could be separated from the other parts. received a lash from every man. A simiGAME, all sorts of birds and beasts lar punishment is used on board of ships; that are objects of the chase.-Game but it is seldom, inflicted, except for such laws. In England, laws have been en- crimes as are calculated to excite general acted to secure to certain privileged antipathy among the seamen. .Aj] AND THE FINE ARTS. 259 GAN'YMIDIS, great-grandson of Dar- GARGOYLE', this term is derived from danus, who founded the city of Troy, son the French gargeouille, a dragon or monof Tros and of Callirrhoe a daughter of ster. It is applied to the spouts in the the Scamander. Jupiter, in the shape form of dragons that project from the of an eagle, carried him off from Mount roof-gutters in ancient buildings. Ida to the seat of the gods, where he dis- GAR'LANDS, of various descriptions, charged the office of cup-bearer to the are used in the ceremonies, &c., of the immortals, Iebe having rendered helr Catholic Church. 1. Of flowers, suspendself unworthy of this office. This fiction ed over altars, and in churches on festival has afforded, both. to poets and artists, an days. 2. Of roses, and other flowers, inexhaustible supply of subjects, Numer- worn round the heads of the assistaint ous paintings, statues, cameos, and in- clergy and others in certain processions. taglios, master-works of ancient Art, have 3. Of silver, set with jewels, or of natudescended to us, upon which this youth, ral flowers, and placed on images. 4. scarcely passed the years of boyhood, is Of artificial flowers and other ornaments represented as of great beauty. The rep- carried at the funerals of virgins. resentattions of Ganymede are to be recog- GAR'NISHMENT, in law, a warning nized by the Phrygian cap, and the eagle, or notice given to a party to appear in I which is either standing beside him, or court or give information; a technical carrying him in its talons to Olympus. term, used only in one or two instances. GAOL DItELIVERlY, a term in law GAR'RISON, a body of forces disposed for the clearing of a prison by a judicial in a fortress to defend it against the enecondemnation or acquittal of the prison- my, or to keep the inhabitants of the ers; also a commission from the king to town where it is situated in subjection. deliver or clear the gaols. The term garriszon is sometimes used GA-RD DE BRAS, in armor, the plate synonymously withwiinter quarters, viz. attached to the cuff of the gantlet or the a place where a number of troops are laid coudiese. up in the winter season without keeping tGAR'DENING, that branch ofcultiva- the regular guard. tion which teaches us how to dispose GARROTE', THE, a mode of capital fruit-trees, flowers, and herbs, to the best punishment employed in -Spain. The advantage, whether for profit or pleas- criminal is seated on a stool with his back ure; and directs us how to prepare the to a stake. A tight collar is passed round soil for sowing the different kinds of his throat, of which the ends nearly meet; seeds, as well as how to treat the plants, the executioner standing behind him, during their various stages of vegetation, twists them closer by means of a screw till they repay our care by the produce the death is instantaneous. they yield when arrived at maturity. GAR'TER, ORDaR OF THE, a military The art embraces the following heads: order of knighthood, said to have been Horticulture, which comprehends the cu- first instituted by Richard I. at the siege ture of culinary vegetables and fruits; of Acre, where he caused twenty-six floriculture, which ineludes the culture of knights, who firmly stood by him, to ornamental and curious flowers, shrubs, wear thongs of blue leather about their and trees; aboriculture, which implies legs. It is also understood to have been the culture of trees or shrubs used perfected by Edward III., and to have for various purposes in the arts and in received some alterations, which were general econonmy; and landscape gar- afterwards laid aside, from Edward VI.; dening, or the general disposition of the but the number of knights remained as scenery or landscape about a country at first established, till the year 1786, residence. Horticulture includes the when it was increased to thirty-two. culture of the kitchen garden and or- This order is never conferred but upon chard; fioriculture, the culture of flower persons of the highest rank. The habit gardens, botanic gardens, shrubberies, and ensigns of this order are the garter. and pleasure-grounds; aboriculture, the mantle, cap and collar The badge of culture of nurseries for fruit and forest the order is the image of Saint George, trees and shrubs; and landscape garden- called the George; and the motto is ing, the formation and management of Hon.i soit qui nal y pense, or " Evil to lawns, roads, walks, lakes, ponds, and him that evil thinks hereof." A vulgar artificial rivers, of rock work, and of story (says Hume) prevails, but it is not every description of objects in artificial supported by any ancient authority, that, scenery which come under the denomina- at a court ball, Edward the Third's mistion of ornamental or picturesque. tress, commonly supposed to be the Count 260 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [GEM ess of Salisbury, dropped her garter; The name Gazette is said to be derived and the king, taking it up, observed from Gazetta, a small Venetian coin, some of the courtiers to smile, as if they being the price that was paid for one of thought he had not obtained this favor the flying sheets of commercial and miliby accident; upon which he called out tary information (notizie scritte,) which 1rIoni soit qui mnrel y pense. were first published by that republic in GAS'TROMANCY, a kind of divina- 1563. tion practised among the ancients by GAZETTEER', a topographical work, means of words issuing or seeming to alphabetically arranged, containing a issue from the belly. This term is ap- brief description of empires, kingdoms, plied also to a species of divination per- cities, towns, and rivers. It may either formed by means of glasses or other round include the whole world. or be limited to transparent vessels, in the centre of which a particular country. The first work of certain figures appear by magic art. this kind, with which we are acquainted, GASTRON'OMItY, the science of eating is that of Stephen of Byzantium, who and drinking. The gastronomy of the lived in the beginning of the sixth cenRomans was the most gross and luxu- tury. rious, as that of the French is the most GAZONS/, in fortification, pieces of refined and delicate, combined with the fresh earth, covered with grass, and cut rules of health and social merriment. in form of a wedge, to line the outsides GAUZE, a very thin, slight, trans- of works made of earth, as ramparts, parent kind of stuff, woven sometimes parapets, &c. of silk, and sometimes only of thread; GEHENNA, a term in Scripture, and frequently with flowers of silver or adopted from the usage of the Jews to gold on a silk ground. It is said to have signify hell or the place of eternal punbeen invented in Gaza, a city of Palestine. ishment. The word is a slight corruption GAV'EL-KIND, a tenure in England, of Gehinnon, or the Valley of Hinnom in by which land descended from the father the neighborhood of Jerusalem, wherein, to all his sons in equal portions, and the at a place named Tophet, it was recorded land of a brother, dying without issue, that certain idolatrous Jews had sacridescended equally to his brothers. This ficed to Mioloch. The sewers of the city species of tenure prevailed in England were emptied into this hollow, and perbefore the'Norman conquest, in many petual fires were kept up to consume the parts of the kingdom, perhaps in the noxious matter, and prevent pestilential whole realm; but particularly in Kent, effluvia. Hence, it is said. the name of where it still exists. the place came to be used metaphorically GA'VOT, in music. an air for a dance, in the sense above described. From this which has two strains; the first having word seems to be derived the old French usually four or eight bars, and the second gehenne, torture; and from thence the eight or twelve more, each of which are common word gene, constraint. played twice over. Itis of a brisk nature. GELOS'COPY, a kind of divination GAZETTE', a periodical paper, pub- drawn from laughter; or a method of lished at short intervals, containing arti- knowing the qualities and character of a cles of general intelligence. In Europe person, acquired from the consideration such sheets were generally termed Aler- of his laughter. curies in the first times of their inven- GEMAR'A, the second part of the Taltion, and appeared only occasionally; the mud or commentary on the Jewish laws. earliest were published during the gen- GEMO'NIEI SCA'LZA, in Roman antieral apprehensions from the presence of quity, a place for executing criminals, the Spanish armada, but some doubt has situated on the Aventine mount, or tenth been lately thrown on the authenticity region of the city. of the specimens preserved in the British GEMS, the name given to precious Museum. The first gazette produced in stones in general, but more especially to France (under that title) was in 1631: such as by their color, brilliancy, polish, the first in England in 1665, when the purity, and rarity, are sought after as obcourt resided at Oxford on account of the jects of decoration. Gems of the most valuplague in London. From that period the able kinds form the principal part of the Gazette has regularly appeared twice a crown jewels of sovereign princes, and are week, containing such notifications as are esteemed not merely for their beauty, but either published by the court or the gov- as comprising the greatest value in the eminent, or such as are authoritatively smallest bulk. Gems are remarkable for required by law in private transactions their hardness and internal lustre. Un GEN] AND THE FINE ARTS. 261 der this name are comprehended the dia- called on account of their succeeding the mend, ruby, sapphire, hyacinth, beryl, ancient gendarmes, who were completely garnet, emerald, topaz, chrysolite, &c. clothed in armor, and commanded by To these have been added rock crystals, captain-lieutenants, the king and the the finer flints of pebbles, the cat's eye, princes of the blood being their captains. the oculus inundi, the chalcedony, the At the revolution this body was broken moon-stones, the onyx, the cornelinn, the up, and the name was given to a corps sardonyx, agate, &c. Of most of these which was employed in the protection of species there are some of an inferior class the streets. August 16th, 1830, a royal and beauty; these are commonly called ordinance abolished the gens d'armes. by jewellers occidental stones. They are and established a new body called the mostly the produce of Europe, and found mnunicipal guard of Paris, to consist of in mines or stone quarries; and are so 1443 men, under the direction of the named in opposition to those of a higher prefect of police. class, which are always accounted ori- GEN'ER, in grammar, a distinction ental, and supposed to be only produced in nouns to mark the sexes; genders are in the east.-Gem-en-graving, or geln- either masculine, for the male sex; femsculptare, called also lithoglyptics, is the inine, for the female sex; or neuter, for art of representing designs upon precious those which are of neither sex. The stones, either in raised work, as cameos, English language has very few terminaor by figures cut below the surface, as tions by which the genders are distinintaglios. This art is of great antiquity, guished, such as count and countess, but and was probably practised by the Baby- generally supplies distinct words; as boy, lonians. Some think the art originated girl; whereas, in the Latin and French, in India; but wherever it originated, we the terminations always mark the dishave ample evidence that among the tinction, as bonus eqitus, a good horse; Greeks and Romans it was in high es- bona equa, a good miare; aun bon citoyen teem. The merit of cameos and inta- a good citizen; une bonne citoyenne, a lies depends on their erudition, as it is good female citizen. termed, or the goodness of the workman- GENEAL'OGY, a history of the deship, and the beauty of their polish. The scent of a person or family from a series antique Greek gems are the most highly of ancestors. In various chapters and prized; and, next to them, the Roman military orders, it is required that the ones of the times of the higher empire.- candidates produce their genealogy, to Artificial gems. In order to approxi- show that they are noble by so many mate as near as possible to the brilliancy descents.-The Jews were anxious to preand refractive power of native gems, a serve their genealogies entire and uninbasis, called a paste, is made from the terrupted; and this care on their part finest flint glass, composed of selected affords an argument of considerable irmmaterials, combined in different propor- portanee with respect to the accomplishtions, according to the preference of the ment of those prophecies that pertain manufacturer. This is mixed with me- to the Messiah: accordingly, in their tallic oxydes capable of producing the sacred writings, we find genealogies cardesired color.-The imitation of antique ried on for above 3500 years. gems consists in a method of taking the GENERAL, in the army, is, next to impressions and figures of antique gems, field marshal, the highest military title with their engravings, in glass, of the adopted by the European states. Like color of the original gems. Great care most military designations, it owes its is necessary in the operation, to take the origin to the French, who, about the impression of the gem in a very fine middle of the 15th century, conferred the earth, and to press dovn upon this a title of lieutenant-general on the indipiece of proper glass, softened or half vidual to whom the monarch (by virtue melted at the fire, so that the figures of of his birth the commander or general of the impression made in the earth may be the national forces) intrusted the supernicely and perfectly expressed upon the intendence of the army. The title of glass. general is conferred either on the comGENDARMES', or GENS D'ARMES, mander-in-chief of the forces of a nation, in the history of France, an appellation or on the commander of an army or given to a select body of troops, who grand division; it is also given to the offiwere destined to watch over the interior cers next in rank to the general, who, bepublic safety, and consequently much sides performing functions peculiar to employed by the police. They were so their own offices, frequently act as the sub 262 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE LI'stiattes of their superior, with the desig- added, in order to denote them singly, nation of lieutenant-general and major- and mlake up what is called the specific general. —A particular beat of drum name. Thus the word i-osa, or rose, is which in the morning gives notice to the the generic name of the whole series of infantry to be in readiness to march, is flowers of that kind, which arce distinalso called the general. guished by the specific names of the red GENERALIS'SIM0, a title conferred, rose, the white rose, the moss rose, &c. especially by the French, on the com- Thus also we see Canis is the generic mander-in-chief of an army consisting of name of animals of the dog kind; elis, two or more grand divisions, each under of the cat kind; Cervus, of the deer the superintendence of a general. Ac- kind, &c. cording to Balzac, this dignity was first GEN'ESIS, a canonical book of the assumed by Cardinal Richelieu on the Old Testament, and the first of the Penoccasion of his leading the French army tateuch, or five books of Moses. The into Italy; but the term does not appear Greeks gave it the name of Genesis, to have found favor among the other from its beginning with the history of European states. the creation of the world. It includes GENERALIZA'TION, in logic, has the history of 2369 years, and besides been definedl as the act of comprehending the history of the creation, contains ap under a common name several objects account of the original innocence and fail agreeing in some point which we abstract of man; the propagation of mankind; from each of them and which that com- the general defection and corruption of mon term serves to indicate.-Ex. Coper- the world; the delu e; the restoration nicus generalized the celestial motions, and re-peopling of the earth; and the by merely referring them to the moon's history of the first patriarchs down to motion. Newton generalized them still the death of Joseph. more, by referring this last to the motion GE-NETI'LIAC, an ode or other short of a stone through the air. poem composed in honor of the birth of GEN'ERAL IS'SUTE, in law, that plea an individual. which denies at once the whole declara- GE/NII, called by the Eastern nations tion or indictment, without offering any Genn or Gien, are a race of beings erespecial matter by which to evade it. ated from fire, occupying an intermediThis is the ordinary plea upon which ate place between man and angels, and most causes are tried, and is now almost endowed with a corporeal form, which invariably used in all criminal cases. It they are capable of metamorphosing at puts everything in issue, that is denies pleasure. They are said to have inhabeverything, and requires the party to ited this earth many ages before the creprove all that he has stated. In many nation of man, and to have been at last cases, for the rotetion of justices, con- driven thence for rebellious conduct stables, excise officers, &c. they are al- against Allah. Their present plaee of lowed to plead the general issue, and abode is Giinnistan, the Persian Elygive the special matter for their justifi- sium; but they are represented as still cation, under the act, in evidence. interesting themselves deeply in the afGEN'ERATOR, in music, the principal fairs of this earth, over which they exersound or sounds by which others are pro- eise considerable influence. Every one dueed. Thus the lowest C for the treble is aware of the important part which the of the pianoforte, besides its octave, will genii perform in the interesting stories of strike an attentive ear with its twelfth the East; and indeed a more correct idea above, or G in alt., and with its seven- may be formed of their origin, characterteenth above,' or E in alt. Hence C is istics, and history, from a perusal of the called their generator, the G and E its Arabian NiTghts' Elnter-tainmenS, than products or harmonics. can be conveyed by the most elaborate GENERWIC, or GENER'ICAL, an ep- dissertation. ithet pertaining to a genus or kind. It is,GEN'ITIVE CASE, the second case a word used to signify all species of in Latin and Greek nouns, which denote natural bodies, which agree in certain possession: it is marked in English by s essential and peculiar characters, and with an apostrophe, thus ('s). therefore all of the same family or kind; so GE'NIUS, an aptitude for a particular that the word used as the generic name, pursuit, founded on some stimulus in equally expresses every one of them, youth, by which the mind and faculties and some other words expressive of the are directed to excellence. It combines peculiar qualities of figures of each are opposite intellectual qualities; the deep GEN] AND THIE FINE ARTS. 263 est penetration with the liveliest fancy; those emblematical figures, which, as evthe greatest quickness with the most in- erything was personified in ancient Art, defatigable diligence. To what is old it are regarded as the deification of ideas. gives a new form; or it invents new; The most common idea of Christian genii and its own productions are altogether are the patron angel of childhood and original. We estimate it higher than of youth, the angel of baptism, those of talent, in the common acceptation of that poverty and mercy, of religion and virterml, which in the capacity for originat- tue, and the genii of the three Christian ing in extent and energy is inferior to graces, faith, hope, and charity. In modgeJnius. Where ordinary powers advance ern times we find the genii of countries by slow degrees, genius soars on rapid often personified: the greatest work of wings. But genius does not assume its this kind is the genius of Bavaria, a distinctive character in every exercise of bronze female statue of colossal size by its powers. A gifted poet, for instance, Schwanthaler, recently completed and is not necessarily an ingenious philoso- placed in front of the J'alal/alla, near pher, nor does the statesman's genius in- MIunich. Modern representations of river elude that of the soldier. We distinguish gods are only to be regarded as genii this genius, therefore, into various kinds, when they are executed in the romantic as poetical, musical, mathematical, mil- and not in the antique style. itary, &c.; thus, for example, Milton GENS, in ancient history, a clan or possessed a genius for poetry, Mozart for sect, forming a subdivision of the Roman music, Newton for mathematics, &c. Yet, people next in order to the curia or tribe. although the union of great excellence in The members and houses composing one different walks of art and science is but of these clans were not necessarily united rarely found in one man, some, like by. ties of blood, but were originally Michael Angelo, who was equally cele- brought together by a political distribubrated as a statuary, architect, and pain- tion of the citiz'ens, and bound by reliter, are found possessing genius of a most gious rites, and a common name, derived comprehensive character.-By the an- probably from some ancient hero. cients the word genius was used to ex- GEN'TILES, a name given by the press a supposed invisible spirit which Jews to all who were not of the twelve directs a course of events. According to tribes of Israel. Among Christians, it is the belief of the Romans, every person the name of all heathens who did not emhad his own genius, that is, a spiritual brace the Christian faith. being, which introduced him into life, GEN'TLEM3IAN, in the modern lanaccompanied him during the course of it, guages of western Europe, we generally and again conducted him out of it at the find a word to signify a person distinclose of his career. This belief was no guished by his standing from the laboring doubt a consequence of their idea of a classes, gemntiluomo, gentilhomnme, hidaldivine spirit pervading the whole physi- go, &c. In the German language, the cal world; and was probably a personi- term which most nearly expresses the fication of the particular structure or bent same idea, is gebildet, which includes not of mind which a man receives from na- only gentlemanly manners, but also a ture. The guardian spirit of a person (a cultivated mind. The English law-books purely Italian idea, which in modern say, that, under the denomination of genlanguage has been wrongfully transferred tlemen, are comprised all above yeomen; to Grecian Art,) is generally represented so that noblemen are truly called gentleas a veiled figure in a toga, holding a men; and further, that a gentleman, in patera and cornucopia, or as a beautiful England, is generally defined to be one, youth, nude or nearly so, with the wings who, without any title, bears a coat of of a bird on his shoulders. The guardian arms, or whose ancestors have been freespirits of the female sex, junones, are men: the coat determines whether he ii represented as young maidens with the or is not descended from others of the wings of a butterfly or a moth, and drap- same name. In the highest sense, the ed. The Romans also gave a genius to term gentleman signifies a man who not edifices, towns, armies, and kingdoms. only does what is just and right, but The Roman genius of a place was de- whose conduct is guided by a true prinpicted as a serpent devouring fruits, which ciple of honor, which springs from that lay before it; there are, however, many self-respect and intellectual refinement exceptions to these rules. The modern v-liich manifest themselves in easy and world comprises under the term genii, free, yet delicate manners. the angels or messengers of heaven, and GENRE-PAINT'ING, pictures of life 264 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [GEN and manners. Under this title are corn- vice of which art was enrolled, delayed prised the grave episodes of life, which the progress of life-painting for more than are to history what a single scene is to a a thousand years, but when that which drama, or a lyric to an epic poem. Also was unnatural in Christian Art gave place comic scenes of every kind; a comic sub- to a free Germanic spirit, genre-pailting ject is seldom placed in the highest cate- arose refreshed. This spirit inclining togory of art, because it is the nature of wards the poetry of real life employed comedy to overstep the strict line of beau- genre-painting for ecclesiastical purposes, ty and to become caricature. The prin- but so many pleasing effects were develcipal genre pictures consist of scenes of oped, that religion-'was soon neglected and every-day life, and may be classified. cast aside. The carpenter's workshop beThose of the Netherlands are the best, came popular, although it was not that of and deserve to live; though far from the Joseph; the landscape was beautiful, even ideal of art, they show a skilful execution without the procession of the three kings; and lead to higher thoughts. Another and the nosegay riveted the eye, although kind are the low attempts at coloring not placed in the oratory of the Virgin. called costuwne or portrait genre pictures, GENRE-SCULP'TURE, we have eviwhich are merely studies. In taking for deuces of this branch of Art having been its subject the events of daily life, genre- attempted by the ancients. After the painting (unless the subject is eminently time of Alexander the Great, religion, suited to the ideal) avoids religious themes and consequently Art, underwent a great as high and lasting, as well as historical change; there was more room for indisubjects, which, though transitory, ought viduality, and a style of art was develnever to appear so. A view of an open oped which corresponded to the wants of house, into which the sun is shining, a the age. and which produced many works peasant lighting his pipe,-all the pass- of a genre character. We know that ing events of life, its characters and aims, genre-painting was very popular during offer fitting subjects for genre-painting. the last ages of Grecian art, from the dePure nature, true humanity, national scriptions extant of the kitchen —scenes. character, as revealed by domestic man- &c., painted by Pyreicos, who finished ners, &o., form the circle of true genre- these little pictures so exquisitely that painting, the boundary being more clear- they fetched a much higher price than ly defined than is the case in historical or large paintings by other artists. There religious art. The distinction between are several specimens of genre-sculpture history and genre-painting cannot be too extant, the most remarkable of which is clearly drawn. Transitions from one to the Venus Callipygos, in the Museum at the other are admissible, and such pie- Naples. We find this style very often tures belong to the happiest productions employed in Etruscan art, of which we of art; and there are also circumstances have some specimens in the collection of under which the advantages of both styles bronzes in London, viz., a circular vase, may be united. We meet with speci- the handle of which is formed by the figmens of genre-painting among the an- ures of two struggling gladiators, a hancients. As the character of ancient wor- die formed by two jugglers, also a rare ship changed, a freer space was offered to bronze, formed of an Etruscan slave, Art, which, by degrees, overstepped the kneeling, whose physiognomy betrays his ideal circle of the mythic-normal, with- descent; he is employed in cleaning a drew the mystic veil with which the Saga shoe, and holds a sponge in one hand. covered everything, and revealing nature, We meet with genre-sculpture among the assumed an individual character from biblical and legendary subjects in the which a genre-like style of art arose tend- middle ages; and it was carried on in the ing towards the mythic. This style was, Germanic period, though only in small however, very different from what we now works, and those of a secular nature, viz., call genre-painting, which may be ex- ivory carvings, andilluminations in books. plained by the plastic character pervad- Many critics affect to treat such works ing art. Still we see by the mural paint- slightingly, but whoever looks at them ings at Herculaneum and Pompeii, that with an unprejudiced eye, will be dein later Roman art there were colored lighted at the union of nature with granpictures of the genre kind. These were deur of conception, and will reasonably certainly imperfect attempts, but they expect to see such subjects chosen for the prove, nevertheless, that mere manual. highest efforts of the artist. artists turned to domestic painting. The GENUS, in natural history, a subdiintroduction of a new religion, in the ser- vision of any class or order of things, ___~_____________.._...... —_.__.__________ _ ________. GEO] AND THE FINE ARTS. 265 whether of the animal, vegetable, or min- taken place in the organic and inorganic eral kingdoms. All the species of a ge- kingdoms of nature; it inquires into the nus agree in certain characteristics.-In causes of these changes, and the inflamlusic, a distribution of the tetrachord, or ence which they have exerted in modifythe bfor principal sounds, according to ing the surface and external structure their quality. of our planet. It is a science founded on GEOGE'RAPIY, properly, a descrip- exact observation and careful induction, tion of the earth or terrestrial globe, and is intimately connected with all the particularly of the divisions of its surface, physicalsciences. The geolooist, in order natural and artificial, and of the position that he may conduct his investiglations of the several countries, kingdoms, states, with success, ought to be well veresed in cities, &c. As a science, geography in- chemistry, mineralogy, zoology, botany, cludes the doctrine or knowledge of the comparative anatomy; in short, every astronomical circles or divisions of the branch of science relating to organic and sphere, by which the relative position inorganic nature Within the memory of places on the globe may be ascertain- of the present generation the science ed; and usually treatises of geography of geology has made immense progress. contain some account of the inhabitants Aided not only by the higher bra.nches of the earth, of their government, man- of physics, but by recent discoveries in ners, &c., and an account of the princi- mineralogy and chemistry, in b)tany, pal anima.ls, plants, and minerals.-Gen- zoology, and comparative anatomy, it has er-al or unive'rsal geography, the science extracted from the archives of the intewhich conveys a knowledge of the earth, rior of the earth, records of former condiboth as a distinct and independent body in tions of our planet, and deciphered docuthe universe, and as connected with a sys- ments which were a sealed book to our tern of heavenly bodies.- lMathematical ancestors. It extends its researches into geography, that branch of the general regions more vast and remote than come science which is derived firom the applica- within the scope of any other physical tion of mathematical truths to the figure science except astronomy, of which it of the earth, and which teaches us to de- has emphatically been termed the sister termine the relative position of places, science. their longitudes and latitudes, the differ- GE'OMANCY, a kind of divination by ent lines and circles imagined to be drawn means of figures or lines, formed by little upon the earth's surface, their measure, dots or points, either on the earth or on distance, &c.-Physical geography, that paper, and representing the four elebranch which gives a description of the ments, the cardinal points, the planetary principal features of the earth's surface bodies, &c. This pretended science was the various climates and temperature, flourishing in the days of Chaucer, and showing how these, together with other was deeply cultivated by Dryden at the causes, affect the condition of the human time of his ri faccimcnto of the Knight's race, and also a general account of the Tale. Cattan, who wrote a book on animals and productions of the globe.- geomancy in the sixteenth century, abPolitical geogrsaph/y, that branch which surdly enough observes, that it is "no considers the earth as the abode of ra- art of inchaunting, as some may suppose tional beings, according to their diffusion it to be, or of divination, which is made over the globe, and their social relations by diabolicke invocation; but it is a part as they are divided into larger or smaller of natural magicke, called of many worthy societies.-Sacred or biblical geography, men the daughter of astrologie, and the the geography of Palestine, and other albreviation thereof." oriental nations mentioned in Scripture, GEOM'ETRY, originally and properly, having for its object the illustration of the art of measuring the earth, or any sacred history. distances or dimensions on it. But geGEOL/OGY, the doctrine or science of ometry now denotes the science of magthe structure of the earth or terraqueous nitude in general, comprehending the globe, and of the substances which com- doctrines and relations of whatever is pose it; or the science of the compound susceptible of augmentation and diminuminerals or aggregate substances which tion; as the mensuration of lines, suroompose the earth, the relations which faces, solids, velocity, weight, &c., with the several constituent masses bear to their various relations. Geometry is the each other, their formation, structure, most general and important of the matheposition, and direction. It also investi- matical sciences; it is founded upon a few gates the successive changes that have axioms or self-evident truths, and every 266 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [GER proposition which it lays down, whether the crusades. The ancient Christian em. it be theorem or problem, is subjected to perors bore the knight upon their standthe most accurate and rigid dcmonstra- ards. To these sacred banners the cr1tion. Its usefulness extends to almost saders attributed a miraculous power. every art and science. Astronomy, navi- and were sure of conquest while they gation, surveying, architecture, fortifica- floated above their heads. M[any, howticn, engineering, perspective, drawing, ever, deny his very existence; and reduce optics, mechanics, &c., all depend upon his effigy to a mere symbol of victory it.-Geometry has been distinguished gained by the crusaders over the Mussulinto theoretical or specclative and lpracti- man nation. The legend of his life is one cal. The former treats of the various of the most familiar and popular of the properties and relations of magnitudes, Christian mythology. He is usually repwith demonstrations of theorems, &c.; resented as a knight clothed in armor, and the latter relates to the performance mounted on horseback, and combahting of certain geometrical operations, such as with a dragon. The variations are so the construction of figures. the drawing slight, that the subject can be easily reeof lines in certain positions, and the ap- ognized. As patron saint, he stands in plication of geometrical principles to the armor, holding a lance, sometimes with a various measurements in the ordinary banner with a red cross, and a palm concerns of life. —Theoretical geometry branch. Sometimes the lance is broken is again divided into elementary or con- and the dragon dead at his feet. 7non geometry, and the higher geometry; GEOR'/ICS, a poetical composition the former being employed in the con- treating of husbandry, after the manner sideration of lines, superficies, angles, of Virgil's poems on rural subjects, which planes, figures, and solids; and the lat- are called Georgics. ter, in the consideration of the higher GER'MAN SCHOOL, in painting. In order of curve lines and problems. this school we find an attention to indiGEOPON'ICA, the name of a Greek vidual nature, as usually seen, without compilation of precepts on rural economy, attempt at selection, or notion of ideal extracted from ancient writers. The name beauty. The German painters seem to of the compiler is unknown; but the au- have set a particular value on high finthorities which he quotes are numerous ishing, rather than on a good arrangeand deservedly celebrated. ment and disposition of the subject. GEOPON'ICS, the art or science of Their coloring is far better than their cultivating the earth. drawing, but their draperies are genGE'ORAMIA, an instrument or machine erally in bad taste. Though amongl the which exhibits a very complete view of painters of this school some are free the earth, invented in Paris. It is a hol- from the application of these observalow sphere of forty feet diamater, formed tions, they are not sufficient in number to by thirty-six bars of iron representing change the general judgment that must be the parallels and meridians, and covered passed upon it. Wohlgemuth, Holbein, with a bluish cloth, intended to represent and Albert Durer are the heads of it. seas and lakes. The land, mountains, These observations do not apply to a and rivers are painted on paper and school which seems now rising in Gerpasted on this cover. many, and which, with such leaders as GEORGE, ST., a saint or hero whose Retsch and others, seems likely to put the name is famous throughout all the East, school of painting there on a level with and by which several orders, both mili- its highly splendid intellectual powers tary and religious, have been distin- in all other branches of the arts and guished. St. George is usually repre- sciences. sented on horseback, in full armor, with GEROCO'MIA, that part of medicine a formidable dragon writhing at his which prescribes a regimen for old age. feet. His sanctity is established in the GER'RA, in antiquity, a sort of square Latin as well as the Greek church; and shield, used first by the Persians and afEngland and Portugal have chosen him terwards by the Greeks. for their patron saint. According to an- GER'UND, in grammar, a verbal noun cient legends, this renowned saint was a of the neuter gender, partaking of the prince of Cappadocia; whose greatest nature of a participle, declinable only in achievement was the conquest of an enor- the singular number, through all the mous dragon, by which he effected the cases except the vocative; as, nom. deliverance of Aja, the daughter of a amandaen, gen. a(mandi, dat. amancdo, king. The legend belongs to the age of aceus. amandum, abl. amando. GIA] AND THE FINE ARTS. 261 GERU'SIA, in ancient history, the The Manes, they fancied, went down senate of Sparta. The number of this into the infernal regions; the Spiritus council was thirty, including the two ascended to the skies, and the Lmnbra kings; and the qualifications of its mem- hovered about the tomb, as being unwilbers were, pure Spartan blood, and an ling to quit its old connections. —To give age not below sixty years. The election up the g'host, a phrase frequently used in was performed in a primitive manner by Scripture for-to yield up the breath, or accla1mation, thecandidatesbeing brought expire. forth one by one before the people. HIe GHOST, HOLY, the third person in who was greeted with the loudest a;p- the Ioly Trinity; but according to some plause was held to receive the highest theologians, a biblical metaphor, to deshonor next the throne. The functions ignate the divine influence. All Chrisof the gerusia were partly deliberative, tians who subscribe to the doctrine of partly judicial, and partly executive. the Athanasian creed, believe the Holy It prepared measures which were to be Ghost to have proceeded from the Father laid before the popular assembly; it and the Son; yet the Son and the Holy exercised a criminal jurisdiction, with Ghost are both eternal, since they are power of capital punishment; and also co-eternal with the Father. The Greek wielded a kind of censorial authority for church maintains that the Holy Ghost the correction of abuses. proceeds from the Father only; and this GES'TURE, any action or posture in- difference is one of the main points of tended to express an idea or passion, distinction between that church a.nd the or to enforce an argument or opinion: Roman Catholic.-A military order in hence propriety of gesture is of the first France under the old reegime, which was importance to an orator.-The interpre- abolished by the revolution, but revived tation of the proper significance of ges- by the Bourbons. ture is very important for the under- GI'ANTS, history, both sacred and standing of works of art. Much of this profane, makes mention of giants, or is common to humanity, and seems to us people of extraordinary stature. Nanecessary; on the other hand there are tions, as well as individuals, in their inalso qualities of a positive nature, that fancy, love the miraculous; and any is derived. from the particular views and event which deviates from the common customs ofthe nation. Here there isvery course of things, immediately becomes a much indeed to be learned and guessed at, wonder on which poetry eagerly seizes; as well by the artist in studying life, as hence the Cyclops and LKsstrygons of the by the scientific in works of art. ancients, and the ogres of romance. InG* EY'SERS, the celebrated spouting stances, however, are by no means wantfountains of boiling water in Iceland. ing of uncommonly large persons. hardly The Geysers are situated about 30 miles needing the exa ggeration of a lively infrom the volcano Hecla, in plains full of agination to nmake them objects of wonhot springs and steaming fissures. Their der. The giants spoken of in Scripture jets are intermittent, and the height to might be men of extraordinary stature; which they rise appears to vary much at but not so much above the ordinary measdifferent times. ure as they have fancied, who describe GtIAUTTS, a term applied originally them as three or four times larger than to the narrow and difficult passes in the men are at present. And when we find mountains of Central l-indostan, but the Israelites describing themselves as which has been gradually extended to appearing like grasshoppers before the the mountains themselves. They consist Anakites, we must bear in mind the uniof tvo great chains extending along the versal practice amnong the nations of the east and west coasts of the Deccan, par- East to express their astonishment in the allel to each other, or rather diverging, most extravagant style of hyperbole. The and leaving between them and the sea giants of Greek mythology are believed only a plain of forty or fifty miles in by some to represent the struggle of the breadth. elements of nature against the gods, that GHIOST, the soul or spirit separate is, against the order of creation. They from the body. The ancients supposed were said to hurl mountains and forests every man to be possessed of three differ- against Olympus, disdaining the lightent ghosts, which, after the dissolution of nings of Jupiter, &c. Giants, indeed, the human body, were differently dis- make a very considerable figure in the posed of. These they distinguished by fabulous history of every nation; but, like the names of Manes, Spilitus, Umbra. ghosts and fairies, they have always van 268 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [GIP ished at the approach of science and civili- old man with a flowing white beard, zation. The fossil bones which gave cur- naked, or clothed in white, (the color of rency to the belief of their existence, have, the habit of the Benedictines,) and acupon minute inquiry, been found gener- companied by a hind wounded by an araliy to belong to elephants, whales, &c. row. GIANT'S CAUSE'VAY, a vast as- GIM'BAL, a brass ring by which a semblage of basaltic crystallized rocks, on sea compass is suspended in its box, by the northern coast of Ireland. This mag- means of which the card is kept in a hornificent production of nature extends two izontal position, notwithstanding the rollmiles in length along the coast of Antrim ing of the ship. and probtably runs under the sea as far as GIP'SIES. or GYP'SIES, a wandering the coast of Scotland, since something of tribe, or race of vagabonds, spread over the same kind is met with there, and the greatqr part of Europe, and some known by the name of Fingal's Cave. parts of Asia and Africa; strolling about It consists of many hundred thousands and subsisting mostly by theft, low games, of columns of a black kind of rock, hard and fortune-telling. The name is supas marble, of about twenty feet in height, posed to be corrupted from Egyptian, as and a pentagonal or five-sided figure. they were formerly thought to have come GIAOUR, a word literally signifying from Egypt; but it is now believed they dog in the Turkish langnuaige; and con- are of Indian origin, and that they beronly applied by the Turks to designate longed to the race of the Sindes, an Inthe adherents of all religions except the dian caste, which was dispersed, in 1400; Mohammedan, but more particularly by the expeditions of Timour. Their Christians. language is the same throughout Europe GIB'ELINES, or GIIHIBELINES, a with but little variation, and even now faction in Italy, in the 13th century, who resembles the dialect of Iindostan. The were the opponents of another faction, late Bishop -Ieber relates in his Narracalled the GuCle/f [which see.] tive of a Journey through the Upper GIL/BER'TINE, one of a religious or- Provinces of India, that he met with a der, so namled from Gilbert, lord of Sem- camp of gypsies on the banks of the pringhaum in Lincolnshire. Ganges, who spoke the I1indoo language GIL/DA MERCATO'RIA, in law, mer- as their mother tongue; and he further cantile meetings, assemblies, or corporate observes, that he found the same people bodies. in Persia and Russia. Gypsies are reGrLD'ING, the art of covering any- markable for the yellow brown, or rather thing with gold, either in a foliated or olive color of their skin; the jet black liquid state. The beauty of gold has i- of their hair and eyes; the extreme duced many attempts to imitate its ap- whiteness of their teeth; and for the pearance, and hence several methods of symmetry of their lirmbs, which distingilding have been invented. The art of guishes even the men, whose general apgilding, at the present day, is performed pearance, however, is repulsive and shy. either upon metals or upon wood, leather, Though some occasionally follow a trade parchment, or paper; and there are three or honest calling, they rarely settle perdistinct methods in general practice; manently anywhere. Wherever the clinamely, wash, or water gilding, in which mate is mild enough, they are found in the gold is spread, whilst reducecl to a forests and deserts, in companies. They fluid state, by solution in mIercury; leaf seldom have tents, but seek shelter from gildings, either burnished or in oil, per- the cold of winter in grottoes and caves, forlmed by cementing thin leaves of gold or they build huts, sunk some feet in the upon the work, either by size or by oil; earth, and covered with sods laid on poles. and japan7ner's gilding, in which gold They are fond of instrumental music, dust or powder is used instead of leaves. which they chiefly practise by the ear, Gold is also applied to glass, porcelain, and their lively motions are remarkable and other vitrified substances, of which in their own peculiar dances. The youththe surfaces, being very smooth, are ful gypsies traverse the country, the men capable of perfect contact with the gold obtaining their living by gymnastic feats, leaves. tricks, &c., while the women invariably GILES, ST., THE HERMIT, Saint Gilles, practise fortune-telling and chiromancy. (Fr1.,) Sant. Egidio, (Ital.) This saint They are not nice in their food, but eat has obtained great popularity both in all kinds of flesh; even that of animals England and Scotland, as well as in which have died a natural death. Brandy France. IIe is usually represented as an is their favorite beverage; tobacco their GLA] AND THE FINE ARTS. 269 greatest luxury; both men and women ginningof 1792. But after the massacres chev and smoke it with avidity, and are of September in that year the party in ready to make great sacrifices for the general withdrew from all connection with sake of satisfying this inclination. As the Jacobins, and approximated towards for religion they have no settled notions the Constitutionalists. In the Convenor principles: amongst the Turks they tion the Girondists at first commanded a are Mohammedans; in Christian coun- majority, but o.n the king's trial they tries, if they make any religious profes- were much divided; and, being pressed sion at all, they follow the forms of Chris- by the violence of the sections of Paris, tianity, without, however, caring for in- they were at length expelled from the asstruction, or having any interest in the scmbly: thirt-ifour of them were outspirit of religion. They marry with none lawed, and fiia'Iy twenty-two of their but their own race, but their marriages leaders gu;ilotined (7th and 31st October, are formed in the rudest manner, and 1793,) whiJ' a. Tew escaped, and others when a gypsy becomes tired of his wife, put an sid'.o themselves. Perhalps the he will turn her off without ceremony. most +ie.,'at d miember of the Girondo GIR'DER, in architecture, a principal partt w.Ls:* lady, Madame Roland, the beam in a floor for supporting the bind- wifj',' e minister of that name, who ing or other joists, whereby their bearing w e'w o..c. when the patrty fe'l. or length is lessened. Perhaps so called,' ETeTTE, (I eanch, weathercoek,) because the ends of the joists are inclosed a t;r-, "-pp';ed to numerous public charby it. a.t-.rs in ]rance, who, durins the rovoluGIR'DLE, a belt or band of leather or t'il on'r7 era, turned with every political some other substance used in girding up brer.. To mark these, a Dictionnaiara the loins. The girdle was in use among de Giridtltes was published, containing the liebrews, Greeks, and 1Romnans, -for t' eair names, &c., with a number of weathvarious purposes more or less important. ercocks aainst each, corresponding to the By the Hebrews it was Worn chiefly upon rurmber of changes in the individual's poa journey, and sometimes as a mark of litical creed. humiliation and sorrow; and by the GIA'EN, a term much used by matheGreeks and Romans it was used as a mil- nmaticians, to denote something supposed itary ornament. To deprive a soldier of to be known. Thus, if a moagnitude be his girdle was the deepest mark of igno- known, it is said to be a gisven. magnitude, miny with which he could be branded;if the ratio between two quantities be and even among the civilians, who al- known, these quantities are said to have ways wore a girdle over the tunic to ren- a gi ei ratio, (c., &c. der their motions unembarrassed, the GLA'CIERS, immense masses or fields want of this appendage was considered of ice which accumulate in the valleys bestrongly presumptive of idle and dissolute tween high mountains, from the melting propensities. Zonza,7m solvere virgincacmn of the snow at their top, and which, owwas a well-known phrase appropriated to ing to their elevation, generally remain the marriage ceremony. To Venus was solid. The ice of the glaciers is entirely attributed by the poets the possession of different from that of the sea and river a particular kind of girdle, called cestus, water. It is not formed in layers, but which was said to have the power of in- consists of little grains of congealed snow; spiring love. and hence, though perfectly clear, and GIRONDE, TIE, in French history, often smooth on the surface, it is not a celebrated political party during the transparent. As glaciers, in some posirevolution; its members were termed tions, and in hot summers, decrease, they Girondists or Girondins. The name was often also increase for a number of years derived fron that of the department La so as to render a valley uninhabitable. Gironde, (in which Bordeaux is situated,) Their increase is caused partly by alterwhich sent to the legislative assembly of nate thawing and freezing; their de1791, among its representatives, three crease, by the mountain rivers, which of~ men of eloquesnce and talent, (Gaudet, ten flow under them, and thus forrm an Gensonne, Vergniaud,) who were among arch of ice over the torrent. In the Tythe chief leaders of the party. Its prin- rol, Switzerland, Piedmont, and Savoy, ciples were republican. During the con- the glaciers are so numerous that they tinuance of that assembly the Girondists have been calculated to form altogether formed a powerful, but not always con- a superficial extent of 1484 square miles. sistent party. Out of these Louis XVI: GLA'CIS, in fortification, a mass of chose his republican ministers in the be- earth serving as a parapet to the covered 270 CYCLOPEDIA OP LITERATURE [LLE way, having an easy slope or declivity which is only perfected by the aid of fire, towards the champaign or field. and is as durable as the glass itself. GLA'DIATORS, in antiquity, combat- Most true glass-paintings are formed by ants who fought at the public games in combining the two processes of enamelRome, for the entertainment of the spec- ling and staining, since, although it would tators. They were at first prisoners, not' be possible to execute a glass-paint. slaves, or condemned criminals; but af- ing by staining the glass merely, yet it terwards freemen fought in the arena, can be entirely formed of painted glass either for hire, or from choice. The By the mosaic method, each color of the games were commenced by a prcelusio, in design must be represented by a separate which they fought with weapons of wood, piece of glass, except yellow, brown, and till, upon a signal, they assumed their black; these colors are applied upon white arms, and began in earnest to fight in glass, and for shadows. In the enamelt pairs. In case the vanquished was not method, colored glass is not used, the picture being painted upon white-glass with enamel fragments. The?nosaicenamel method consists of a combination of the two other processes; white and.~/ \^^J~s. —&^colored glass, as well as every variety of t \K9-A.,z2 ^ ^~ ^enamel color, being employed in it.'H o\'~<~^ ^-^- - GLAU CUS, in Grecian mythology, the if i X^ "^^?^^ "^name of a marine deity, the son, accord_ __________ ____ ing to some of the genealogists, of NepTiiT7;""'^ = tune and one of the Naiads; according to others, of Polybius and Alcyone. lHe killed in the combat, his fate was decided enjoyed the power of prophecy. by the people. If they wished to save GLAZ'ING, is that part of the practhe life of the vanquished gladiator, they tice of oil-painting which consists in the signified the same by clenching the fin- application of an extremely thin layer gers of both hands between each other, of color over another, for the purpose of and holding the thumbs upright, close to- modifying its tone. The pigments emgether; the contrary was signified by ployed are generally transparent, albending back their thumbs. The first of though, in some instances, such as in the these signals was called pollicem premere, representation of clouds, dust, smoke, &c:, the second polliceme vertere. The victors opaque pigments are admissible when were honored with a palm branch, a sum mixed in minute quantities with a large of money, or other marks of the people's proportion of oil. By glazing. the painter favor; and they were not unfrequently can produce certain effects, such as transreleased from further service, and re- parency and mellowness, impossible with ceived as a badge of freedom, the rudis, the aid of solid pigments alone, the inor wooden sword. The cut represents the tention being to give a natural and celebrated statue of the Dying Gladiator. agreeable harmony and mellowness to GLASS PAINTING, in painting, the the execution of a picture such as would method of staining glass in such a man- be produced by a, colored varnish. The ner as to produce the effect of represent- color employed in glazing should be of a ing all the subjects whereof the art is darker tint than the solid pigment over susceptible. A French painter of Mar- which it is laid. Glazing formed a very seilles is said to have been the first who important part in the practice of the instructed the Italians in this art, during Venetian school, and in those derived the pontificate of Julius II. It was, how- from it. Those who paint alla primna ever, practised to a considerable extent by can produce the desired effect without Lucas of Leyden, and Albert Dtrer. The glazing. art of glass-painting is practised under GLEAN'ING. the practice of collect three systems, which may be distinguish- ing corn left in a harvest field after the ed as the mosaic method; the etnamel harvest has been carried, which apapears method; and a method compounded of by the Mosaic law to have been allowed these two, or the mosaic-eLamel method. to the poor. The right of the poor to There is yet another mode of ornament- glean is, however, not admitted in the ing glass, which consists in applying pig- English common law. ments mixed with copal varnish. But GLEBE, in law, church land; usually this is of a perishable nature, and should taken for that which is annexed to a parnot be regarded as true glass-painting, ish church of common right. - ___________ ~ _~.~.________.___.._____. __ ___.. __._.________:I GNo] 0AND THE FINE ARTS. 271 GLEE, in music, a composition for pretation" the word came to mean the voices in three or more parts. The sub- interpretation itself; strictly, of a single jects of the words are various, being gay, word or phrase. In the twelfth century, grave, amatory, pathetic, or bacohana- the comments or annotations of learned lian. It may consist of only one move- jurists on passages in the text of the ment, but usually has more. Roman law were denominated glosses; GLEE-MAN, itinerant minstrels were when these extended to a running cornso called by the Saxons: their appella- mentary, they were termed an apparation is translated joculatores by the Latin tus. The glosses were collected by Acwriters of the middle ages. The name cursius in the 13th century, and from appears to have been supplanted by the that period they formed for a long time Norman minstrel, shortly after the con- a body of authority reckoned equal or quest. even superior to the text itself. GLOBE, in practical methematics, an GLOS'SARY, a dictionary of difficult artificial spherical body, on the convex words and phrases in any language or surface of which are represented the writer; sometimes used for a dictionary countries, seas, &c. of our earth; or the of words in general. face of the heavens, with the several cir- GLOVES, well-known articles of dress cles which are conceived upon them. used for covering the hands. The pracThat with the parts of the earth deline- tice of covering the hands with -loves has ated upon its surface, is called the terres- prevailed among almost all t.bh nations trial globe; and that with the constella- of the earth from time immemnorial, and tions, &c. the celestial globe. Their prin- is common at once to the rude Tartar, cipal use, besides serving as maps to who seeks by their means to protect distinguish the earth's surface, and the himself from cold, and to the refined situation of the fixed stars, is to illustrate European, with whom their use is an and explain the phenomena arising from emblem of luxury. In the middle ages, the diurnal motion of the earth. They gloves constituted a costly article of are consequently of the highest impor- dress, being often highly decorated with tance in acquiring a knowledge of geogra- embroidery and richly adorned with phy and astronomy. precious stones. In the age of chivalry GLOB/ULAR CHART, a name given it was usual for the soldiers who had to the representation of the surface, or gained the favor of a lady to wear her of some part of the surface of the terres- glove in his helmet; and, as is well trial globe upon a plane, wherein the known, the throwing of a glove was the parallels of latitude are circles, nearly most usual mode of challenging to duel. concentric, the meridian curves bending This latter practice prevailed so early as towards the poles, and the rhumb-lines the year 1245. are also curves. GLYCO'NIAN, or GLYCON'IC, a kind GLOB'ULE, a small particle of matter of verse in Greek and Latin poetry, conof a spherical form; a word particularly sisting of three feet, a spondee, a choriapplied to the red particles of blood, amb, and a pyrrhic. which swim in a transparent serum, and GLYPH, in sculpture and architecture, may be discovered by the microscope. any channel or cavity intended as an orGLO'RY, in painting and sculpture, a nament. circle, either plain or radiated, surround- GLYPTOG'RAPHY, a description of ing the heads of saints, &c., and espe- the art of engraving on precious stones. cially of our Saviour. The term glory is GLYPTOTIE'CA, a building or room used in the sacred writings in various for the preservation of works of sculpsenses, all of which, however, may be ture; a word adopted by the Germans, as easily deduced from the original meaning in the instance of the celebrated Glyptoof its lHebrew equivalent, which signifies thek at Munich. vweisght. Thus the glory qf God means GNOMES, spirits with which the imagiall those attributes a.id qualities which nation of certain philosophers has peopled give him weight in our eyes, or inspire the interior parts of the earth, and to us with reverence. whose care mines, quarries, &c. are asGLOSS, in the rhetoric of Aristotle, signed. this word is used in the sense of aforeign, GNO'MIC POETS, Greek poets, whose obsolete, or otherwise strange idiom; remains chiefly consist of short sentenwhich, judiciously employed, he reckons tious precepts and reflections, are so a.mong the ornaments of style. From termed in classical bibliography. The the sense of " something requiring inter- principal writers of this description, of 272 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [GOL whom a few fragments are extant, are were supposed to preside ovrr pa.rticular Theognis and Solon, who lived in the 6th persons: some had the care of women in century before the Christian era.. With child-birth; others, the care of children them Tyrteus and Simonides are joined and young persons; and others were the by Brunck in his edition, although these deities of marriage. Each action, virtue, writers have little of agnomic character. and profession had also its particular The metre of these poets is elegiac. god: the shepherds had their Pan; the GNOS'TICS, a sect of philosophers that gardeners, their Flora; the learned, their arose in the first ages of Christianity. Mercury and Minerva; and the poets, who pretended they were the only men their Apollo and the Muses. who had a true knowledge of the Chris- GOD'iATHER, and GOD'MOTITER, tian religion. They formed for them- the man and woman who are sponsors for selves a system of theology, agreeable to a child at baptism; who promise to anthe philosophy of Pythagoras and Plato, swer for his future conduct, and solemnly and fancied they discovered deeper mys- promise that he shall follow a life of piety teiies in the Scriptures than were per- and virtue, by this means laying themceivcd by those whom they considered as selves under an indispensable obligation simple and ignorant. They held that all to instruct the child and watch over his natures, intelligible, intellectual, and ma- conduct. This practice is of great anterial, are derived by successive emana- tiquity in the Christian church, and was tions from the Deity. In process of probably instituted to prevent children time, the nanme designated sectarians of being brought up in idolatry, in ease various descriptions, but who all agreed their parents died before they arrived at in certain opinions; and the tenet which years of discretion. seems most particularly to distinguish the GOLD, this metal, which in purity and Gnostic name, was the existence of two firmness surpasses all others, is employed first principles, or deities, the one the both in the plastic arts, and to a limited author of good, and the other of evil. extent in painting. The most varied and GOBELINS, or tOTEL-ROYAL DE Go- beautiful objects extant are the vessels IELINS, a celebrated academy for tapes- used in religious services; and as it was try-drawing, and manufactory of tapes- most properly employed in the sacred try, erected in the suburb of St. Marcel, vessels and sanctuary of the Old Temple, at Paris, by Louis XIV. in the year 1666. so the chalices and tabernacles of the The place was previously famous on ac- Catholic church, and the shrines of the count of the dyeing manlufactory estab- saints have been moulded of this precious lished there by Giles and John Gobelins, metal; and in ecclesiastical ornament of in the reign, of Francis I. These eminent all kinds, with its multiplied fibres, and dyers discovered a, method of producin mingled with silk and purple, it enriches a beautiful scarlet, which has ever since the sacerdotal vestments and the hangbeen known by their name; and so ex- ings of the altar. Gold signifies purity, tensive has been their faime, that not only dignity, wisdom, and glory, and it is used the color, but the house in which their in painting for the Nimbi which surround business was carried on, and the river the heads of the saints, and it frequently they made use of, are called gobelins. forms the ground on which sacred subGOD, the a-ppellation which we give to jects are painted, the better to express the Creeator and Sovereign of the uni- the majesty of the mystery depicted. It verse; the Supreme B:eing.-The words is a proper emblem of brightness and god and goddess are also the appellatives glory. common to the heiahen deities; which GOLD'EN-FLEECE, in the mythothey divided into dioim ajorucm geintizem,, logical fables of the ancients, signi.ied the and dii misnilorutm genitinu.; that is, into skin or fleece of the ram upon which the superior and inferior gods. Another Phryxus and Hella are supposed to 1h —ve division was taken from their place of svwumn over the sea to Colchis; which beresidence; thus there were celestial, ter- ing sacrificed to Jupiter, its fleece was restrial, ine.rnal, marine, and sylvan hubng upon a tree in the grove of Mars, gods. They were also divided into ani- guarded by two brazen-hoofed bulls, and mal and nattural gods: the animal gods a monstrous dragon that never slept; but were mortals, who had been raised to di- was at last taken and carried off by Jason vinity by ignorance and superstition; and and the Argonauts. the natural gods, the parts of nature, GOLD'EN NUM'BER, in chronology, euch as the stars, the elements, mountains, is that number which indicates the year rivers, &c. There were also deities, who of the lunar cycle, for any given time. It J: Ii i'6!o.i i!, i'tti!11~ GOTHIC A R CTE C TiURE. (Cathedral at Troyes, Frane) p. 273 _ _.',~ I~~~~~~~~~~~~. GOIhi A CHT.~CTUE (O~~thedr~l ~t Troyes, ra c ~p'? GOT] ANID TIlE FINE ARTS. 273 was called the Golden Number, because of Gordius, king of Phrygia, so very inin the ancient calendar it was written in tricate, that there was no finding where letters of gold, on account of its great use- it began or ended. An oracle had defulness in ecclesiastical computations, es- clared that he who should untie this knot pecially in fixing the time of Easter. It should be master of Asia. Alexander was likewise called the Prime, because it having undertaken it, and fearing that pointed out the first day of the new moon, his inability to untie it should prove an primunrn luctnC. To find the Golden Num- ill augury, cut it asunder with his sword, ber, add 1 to the year of our Lord, divide and thus either accomplished or eluded the sum by 19, and the remainder is the the oracle. Hence, in modern language, Golden Number, the quotient at the same to rut the Gordialn knot is to remove a time expressing the number of cycles difficulty by bold or unusual means. which have revolved from the beginning GORGE, in architecture, the narrowest Of the year preceding the birth of Christ. part of the Tuscan and Doric capitals, lyGON'DOLA, the name given to the ing between the astragal, above the shaft pleasure boats used at Venice, where the of the column and the annulets.-In fornumerous canals with which it is inter- tification, the entrance of a bastion, ravsected generally render it necessary to elin, or other outwork. substitute boats for carriages. The gon- GOR'GET, in plate-armor, the piece dola is fron 25 to 30 feet long, and five covering the neck attached to the helmet. The old covering for thie neck was called r canlai, imade of leather or cloth, aid. attached to the hood; on this plates of steel were riveted; and thus the gorget was p formed, about the time of Edo wa r d I I. L.J. I r.nam~'; Th e name is supposed to have originated;!".about~ t htin LoEmbardy. _ GOIONEPA, in architecture, carv-'~~!:~'~' __- mu —-"-,~~-,~L'~ings of masks imitating the Gorgon or Medusa's head. ___.__ = IGOR'GONS, in mythology, three sister =_______ __ ~deities, fabled by the Greeks to dwell near the Western Ocean. Their heads, feet wide in the centre, in which a sort of which were twined with serpents instead cabin is constructed for passengers. They of hair, had the power of turning all who are sharp-pointed both at the prow and beheld them to stone; of which property stern, and are rowed by two men called Perseus made use after he had, by the gondolier,. The cabins are always fur- help of Minerva, cut off the head of nished with black curtains, which give a Mledusa. sombre appearance to the gondola at a GOS/PEL, is used to signify the whole distance. system of the Christian religion, and GOOD FRIDAY, the name given in more particularly, as the term literally England to the anniversary of our Sa- implies the good news of the coming of viour's crucifixion. The French and most the Messiah. The word was also origiother European nations substitute the nally applied to the books which conepithet holy for good. From the first tained an account of the life of Christ, dawn of Christianity, Good Friday has many of which were in circulation in been regarded as a solemn festival by the first century of the Christian era; the great body of the Christian world though only four, those of Matthew, GOOD-WILL, in law, the custom of Mark, Lluke and John, were considered any trade or business. A contract to canonical by the fathers. transfer it is, in general, good at law, GOTI'IIC, pertaining to the Goths; though not usually enforced in equity. In as Gothic customs; Gothic barbarity. what cases the good-will of a partncrship In architecture, a term at first applied can be claimed as property by the repre- opprobriously to the architecture of the sentatives of a deceased partner appears middle ages, but now in general use as doubtful., its distinctive appellation. By some the GOR'DIAN KNOT, in antiquity, a term Gothic is considered to include the knot made in the harness of the chariot Romanesque; Saxon, and Norman styles 18 274 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [GRA which have circular arches, but it is only trills, and shakes, introduced for the purappropriately applied to the styles which pose of embellishment. are distinguished by the pointed arch. GRADA'TION, in general, the asGothic architecture so restricted has cending step by step, or proceeding in a been divided into three distinct periods: regular and uniform manner. It also the first period is namled the Early Eng- means a degree in any order or series. lish, it prevailed in the thirteenth cen- Thus we say, there is a gradcation in the tury; the second period or style, of the scale of being; or we observe a gradafourteenth century, is named the decora- tion in the progress of society from a ted style; and the third period is called rude state to civilized life.-Gradatioz, in the perpendicular style. The chief char- logic, is an argumentation, consisting of acteristics of Gothic architecture are:- four or more propositions, so disposed, as the predominance of the arch and the that the attribute of the first is the subsubserviency and subordination of all the ject of the second; and the attribute of other parts to this chief feature; the the second, the subject of the third; and tendency of the whole composition to so on, till the last attribute come to be vertical lines; the absence of the column predicated of the subject of the first propand entablature of classic architecture, osition. of square edges and rectangular surfaces, GRAD'UATE, one who has obtained a and the substitution of clustered shafts, degree at a university; or from some contrasted surfaces, and members multi- professional incorporated society, after a, plied in rich variety. The Gothic style due course of study, and suitable examiis that best adapted for ecclesiastical nation. edifices. GRAM'IAR, the art which analyzes GOV'ERNMENT, that form of funda- and classes the words in a langua e, which mental rules and principles by which a details its peculiarities, and furnishes nation or state is governed. If this rules, recognized by the best authorities, power be vested in the hands of one, it is for its construction. General grammar a monarchy; if in the hands of the nobil- teaches the principles which are common ity, an aristocracy; and if in the hands to all languages; and the grammar of of the people, or those chosen by them, a any particular languages teaches the prindemocracy.-The executive government ciples peculiar to that language. is the power of administering public GRAND, in the Fine Arts, a quality affairs; the legislative government, that by which the highest degree of majesty of making the laws.-Government is also and dignity is imparted to a work of art. a post or office which gives a person the Its source is in form freed from ordinary power or right to govern or rule over a and common bounds, and to be duly felt place, a city, or province, either su- requires an investigation of the different premely or by deputation. Thus, the qualities by which great and extraordigovernment of Ireland is vested in the nary objects produce impression on the lord-lieutenant.-Gover7nment, in gram- mind. mar, the influence of a word in regard to GRANDEE', the highest title of Spanconstruction, as when established usage ish nobility. The collective body of the requires that one word should cause higher nobility in Spain is termed lac another to be in a particular case or grandeza. They were originally the mood. same with the ricos hombres. Grandees GRACE, in objects of taste, a certain bear different titles-dluke, marquis, &c.; species of beauty, which appears to con- but there is no essential difference of rank sist in the union of elegance and dig- between these titles: all are equal among nity.-In theology, the free unmerited themselves. Grandeeships descend through love and favor of God; or the divine females, and thus become accumulated in influence in restraining from sin.-Days families. of grace, in commercial law, three days GRAN'DEUR, in a general sense, allowed for the payment of a bill after it greatness; that quality or combination has become due.-The word grace is also of qualities in an object, which elevates used in speaking of or to a duke or or expands the mind, and excites pleasduchess, as your Grace, his or her Grace. urable emotions in him who views or -T-he Graces, among the heathen world, contemplates it. Thus the extent and were female beauties deified: they were uniformity of surface in the ocean constithree in number; Aglaia, Thalia, and tute grandeur; as do the extent, the Euphrosyne, the constant'attendants of elevation, and the concave appearance or Venus.-In music, graces are turns, vault of the sky. So we speak of the -Ij { E ] -AND TuHE INE ARTS 2V7 grandeur of a large and well-propor- either of these, there are produced blue tioned edifice, of an extensive range of grays, purple grays, green grays; but lofty mountains, of a large cataract, of a when the red or yellow predominate, there pyramid, &c. are produced the various hues of brown. GRAND JU'RY, a jury whose duty is GRAZIO'SO, in music, an instruction to examine into the grounds of accusa- to the performer that the music to which tion against offenders, and if they see this word is affixed is to be executed elejust cause. then to find bills of indictment gantly and gracefully. against them to be presented to the GREAVE, a piece of armor defendcourt. ing the shin. Tile greave was a piece of GRANT, in law, a gift in writing of steel hollowed to fit the frunt of the leg, such things as cannot conveniently be and fastened with straps behind. The passed or verbally conveyed. greave common among the Greeks was GRAPE'-SHOT, in artillery, a com- used in soine instances by the Roman bination of small shot put into a thick soldiery, but only on one leg, the other canvass bag, and corded so as to form a being covered with the buckler. It is kind of cylinder. said to have been discontinued in the GRA/VER, called also BURIN, the armies of the Greek empire, under the sharp tool, whose extremity is a trian- emperor Maurice, (about the end of the gular form, for cutting the lines of an en- 6th century, and again brought into use graving on the copper.-See ENGRAV- in those armies of the middle ages, about ING. 1320. They were also called jambs, beianGRAVITA'TION, the force by which bergs, &c. They were originally of bodies are pressed or drawn, or by which leather, quilted linen, &c. The clavons they tend toward the centre of the earth were a species of greaves made of cloth. or other centre, or the effect of that force. GREEK CHURCH, that portion of Thus the falling of a body to the earth is Christians who conform, in their creed, ascribed to gravitation. The attraction usages, and church government, to the of gravitation exists between bodies in views of Christianity introduced into the the mass, and acts at sensible distances. former Gre6k empire, and perfected, since It is thus distinguished from chemical the fifth century, under the patriarchs of and cohesive attractions which unite the Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and particles of bodies together, and act at Jerusalen. Like the Roman Catholic, insensible distances, or distances too small this church recognizes two sources of docto be measured. —lerrestrial gcravitca- trine, the bible and tradition, under which tion, that which respects the earth, or by last it comprehends not only those docwhich bodies descend, or tend towards the trines which were orally delivered by the centre of the earth. All bodieswhen pos, ut also thosewhich hve been unsupported, fall by gravitation towards approved of by the fathers of the Greek the earth, in straight lines tending to its church. It is the only church which centre.-General or universal gravita- holds that the Ioly Ghost proceeds from tion, that by which all the planets tend the Father only, thus differing from the towards one another, and, indeed, by Catholic and Protestant churches, which which all the bodies and particles of mat- agree in deriving the Holy Ghost from ter in the universe tend towards one an- the Father and the Son. Like the Cathother. The theory of universal gravita- olic church, it has seven sacraments —bapZion was established by Newton. He tism, chrism, the eucharist preceded by proved that the moon gravitates to- confession, penance, ordination, marriage, wards the earth, and the earth towards and supreme unction; but it is peculiar the moon, all the secondaries to their in holding that full purification from primaries; and these to their seconda- original sin in baptism requires an imries; also the primaries to the sun, and mersion three times of the whole body in the sun to the primaries. It is also highly water, whether infants or adults are to probable, that the bodies of the solar be baptized, and in joining chrism (consystem, and those of other systems, grav- firmation) with it as the completion of itate mutually towards each other. The baptism. It rejects the doctrine of purterms gravitation and gravity are gene- gatory, has nothing to do with predestirally used synonymously. nation, works of supererogation, indulGRAY, is compounded of black and gences, and dispensations; and it recogwhite in various proportions, or of the nizes neither the pope nor any one else three primary colors, red, blue, and yel- as the visible vicar of Christ on earth. low; according to the predominance of In the invocation of the saints, in their '276 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [GRE fasts, relics, &c., they are as zealous as them, the alphabet with twenty-four let the Romanists; it may be said, indeed, ters is called the Ionic. Those who have that the services of the Greek church most carefully studied the subject, beconsist almost entirely of outward forms. lieve that the use of the alphabet became This is the religion of Russia; the eccle- common in Greece about 550 years before siastical establishment of which consists Christ, and about as long after Homes. in a holy synod, four metropolitans, In Homer's time, ill knowledge, religion, eleven archbishops, nineteen bishops, and laws were preserved by memory 12,500 parish churches, and 425 convents, alone, and for that reason were put in fifty-eight of which are connected with verse, till prose was introduced with the monastic schools for the education of the art of writing. The Greek language, as clergy. The Greek church, under the preserved in the writings of the celebrated Turkish dominion, remained, as far as authors of antiquity, as Homer, Hesiod, was possible under such circumstances, Demosthenes, Aristotle, Plato, Xenophon, faithful to the original constitution. &c., has a great variety of terms and exThe patriarch of Constantinople exercises pressions, suitable to the genius and octhe highest ecclesiastical jurisdiction over casions of a polite and learned people, the Greeks in the whole Turkish empire; who had a taste for arts and sciences. In but they labor under many disabilities, it, proper names are significative; which among which is a heavy poll-tax, under is the reason that the modern languages the name of "exemption from behead- borrow so many terms from it. When any in." newinvention, instrument, machine, or the GREEK FIRE, a combustible compo- like, is discovered, recourse is generally sition invented by the Greeks in the mid- had to the Greek for a name to it; the facildie ages, during their wars with the ity wherewith words are there compoundArabs and Turks. It consists of naphtha, ed, affording such as will be expressive of bitumen, sulphur, gum, &c. its use; such are barometer, hygrometer, GREEK LAN'GUAGE, the language microscope, telescope, thermometer, &c. of the primitive inhabitants of Greece, the But of all sciences medicine most abounds Pelasgi, was already extinct in the time with such terms; as, diaphoretic, diagnoof Iterodotus, who asserts that it was dif- sis, diarrhoea, hemorrhage, hydrophobia, ferent from the Hellenic, and adds, that phthisis, atrophy, &c.-Modern Greek, or it is probable the Iellenes have retained Romaic. The Greek language seems to their original language. From the great have preserved its purity longer than any number of Hellenic tribes of the same other known to us; and even long after race, it was to be expected that there its purity was lost, the echo of this beauwould be different dialects, the knowledge tiful tongue served to keep alive someef which is the more necessary for becom- thing of the spirit of ancient Greece. All. ing acquainted with the Greek language, the supports of this majestic and refined since the writers of this nation have trans- dialect seemed to fail, when the Greeks mitted the peculiarities of the different were enslaved by the fall of Constantinodialects in the use of single letters, words, pie, (A.D. 1543.) All the cultivated classterminations, and expressions, and that es who still retained the pure Greek, the not merely to characterize more particu- language of the Byzantine princes, either larly an individual represented as speak- perished in the conflict, or took to flight, ing but even when they speak in their or courted the favor of their rude conown person. It is customary to distin- querors by adopting their dialect. In the guish three leading dialects, according to lower classes only did the common Greek the three leading branches of the Greeks, survive the vulgar dialect of the polished the AEolic, the Doric, and the Ionic, to classes. But the Greek spirit, not yet exwhich was afterwards added the mixed tinguished by all the adversities the naAttic dialect. At what time this language tion had undergone, finally revived with first began to be expressed in writing, has increasing vigor, and even the love of long been a subject of doubt. Accord- song kept alive some sparks of patriotic ing to the general opinion, Cadmus, the sentiment. From the beginning of the Phoenician, introduced the alphabet into present century, external circumstances Greece. His alphabet consisted of but have greatly favored the progress of edusixteen letters; four are said to have been cation in Greece; schools have been esinvented by Palamedes in the Trojan war, tablished; and the language itself, which and four more by Simonides of Ceos. As in its degradation was not destitute of the Ionians first adopted these letters, melody and flexibility, gained energy and and the Athenians received them from vivacity from the efforts of several pa GRO] AND THE FINE ARTS. 277 triotic individuals, who endeavored to the name of grenadiers, who now form bring it nearer the ancient classic dialect. the first company of a battalion. GREEN, a secondary color, compound- GRIF'FIN, a fabulous animal of aned of the primaries blue and yellow: if tiquity represented with the body and the blue predominates, the compound is feet of a lion, the head of an eagle or vula blue-green; if the yellow predomi- ture, and as being furnished with wings nates, it is a yellow-green; or a warm and claws. The griffin is one of those imagreen.-Green, in blazonry, sinople, sig- ginary creatures to which the ancients nified love, joy, and abundance. Among were so confessedly partial, but it belongs the Greeks green symbolized victory, and more to the romantic than the classical among the Moors it had the same signifi- mythology. It plays a prominent part cation: it also designated hope, joy, in the fairy tales and romances of the youth, and spring, (the youth of the middle ages; and, like the dragon which year,) which gives tho hope of harvest. was fabled to guard the golden apples of GREEN'-CLOTH, in British polity, a the Hesperides, its chief duties consisted board or court of justice held in the count- in watching over hidden treasures, and in ing-house or the British monarch's house- guarding captive princesses, or the cashold, and composed of the lord-steward ties in which they were confined. The and inferior officers. To this court is griffin is at once the symbol of strength committed the charge-and supervision of and swiftness, courage, prudence, and the royal household in matters of justice vigilance-qualities which its form is and government, with power to correct well calculated to represent; and hence all offenders, and to maintain the peace it has been adopted into the language of of the verge, or jurisdiction of the court- heraldry, where it constitutes a promiroyal, which extends every way two nent feature in the armorial bearings of hundred yards from the gate of the pal- many princely and noble families. ace. Without a warrant first obtained GRIMACE', in painting and sculpture, from this court, no servant of the house- an unnatural distortion of the countenhold can be arrested for debt.-It takes nance, from habit, affectation, or insoits name from a green-cloth spread over lence. the board at which it is held.. GRISA'ILLE, in gray; a style of paintGREEN PIG/MENTS, are derived ing employed to represent solid bodies in chiefly from the mineral world, and owe relief, such as friezes, mouldings, ornatheir color to the presence of copper. ments of cornices, bas-reliefs, &c., by Among the most valuable to the painter means of gray tints. The objects repreare malachite or mountain green, terra sented are supposed to be white; the verde, Veronese green, native carbonate shadows which they project, and the of copper, cobalt green, and chrome lights, from those most vividly reflected, green. The only vegetable green is sap to the least, are properly depicted by the green, which is employed occasionally in various gray tints produced by the mixwater-color painting. ture of white with black pigments, or GREEN-ROO@M, in the theatre, the sometimes by brown.'Many painters namie given to the actors' retiring room; make the frotte, or first sketch of their so called, in all probability, from its be- pictures in a brown tint, to which the term ing originally painted or otherwise orna- en grisaitle is sometimes misapplied. mented with green. GROAT, a silver coin, first struck in GREGO RIAN, the Gregorian. year, in the reign of Edward I., before whose chronology, is a correction of the Julian time the English had no silver coin laryear. In the latter, every secular or ger than a penny. It has since been hundredth year is bissextile: in the for- used as a money of account equal to fourmer year every one in four. This reforma- pence. tion, which was made by pope Gregory GROIN'ED CEILING, or GROINED XIII., A.D. 1582, is also called the Newi- ROOF, a ceiling formed by three or more style. intersecting vaults, every two of which GRENADE', a hollow shell or globe form a groin at the intersection, and all of iron, filled with combustibles, and the groins meet in a common point called thrown out of a howitzer. There is also the apex or summit. The curved surface a smaller kind, thrown by hand, which between two adjacent groins is termed the are called hand-grenades. These were sectroid. Groined roofs are common to originally used by soldiers, who, from classic and medieval architecture, but it long service and distinguished bravery, is in the latter style that they are seen in were selected for the seri ice; and hence their greatest perfection. In this style, by 278 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE |GUA of light, and their shaded parts a mass of.shadow: the word is also used to denote any adjoining assemblage of figures, ani-'H\j""".m~"~~' a' ~rinals, fruits, lowers, &c. In speaking -[ ti' ";r'^^^Si^ —' ^ It''/? — also of objects of different sorts, it is usual I:;N''^ i! ~to say that one object goroups with another. Lights in groups should, as well as shadows, be connected together, or the increasing the number of intersecting'/'f \.L vaults, varying their plans, and covering /' their surface with ribs and veins, great variety and richness were obtained, and at length the utmost limit of complexity r was reached in the fan groin tracery GROTESQUE', i}, the Fine Arts, a term applied to capricioul;- ornaments, which as neeesstry repose will be wanting. In a whole have no type in nature; consist- sculpture, the word group is applied to a ing of figures, animals, leaves, flowers, design in which there are two-or more fruits, and the like, all connected togeth- figures. In music, group signifies a numer.-Grotesque, in architecture, artificial be of notes linked together at the stems. grotto-work decorated with rock-work, GUAR'ANTOR, one who engages to shells, &c. see that the stipulations of another are GROT'TO, the name given to subter- performed; also one who engages to seraneous natural exeavations formed in cure another in any right or possession. the heart of mountains or other places. GUAR/ANTY, or GUARANTEE', an Many of these cavities are faimed for the umdeerlaking or engagement by a third mephitic exhalations that issue firom them, party, that the stipulations of a treaty, and to this class belongs more especially or the engagement or promise of another the Grotto del Cane, near Naples; but shall be performed. there are others not less celebrated for GUARD, the duty of guarding or de their beauty and grandeur, of which the fending any post or person from an attack grottoes of Antiparos and Fingal, are or surprise. Also, the soldiers, who do well-known examples. In picturesque this duty.-Guard, in fencing, a posture gardening, the term is applied to an arti- or action proper to defend the body.ficial or ornamental cave or low building Varn-guard, in military affairs, a body intended to represent a natural grotto. of troops, either horse or foot, that The best specimen of this kind is the grot- march before an army or division, to to attached to the Colosseum, which may prevent surprise or give notice of dangoer be considered a model for all similar de- -Rear-guard, body of troops that signs. march in the rear for a like purpose.GROUND, in the Fine Arts, a word of LJ'fe-gtearcls a body of select troops, various application. In painting, it is the whose especial duty is to defend the first layer of color on which the fgures or person of a prince or chief officer. other objects are painted; of sculpture, it GUARD'IAN, in law, a person apis the surface from which, in relUevi, the pointed by will, or otherwise, to swperinfigures rise, and in architecture, it is used tend the education and property of a to denote the face of the scenery or coun- minor, to whom the guardian is bound to try round a building. account, after the child is of age, under GROUP, in painting, an assemblage of responsibility for the just performance of objects, whose lighted parts fornn a mass the trust. oGu] AND THE FINE ARTS. 279 GUARDS, in a particular sense, the mountainous country, was adopted in troops that are designed to guard the the north of Spain during the Peninsular royal person and palace; and which con- war. It was first reduced into a kind of sist both of horse and foot. In Britain, system in 1810. The bands which conthe household troops or guards consist of ducted this desultory warfare were called the life-guards, the royal regiment of Partida s: the name of Guerrilla is, by a horse-guards, and three regiments of misapplication of the term, frequently fpot-guurds.-Yeomen of the Guards, a applied to them. band of body-guards instituted by Henry GUIDE, in music, the leading part in VIII. in the year 1545. Their dress is a canon or fugue. similar to that of the time of their foun- GUILD, a company, fraternity, or corder. One hundred are by rotation on poration, associated for some commercial duty, and there are seventy more, out purpose; of which every member was or w'hom the place of any of the hundred to pay something toward the common who die is supplied.-National Guards, a charge. The ancient guilds were limilitary body which has acquired histor- censed by the king, and governed by ical importance in the politics of France, laws and orders of their own. originated with the revolution, but un- GUILD'IALL, the chief hall of the derwent many changes both during Na- city of London, for holding courts, and poleon's sway and under the restored for the meeting of the lord-mayor and Bourbons. It was abolished in April, commonalty, in order to make laws and 1827, for having demanded the removal ordinances for the welfare and regulation of Villele's ministry; but was revived of the city.- Guild-rents are rents paid to at Paris during the popular commotion the crown by any guild or fra~ternity: or in July, 1830, which ended in seating those that formerly belonged to religious Louis Philippe on the throne.-Guard- houses, and came to the crown at the ship. a vessel of war appointed to super- general dissolution of monasteries. intend the marine affairs of a harbor or GUIL'LOCIIE. in architecture, an orriver, to see that the ships not in com- nanment composed of curved fillets, which, mission have their proper watch-word by repetition, form a continued series. kept duly, by sending her guard-boats GUILLOTINE', the name given to round them every night; and to receive the instrument of capital punishment seamen who are impressed in time of used in France; so called from Joseph war. Ignace Guillotin, by whom it was introGUE'BRES, a Persian sect, who still duced into that country. This person worship fire as an emanation or emblem was born at Saintes, and, established as of the Deity. a physician at Paris, obtained a certain GUELFS, or GUELPIIS, the name of celebrity in the early period of the Reva family, composing a faction formerly olution by the strong part which he took in Italy, whose contests with a rival in favor of the rights of the Tiers-Etat, faction, called the Ghibelines, was the I-e was elected in consequence a deputy cause of much misery and bloodshed.- to the National Assembly. When thai The wars of the Guelfs and Ghibelines body was occupied in its long discussions became the struggle between the spiritual relative to the reform of the penal code and secular power. The popes, who en- (in 1790) Guillotin proposed the adoption deavored to reduce the German emperors of decapitation-up to that time used to acknowledge their supremacy, and the onlyfor nobles-as the only method of cities of Italy, struggling for independ- capital punishment. From sentiments ence, and deliverance from the oppressive of humanity he recommended the emyoke of these same emperors, formed the ployment of a machine which had been party of the Guelfs. Those who favored long known in Italy under the name of the emperors were called Ghibelines.-A " mannaja," and in other countries also; branch of the Guelf family was in the for something much resembling it had been Ilth century transplanted from Italy to used in Scotland and in England within Germany, where it became the ruling the jurisdiction of the borough of Halifax. race of several countries; and the mem- The Assembly applauded the idea, and ory of this ancient name has lately been the machine was adopted, to which the revived by the institution of the Ilano- Parisians have given the name of "Guilverian Guelfic order. lotine," of which Guillotin is most erroGUIERRIL'LA, the plan of harassing neously supposed to have been the inventhe French armies by the constant at- tor. It consists of two upright pieces of tacks of independent bands, acting in a wood fixed in a horizontal frame; a 280 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [Gu1i sharp blade of steel moves up and down defence; he must be practically skilled by means of a pulley in grooves in the two in throwing up batteries and other fielduprights; the edge is oblique instead of works: he must understand mathematics, horizontal in shape, which gives it the (particularly the doctrine of curves, to mechanical power of the wedge. The calculate the path of the balls;) and have criminal is laid on his face, his neck im- some knowledfge of mechanics. mediately under the blade, which severs GUN'POWDER, a composition of nitre, it at a blow from his body. It is equally sulphur, and charcoal, mixed and redua vulgar error that Guillotin perished by cod to fine powder, and usually granuthe instrument which bears his name. I-e lated. It is in the highest degree cornwas imprisoned during the Reign of bustible, and, by means of its elastic force, Terror, but released at the revolution of explodes with great intensity. The disJuly, 1794; and died in 1814, after coverer of this compound. and the person founding the association termed the Acad- who first thought of applying it to the emy of Medicine. purposes of war, are unknown. It is GUIN'EA, an English gold coin, first certain, however, that it was used in the coined in the reign of Charles II., and fourteenth century. From certain artill lately current for 21s. It was so chives quoted by Wiegleb, it appears called because it was made from the gold that cannons were employed in Germany that was brought from Guinea, on the before the year 1372. No traces of it coast of Africa. can be found in any European author GUITAR', a musical stringed instru- previously to the thirteenth century; but ment, rather larger than a violin, and it seems to have been known to the Chiplayed with the fingers. It is much used nese long before that period. There is in Spain and Italy, more especially in reason to believe that cannons were used the former country, where there are few, in the battle of Cressy, which was fought even of the laboring class, who do not in 1346. They seem even to have been solace themselves with its practice. used three years earlier, at the siege of GUN, a fire-ainu, or weapon of offence, Alesiras; but before this time they must which forcibly discharges a ball, shot, or have been known in Germany, as there other offensive matter, through a cylin- is a piece of ordnance at Alberg, on drical barrel, by means of gunpowder. which is inscribed the year 1303. Roger The larger species of guns are called Bacon, who died in 1292, knew the propcannon; and the smaller kinds are called erties of gunpowder; but it does not folmuskets, carbines, fowling-pieces, &c. The low that he was acquainted with its apgun is supposed to have been used in plication to fire-arms. Asia at a very early date; but it was GUN'POWDER PLOT, in English hisnot invented in Europe before the 14th tory, the celebrated conspiracy of certain century. Roger Bacon, about the year disappointed Roman Catholics to destroy 1280, suggested the possibility of apply- the king, James I., and the two Houses ing the preparation since called gun- of Parliament, by gunpowder, which was powder to the purposes of war; but the detected on the 4th of November, 1605.o idea of blowing a body to a distance by GUS'TO, that which excites pleasant its power was produced by its accident- sensations in the palate or tongue. Figally doing so, in the laboratory of Bar- uratively this word is used for intellecttholomew Schwartz, a German monk. ual taste. Guns were originally made of iron bars, GUT'TURALS, letters pronounced by soldered together, and strengthened with a peculiar effort of the throat. There iron hoops, an example of which is still are no gutturals properly so called in the preserved in the Tower of London. English language, although the guttural GUN'NERY, the science of using ar- sound may often be heard in some protillery against an enemy judiciously, and vincial pronunciations of the letter r. Nor to the greatest effect. Besides an accurate are there in the pure French or Italian, acquaintance with the management of ord- although they are frequent in the dianance of all kinds, the range and force of lects: e. g. the letter c hard (as in casa) every kind, the charge and direction neces- has in the Tuscan a strong guttural sound. sary for different distances, their materi- In the Spanish language alone, of those als, the fabrication and effect of gunpow- derived from the Latin, gutturals are comnder, &c.; the artillerist must be able to in- mon. In German, the guttural ch is largestruct his men in their several exercises, ly used. In the Celtic language, gh and ch and be thoroughly acquainted with all the are also sounded with much variety of tactics necessary in the art of attack and guttural intonation. -- ___~__ ~ ___~ -_~ -- -- - -- -- - -- -. —-.-___ ___ -.- _ _~_~_~_ _______ - __ -- - --—. —--- _____ _i |H] AND THE FINE ARTS. 281 GYMNA'STARCHI, an Athenian officer a man to be seen naked. At Rome gymwho had the charge of providing the oil nasties were principally exercised by the and other necessaries for the gymnasia. mercenary athletes. This was one of the offices at Athens, the GYMNOS'OPHISTS, a sect of Indian expenses of which were defrayed from philosophers who lived naked in the the private pocket of the individual on woods, whence they derived their name, whom they devolved, and who received and submitted to other strange austerino salary fromu the state. ties. They believed in the immortality! GY"M'NA'SIUM, originally a space of the soul and its migration into several measured out and covered with sand for bodies. They enjoyed great reputation the exercise of athletic games. After- for astronomical and physical science. wards, among the classical Greeks, the There was likewise an African sect of gymnasia became spacious buildings or philosophers bearing the same name, who institutions for the mental as well as cor- are said to have lived in EEthiopia, near poreal instruction of youth. They were the sources of the Nile, whose habits diffirst built at Lacedaimon, whence they fered from those of the Indian sect, inspread through the rest of Greece, &c., asmuch as theylived as anchorites, while into Italy. They did not consist of sin- the latter congregated in societies. gle edifices, but comprised several build- GYMNO'TUS, the name of an eel, reings and porticoes, used for study and markable for its power of affecting the discourse, for baths, anointing rooms, pa- nervous system, in the manner of eleclestras in which the exercises took place, tricity. This animal and the torpedo, on and for other purposes. Two of the dissection, appear to have an arrangeAthenian gymnasia, viz., the Lyceum and ment of muscular plates not unlike a Academy, were rendered famous by be- galvanic trough, and well adapted to proing the scenes of the lectures of Aristotle duce the effect. and Plato respectively. The term gym- GYNIECE'UM, among the ancients the nasium has descended to modern times. apartment of the women, a separate room In Germany the higher schools, intended in the inner part of the house, where they to give immediate preparation for the employed themselves in spinning, weavuniversities, are termed gymnasia. In ing and needle-work. Prussia the scholars undergo examina- GYNLECON'OMI, certain magistrates tion on leaving them: their compositions amongst the Athenians, who had an eye at this examination are sent to the min-upon the conduct of the women, and punister of instruction and ecclesiastical af- ished such as forsook the line of proprifairs; and they receive testimonials of ety and modesty. A list of such as had fitness, No. 1, 2, or 3, according to their been fined was put up by them upon a degree of proficiency. Persons who have palm-tree in the Ceramicsus. The gyn.wfitted themselves for the universities with- conomti were ten in number, and differed out passing through the gymnasia are from the gynaccocosmsi; for the former examined by a committee appointed by were inspectors of manners, the latter of government, which sits half-yearly for dress. the purpose. GYN'ARCHY or GYNRECOC'RACY, GYMNAS'TICS, under this name were government by a woman: or a state comprised by the ancients all those games where women are legally capable of the and exercises which were performed with supreme command. Of this Great Britthe body partly naked; such as wrest- ain and Spain are familiar examples. ling, boxing, running, throwing the quoit, GYR'OMANCY, a kind of divination playing at ball, &c. They were first in- performed by walking round in a circle stituted at Lacedlmon, where they were or ring. not confined to men, but were also considered a necessary part of the education of females. In the rest of Greece, where L they subsequently spread, they were also, held of the highest importance, and as H, the eighth letter and sixth consosuch were conducted under the superin- nant of the English alphabet. It is not tendence of the government, and entered strictly a vowel, nor an articulation; but conspicuously into the political schemes the mark of a stronger breathing than of the philosophers. In this respect the that which precedes the utterance of any Greeks offered a remarkable contrast to other letter. It is pronounced with a their Asiatic neighbors, among whom it strong expiration of the breath between was considered a great disgrace even for the lips, closing, as it were, by a gentle 282 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [sHA motion of the lower jaw to the upper, and first who descended to Hades. Hiades the tongue nearly approaching the palate. was also an appellation of the god Pluto; 1 is sometimes mute, as in honor, honest; in which sense alone, it is said, Hesiod also when united with g, as in igRht,Jig/t, uses it. The word occurs frequenitly in bro'ught. In which, what, and some other the Septuagint, and in the Greek New words where it follows w, it is sounded Testament, and almost invariably siGuibefore it, hirich /hzat, &c. H, amnong the fies the state of the dead in general, withGreeks, as a numeral, signified 8; in the out regard to the virtuous or vicious charLatin of the middle ages, 200, and with a acters of'le persons, their happiness or cash over it, 200,000.-In music, h is the misery. seventh degree in the diatonic scale, and HADJ, the Mohammedan pilgrimage the twelfth in the chromatic. to Mecca and Medina; whence Had1ji, a HA'BEAS-COL/PUS, in law, a writ pilgrim, or one who has performed this for delivering a person from false in- pilgrimage; Hedjaz, the Holy Land, prisonment, or for removing a person where these cities are situated. By far from one court to another. By the ac- the most authentic desc iption of it is that tion of this writ, of which there are sev- of Burkhardt, who performed it in the eral kinds, adapted to different occasions, guise of a Mohammedan, in 1814. It is relief from all unjust imprisonment may fixed to a particular lunar month, and be obtained, causes removed from one consequently takes place in every season court to another for the promotion of of the year. I.t was a custom long antejustice, and prosecutors compelled to rior to the establishment of Islamism, bring the prosecuted to open trial, in- when the famous " black stone" of the stead of prolonging his imprisonment. Caab at Mecca was an object of idolaThus it not only protects the citizen from trous veneration. Every year a black unlawful imprisonment at the suggestion silk stuff is now sent by the sultan to covof the civil officers of the government, but er the Caaba. There are usually five or also against groundless arrests at the suit six caravans; from Syria, Egypt, Baror instigation of individuals. The right bary. the East, and the North. In 1814, is, however, liable to be suspended; it the number of pilgrims was about 70,000, being sometimes necessary to clothe the and this was considered small. The pilexecutive with an extraordinary power, grims go through several ceremonies at as the Romans were in the habit of choos- Mecca, of which the principal are the ing a dictator in emergencies, when the toicef, or procession round the Caaba, and public was in danger. drinking of the well of Zeizen; they then HABEN'DUM, in law, a word of form proceed to the summit of Mount Ararat; in a deed or conveyance, which must con- and lastly to Medina, the place'of the 3ist of two parts, viz. the premises and prophet's burial. sabendumn (to have and to hold.) IHAGIOG-RAPIHY, sacred writings. IIABER'GEON, a coat of mail former- The Jews divide the books of the Scriply worn to defend the neck and breast. It tures into three parts; the Law, which is was formed of little iron rings united, contained in the first five books of the and descended from the neck to the mid- Old Testament; the Prophets, or Nevim; die of the body. and the Cetuvim, or writings, by way of HAB'IT, in philosophy, an aptitude or eminence. The latter class is called by disposition either of mind or body, ac- the Greeks Hagiographa, comprehending quired by a frequent repetition of the the books of Psalms, Proverbs, Job; Dansame act: thus virtue is called a habit iel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Ruth, Esther, Cironof the mind; strength, a habit of the idles, Canticles, Lamentations, and Ecclebody. All natural habits, whether of siastes. body or mind, are no other than the body HAIL, the small masses of ice or froand mind themselves considered as either zen vapor, falling from the clouds in showacting or suffering;.or they are modes of ers or storms. These masses consist of the body or mind wherein either perse- little spherules united, but not all of the veres till effaced by some contrary mode. same consistence; some being as hard -Habit, in medicine, denotes the settled and solid as perfect ice; others soft, like constitution of the body; or a particular frozen snow. Hailstones assume various state formed by nature, or induced by figures; some are round, others angular, extraneous circumstances. others pyramidical, others fiat, and someHA'DES, in classical mythology, the times they are stellated with six radii, abode of the dead. According to Hesiod like crystals of snow. Hail occurs chiefthe mortals of the brazen age were the ly in spring and summer, and is always HAL] AND THE FINE ARTS. 283 accompanied with electrical phenomena, was worn long by adults; boys, especially and not unfrequently with thunder. It those of Sperta, until the age of puberty, usually precedes storms of rain, sometimes wore their hair cropped close. At a later accompanies them; but never, or very period, it was customary for men to wear rarely, follows them, especially if the rain their hair cut short. The Athenian cusis of any duration. The time of its con- tom was the opposite of the Spartan; the tinuance is alvays very short, generally hair was worn long in childhood, and cut only a few minutes. The usual size of upon arriving at manhood. The cutting hailstones is about a quarter of an inch in of the hair was an act of solemnity, and di;ameter, but they are frequently of performed with many ceremonies. The much larger dimensions, sometimes even Roman youth, before the age of puberty, 3 Lnd 4 inches in diameter. Hail-storms wore their hair in ringlets upon their are very destructive to crops, particularly shoulders; but about the time of putting in hot clinates. The phenomena attend- on the toga virilis, they cut it short; ing the formation and fall of hail are not such of them, at least, as wished to diswell understood; but it is supposed that tinguish themselves from the maccarothe cold necessary for its formation is pro- nis and effeminate coxcombs. The hair duced by the wind; and tL.tt when hail- thus cut off was consecrated to Apollo, stones are formed they are also carried who is always represented with flowing along through the atmosphere by cur- hair, or to some other god, under whose rents of wind, in a direction very oblique protection they supposed themselves to to the horizon, by which means they may be more immediately placed. In works be kept suspended a sufficient length of of Art, the Ephebi (youth who had attime to acquire the dimensions they pos- tained the age of 18,) and the Ath.letel sess, by congealing the particles of humid are always represented with short hair. vapor with which they successively come Among the females, it was the custom to in contact. The electricity with which confine the hair with a band, or with nethail is always accompanied, is only the work, sometimes richly ornamented with effect of the passage of the particles of gold and other metals, examples of which water from the liquid to the solid state. are seen in the paintings found at PomIlail-rods, upon the same principle as peii. In other representations we find lightning-rods, have been erected in Ger- the hair inclosed in a kind of bag, made many and Switzerland, with the view of of various textile materials. The color subtracting the superabundant electrici- which was most prized was blonde, alty from the clouds, and preventing the though black was the most common. formation of hail; but they have not been In times of mourning the hair was cut attended with the success which was ex- short. peted. HAIR PEN'CILS, in painting, are HAIR, in physiology, slender, oblong, composed of very fine hairs, as of the and flexible filaments, growing out of the mlinever, the marten, the badger, the pores of animals, and serving most of polecat, &c., which are mounted in a theem as a covering. It consists of the quill when they are small or of moe&rate bulb, situated under the skin, which is a size, but when larger than a quill they nervous vesicle, and a trunk which per- are mounted in white-iron tubes. The forates the skin and cuticle, and is cov- most essential quality of a good penered with a peculiar vagina or sheath. cil is to form a fine point, so that all The color of human hair depends on the the hairs may be united when they are mIedullary juice; but there are also moistened by drawing them through the general differences of it, peculiar in some lips. degree to the climates. In the hottest HAIR'S BREADTI, a measure of countries it is very black; in the colder length, equal to the forty-eighth part of it is yellowish, brown. or inclining to red; an inch. but in all places it grows gray or white HAL'BERD, or HIALBERT, an anwith age. In quadrupeds it is of the cient military weapon, intended for both most various conformation, from the cutting and thrusting, formerly carried finest wool to the bristles of a. hog. The by sergeants of foot and artillery. It principal constituent parts of hair are was a kind of combination of a spear and animal matter, oil, silex, sulphur, car- a battle-axe, with a variously formed bonate of lime, &c. Among the ancients, head. and a shaft about six feet long. It from the earliest times, the hair of the is now rarely to be seen in use, except in head was an object of especial care and Scotland in the hands of town-officers attention. Among the Greeks, it at first (counterparts of English javelin-men) 284 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [HAsn ~ A, j nious softness, that it is retained in our,N^ t^ 1n 2/~ hhymns withont translation. In conformity with the German and other continental langua.ges in which j has the sound of y, we often see it written Hallelujah; but \& — @\y.K ) t \ )to pronounce the word with the English @ ) I -/ ev-/ sound of j destroys its beauty, and it ought never to be so written. H-IALLUCINA'TION, in medicine, er-.. \ l lX^~ n/roneous imagination. Hallucinsations of the senses arise from some defect in the \I /^X ~ / l,I circumstances attending the object; and they are sometimes symptoms of general disease, as in fevers. Mianiacal hallu.cijT p^ /y = t z^^ cenations arise from some imaginary or /c A - i ~yh mistaken idea. P /; h lIA'LO, a circle appearing round the body of the sun, moon, or stars, but more especially about the body of the sun and.i / moon, called also corona, or cr wn. Ha1. Halbert, time of Henry VIII. 2 do., with fleur loes are sometimes white and sometimes de lis, Henry VII. 3. Double-axed halbert, Charles colored. Sometimes one only appears, I. 4. Halbert, Charles 11. 5 do., Williamin II. sometimes several concentric circles when attending the magistrates of a bor- appear at the same time. Haloes are ough. at times accompanied with other phenomI[AL'CYON DAYS, a name given by ena, such as paheltia, or mock-suns; parthe ancients to the seven days that pre- seleszes, or mock-moons; anthelia, or glocede and follow the winter solstice, from ries. All these appearances are occasionthe circumstance of the halcyon or alce- ed by the refraction, reflection, or infecdo selcctincg that period for incubation. tion of light falling upon, or passing near While this process was going on, the thick vapor floating in the atmosphere. weather wias generally remarkable for IHAMADRY'ADS, certain nymphs or its calmness; and hence the expression inferior deities supposed by the Greek has passed into a proverb, signifying and Romnan poets to preside over woods days of peace and tranquillityand forests, and, as their name implied, HIALL, in architecture, a large room to live and die with the particular trees at the entrance of a house or palace. In to which they were attached. the houses of ministers of state, magis- HAND, in anatomy, an important trates, &c., it is the place where they member of the human body, which, from give audience and despatch business. In the facilities it affords in all operations, nmagnificent edifices where the hall is very and accuracy in ascertaining the magnilarge and lofty, and placed in the middle tude, &c. of extraneous objects, is justly of the edifice, it is called a saloon. An considered as contributing very essenedifice, in which courts of justice are held; tially to all that is either ingenious or as Westminster Iall, which was origin- scientific in the human character.-In ally a royal palace; the kings of England Christian Art a hand is the indication of fornmerly holding their parliaments and a holy person or thing, and frequently courts of judicature in their own dwell- occurs in pictures representing martyrings, as is still the practice in Spain. doms, as extended from a cloud over a It is perhaps a term improperly applied, saint. A hand in the act of benediction as now, to the entrance of a dwelling- is frequently met with in early Christian house, though not so to a servants' hall. Art. and generally represents the AlAt Oxford an unendowed college is styled mighty Father. Previous to the twelfth a h/all; but at Cambridge the term is century, the Supreme was always repreused indiscriminately for college, whether sented by a hand extended from a cloud, endowed or not. sometimes open, with rays proceeding HALLELU'IAH, a word signifying from the fingers, but generally in the praise the Lord, or praise ye Jehovah. act of benediction, viz., with two fingers It is met with in the beginning of some raised and the rest open. The hands of Psalms, and the end of others. It is a our Saviour pierced, were frequently repword of such liquid fluency and harmo- resented in sculpture. HAR] AND THE FINE ARTS. 285 IIAND'LING, in painting, manage- sils of every kind manufactured from ment of the pencil by touch. Handling metals, comprising iron, brass, steel, and should be bold, with freedom, firmness, copper articles of all descriptions. Birand spirit. mingham and Sheffield are the principal IHANSEAT'IC, pertaining to the seats of the British hardware mnanufac-anse towns, or to their confederacy. tures; and from these immense quantiThe Hanse towns in Germany were cer- ties of knives, razors. scissors, fire-arms, tain commercial cities which associated gilt and plated goods, &c. are supplied to for the protection of commerce as early an extent almost incredible. The total as the 12th century. To this confederacy aggregate value of the iron and other acceded certain commercial cities in Hol- hardware manufactures of England and laland, nland, France, Spain, and Italy, Scotland may be estimated -at not less until they amounted to seventy-two, than 17,500,000I. a year; affording direct which for centuries commanded the re- employment, in the various departments spect and defied the power of kings. From of the trade, for at least 360,000 pelrsons. the middle of the 15th century, the power HTA'REM, the apartments in which of the confederacy, though still very for- Mussulman princes confine their women, midable, began to decline. This, however, who are prohibited from the society of was not owing to any misconduct on the others. They are waited on by female part of its leaders, but to the progress of slaves, and guarded by black eunuchs: that improvement it had done so much to the head of the latter is called Kizlarpromote. The civilization, which had ca.a. There are two kizlar-agas, one of been at first confined to the cities, gradu- the old, the other of the new palace, each ally extended over the contiguous coun- of which has its harem. The one is occutry; and feudal anarchy was everywhere pied by the women of former sultans, and superseded by a system of subordination those who have incurred the displeasure }and the progress of the Arts. At present of the reigning prince; the other by such it only consists of the cities of HIam- as still enjoy, his favor. The lady wIho burgh, Lubeck, and Bremen; and they, first presents him with a male heir, is indeed, possess imerely the shadow of styled the sultazna, by way of eminence. their formner state. She must then retire into the old palace; IIAPPINESS, the agreeable sensa- but if her son ascends the throne, she retions which spring from the enjoyment turns to the new palace, and has the title of good. It consists in the possession not of sultana valide. She is the only aomian only of the goods of the body, as health. who is allovwed to appear without a veil; strength, &e., but also of the miore refined none of the others, even when sicl, are goods of the mind, as knowledge, memory, permitted to lay aside the veil, in the taste, and especially the rmoral virtuese, presence of anly one except the sultan. magnanimity, fortitude, benevolence, &c. When visited by the physician. their bed That state is mostly to be sought after, is covered with a thickr counterpane, and in which the fewest competitions and dis- the pulse felt thrlough gauze. The life appointments can happen, which least of of the ladies of the imperial harem is all impairs any sense of pleasure, and spent in bathing, dressing, walking in the opens an unexpected source of the most garden, witnessing the voluptuous dances refined and lasting enjoyments. That performed by their slaves, &c. The state which is attended with all those ad- wornen of other Turks enjoy the society vantages, is a state or course of virtue: of their friends at the baths, or at each therefore, a state of virtue, in lwhich the other's houses, appear in public accommoral goods of the mind are attained, is panied by slaves and eunuchs, and enjoy the happiest state; and he only can be a degree of liberty which increases as esteemed really and permanently happy, they descend in rank. But those of the who enjoys peace of mind in the favor sultan have none of these privileges. It of the Almighty. is, of course, only the richer Mosleins IARANGUE', a popular oration, gen- who can maintain harems: the poorer erally implying loudness or declamation; classes have generally but one wife. and not a deliberate and argumentative HAR'LEQUIN, the principal characaddress or discourse. ter in pantomime, clad in a party-colored HIAR'BOR, a port, haven, or inlet of dress, with a. half-mask, and who is per — the sea, in which ships can moor, and be petually dancing, leaping, or performing sheltered from the fury of winds and a tricks withI his wonder-working wand. heavy sea. This character was first introduced into IHARD'WARE, instruments and uten- Italian comedy, where he united extrav 286 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [lIAR eagaJnt buffoonrey with great corporeal heard at one and the same irnme. Natuanility. ral harmony consists of the harmonic I-ARMAT'TAN, the name given to a triad or common dhord.-Artificial harprevailing wind on the coast of Africa, mony is a mixture of concords and diswhich is of a peculiarly dry and parching cords.-FTigured harmony is that in claracter. which, for the purpose of melody, one or IIAPRMON'ICA, or ARMONICA, a more of the parts of a composition move, musical instrument, in which the sound during the continuance of a chord, through is produced from glasses, blown as near certain notes which do not form any of as possible in the form of hemispheres, the constituent parts of that chord. —larhaving each an open neck or socket in mony, as applied to nature, the necesthe middle. The diameter of the largest sary reciprocal accordance of causes and glass is nine inches, and that of the small- effects, by which the existence of one est three inches. Between these there thing is dependent on that of another.are twenty-three different sizes, differing In matters of literature, we use the word from each other a quarter of an inch in harmony for a certain agreement between diatmeter. The largest glass in the in- the several parts of the discourse. In strument is G, including three complete architecture, harmony denotes an agreeoctaves; andl they are distinguished by able relation between the parts of a painting the apparent parts of the glass- building. In painting, it signifies the es within side, every semitone white, union or connection between the figares, and the other notes of the octave with with respect to the subject of the piece the seven prismatic colors; so that glass- and also denotes the union or agreeable es of the s:me color, (the white except- mixture of different colors. —lrarmony ed,) are always octaves to each other. of the spheres, a favorite hypothesis of The method of extracting exquisite tones, Pythagoras and many other ancient phiby rubbing the finger on the brim of losophers, according to which, celestial drinking-glasses, filled with water in dif- music, imperceptible by the ears of morferent proportions, was an old discovery; tals, was supposed to be produced by the but it remained for Dr. Franklin to con- sweetly tuned motions of the stars and struct the harmonica. " The advantages planets. This harmony they attributed of this instrument," says Dr. Franklin, to the various proportionate impressions'are, that its tones are incomparably of the heavenly globes upon one another, sweet beyond any other; that they may acting at proper intervals. be swelled and softened -F pleasure, by HAR'MONY OF THE SCRIP'TURES, stronger or weaker pressures of the fin- GOSPELS, &c., the correspondence of the ger, and continued to any length; and several writers of different parts of the that the instrument, once well tuned, Scriptures in their respective narratives, never again wants tuning." Its disad- or statements of doctrine. The earliest vantages are, the difficulty of adjusting Harmony of the Gospels was composed the tones by grinding; the extreme skil- by Tatian, in the second century, with fulness necessary in the player; and the, the title Diatessaron. impracticability of performing upon it HARMONY PRE-ESTAB'LISHED. many of the ordinary operations of the a hypothesis invented by Leibnitz, to exmusical art; for however much it excels plain the correspondence between the all others in the delicacy and duration of course of our sensations and the series of its tones, yet it is confined to those of a changes actually going on in the universe, soft and plaintive character, and to slow of which, according to that philosopher solemn movements. and many others, we have no direct IIARMON'ICS, that branch of music knowledge. This hypotheisis connected, which considers the differences and pro- in the Leibnitzian system, with the doeportions of sound. This science was by trine of monads,-certain spiritual powthe ancients divided into seven parts; ers or substances, one of which constitutes viz. cf siunds, of intervals, of system, of the principle of vitality and consciousthe genera, of the tones or modes, of mu- ness in every living being. Each of tation, and of melopeia. these, is, in its degree, a mirror, in which HARMON'IC TRIAD, in music, the the changes going on in the universe are chord of a note consisting of a third and reflected with greater or less fidelity. perfect fifth, or, in other words, the com- But between simple substances, such as mon chord. spirit and matter, soul and body, no real HARIMONY, in music, the agreeable reciprocal action can take place. The result or union of several musical sounds Author of the universe has consequently H AT] AND THE FINE ARTS. 287 so ordained that the series of changes HARPOON', an iron instrument, formgoing on in any particular conscious mo- ed at one end like a barbed arrow, and nad, corresponds precisely to those of the having a rope at the other, for the purmonads in contiguity to which it is placed. pose of spearing the whale. As soon as Hence arises our belief that mind is act- the boat has been rowed within a compeed on by matter, and vice versa; a be- tent distance of the whale, the harpooner lief which leads to no practical errors in launches his instrument; and the fish virtue. being wounded, immediately descends unHARMOS'TES, in ancient history, a der the ice with amazing rapidity, carrySpartan magistrate, called also sometimes ing the harpoon along with him, and a sophronistes, who was appointed to super- considerable length of the line, which is intend a conquered state. Other Greek purposely let down, to give him room to states which made conquests afterwards dive. Being soon exhausted with the faborrowed the name. tigue and loss of blood, he re-ascends, in HARP, a musical stringed instrument, order to breathe, where he presently oxof a triangular figure. It stands erect, pires, and floats upon the surface of the and, when used, is placed at the feet of water. —i arpoon gLuns, an instrument the performer, who produces its tones by for discharging harpoons at whales in the action of the thumb and fingers of preference to the common method of the both hands on the strings. Its origin is hand. It consists of a kind of swivel, very variously ascribed; but whatever it having a barrel of wrought iron, about may have been, its invention is mani- two feet iong, and is furnished with two festly very ancient; for it appears to locks, which act simultaneously, for the have been in use (under various forms) purpose of dinfinishing the liability of with the Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, the gun missing fire. and Romans. The Anglo-Saxons excel- - 1ARP'SICHORD, a musical instruled in playing on the harp. The Irish, ment with strings of wire, played on by Scots, and Welsh also made much use of means of keys, the striking of which this instrument; and with the Anglo- moves certain little jacks. which also Normans it was equally popular. By move a double row of chords or strings, the Welsh laws, a harp was one of the stretched over four bridges on the table things that were necessary to character- of the instrument. Since the invention ize a freeman or gentleman; and none of that superior instrument, the grand could pretend to this rank, who had not piano-forte, the use of the harpsichord is a harp, and was not able to play upon it. greatly diminished. By the same laws, to prevent slaves from HAR'USPICE, in Roman history, a pretending to be gentlemen, it was ex- person who pretended to foretell future pressly forbidden to teach, or to permit, events by inspecting the entrails of beasts them to play upon the harp; and none sacrificed, or watching the circumstances but the king, the king's musicians, and attending their slaughter, or their mangentlemen, were allowed to have harps in ner of burning and the ascent of the their possession. The modern harp forms smoke. one of the most elegant objects to the HIARVEST MOON, an epithet apeye, while it produces some of the most plied to those moons which, in the auagreeable effects to the ear, of any in- tumnal months, rise on successive nights, strument in use. There are generally soon after sunset, owing to the oblique 35 strings, but sometimes the number is ascension of the signs of the Zodiac, extended to 43: and the compass usually through which the moon is then passing. extends from double A of the bass clef, IASTA'TI, among the Romans, were to double G in the G clef. soldiers armed with, spears, who were alIIARPIES. in mythology, three rapa- ways drawn up in the first line of battle. cious winged monsters, supposed to be These were picked out the next in age to the goddesses of storms, and called Aello, the velites. At last they laid aside the Ocypete, and Celoeno. They are so differ- spear, but still retained their name. ently described by the poets, that it is HATCH'WAY, in ships, a square or difficult to say anything definite concern- oblong opening in the deck, affording a ing them. Hesiod represents them as passage from one deck to another, or into young virgins, of great beauty; Vossius the hold or lower apartments. supposes them to be three winds; but HAT'TI-SHERIFF, in Turkish polity, both poets and artists appear gener- an order which comes immediately from ailly to vie with each other in depicting the Grand Signior, who subscribes it usuthem under the most hideous forms. ally with these words:-" Let my order 288 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [RED be executed according to its form and im- in which our earth, the sun, and all the port." These words are generally edged planets, revolve. In metaphorical lanwith gold, or otherwise ornamented; and guage, this space is called the abode of an order given in this way is irrevocable. the Deity, and the seat of the souls of the HAU'BERK, in armor, a tunic of ring- just in the life to come. In these latter ed mail. with wide senses, it is sometimes called the empysleeves reaching a rean, from the splendor by which it is little below the el- characterized. It is also sometimes called bow, and descending the firmament. The word which, in the below the knees; first chapter of Genesis, is translated firbeing cut up before mamcnt, was corrupted, it is said, by the and behind a little Septuagint translators, and should be way, for convenience rendered e.rpanse or extension. St. Paul in riding, it had the speaks of the third heaven; and the oriappearance of ter- entals always describe seven heavens, or i\ minating in short more. The foundation of the doctrine of i Y 5 -'Y trowsers. It was several heavens was this: the ancient ^l| ^ introduced in the philosophers assumed there were as many i twelfth century, and different heavens as they saw bodies in IM^^T. tX is supposed to have motion; they considered them solid, alI' iK l' been introduced though transparent, and supposed the from Germany.- blue space extended over our heads firm Hauberk is the name given to this vest- as a sapphire. They could not conceive ment by the Normans, signifying a pro- that otherwise they could sustain those tection for the throat, but the term could bodies; and they deemed them spherical, only have been appropriate when the ca- as the most proper form for motion. puchin or cowl formed a component part Thus, there were seven heavens for the of it. seven planets, and an eighth for the fixed HAITT'BOY, a musical wind instru- stars. Ptolemy discountenanced this sysment, shaped somewhat like the flute, but ten. He said, the deities (by which name spreading and widening at the bottom, he calls the stars, for they were adored in and sounded through a reed. his time,) moved in an ethereal fluid. It IHAV'ERSACK, a kind of bag of strong was, however, by very slow degrees that coarse linen, to carry bread and provis- men became acquainted with the true sciions on a march. ence which instructs us in the laws of ceHEALTH, that condition of the body, lestial motion, and the magnitudes, disin which all the vital, natural, and ani- tances, &c., of those effulgent orbs which mal functions, are performed easily and deck the vast expanse. The heavens, perfectly, a.nd unattended with pain. The then, to follow the path of the Newtonian most perfect state of health is generally or true system, are filled with a fluid connected with a certain conformation and much finer and thinner than this air, and structure of the bodily organs, and well extending beyond all limits of which we mnrked by certain external signs. To have any conception. There being nothpreserve health, it is necessary to be tem- ing visible to us in the remote part of the perate in food, exercise, and sleep; to heavens, we can only consider them as pay strict attention to bodily cleanliness; the places of the stars. We shall have a to abstain from spirituous liquors, and to vast idea of this space if we consider that guard against excess of all kinds. The the largest of the fixed stars, which are Greeks and Romans deified health, rep- probably the nearest to us, are at a disresenting it under the figure of a woman, tance too great for the expression of all whom they supposed to be the dalghter that we can conceive from figures, and of /Esculapius. We find the name of the for all means of admeasurement. The goddess Salus, or I-ealth, on many meda- sun, which in that little space of the heayals of the Roman emperors, with differ- ens that makes the system of which our ent inscriptions, as Salus publica, Salus world is a part, is in reality nothing reipublicc(, Salus Augusti, ec. more than a fixed star. HEAV'EN, literally the sky, or azure HEBDOM'ADARY, a member of a vault which spreads above us like a hoI- chapter or convent, whose duty it is to oflow hemisphere, and appears to rest on ficiate in the choir, rehearse the anthems the limits of the horizon. Modern as- and prayers, and perform other services, tronomy has taught us, that this blue which, on extraordinary occasions, are vault is, in fact, the immeasurable space performed by the superiors. .HEL] AND THE FINE ARTS. 289 HEBDOM'ARY, a solemnity of the a public entertainment given by the ancient Greeks, in which the Athenians Athenians every new moon, in honor of sung hymns in honor of Apollo, and car- Hecate. ried in their hands branches of laurel. HEC'ATOMB, amongst the Greeks, It was observed on the seventh day of was a sacrifice consisting of a hundred every lunar month; hence the name. oxen offered upon some very extraordiHE.'BE, in Grecian mythology, was nary occasion.-Hecatomb, in its most the goddess of youth, whose office it was general sense, signifies no more than a to hand round thie nectar at the banquets sacrifice of a hundred animals; but the of the gods. She was the daughter of ox being the chief of animals used in sacJupiter and Juno. rifice, gave derivation to the word. HIEBRAISM, an idiom or manner of HEGI'RA, the epoch of the flight of speaking peculiar to the Hebrew lan- Mahomet from Mecca, July 10, 622, guage. whence Eastern nations date the year of HIE'EBEW, the language spoken by 354 days; which is found by subtracting the Jews, and which appears to be the 622 from our year, and then multiplying most ancient of all the languages in the by 365 52, and dividing by 354. world. The books of the Old Testament HEI'GHTEN, in painting, a verb sigare the only pieces to be found, in all an- nifying to make prominent by means of tiquity, written in pure Hebrew; and the touches of light or brilliant colors, as conlanguage of many of these is extremely trasted with the shadows. sublime. But Hebrew literature, inde- HER, in law. the person who succeeds pendently of its containing the records another by descent to lands, tenements, of a divine revelation, possesses a pecu- and hereditaments, being an estate of inliar scientific interest. It surpasses in heritance, or an estate in fee; because antiquity; general credibility, originality, nothing pnsses by riglht of inheritance but poetic strength, and religious importance, in fee. We give the title to a person who that of any other nation before the Chris- is to inherit after the death of an ancestian era, and contains most remarkable tor, and during his life. as well as to the memoria s and trustworthy materials for person whos has actually come into posthe history of the human race, and its session. —leir-apparent, is a person so mental development.-rThe Epistle to the called in the lifetime of his ancestor, at Hcbre'ws, a canonical book of the New whose death he is heir at law. — eirTestament. The Hebrews, to whom this presumptive, one who, if the ancestor epistle was addressed, were the believing should die immediately, would, in the Jews of Palestine, and its design was to present circumstances of things, be his convince them of the insufficiency and heir; but whose right of inheritance may abolishment of the ceremonial and ritual be defeated by the contingency of some law. In order to which the apostle un- nearer heir being born. dertakes to show, first, the superior ex- HEIR'-LOOM, any furniture or percellency of Christ's person above that sonal chattel, which by law descends to of Moses; secondly, the superiority of the heir with the house or freehold. Christ's priesthood above the Levitical; IELIX, HELICES, in architecture, and thirdly, the mere figurative nature, the curling stalks or volutes under the and utlter insufficiency, of the legal cere- flowers in each face of the abacus of the monies and sacrifices. Corinthian capital. IIEC'ATE, in mythology, a Grecian HIELLE'NIC, the name given to the goddess, daughter of the Titan Perses common dialect which prevailed very and Asteria. She presided over popular generally among the Greek writers after asselmblies, war, the administration of the tlime of Alexander. It was formled justice, and the rearing of children. with very slight variations, from the pure There is a. good deal of obscurity attached Attic of the age preceding its introducto this goddess, who is often confounded tion. with Artemis or Diana, and Proserpine; HELLENIS'TIC, the name given to whence she is sometimes considered the that dialect of the Grecian language that patroness of imagic and the infernal re- was used by the Jewish writers. Its pegions. She was called the triple goddess, culiarities consisted in the introduction and was supposed to wander along the of foreign words very little disguised, but earth at night. Statues were set up to more especially of oriental metaphors and her in market-places, and especially at idioms; but not at all in the inflexions cross roads. of words. which were the same as in the IIECATE'SIA, in Grecian antiquity, IHellenic. In this dialect, it is said, the 19 290 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LVEM Septuagint was written, and also the pivots as the visor, or lets down by means books of the New Testament; and that of two or more pivots on each side neae it was thus denominated to show that it the jaws. The use of the bever was to was Greek filled with Iebraisms and enable the wearer to eat and drink more Syria cisms. commodiously than could be done in a HEL'LENISTS, the name by which helmet with a visor only. The helmets the Jews who from their foreign birth or of the Greeks and Romans were mostly travel used the Greek (Hellenic) language, are distinguished in the Acts of Apostles. The word is derived, accord- i ing to a common method of formation: in the Greek language, from the verb lil iXYvistv,' to HIellenize, or adopt the man- l ners of a Greek. There were great numbers of Jews scattered throughout the i Roman empire at this period, more especially in the Asiatic and East African open, not unlike skull-caps, as formerly provinces, where the Greek was the cur- worn by modern dragoons. Montfaucon rent language; and as they were in the says he never saw an ancient helmet with habit of making frequent journeys to and a visor to raise or let down, although he from Jerusalem, they heard the preach- is of opinion that they had those contriing of the Apostles, and became effica- vances. It seems as if the Romans, at cious instruments in conveying the knowl- least those of which Pompey's army was edge of the word throughout all lands. composed at Pharsalia, had open helFrom their long sojourn in foreign coun- mets, as Coesar directed his soldiers to tries they were distinguished from the strike them in the face, which order, had Ilebraists, or native Jews, by the greater their faces been covered, he would not liberality of their views with respect to have given. the nature of the promises of the Old HELOTS, in ancient history, the Testament. It appears from Acts, vi. 1, slaves of the Spartans, who consisted that these Jews retained the distinctive originally of the Achman inhabitants of name of Hellenists after their conversion Laconia, who were subdued by force of to Christianity, and that there continued arms by the Dorian invaders. The name to subsist some jealousy between them was derived from Helos, a town of Lacoand the native Christians. nia, of which the inhabitants were thus HEL'MET, defensive armor for the reduced to servitude; but to this class head: a word of Scandinavian derivation. were afterwards added the Messenians, The armor of the ancients, which partic- who still clung to their native soil after ularly guarded the head, was known by its subjugation by the Spartans. They the general denominations of head-piece, were employed either as domestic slaves, casque, and helmet. Helmets were an- cultivators of the land, or in the public ciently formed of various materials, but works; and though they do not appear chiefly of skins of beasts, brass, and iron. to have been treated ordinarily with An open helmet covers only the head, much severity, yet the recollection of ears, and neck, leaving the face unguard- their former state urged them frequently ed. Some open helmets have a bar or to revolt, while their numbers rendered bars from the forehead to the chin, to them so formidable to their masters as to guard against the transverse cut of a drive the latter to schemes of the most broad-sword; but it affords little defence abominable treachery for their represagainst the point of a lance or sword. A sion. close helmet entirely covers the head, IELVET'IC, an epithet designating face, and neck; having on the front per- what pertains to the Ielvetii, the ancient forations for the admission of air, and inhabitants of Switzerland, or to the slits through which the wearer may see modern states and inhabitants of the Al the objects around him; this part, which pine regions; as the EHelvetic confedeis styled the visor, (from the French word racy, &c. viser, to take aim,) lifts up by means of a HEM/I, a Greek word used in the compivotover each ear. Some helmetshave a position of several terms borrowed from bever, (from buveur, drinker, or from the that language. It signifies half, the same Italian bevere, to drink,) which, when as semi, and demi: thus, hemiplegia is a closed, covers the mouth and chin, and palsy of one half of the body; hemistich, either lifts up by revolving on the same half a verse: henicycle, a semi-circle. E-ERI AND THE FtNE ARTS. 291 HEMTISTICH, in poetry, denotes half third Norroy; these two last are called a verse, or a verse not completed. In provincial heralds. Besides these there reading common English verse, a short are six other inferior heralds, viz., York, pause is required at the end of each Lancaster, Somerset, Richmond, Chester, hemistich. and Windsor; to which, on the accession IIENDECASYL'LABLES, in poetical of king George I. to the crown, a new composition, a verse of eleven syllables. herald was added, styled Hanover herAmiong the ancients it was particularly ald; and another styled Gloucester king used by Catullus, and is well adapted for at arms.-Haer alds, amongst the ancient elegant trifles. Greeks and Romans, were held in great IEP'TACHORD, in ancient poetry, estimation, and looked upon as sacred. verses sung or played on seven chords or Those of Greece carried in their hands a different notes; in which sense the word rod of laurel, round which two serpents, was applied to the lyre when it had but without crests, were twisted as emblems seven strings. of peace. IHEP/TARCHY, a government exer- HER'ALDRY, is the art, practice, or cised by seven persons; or, a nation di- science of recording genealogies, and blavided into seven governments.-Sax. o zoning arms or ensigns armorial; or it is h,eptarchy, the seven kingdoms existing the science of conventional distinctions in England, between the fifth and ninth impressed on shields, banners, and other centuries. These kingdoms were sever- military accoutrements. It also teaches ally named, 1. Kent; 2. Sussex; 3. Wes- whatever relates to the marshalling of sex; 4. Essex; 5. Northumberland; 6. cavalcades, processions, and other public East-Angleland; 7. Mercia. The hep- ceremonies.-Iee1aldry has been divided tarchly was formed by degrees; but it into personal and national. The first of may be said to have commenced in 449, thdse divisions treats of bearings belongwhen lHengist arrived on the island. In ing to individuals, either in their own or 827 Egbert was enabled, by a combina- in hereditary right. The second treats tion of circumstances, to assume the title of distinctive emblems adopted by civil of King of England; but, in reality, communities. three of the kingdoms, Northumberland, HE R B A RI A, collections of dried East Angleland, and Mercia, were still plants, such as the old botanists called governed by their own kings, though horti sicci, or dry gardens. They are those kings were his vassals and tributa- formed by gluing to sheets of paper ries. The kingdoms he actually govern- branches and other parts of plants pressed ed were Kent, Sussex, Wessex, and Essex. flat, and dried in the sun or otherwise. I HERACLI'DE, the return of the He- If well prepared, they are as useful to raclide into Peloponnesus, in chronolo- the botanist as plants alive; but it is negy, constituted the beginning of profane cessary to have some practical skill to be history; all the time preceding that able to employ them advantageously. period being accounted fabulous. This The largest public herbaria are those of return happened in the year of the world the Museunm at Paris; the Imperial col2682, a hundred years after they were lection of Vienna; the Royal of Berlin: expelled, and eighty after the destruction and that of the British Museum, formerly of Troy. Sir Joseph Bank's. Nothing certain is HER'ALD, the title of an officer in En- known of the extent of these collections, land whose duty it anciently was to declare but they probably contain, in some cases, war, to challenge in battle and combat, to as many as 60,000 species. The herbariproclaim peace, and to execute martial um is an unattractive part of public mumessages; but who is, at present, to conduct seums; but a very important one for nuroyal processions, the creations of nobility, merous purposes of science, both practical andc the ceremonies of knighthood; to and speculative. publish declarations of war, not to the HERCULA'NEUM, an ancient city of enemy, but at home; to proclaim peace; Naples, overwhelmed by an eruption of to record and blazon armorial bearings; Mount Vesuvius in the reign of Titus; it and to regulate abuses in arms. under the was discovered in the year 1689, since authority of the earl-marshal, by whom which time many manuscripts, paintings, he is created. The heralds were formed statues, and other relics of antiquity, into a college by Richard the Third. The have been discovered. From the excavathree chief heralds are called kings at tions that have been made from time to arms, the principal of which is Garter; time, the ancient streets and buildings the next is called Clarencieux, and thej have been, as it were, again thrown open, 292 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [HER and the domestic affairs of the ancients attributed an extraordinary degree of revealed to the eyes of modern archeolo- bodily strength, combined with indomita. gists. Since 1828 new excavations have ble perseverance and moral energy in prostaken place, and a splendid private house ecuting and overcoming difficult achievehas been discovered, with a suite of cham- ments. The reader will at once recoghers, and a court in the centre. There is nize, as belonging to this class, the Baal a separate part of the mansion allotted of the Syrians, the Melkarth of Phoenicia, to females, a garden surrounded by ar- and the Rama of Hindostan; who, like cades and columns, and also a grand sa- the Grecian Hercules, outstripping in loon, which probably served for the meet- bodily and intellectual endowments the ing of the whole family. Another house, great mass of the people of the rude era also discovered, was very remarkable, in which they lived, achieved a multifrom the quantity and nature of the pro- plicity of deeds which were looked upon visions in it, none of which had been dis- as altogether miraculous, and which proturbed for eighteen centuries, for the cured for their authors empire and dodoors remained fastened, in the same state minion during their lives, and after death as they were at the period of the catas- a place among the gods. trophe which buried lerculaneum. The TIEREDIT'AMEINTS, in law, lands, family which occupied this mansion was, tenements, and whatever immovable in all likelihood, when the disaster took things a person may have to himself and place, laying in provisions for the winter. his heirs, by way of inheritance; and The provisions found in the store-rooms which, if not otherwise bequeathed, deconsist of dates, chestnuts, large walnuts, scend to him who is next heir, and not to dried figs, almonds, prunes, corn, oil, the executor, as chattels do. pease, lentils, pies, and hams. The in- HEIRED'ITARY, an appellation given ternal arrangement of the house, the man- to whatever belongs to a family by right -er in which it was ornamented, all, in of succession, from heir to heir. Some iact, announced that it had belonged to a monarchies are hereditary, and others rery rich family and to admirers of the elective; and some hereditary monarchies Arts; for there were discovered many pic- descend only to the heirs male, as in pures, representing Polyphemus and Ga- France; but others, to the next of blood, latest; Hercules and the three IHesperides, as in Spain, England, &c.-Hereditary Cupid and a Bacchante, Mercury and is also applied to offices and posts of honor lo, Perseus killing Medusa, and others. annexed to certain families; thus in There were also in the same house, vases, England the office of earl-marshal is hearticles in glass, bronze and terra cotta, reditary in the family of Howard. It is as well as medallions in silver, represent- also figuratively applied to good or ill ing in relief Apollo and Diana. qualities, supposed to be transmitted from HIERCU'LEAN, an epithet expressive a parent to a child; as, hereditary braof the great labor necessary to execute very, hereditary pride. any task; such as it would require the HEIRESY. a fundamental error in restrength or courage of Hercules to en- ligion, or an error of opinion respecting counter or accomplish. some fundamental doctrine of religion. IIBERCULES, in mythology, one of the But in countries where there is an estabmost celebrated personages of antiquity, lished church, an opinion is deemed herbelieved to be the son of Jupiter and esy, when it differs from that of the Alcmsena, the daughter of Electryon, king church. The Scriptures being the standof Mycene. The history and wonderful ard of faith, any opinion that is repugnant exploits of this hero are so well known, to its doctrines, is heresy; but as men that it would be superfluous to dwell up- differ in the interpretation of Scripture, on them here. There is, perhaps, no sub- an opinion deemed heretical by one body eest connected with antiquity to the right of Christians, may be deemed orthodox comprehension of which such formidable by another. In Scripture and primitive difficulties are presented; and hence the usage, heresy meant merely sect, party, numerous attempts that have been made or the doctrines of a sect, as we now use to separate truth from fiction in the his- deneomination or persuasion, implying tory of Hercules, by divesting it of the no reproach. mythological traditions with which it had IERIJETOCHI, among the ancient Saxbeen encumbered by all the writers of ons, signified the leader or commander antiquity. In some shape or another, all of an army, or the commander of the the profane nations of antiquity seem to militia in a country or district. have possessed a divinity to whom they HEI'IOT, in law, the fine paid to the HEXJ AND THE FINE ARTS. 293 lord of the manor, by copyholders, on the vian Brethren, by strict laws and observdeath of the tenant. ances. Accusations have been thrown HER'ISSON, in fortification, a beam out against them of their indulging, in or bar armed with iron spikes pointing their retirement, in many licentious outwards, and turning on a pivot; used practices; but it is certain that their into block up a passage. dustry supplies many of the markets of HIIEMENEIU'TCS, the art of finding Germany with various useful and ornathe inmetning of an author's words and mental articles of handiwork; that their phrases, and of explaining it to others. zeal has prompted them to establish afiThe word is seldomr used except in refer- liated societies in many parts of Europe ence to theological subjects. and America; and that in religious matHERiMETIC ART, the imaginary art ters they are neither extravagant themor science of alchemy; so termed from selves, nor intolerant of others. Hermes Trismegistus, a personage of IIE'THA, (sometimes written Aertha, questionable reality, looked up to by the Aortha, and Eorthe.) In German myalchemists as the founder of the art. thology, the name generally assigned in Some spurious works bearing his name modern times to the chief divinity of the are still extant. ancient German and Scandinavian naIIER'M[TS, or ER'EMITES, persons tions. She was worshipped under a vawho, in the early ages of Christianity, riety of names, of which the chief were secluded themselves from the world for exactly analogous to those of Terra, Rhea, devotional purposes, betaking themselves Cybele, and Ops, among the Greeks and to solitary and desert places (ipri.65,) Romans. Long before the Christian era whence their name. In the first five cen- the knowledge of Iertha appeared to turies of our era this class of persons was have been extended over a great portion extremely numerous; nor have individ- of northern Europe. Tacitus speaks of uals been wanting in latter ages who the wonderful unanimity which tribes have undergone the same privations with that had no other feature in common disthe same mistaken views, and have ac- played in worshipping this goddess, whom quired great reputation for sanctity in he designates Herthus, or lMother Earth. consequence. Her chief sanctuary was situated, accordIHE;RO, in pagan mythology, an illus- ing to the same authority, in a sacred trious mortal, but supposed by the popu- grove in an island of the ocean, in insula lace to partake of immortality, and after oceani, which, by some writers, has been his death to be placed among the gods. — supposed to be Riga, and by others ZetHero is also used in a more extensive land or Heligoland; but no modern resense for a great, illustrious, and extra- searches have been able accurately to fix ordinary personage; particularly one its locality. eminent for valor, courage, intrepidity, IHESPER'IDES, in Greek mythology, and other military virtues.-Hero, in a the daughters of Night, or the grandpoem or romance, is the principal per- daughters of IHesperus the brother of Atsonage, or the one who has the principal las, three or seven in number, possessors share in the actions related; as Achilles of the fabulous garden of golden fruit in the Iiiad, Ulysses in the Odyssey, &c. watched over by an enchanted dragon at -Heeroic verse hexameter verse, so the western extremities of the earth. called because it is used by poets in their Such at least is the most ordinary form heroic poems.-Heroic age, that age or of the fable, but it is very variously repperiod of the world wherein the heroes, resented. or demigods, are supposed to have lived. HET'EROCLITE. in grammar, a word The heroic age coincides with the fabu- which is irregular or anomalous, either lous age. in declension or conjugation, or which HERIRN'HUT, an establishment in deviates from the ordinary forms of inUpper Lusatia, comprising, it is said, at flection in words of a like kind. present 120 houses, and 1500 inhabitants, ItEX'ACHORD, in music, a progreswhich was founded by a few Moravians sion of six notes, to which Guido attached about the year 1722, under the patronage the syllables ut, re, mi,.fa, sol, la. The of Count Zinzendorf. The principles of hexachord is also called a sixth; and is the society thus formed are seclusion twofold, greater and less. The former is from the world, the enjoyment of a con- composed of two greater, two less tones, templative life, and the possession of all and one greater semitone, making five goods in common. Its members are intervals; the latter of two greater tones, bounml together, under the title of Mora- one lesser and two greater semitones. 294 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE IHIO HEXAM'ETER, in ancient poetry, a instances where a long vowel is followed verse consisting of six feet, the first four by a short one. The worst species of of which may be either dactyls or spon- hiatus is where the same vowel sound dees, the fifth must regularly be a dactyl, is repeated. and the sixth always a spondee. IHex- HII1'EARCHY, a term literally signiameter verse was employed on almost fyingholy government, and applied someevery topic to which poetry can be ap- times to the supposed polity, or social plied. In modern times several poets of constitution, among angels. Also, eccleFrance, England, and Germany have at- siastical government, or the subordinatempted to introduce this measure into tion of rank among the different orders the itnguage of their respective coun- of clergy. tries. The few specimens w'e have seen IIIEROGLYPIHICS, in antiquity, of it in French appeared to us wholly un- mystical characters or symbols used in successful. The little countenance given writings and inscriptions, particularly by to the attempts made by Dr. Southey the Egyptians, as signs of sacred, divine, and others to introduce it into English or supernatural things. The hieroglyphliterature, is conclusive, we think, against ics were figures of animals, parts of the its ever being generally adopted in that human body, &c., containing a meaning country; but, on the other hand, it has which was intelligible only to the priests, been cultivated in Germany with great and those who were initiated in their success, as the Hermann and Dorothea mysteries. In a general sense, a hieroof Goethe, and many other examples that glyphic is any symbol or figure which might be cited, abundantly prove. One may serve to represent an object and of the most successful specimens of mod- convey a meaning. ern hexameter is the admirable poem of ItIEROGRAM'MATISTS, in antiEvangeline, by our countryman, Long- quity, priests amongst the Egyptians who fellow. presided over learning and religion. Their IJEX'APLE, the combination of six duty was to take care of the hieroglyphversions of the Old Testament by Origen, ics, and expound religious mysteries and is so called: viz., the Septuagint, Aquila, opinions. They were also skilled in divTleodotian, Symmachus, one found at ination, and were honored with many Jericho, and another at Nicopolis. exemptions from civil duties and taxes. IIEX'ASTYLE, in architecture, that IIIERtOM'ANCY, in Grecian antiquity, species of temple or other building hav- a species of divination, which predicted - ing six columns in front. future events by observing the appear IIIA'TUS, a word which has passed ances of the various things offered in sacinto several modern languages. In dip- rifice. lonmatics and bibliography, it signifies a IIEROM'NEMON, in ancient Greece, deficiency in the text of an author, as a magistrate who presided over the safrom a passage erased, worn out, &c. In ered rites and solemnities. grammar and prosody, it properly signi- HI.ERON'ICES, in antiquity, a confes the occurrence of a final vowel, fol- queror at the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, lowed immediately by the initial vowel and Nemean games. of another word, without the suppression HIEROPHAN'TES, in Grecian antiof either by an apostrophe. This, in quity, the priests and priestesses who Greek and Latin poetry, was only admis- were appointed by the state to have the sible in certain excepted cases; as where, supervisal of sacred rites, and to take in Greek, a final long vowel is succeeded care of the sacrifices. by an initial short vowel, and becomes HIEROPYI'LAX, an officer in the sometimes short by position: or in Latin, Greek church, who was guardian or keeper where the ccesura gave an additional of the holy utensils, vestments, &c., anforce to the first vowel, as in the cele- swering to our sacristan or vestry-keeper. brated line, IIGIhNESS, a title of honor given to princes. The kings of England before "Ter sunt eonati imponere Peli Ossam. not ith the title James I. were not saluted with the title which affords an instance of both, the of "majesty," but that of highness only. first hiatus being occasioned by the cees- At present the children of crowned heads ura; the second, an imitation of the are generally styled ryal higlhness. Greek prosody. In French the hiatus is Those of the emperors of Austria and carefully avoided: in English less so, Russia are styled imperial higahness. although by the more accurate poets still HIGH-PRIEST, the head of the Jewregarded as a blemish, except in some ish priesthood. Moses conferred this dig HIS] AND THE FINE ARTS. 295 nity upon his orotner, in whose family it IITP'PODROME, in antiquity, a course descended without interruption. After for chariot and horse races. There are in the subjugation of the Jews by the Seleu- England some vestiges of similar courses, cidao, the Ptolemies, and the Romans. it the most remarkable of which is that near was often arbitrarily conferred by the Stonehenge. This hippodrome occupies a foreign masters. The importance of this tract of ground extending about two hunoficer is indicated by the splendor and dred druidical cubits, or three hundred costliness of his garment, which was and fifty feet, in breadth, and six thouamong the most beautiful works of an- sand druidical cubits, or more than a mile cient art. and three quarters, in length. It runs HILA'IRIA, in antiquity, a festival eel- directly east and west, and is completely ebrated by the Ronmans on the 8th of the inclosed with a bank of earth. The goal calends of April, in honor of the god Pan. and career are at the east end. The goal IINDOOS', the primitive inhabitants is a high bank of earth, raised with a of the East Indies; a people distinguish- slope inwards, on which the judges are ed for their humanity, gentleness, indus- supposed to have sat. There is one about try, and knowledge of the polite arts, half a mile to the southward of Leicester; at a time when most of their Asiatic another near Dorchester; and a third on neighbors were yet only in the first stages the banks of the Lowther, near Penrith of civilization, when the Greeks lay in in Cumberland. But these must have obscurity, and the nations of Europe been humble imitations indeed of the were in a state of barbarism. They have splendid structures erected in ancient preserved their national character from times, as may be seen in the description the most distant ages, even under the do- of the one at Olympias, as given by Pauminion of foreigners, and have retained sanias, or of that which was finished by to the present day their language, their Constantine, and which still fills the travwritten characters, their government, eller who visits the Turkish capital with religion, manners, customs, and habits astonishment. It is surrounded by two of life. They possess great natural tal- ranges of columns, extending farther than ents, but are at present deprived of op- the eye can reach, raised one above the portunities for their development, though other, and resting on a broad foundation, they are still largely engaged in manu- and is adorned by an immense quantity factures and commerce. In earlier times, of statues, in marble, porphyry, and before they were oppressed by a foreign bronze. yoke, they had reached a higher degree HISTOR'ICAL PAINTING, in paintof civilization, and their country has been ing, that department of the art which considered as the cradle of the arts and comprehends all representations whereof sciences. They are divided into four dis- history furnishes the subject. But under tinct classes, or castes, which, to the great this head are generally included subjects disadvantage of cultivation, are essen- from fabulous history. and those founded tially and perpetually separate from each on allegory. other, so that no transition from one to HISTORIOGRIAPIHER, a professed another is possible. But the most extra- historian, or writer of histories. It has ordinary custom of the Hindoos is the been a common, although not uniform burning of widows at the funeral of their practice in European courts, to confer the husbands. place of public historiographer on some HIIPPOCEN'TAUIR, in ancient fable, a learned man as a mark of royal favor. suppoced monster, half man and half horse. Voltaire had at one period the title of The hippocentacur differed from the cen- Royal IHistoriographer of France. taur in this, that the latter rode on an HIS'TORY, an account of facts, particuox, and the former on a horse, as the larly of facts respecting nations or states; name imports. a narration of events in the order in which HIP'POCRENE, a celebrated fountain they happened, with their causes and efat the foot of Mount Helicon, supposed to fects. I-story differs from annals. Anhave been produced by the horse Pegasus nals relate simply the facts and events of having struck his foot against the moun- each year, in strict chronological order, tain. It was regarded in antiquity with without any observations of the annalist. peculiar veneration, as it was believed to History regards less strictly the arrangebe a favorite haunt of the Muses, and was ment of events under each year, and adconsequently looked upon as one of the mits the observations of the writer. This chief sources whence the poets drew their distinction, however, is not always reinspiration. garded with strictness. History is of dif 296 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [HOL ferent kinds, or treats of different sub- cient Rome, signified an actor or comejects; as, a history of government, or po- dian; but more especially a pantomimist, litical history; history of the Christian whose talents were exerted in gesticuiachurch, or ecclesiastical history; history tions and dancing. of the affairs of nations, empires, king- HOCK'DAY, or -OIKE'DAY, a day doms, and states, their rise, progress, and of feasting and mirth, formerly held in decline, or civil history; history of relig- England the second Tuesday after Easion as contained in the bible, or sacred his- ter, to commemorate the destruction of tory.-Prqfane history is another name the Danes in the time of Ethelred. for civil history, as distinguished from sa- IiO'LINESS, a title of quality given cred history; history of war and con- to the pope, who is styled, "your holiquests, or military history; history of ness," or, "holy father:" in Latin, sanclaw; history of commerce; history of the tissime, or beatissime pater. crusades; history of literature, history of HOL'OCAUST, a burnt offering or sacscience, &c. In these and similar exam- rifice, wholly consumed by fire: of this pies, history is written narrative or rela- kind was the daily sacrifice in the Jewish tion. The divisions of history in relation church. This was done by way of acto periods of time have been reckoned knowledgment, that the person offering, three. 1. Ancient history, which includes and all that belonged to him, were the the Jewish history, and that of the na- effects of the divine bounty. The pagan tions of antiquity, and reaches down to nations, who also offered holocausts, probthe destruction of the Roman empire, ably considered them in the same light. A.D. 476. 2. History of the middle ages, IOL'OGRAPH, a deed or testament which begins with 476, and comes down wholly written by the hand of the testato the discovery of America in 1492, or tor. to the reformation. 3. Modern history, HO'Y ALLI'ANCE, THE, a league from either of these eras to our own times. formed between certain of the principal -Classical history, properly so called, is sovereigns of Europe, after the defeat of the history of the national affairs and Napoleon at Waterloo; on the proposal. conquests of the Greeks and Romans.- it is said, of the Emperor Alexander. The uses of history are as varied as they It arose from the religious enthusiasm are important. To become acquainted which was prevalent at that period of with the characters of men, the marks, deliverance from French domination, sources, and effects of their passions and and with which the Russian emperor was prejudices, the power and changes of their just then considerably imbued. The act customs, and the like, is an essential and of this alliance is said to have been sent necessary step to prudence; and all this in his handwriting to the emperor of knowledge is considerably improved by Austria and king of Prussia, and signed history, which teaches us to make other by them. It is not supposed that the men's experience our own, to profit by it, original terms of the league were other and to learn wisdom from their misfor- than indefinite; for the maintenance of tunes. Persons who read history merely justice, religion, &e., in the name of the for amusement, or, having in view some Gospel. But it was subsequently conparticular branch of learning, attend only nected with the determination of those to certain branches of history, are not monarchs to support, in conjunction with confined to that order and connection England and France, existing governwhich is absolutely requisite for obtain- ments throughout Europe, by the Declaing a proper knowledge of history; the ration of November, 1819: afterwards most regular, as well as successful way the congresses of Troppau, Laybach, and of studying which, is to begin with an Verona established the character of the epitome of universal history, and after- alliance; to which the war of France wards apply to the history of particular against Spain, in 1823, gave additional nations and commonwealths; for the illustration. Since the secession of Engstudy of particular histories is only ex- land andFrance, the alliance can scarcely tending the knowledge of particular parts be said to have any active existence. of universal history. Unless this be our HO'LY ROOD, or HOLY CROSS, a plan, we shall only fill the memory with festival kept on the 14th of September, some events; which may be done with- to commemorate the exaltation of the out applying to history, or pretending to Ioly Cross. It is from this circumstance the knowledge of it. that the royal palace in Edinburgh has HISTRION'IC ART, that of acting in derived its appellation. dramatic representation. Histrio, in an- HO'LY THURSDAY, or ASCENSION HOM] AND THE FINE ARTS. 297 DAY, in the Romish calendar, the 39th ble homicide, and between manslaughter day after Easter Sunday. A festival in and murder, are, in many cases, difficult colmmemoiration of Christ's ascension. to define with precision. But, in general, 1[O'LY-WATER, in the Roman Cath- the accused has the advantage of any unolic and Greek churches, water which has certainty or obscurity that may hang ox\ r been consecrated by prayers, exorcisms, his case, since the presumptions of law and other ceremonies, to sprinkle the are usually in his favor. faithful and things used for the church. IHOM'ILY, a sermon or discourse upon It is contained in a particular kind of some point of religion, delivered in a vases, at the doors of churches, and also plain manner, so as to be easily underwithin them at certain places, from which stood by the common people. In the the Catholics sprinkle themselves before primitive church, homily rather ment a prayer. The Protestants renounce the conference or conversation by way of quesuse of holy-water probably from a fear tion and answer, which nmade part of the that it would be considered, like amulets office of a bishop, till the fifth century, or relics, as something efficacious in it- when the learned priests were allowed to self, without the repentance commanded preach, catechize, &c., in the same manby t he church. ner as the bishops used to do. There are HO'LY-WEEK, the week before Eas- still extant several fine homilies, cointer, in which the passion of our Saviour is posed by the ancient fathers.-IHo-i'metic commenorated. or pstoral tlheology, a branch of practical ItO'MliE OMERI'A, the name given to theology, which teaches the manner in the physical theory of Anaxagoras, a which ministers of the gospel should adapt Grecian philosopher of Clazormence, who their discourses to the capacities of their flourished in the fifth century B.c. Ac- hearers, and pursue the best methods of cording to this hypothesis, every material instructing them by their doctrines and substance is made up of infinitely small examples. parts similar to itself. Hence the growth HOMOEOP'ATHIY, a mode of treating and nourishment of animals and vegeta- diseases, which consists in the adminisbles was accounted for, by supposing the tration of a medicine which is capable of alimentary substance to be analyzed into exciting in healthy persons symptoms its various component parts correspond- closely similar to those of the disease ing to the parts of the substance nourish- which it is desired to cure. ed. For instance, corn was supposed to HOMOGE'NEOUS, or HOMOGE'NEcontain particles of blood, bone, flesh, AL, an appellation given to things. the skin, &c., which by the process of diges- elements of which are of similar niation were separated from each other, and ture andpclpoperties. —IHo7oieeog ts light, added to the corresponding parts of the that whereof the rays are all of one color animal body. This theory bears some and degree of refrangibility, without any resemblance to that of the'monads of mixture of others. Leibnitz in modern times. IOMONYMS, words which agree in IHOM'AGE, in law, the oath of submis- sound, but differ in signification; a-s the sion and loyalty, which the tenant, under substantive " bear" and the verb b' ear." the feudal system, used to take to his lord HOMOOU'SIANS, and 11HOMOIO'when first admitted to his land. SIANS, names by which the Orthodox HtOMERIC, pertaining to Homer, the and Ariai parties were distinguished in great poet of Greece, or to his poetry. the great controversy upon the nature of I-OMIICIDE, in law, the killing of one Christ in the fourth century; the former human being by another. It is of three word signifying that the nature of the kinds, jutstiJiable, excusable, or felonious; Father and Son is the same, the latter jutstifiable, when it proceeds from una- that they are simtilar. Homoonsian (Gr. voidable necessity, without an intention bOjoovastos ) is derived from ipos, the same, to kill, and without negligence; excusa- and uelea, being; Homoiousian (Otoiovo-io5) ble, when it happens from misadventure, from botosto, similar, and dvri. or in self-defence; felonious, when it pro- HOMIIOPHONOUS, in music, of the ceeds from malice, or is done in the pros- same pitch, or unisonal. Two or more ecution of some unlawful act, or in a sud- sounds are said to be homophonous when den passion. Homicide committed with they are exactly of the same pitch. premeditated malice, is murzder. Sui- HOMIOPIHONY: homophonous words cide also, or self-murder, is felonious or syllables, in language, are words or homicide.-The lines of distinction be- syllables having the same sound, although tween felonious and excusable or justifia- expressed in writing by various combina 298 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [ION tions of letters. Languages which abound I temples, which were so placed, that no in homophonies are, 1. Some Oriental one could enter the temple of Honor, monosyllabic tongues, namely, the Chi- without passing through that of Virtue; nese and its kindred dialects, in which by which the Romans were continually very few sounds comprise the whole vo- put in mind. that virtue is the only direct cabulary, and the same sound is expressed path to true glory. The first temple to by a variety of ideographic characters, (in honor was erected by Scipio Africalnus Chinese there are only 400 such sounds, and another afterwards was built by multiplied by the distinctions of tone and Claudius Marcellus. We find a personiaccent to 1600 or 2000;) and, 2. Some fication of this quality on several medals European tongues in which, according to of G-alba and of Vitellius. She is reprethe genius of the dialect, the syllables of sented half naked, holding in one hand a the original languages from which the spear, and in the other a cornucopia: words are chiefly derived have been con- upon others, a long robe envelops the tracted in speaking, and part of their figure, and the spear is exchanged for an sounds dropped, while the greater part of olive branch.-Hono-r, in law, a superior the letters is retained. Thus in English, seignory, to which other lordships annd and still more in French, which is pecu- manors owe suit and service, and which, liarly a dialect of Latin abounding in con- itself, holds of the king only —Ilonors qf tractions, homophonies are numerous, (in wara, honorable terms granted to a vanthe latter tongue the number of syllables quished enemy, when he is permitted to differently spelt, all having nearly the march out of a town with all the insignia sound of our broad A, amounts to more of military honors.-Laws of honor, than a hundred;) while in Italian, in among persons of fashion, signify certain which the original proportions of the Ro- rules by which their social intercourse is man language are preserved, they are regulated, and which are founded on a scarcely to be found at all. regard to reputation. These laws reIONG, the Chinese name for the for- quire a punctilious attention to decorum eign factories situated at Canton. The in external deportment, but often lead to hong merchants are those persons who are the most flagrant violations of moral alone legally permitted to trade with for- duty.-Court of honor, an ancient court eigners. They are ten in number, and of civil and criminal jurisdiction, having are always held responsible by the gov- power to redress injuries of honor, and to eminent for paying all duties, whether on hold pleas respecting ematters of arms and imports or exports in foreign vessels. No deeds of war.-Maids of honor, ladies in foreign ship that enters the Chinese ports the service of European queens, whose can commence unloading until she has business it is to attend the queen when obtained a hong merchant as security for she appears in public. In England, they the duties. arc six in number, with a salary of ~;300 HON'OR, a testimony of esteem or each. submission, expressed by words, actions, IJON'ORABLE, a title prefixed to the and an exterior behavior by which we Christian names of the younger sons of make known the veneration and respect earls, and to those of all the children, we entertain for any one, on account of both sons and daughters, of viscounts and his dignity or merit. The word honor is barons. It is also conferred on persons also used in general for the esteem due filling certain offices of trust and dignity to virtue, glory, and reputation. It such as the maids of honor of the queen moreover means, that dignified respect and queen dowager; and collectively on for character, which springs from princi- certain public bodies or institutions. as pie or moral rectitude, and which is a the House of Commons, the Congress of distinguishing trait in the character of the United States, the East India Corngood men.. It is also used for virtue and pany, &c., &c. The title of'right honorprobity themselves, and for an exactness able is given to all peers and peeresses in performing whatever we have promis- of the United Kingdom; to the eldest ed: and in this last sense we use the sons and all the daughters of peers above term, a man of honor. But honor is more the rank of viscount; to all privy counparticularly applied to two different kinds sellers; and to some civic functionaries, of virtue, bravery in men, and chastity as the lord mayors of London and Dubin women. Virtue and honor were deified lin, the lord provosts of Edinburgh and among the Greeks and Romans, and had Glasgow, &c. a joint temple consecrated to them at HONORA'RIUM, a term used almost Rome; but afterwards they had separate synonymously with fee, and applied at HOR] AND THE FINE ARTS. 299 present chiefly to the fees tendered to until the reign of Augustls COesar that professors in universities, and to Inedical the Arts were duly honored. On the reor other professional gentlemen for their vival of intellectual energy, after the services. It was originally applied solely darkness of the middle ages, the Arts were to the sa:laries of the great officers of state, liberally encouraged. Michael Angelo whose services it was considered, by a was high in favor with the fierce Julius perhaips pardonable euphemism, were re- II. Raphael was greatly beloved by nune rated only. asitwere, honoriscausa; Leo X.; and the emperor Maximilian a sh ide of meaning which is still percep- becamethe warm patron of Albert Durer, tille in the present use of the term. whom he ennobled. Leonardo ds Vinci HO1T'ORS. Greece, in the heroic times, died in the arms of Francis I. Rubens rendered to all her great generals and enjoyed the highest consideration, and captains some liberal reward as a proof was entrusted with important negotiaof the public approbation and respect. tions both by Philip IV. of Spain and This was sometimes offered in the shape Charles IT. of England. Even the stern of a.'.ase of gold, or of a silver tripod, or Henry VIII. was a mild and kind master somn other valuable article either of util- to Holbein; and the illustrious name of ity or of mere ornament. Similar re- Medici will at once recall the zeal of that wards were conceded to the victorious princely family for the cultivation of the Roman leader in the slhape of a triumph Fine Arts. or ov.ation. Nor was it to military merit HOOD, an article of dress designed to alone that the ancients decreed honors: cover the head and shoulders, and soncthe Fine Arts were made objects of national times signifying; among the ancients, a regard and encouragenient. Philosophy, mantle, which served likewise to envelop eloquence, painting, poetry, music, sculp- the whole body. In this sense we find it ture, architecture, were each enabled to alluded to, as serving to conceal from obaspire to the highest distinctions. The servation the persons of the Roman youth Lacedxamonians, even although their edu- during their nocturnal rambles. In such a cation was decidedly warlike, erected habit is usually depicted Telesphorus, the statues to the poet Tyrtius. At the eel- son of Esculapius. ebrated public games in Sparta, prizes HO'PLITES, the heavy-armed infanwere distributed to the most successful try of Grecian antiquity. According to amongst the poets and musicians. Athens the Athenian regulations (similar, proberected statues to Solon, to Socrates, and ably, to those of other states), the higher an infinity of others. To Homer temples classes of citizens only, as estimated by were raised; and various poets and art- the census, were liable to this expensive ists received crowns, prerogatives, and form of military service; in process of often the'rights of citizenship. The Athe- time, however, it seems that the Thetes nians inscribed upon the front of their or inferior classes also served as hoplites. temples the names of the able architects The hoplites were armed in early times who had designed them. The town of with the spear, heavy defensive arm.or, Pergamus purchased with the public and large shield; the latter were exfunds a palace for the reception of the changed after the time of Iphicrates for works of Apelles. The Eleans. for whom the light cuirass and target. Phidias executed the statue of Jupiter IHORDE, a company of wandering peoOlympus, in honor for the memory of ple, who have no settled habitation, but the artist, and in respect for the surpass- stroll about, dwelling under tents, to be ing beauty of his work, erected, in favor ready to shift, as soon as the provisions of his descendants, a. lucrative office, of of the place fail them. vwhich the only duty consisted in taking HORI'ZON, is the plane of a great care of, and keeping free from blemish, circle of the sphere, dividing the visible that celebrated piece of art. In the times from the invisible hemisphere. The horiof the republic, by the Romans, amongst zon is either senisible or rational. The whom the use of arms constituted the sensible horizon is a plane which is a chief, nay, aluost the only species of tangent to the earth's surface at the place merit, few testimonies of esteem were of the spectator, extended on all sides till awarded to the practisers of the Fine Arts. it is bounded by the sky; the rational They affixed no honorable distinctions to horizon is a plane parallel to the former, the successful architect, painter, or sculp- but passing through the centre of the tor, inasmuch as these peaceful avoca- earth. Both the sensible and rational tions were, for the most part, cultivated horizon are relative terms, and change either by slaves or freedmen. It was not with every change of the spectator's po 300 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE LIOS sition on the surface of the earth; in all IOSAN'NA, was a form of supplicacases they are perpendicular to the direc- tion amongst the Hebrews, signifying, tion of gravity.-Artificial or pai7ter's save, I beseech you, or help him God! horizon. In every picture the artificial This acclamation was so much used at the eye, or pOint of sig'htt, is supposed to be feast of tabernacles, that the solemnity at a certain height from the base line; was called iIosanna? rabba. It was used as high as a human figure would be, rep- at the inauguration of kings to express resented as standing there. To this point their good wishes for the prosperity of everything in the picture tends, as every- their princes. At the feast of tabernacles thing in a real view tends to the natural it was continually echoed, both as expresseye. The picture then, as far as this ive of gratitude for former deliverances, circumst.ance is concerned, is perfect, if and of their joyful expectation of a future the arti cical eye and the artificial hori- one by the Messiah. zo? go together; for these always bear HO'SEA, a canonical book of the Old the saune relation to each other, wherever Testament, and the first of the minor prothe picture imay be placed. phets. His prophecies are chiefly directIIOV'OSCOPE, a representation of the ed to the ten tribes before their captivity, aspect of the heavens and positions of the threatening them with destruction in case celestial bodies at a particular moment, of disobedience, but comforting the pious drawn according to the rules of the ima- with the promise of the Messiah, and of ginary science of astrology. Thus the the happy state of the church in the lataspect of the hetavens at the moment of the ter days. birth of an individual is his horoscope, and HIOS'PITAL, a place or building propsupposed to indicate his future destinies. erly endowed, or otherwise supported by ItOISE'-POWER, the power of a charitable contributions, for the reception horse, or its equivalent; the force with and support of the poor, aged, infirm, sick, which a horse acts when drawing. It is or helpless. Also, a house for the recepcompounded of his weight and muscular tion of disabled sea.men or soldiers, foundstrength, and diminishes as his speed in- lilgs, &c., who are supported by public creases. The mode of ascertaining a or private charity, as well as for pauper horse's power is to find what weight he lunatics, infected persons. &c.-IHospitals can raise, and to what height in a given for the sick and wounded, and also those time, the horse being supposed to pull for the poor and infirm, were wholly unhorizontally. From a variety of experi- known among the ancients. In Sparta, ments of this sort, it is found that a where all the citizens ate together, there horse, at an average, can raise 160 pounds was no institution for the sick. In Rome, weight at the velocity of 2 1-2 miles per neither under the consuls nor emperors hour. The power of a horse exerted in did they ever think of making any prothis way, is made the standard for esti- vision for the infirm or the poor. The mating the power of a steam-engine. first establishment of hospitals must be Thus we speak of an engine of 60 or 80 ascribed to Christians. After the estabhorse-power, each horse-power being es- lishment of Christianity, the emperors at timated as equivalent to 33,000 pounds, Constantinople built many hospitals for raised one foot high per minute. poor infants, the aged, orphans, and IHOP TICULTURE, the cultivation of strangers. Piety impelled manyindivida garden; or the art of cultivating gar- uals to appropriate a part of their funds dens. It includes in its most extensive to religious and charitable purposes; and signification the cultivation of eseulent this good example being followed, from vegetables, fruits, and ornamental plants, patriotic and benevolent motives, hospiand the formation and management of tals of various kinds were founded in most rural scenery, for the purposes of utility of the civilized nations of Europe. and embellishment, but in a more re- IIO'PITALLERS, an order of religstricted sense, it is employed to designate ious knights, who built a hospital at Jethat branch of rural economy which con- rusalem for pilgrims. They are now sists in the formation and culture of gar- known by the title of knights of Malta. dens. Its results are culinary vegeta- HOSPI'TIUM, a term used in old bles, fruits, and flowers. writers either for an inn or a monastery, IHOl'TUS SICCUS, literally, a dry built for the reception of strangers and garden; an appellation given to a collec- travellers. In the more early ages of tion of specimens of plants, carefully dried the world, before public inns were thought and preserved. The old name of her- of, persons who travelled lodged in pribarium. vate houses, and were obliged, if need re----- - ------------ HOU] AND TIIE FINE ARTS. 301 quired, to return the favor to those that ern extremity of Africa; arace of people entertained them. This was the occasion whose appearance. habits, and general of the most intimate friendship betwixt ignorance, show in the most striking manthe parties, insomuch that they treated ner to what a degraded condition mranone another as relations. Hence the word kind may be reduced, when wholly destihospitium, which properly signifies lodg- tute of the blessings of civilization. ing or entertainment at the house of an- HOUR, a space of time equal to one other, is used for friendship, founded upon twenty-fourth part of a day and night, the basis of hospitality. and consisting of 60 minutes, each minHOS'PODAR, a title borne by the ute being 60 seconds.-The ancient leprinces of Wallachia and Moldavia, who brews did not divide their day into hours. receive the investiture of their principal- Their division of the day was into four ities from the grand seignior. H-e gives parts, morning, high day or noon, the them a vest and standard: they are un- first evening, and the last evening; and der his protection, and obliged to serve their night was divided into three parts, him, and he even sometimes deposes them; night, midnight, and the morning w;atch. but in other respects they are absolute But afterwards they adopted the manner sovereigns within their own dominions. of the Greeks and Raomans, who divided HOST, in church history, a contraction the day, i. e., the space of time fromn sun of h.ostic, a Latin word, signifying a vie- rising till sun-set, into twelve equal parts, tim, or sacrifice offered to the Deity. In which consequently differed in length, at a general sense, the term is used to Jesus the different seasons of the year, though Christ, as an hostitia offered to the Father still equal to each other. for the sins of mankind.-In the church HOURIS, the name given by the Euof Rome, the host is the consecrated wafer ropeans to the imaginary beings whose usedl in the sacrament of the Eucharist; company in the Mohammedan paradise is which wafer, or bread, being transubstan- to form the principal felicity of the betiated, as is taught, into the real body lievers. The name is derived from hfzr and blood of Christ, is in that rite offered al oyun, signifying black-eyed. They are up a sacrifice anew. The elevation of the represented in the Koran as most beautihost is a ceremony prevalent in all Cath- ful virgins, with comiplexions like rubies olic countries, in which the consecrated and pearls. and possessed of every intelelements are raised aloft and carried in lectual and corporeal charm. They are procession through a church, or even not created of clay, as mortal women, but through the streets of a city. On these of pure mlusk; and are endowed with imoccasions the people fall on their knees mortal youth, and immunity from the and worship the host. The origin of the diseases and defects of ordinary beings. custom is dated from the 12th century, IHOURS, in mythology, divinities rewhen, it is said, it was thought necessary garded in two points of viewv-as the godto make this public and conspicuous de- desses of the seasons, and hours of the claration of the Eucharist on the occasion day; and their number is stated in difof the promulgation of the opinions of ferentways accordingly. Their duty was Berengarius against transubstantiation. to hold the gates of heaven, which they HOS'TAGE, a person given up to an opened to send forth the chariot of the enemy as a security for the performance sun in the morning, and receive it again of the articles of a treaty; on the per- in the evening. No classical poet has formance of which the person is to be re- described them with greater beauty than leased. Shelley, in a celebrated passage of his HOTEL', signifies, in a general sense, Promoetheues lUnbound. These goddesses a large inn for the reception of strangers; are often depicted as forming the train but in a particular sense, especially in of Venus. France, it is applied to the residences of HOURS, CANON'ICAL, the seven the king, nobility, or other persons of hours of prayer, observed, it is said, by rank: or it is used synonymously with the Catholic church since the 5th cenhospitals, as the Hotel Dieu, Hotel des tury; chiefly in monasteries. The numnIn.valides, &c. ber seems before that time to have vaIOTTE, a basket of wicker-work, much ried, although some peculiar seasons of used in France, for carrying burthens on the day and night were always set apart the back. It is slung over the arms by for this observance. They became finally means of straps, and great weights are fixed at seven by the rule of St. Bonethus carried with much facility. diet; a number, perhaps, recommended HOT'TENTOTS, natives of the south- by the literal acceptation of the words 302 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [HUR of David, (Psalm cxix.,) "Seven times a use, however, is in the discharge of greday will I praise thee." These hours nades. are termed, in the language of the Latin HUE AND CRY, in law, the common church, matins, prima, tertia, nona, vesp- law process of pursuing a felon. The oriers, completa or completorium, which last ginal signification of the phrase evidently takes place at midnight. At the time was, that the offender should be pursued of the Reformation the canonical hours with a loud outcry, in order that all were reduced in the Lutheran church to might hear and be induced to join in the two. imorning and evening; the " re- pursuit. formed" church never observed them. HU'GUENOT, a French word used afI-IOUSE, a human habitation, or place ter the year 1560, as an appellation for a of abode of a family. Among the Eastern Protestant. Its origin, and consequently nations, and those to the south, houses its literal meaning, has received various are flat on the top, with the ascent to explanations. Their history forms an the upper story by steps on the outside. important feature in the annals of perAs we proceed northward, a declivity of secution. The religious prejudices of the the roof becomes requisite to throw off people were kept alive by contending pothe rain and snow, which are of greater litical factions, till France was nearly continuance in higher latitudes. Among desolated by what was termed " religious the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Jews, wars;" and at length a dreadful massacre the houses usually enclosed a quadran- of the Huguenots took place on St. Bargular area or court, open to the sky. tholomew's day, 1572. Henry IV., 1598, This part of the house was by the Romans protected them by the edict of Nantes; called the impluvium, or cavwdisum, and but Louis XIV., 1685, revoked this edict, was provided with channels to carry off in consequence of which 500,000 HIuguethe waters into the sewers. The word nots fled to Switzerland, Germany, IHolhouse is a term used in various ways; land, England, and America, where their as, in the phrase, " a religious house," industry and wealth found a welcome reeither the buildings of a monastery, or ception. the community of persons inhabiting them, HUISSIERS', civil officers in France, may be designated. In the Middle Ages, whose attendance is necessary at every! when a family retired to the lodge con- judicial tribunal, from that of a justice nected with the mansion, or to their of the peace to the court of cassation. country-seat, it was called " keeping There are different degrees of them, antheir secret house."-flouse, among ge- swering in some respects to the sheriffs, nealogists, a noble family, or an illus- clerks, and criers of our courts. trious race, descended from the same HULK, in naval architecture, the body stock; as the house of Austria; the house of a vessel, or that part which is, in truth, of Hanover —When speaking of a body the vessel itself; the masts, sails, and of men united in their legislative capa- cordage, composing only the apparatus for city, and holding their place by right or its navigation.-aHclk is also an old ship; by election, we also use the word house; so called because such ship being no lonas the House of Lords or the House of ger intended for navigation, the masts Commons. are taken away. Such old vessels are IHOUSE'-BREAKING, in law, the employed in the business of raising sand breaking open and entering of a house or ballast; and the crimlinals that are by daylight, with the intent to commit a condemned to this work in the way of felony. The same crime committed at punishment, are said to be condemned to night is denominated a burgslary. the hulks. HOUSE'HOLD, the whole of a family HUMAN'ITIES, a term used in schools considered collectively, including the mis- and colleges, to signify polite literature, tress, children, and servants. But the or grammar, rhetoric, and poetry, inhousehold of a sovereign prince includes eluding the study of the ancient classics, only the officers and domestics belonging in distinction fromn philosophy and science. to his palace. IUR/RICANE, a most violent storm IIOWAD'JI, the Arabian name for of wind, generally accompanied by thunmerchant or shopkeeper; and applied by der and lightning, and rain, or hail. the Orientals to all travellers. Hurricanes prevail chiefly in the East HOW'ITZER, a kind of mortar, mount- and West Indies, the Isle of France, and ed upon a carriage like a gun. The how- in some parts of China. A hurricane is itzer is used to throw grenades, case-shot, distinguished from every other kind of and sometimes fire-balls; their principal tempest by the extreme violence of the HYA] AND THE FINE ARTS, 303 wind, and by its sudden changes; the ter, and York, by the principal officers wind often veering suddenly several of their respective corporations. ere, points, sometimes a quarter of the circle deeds may be enrolled, outlawries sued and even more. Hurricanes appear to out, and replevins and writs of error dehave an electric origin; the velocity of termined. Here, also, the elections of the wind exceeds that of a cannon ball, officers and parliamentary representasometimes 300 feet in a second. Corn, tives take place. In a popular sense, the vines, sugar-canes, forests, houses, every- word hustings is used for a place raised thing is swept away by it. What are for the candidates at elections of memcalled hurricanes in more northern lati- bers of parliament. tudes are only whirlwinds occasioned by HUTCHINSO'NIANS, the name given the meeting of opposite currents of air. to those who embraced the opinions of IHUS'BANDIY, the practical part of John Hutchinson, a well-known philosothe scie-nce of agriculture, or the business pher and naturalist of the 18th century. of cultivating the earth and rearing ani- Though the followers of Hutchinson have mals. Husbandry is the proper term for never constituted a sect, they have reckthat which is commonly called farming; oned among their number several distinand, accordingly, in law, a man of this pro- guished divines both of the established fession is not to be styled a farmer, but a churches of England and Scotland, and of husbandman. It includes agriculture, dissenting communities. The number breeding, grazing, dairying, and every of professed IHutchinsonians is rapidly deother occupation by which riches may be creasing, though the principles and views drawn from the superficial products of the of their founder are still entertained by earth. For a long time past it has been many. The chief characteristics of progressively rising in estimation; and Hutchinson's philosophy consist in his the present age beholds the descendants rejection of Newton's doctrine of gravitaof feudal chieftains seeking honorable tion; and in his maintaining the existrenown in that pursuit which was once ence of a plenum on the authority of the abandoned to the meanest of their ances- Old Testament, which, according to him, tors' vassals. Late improvements in agri- embraces a complete system of natural culture consist in the lessening the quan- philosophy as well as of religion. tity of labor, by means of implements, Y/ACINTII, a genus of pellucid machines, and methodical arrangements. gems, whose color is red with an admixIIUSSARS', the name by which certain ture of yellow. The hyacinth, though cavalry regiments are distinguished. It less striking to the eye than any other is a word of Hungarian origin, and was red gems, is not without its beauty in originally given to the cavalry of that the finest specimens. Its structure is country, raised in 1458, when Mathias I. foliated; its lustre, strong; its fracture, ordered the prelates and nobles to assem- conchoidal; and it is found of various ble, with their cavalry, in his camp. sizes, from that of a pin's head to the Every twenty houses were obliged to third of an inch in diameter. Like confurnish a man; and thus from the HIun- mon crystal, it is sometimes found cogarian words husz (twenty,) and ar (pay,) lurnar, and sometimes in a pebble form; was formed the name lhuszar or ussar. and is always hardest and brightest in H US S I T E S, the disciples of John the larger masses. Huss, a Bohemian, and curate of the 1HYACIN'TIHUS, in Grecian mytholochapel of Bethlehem at Prague; who, gy, the son of Amyclas, king of Laconia, about the year 1414, embraced-and de- and of the muse Clio, accidentally killed defended the opinion of Wickliff of Eng- by Apollo while they were playing at land, for which he was cited before the quoits. The story is thus related:council of Constance and, refusing to re- Zephyr, enraged' at the preference disnounce his supposed errors, he was con- played by Hyacinthus for Apollo, caused demned to be burnt alive, which sen- the wind of which he was the god to turn tence was accordingly excuted upon him from its course a quoit thrown by Apollo, at Constance. This gave rise to a rebel- which, hitting him on the forehead inlion of the Hussites, who avenged his stantaneously caused his death. The latdeath by one of the fiercest and most ter- ter immortalized his favorite by causing rible civil wars ever known. the flower which still bears his name to HUIS'TINGS, (from the Saxon word, spring from his blood, and inscribed the ch.ustingce, a council, or court,) a court word AI (Gr. at, alas) on its leaves, to held in the guildhalls of several English indicate the deep grief of the god for his cities, as London, Westminster, Winches- loss. An annual festival, named Hya 304 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [HYM cinthia., was celebrated at Amyclas in The employment of the serpent as a honor of Hyacinthus. It continued three mythological symbol of life and health days, on the first of which all was lamen- has been by some derived from the histation, and mourning, and woe; but on tory contained in the first chapter of the second and third days they danced Genesis. and sung hymns to Apollo, offered sacri- HY'GEINE, that branch of medicine fices, exhibited spectacles, treated their which relates to the means of preserving friends, and enjoyed themselves with public health. much festivity. IIYLOZO'ISM, in philosophy, strictly IHYBRID, an epithet for any animal the doctrine that matter lives. Some whose sire is of one kind, and dam of writers hare confined this name to the another kind. tenet of the animla nmundi, or soul of the IIY'DRA, a celebrated monster which world; others to the theory of a peculiar infested the neighborhood of the lake life residing in the whole of nature, apLerna in Peloponnesus. It was the fruit proaching, therefore, in its sense to panof Echidna's union with Typhon. It had theism. This liBf is either merely ora hundred heads, according to Diodorus: tanic or actually sentient: the latter but accounts vary much on this point, notion has been also called hylopathlsm. and no wonder; since, as soon as one of HY'MEN, among the ancients, the god these heads was cut off, two immediately of Marriage. The origin of the worship grew up, unless the wound was stopped of this divinity is attributed to the folby fire. It was one of the labors of Her- lowing story:-A young Athenian, namcules to destroy this monster, which he ed Hymensus, in humble circuumstances, easily effected with the assistance of having become enamored of a rich and Iolas, who applied burning iron to the noble lady, from whose presence he was wounds as soon as each head was cut off. debarred, attired himself in female habiliThe ancient artists differ in their repre- meats, and joined a religious procession sentations of the hydra. Sometimes it to Eleusis, in which his mistress took is a serpent branched out into several part. On their way thither the parties others; and sometimes has a human head, who composed it were attacked by pirates, with serpents upon it instead of hair, and who carried them into captivity; but descending less and less in serpentine folds. IymenLcus seized the opportunity, when -The term hydra is sometimes used in a they were asleep, of putting them to metaphorical sense for any manifold evil. death, and departing immediately for IY'DRO MANCY, a method of divina- Athens, engaged to restore all the ladies tion by water, amnongst the ancients, per- to their families on condition of his obformed by holding a ring in a thread over taining permission to marry the object the water, and repeating, along with the of his affection. The Athenians consentquestion to be solved, a certain form of ed; the nuptials of Ilymrcneus were words. If the question was answered af- crowned with happiness; and from that firnmatively, the ring of its own accord period the Greeks instituted festivals in struck the sides of the bowl. his honor, and invoked hism at the celeIIYGEITA, the god- bration of their marriages. The formula dess of health, in the employed on these occasions was, " 0 Greek mythology; the Iymenmse Hymen, Hymen 0 HIym.eneOe." daughter or wife of Es- — Hymeneal is used to signify a sono or culapius, according to ode composed in celebration of a marthe different recitals of riage. genealogists. Her sta- HYMN, an ode in praise of the Deity, tues (of which the most or some divine personage. The earliest celebrated was at Si- Greek hymns are those attributed, probcyon) sometimes repre- ably without foundation, to Homer: imi-?\. ]fi sented her attended by tatedby Callimachus. They are in heroic a large serpent coiled verse, except one of Callimachus in hexround her body, and el- ameters and pentameters; and their conevating its head above tents, for the most part, are narrations her arm to drink of a of the events in the mythological history cup which she held in of the respective gods and goddesses to! her hand. Isis, in whom they are dedicated, related in an Egyptian monuments, encomiastic strain. The choric strains of 5i l aappears sometimes in some of the tragedians in honor of deia similar attitude. ties, introduced into their dramas, appear }HYP] AND THE FINE ARTS. 3 0 also to have the character of hymns; es- that which is offered. Exaggeration is pecially as dramatic performances among hyperbole applied to narrative, when the Greeks, had something of a religious false assertions are added to true, in orsolemnity attached to them. The Theur- der to increase the impression made by gic hymns were strains of a higher charac- them. ter, and intended only for those who were IIYPERBO'REANS, the name given initiated into certain mysteries supposed by the ancients to the unknown inhabto have for their object the diffusion of itants of the most northern regions of more exalted notions of the divinity. the globe, who were reported always Those which are falsely attributed to Or- to enjoy a delightful climate, being, pheus, and pass by his name, are said to according to their notions, situated. bebe of this class; but. except from their yond the domain of Boreas or the north obscurity, it is difficult to say from what wind; but, in fact, they were the Lapreason. Philosophical hymns, intended landers, the Samoiedes, and the most for the use of the followers of a still high- northern of the Russians. er species of worship, are mentioned in IIY'PERCATALEC'TIC, in Greek and the division of ancient hymns; but we Latin poetry, a verse exceeding its prophave no genuine examples of such con- er length by one syllable. positions. In modern literature, hymns HY'PERCRIT'lCISM, consists in vieware pieces of sacred poetry intended to ing the works of an author in an ungenbe sung in churches, of which the Psalms erous spirit, exaggerating minor defects, of David, the most ancient pieces of po- and overlooking or undervaluing such etry, properly so called, on record, (ex- merits or beauties as might fairly be concept the book of Job,) furnish the chief sidered to outweigh the former. example and model. St. IHilary, bishop IIYPER'METER, a verse containing of Poitiers, is said to have been the first a syllable more than the ordinary rmeaswho composed hymns to be sung in ure. When this is the case, the followchurches. The Latin hymns of the Ro- ing line begins with a vowel, and the reman Catholic church are well known from dundant syllable of the former line blends the exquisite music to which they have with the first of the following. been united. HY/PHEN, a mark or character in IIYPArTHIRAL, in architecture, a grammar, implying that two words are building or temple uncovered by a roof. to be connected; as pre-established, fiveThe temples of this class are arranged leaved, &c. Hyphens also serve to show by Vitruvius under the seventh order, the connection of such words as are dihaving six. columns in front and rear, vided by one or more of the syllables comand surrounded by a dipteral or double ing at the end of a line. portico, The famous temple of Neptune 1HYPOB'OLE, in rhetoric, a figure in at Pestum, still remaining, is an exam- which several things are mentioned that pie of this species of building. seem to make against the argtuent or HYPAL'LAGE, in grammar, a figure in favor of the opposite side, and each of consisting of a mutual change of eases: them is refuted in order. a species of hyperbaton. IYPOCAUS'TUM, in ancient archilHY'PER, a Greek word signifying over, tecture, a vaulted apartment frome which which is used in English composition to the fire's heat is distributed to the roomus denote excess, or something over or be- above by means of earthen tubes. This yond what is necessary. method, first used in baths, was afterHYPER'BATON, in grammar, a fig- wards adopted in private houses, and urative construction inverting the natural diffused an agreeable and equable tempeand proper order of words and sentences. rature throughout t.e different rooms. The species are the anastrophe, hypal- HYPOCHONDRIASIS, an affection lage, &c.; but the proper hyperbaton is characterized by dyspepsia; languor and a long retention of the verb which corn- want of energy; sadness and fear, arispletes the sentence. ing from uncertain causes; with a melanHYPER'PBOLE, in rhetoric, a figure cholic temperanent. The principat ca uses by which expressions are used signifying are sorrow, fear, or excess of any of the more than is intended to represent to passions; too long-continued watchling; the hearer or reader; as when thoughts and irregular diet. Hypochozdriacs are and sentiments are clothed in tumid lan- continually apprehending future evils; guage, or ideas brought forward which in and in respect to their feelings and fears, themselves are incredible, in order to however groundless, there is usually the induce a belief of something less than most obstinate belief and persuasion. 20 306 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE tICH HYPOS'TASIS, in theology, a term and long syllables alternately are termused to denote the subsistence of the Fa- ed iambics: as, ther, Son, and Holy Spirit, in the God- If ty I rant fac I tion dare I assail I her head, called by the Greek Christians, throne, three hypostases. The Latins more gen- A peo I pie's love ] shall make her erally used persona, and this is the cause I their own. modern practice: hence it is said the God- IAM'BICS, a species of verse consist-. head consists of three persons. ing of short and long syllables alterHIYPOTHECA'TION, in the civil law, nately, used by the Greek and Latin an engagement by which the debtor poets, and especially by the Greek tragic assigns his goods in pledge to a creditor poets. The iambics of the Greek tragic as a security for his debt, without parting poets were originally composed of a sucwith the immediate possession; differing cession of six iambi, but at a later period in this last particular, from the simple various other feet were admitted. In most pledge. modern European languages the verse of HYPOTI'ESIS. a principle taken for five iambic feet is a favorite metre. Acgranted, in order to draw a conclusion cording to Aristotle, the iambic measure therefrom for the proof of a point in ques- was first employed in satirical poems, tion. Also, a system or theory imagined called iarmba, which appear to have been or assumed to account for what is not un- represented.or acted. derstood. ICE'BERG, a hill or mountain of ice, HYSTEROL'OGY, or IIYSTERON or a vast body of ice accumulated in valPROTERON, in rhetoric, a figure by leys in high northern latitudes, or floatwhich the ordinary course of thought is in- ing on the ocean. This term is applied verted in expression, and the last put first: to such elevated masses as exist in the as, where objects subsequent in order of valleys of the frigid zones; to those which time are presented before their antece- are found on the surface of fixed ice; and dents, cause before effect, &e.; as, Vaet to ice of great thickness and height in a atque viveb, (he is well and lives.) floating state. These lofty floating masses are sometimes detached from the icebergs on shore, and sometimes formed at a disJI.~~ tance from any land. They are found in both the frigid zones, and are sometimes carried toward the equator as low I, the ninth letter in the alphabet, and as 40~. the third vowel. Its sound varies; in ICII DIEN, (Germ.,) literally, Iserve: some words it is long, as high, mind, pine; the motto of the Prince of Wales, which in some it is short, as bid, kid; and in was originally adopted by Edward the others it is pronounced like y, as collier, Black Prince in proof of his subjection onion, &c.; in a few words its sound ap- to his father Edward III., and has been preaches to the ee in beef, as in machine, continued without interruption down to which is the sound of the long i in all the present time. European languages except the English. ICHNOGRAPI-IY, in architecture, the In all Latin words of Latin origin, i pre- transverse section of a building, which ceding a vowel (unless it follows another represents the circumference of the whole vowel,) is a consonant, as lJazns (Janus,) edifice; the different apartments; the conliicio (conjicio;) but in words of thickness of the walls; the distribution Greek origin, it is a vowel, as iambus, of parts; the dimensions of doors, winiaspis. No English word ends with i, but dows, chimneys; the projection of colwhen the sound of the letter occurs at umns and door-posts; and, in short, all the end of a word, it is expressed by y. that can come into view in such a section. I, used as a numeral, signifies no more ICIITHYS, (Gr. a fish,) a word found than one, and it stands for as many units on many seals, rings, urns, tombstones, as it is repeated times; thus II stands &c., belonging to the early times of for 2, and III for 3. When put before a Christianity, and supposed to have a higher numeral it subtracts itself, as IV, mystical meaning, from each character four; and when set after it, the effect is forming an initial letter of the words addition, as XII, twelve. Issovs Xpi-roL, Oeov Ytos, E(rcoT; i. e., Jesus IAM'BIC, or IAMBUS, in poetry, a Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour. This foot consisting of two syllables, the first interpretation is not unlikely, when we short and the last long, as in declare, consider at once the universal reverence adorn. Thus, verses composed of short with which the fish was symbolically re .DE] AND THE FINE ARTS. 307 garded among most ancient nations, and from different subjects, united in that one the many signs and ceremonies adopted so as to form a more perfect whole than by the Christians, with some change of nature usually exhibits in a single specimeaning, from the religious rites of the men of the species; or, in other words, surrounding nations. the divesting nature of accident in the I/ C N I S l, in rhetoric, a figure of representation of an individual. speech which consists in representing a IDE'ALISM, a term applied to sevthing to the life. eral metaphysical systems, varying in its ICON'OCLASTS, that party of Chris- signification according to the meaning tians which would not tolerate images in attached in each particular scheme to the their churches, much less the adoration word idea; from which it is derived. In of them. Images and paintings were England the best known system of idealunknown in the Christian church till the ism is that of Berkeley. In reference to fourth century; and the opposition to this philosopher's doctrines, the word is them was long continued with great vio- used in its empirical sense for the object lence. of consciousness in sensation. In its PlaICONOG-RAPIIY, the description of tonic or transcendental sense, the term images or ancient statues, busts, semi- idealism has been applied to the doctrines busts, paintings in fresco, mosaic works, of Kant and Schelling; neither of whom &c. is an idealist in the way in which BerkeIDE'A, in general, the image or re- ley may be so called. The system of semblance of a thing, which, though not Berkeley may be thus expressed:-The seen, is conceived by the mind; whatever qualities of supposed objects cannot be is held or comprehended by the under- perceived distinct from the mind that standing or intellectual faculties. In perceived them; and these qualities, it logic, idea denotes the immediate object will be allowed, are all that we can know about which the mind is employed, when of such objects. If, therefore, there were we perceive or think of anything. Locke external bodies, it is impossible we should used the word idea, to express whatever ever know it; and if there were not, we is meant by phantasm, notion, species, should have exactly the same reason for or whatever it is which the mind can be believing there were as we have now. employed about in thinking. Darwin, in All, therefore, which really exists is spirhis Zoonemia, uses idea for a notion of it, or the thinking principle-ourselves, external things which our organs bring our fellow-men, and God. What we call us acquainted with originally, and he de- ideas are presented to us by God in a cerfines it a contraction, motion, or configu- tain order of succession, which order of ration of the fibres which constitute the successive presentation is what we mean immediate organ of sense; synonymous by the laws of nature. with which he sometimes uses sensual IDENTITY, sameness, as distinguishmotion, in contradistinction to muscular ed from similitude and diversity; the motion. By idea Kant eminently des- sameness of a substance under every posignated every conception formed by the sible variety of circumstances. Among reason, (as distinct from the understand- philosophers, personal identity denotes ing,) and raised above all sensuous per- the sameness of the conscious subject I, ception. These ideas he subdivides into, throughout all the various states of which Ist, empirical, which have an element it is the subject.-System of identity, in drawn from experience, for instance, or- philosophy, (otherwise called identism,) ganization, a state, a church; and 2d, a name which has been given to the metpure, which are totally free from all that aphysical theory of the German writer is sensible or empirical, such as liberty, Sehelling. It rests on the principle that immortality, holiness, felicity, Deity. the two elements of thought, the objects Another division of the Kantian ideas, is respectively of understanding and reainto theoretical and practical, according son, called by the various terms of matto a similar division of the reason itself. ter and spirit, objective and subjective, Thus tie idea of truth is a theoretical, real and ideal, &c., are only relatively that of morality a practical idea. opposed to one another, as different forms IDE'AL, that which considers ideas as of the one absolute or infinite: hence images, phantasms, or forms in the mind; sometimes called the two poles of the as, the ideal theory of philosophy.-Beaum absolute.-In a secondary sense the term ideal, or ideal beauty; an expression in identity denotes a merely relative samethe Fine Arts, used to denote a selection ness, which may be also called logical, for a particular object, of the finest parts or abstract. Thus. in logic, whatever 308 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [IDO things are subjects of the same attribute, called the eighth before the ides, the next or collection of attributes, are considered the seventh day before the ides, the next the same; for example, dog and lion are the sixth day before the ides, and so on. the same relatively to the common no- In leap years, when February had twention quadruped, under which they are ty-nine days, the extra day was accounted both contained. Again, in physics, a tree for by calling both the twenty-fourth and may be assumed to be the same in rela- twenty-fifth days of that month the sixth tion to all the rights of property, not- day before the calends of March; whence withstanding the physical change which the leap year got the name of bissextile, it undergoes from the constant segrega- (from bis, twice. and sextus, sixth.) tion of old, and aggregation of new par- ID'IOM, in philology, a mode of speakticles. Lastly, it is only in this logical ing or writing foreign from the usages of use of the term, that we can be said in universal grammar or the general laws memory to be conscious of the identity of language, and restricted to the genius of the reproduced, and the original idea, of some individual tongue. Thus, a senfor if they were absolutely identical, it tence or phrase consisting of words arwould be impossible to distinguish be- ranged in a particular manner may be a tween the first appearance, and the re- Latin idiom; the same, arranged in a currence of an idea. different manner, an English idiom, &c. IDEOGRAPII'IC CIAR'ACTERS, in The use of a particular inflexion of a word philology, characters used in writing may also be an idiom. We also use the which express figures or motions, instead term idiom in a more general sense, to of the arbitrary signs of the alphabet. express the general genius or character The Chinese characters are ideographic, of a language. We have a number of although the symbols, at first intended to subordinate words to express the idioms represent distinct objects, have become of particular tongues: thus, a Latin idby use merely conventional. The hiero- iont is a Latinism, a French idiom a Galglyphical characters of the ancient Egyp- licism, &c. The word idiom is also not tians were of the same description. Ideo- uncommionly, but incorrectly, used in the graphical writing is opposed to phonetic. same sense with the French idiome; a IDEOL'OGY, literally, the science of dialect or variety of language. Idiotismne mind, is the term applied by the latter is the French term expressing the correct disciples of Condillac to the history and signification of the English "idiom." evolutions of human ideas, considered as IDIOPATII'IC, a disease which does so many successive modes of certain origi- not depend upon any other disease, and nal or transformed sensations. The writ- which is thus opposed to those diseases ings of this school are characterized by an which are symptomatic. Thus. an epiunrivalled simplicity, boldness, and sub- lepsy is idiopathic, when it happens meretlety; and the different phases of its doe- ly through some fault in the brain; and trines are admirably exhibited in the sympathetic, when it is the consequence physiological researches of Cabanis, the of some other disorder. moral dissertations of Garat and Volney, IDIOSYN'CRASY, a peculiar temperand the metaphysical disquisitions of ament or organization of body, whereby Destutt de Tracy. it is rendered more liable to certain disIDES, one of the three epochs or divi- orders, than bodies differently constituted sions of the ancient Roman month. The usually are. calends were the first days of the differ- IDOLATRY, in its literal acceptation, ent months; the ides, days near the mid- denotes the worship paid to idols. It is dle of the months; and the nones, the also used to signify the superstitious adoninth day before the ides. In the months ration paid to other objects. Soon after of March, May, July, and October, the the flood, idolatry seems to have been the ides fell on the 15th; in the other months prevailing religion of all the world; for on the'13th. The Romans used a very wherever we cast our eyes at the time of peculiar method of reckoning the days of Abraham, we scarcely see anything but the month. Instead of employing the false worship and idolatry. The heavenly ordinal numbers first, second, third, &G., bodies appear to have been the first obthey distinguished them by the number jects of idolatrous worship; and, on acof days intervening between any given count of their beauty, their influence on day and the next following of the three the productions of the earth, and the regfixed divisions. For example, as there ularity of their motions, the sun and moon were always eight days between the nones were particularly so, being considered as and the ides, the day after the nones was the most glorious and resplendent images ILL] AND THE FINE ARTS. 309 of the Deity; afterwards, as their senti- IGNORA'MUS, in law, the endorsements became more corrupted, they be- ment of a grand jury on a bill of indictgan to form images, and to entertain the ment, equivalent to "'not found." The opinion, that by virtue of consecration, jury are said to ignore a bill when they the gods were called down, to inhabit or do not find the evidence such as to nake dwell in their statues. But history plain- good the presentment. ly teaches us, that before the idea of one I. H. S. an abbreviation for Jesus Hoinfinite and true God was properly corn- minum Salvator, Jesus the Saviour of prehended by men, their imaginations Mlankind. created rulers and deities, to whom they IL'IAD, the oldest epic poem in existascribed the direction of all outward ence; commonly attributed to Homer, events, and every tribe or family had its but according to some modern hypotheses, peculiar object of adoration. The selfish the work of several hands. The theme and cunning turned this frailty to their of the poem is the siege of Ilium (whence own advantage; and hence originated its name) or Troy; or, more properly seers, oracles, and all the numerous su- speaking, the quarrel of Achilles with perstitions which have disgraced the Agamemnon, general of the Grecian arworld. my before that city. It consists of twenI'DYL, a short pastoral poem. The ty-four books. The first book relates the Greek word is derived from eLog,.form, or origin of the quarrel; and the residue of visible object; and hence the object, or. the poem contains an account of the efat least, the necessary accompaniment of forts made by Agamemnon and the chiefs this species of poem, has been said to be who adhered to his party to conquer the a vivid and simple representation of or- Trojans without the aid of Achilles, their dinary objects in pastoral nature. But defeat, the pacification of Achilles, his in common usage the signification of this resumption of arms in the common cause word is hardly different from that of and the death of IIector by his hand. eclogue. The poems of Theocritus are Neither the landing of the chieftains, nor termed Idyls, those of Virgil Eclogues; the conclusion of the war and capture of but it would be difficult to assign a dis- Troy, come within its range. tinction between the two, except what ILLATIVE CONVERSION, in logic, arises from the greater simplicity of lan- is that in which the truth of the converse guage and thought which characterizes follows from the truth of the exposita or the former. Many critics, however, aver proposition given. Thus the proposition that the eclogue requires something of "no virtuous man is a rebel," becomes, epic or dramatic action; the idyl only by illative conversion, " no rebel is a virpicturesque representation, sentiment, or tuous man." "Some boasters are cownarrative. In English poetry, among ards;" therefore, a converse, " Some this class may be ranked, Th.e Seasons cowards are boasters." of Thomson, Shenstone's Schoolomistress, ILLUMINA'TI, or THE ENLIGI-ITBurn's Cottager's Saturday Night, Gold- ENED, a secret society formed in 1776, smith's Deserted Villae, &c., &c. chiefly under the direction of Adam IG'NIS PAT'UUS, a kind of lumi- Weishaupt, professor of law at Ingolstadt, nous meteor, which flits about in the air in Bavaria. Its professed object was the a little above the surface of the earth, attainment of a higher decree of virtue and appears chiefly in marshy places, or and morality than that reached in the near stagnant waters, or in churchyards, ordinary course of society. It numbered during the nights of summer. There are at one time 2000 members. It was supmany instances of travellers having been pressed by the Bavarian government in decoyed by these lights into marshy pla- 1784. It has been supposed that this ces, where they perished; and hence the and some other secret societies were acname Jack-with-a-lantern, Will-with-a- tively engaged in preparing the way for wisp: some people ascribing the appear- the French revolution; but of this no ance to the agency of evil spirits, who satisfactory proof has been adduced. take this mode of alluring men to their Among the early Christians, the term IIdestruction. The cause of the phenome- luminati was given to persons who had non does not seem to be perfectly under- received baptism; in which ceremony stood; it is generally supposed to be they received a lighted taper, as a symproduced by the decomposition of animal bol of the faith and grace they had reor vegetable matters, or by the evolution ceived by that sacrament. of gases which spontaneously inflame in ILLU'MINATING, the art of laying the atmosphere. colors on initial capitals in books, or other— _____ _______ __________ __ _ _-_ __ _ ________________ i 310 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERAMTUe II IM wise embellishing manuscript books, as habituated to engrave u.pon their rinlg was formerly done by artists called 11u- the images of their friends, with which mieators. These manuscripts, contain- they also ornamented their cups and ing portraits, pictures, and emblematic vases. The disciples of Epicurus did not figures, form a valuable part of the rich- content themselves with depositing th& es preserved in the principal libraries in image of their master in their inner or Europe. sleeping apartments, where they rendlerILLUSTRA'TION, in rhetoric, appears ed it a species of worship, but bore it. in to differ from comparison or simile in like manner, on their rings, and had it this only, that the latter is used merely engraven on their vases. The Roman to give force to the expression: the for- emperor Claudius permitted not his submer to throw light upon an argument. jects indiscriminately to wear his figure The term illustration is, however, some- on their rings, but those alone who had times used in a wider sense, in which it made public entry of themt-thus, in fact, seems to comprehend example, which is forming a kind of tax thereon. It was the recital of a particular fact or instance also customary, among the ancients, to evincing the truth of a general proposi- place at the stern of a vessel the images tion laid down in the argument; and of certain deities or animals, which thence parable, which is a species of symbolical acquired the title of tuteace navis, the narrative, in which the actors and events guardian of the ship. Another custom are intended to represent certain other was to set up, both in public and private actors and events in a typical manner. libraries, the images or busts of the most IMVAGE, in rhetoric, a term somewhat celebrated writers. Both Greeks and loosely used; but which appears general- Romans offered in the temples of their ly to denote a metaphor dilated, and gods, not only images of themselves, but rendered a more complete picture by the of other personages also. Thus Diogenes assemblage of various ideas through Laertius informs us, that Mithridates, which the saine metaphor continues to son of Rodobates, dedicated to the Muses run, yet not suficiently expanded to form the statue of Plato. According to anan allegory. other ancient author, Romulus dedicated IM'AGES, in sculpture. This word to Vulcan certain chariots of gold, togewas used among the ancients, more par- ther with his own statue; and we read in ticularly to denominate the portraits of Tacitus, that Julia dedicated to Augustus their ancestors, either in painting or the image of Marcellus. Since the insculpture. The Greeks and Romans en- troduction of Christianity, the use of tertained for these images the greatest images has been preserved in the Greek veneration, and even rendered them a and Roman Catholic churches. sort of worship. The Romans preserved IMAGINA/TION, the faculty of the with especial care the images of their mind which forms images or representaancestors, and had them lcarried both in tions of things. It acts eitherin presenting their funeral pomps and in their triumphs. images to the mind of things without, or This honor, however, was restricted to by reproducing those whose originals are figures of such as had held important offices not, at the moment, present to the mind in the state; as for instance, those of edile, or the sense. We therefore distinguishprator, or consul. These images were (.) original imaginmation, or the faculty often made of wax, sometimes of mar- of forming ima.ges of things in the mind ble, and were occasionally adorned with — that is, the faculty which produces the pearls. The atrium or porch of those picture of an object which the mind perfamilies who had for a long time held the ceives by the actual impression of the principal magistracies, were filled with object-from the (2.) reproductive imaan infinite number of these images. They gination, or the faculty which recalls the became smoke-dried, in course of time, image of an object in the mind withlout by the fire which was always kept lighted the presence of the object. Besides the in the atrium, in honor of the lares, or power offorming, preserving, and recallhousehold gods. In order to prevent this, ing such conceptions, the imagination has they were sometimes deposited in the also the power (3.) to combine different chests or presses. On days of solemnity conceptions, and thus create new imoages. or rejoicing, they drew these statues forth, In this case, it operates involuntarily, crowned them with laurel, or decked them according to the laws of the association with the habits which characterized the of ideas, when the mind is abandoned to public offices of the parties whom they the current of ideas, as in waking dreams depicted. The ancients were likewise or reveries. The association of ideas is IMPJ AND THE FINE ARTS. 311 either directed to a definite object by the or any interval whatever. —mitation, in understanding, or it operates only in sub- oratory, is an endeavor to resemble a jection to the general laws of the under- speaker or writer in the qualities which standing. In the former case, the ima- we propose to ourselves as patterns. A gination is confined; in the latter, its op- method of translating, in which modern orations are free, but not lawless, the examples and illustrations are used for general law of tendency to a definite end ancient, or domestic for foreign, or in fixing limits to its action, within which it which the translator not only varies the may have free play, but which must not words and sense, but forsakes them as be overstepped. The free and yet reg- he sees occasion. ulated action of the imagination alone IMMOLA'TIO, a ceremony used in the can give birth to the productions of the Roman sacrifices; it consisted in throwing Fine Arts. In this case, it forms images upon the head of the victim some sort of according to ideas. It composes, creates, corn and frankincense, together with the and is called the poetical faculty. From mola or salt cake, and a little wine. the twofold action of the imagination, we IMMORTAL'ITY, the quality of endmay distinguish two spheres, within which less duration, as the immortality of the it moves-the prosaic and the poetical. soul. The idea that the dissolution of the In the former, it presents subjects on body involves the annihilation of existwhich the understanding operates for the ence, is so cheerless, so saddening, that common purposes of life. Here it is re- the wisest and best of men, of all ages, stricted by the definite object for which have rejected it, and all civilized nations we put it in action. In the latter, it gives have adopted the belief of its continuation life to the soul, by a free, yet regulated after death, as one of the main points of action, elevates the mind by ideal crea- their religious faith. The Scriptures aftions, and representations above common ford numerous evidences of the soul's realities, and thus ennobles existence. immortality; the hope of it is a religious Imagination operates in all classes, all conviction; man cannot relinquish it, ages, all situations, all climates, in the without abandoning, at the same time, most exalted hero, the profound thinker, his whole dignity as a reasonable being the passionate lover, in joy and grief, in and a free agent; and hence the belief hope and fear, and makes man truly in immortality becomes intimately conman. nected with our belief in the existence IM/AM, or IM'AN, a Mahometan and goodness of God. priest, or head of the congregations in IMMIUNES, in Roman history, an epitheir mosques. In ecclesiastical affairs thet applied to such provinces as had obthey are independent, and are not subject tained an exemption from the ordinary to the mufti, though he is the supreme tribute. The term is also applied to priest. soldiers who were exempt from military IMBRO'GLIO, (a word borrowed from service. the Italian brogliare, to coifound or mix IMMU'NITY, in jurisprudence, legal together; whence the French brouiller freedom from any legal obligation. Thus and English embroil.) In literary lan- the phrase "ecclesiastical immunities" guage, the plot of a romance or a drama, comprehends all that portion of the rights when much perplexed and complicated, of the Church, in different countries, is said to be an " imbroglio." The small which consists in the freedom of its memburlesque theatrical pieces so termed by bers, or of its property, from burdens the Italians derive their ludicrous char- thrown by law on other classes. acter from a similar species of absurdity. IMPALEMENT, the putting to death IMITA'TION, the act of following in by thrusting a stake through the body, manner, or of copying in form; the act the victim being left to perish by lingerof making the similitude of anything, or ing torments. This barbarous mode of of attempting a resemblance. By the torture is used by the Turks, as a punishimitation of bad men, or of evil exam- ment for Christians who say anything pies, we are apt to contract vicious hab- against the law of the prophet, who inits. In the imitation of natural forms trigue with a Mohammedan woman, or and colors, we are often unsuccessful.- who enter a mosque. Imitation, in music, is a reiteration of the IMPARISYL'LABIC, in grammar, an same air, or of one which is similar, in epithet for words having unequal syllaseveral parts where it is repeated by one bles. after the other, either in unison, or at IMPAR'LANCE, in law, a privilege the distance of a fourth, a fifth, a third, or license granted, on petitioning the 312 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [IMP court for a day to consider or advise what the top and widens towards the base, thus answer the defendant shall make to the forming a curve of contrary flexure. —nplaintiff's declaration. perial, pertaining to an empire. Thus IMPASTA'TION, the mixture of vari- the imperial chamber, means the soveous materials of different colours and reign court of the German empire; an consistencies, baked or bound together imperial city, a city in Germany which with some cement, and hardened by the has no head but the emperor; the impeair or by fire. rial diet, an assembly of all the states in IMPEACiHMENT, the accusation and the German empire. prosecution of a person for treason, or IMPE'RIALIST, a subject or soldier other high crimes and misdemeanors. In of an emperor. The denomination izmEngland the house of lords has an origi- perialists is often given to the troops or nal jurisdiction in crininal matters, ex- armies of the emperor of Austria. ercised over either peers or commons, IMPER'SONAL VERB, in grammar, upon impeachment by a member of the a verb used only in the third person sinlower house. Any member of the house gular, with it for a nominative in English, of commons may not only impeach one as it rains; and without a nominative in of their own body, but also any lord of Latin, as pugnatur. parliament. When any person is im- IMPETRA'TION, in law, the obtainpeached, articles, containing the accusa- ing anything by request or prayer: but tion, are exhibited on behalf of the con- in old statutes, it is taken for the premons, who appoint lmanagers to conduct obtaining of church benefices from the the prosecution. These articles are car- court of Rome, which belonged to the ried to the lords, and if they find the ac- disposal of the king and other lay-patrons cused guilty upon sufficient evidence, no of the realm. pardon under the Great Seal can be IMPOSE', in printing, to put the pages pleaded to such impeachment. Till the on the isitposing stone, and fit on the house of commons demand judgment on chase, and thus prepare the form for the an impeachment exhibited by them, the pyess.-In legislation, to lay on a tax, lords cannot pass sentence. In the United toll, duty, or penalty.- To impose cn., to States, it is the right of the house of mislead by a false pretence. representatives to impeach, and of the IMPOSITION of hanzds, a religious senate to try and determine impeach- ceremony, in which a bishop lays his hand ments. The senate of the United States, upon the head of a person, in ordination, and the senates in the several states, are confirmation, or in uttering a blessing. the high courts of impeachment. This practice is also generally observed IMPERATIVE, in grammar, one of at the ordination of congregational ministhe moods of a verb, used when we would ters, while one prays for a blessing on the command, exhort, or advise; as go, at- labors of him they are ordaining. Impotelnd, &c. sition of hands was a Jewish ceremony, IMPERA'TOR, in Roman antiquity, introduced not by any divine authority, a title of honor conferred on victorious but by custom; it being their practice, generals, by their armies, and afterwards whenever they prayed for any person, to confirmed by the senate. After the over- lay their hands on his head. Our Saviour throw of the republic, imperator became observed the same ceremony both when the highest title of the supreme ruler; he conferred his blessing on the children, and in later times it had the signification and when he cured the sick. which we attach to the word emperor. IMPOS'SIBLE, that which cannot be IMPER'FECT CONYCORDS, in music, done or effected. A proposition is saidto such as are liable to change from major be impossible, when it contains two ideas, to minor. or the contrary, as are thirds which mutually destroy each other, and and sixths; still, however, not losing which can neither be conceived nor united their consonancy. together in the mind: thus, it is impossiIMPER'FECT TENSE, in grammar, ble that a circle should be a square, or that modification of a verb which ex- that two and two should make five. A presses that the action or event of which thing is said to be physically impossible, we speak was, at a certain time to which that cannot be done by any natural powwe refer, in an unfinished state. This is ers, as the resurrection of the dead; and in English designated by the auxiliary morally impossible, when in its own na" was," joined with the present participle. ture it is possible, but attended with diffiIMPE'RIAL, in architecture, a species culties or circumstances which give it the of dome whose profile is pointed towards appearance of being impossible. IMP] AND THE FINE ARTS. 313 IM/POST, any tax or tribute imposed possession of impropriators; the great by authority; particularly a duty or tax tithes they kept themselves, allowing the laid by government on goods imported.- small tithes to the vicar or substitute who In architecture, that part of a pillar in served the church. On the suppression vaults and arches, on which the weight of the monasteries, Ienry disposed of the of the building rests; or the capital of a great tithings amnong his favorites. pillar, or cornice which crowns the pier and IM'PRO VISATOIE, an Italian word, supports the first stone or part of an arch. signifying a person who has the talent of II'NPOTENCE, or IM/POTENCY, composing and reciting a suite of verses want of strength or power, animal, intel- on a given subject immediately and withlectual, or moral. The first is a want of out premeditation. This peculiar talent, some physical principle, necessary to an thus restricted, appears to belong, alinost action; the last denotes the want of pow- exclusively, to the Italian lang'luage and er or inclination to resist or overcome people. Much, no doubt, of the facility habits or na-tural propensities. of these improvisatori, which appears alIMPRESCRIPTIB3LE RIGHTS, such most preternatural to one unaccustomed rights as a man may use or not at pleas- to hear them, arises from the peculiar ure, those which cannot be lost to him ease and flexibility of their language, and by the claims of another founded on pre- its richness in rhymes. But this circulmscription. stance will not wholly account for so sinIMIPRES'SION, in the Arts,.is used to gular a national faculty; for, about the signify the transfer of engravings from a time of the revival of letters, Italy poshard to a soft substance, whether by sessed improvisatori in Latin as well as means of the rolling-press, as in copper- Italian. Many poets have enjoyed conplate and lithographic printing, or by siderable celebrity in their day from their copies in wvax, &c., from medals and en- success in this mode of composition; but graved gems. The word is also used to we are not aware that any of their poems denote a single edition of a book; as, the have acquired a permanent celebrity, alwhole imnpression of the work was sold in though often taken down from their recitwo months. tation. Tuscany and the Venetian states IMPRIMA'TUR, (Latin, let it be have been most famous for the production printed,) the word by which the licenser of improvisatori, especially Sienna and allows a book to be printed, in countries Verona; in which latter city the talent where the censorship of books is rigorous- seems to have been perpetuated by sucly exercised. This formula was much cession. The chevalier Bernardino Perused in English books printed in the 16th fetti, the most famous of all these reciters, and 17th centuries; and this permission was of Sienna: he flourished in the first is even still vested in some of the British half of the 17th century. He is said to universities, especially in Scotland, where have possessed unbounded erudition, and tt is nothing unusual to find on the title- to have been able to pour forth extempage of some works recommended to pub- pore poetical essays on the most abstruse lie favor by the senatus academicus the questions of science. There have been "imprimatur" of the principal. many distinguished females possessed of IMPR'MIS,(Latin,) in the first place; this talent, (improvisatrici.) Gorilla, the first in order. most celebrated of them, was of Pistoia IM'PRINT, the designation of the in Tuscany. She was the original of place where, by whom, and when a book Madame de Stael's Corimnne. She reis published, are -always placed at the ceived in 1776 the laureate crown at bottom of the title. Among the early Rome, an honor which had also been acprinters it was inserted at the end of the corded to Perfetti. Germany is said to book, and is styled the colophon. have produced one noted improvisatrice, IM'IPROMP'TU, in literature, any short Anna Louisa Karsch. There appears no and pointed production supposed to be reason why the term improvisation should brought forth on the spur of the moment; not also be applied to the delivery of ungenerally of an epigrammatic character. premeditated discourses in prose. It is IMPROPRIATION, in law, the act of the exertion of a very similar faculty, appropriating or employing the revenues perfected in the same manner by habits of a church living to one's own use.-Lay to a degree almost inconceivable by those irmpropriation is an ecclesiastical living not accustomed to witness its exercise. in the hands of a layman. Before the It is, however, much more general. The destruction of the monasteries by Henry North American Indians are represented VIII., in 1539, many livings were in the to possess it in a high degree. In Eu 314 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE LINO rope, it is most generally to be found in union of the Godhead with the Manhood the pulpit. Public secular oratory of this in Jesus Christ. The real manner of this unpremeditated description is far more union, or indwelling of the Glod in the common in England, and the power much Man, is allowed to be a mystery such as more sedulously cultivated, than in any cannot be fully apprehended by the hucontinental country, man intellect. INA'LIENABLE, an epithet applied IN'CENSE, in the materia medica, a to such things as cannot be legally alien- dry resinous substance,'known by the ated or made over to another: thus the name of thus and olibansum. The berndominions of a sovereign, the revenues ing of incense made part of the daily of the church, the estates of a minor, &c. service of the Jewish temple; and in the are inalienable, otherwise than with a Romish church it is the deacon's office to reserve of the right of redemption. incense the officiating priest or prelate, INAUGURA'TION, was originally and the choir. In the religious rites of applied to the Roman ceremony of ad- heathen nations, too, the odors of spices mission to the college of augurs. or sooth- and fragrant gums were burnt as incense. sayers, or to the selection of a proper site INCEP'TIVE, in grainmar, an epithet for the erection of temples or other na- for verbs which express a proceeding by tional edifices; but it afterwards received degrees in an action. a more extended signification, and is now INCOG'NITO, (abbreviated to incog.,) used in a sense nearly synonymous with unknown, or so disguised as not to be recthe consecration of a prelate, or the coro- ognized; a mode of travelling without nation of a king or emperor. It means any mark of distinction, which is somealso an introduction to any office with times adopted by princes and great people certain ceremonies. who do not wish to be recognized. INCA, or VNCA, a name given by the INCOMPAT'IBLE, in a general sense, Indians of ancient Peru to their kings morally inconsistent; or that cannot suband princes of the blood. The empire of sist with another, without destroying it: the Incas, founded, according to tradition, thus, truth and falsehood are essentially by the celebrated Manco Capac, extended inconmpatible: so cold and heat are inover the table-land of the Andes, from compatible in the same subject, the Pasto to the neighborhood of Chili, as strongest overcoming and expelling the well as the low lands on the coast. It weakest. In a legal sense, that is intcomwas destroyed by the Spaniards under patible which calnnot be united in the Pizarro and Almagro. The blood royal same person, without violating the law, of the Incas is preserved, or believed to or constitution. be so, among the Indians of the present INCORPORA'TION, in law, the forday, and Tupac Amaru, who carried on mation of a legal or a political body, with a long and nearly successful insurrection the quality of perpetual existence or sueagainst Spain in the latter part of the cession, unless limited by the act of inlast century, professed to be descended corporation. from them. IN'CUBUS, or Nightmare, the name -IN CGINA DOMINI, (Lat. at the of a disease which consists in a spasmodic Lord's Supper,) the name of a celebrated contraction of the muscles of the breast, papal bull, containing a collection of ex- usually happening in the night, and attracts from different constitutions of the tended with a very painful difficulty of pope, comprising those rights which, since respiration and great anxiety. The most the time of Gregory VII., have been un- obvious symptom of this disease is a seninterruptedly claimed by the Roman see, sation of some great weight laid upon the and a proclamation of anathema against breast. Sometimes the sufferer finds himall who violate them. It was annually self in some inextricable dilticulty, enread on H-oly Thursday, whence it re- deavoring to escape from a monster, or, ceives its name; but lately on Easter perhaps, in imminent danger of falling Monday. The sects of heretics are cursed from a precipice, while his limbs refuse in it by their several designations. A to do their office, until he suddenly awacopy of the bull is hung up at the door kens himself by starting from his recumof the churches of St. Peter and St. John bent posture, or by a cry of terror. Lateran: and all patriarchs, primates, INCUM'BENT, the person who is in bishops, &c., are required to have it read present possession of an ecclesiastical once or more annually in their churches. benefice. INCARNA'TION, a word in common INCUNAB'ULA, in bibliography, a use among the theologians to express the term applied to books printed during the IND] AND THE FINE ARTS. 315 early period of the art; in general con- IN'DEX, in arithmetic and algebra, fined to those which appeared before the the number that shows to what power the year 1500. quantity is to be raised; the exponent.INDECLI'NABLE, in grammar, a Index, in literature, an alphabetical table word admitting of no declension or in- of the contents of a book.-E. purgatory flexion. Adverbs, prepositions, particles, index, a catalogue of prohibited books in conjunctions, are all indeclinable. In the church of Rome. classica.l languages, indeclinable nouns are IN'DIAN, a general name of any nathose few (chiefly borrowed by the Greeks tive of the Indies; as, an East Indian, and Latins from foreign languages) of or West Indian. It is particularly apwhich the termination is not altered in plied to an aboriginal native of the Amerthe several cases. ican continent. INDEFEA'SIBLE, in law, an epithet IN'DIAN ARCI-ITEC'TURE, the arfor an estate, or any right which cannot chitecture of India, in its details, bears a be defeated or made void. striking resemblance to that of Persia INDE1'INITE, or INDETER'MI- and Egypt, and they are considered to NATE, that which has no certain bounds; or to which the human mind cannot affix ji ll:il! any. Descartes makes use of this word...i. in his philosophy instead of infinite, both.in numbers and quantities, to signify an inconceivable number, or a number so great as not to be capable of any addi- tion.-InTde finite, is also used to signify a thing that has but one extreme; for instance, a line drawn from any point and extended infinitely.-Indefinite, in gram- i1 mar, is understood of nouns, pronouns, verbs, participles, articles, &c. which are left in an uncertain indeterminate sense, and not fixed to any' particular time, l thing, or other circumstance. INDEM'NITY, in law, a writing to secure one from all damage and danger that may ensue from any act.-Act of Indian Capital Elephantal. In'dem2nity, an act passed every session have a common origin. Its monuments of parliament for the relief of those who may be divided into two classes, the exhave neglected to take the necessary cavated, which is either in the form of a oaths, &c. cavern, or in which a solid rock is sculpINDENT'TURE, in law, a writing con- tured into the resemblance of a building; taining an agreement or contract made and the constructed, inwhich it is actubetween two or more persons; so called ally a building, or formed by the aggrebecause it was indented or out scollopwise, gation of different materials. The first so as to correspond with another writing class is exemplified in the caves of Elecontaining the same words. But indent- phanta and Ellora, and the sculptured ing is often neglected, while the writings pagodas of Mavalipouram, and the secor counterparts retain the name of in- ond class in the pagodas of Chillimbaram, den.t.ures. Tanjore, and others. The architecture INDEPEN'DENTS, a sect of Protes- of India, it is said, resembles in its details tants, distinguished, not by doctrine, but that of Egypt, but its differences are also discipline. They regard every congrega- very striking. In the architecture of tion of Christians, meeting in one build- Egypt, massiveness and solidity are caring for the purpose of public worship, as ried to the extreme; in Indian architeca complete church, independent of any ture these have no place. In the former, other religious government; and they the ornaments are subordinate to the reject the use of all creeds, as impious leading forms, and enrich without hiding substitutes for the letter of the Scripture. them. In the latter, the principal forms The direction of each church is vested in are overwhelmed and decomposed by the its elders. The Independents arose in accessories. In the one grandeur of efthe reign of Elizabeth; and daring the feet is the result, while littleness is the civil,wars of England, in the 17th century,characteristic of the other. they formed a powerful party. IN'DIAN INK, a substance brought 316 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [INF from China, used for water-colors. It is order that we may obtain logical cerin rolls or in square cakes, and is said to tainty, must be a conplete induction; consist of l:map-black and animal glue. that is to say, must include all the indiINDIC'AT'IVE, in grammar, the first viduals which constitute the genus. This, mooid, or manner, of conjugating a verb, it is evident, is impossible, so long as we by which we simply afirlm, deny, or indi- assume the only power necessary to incate something; as. he writes; they rtun. duction to be the observation of particuINDIC'T1ON, CYCLE OF, in chronol- lars; for these are infinite in number: ogy, a mode of computing time by the we can never be sure that we have obspace of fifteen years, instituted by Con- served them all. We are therefore comstantine the Great; originally the period pelled, if we are to admit the possibility for the payment of certain taxes. The of science properly so called, to allow the popes, since the time of Charlemagne, necessity of some spontaneous action of have dated their acts by the year of the the understanding in every inductive proindiction, which was fixed on the 1st of cess; of a faculty, in short, which takes January. At the time of the reforma- occasion from experience to arrive at the tion of the calendar, the year 1582 was knowledge of truths not contained in that recko-ned the tenth year of indiction. experience. Now this date, when divided by 15, leaves INDUL'GENCE, a power claimed by a remainder, 7, that is, three less than the Roman Catholic church of granting the indiction, and the same must neces- to its contrite members remission for a sarily be the case in all subsequent cases; certain term, either on earth or in purso that, in order to find the indiction for gatory, of the penalty incurred by their any year, divide the date by 15, and add transgressions. The practice was first 3 to the remainder. It has no connection instituted in the eleventh century by with the motions of the heavenly bodies. Popes Gregory VII., Victor, and Urban INDICT'MENT, in law, a written ac- II., as a recompense to those who emcusation of one or more persons for a barked in the perilous enterprise of the critme or misdemeanor, preferred to, and Crusades; but its benefits in process of presented on oath by a grand jury. In time extended to all who, either by donadetermiinig whether there is a reason- tions or other services, contributed.to the able cause to put the accused upon his well-being of the church. It was the trial, the grand jury hear evidence only profligate sale of indulgences that first of the charge; and if twelve of them are excited Luther to commence his warfare satisfied of the truth of the charge, the against the see of Rome; and although indictment is then said to be found, and the traffic in indulgences has been reprois publicly delivered into court. If the bated by many councils, and some minor grand jury think the accusation ground- corruptions have been partially reformed, less, the accused is discharged; but a still the Council of Trent decreed the now bill of indictment may be preferred usefulness and validity of such instruto a subsequent grand jury. By the con- ments, and left the whole control of their stitution of the United States, no person nature and manner of issuing them enis held to answer for a capital or other- tirely in the discretion of the pope for wise infamous crime, unless on a present- the time being. ment or indictment by a grand jury, ex- INDUL'TO, in ecclesiastical affairs, an cept in cases arising in the land or naval Italian term for a dispensation granted forces; and the same principle is adopted by the pope, to do or obtain something in several of the states. contrary to the common law. INDOhRS'ER, he who writes his name IN ES'SE, (Latin,) actually existing; on the back of a bill of exchange. That distinguished from in posse, which dewhich is written on the back is called the notes that a thing is not, but may be. -indorsemea.ct; and the person to whom IN'FAMY, in law, that total loss of the bill is assigned by indorsement, is the character or public disgrace which a conindorsee. vict incurs, and by which a person is ren1NDUC'TION, the counter-process in dered incapable of being a witness or a scientific method to deduction, implies juror. the raising individuals into generals, and IN'FANCY, the period physically conthose into still higher generalities; de- sidered, from birth to seven years, and duction being the bringi7ng dozwn of uni- legally, till 21, previously to which no versals to lower genera or to individuals. one can inherit or execute any obligation, Every deduction, therefore, to be valid, or incur any responsibility except for must rest on a prior induction, which, in necessaries. _ _ _ ___ _._______________ _. _._ _ __~-' ----- rNF] AND TIE FINE ARTS. 317 INFANT'E, and INFANT'A, appel- either greater or less than assignable lations severally given to all the sons ones. And infinite series, a series conand daughters of the kings of Spain and sidered as infinitely continued as to the Portugal, except the eldest. The dignity number of its terms. cf the title consists in the pre-eminence INFINITES'IMAL, a term denoting implied by styling the children of the an indefinitely small quantity. king, the children. INFIN'ITIVE, in grammar, a mood IN'FANTRY, the general name for expressing the action of the verb, without soldiers who serve on foot. The term is limitation of person or number, as to in all probability derived from the Italian love. word fante, signifying a child or young INFIN'ITY, a term applied to the person; and was originally conferred on vast and the minute, to distances and the young Italian peasantry, who served spaces too great to be expressed in any in the wars on foot, the nobles being usu- numbers of measures, or too small to be ally mounted. There are, however, va- expressed by any fraction; and one of rious other accounts of the origin of the the incomprehensible, but necessarily exterm. Among the ancient Greeks and isting wonders of the universe. We apRomans, the infantry constituted the chief ply infinity to God and his perfections. strength of an army; and, with the ex- We speak of the infinity of his existence, ception of that period in European his- his power, and his goodness. tory during which the institutions of chiv- INFIR'MARY, a charitable establishairy prevailed, when the tournament ment where the poor may receive mediwith its gay appendages engaged the at- cal advice and medicine gratis. tention of all the powerful nobles and INFLEC'TION, in grammar, in strictotherwise distinguished persons, who thus ness of language is any change which imparted to the cavalry a factitious im- takes place in a word from a modificaportance, it has generally been regarded tion of its sense between the root and the as the principal military arm. Since the termination. The inflection must, thereinstitution of standing armies this has fore, not be confounded with the terminabeen peculiarly the case. tion itself. Thus, the syllable am is the INFEC'TION, the act or process of root of all the words employed in the infecting, or the act by which poisonous conjugation of the Latin verb amo, I love: matter, morbid miasmata, or exhalations, in the imperfect tense, the inflection is produce disease in a healthy body.-T.he the syllable ab. The termination varies thing which infects. The terms infeclion according to the person; amabam, amaand contagion. are used as synonymous bas, amabat. in a great majority of cases. Different INFLUEN'ZA, an epidemic catarrh writers proposed and attempted to make which has in various times spread more a distinction between them, but there has rapidly and extensively than any other been a great disagreement as to what the disorder, and this universality of its atdistinction should be; and in general no tacks, together with the greater severity regard is paid to the proposed distinctions. of its symptoms,principally distinguishes Infection is used in two acceptations; first, it from common catarrh. It attacks as denoting the effluvium or infectious all ages and conditions of life, but is matter exhaled from the person of one seldom fatal, except to the aged, or to diseased, in which sense it is synonymous those previously suffering, or having with contagion; and secondly, as signi- a tendency to pulmonary disease. The fying the act of communication of such epidemics of 1831-2, and of 1836-7, were morbid effluvium, by which disease is nearly universal throughout the civilized transferred. The atmosphere and other world. inert substances are often contaminated INFORMATION, inlaw, an accusaby the deleterious or offensive qualities tion or complaint exhibited against a of malaria, the matter of contagion, efflu- person for some criminal offence. An invia from putrid animal or vegetable sub- formation differs from an indictment, stances. inasmuch as the latter is exhibited on the INFEODA'TION of tithes, in law, the oath of twelve men, but the information granting of tithes to mere laymen. is only the allegation of the individual INFE'RIIE, in Roman antiquity, sac- who exhibits it. —He who communicates rifices offered to the infernal deities for to a magistrate a knowledge of the viothe souls of the departed. lationr of law, is an informer; but he IN'FINITE, in mathematics, infinite who'takes a trade of laying informaquantities are such quantities as a-e tiori\ is termed a common informer 318 CCYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [INL and is generally held in disesteem by so- or having it occupied by servants and ciety. ready for his residence, he having what INFRALAPSA'RIANS, in church his- is termed the animus revertendi, or intory, an appellation given to such pre- tention to return. destinarians as think the decrees of God, INIIE'RENT, that which is inseparain regard to the salvation and damnation ble, distinguished from the accidental of mankind, were formed in consequence and acquired; as the inherent qualities of Adam's fall. of the magnet. &c. INFU'LA, in Roman antiquity, abroad INHIERITANCE, an estate derived kind of fillet, made of white wool, which from an ancestor to an heir by succession the priests used to wear round their heads. or in course of law; or an estate which At later periods, the imperial governors the law casts on a child or other person, wore infula as a sign of dignity, and, as as the representative of the deceased ansuch, it was adopted, in the 7th century, cestor. An estate, or real property which by the bishops of the Roman Catholic a man has to himself and heirs, or the church, who continue to wear it on solemn heirs of his body, &c., is termed afreeehold occasions. It is, in fact, the mitre; of inheritance. which the bishops of the church of Eng- INHIBI'TION, in law, a writ to forbid land have in their coat of arms, but a judge's proceeding in a cause that lies never wear on their head. before him. This writ generally issues IN'GOT, a small bar of metal made of out of a higher court to an inferior, and a certain form and size, by casting it in is of much the same nature as a prohibimoulds. The term is chiefly applied to tion. the small bars of gold and silver, intend- INI'TIATIVE, in politics. In legislaed either for coining or for exportation to tive assemblies constituted so as to comforeign countries. prise more than one chamber, or more IN'GBRESS, E'GRESS, and RE'GRESS, than one distinct and co-ordinate power, in law, words frequently used in leases of that branch of the legislature to which lands, which signify a free entry into, a belongs of right the power to propose going out of, and returning from some measures of a particular class is said to part of the premises leased to another. have the initiative with respect to those INGRES'SU, in law, a writ of entry, measures. Thus in England all propositermed also a prcecipe quod reddat. tions for taxing the subject, whether diINGRESS'US, in law, a duty which the rectly or indirectly, must begin in the heir at full age formerly paid to the chief Commons; a usage which has been lord for entering upon lands which had adopted in most modern constitutions. fallen to him. On the other hand, there are some private INHAB'ITANT, a dweller; one who bills which by custom originate in the dwells or resides permanently in a place, Lords; and one bill, that, namely, for a or who has a fixed residence, as distin- general pardon, is proposed in the first guished from an occasional lodger or visi- instance by the crown. tor; as the inhabitant of a house or INJUNC'TION, in law, a writ or procottage; the inhabita7.tsof a town, city, hibition granted in several cases; and county, or state. So brute animals are for the most part grounded on an interinhabitants of the regions to which their locutory order or decree, made in the natures are adapted; and we speak of court of chancery or exchequer, for stayspiritual beings, as inhabitants of heaven, ing proceedings either in courts of law, -In English/ law, the term inhabitant or ecclesiastical courts. When the reason is used in various technical senses. Thus for granting an injunction ceases, the ina person having lands or tenements in junction is dissolved. his own possession, is an inhabitant for IN'JURY, in a legal sense, any wrong the purpose of repair of bridges, wher- or damage done to another, either in his ever he may reside; but for purposes of person, rights, reputation, or goods. personal services, the inhabitant must Whatever impairs the quality or diminnecessarily be a resident. For the pur- ishes the value of goods or property, is an pose of the poor rate, the word means a injury; so also whatever impairs the person residing permanently, and sleep- health, weakens the mental faculties, or ing in the parish. Where the right of prejudices the character of a person, is an voting is in inhabitant householders, it is injury. generally understood that an inhabitant IN'LAND, in law, that part of any is one who keeps a house in his own occu- land or mansion which lay next to the pation, either personally residing in it, mansion-house, and was used by the lord ___ __ __ ___ _ ____ ___ __ __ ___ __ _ ____ ____ i INq] AND THE FINE ARTS. 319 himself.-In geography, that which is sit- on the cause of any violent or sudden uated in the interior of a country remote death; or to examine into accusations fror the sea-coast.-Inland bills, in con- before trial. merce, bills payable in the country where INQUI'RY, Swrit of, in law, a writ that they are drawn. issues out to the sheriff to summon a INLAY'ING, the art of diversifying jury to inquire what damages a plaintiff cabinet-work, or working in wood or metal has sustained in an action upon the case with several pieces of different colors, cu- where judgment goes by default. riously put together. INQUISI'TION, the title given to a IN LIM'INE, (Latin,) in the outset; court armed with extensive criminal aubefore anything is said or done. thority in various European countries; INN, in England, a college of muni- especially instituted to inquire into ofcipal or common law professors and stu- fences against the established religion. dents; formerly, the town-house of a no- The first of these tribunals of faith was bleman, bishop, or other distinguished that established in the south of France personage, in which he resided when he after the conquest of the Albigenses in attended the court.-In. s of court, col- the 13th century. They were established leges or corporate societies in which stu- in Spain in the middle of the same cendents of law reside and once were in- tury, not without much opposition on the structed. The principal are the Inner part of the bishops and secular clergy, Temple, the Middle Temple, Lincoln's who, in Castile, long maintained their Inn, and Gray's Inn. Every candidate exclusive spiritualjurisdiction. In 1480, for the rank of barrister-at-law is obliged the supreme general inquisition was to be admitted a member of one of these founded at Seville by Queen Isabella, societies, and to submit to its regulations with the aid of the Cardinal Pedro Gonas a student.-Inns of Chanscery, colleges zalez de Mendoza. This great court, in which young students formerly began commonly known by the name of the their law studies. These are now occu- Holy Office, had far more extensive aupied chiefly by attorneys, solicitors, &c. thority than those local tribunals of the IN'NATE IDE'AS, principles or ideas same name which had previously been supposed to be stamped on the mind from established. Thomas de Torquemada, the first moment of its existence, and prior of a Dominican convent, was its which it constantly brings into the world first president, with the title of inquisitorwith it: a doctrine which has given rise general. The process of the inquisition to nmuch discussion, and which the cele- was widely different from that of all other brated Locke took great pains to refute. courts of justice. The kings named the IN'NOCENTS' DAY, a festival ob- grand inquisitor, who appointed his asserved in the church on the 28th of De- sessors, some of whom were secular, but cember, in memory of the children that the greater part regular ecclesiastics: were slain by command of Herod. the counsellors were six or seven in numINOCULA'TION, the insertion of poi- ber, of whom one, by the ordinance of sonous or infectious matter into any part Philip III., must be a Dominican. A of the body; but in this country the party who was brought under cognizance phrase is commonly used to signify the of the court by secret accusation was iminsertion of the virus of the common mecliately seized by its officers, (termed small-pox, the insertion of the virus of the officials or familiars,) and his property cow-pox being called Vaccination. In- put under sequestration. If the accused oculation was introduced into general no- was fortunate enough to absent himself, tice by Lady Mary Wortley Montague, and did not appear at the third summons, whose son was inoculated at Constanti- he was excommunicated, and in some nople about the year 1721, and whose cases burnt in effigy. The subsequent daughter was the first who underwent process of the court by imprisonment, the operation in England. A milder dis- secret examination, and torture, is well ease is thus propagated than when it is known. Penitent offenders were subreceived in the natural way. jected to imprisonment, scourging, conIN PRO'PRIA PERSO'NA, (Latin,) fiscation, and legal infamy. Those conin one's own person or character. victed, who were sentenced to death, were IN QUEST, judicial inquiry. It may burnt at the Autos da Fe, which usually either be a jury to decide on the guilt of take place on some Sunday between an accused person, according to fact and Trinity and Advent. During the 18th law; or to examine the weights and century, the chief officers of the inquisimeasures used by shopkeepers; decide tion were for the most part men of intel 320 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [INS ligence and moderation, and its proceed- I N S C R I P'T I ON, any monumental ings chiefly directed against parties guilty writing, engraved or affixed to a thing, of such offences against decency or reli- to give a more distinct knowledge of it, gion as would have been punishable in or to transmit some important fact to most European countries, although not posterity. The inscriptions mentioned by an equally arbitrary process. But by Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, sufthere were exceptions to this general ficiently show that this was the first character; and by the provincial courts method of conveying instruction to tnmnof inquisition, of which Spain contained kind, and transmitting the knowledge of sixteen, some acts of barbarous injustice history and sciences to posterity: thus were commiitted. According to a common the ancients engraved upon pillars both calculation, 340,000 persons had been the principles of sciences, and the history punished by the inquisition from 1481 to of the world. Pisistratus carved precepts 1808, of whom nearly 32,000 were burnt. of husbandry on pillars of stone; and the In that year it was abolished by Napo- treaties of confederacy between the Roleon. It was afterwards re-established mans and Jews were engraved on plates by Ferdinand IIL. in 1814; but having of brass. Antiquarians have accordingly been again abrogated by the Cortes in been very curious in examining the in1820, it has not been since reconstituted. scriptions on ancient ruins, coins, medals, In Portugal, the supreme court of in- &c. quisition was established in 1557. Its INSOLV'ENCY, inability of a person history in many respects resembles that to pay all his debts; or the state of wantof the Spanish court; but in the 18th ing property sufficient for such payment. century its power was greatly curtailed Inzsolvency is a term in mercantile law, by ordinances which required a certain applied to designate the condition of all degree of publicity in its procedure. It persons unable to pay their debts accordwas abolished by the Cortes of 1821. ing to the ordinary usage of trade. A There were courts of inquisition in vari- bankrupt is an insolvent, but persons ous southern provinces of France, the may be in a state of insolvency, without principal that of Languedoc, established having committed any of the specific acts at Toulouse, which was first founded after which render them liable to a commission the war against the Albigenses; but their of bankruptcy. power was limited not long after their INSPIRA/TION, the infusion of ideas creation, and fell into desuetude long be- into the mind by the Holy Spirit; the fore their final abolition. In several conveying into the minds of men, ideas, Italian statee courts of inquisition have notices, or monitions by extraordinary or been established; but the institution has supernatural influence.-Inspiration ofq never taken much hold on the sentiments the sacred writers, is defined an influence or habits of the people of that country. of the Holy Spirit exercised on the underIt was restored at Rome by Pius VII. standings, imaginations, memories, and after the expulsion of the French, but other mental powers of the writers, by had jurisdiction only over the faith and means of which they were qualified for conduct of the clergy. communicating to the world divine reveINQUIS'ITOR, in law, any officer, as lation, or the knowledge of the will of the sheriff and the coroner, having power God, without error or mistake. Writers to inquire into certain matters.-Grand on theology have enumeerated several inquisitor is the name given to a judge kinds or degrees of inspiration, which of the Inquisition. are founded upon the supposition that INSAN'ITY', mental derangement of God imparted to the sacred writers that any degree, froem slight delirium to raving measure and degree of assistance which madness. It is, however, rarely used to was just suited to the nature of the subexpress temporary deliriuma occasioned jects which they committed to writing, by fever, c. and did not supersede the use of their INSCRIBE', to engrave on a monu- natural powers and faculties, and of their ment, pillar, &e.; or to commend by a acquired knowledge where these were sufshort address, less formal than a dedica- ficient. The measure ofdivine assistance tion; as, to insscribe an ode or book to a which enabled Moses to give an account prince. of the creation; Joshua to record with INSCRIP'TI, in Roman antiquity, a exactness the settlement of the Israelname given to those who were branded ites in Canaan; David to mingle prowith any ignoninious mark after the phetic information with the varied efmanner in which slaves were treated. fusions of gratitude, contrition, and INSi AND THE FINE ARTS. 321 piety; Isaiah to deliver predictions re- INSTAN'TER, in law, instantly; withspecting the Messiah; and the Evange- out the least delay; as, the party was lists to record, in their own several styles compelled to plead instanter. and ways, the life and transactions of INSTAN'TIiE CPUCIS, in philosoJesus Christ, has been termed inspira- phy, crucial instances or examples; a tion cf dire.ction. In some cases inspira- phrase invented by the fancy of Bacon. tion only produced correctness and accu- The use of crucial examples or experiracy in relating past occurrences, and ments is to facilitate the process of inducpreserved the writers generally from rela- tion. For example, A and B, two differting' anytlhing derogatory to the revelation ent causes, may produce a certain number with which it was connected. This has of similar effects; find some effect which been termled inspiration of superintend- the one produces and the other does not, ewy. Where indeed it not only commu- and this will point out, as the directionnicates ideas, new and unknown before, post at a point where two highways meet, but has also imparted greater strength (crux,) which of these causes may have and vigor to the efforts of the mind than been in operation in any particular inthe writers could otherwise have attain- stance. Thus, for example, many of the ed, this divine assistance has been called symptoms of the Oriental plague are inspiration of elevation. Further, when common to other diseases; but when the the prophets and apostles received such observer discovers the peculiar bubo or communications of the Holy Spirit, as boil of the complaint, he has an instantia suggested and dictated minutely every crucis, wihich directs him immediately to part of the truths delivered; this, which its discovery. is the highest degree of divine assistance, IN STATI QUO, (Latin,) a term sighas been termed inspiration o f sugges- nifying that condition in which things tion. The infusion or communication of were left at a certain period; as when ideas or poetic spirit, by a superior being belligerent parties agree that their muor supposed presiding power; as, the in- tual relations should be ine saltat quo, or spiration of Homer or other poet. as they were before the commencement INSTALLA'TION, the ceremony of of a war; and the like. inducting, or investing with any charge, INSTAURA'TA TEN'RA, in archseoffice, or rank; as, the placing a dean or ology, land ready stocked or furnished prebendary in his stall or seat, or a knight with all things necessary to carry on the into his order. employment of a farmer. INSTAL'IiENT, in commercial tran- INSTAiURUM ECCLE'SIAE, the vestsactions, the payment of a certain por- ments, plate, and all utensils belonging tion of a gross sum, which is to be paid to a church. at different times, or, as the phrase is, by INSTINCT, that power of volition or insstalments. In constituting a capital- impulse produced by the peculiar nature stock by subscriptions of individuals, it of an animal, which prompts it to do ceris customary to afford facilities to sub- tain things, independent of all instruction scribers by dividing the sum subscribed or experience, and without deliberation, into instalments, or portions payable at where such act is immediately connected distinct periods. In large contracts also, with its own individual preservation, or it is not unusual to agree that the money with that of its kind Indeed, it is manishall be paid by instalments. fest that instinct not only makes animals IN'STANT, a part of time or duration perform certain actions necessary to the in which no succession is perceived. There preservation of the species, but often altoare three kinds of instants distinguished gether foreign to the apparent wants of by the schoolmen; a temporary, a natu- the individual; and often, also, extremely ral, and a rational instant. The first is complicated. We- cannot attribute these a part of time immediately preceding actions to intelligence, without supposing another; the second is what is otherwise a degree of foresight and understanding termed a priority of nature, which ob- infinitely superior to what we can admit tains in things subordinated in acting, as in the species that perform them. The first and second causes, or causes and actions performed by instinct are not the their effects; and the third is not any effects of imitation, for the individuals real instant, but a point which the un- that execute them have often never seen derstanding conceives to have existed them done by others; they bear no probefore some other instant, founded on the portion to the common intelligence of the nature of the things which cause it to be species, but become more singular. more conceived. skilful, more disinterested, in proportion 21 322 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE' [IN as the animals belong to the less elevated pellation given to such columns as stanQ classes. They are so much the property alone, or free from any contiguous wall, of the species, that all the individuals &c., like an island in the sea; whence perform them in the same manner, with- the name. out any improvement. The duckling INSUR'ANCE, in law and commerce, hastens to the water, the 1en remains the the act of providing against a possible proper time on her eggs during incuba- loss, by entering into contract with one tion, the beaver builds his curious habita- who is willing to give assurance; that is, tion with a skill peculiar to the species, to bind himself to make good such possiand the bees construct, with architectural ble loss, upon the contingency of its ocaccuracy, their waxen cells. Instinct, currence. In this contract. the chances of then, is the general property of the living the benefit are equal to the insurer and principle, or the law of organized life in the assurer. The first actually pays a cera setate of action. tai sum, and the latter undertakes to IN'STITUTE, orINSTITU/TION, any pay a larger, if an accident should hapsociety instituted or established according pen. The one, therefore, renders his to certain laws, or reguletions, for the property secure; the other receives mofurtherance of some particular object, ney, with the probability that it is clear such as colleges or seminaries for the gain. The instrument by which the concultivation of the sciences, Literary In- tract is made, is denominated a policy, stitutes, Mechanics' Institutes, and others. and the stipulated consideration is called We apply the word institution to laws, the prermi'un. These are generally for rites, and ceremonies, which are enjoined protection against losses by fire, or risks by authority as permanent rules of con- at sea. Policies on lives are another deduct or of government; as, the institu- scription of this contract, whereby a tions of Moses or Lycurgus. Also, a so- party, for a certain premium, agrees to ciety of individuals for promoting any pay a certain sum, if a person, to whose public object, as a charitable or benevo- life it relates, shall die within a time lent institution. specified, or to pay the executors of the IN'STRUMENT, MUSICAL, a machile insured a certain sum at the time of his or sonorous body, artificially constructed death. These policies, however, usually for the production of musical sounds. make an exception of death by suicide. They are divided into three kinds, wind According to general practice, a life ininstruments, stringed instruments, and surance is seldom made by the payment instruments of percussion.-lMathenmati- of a single sum when it is effected, but cal intstruments, a common case of, con- almost always by the payment of an antains,-a pair of plain compasses; a pair nual premiumcn during its continuance, of drawing compasses; a drawing pen; a the first being paid down at the comprotractor; a parallel ruler; a plain mencement of the insurance. An indiscale; and a sector; besides black lead vidual, therefore, who has insured a sum pencils.-Instrument, in law, a deed or on his life, would forfeit all the advantawriting drawn up between two parties, ges of the insurance, were he not to conand containing several covenants agreed tinue regularly to make his annual paybetween them. ments. INSTRUhMEN'TAL MU'SIC, music INTA'GLIOS, precious stones on which produced by instruments, as distinguished are engraved the heads of eminent men, from vocal music; particulasrly applied inscriptions, &c., such as are set in to the greater compositions, in which the rings, &c. human voice has no part. sUntil the mid- IN'TELLECT, that faculty of the hudie of the last century, the Italian corn- man soul or mind, which receives or posers used no other instrunents in stheir comprehends the ideas communicated to great pieces than violins and bassvioiols; it by the senses, or by perception, or by at that time, however, they began to use other means; the faculty of thinking the haut-boy and the horn; and even to otherwise called the zunderstanding. It this day, the Italians use wind instru- is applied to the mind when only its raments much less than the French and tional powers are considered, apart from Germans. In general, symphonies and the animating principle: or the will, and overtures, solos, duets, terzettos, quar- from the source of the passions. A clear tettos, &c., sonatas, fantasias, concerts for intellect receives andl entertains the same single instrumlents, dances, marches, &., ideas which another communicates with belong to instrumental music. perspicuity. In the philosophy of Kant, IN'SULATID, in architecture, an ap- the intellet is distinguished into two fao_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I NT% hAD THE FINE ARtST 323 ulties, understanding and reason. The method of warfare was adopted was the understanding, acting on experience, marriage of King Robert of France with merely compares, judges, and measures Bertha his cousin, when Gregory V. its representations, and is conversant in 998 issued interdicts against the whole Solely with their mutual limits and rela- country, and compelled the sovereign to tions, classifying them according to cer- dissolve his union. It had, however, tain schemes of its own which are called been often used before by bishops; an categories. WThile, however, the under- instance is quloted by NMoreri as early as standing is thus limited, the activity of A.D. 870. The ban under which England the reason is unbounded, and as the prin- was laid in the reign of John by Innociple of principles, it is the base and the cent III. is well known in the history verification of every special principle and of that count ry. The latest pretensions reasoning.- to the exercise of this power were asINTEND'ANT, a word much used in sumed by Pius VII., when he issued an in1 France, denoting a person who has the efficient decree agaoinst Napoleon in 1809. charge, direction, or management of some IN/TERIM, in modern European hisoffice or department; as an intendant tory, the name given to a decree of the of marine, an intendant of finance, &c. Emperor Charles V., after the overthrow INTER'CALARY DAY, in the calen- of the Protestant League of Smalcalde, dar, a day inserted out of the usual in which he attempted to reduce to harorder to preserve the account of time. uony the conflicting opinions of the ProtThus every fourth year containing 366 estants and Romanists. The use of the days, while the other years contain only cap, however, and the marriage of the 365, one of the months in that year must clergy, were the only points which he have an additional day, which is called conceded to the Reformers; and it bethe intercalary day. The additional day came a question among them, and gave was given to February, as being the rise to many serious disputes, whether shortest month, and in the ancient Roman they could conscientiously submit even to calendar was inserted between the 24th a temporary decree of such a nature. The and 25th days. In the ecclesiastical cal- enactments of the interiml, were intended endar it still retains that place; but in only to remain in full force till some definthe civil calendar it is the 29th. itive settlement could be made; whence INTERCES'SION, in Roman antiquity, it derives the name by which it is genethe act of a tribune of the people, where- rally known. It received the force of by he inhibited the act of another magis- law at the Diet of Augsburgh, in 1548. trate, or prevented the passing of a law Its provisions against the Protestants in the senate, which was usually done by were however, in most respects, set aside the single word veto. by the treaty of Passan, 1552. INTERCOLUMNIA'TION, in archi- INTERJEC"TION, in grammar, an intecture, the space between two columns, declinable part of speech, serving to exwhich is always to be proportioned to the press some passion or emotion of the height and bulk of the columns. It is mind; as, "Alas! my fondest hopes are one of the most important elements in now forever fled!" architecture, and on it depend the effect INTERLACING ARCHES, in archiof the columns themselves, their propor- tecture, circular arches which intersect tion, and the harmony of an edifice. each other, as in the figure. They are freIN/TERDICT, in ecclesiastical history, a spiritual weapon, by which the popes used in former times to reduce individuals or whole states to the most abject submis-. sion to their power. In the middle ages W it was the most terrible blow which could I' l li'' | be inflicted on the people or the prince. | When an interdict was laid on a kingdolm r all spiritual services ceased; the church- 9' _ A 13J es weree shut ip; the sacraments were i no longer administered; no corpses were Interlacinrg Arcade, Norwich Cathedral. buried with funeral rites; and all the nterla cad rwch aeda ministry of the church which was then quent in arcades in the Normans style of believed to be the only channel of salva- the twelfth century, and from themi Dr. tion was forbidden to be exercised. The Millner supposed the pointed arch to first memorable occasion on which this have had its origin. L ~ _~_ 324 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [INT INTERLOC'UTOR, in literary phra- magnitude and texture, and of those proseology, a person who is introduced as duced by another of a different magnitaking part in a dialogue; in dramatic tude and texture, in the same time. The literature, termed dramatis persona: ancients divided the intervals into simple the latter name, however, comprehends or uncomposite, which they call diastems, such as appear on the stage but take no and composite intervals, which they call part in speaking, termed by the Greeks systems. Modern musicians consider the mute personages. semitone as a simple interval, and only INTERLOC'UTORY Order or Decree, call those composite which consist of two in law, an order that does not decide the or more semitones. cause, but only some matter incident INTONA'TION, in music, the act of thereto, which may happen in the inter- sounding the notes in the scale with the mediate stage of a cause; as when, in voice, or any other given order of musichancery, the plaintiff obtains an order cal tones. It consists, in fact, in giving for an injunction until the hearing of the to the tones of the voice or instrument cause; which order, not being final, is that occasional impulse, swell, and decalled interlocutory. crease, on which, in a great measure, all IN'TERLUDE, in the drama, a light expression depends. entertainment exhibited on the stage be- INTOXICA'TION, the state produced tween the principal performance and the by the excessive use of alcoholic liquids. afterpiece. At present, the term inter- It may be called progressive madness. lude is applied principally to small comic Its first stage is marked by an increased operas, written for two or three persons. circulation of the blood; the consciousIn ancient tragedy, the chorus sung the ness is not yet attacked, the fancy is interludes between the acts. more lively, and the feeling of strength IN'TERMEDE, or INTERMEZ/ZO, and courage is increased. In the se'cond in dramatic literature, nearly the same stage, the effect on the brain is more dewith interlude. A short musical piece, cided: the peculiarities of character, and generally of a burlesque character; but the faults of temperament, which in his many, not intended merely for introduc- sober moments the individual could contion between the acts of a more serious trol and conceal, manifest themselves performance, are comprised under these without reserve. Consciousness, in the names by the French and Italians. next stage, becomes more weakened; the INTERNUN'CIO, an envoy of the balance of the body cannot be kept, and pope, sent to small states and republics, dizziness attacks the brain. In the next distinguished from the nuncio who repre- degree, the soul is overwhelmed in the sents the pope at the courts of emperors tumult of animal excitement; consciousand kings. Also a species of diplomatic ness is extinguished; the organs of speech officers, who ranked, according to the old refuse to perform their office, or the practice, between ambassadors and pleni- tongue pours forth an incoherent jargon; potentiaries. the face is red and swollen; the eyes are INTERPOLA/TION, in philological protruded and meaningless; and the criticism, the insertion of spurious pas- drunkard falls into a state of stupor and sages in the writings of some ancient insensibility. author. INTRAN'SITIVE, in grammar, an INTERREG'NUM, the time during epithet for a verb that expresses actions which a throne is vacant in elective king- that do not pass over to an object, as I doms; for in such as are hereditary, like go, I come, I sleep, &c. that of England, there is no such thing IN TRAN'SITU, a Latin expression, as an interregnum. signifying, during the passage from one INTERIROGA'TION, in grammar, a place to another. character or point (?) denoting a ques- INTRENCII'MENT, in fortification, tion, as, Do you love me?-Interroga- any work that shelters a post against the tion, in rhetoric, a figure containing a attacks of an enemy. proposition in the form of a question. IN'TROIT, in ecclesiastical antiquiINTERROG/ATORY, in law, a ques- ties, the verses chanted or repeated at tion in writing demanded of a witness in the first entering of the congregation into a cause who is to answer it under the the church; a custom as old as the fourth solemnity of an oath. century: called "ingressa" in the Am IN'TERVAL, in music, the difference brosian ritual. between the number of vibrations, pro- INTRU'SION, in law, a violent or un duced by one sonorous body of a certain lawful seizing upon lands or tenements. INV] AND THE FINE ARTS. 325 INTUI'TION, the act by which the naval invalids; for they were granted mind perceives the agreement or dis- only after victory, and emanated more agreement of two ideas, or the truth of from individual power or favor than from things, immediately, or the moment they any general or established principles of are presented, without the intervention benevolence. In modern times there is of other ideas, or without reasoning and no civilized country without institutions deduction. Intuition is the most simple for the maintenance of invalids; but the act of the reason or intellect, on which, most magnificent are, without question, according to Locke. depends the certainty the Greenwich and Chelsea hospitals in and evidence of all our knowledge; which England, and ni France the Hotel des Incertainly every one finds to be so great, valides. that he cannot imagine, and therefore INVEN'TION, the action or operation cannot require, greater. In the philoso- of finding out something new; the conphy of Kant, the term irntuition is used trivance of that which did not before exto denote the single act of the sense upon ist; as, the invention of logarithms; the inoutward objects according to its own laws. vention of the art of printing; the invenINTU'ITIVE, perceived by the mind tion of the orrery. Invention differs from immediately, without the intervention of discovery. Invention is applied to the argument or testimony; exhibiting truth contrivance and production of something to the mind on bare inspection; as, in- that did not before exist. Discovery tuitive evidence. The different species brings to light that which existed before, of intuitiev evidence, according to Dugald but which was not known. We are inStewart, are, 1. The evidence of axioms; debted to invention for the thermometer 2. The evidence of consciousness; of per- and barometer. We are indebted to disception and of memory; 3. The evidence covery for the knowledge of the islands of those fundamental laws of human be- in the Pacific ocean, and for the knowllief which form an essential part of our edge of galvanism, and many species of constitution, and of which our entire con- earth not formerly known. This distincviction is implied, not only in all specu- tion is important, though not always oblative reasonings, but in all our conduct served.-That which is invented. The as active beings. Of this class is the evi- cotton gin is the invention of Whitney; dence for our own personal identity; for the steamboat is the invention of Fulton. the existence of the material world; for The Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders the continuance of those laws which have are said to be inventions of the Greeks; been found, in the course of our past ex- the Tuscan and Composite are inventions perience, to regulate the succession of of the Latins.-In painting, the finding phenomena. Such truths no man ever or choice of the objects which are to enter thinks of stating to himself in the form into the composition of the piece.-In of propositions; but all our conduct and poetry, it is applied to whatever the poet all our reasonings proceed on the suppo- adds to the history of the subject.-In sition that they are admitted. Every rhetoric, the finding and selecting of arstep which the reason makes in demon- guments to prove and illustrate the point strative knowledge has intuitive certain- in view. ty; and, consequently, the power of rea-. INVER'SION, in rhetoric and philoloson presupposes that of intuition. gy, the transposition of words out of their IN'VALIDS, those soldiers or sailors natural order. Every language has a who, either on account of wounds or length customary arrangement of its own to regof service, are admitted into hospitals, ulate the order of succession in which and there maintained at the public ex- words forming part of the same sentence, pense. The practice of making provision member, or proposition follow each other. for soldiers worn out or disabled in the On the other hand, there is undoubtedly public service dates from high antiquity. a natural or philosophical order of words The liberality of Pisistratus to the Athe- following each other in the same analytnian soldiers is knoswn to every scholar; ical succession in which ideas present and the history of ancient Rome is re- themselves to the mind, varied occasionplete with instances of the veterans of the ally by that produced by the succession legions being rewarded with grants of of sentiments or emotions; and as in eveland. It must be admitted, however, that ry language many customary phrases, if in ancient times such recompenses had not the general arrangement of the words, not their origin in that high philanthropic are contrary to this primitive order, evefeeling by which the moderns are actu- ry language has customary inversions of ated in making provision for military and its own. Deviations from the customary 326 CYCLOPrDIA OF LITERATURE [lo0 order of words are more commonly called dation, and hence its employment is fr- transpositions; but each word has, of quently of the first importance in concourse, a relative and somewhat arbitra- structive architecture. ry signification. As an insta.nce of ordi- INVES'TITURE, in feudal law, the nary inversion, it may be observed that, delivery of a fief by a lord to his vassal, according to the metaphysical or analyt, accompanied by peculiar ceremsonies. ical order, the subject of a proposition The investiture of'a bishop wa-s, properly precedes the predicate, being the first idea speaking, his endowment with the fiefs which presents itself to the mind. Thus, and temporalities of the see. HIence it in the construction of a sentence contain- became a subject of contest between the ing a proposition, " Solon is wise,' or popes and emperors, and one of the prin"Alexander reigns,'7 we habitually fol- cipal grounds of the great quarrel of low the order of nature. But when a sub- Guelfs and Glibellinses. It was conceded stantive and adjective in connection form by the emperors to the Roman see in part of a sentence, i. e., a subject or pred- 1122; but the question was ended by a ioate, or a part of either, the substantive substantial compromise, which loft the is that which seems naturally to present nomination in reality in the hands of the itself first to the mind; whereas in most temporal prince in European moonarchies modern languages it follows the adjective, under the Roman Catholic religion. while in the Greek and Latin its ordinary INVOCA'TION, in literature, signialthough not its necessary place was be- fies, in a general sense, an address at the fore it: " Who is a wise man?" " Vir commencement of a poem, preferred to bonus est quis?'" "The end of a long the Muses or some other being supposed silence." " Finis silentii diuturni." It capable of giving inspiration. Thus,. is in general to be observed, that modern while the ancient poets generally adlanguages admit far iess readily than an- dressed their invocations to some particcient of transposition; but there are con- ular muse or divinity, Milton invokes siderable differences in this respect be- the'"Heavenly Muse" and the " Holy tween modern languages tlhemselves. Spirit,; and, in his lien-iade, Voltaire German admits much latitude, French calls to his aid' auguste Verite." very little. In our own language we are INzVOICE, in commerce, a written acfrequently able to vary the analytical or- coant of the particulars of merchandise der by fillowing what may be termued the shipped or sent to a purchaser, factor, &c. order of emotion, where a French writer with the value or prices and charges ancould not do so: thus in the proposition, nexocd.'"'Great is Diana of the Ephesians,' it ION'IC DIALECT, the most e-phoawould be impossible, in French, to givenious of the four written. varieties of the the force which is added to:the expression Greek languiae, was spoken by the inby the transposition of the predicate to habitants of the Ionian Islands, and in the beginning without violatin-. the ha- their colonial possessions in Asia Miinor. bitual rules of construction. A simsilar It was oriiinally the samae as the Attic insta.nce of inversion's to be found in tuhe dialect, tt least, they boasted of a comSwedish and some kindred languages, in mon origin; but from the extensive cornwhich the article follows instead of pro- mnercial intercourse of the Ionians withl cedig the noun.-In ver-sion, in music, the eastern nations', their languoi.ge gradthe change of place between two notes of nally imbibed a portion of Asiatic effeman interval; that is, placing the lower inacy, which at length became its chief note an octave higher, or the higher note charaeteristic, forming a strikinga consan octa;ne lower. trastto that combination of strengrlh and IN VEITRED ARCH, in architecture, haarmonyl which distinguished the dialect oue wherein the lowest stone or brick is of Attica. The chief writers in the Ionic dialect are Herodotus, Hippocr;aes, andc ~-_iUT |: — -l ~ Galen but it is in the writings of the first that the most complete specimen is ^^-1 ^/ r to be found. _I__ -'E'' — I ION'IG ORDER, one of the five or/ I /> ^-^ ders. of architecture. The distinguishing characteristic of this order is the volute of its capital. In'the Grecian the key-stone. It is used in foundations, Ionic, the volutes appear the same on to distribute the weight of particular the front and rear; being connected on the points over the whole extent of the foun- flanks by a balustr-like form; through ISAI AND THE FINE ARTS. 327 the external angles of the capitals of the one, and air with the other, were made corner columns, however, a diagonal vo- the original materials out of which all lute is introduced. The Romans gave things arose, and into which they were their Ionic four diagonal volutes, and finally resolved. In their successors the curved the sides of the abacus. The germs of a more philosophical doctrine Greek volute continues the fillet of the are apparent. They retain, indeed, the spiral along the face of the abacus, simplicity of an original element; but whereas in the Roman, its origin is be- the air of Diogenes and the fire of eehind the ovolo. In the modern Ionic cap- raclitus are apparently only sensible ital, the volutes are placed diagonally, symbols which they used only in order to and the abacus has its sides hollowed out. present more vividly to the imagination The shaft, including the base, which is the energy of the one vital principle half a diameter, and the capital to the which is the ground of all outward apbottom of the volute, generally a little pearances. It would indeed be a mistake more, is about 9 diameters high, and may to regard these philosophers as materialbe fluted in 24 flutes, with fillets between ists. The distinction between objective them; these fillets are semi-circular. The and subjective, between a rlaw operating pedestal is a little taller and more orna- in the universe, and the corresponding mented than the Doric. The bases used apprehension of that law by reason, howto this order are very various. The Attic ever obvious it may seem at the presbase is very often used, and with an as- ent day, seems to have required the deep tragal added above the upper torus, meditation of numerous powerful thinkmakes a beautiful and appropriate base. ers to bring it into clear consciousness. The cornices of this order may be divided But we meet also with a class of thinkers into three divisions, the plain Grecian in whom the contrary tendency prevailcornice, the dentil cornice, and the mo- ed. Anaximantder (n.c. 590) and Anaxdillion cornice. The best examples of agoras, the master of Pericles, agree this order are the temple on the Ilissus, in this respect, that they consider the of Minerva Polias, and Erichtheus in the world to be made up of numberless small Acropolis, and the aqueduct of Adrian at particles, of different kinds and of various Athens; the temple of Fortuna Virilis, shapes, by the change in whose relative and the Coliseum at Rome. The bold- position all phenomena are to be accountness of the capital, with the beauty of ed for. This hypothesis is combined by the shaft, makes it eligible for porticoes, Anaxagoras with a Supreme Reason, the frontispieces, entrances to houses, &c. author of all that is regular and harmoION'IC PHILOSOPHERS, the earliest nious in the disposition of these elementamong the Greek schools of philosophy. ary atoms. Anaxagoras may indeed be Speculation arose in Greece, as elsewhere, considered as the first philosopher who in the attempt to discover the laws of clearly and broadly stated the leading outward phenomena, and the origin and distinctions between mind and matter. successive stages of the world's develop- IPRONY, a mode of speech, or writing, ment. Such an attempt, it is needless expressing a sense cont-rary to what the to say, must at first havebeenextremely speaker or writer means to convey. rude. To the student of philosophical When irony is uttered, the dissimulation literature, however, no such undertaking, is generally apparent from the manner however unsuccessful, can possibly be of speaking, which may be either accomotherwise than interesting; and in this panied by an arch look or by affected instance in particular we are able to dis- gravity. cover the manifest traces of that liveli- ISAIAH, or the Prophecy of ISAIAH, ness of thought and systematic spirit a canonical book of the Old Testament. which distinguish the later Greek specu- Isaiah is the first of the four great prolations. The fathers of the Ionic school phets, the other three being Jeremiah, were Thales andhis disciple Anaximenes. Ezekiel, and Daniel. The style of Isaiah They were succeeded in the same line of is noble, sublime and florid. Grotius thought by Diogenes of Apollonia, and calls him the Demosthenes of the HeHeraclitus of Ephesus. The character- brews. He had the advantage, above istic mark which distinguishes the specu- the other prophets, of improving his lations of these thinkers is the endeavor diction by conversing. with men of the to refer all sensible things to one origi- greatest learning and elocution; and this nal principle in nature. The two first added a sublimity, force, and majesty to named were satisfied with a very simple Iwhat he said. He boldly reproved the solution of the problem. Water with the vices of the age in which he lived, and 328 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [Is openly displayed the judgments of God Isthmian Neptune, which was surrounded that threatened the Jewish nation; at with a thick forest of pine. They were the same time denouncing vengeance on originally held in the night, and had the Assyrians, Egyptians, Ethiopians, perhaps fallen into disuse, when Theseus Moabites, Edomites, Syrians, and Ara- restored them, and ordered them to be bians, who were instrunental in inflict- celebrated in the day. The contests were ing those judgments. He foretold the of the same kind as at the Olympic games; deliverance of the Jews from their cap- and so great was the concourse at these tivity in Babylon, by the hands of Cyrus, games, that only the principal people, of king of Persia, a hundred years before it the most remarkable cities, could have came to pass; but the most remarkable place. of his predictions are those concerning ITAL'IAN, a native of Italy, or the the Messiah, in which he not only foretold language spoken by its inhabitants. The his coming in the flesh, but many of the origin of this beautiful and most harmogreat and memorable circumstances of nious tongue, is involved in great obhis life and death. The whole, indeed, scurity. bears the stamp of genius and true inspi- ITAL'ICS, in printing, characters or ration. letters (first used in Italy) which stand I'SIS, one of the chief deities in the inclining; thus-Italic; and which are Egyptian mythology. By the Egyptians often used by way of distinction from RIoshe was regarded as the sister or sister- man letters, for emphasis, antithesis, or wife of Osiris, who concurred with her in some peculiar importance attached to the the endeavor to polish and civilize their words in which they are employed.subjects; to teach them agriculture and Italicize, to write or print in Italic charother necessary arts of life. Among the acters. higher, and more philosophical theolo- ITA'IC SCHOOL OF PIIILOSOgians, she iwas made the symbol of pan- PHY, comprehends properly the Pythatheistic divinity. By the people she was gorean and Eleatic systems taken toworshipped as the goddess of fecundity. gether; but sometimes it is used as The cow was sacred to her. She is repre- synonymous merely with the school of sented variously, though most usually as Pythagoras. Under the several heads a woman with the horns of a cow, and will be found the chief features of these sometinmes with the lotus on her head, philosophical systems, which, comlprising and the sistrum in her hand. as they do all that can be said in referIS'LAMISM, the practical as well as ence to the Italic school, it would seem. the doctrinal tenets of the Mohammedan unnecessary in this place further to adreligion, embracing the whole of their vert to. The Italic school has been so civil and religious polity. designated from the fact that its founder, ISLANDS OF THE BLESSED, ac- Pythagoras, taught in Italy, spreading cording to the Grecian mythology, the his doctrine among the people of TaHappy Islands, supposed to lie westward rentum, Metapontum, Heraclea, Naples, in the ocean, whither after death, the etc. souls of the virtuous were transported. I'VORY, the tusks and teeth of the In the early mythology Of the Greeks, elephant, and of the walrus or sea-horse; the Islands of the Blessed, the Elysian a hard, solid substance, of a fine white fields, and the infernal regions, were creamy color, and greatly esteemed for generally confounded with each other. the fineness of its grain, and the high. ISOTOM/IC, in music, consisting of polish it is capable of receiving. That intervals, in which each concord is alike of India loses its color and becomes yeltempered, and in which there are twelve low; but that of Acheml and Ceylon is equal semitones. free from this imperfection. Ivory is IS'SUE, in law, the legitimate off- extensively used by cutlers in the mannuspring of parents. Also, the profits facture of handles for knives and forks; arising from lands, tenements, fines, &c.- by miniature painters for their tablets; The point of matter at issue between by turners, in making numberless useful contending parties in a suit, is when a and ornamental objects, as well as for thing is affirmed on the one side, and chess-men, billiard balls, toys, &c.; also denied on the other. by musical and philosophical instrument IST'IiMIAN GAMES, so called be- makers; comb-makers; and by dentists cause they were celebrated in the Isth- for making artificial teeth; for which mus of Corinth, which joins the Pelopon- last-mentioned purpose the ivory of the nesus to the Continent, at the temple of walrus is preferred. The western and JAO] AND THE FINE ARTS. S2 S eastern coasts of Africa, the Cape of J Good Hope, Ceylon, India, and the countries to the eastward of the straits of Malacca, are the great marts whence J, this letter, although very ancient, supplies of ivory are derived. Ivory has been added to the English alphabet articles are said to be manufactured to a only in modern days. Its form was origigreater extent, and with better success, nally identical with that of I, and it is at Dieppe, than in any other place in only within the last century that any disEurope; but the preparation of this tinction was made between them. The beautiful material is much better under- separation of these two letters in English stood by the Chinese than by any other dictionaries is of still more recent date. people. No European artist has hitherto It seems to have had the sound of y in succeeded in cutting concentric balls after many words, its it still has in the German. the manner of the Chinese; and their The English sound of this letter may be boxes, chess-men, and other ivory arti- expressed by dzh, or ed;zh, a compound cles, are all far superior to any that are sound coinciding exactly with that of g, to be met with anywhere else. The use in genius; the Frenchj, with the articuof ivory was well known in very early lation d preceding it. It is the tenth ages. We find it employed for arms, letter of the English alphabet, and the girdles, sceptres, harnesses of horses, seventh consonant. sword-hilts, &c. The ancients were also JACOBINS, in French history, as poacquainted with the art of sculpturing in litical club, which bore a well-known part ivory, of dying and encrusting it. Homer in the first revolution. It was first formrefers to the extreme whiteness of ivory. ed by some distinguished members of the The coffer of Cypselus was doubtless the First Assembly, particularly from Britmost ancient monument of this kind in tany, where revolutionary sentiments ran basso-relievo, and we meet with similar high. They took, at first, the name of instances in the temple of Juno, at Olym- Friends of the Revolution; but as, at the plus, in the time of Pausanias-that is end of 1789, they held their meetings in to say, seven hundred years after it had the hall of a suppressed Jacobin monasbeen built. Antiquity possessed numer- tery in the Rue Saint Honore, the name ous statues of ivory, particularly in the of Jacobins, at first familiarly given them, temples of Jupiter and of Juno at Olyn- was finally assumed by themselves. The pils. In these statues there was very history of the Jacobin club is, in effect, frequently a mixture of gold. The most the history of the Revolution. It concelebrated are stated to have been the tained at one time more than 2,500 memOlympian Jupiter and the Minerva of hers, and corresponded with more than Phidias: the former was covered with a 400 affiliated societies in France. The golden drapery, and seated on a throne club of the Cordeliers, formed by a small formed of gold, of ivory and cedar-wood, and more violent party out of the general and enriched with precious stones. In body of Jacobins, was reunited with the his hand the god held a figure of Victory, parent society in June, 1791; but conalike of ivory and gold. The Minerva tinned to form a separate section within was erected in the Parthenon at Athens its limits. The Jacobin club, which had during the first year of the eighty-seventh almost controlled the first assembly, was Olympiad, the year which commenced thus, during the continuance of the seethe Peloponnesian war. Pausanias, like- ond, itself divided between two contendwise, makes mention of an ivory statue ing parties; although the name of Jacoof Juno, on her throne, of remarkable bins, as a political party, is commlonly magnificence, by Polycletes, together with given to that section which opposed the an'infinity of others. Girondists or less moderate in the club no I'VY, in mythological painting and less than in the assembly. After the sculpture, a plant, the leaves of which destruction of the latter under the Conwere made very plentiful use of by an- vention, the club was again exclusively cient artists on vases, pedestals, altars, governed by the more violent among its &c. It was also, in the shape of a crown, own members, until the downfall of Robesthe constant attribute of Bacchus, proba- pierre. After that period it became unbly because, being evergreen, it implied, popular; and its members having atin an allegorical and at the same time tempted an insurrection on behalf of the elegant manner, the eternal youth of that subdued Terrorists, November 11, 1794, deity. the meeting was dispersed by force, and the club finally suppressed. Some wri 330 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [JAN ters, such as Barrue,, nave seen in the its ill conduct and failure proved a confirst foruation of this and similar socie- siderable check to the hopes of the Engties, the long-concocted operations of a lish Jacobites. Bishop Atterbury, the conspiracy against legitimate government last of their bolder intriguers and adherand religion throughout Europe. The ents, was banished in 1722: after which Jacobins, and the other principal clubs time it is probable that no extensive conof the Revolution, adopted all the forms spiracy took place on their part. In of a legislative assembly. In the consti- Scotland, however, the party maintained tution of 1792, their legal existence was its strength unabated, until the second recognized. See the historians of the rebellion of 1745, by its complete failure, French Revolution, especially Carlyle, put an end to its political existence.Mignet, and Thiers, for general views; Jacobites, in ecclesiastical history, the Buchez et Roux, Histoirc Parlemen- monophysite Christians of Syria are so taire de la Revolution F1ranfaise, for the called, from Jacob Baradzi, who revived most complete series of details respecting their belief and form of worship in that the Jacobins and their meetings which country and Mesopotamia, in the middle has yet been made public.-Ja.cobins, in of the 6th century. Many unsuccessful ecclesiastical history, the religious of the attempts have been made at various times order of St. Dominic were so called in to unite them with the church of Rome. France, from the situation of the princi- JAC'OBUS, a gold coin in the reign pal convent at Paris, near the Rue St. of James I. of the value of 25s. Jacques. JAC'QUERIE, in history, the name JACOBITES, in English history, that popularly given to a revolt of the French party which, after the Revolution of 1688, peasantry against the nobility, which took adhered to the dethroned monarch James place while king John was a prisoner in II., and afterwards to his descendants. England, in 1356. Jacques Bolw7homms? In Scotland and Ireland, where the revo- was a term of derision applied by the lution was not effected except with the nobles to the peasants, from which the assistance of arms, the Jacobite party insurrection took its name. It began in formed one of the two great divisions of the Beauvoisis, under a chief of the lname each nation; and although crushed in the of Caillet, and desolated Picardy, Artois, latter country by conquest, they contin- and Brie, where savage reprisals were ned in the former to comprise a large executed against the nobility for their proportion of the population until long oppressions. It was suppressed aftersome after the last rebellion in 1745. But in weeks by the dauphin and Charles the England the revolution was effected at Bad, king of Navarre. A similar spirit first with the consent of all parties; the in England produced, not many years adherents to the exiled monarch were si- afterwards, the rebellion of Wat Tyler. lenced: yet in a year or two, the Jaco- JACTITA'TION o'f Msarriage, a suit bite faction rose into strength, and con- in the ecclesiastical court, when one of tinued to harass the government of Wil- the parties declares that he or she is liam throughout his reign. Its immedi- married, which if the other party deny, ate cause was to be found in the refusal and no adequate proof of the marriage be of a portion of the bishops and clergy to brought, the offending party is enjoined take the oaths to the new government, silence on that head. which gave, as it were, a certain consist- JAMBS, in architecture, the side or ency and tangible ground of opposition to vertical pieces of any opening in a wall, the friends of the dethroned monarch in which bear the piece that discharges the general. At the same time many of Wil- superincumbent weight of such wall. liam's chief advisers and officers main- JAN'IZARIES, or JANISSARIES, tained a secret correspondence with James the appellation given to the grand seigII. at the French court, less from any at- nior's guard, or the soldiers of the Turktachmnent to his cause than with a view ish infantry. They became turbulent, to secure their own interest in case of his and rising in arms against the sultan, in return. After the death of James II. in May, 1826, were attacked. defeated, and France, and accession of Anne in Eng- subsequently abolished, and their places land the efforts of the party languished supplied by troops trained after the Eufor a time; but towards the close of her ropean manner. reign they revived, on the prospect of a JAN'SENISTS, a denomination of Rochange in the succession. In 1715, on man Catholics in France, who followed the arrival of George I., broke out the the opinon of Jansen, bishop of Ypres, unsuccessful first rebellion in Scotland: and formed a considerable party in the JEW] AND THE FINE ARTS. 331 latter half of the 17th century. The Jan- I jealousy, before a good is lost by oursenists were Calvinistic in many of their selves, is converted into envy, after it is sentiments, and in several respects ap- obtained by others. proximated to the reformed opinions. JEHO'VAII, one of the Scripture They did not, however, separate them- names of God, signifying the Being who selves from the Catholic church; nor did is self-existent, and gives existence to they long survive the decree of Alexan- others. This is the awful and ineffable der VII., by which certain propositions name of the God of Israel, which was reextracted from their writings are con- vealed to Moses; denoting Him who is, demned as heretical. The Jansenists are who was, and who is to come. chiefly celebrated for the contest they JEM'IDAR, in military affairs, a maintained with the Jesuits, by whom black oflicer, who has the same rank as a they were at last overcome, and subjected lieutenant in the East India Company's to the enmity both of Louis XIV.'and service. the pope. JES'UITS, or the Society of Jesus, the JAN'UARY, the first month of the most celebrated of all the Romish reliyear. By some the name is derived from gious orders; founded by Ignatius LoJanus, a Rtoman divinity; by others from yola, a Spaniard, in the year 1534, when janua, a gate. The months of January he, with Francis Xavier and four or five and February were inserted in the Ro- other students at the university of Paris, man year by Numa Pompilius. The bound themselves to undertake the conRoman feast of the kalends of January version of unbelievers. As a religious seems to have been converted in the 6th body, the Jesuits differ from their predcentury into the Christianfestival of the ecessors, inasmuch as, their principle circumcision. being to conform as much as possible JA'NUS, a Latin deity, originally the with the manners of the age, they have same as the sun. lie was represented never adopted the austere observances with two faces looking opposite ways, and and exclusive spiritual character upon holding a key in one hand, a staff in the which all earlier orders had grounded other. He presided over the commence- their claims to notoriety. They are diment of all undertakings, whence the first vided into different classes; of which only month in the year was named after hin. the pfq-fessed take the religious vows of His temple at Rome was kept open in poverty, chastity, and obedience to their the time of war, and shut in peace. The superior. Among the novices are frewarlike disposition of tile Romans is quently enrolled influential laymen, as manifest fromr the fact that this temple was Louis the XIV. himself in his latter was only shut six times in 800 years: years; and this is one of the means which viz., once in the reign of NuSma; at the the order has employed to extend its efconclusion of the first Punic war; thrice ficiency where it would be least liable to in the reign of Augustus; and once again observation. The professed are of sevunder Nero. eral ranks, the whole body being under JEAL/OUSYY, that passion or peculiar the absolute control of the general, whose uneasiness which arises from the fear abode is fixed in Rome, and whose counthat a rival may rob us of the affection cil consists of an admonitor and five asof one whom we love, or the suspicion sistants or counsellors, who represent the that he has already done it; or it is the five principal Catholic states-Italy, Ger uneasiness which arises from the fear many, France, Spain, and Portugal. To th;at another does, or will enjoy some Rome, as the central seat of the order, advantage which we desire for ourselves. are sent monthly communications from A man's jealousy is excited by the atten- the superiors of the different provinces tions of a rival to his favorite lady. A through which its members are distribwoman's jealousy is roused by her hus- uted. band's attentions to another woman. The JEU DESPRIT', (French,) a witticandidate for office manifests a jealousy cism or unexpected association of ideas of others who seek the same office. The JEWS, the descendants of Abraham, jealousy of a student is awakened by the once an independent tribe in Palestine, apprehension that his fellow will bear\ but dispersed by the Romans; yet still away the palm of praise. In short, jeal- distinguished by their religion, peculiar ousy is awakened by whatever may ex- pursuits, and primitive customs. They alt others, or give them pleasures and are the negotiators of money between all advantages which we desire for ourselves. nations, and everywhere distinguished for — Jealousy is nearly allied to envy, for their successful enterprise and aceumu 332 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LOS lations of wealth. They have, however, beheaded by order of Herod Antipas, telost the distinction of twelve tribes, trarch of Galilee, to gratify a vindictive though perhaps more numerous than at woman. His disciples are said to have any period.-See JUDAISM. been the founders of the sect of Sabians. JEW'S'-HARP, an instrument of mu- JOINT-STOCK, stock held in comsic, of a very imperfect character, which, pany. Joint-Stock Companies, associaplaced between the teeth and by means tions of a number of individuals for the of a spring struck by the finger, gives a purpose of carrying on a specified busisound which is modulated by the breath. ness or undertaking. They are generally By some it has been called thejaw's-harp, formed for the accomplishment of extenbecause the place where it is played upon sive schemes of trade or manufacture, or is between the jaws. the completion of some object of national JOB, or the book of Job, a canonical and local importance, such as railways, book of the Old Testament, containing bridges, canals, &c. They have also been the narrative of a series of misfortunes found well adapted for the formation of which happened to a man named Job, as banks. a trial of his patience and fortitude, to- JOINT-TEN'ANCY, in law, a tenure gether with conferences which he held with of estate by unity of interest, title, time, his several friends on the subject of his and possession. misfortunes, and the manner in which he JOINT'URIE, in law, a wife's separate was restored to happiness. Many of the estate, secured by will, or by marriage Jewish Rabbins pretend that this relation settlement. In other cases the wife inis purely a fiction; others think it a sim- herits one third. pie narrative of a matter of fact; while JONAII, prophecy of, a canonical a third class of critics acknowledge that book of the Old Testament, in which it the ground-work of the story is true, but is related that Jonah, about the year 771, that it is written in a poetical style, and B.C., was ordered to go and prophesy the decorated with peculiar circumstances. to destruction of the Ninevites, on account render the narration more profitable and of their wickedness. But instead of interesting. Sach is the opinion of Gro- obeying the divine command, he embarktils, who supposed that the events record- ed for Tarshish, when a tempest arising, ed in it happened in Arabia, while the the mariners drew lots to determine who Hiebrews wandered in the desert. The was the cause of it, and as the lot fell to whole narrative is characterized by sim- him he was thrown into the sea, and was plicity of manner and intensity of feel- swallowed by a great fish, which after ing, combined with pure and lofty senti- three days, cast him on the shore. After ments, illustrating in a striking manner, this he boldly preached to the people of the nature of man and the providence of Nineveh, and predicted their destruction; God. but which, on account of their repentance, JOHN BULL, the well-known collec- was averted. Jonah, dreading the suspitive name of the English nation, was cion which might attach to him as afalse first used in Arbuthnot's satire, The prophet, retired to a mountain at a disHistor'y of John Bull, usually published tance from the city, where he learnt the in Swift's works; in which the French are folly and unreasonableness of his own disdesignatted as Lewis Baboon, the Dutch content. It may be observed that some as Nicholas Frog, &c. critics consider this book as a collection JOHN (ST.) THE EVANGELIST, of traditions, collected after the destructie author of the Gospel which bears his tion of Nineveh, while others treat it as name, of the book of Revelations, which a mere allegorical poem. he wrote while an exile in the isle of Pat- JOSI-IUA, a canonical book of the Old mos, and of three Epistles. He was Testament, containing a history of the emphatically called "the disciple whom wars and transactions of the person whose Jesus loved;" and he was one of the name it bears. This book is divisible into most pure and estimable characters men- three parts, the first of which is a history tionled in the New Testament. of the conquest of Canaan; the second, JOHN THE BAPTIST, the inspired which begins with the 12th chapter, is a harbinger of the Messiah. His zeal, as description of that country, and the dione who came to "prepare the way" of vision of it among the tribes: and the a greater and more glorious prophet, third, comprised in the last two chapters, was equalled only by his self-denial and contains the renewal of the covenant humility. He at last fell a victim to his which he caused the Israelites to make, independence and severe virtues, being and the death of their victorious leader. JUL] AND THE FINE ARTS. 333 JOUTRNAL, a diary; an account of ceived by the Jews to this day, were daily transactions and events; or the drawn up about the end of the eleventh book containing such account.-Among century by the famous Jewish rabbi Maimerchants, a book in which every partic- monides. ular article or charge is fairly entered JUIDGES, THE BOOK OF, a canonical from the waste book or blotter.-In navi- book of the Old Testament, so called from gation, a daily register of the ship's its relating the state of the Israelites uncourse and distance, the winds, weather, der the administration of many illustrious and other occurrences.-A paper publish- persons who were called judges, from the ed daily, or other newspaper; also, the circumstance of their being both the civil title of a book or pamphlet published at and military governors of the people. stated times, containing an account of in- The power of the judges extended to afventions, discoveries, and improvements fairs of peace and war. They were proin arts and sciences; as, the Journal des tectors of the laws, defenders of religion, Savans; the Journal of Science.-A nar- avengers of all crimes; but they could rative, periodically or occasionally pub- make no laws, nor impose any new burlished, of the transactions of a society, thens upon the people. They lived with&c., as the Journals of the I-ouses of out pomp or retinue, unless their own forCongress. tunes enabled them to do it; for the JU'BILEE, a grand festivalcelebrated revenues of their office consisted in volevery fiftieth year, by the Jews, in con- untary presents from the people. They memoration of their deliverance out of continued from the death of Joshua till Egypt. At this festival, which was a the beginning of the reign of Saul. season of joy, all debts were to be can- JUDG'MENT, in metaphysics, a faccelled; all bond-servants were set free; ulty of the soul, whereby it compares all slaves or captives were released; and ideas, and perceives their agreement or all estates which had been sold reverted disagreement.-In law, the sentence or to the original proprietors or their de- doom pronounced in any cause, civil or scendants. —In imitation of the Jewish criminal, by the judge or court by which jubilee, the Romish church instituted a it is tried. Judgments are either interyear of jubilee, during which the popes locutory, that is, given in the middle of grant plenary indulgences, &c. a cause on some intermediate point, or JU'DAISM, the religious doctrines and final, so as to put an end to the action. rites of the Jews, a people of Judah, or JU'DICES SELEC'TI, in Roman anJudea. These doctrines and rites are de- tiquities, were persons summoned by the tailed in the five books of Moses, hence praetor, to give their verdict in criminal called the law. The Caraites acknowl- matters in the Roman courts, as juries edge no other; but the Rabbinists, the do in ours. No person could be regularsecond of the two sects of Jews, add those ly admitted into this number till he was inculcated by the talnmud. The following twenty-five years of age. Sortitia Judiis a summary of the religious creed of the cum, or impanelling the jury, was the ofJews: 1, that God is the creator and ac- fice of the Juder Qucestionis, and was tive supporter of all things; 2, that God performed after both parties were come is ONE, and eternally unchangeable; 3, into court, for each had a right to reject that God is incorporeal, and cannot have or challenge whom they pleased, others any material properties; 4, that God being substituted in their room. shall eternally subsist; 5, that God is JUDI'CIUMI DEI, the term formerly alone to be worshipped; 6, that whatever applied to all extraordinary trials of sehas been taught by the prophets is true: cret crimes, as those by arms, single com7, that Moses is the head and father of bat, ordeals, &c., in which it was believed all contemporary doctors, and of all those that heaven would miraculously interfere who lived before and shall live after him; to clear the innocent and confound tho 8, that the law was given by Moses; 9, guilty. that the law shall always exist, and nev- JU'LIAN PE'RIOD, in chronology, er be altered; 10, that God knows all the signifies a revolution of 7980 years, which thoughts and actions of man; 11, that arises from multiplying the solar cycle, God will reward the observance and pun- the cycle of the moon, and the cycle of ish the breach of his law; 12, that the indiction into one another. This period Messiah is to come, though he tarry a is of great use, as the standard and genlong time; and 13, that there shall be a eral receptacle of all other epochas, periresurrection of the dead when God shall ods, and cycles: into this as into a large think fit. These doctrines, commonly re- ocean, all the streams of time discharge 334 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [JUR themselves. yet so as not to lose their pe- JUNTA, a grand Spanish council of culiar characters; and had historians re- state. Besides the assembly of the states marked the number of each cycle in each or cortes, there were two juntas: one year respectively, there could have been which presided over the commerce, the no dispute about the time of any action mint, and the mines; and the other formor event in past ages.-When the Chris- ing a board for regulating the tobacco tian era commenced 4713 years of the monopoly. The assembling of a junta by Juiasn period were elapsed, 4713 there- Napoleon in 1808, and the part they subfore being added to the year of our Lord, sequently played in Spanish history, are will give the year of the Julian period. suficiently known to the reader. In TJULYf, the seventh month of the year. English the term junto (evidently of It was the fifth month of the old Roman Spanish origin) is used almost synonyyear, and known by the name of Quin- mously with cabal or faction. tilis; but received the name of July in JU'PITER, the supreme deity among compliment to Julius COsar, who lrform- the Greeks and Romans. He was called ed the calendar, in such a manner, that by the Greeks Zeus (Zerv,) and appears this month stood as it does now with is, originally to have been worshipped as an the seventh in order. elemental divinity who presided over JUNE, the sixth month of the year, in rain, snow, lightning, &c. He was the which is the summer solstice. It was the son of Saturn, whom he deposed from his fourth month of the old Roman year, but throne, and thence became the supreme, the sixth of the year as reformed by Nu- monarch of gods and men. le married nma and Julius Cmsar. Some suppose it his sister Juno, by whom he had Vulcan received its name in honor of Junius Brutus. It was looked upon as under the protection of Mercury. JU[NO, the Latin name of the divinity called by the Greeks Hera. She was the sister and consort of Jupiter, and was / held to preside over marriage, and protect married women. She was represented as the model of majestic beauty, in royal (f~> (9 |'ti h|\ but he had a nurnerous progeny besides, - \ mi' \'i ) the chief of who was Minerva. His ~ ^.,| \!,/si^'t o most celebrated Grecian temple was at Olympia in Elis, and his chief oracle was at Dodona in Epirus. He is usually reptI r/ 1'.'\\^ s- resented as seated on an ivory throne 1('=,; r^...y, )) with a sceptre in his left handc and a \ K \ \ _ ) ) ) ) thunderbolt in his right. The eagle, his <,,'.._' -favorite bird, is generally placed by the side of the throne. a.ttire, and attended by her favorite bird JURISCON;SULT, a master of Roman the peacock. Ter principal temples in jurisprudence, who was consulted on the Greece were at Samos and Argos. She interpretation of the laws. was also the patroness of Veii, whence JURIISDIC'TION, in its most general she was invited to Bome on the occasion sense, is the power to make, declare., or of the last siege of the former city. apply the law; when confined to the juof the last sieg to Rome on theoccasion sense, s the power to ake, declare, o JUS] AND THE FINE ARTS. 335 diciary department, it is what we denom- which is ordered by reason: but it is eviinate the judicial power, the right of ad- dent that the distinction exists only in ministering justice through the laws. the form, and not in the essence, because Inferior courts have jurisdiction of debt that which is ordered by our reason is to and trespass, or of smaller offences; the be referred to God, as its origin, equally supreme courts have jurisdiction of trea- with that which is decreed by revelatio-n. son, murder, and other high crimes. -Juts gentitumr, the law of nations, or JURISPIIUDENCE, the science which the laws established between different gives a knowledge of the laws, customs, kingdoms and states, in relation to ealch and rights of men in a state or commu- other.-Jus hereditatis, the rifhs or law nity, necessary for the due administration of inheritance.-Jus paltonatlus, in the of justice. canon law, is the right of presentinc to a JU'RIS U'TRUM, in law, a writ in benefice; or a kind of commission grantbehalf of a clergyman whose predeces- ed by the bishop to inquire who is the sor has alienated the lands belonging to rightful patron of a church. —JIs poshis church. sessionis, is a right of seisin or possession, JU'RY, a certain number of men sworn asjus proprietalis is the right of ownerto inquire into or to determine facts, and ship of lands, &c.-Jus qul'itit1m, in anto declare the truth according to the tiquity, the fullest enjoyment of Rioman evidqnce legally deduced, and they are citizenship. This is also called Jast civile sworn judges upon evidence in matters of and Jus urbanumn.-Jus imocginis. the fact. When the object is inquiry only, right of using pictures and statues, simthe tribunal is sometimes called an in- ilar to the modern right of bearing coats quest or inquisition; but when facts are of arms, which was allowed to none but to be determined by it for judicial pur- those whose ancestors or themselves had poses, it is always termed a jury. Trial borne some curule office. by jury, in popular language, signifies JUSTICE OF THE PEACE, the word the determination of facts in the admin- justice is applied to judicial magistrates istration of civil or criminal justice by as justices of such a court, and, in the twelve men, sworn to decide facts truly English laws, justices of the forest, hunaccording to the evidence produced be- dred, or the laborers, &c.; and hence the fore them. Grand juries are exclusively appellation justice of the peace-that is, incident to courts of criminal jurisdiction; a judicial malistrate intrusted with the their office is to examine into charges of conservation of the peace. A greab part crimes brought to them, and if satisfied of the civil officers, are, in fact, the conthat they are true, or at least that they servators of the peace, astheir duty is to deserve more particular examination, to prevent or punish breaches of the peace. return a bill of indictment against the Thus the judges, grand-jurymen, justices accused, upon which he is afterward tried of the peace, mayors and aldermen of by a petty jury. A grand jury must municipal corporations, sheriffs, coroconsist of twelve at the least, but in prac- ners, constables, watchmen, an all offitice a greater number usually serve, and cers of the police, are instituted for the twelve must always concur in finding purpose of preventing, in different ways, every indictment. Petty or common ju- crimes and disturbances of the peace of ries consist of twelve men only. They the community, or for arresting, trying are appointed to try all cases both civil and punishing the violators of the laws and criminal, and to give their verdict and good order of society. In England accordinfr to the evidence adduced. and the United States, the justice of the JUS, (Latin,) in its general accepta- peace, though not high in rank, is an offition, signifies that which is right or con- cer of great importance, as the first jaformable to law.-J-us accrescendi, in dicial proceedings are had before him in law, the right of survivorship between regard to arresting persons accused of two joint tenants.-Jus coronTi, signifies, grave offences; and his jurisdiction exin general, the rights of the crown. These tends to trial and adjudication for small are a part of the laws of the kingdom, offences. In case of the commission of though they differ in many things from a. crime or a breach of the peace, a conmthe general laws relating to the subject. plaint is made to one of these magistrates. -Jus duplicatum, is a double right, and If he is satisfied with the evidence of a is used when a person has the possession commission of some offence, the cogniof a thing, as well as a right to it.-Jus zance of which belongs to him, either divinum, is that which is ordered by a for the purpose of arresting, or for trying revelation, in contradistinction to that the' party accused, he issues a warrant 336 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [KAL directed to a constable, or other executive or an act of free grace by which God parofficer designated by the law for this dons the sinner and accepts him as rightpurpose, ordering the person complained eous, on account of the merits of Christ. of to be brought before him, and he there- JUVENA'LI2E, in Roman antiquity, upon tries the party, if the offence be a feast instituted for youth by Nero, within his jurisdiction, and acquits him when his beard was first shaven. or awards punishment. If the offence charged be of a graver character, the adjudication upon which is not within the justice's jurisdiction, the question then is, whether the party complained of is to be imprisoned, or required to give bonds The eleventh letter of the English alto await his trial before the tribunal phabet, is borrowed from the Greeks, having jurisdiction, or is to be discharg- bein the same character as the Greek ed; acnd on these questions the jous- kappa, answering to the Oriental kaph. tice decides according to his view of It represents a close articulation, formed the law and the facts. In the United by pressing the root of the tongue against States, the office is held only by special the upper part of the mouth, with a deappointment, and the tenure is different pression of the lower jaw and opening of in different states, the office having been the teeth. It is usually denominated a held, in one state at least, during good guttnral, but is more properly a palatal. behavior; but the commission is more Before all the vowels, it has one isvariausually for seven years, or some other ble sound, corresponding with that of c, specific limited period. These magis- before a, o, and u, as in keel, ken. In trates have usually also a civil jurisdic-monosyllables, it is used after c, as in tion, of suits for debts, on promises, or crack, check, deck, being necessary to exfor trespasses, (where the title to real es- hibit a correct pronunciation in the detate does not come in question, and with rivatives, cracked, checked, decked, cracksome other exceptions,) to an amount ing, for without it, c, before the vowels e varying, in the different states, from and wouldbe sounded like s. Formerly, $13.33 to $100. In some states, a party k was added to c, in certain words of Latmay appeal from the decision of the jus- in origin, as in musick, publick, republick. tice to a higher tribunal, whatever may But in modern practice, k is very properly be the amount in question, in a civil suit, omitted, being entirely superfluous, and and whatever may be the judgment. In the more properly, as it is never written other states, no appeal is allowed, except in the derivatives, musical, publication, in case of an amount in question exceed- republican7. It was till lately retained ing four dollars, or some other certain, in trafjick, as in monosyllables, on acbut always inconsiderable sum. So an count of the pronunciation of the derivaappeal is usually allowed to the accused tives, trqaficked, t rafickigg, but we now party in a criminal prosecution before a write traffic. K is silent before nt, as in justice of the peace, in case of the judg- know, knife, knee. As a numeral, K ment being for a penalty over a certain stands for 250; and with a stroke over it specified and small amount, or an impris- thus, K, 250,000. As a contraction, K onment over a certain number of days. It stands for knight, as K.B., Knight of the is evidently of the greatest importance to Bath; K.G., K-night of the Garter; the peace and good order of a community, K.C.B., Knight Commander of the Bath that the justices should be discreet, hon- K.T., Knight of the Thistle; and K.I., est and intelligent. Knight of Hanover. This character was JUSTIFICA'TION, in law, the show- not used by the ancient Romans, and ing good reason in a court, why one has rarely in the later ages of their emipire. done the thing for which he is called to In the place of k they used c, as in clino, answer. Pleas in justification must set for the Greek Kltvo. In the Teutonic forth some special matter: thus, on be- dialects. this Greek letter is sometimes ing sued for a trespass, a person may represented by h. justify it by proving that the land is his KA'LAND, a lay fraternity instituted own freehold; that he entered a house, in Germany in the 13th century, for the in order to apprehend a felon; or byvir- purpose of doing honor to deceased relatue of a warrant, to levy a forfeiture; or, tives and friends. The term is probably in order to take a distress.-In theology, derived from kalendfe, the first day of justification signifies remission of sin and any month, as the members of this society absolution from guilt and punishment, chose that day for the observance of their KAN] AND THE FINE ARTS. 337 ceremonies. These consisted originally Locke on the one hand, and the dogmatic of prayers, followed by a slight repast, in rationalism of the disciples of Wolf and which all the members participated; but Leibnitz on the other. The former, by a in process of time the religious purposes species of analytical legerdemain, reof the society became wholly merged in solved all our mental powers into modifithe festivities, so that it eventually was cations of sense; while the latter, in an found necessary to abolish the fraternity equally indiscriminating spirit, though on account of its excesses. with far more laudable intentions, sought KA/'MI, spirits or divinities, the belief to construct a system of real truth out of in which appears to have characterized the abstract conceptions of the underthe ancient religion of Japan before it standing. Against both of these schools became intermingled with foreign doc- Kant declared pen warfare. Withdrawtrines, and still constitutes its ground- ing himself froLm all ontological speculawork. These spirits are partly ele- tion, he sought, by a stricter analysis of mental, subordinate to the gods of the our intellectual powers, to ascertain the sun and -oon, and partly the spirits of possibility and to determine the limits men; but, in fact, every natural agent of humtan knowledge. HIe divides the or phenomenon has its spirit or genius. speculative part of our nature into three The human spirits survive the body, and great provinces-sense, understanding, receive happiness or punishment for the and reason. Our perception of the outactions of the individual in life. Distin- ward world is representative merely: of guished benefactors of their species, or things as they are in themselves it affords men renowned for purity of life, are dei-us no notices. In order to render human tied; and their icami become objects of experience possible, two ground-forms, worship, like the heroes of antiquity. under which all sensible things are conThe number of them is said at present to templated, are assumed-time and space. be above 3,000. They are worshipped in To these he assigns a strictly subjective temples in which no images are retained, reality. The truth of the fundamental each particular divinity being merely axioms of geometry rests on the necessity typified by a mirror, the emblem of and universality of our intuitions of space purity; and all the rites of the worship in its three dimensions-intuitions which appear to be symbolical of purification. are not derived from any one of our KAM'tSIN, the name given to a hot senses, or from any combinations of them, and dry southerly wind, common in Egypt but lie at the ground and are the condition and the deserts of Africa, which prevails of all sensible human experience. The more or less for fifty days. On the ap- understanding, or the faculty which cormpreach of this wind the sky becomes dark bines and classifies the materials yielded and heavy, the air gray and thick, and by sense, Kant subjects to a similar analyfilled with a dust so subtile that it pene- sis. All its operations are generalized trates everywhere. It is not remarkably into four fundamental modes or forms of hot at first, but increases in heat the conception; which, after the example of longer it continues, during which time it Aristotle, he names categories. These causes a difficulty of breathing, and when are four in number: 1. Quantity, includat its highest pitch, will sometimes cause ing unity, multeity, totality; 2. Quality suffocation. divided into reality, negation, and limitaKAN'TIAN PHILOS'OPHY, (known tion; 3. Relation, viz. substance and accialso by the name of the Critical Philoso- dent, cause and effect, action and reacphy,) a system which owes its existence tion; and 4. Modality, also subdivided to Immanuel Kant, professor of logic and into possibility, existence, and necessity. metaphysics in the university of Kdnigs- These form, as it were, the moulds in berg in the latter half of the 18th cen- which the rude material of the senses is' tury. The promulgation of Kant's doc- shaped into conceptions, and becomes trines forms a very marked era in the knowledge properly so called. The catehistory of philosophy. Our limits will gories in themselves are the subject-matprevent us from giving an explanation ter of logic, which is so far forth a pure of this system in any degree adequate to science, determinable a priori. The third its importance. We must confine our- and highest faculty, the reason, consists selves to a brief outline of its leading in the power of forming ideas-pure features. At the time when Kant con- forms of intelligence, to which the sensimenced his metaphysical labors the phil- ble world has no adequate correspondents, osophical world was divided between the Out of these ideas no science can be sensualism of the French followers of formed; they are to be regarded as regu22 338 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [KEY lative only, not as constitutive. The ex- ous parts. —In painting, it signifies the istence of God, immortality, freedom, peculiar management of coloring and are the objects after which the reason is chiaro oscuro, so as to produce a proper perpetually striving, but concerning degree of relievo in different objects, acwhich it can decide nothing either one cording to their relative position and isway or the other. Thus far Kant's sys- portance. If the lights, shadows, and tern may be regarded as one of pure half tints be not in proper keeping, that skepticism. The deficiencies of our spec- is, in their exact relative proportion of ulative reason he conceives to be supplied depths, no rotundity can be effected, and by the moral faculty, to which he has without due opposition of light, shade, given the name of practical reason, the and colors, no apparent separation of ohobject of which is to.determine, not what jects can take place. is, but what ought to be. As the former KE'RI-CHE'TIB, in philology, the determines the form of our knowledge, name given to various readings in the so the latter prescribes the form of our Hebrew Bible. Keri signifies that which action. Obligation is not a mere feeling; is read, and chetib that which is written. it has a pure form under which the reason When any such various readings occur, is compelled to regard human conduct. the false reading or chetib is written in The personality of man, which lies at the the text, and the true reading or keri is ground of speculative knowledge, becomes, written in the margin. These correcin relation to action, freedom of the will. tions, which are about 1000 in number, It is in our moral nature that we must have been generally attributed to Ezra; seek for the only valid foundation of the but as several keri-chetibs are found in the belief in God, the immortality of the soul, sacred books the produce of his own pen, it and a future state in which the demands is more probable that they are of later of the practical reason shall be realized. date. KEEL, the lowest piece of timber in a KEY, in music, the name of the fundaship, running her whole length from the mental note or tone, to which the whole. lower part of her stem to the lower part piece is accommodated, and in which it of her stern post, and supporting the usually begins and always ends. There whole frame. Sometimes a second keel, are but two species of keys; one of the or false keel, as it is called, is put under major, and one of the minor mode, all the the first. keys in which we employ sharps or flats KEEL'-HAULING, among seamen, a being deduced from the natural keys of punishment of offenders at sea by letting C major and A minor, of which they are them down from the yard-arm with ropes, mere transpositions.-The keys of an orand drawing them under the keel from gan or pianoforte, are movable projectone side to the other. ing levers, made of ivory or wood, so KEEL'SON, or KEL'SON, in naval placed as conveniently to receive the finarchitecture, a principal timber in a ship, gers of the performer, by which the melaid withinside across all the timbers over chanism is set in motion and the sounds the keel, and fastened with long bolts; so produced. that it forms the interior or counterpart KEY'STONE, in architecture, the of the keel. highest central, stone of an arch; that KEEP, a strong tower in old castles, placed on the top or vertex, to bind the where the besieged retreated in cases of extremity. It is also called the donjon or dulngeon. KEEP'ER, in English law, an officer of different descriptions, as the keeper of the g-reat seal, a lord by his oflce, and one of the privy council, through whose __. hands pass all charters, commissions, and grants of the king under the great seal; the keeper of the privy seal, through whose hands pass all charters, &c., before they come to the great seal. There is, the Keystone. also the keeper of the fobrests, the keeper of the touch, an officer of the mint, &c. two sweeps together. In some arches the KEEPING, a term used in -various keystone projects from the face. In vault branches of the Fine Arts, to denote the ed Gothic roofs, the keystones are usujust proportion and relation of the vari- ally ornamented with a boss or pendant. EKNi] AND THS;IJNE ARTS.'39 KHAN, an Asiatic governor. In the of the Old Testament, so called because north of Asia this title expresses the full they contain the history of the kings of regal dignity; but there are asso khans Israel and Judah, from the beginning of *of provinces, cities, &c. "This is the the reign of Solomon, down to the Babyword," says Sir William Jones, <; so va- lonish captivity, for the space of near six riously and so erroneously written by hundred years. Europeans. The sovereign lord of Tar- KING'S BENCI, BANCJUS REGIUS, tary is neither the chami, as our travellers so called because the king used formlerly call him, nor the /an, as Voltaire will to sit there in person. It is the suprelme hyve it; but the khan, or ciiz, with an court of common law in England, consistaspirate on the frst letter." Khan is ing of the Lord Chief Justice, and throee frequently used to signify an Estern pusisne or inferior judges, who hear and caravansera, in which travellers find a determine. for the most part, all pleas gratuitous lodging, provided their stay which concern the crown. be limited to a single night. KI'OSK, (a Turkish word,) a kind of KING, the chief magistrate or sove- summer-house, or open pavilion, with a reign of a nation; a man invested with tent-shaped roof, and supported by pillars. supreme authority over a nation, tribe,.Kiosks have been introduced from Turkey or country. Kings are absolute mon- and Persia into European gardens, which archs, when they possess the powers of they greatly serve to embellish. government without control, or the entire KIRK, in Scotland, a church.-Iirksovereignty over a nation: they are man, one of the'church of Scotland.called limlited monarchs when their power Kirk session.s, an inferior church-judicais restrained by fixed laws. Kings are tory, in Scotland, consisting of the minishereditary sovereigns, when they hold the ters, elders, and deacons of a parish. powers of government by right of birth KIT-CAT CLUB, the name of a celeor inheritance, and elective, when raised brated association in London, instituted to the throne by choice. The person of about 1683 by some young men, origithe king of England is sacred. He can- nally for convivial purposes; but as its not, by any process of law, be called to most distinguished members were whigs account for any of his acts. His concur- in politics, it gradually assumed a politirence is necessary for every legislative cal character, till in the reign of Queen enactment. lie sends embassies, makes Anne is came to be regarded as exclutreaties, and even enters into wars with- sively political in its objects. At that out any previous consultation with par- period it comprised above forty noblemen liament. He nominates the judges, and and gentlemen of the first rank and qualthe other high officers of state, the officers ity, merit and fortune, firm friends to of the army and navy, the governors of the Hanoverian succession; among whom colonies and dependencies, the bishops, were Addison, Steele, Marlborough, Waldeans, and some other dignitaries of the pole, &c. &c. It was originally formed English Church. He calls parliament in Shire Lane, and derived its name from together, and can at his pleasure pro- one Christopher (Kit) Kat, who supplied rogue or dissolve it. tie is the fountain the members with mutton pies..Tho of honor; all hereditary titles are de- fame of this club has been transmitted rived from his grant.- Kin at arms, an chiefly by the collection of the portraits officer in England of great antiquity, and of the members painted by Sir Godfrey formerly of gre.t authority, whose busi- Kneller, himself a member, who was ness is to direct the heralds, preside at obliged to invent a new-sized canvass factheir chapters, and have the jurisdiction cominodated to the height of walls; of armory. There are three kings at whence has originated the application of arms, viz.. garter, clarencieux, and nor- the epithet kit-kat to any portrait about roy (northroy.) The first of these is three quarters in length. It was dissolved styled principal king at a rms, and the in the year 1720. two latter provincial kings, because their KNIGHIT. Originally, a knioght was, duties are confined to the provinces; the youth; and young men being employed one (clarencieue.,} officiating south of the as servants, hence it came to signify a. Trent, and the olhoer (.orroy,) north of servant. But among our warlike:lancesthat river. There is also a Lyon kinzg at tors, the word was particularly applied arms for Scotland, and an Ulster kinhg at to a young man after he was admitted to arm1s for Ireland, whose duties are nearly the privilege of bearing arms. The acdanaloouso to those of England. mission to this privilege was a ceremcKINGS, BooKS oF, two canonical books ny of great importance, and was the ________'_______ 340 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [KNI origin of the institution of knighthood. knighthood, which was not conferred beHence, in feudal times, a knight was a fore the twenty-first year, except in the man admitted to military rank by a case of distinguished birth or great certain ceremony. This privilege was achievements. The candidate, when the conferred on youths of family and for- order was conferred with full solemnity, tune, and hence sprung the honorable had to go through various imposing pretitle of knight, in modern usage, which liminary ceremonies, and was then adin dignity ranks next to nohility. Knight- mitted with religious rites. Knighthood hood is the highest rank of a commoner, was conferred by the accolade, which but a knight is still a commoner. A knight has the title of Sir before his Christian name, as, Sir John, Sir' Wil- i liam. Anciently, when the Christian name was not known, the style was Sir Knight. KNIGHT'ED, created a knight. *T KNIGHT-ERIRANT, or wandering Knight, one who in the generous enthunsiasm of chivalry, set out, attended by his esquire or shield-bearer, with the design of exposing his life wherever wrong was to be redressed. The chivalrous age in which this profession was taken up, demanded such exertions; and though? /~ poetry has given an air of.fiction, to the adventures of knights-errant, they are i _ il.. founded on truth. gTi KNIGHT'HOOD, the order or fraternity of knights. The order of knight- Conferring nighthood. hood, as now existing, appears to have from the derivation of the name, should originated in the eleventh and twelfth appear to have been originally an emcenturies, and it was introduced into brace, but afterwards consisted, as it still England from France. It was a military does, in a blow of the flat of a sword on institution, but there appears to have the neck of the kneeling candidate. The been something of a religious character oath of knighthood was previously adbelonging to it, and the order of knight- ministered. Knighthood is now conferred hood, like the orders of the clergy, could in England by the king, (or queen when be conferred only by persons who were the throne is filled by a female,) by simthemselves members of the order. In pie verbal declaration, attended with a early times some knights undertook the slight form, without any patent or other protection of pilgrims; others were vow- written instrument. It gives to the party ed to the defence or recovery of the precedence over esquires and other unholy sepulchre; others roved about as titled gentlemen. Sir is prefixed to the knights-errant, seeking adventures. It baptismal name of knights and baronets, was common to create knights on various and their wives have the legal designation occasions. The most honorable species of Dame, which is ordinarily converted of knighthood was that conferred on the into Lady. The chief distinction of rank field and after a battle; but the more which subsisted between knights in France common fashion, especially in France, and England, was that of kcnights bachewas to make knights when a battle lors, and knights bannerets. The knight was expected. In the age of chivalry, bachelor was of the lower order, and obthe youth who aspired to the honor of tained his honor without any reference knighthood, was first educated, in general, to a qualification of property, and many as a page attached to the family, and of this rank were mere adventurers, who especially to the ladies of some noble offered their services in war to any suchouse, during which period he was also cessful leader. The knight banneret was trained to the use of arms, riding, &c. one who possessed fiefs to a considerable When properly qualified for arms he be- amount, and was obliged to serve in war came an esquire, or squire, in which with a greater attendance, and carried a capacity he attended on some knight, and banner. The orders of knighthood are was his shield-bearer. The third, and of two classes; either they are associahighest rank of chivalry, was that of tions, or fraternities, possessing proper LAB] AND THE FINE ARTS. 341 ty and rights of their own, as independent bodies, or they are merely honorary L. associations, established by sovereigns within their respective dominions. To L. the twelfth letter of the English althe former class belonged the three cele- phabet. It. is a semi-vowel, formed in brated religious orders founded during the voice by intercepting the breath bethe Crusades-Templars, HIospitallers, tween the tip of the tongue and the foreand Teutonic Knights. The other class, part of the palate, with the mouth open. consisting of orders merely titular, em- There is something of aspiration in its braces most of the existing European sound, and therefore our British ancesorders; such as the order of the Golden tors usually doubled it, or added an /I To Fleece, the order of the Holy Ghost, the it; as in laIn, or lhan, a temple. In Engorder of St. Michael. The three great lish words of one syllable it is doubled at British orders are the'Garter, the Thistle, the end, as in all, wall, mill, well, &c., and St. Patrick. The Garter is the most but not after diphthongs and digraphs, as ancient and illustrious of the three. It foul, fool, prowl, growl,foal, &c.; words was founded by Edward the Third. The of more syllables than one, as foretel, knights, twenty-five in number, are the proportional, &c., are written with a sinmost eminent persons of the English na- gle 1. In some words I is mute, as in tion, together with many illustrious for- half, calf, talk, chalk. It may be placed eigners. chiefly sovereign princes. The after most of the consonants, as in blue, order of the Thistle was instituted in clear,yfame,'&c., but before none of them. 1540, by James the Fifth of Scotland. As a numeral letter L denotes 50; and The number of knights is sixteen, all of with a dash over it, 50,000. whom are nobility of Scotland. The or- LA, in music, the syllable by which der of St. Patrick was instituted in 1783. Guido denotes the last sound of each hexThe number of knights is twenty-two, achord: if it begins in C, it answers to who are peers of Ireland. The order of our A; if in G, to; and if in F, to D. the Bath differs in some respects from LAB'ADISTS, a sect who lived in the those spoken of. It is now composed of 17th century, the followers of Jean de three classes, military, and civil knights, Labadie, who held that God can and does grand crosses, knights commanders, and deceive men, that the observance of the knights companions. A1 these orders Sabbath is not required, and other herethave particular badges. There are also ical opinions. knights of the Guelphic order, knights of LA'BARUM, in Roman antiquity, the the Ionian order, of St. Michael and St. standard borne before the emperors; George. being a rich purple streamer, supported KNOUT, a mode of punishment in by a spear. It was the name given to Russia, which at one time was exercised the imperial standard, upon which Conwith the greatest possible barbarity, but stantine, after his conversion, blazoned which is now less cruel, though it at pres- the monogram of Christ. ent consists of a severe scourging on the LA'BORED, in the Fine Arts, a term back with a leather strap, in the point of applied to works of art wherein are apwhich wire is interwoven. Formerly, in parent the marks of constraint in the ex addition to this. the nose was slit up, and ecution; and used in opposition to the the ears were cut off. term easy orfree. I N 0 W L' E D G E, that information LAB'YRINTH, literally a place, usuwhich the mind receives, either by its ally subterraneous, full of inextricable own experience, or by the testimony of windings. Ancient history gives an acothers. The beneficial use of knowledge count of four celebrated labyrinths; the is wisdom. That portion of knowledge, Cretan, Egyptian, Lemnian, and Italian. the truth of which can be demonstrated, The first was built by Doedalus at the inis science. stigation of Minos, to secure the MinoKtAAL, the name given to the villa- taur; the second is said to have been ges of the Hottentots. constructed by Psammetiehus, king of KRA'KEN, a name applied in the Egypt; the third was on the island of fabulous epoch of zoology to a marine Lemnos, and was supported by columns monster of gigantic size. of great beauty; and the fourth was designated by Porsenna, king of Etruria, as a tomb for himself and his successors. Of these labyrinths the Cretan is most celebrated in the historical and mytholo 342 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LAM gical writings of antiquity; but the of the Spartn mother to her son when Egyptian was by far the most important, presenting him with his buckler: i rTuv j both in extent and magnificence. The nr rav —" either bring it back, or be latter, which was built on the isle of Me- brought home dead upon it. roe, was a vast edifice, composed of twelve LA'DING, a term applied to the goods palaces, all contained within the compass in a ship, whose quantity is limited by of one wall, and. communicating with her own tonnage, when the specific gravieach other. It had only one entrance; ty of the goods is greater than water. but the innumerable turnings and wind- LA'DY, this word originally apperings of the terraces and rooms of which tained only as a title to the daughters of it consisted rendered it imipossible for earls; but now, by custom, it belongs to those who had once entered within its any woman of genteel manners and eduwalls to get out without a guide. It is cation. said to have been designed either as a LA'DY-DAY, the 25th of March, so burial-place for the Egyptian kings, or called because it is the day of the Anfor the preservation of the sacred croco — nunciation of the Virgin Mary. diles,. the chief objects of Egyptian idola- LAGOON', a name given to those try. It was partly demolished between creeks, or shallow lakes, which extend the reigns of Augustus and Titus; but along the coast, and which eontain nueven at the period of Pliny's visit, its merous small islands; Venicee for inruins were magnificent. With regard to stance, is built on sixty of them. Tothe labyrinth of Crete, no doubt can now wards the sea the islets are secured by remain, after the statements of Cockerell dams, natural or artificial. and Tournefort, that its existence was a LAIR, among sportsmen, the place reality, and not merely a fabulous crea- where the deer harbor by day. This tion of the Grecian imuagination. Accord- term is also used to signify a place where ing to these travellers the island of eattle usually rest under shelter; also Crete abounds even'ut the present day in the bed or couch of a wild beast. extensive caverns, one of which, consist- LAIRD, a title of honor in the Highing principally of many long windings lands, equivalent to that of Lord. and narrow passages that can only be LA'ITY, the great body of the faithful, safely explored by means of a clue, ex- as opposed to those who are set apart for hibits a wonderful similarity in all es- the ministration of the services and sacsential particulars to the famous laby- raments-the clergy. This distinction is rinth of Daedalus. It is impossible: at plainly observed in the writers of the this distant period, to pronounce with third century-Origen, Cypria, and lTer certainty on so difficult a question; but tullian; and is generally supposed to the substantial coincidences that exist have prevailed from the first foundation between the ancient and mlodern laby- of Christianity. The word laity is proprinths seen to leave little doubt as to eriy a general name for the people: in their identity. the writings of the Fathers ito,tKoi, secuL.ACRI-IYMATO'RY, iln antiquity, a lars, tcowrai, private men, and Ai.xsKoi; latyvessel in which were collected the tears imen, are used indifferently to express of a deceased person's friends, and pre- this class. served along with the ashes and urn. It LA'1MA, a pretended delegate of heavwas a small glass bottle or phial, many en, or pontiff of Tartary and Thibet. IHe of which have been found in the tombs is worshipped as a supernatural being and sepulehres of the ancients. by his subjects, and is never to be seen LA'CONISM, a short and pointed say- but in the secret recesses of his palace, ing; so termed from the celebrity which where he sits cross-leg-ged on a cushion. the Lacedaemonians enjoyed in antiquity The people believe that ths suprem-e difor their belief and sententious mode of vinity lives in him, that he knows andc expressing themselves produced by the sees everything in the deepest reeesses of severe discipline of their institutions, and the heart, and that he never dies, but on the gravity which it engendered. When the dissolution of his mortal frame his they became famous for this quality, they soul enters into the body of a new-born appear to have begun to aim at the ex- child. The worship of his followers conhibition of it in rather an affected man- sists in clramorous songs and prayers, in ner, of which some curious instances are splendid processions, in the solemnization contained in Herodotus. None of the of certain festivals, and in personal ausmany Laconisms recorded in ancient his- terities. tory are more noble than the expression LAMENTA'TIONS, a canonical book L&Nj AND THE FINE ARTS. 343 of the Old Testament, written by the tion; and thus assumed the designation prophet Jeremiah. The first four chap- of land-graf, or count of the whole counters of the Lamentations are an abeceda- try. This was the origin of the landry, every verse or couplet beginning with graves of Thuringia, of Lower and Highone of the letters of the Hebrew alpha- er Alsace, the only three who were prinbet, in the alphabetical order. ces of the empire. LAMIPADEPIOO'RIA, a torch race, LAND'SCAPE, the scenery presented which it was customary to exhibit at cer- to the eye in the country; as also, in its tain sacred festivals at Athens. The per- more common acceptation, a picture repformers were three young men, to one of resenting such scenery. A landscape in whom, chosen by lot, was given a lighted the latter sense may, however, become torch, which he was to carry to the goal allegorical and historical,;p the meaning unextinguished; or if he failed, to deliver applied by artists to those terms. The it to the second; who, if he failed also, chief study of the landscape painter is gave it to the third: whence a metaphor the vegetable world, air, water, rocks, is sometimes derived by ancient writers, and buildings.; To these he may impart to be applied to persons who anxiously an ideal beauty, and thus elevate his wait for the deaths of others. If the run- art above mere topographical painting; ners slackened their pace, they were driv- which may be applied to his work, if he en on by the blows of the spectators. merely copies without refinement what is LANCE, a weapon consisting of a long presented to his eye. shaft with a sharp point, much used by LAND'SCAPE GAR'DENING, the the nations of antiquity, and also by the art of laying out grounds so as to produce moderns before the invention of gunpow- the effect of natural landscape. Its prinder. The Macedonian phalanx and the ciples are the same as those upon which Roman infantry, as well as the most bar- the landscape painter proceeds in combarous nations, all considered the lance posing a picture. as one of the most effective weapons; and LAN'GUAGE, human speech; the exeven at the present day it is still consid- pression of ideas by words or significant ered of great value, though it is now al- articulate sounds, for the communication most universally borne by cavalry. Al- of thoughts. La7nguage consists in the most all the armies of Europe have now oral utterance of sounds, which usage has regiments of lancers, so called from the made the representatives of ideas. When lance being the chief offensive weapon two or-more persons customarily annex with which they are armed. The lances in the same sounds to the same ideas, the use among the European cavalry have a expression of these sounds by one person shaft of ash or beech wood, eight, twelve, communicates his ideas to another. This or in some cases even sixteen feet long, is the primary sense of language, the use with a steel point eight or ten inches in of which is to communicate the thoughts length, adorned by a small flag, the wav- of one person to anot ther through the oring of which is said to frighten the ene- gans of hearing. Articulate sounds are my's horses. The ancient lancea was a represented by letters, marks, or characgeneral term for missile weapons or jav- ters which form words. Ience, language elins. consists also in words duly arranged in LAN'DAMMAN, in Switzerland, the sentences, written, printed, or engraved, president of the diet of the Helvetic re- and exhibited to the eye.-The speech or public. The highest magistrate in ten expression of ideas peculiar to a particuof the cantons also bears the title of lar nation. Men had originally one and landaumman; in the others he is desig- the same language, but the tribes or nated by various appellations. families of men, since their dispersion, LANIDAU, the name given to a pe- have distinct lang-uages. Many philoloculiar kind of carriage, which opens and gists have included all known languages closes at the top; so called from Landau under three great divisions:-1. Lanin Germany, where they were originally guages composed of monosyllabic roots made. without any forms of grammar. To this LAND'FALL, the first land seen after class belong the Chinese idioms. 2. Lana voyage is so called. A good landfall is g ages composedof monosyllabic roots, but when the land is seen as expected. with a great abundance of grammatical LAND'GRAVE, a title taken by some folrms, as the Indo-Germanic, Armenian, German counts in the twelfth century, and other languages. 3. Languages whose who wished to distinguish themselves from verbal roots consist in their present form of the inferior counts under their jurisdic- two syllables, and require three consonants 344 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LAN for the expression of their fundamental varieties of meaning. The next process meaning. This class is limited.to the should appear to be that of using auxiliSchemitic lauguages, including the Ara- ary words. In many ]anguages (our own moean, the Hebrew, and Arabic. The among the number) relations are almost Indo-Germanic languages are divided wholly expressed in this manner. But into —1. The Indian branch, comprising in others the auxiliary words have, in the Sanscrit, and its derivatives. 2. The course of time, coalesced with the princiMedo-Persic or Arian branch, at the pal; so that many relations are expressed head of which stands the Zend. 3. The by varying the beginning, termination, Teutonic branch, with the Gothic at its &c., of the principal word. This, at helad, and comprising the different Ger- least, is the most probable origin of those man dialects, the Anglo-Saxon, the Ice- forms termed in grammar iflcctionF, or an dic, Swedish, Danish, &c. 4. The forms of declension and conjugation, in GrCeco-Latin branch, comprising the two which Greek, Latin, Sanscrit, Ger-;an, ancient classical languages. 5. The Sla- and their derivative languages are more vonic branch, including the Lithuanian, or less rich; the Greek, for example, bethe ancient Prussian, the Russian, the ing more copious than the Latin or modPolish, and Bohemian. 6. The Celtic ern German, in having the dual form and branch, including the Welsh, Cornish, additional tenses (the aorists, and the Armorican, th. Irish or Erle, the Gaelic paulo-post futurum.) And some lanor Highland Scotch, and the Manx. guages (especially among the American The comparative perfection of a lan- Indians) are so curiously constructed as to guage, as an instrument for the commu- carry the power of inflection far beyond nication of thought, depends mainly on this point. A complex idea, which in its copiousness. In order to estimate English would require to be expressed this, it must be borne in mind that the by a pronoun, an adverb, and an auxiliclasses of wvords employed in a language ary verb, (or, perhaps, a second auxiliary are all reducible into two, which have verb also, e.g., "I desire," or "I ab been termed by some notional and rela- stain,") together with the principal verb, tional. The former express distinct ideas would in some American languages be or notions; the latter serve to display expressed merely by a variety of the the relation, connection, and order of form of the principal verb itself. ideas. Nouns and verbs belong to the As. a general rule, the power of inflecfirst class; prepositions, adverbs, &c., and tion adds greatly to the copiousness of the signs denoting the inflections of verbs a language; and although some enthusiand nouns, to the latter. With respect asts, in their admiration of our own. have to the former class, all languages, to be maintained that the process of conjugatserviceable for the purposes of life, must ing or declining by auxiliary words and be sufficiently copious to express all dis- particles is more convenient, and affords tinct notions. But the comparative rich- more variety and harmony than that by ness of a language is mainly shown by changes in the termination of the verb or the manner in which this is done. As noun, it is probable that few candid reanations advance from barbarism towards soners will hold the saine opinion. But civilization, new notions, and new varie- there are distinctions in language, aristies of notions, are constantly requiring ing out of relations simply imaginary, utterance. In those in which this can which may be pronounced unnecessary easily be done by composition, (as in Greek and cumbersome. Such are the genders, and German,) great facilities are afford- common to almost all languages of the ed for -the easy expression of thought, Indo-European family except our own, comparatively with those in which it can but for which it would be difficult to asonly be effected by the laborious process sign either utility or beauty. of borrowing and adopting words from Another and a more substantial disadthe vocabularies of more advanced na- vantage of language rich in inflections, tions. if the fact be true, is to be found in the But it is in the relational words, or modes greater difficulty which common people in which relations of ideas are expressed, are supposed to have in framing their that the genius of different languages speech grammatically and accurately unmost varies. The Chinese, in their si- der this system than the other. The gular and obscure tongue, seem never to greater the niceties of a language, it has have reached beyond the process of vary- been urged, the greater the difference ing the collocation of their unchangeable must inevitably be between the variety roots in the sentence, in order to express spoken and written by educated men and LAP] AND THE FINE ARTS. 345 that in use among the sneducated; and suade the Trojans from admitting the it has been contended that in ancient famous wooden horse within their walls, Italy, for instance, the rustic language issued from the sea; and having fastened was altogether different from the written on his two sons, whom he vainly endeavLatin. But the facts on which this rea- ored to save, at last attacked the father soning rests maybe pronounced extremely himself, and crushed him to death in their controvertible. There are certainly some complicated folds. This story has gained grounds for the suspicion that there was immortal celebrity from its forming the an unusual difference between the vul- subject of one of the most beautiful gas and the polished Roman tongue, at groups of sculpture in the whole history. least in the later times of the empire; of ancient Art. The composition is pybut if this was always the case, it is sin- rainidal, and represents Laocoon and his gular that Plautus and Terence should two sons writhing and expiring in the nowhere furnish us, by way of heighten- convulsions of the serpents. Agony in ing the ludicrous, with instances of un- an intense degree is exhibited in the gramimatical locution. The language of countenance and convulsed body of Laancient Greece was more refined and in- ocoon, who is attempting to disengage flective than that of Rome; and there is himself from the serpents; and the sons no appearance that there was a greater are represented as imploring assistance diversity between the speech of the peas- from their helpless parent. This famous ant and the philosopher and rhetorician group of sculpture was discovered at than in any modern country. In Attica Rome among the ruins of the palace of the very reverse seems to have been the Titus, at the beginning of the 16th centruth, since its most elegant writers and tury, and afterwards placed in the Farorators'appear carefully to have modelled nese palace, whence it found its way to their language on the common dialect of the Vatican. It was executed by Polytheir countrymen. And, finally, the wild dorus, Agesander, Athenodorus, the three Indians of America speak with purity a celebrated artists of Rhodes. laingage often surpassing in variety of LAP'IDARY, one who polishes and inflections those of the most civilized and engraves stones. This is effected by illustrious nations of the Old World. means of friction produced by wheels of LANGUEN'TE, in music, a direction various metal, according to the nature to the performer, when prefixed to a of the stone to be worked. Thus diacomposition denoting that it is to be per- monds require wheels of soft steel; ruformed in a languishing or soft manner. bies, sapphires, and topazes, copper LAO'COON, in fabulous history, the wheels; emeralds, amethysts, &c., leaden priest of Apollo or Neptune during the wheels-worked with oil and various Trojan war. While he was engaged in powders.-The term lapidary is also used sacrificing a bull to Neptune, two enor- for a virtuoso skilled in the nature, kinds, mous serpents sent by Minerva, in re- &c. of precious stones, or a merchant who venge for his having endeavored to dis- deals in them.-LaFpidary-style, denotes that which is proper for monumental or other inscriptions. LA'PIS LA/ZULI, in painting, a stone of an az-ure or blue color, of which the paint called ultarmc r7ine is made. It is a combination of silex, the blue fluate of:I P', lime and sulphate of lime, and iron; is very compact and hard, and is found in lumps of a beautiful blue color, richly S it-tT Ovariegated with clouds of white, and.; 7 ~ /"', 3. veins of shining gold color..'\l".'.,LA'PIS MARMO'REUS, in archieology, a marble stone in Westminster Hall, in the midst of which stood a chair wherein the English kings anciently sat at their coronation. The courts of Chaneery and King's Bench were erected over this stone. LA'PITI-IZE, in ancient geography, a r. ~.axO'. --- - j people of Thessaly, chiefly known to us from their fabled contests with the Cen 346 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LAT tanrs. The battle between the Centaurs ings and on gems under the figure of a and the Lapithae has been described by skeleton; sometimes under those of old IHesiod, and by Ovid with great minute- men, with shorn locks and long beards, ness. To the Lapithoe has been attributed carrying an owl on their hands. the invention' of bits and bridles for LA'YNX, an organ of the voice, behorses. ing a cartilaginous cavity connected with LAPSE, in ecclesiastical law, an omis- the windpipe, and on the size and flexision on the part of the patron to present bility of which depend the powers and to a benefice within six months after it is tones of the human voice. The superior vacant, upon which default the ordinary opening of the larynx is called the glottis. has a right to collate to the said benefice. LASCAR', in the East Inlies, a native -Lapsed Legacy, one which falls or is seaman, or a gunner. lost by a lapse; as where the legatee LATERAN, a church at Rome, the dies before the testator, or where a legacy Pope's see, and the metropolitan or the is given upon a future contingency, and whole world, dedicated to St. John Latethe legatee dies before the contingency ran. The name is derived from the Rohappens. man family of the Laterani, who possessed LAR'CENY, is the fraudulent taking a palace on this spot, which was seized by a person of the goods of another, with- by Nero, and became from his time an out his consent, with the intent, on the imperial residence. The Lateran palace part of the taker, to appropriate them to was given by Constantine to the popes, his own use. Larceny was formerly di- who continued to inhabit it until their vided, in England, into two kinds, grand retirement to Avignon, when it was exand petty; the former being the stealing changed for the Vatican. The building of an article over the value of one shil- was then converted into a church. Eleven ling, the latter, that of an article not councils have been held in the Basilica over that value. The same division of of this name (hence styled Lateran counthe kinds of the offence, according to the oils in ecclesiastical history,) of which value of the thing stolen, is made in some four are considered by the Roman Cathoof the United States. But this distinction lies to be general. The last of these (or is abolished in England by a statute. In the 12th General, according to the same that country, the punishment for grand computation) is the most celebrated. It larceny was death; but, most frequently was held in 1215 by Innocent III., and of late years, it has been commuted for is principally famnous as establishing the transportation; and, now, the punish- Roman Catholic doctrine of the Eucharist, ment of all simple larceny, of whatever using for the first time the term transubvalue, is, the imprisonment or transpor- stantiation for the change of the elements. tation. In the United States, the pun- This council was convoked on the occasion ishinent is usually imzprisonment in the of the heresy of the Albigenses, and its conmmon jail, or penitentiary, for a longer exposition of the Catholic faith is directed or shorter period. principally against them. It established LA'RES, in antiquity, the domestic or also some canons for the maintenance of household gods among the Romans, which discipline among the clergy, and that the family honored as their protectors. which enforces confession and commlunThey were images of wood, stone, or ion upon all the faithful at least once a metal, and generally stood upon the year. hearth in a kind of shrine. LAT'ICLAVE, in antiquity, an ornaLAR'GO andLARG1HET'TO, (Italian,) ment of dress worn by Roman senators. musical- terms, directing to slow move- LAT'IN, the language spoken by the ment. Largo is one degree quicker ancient Romans, or the inhabitants of than grave, and two degrees quicker than Latium, from which it derives its name. adagio. The Latin tongue was, for a while, conLARVA, spectres of the deceased were fined almost wholly within the walls of so termed by the Romans: mere empty Rome; nor would the Romans allow the forms or phantoms, as their name indi- common use of it to their neighbors, or to cates; yet endowed with a sort of exist- the nations they subdued: but, by deence resembling life, since they were to grees, they in time became sensible of be propitiated by libation and sacrifice. the necessity of its being generally unThe larva of Caligula, according to Sue- derstood for the convenience of corn tonius, was often seen in his palace after merce; and accordingly used their enhis decease. The larvas are described by deavors that all the nations subject to Seneca, and often represented in paint- their empire, should be united by one LAW] AND THE FINE ARTS. 347 common language, so that at length they universities of Oxford and Cambridge, imposed the use of it by an express law. and appears to have held the same digLATITUDINA'RIANS, in ecclesias- nity at court; but the academical and tical history, a class of English divines court honor were distinct until the exin the reign of Charles II., opposed alike tinction of the university custom, of to the high tenets of the ruling party in which Ienry VlII.'s reign exhibits the the church, and the fanaticism which then last instance. Royal poets laureate are distinguished so many of the Dissenters. supposed not to have begun to write in Henry More, and the other Platonizing English until after the Reformation. divines of the time, were sometimes com- The office was made patent by Charles I., prehended under this appellation. The and the salary fixed at ~100 annually, word has been since very generally used and a tierce of Spanish Canary wine. to designate those who hold opinions at Under Queen Anne it was placed in the variance with the more rigid interpreta- control of the lord-chamberlain. In the tion of Scripture and church traditions, reign of George III. the annual tierce of or merely as a term of party vitupera- wine was commuted for an increase of tion. salary, and at the close of the same reign LA'TRIA, the highest kind of worship, the custom of requiring annual odes from or that paid to God: distinguished by the the lord-chamberlain was discontinued. Catholics from dulia, or the inferior wor- The most distinguished poets in recent ship paid to saints. times who have held the office are LAU'REATE. literally crowned with Southey, Wordsworth, and Tennyson. laurels; applied at present to a well- LAUREA'TION, in the Scotch univerknown officer in the royal household. At sities, signifies the act of taking the dethe Certamina, or gymnastic and other gree of master of arts, which the students contests celebrated under the Roman em- arc permitted to do after four years' perors, especially at the Quinquatria, or study. Feast of Minerva, poets also contended, LAURENTA'LIA, in antiquity, a fesa.nd the prize was a crown of oak or olive tival kept by the Romans on the 23d of leaves. But it was from some tradition- December, in memory of Acca Laurentia, ary belief respecting the coronation of the nurse of Romulus and Remus. She Virgil and Horace with laurel in the was called Lupa by vway of nick-name; Capitol, (of which, however, no record is hence the story of the wolf that suckled extant,) that the dignity of poet laureate the royal twins. was invented in the 14th century, and LAW, an established or permanent conferred on Petrarch at Rome by the rule, prescribed by the supreme power of senator or supreme magistrate of the a state to its subjects. for regulating their city. It was intended to confer the same social actions. Laws may be divided into honor on Tasso, who, however, died on the following classes: declaratory laws; the night before the proposed celebration. directory laws; remedial laws; and proIn 1725 and 1776 it was granted to two hibitory and penal laws. Declaratory celebrated improvisatori, the Signor Ru- laws only declare what the law shall be, fetti and the Signora Morelli, better known not what it has been, or is. Directory by the name of Corilla. In most Euro- laws are those which prescribe rules of pean countries the sovereign has assumed conduct, or limit or enlarge rights, or the privilege of nominating a court poet point out modes of remedy. Ieemedial with various titles. In France and Spain laws are those whose object it is to redress these have never been termed poets lau- some private injury, or some public inreate; but the imperial poet, or Poeta convenience. Prohibitory and penal laws Cesareo, in Germany, was invested with are those which forbid certain things to the laurel. This crown, however, was be done or omitted, under a penalty, or customarily given at the universities in vindicatory sanction. The legislation of the middle ages to such persons as took no country, probably, ever gave origin to degrees in grammar and rhetoric, of its whole body of laws. In the very forwhich poetry formed a branch; whence, mation of society, the principles of nataccording to some authors, the term Bac- ural justice, and the obligations of good calaureatus has been derived. In Eng- faith, must have been recognized before land traces of a stipendiary poet royal are any common legislature was acknowlfound as early as Henry III., and of a edged. Debts were contracted, obligapoet laureate by that name under Edward tions created, personal property acquired, IV. Skelton, under Henry VII. and and lands cultivated, before any positive VIII., was created poet laureate by the rules were fixed as to the rights of posses 348 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LAZ sion and enjoyment growing out of them. to the mere external rites and ceremoThe first rudiments of jurisprudence re- nies to be observed by them, as distinct suited from general consent or acquies- from the moral precepts, is called the cence; and when legislation began to act ceremonial law. upon it, it was rather to confirm, alter, or LAY. the lyric poems of the old French add to, than to supersede, the primitive minstrels, or trouveres, were termed lais; principles adopted into it. The forma- but the title appears, in modern usage, to tion of codes, or systems of general law, be peculiarly appropriate to narrative for the government of a people, and poems, or serious subjects of moderate adapted to their wants, takes place only length in simple style and light metre. in advanced stages of' society, when knowl- LAY BROTIT'ERS, persons received edge is considerably diffused, and legisla- into convents of monks, under the three tors have the means of ascertaining the vows, but not in holy orders. The introbest principles of policy and the best rules duction of this class of devotees appears for justice, not by mere speculation and to have begun in the 11th century. They theory, but by the results of experience, are dressed somewhat differently from the and the reasoning of the learned and the other monks or brothers of the choir, and wise.-We shall now proceed to give sep- often employed in the manual exercises arate definitions of the word law, as it is necessary for the uses of the community. variously applied.-Munlicipal or civil The Carthusian and Cistercian orders are law, is a rule of civil conduct prescribed said to have first recognized the distincby the supreme power of a state, con- tion, and their example was followed by manding what its subjects are to do, and the other orders. The same distinction prohibiting what they are to forbear.- exists in monasteries of females between The laew o'nature, otherwise called ethics, the nuns, properly so called, and the lay or morals, comprehends those rules of sisters, or sisters converse. right and wrong, of which the sentiment L A Y E L' D E R S, in Presbyterian is in every man's breast, and of the jus- churches, ministers of ecclesiastical juristice of which reflection affords sufficient diction, not ordained as clergymen, who conviction. The divine law is that which, assist the pastor in each congregation. not being naturally felt, nor discovered The divines of that persuasion rest the by reflection, is found only in inspired appointment of lay elders in some measwriting's.-The law qf nations is that rule ure on that of presbyters " in every city," of conduct which nations are to observe by Paul and Barnabas, who, they imatoward each other. This is founded upon gine, from the manner in which they are the lawy of nature; but either ascertained mentioned, could not have been all or modified by usage, or by mutual orn- preachers. pacts.-The written law, those laws or LAY'MAN, the appellation by which rules of action prescribed or enacted by a the rest of the community are distinguishsovereign or state, and promulgated and ed from the clergy.-Layman or lay-figrecorded in writing. Unwritten or corm - ue, among painters, signifies a small mone law, a rule of action which derives statue, whose joints are so formed that it its authority from long usage, or estab- may be put into any attitude for the purlished custom, which has been immemori- pose of adjusting the drapery of figures. ally received and recognized by judicial LA'ZAR-IIOUSE, or LAZARET'TO, tribunals.-Ecclesiastical or canonr law, a a public building in the southern Eurorule of action prescribed for the govern- pean states of the nature of an hospital, ment of a church.-Martial law, the rules for the reception of the poor and those ordained for the government of an army afflicted with contagious disorders. In or military force.-ilMlarine laws, rules some places lazarettoes are set apart foi for the regulation of navigation, and the the performance of quarantine; in which commercial intercourse of nations.- case only those are admitted who have Physical lawrs, the invariable tendency arrived from countries infested by the or determination of any species of matter plague, or suspected of being so. to a particular form with definite proper- LAZARISTS, in ecclesiastical history, tics, and the determination of a body to a body of missionaries, founded by St. certain motions, changes, and relations, Vincent de Paul in 1632; so termed from which uniformly take place in the same occupying the priory of St. Lazarus, at circumstances.-The Mosaic law, the in- Paris, as their head-quarters. Their stitutions of Moses, or the code of laws primary object was to dispense religious prescribed to the Jews, as recorded in the instruction and assistance among the Old Testament. That part which relates poorer inhabitants of the rural districts LEO] AND THE FINE ARTS. 349 of France. They were dispersed at the have some permanent object, while neither time of the revolution, but have since re- necessarily requires active co-operation. established a congregation at Paris; and In the middle ages, the word league was the French Government has lately pro- used nearly in the sense now attached to jected entrusting them with the spiritual these latter terms: hence we read of care of the colony at Algiers. the -Ianseatic league, and of the three LAZ'ARUS, SAINT, ORDER OF, a leagues still subsisting in the canton of military order of religious persons, ori- the Grisons in Switzerland; both of ginally an association of knights, for the which were more properly confederacies. purpose of maintaining lepers, &c., in The word is of Spanish origin; and it lazar-houses or hospitals, especially in has been said that the period of its conthe Holy Land. Being driven out of monest use in political language was Palestine in 1253, they followed St. Louis commensurate with that during which the to France. In 1490, their order was sup- Spanish government exercised the greatpressed by Pope Innocent VIII.. and est influence among those of Europeunited with that of St. John; but the bull the 16th and 17th centuries. was not universally received. In 1572, LEASE, in law, a demise of lands or they were united in Italy with the order tenements, or a conveyance of them, geneof St. Maurice; in 1608, in France, with rally in consideration of rent or other that of Our Lady of Mount Carmel. The annual recompense, for term of years, knights of these united orders were al- for life, or at will, provided it be for a lowed to marry. shorter term than the lessor has in the LAZZARO'NI, a name given to the premises. The party letting the lands, poorer classes at Naples. from the hospi- &c. is called the lessor, and the party to tal of St. Lazarus, which served as a whom they are let, the lessee. Any one refuge for the destitute in that city. of the conditions of a lease not being Forty years ago two large sections of the complied with, the proprietor may resume people were generally comprehended un- possession. der this name, the fishermen, and the LEC'TERN or LET'TERN, a reading lazzaroni, properly so called, who lived in desk or stand for the larger books, used the streets, and performed no other labor in the service of the Roman Catholic but that of errand porters and occasional church. The lectern. was sometimes a fixservants. These alone were estimated at ture of stone or marble, but it was oftener 40,000. These lazzaroni formed a power- constructed of wood or brass, and movaful community, which under Masaniello, ble. It was of various forms, sometimes accomplished the revolution of Naples; highly decorated and enriched; a freand, in later times overthrew the popular quent form of the brass lettern was that government, under the influence of Car- of a pelican or an eagle, with its wings dinal Ruffo and the English party. But expanded to receive the book. during the French occupation of NaRples LECTI'CA, a sort of couch used by the they ceased to exist as a distinct class; Romans for the same purpose as the seand the name is now only used to desig- dan chair, or rather the palanquin, is nate, in general language, the mob or employed by the moderns, with this differpopulace of that great city. ence, that the person carried on the LEAD'ING NOTE, in music, the sharp lectica reclined. It was used also for the seventh of the scale. conveyance of dead bodies to the funeral LEADS, or SPACE LINES, are pieces pile. The persons who carried the lectica of type metal cast to specific thickness were called lecticarii, whose number in and lengths, lower thn types, so th the Lower Empire is said to have amountthey do not make any impression in print- ed to 11,000. ing, but leave a white space where pla- LEC'TISTERtNIUM, a religious festiced. Their general use is to be placed val or ceremony among the ancient Robetween the lines when a work is not mans, celebrated during times of public closely printed, which is considered to calamity, and remarkable as a singular look better than when printed solid, and relic of barbarous superstition, retaining also to branch out the heads of pages and the impression of a very rude age. In titles. this festival the gods themselves were LEAGUE, in politics, an alliance be- invited to the entertainment; their stattween two or more powers, in order to ues were taken from their pedestals, laid execute some common enterprise. It is on couches with pillows and pedestals, more active, and less durable, than an and placed at the table, while the seralliance or a confederacy; both of which vants used gravely to convey the viands 350 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LEG to the idols' lips. The first festival of1 formed in a close, smooth, and gliding this sort, according to Livy, which took manner. place, was held in the year of Rome 354, LEGEND, a book used in the ancient on the occasion of a contagious disease Roman churches, containing the lessons which committed frightful ravages among that were to be read. The word was their cattle, and lasted for eight succes- afterwards used to denote a chronicle or sive days. On the celebration of this festi- register of the lives of saints. As these val enemies were said to forget their ani- histories were often nothing more than mosity, andt all prisoners were liberated. pious fictions, the name of a legend was LEC'TOR1, in the early church, a per- given to the incredulous fables which son set apsrt for the purpose of reading make pretensions to truth.-Legend, in parts of the Bible and other writings Roman antiquity, signifies the motto enof a religious character to the people. graved upon medals, which differs from They were consecrated by prayers and the inscription properly so called. The ceremonies for this office, and in the inscription signifies words placed on the third century appear to have formed reverse of a medal in lieu of figures; but proper officers of the church. the legend is the word made use of round LEC'TUIRE, a discourse read or pro- the head or other figure. nounced on any subject; usually, a formal LEG'ER, the principal book used or methodical discourse, intended for in- in merchants' accounts, wherein every struction; as, a lecture on morals, philos- man's particular account is kept; the cphy, rhetoric, or theology: but the term book into which a summary of the jouris applied in a more extended sense to nal is carried.-Leger-lines, in music, every species of instruction communica- those lines added to the usual stave of ted viva voce. In the Scotch and conti- five lines, when umore are wanted for notes nental universities, as well as those re- ascending or descending. cently established in England, the great LEGERDEMAIN', tricks, which, from business of teaching is carried on by the dexterity of the performer. are made means of public lectures delivered at to deceive the observer, and are called stated periods, and embracing the differ- sleight of had. ent subjects included in the curriculum LE'GION, in Roman antiquity, a body of study.-.Pulpit lectures have for their of soldiers in the Roman army, consistobject some portion of Scripture, which is ing of different numbers at different peexplained, and the doctrines therein con- riods of time. In the time of Romulus tained stated and enforced. the legion consisted of 3,000 foot and 300 LEG'ACY, in law, a bequest or gift horse; though after the reception of the by will of any personal effects; the per- Sabines, it was autgmentcd to 4,000. In son bequeathing is called the testator, the war with Iannibal it was raised to and he to whom it is bequeathed the leg- 5,000; after this it sunkl to 4,000 or 4,500,'atee. There is also a residuar y legatee, which was the number in the time of Poor one to whom, after the several de- lybius. The number of legions kept in vises or bequests made by will, the resi- pay together, also differed according to due of the testator's estate and effects are times and occasions. Each legion was given. divided into ten cohorts, each cohort ihto LEG'ATE, the pope's ambassador to ten companies, and each company into foreign countries; either a cardinal or a two centuries. The chief commander of bishop. The power of a legate is some- the legion was called Legat'us (lieutentimes gi-ven without the title. It was one ant.) The principal standard of a legion of the eclesiastical privileges of England was a silver eagle; and the legions were from the Norman conquest, that no for- named from their commanders, (as the eign lefate should be obtruded upon the Claudisan leg-ion.) or from the place En-glish, unless the king should desire it where they were stationed, &c. The upon some e;xtraordinar y emergency, as word legioin was revived in the time of when a case was too difficult for the Eng- Napoleon; and has since been commonly lish prelates to determine. applied to a body of troops of an indefiLEGA"AION,', terin denoting thebody nite nunber, and usually of different of official persons attached to an embassy. kinds; as the Engl ish- Germian legion, Hence scccetary of eg-ation. the B'ritish leqoion, in Spain, &c. LEGA'TO, (Italian,) in music, a word LE'GION OF HONOR, an order inused in an opposite sense to staccato, and stituted by Napoleon, while consul, (May implying that the notes of a movement or 19, 1802,) for military and civil merit. It passage to which it is affixed are to be per -consisted of different grades of merit, as LEV] AMD THE PINE ARTS. 851 grand crosses, crosses, commanders, offi- though the practice of reading a portion cers, and legionaries; all of whom re- of Scripture is almost universally adoptceive pensions with this mark of distinc- ed; but the selection of the passage is tion. left to the choice of the officiating clerLEG'ISLATOR, one who frames or es- gyman. tablishes the laws and polity of a state or L E / T E, in Greek mythology, the kingdom. The term is chiefly applied to River of Oblivion: one of the streams of some distinguished persons of antiquity, the infernal regions. Its waters possessed such as Moses among the Jews; These- the quality of causing those who drank us, Draco, Solon, among the Athenians; them to forget the whole of their former Lycurgus among the Spartans; and existence. In the sixth book of i7sril's Numa among the Romans. AJ'.cicd, the shades of the depaarted, after LEG'ISLATURE, the supreme power fulfilling their various destinies in the of a state. infernal regions during a thousand years, LEG-IT/IMACY, a word which, in a are brought to drink of the water of political sense, is variously defined, ac- Lethe, as a preparation for their transcording to the bias of the party by whom migration into new bodies. it is used. But in its most commonly re- LET'TER, a mark or character, writceived acceptation, it denotes the lawful- ten, printed, engraved, or paintc i; used ness of the government, in an hereditary as the representative of a sound, or of an monarchy, where the supreme dignity articulation of the human organs of and power pass by law from one regent speech. By sounds, and articulations or to another, according to the right of pri- closures of the organs, are formed sylmogeniture. —Legitimate mieans, accord- lables and words. Hence a letter is the ing to laz; hence, children born in wed- first element of zritten.language, as a lock are called legitimate, and those born simple sound is the first element of out of wedlock are styled illegitimate. spoken language or speech. As souncds LE'MURES, among the ancient Ro- are audible and communicate ideas to mans, spectres or ghosts, helieved to be the others by the ear, so letters are visible souls of the dead, which tormented men representatives of sounds, and communiin the night. In order to lay them, a cate the thoughts of others by means of ceremony called lemruria was observed the eye. Letters are distinguished by on the nights of the 9th, 11th, and 13th grammarians into vowels, and consonants of May. (which latter are again subdivided into LENT, a solemn time of fasting and mutes, and liquids) and diphthongs, acabstinence in the Christian church, ob- cording to the organ employed in their served as a time of humiliation before pronunciation. Easter, the great festival of our Saviour's LEVANT", in geography, is applied in resurrection. It begins on Ash-Wednes- a general sense to any country situated day, and continues forty days. to the eastward of us, or in the eastern LEONINE VERSE, a kind of Latin part of any continent or country; but, in verse, consisting of hexarneters and pen- a more contracted signification, it is given tameters, of which the final and middle to that part of the M3editerranean Sea syllables rhyme. Some say it derived bounded by Asia Minor on the north, its name from pope Leo I. (A.D. 680,) Syria and Palestine on the east, Egypt others from Leonius, a poet of the 12th and Barca on the south, and by the island century. of Candia and the rest of the MediterraLES'SONS, are certain portions of the nean on the west. Scriptures read in most Christian churches LEV/EE, in court phraseology, a cereduring divine service, the performance of monial visit of the nobility, gentry, &c., which in the ancient church devolved, who assemble to pay their respects to the among other duties, on the catechumen. queen (or king.) It consists of gentlenmen In the English church, the course of only, by which it is distinguished from lessons begins with the year at the book what is termed a drIawiing-rooms, where of Genesis, and, with the omission of ladies as well as gentlemen attend. the two books of Chronicles, continues LEVEE-EN-MASSE, n military exthrough the Old Testament, including pression for the patriotic rising of a whole portions of the Apocrypha. In the second people, including all capable of bearing lessons, as they are called, the same arms, who are not otherwise engaged in course is followed with the New Testa- the regular service; and is the most forment. In the Presbyterian church, the midable obstacle an enemy can encounword lesson, in this sense, is unknown, ter. In Germany it is called the'land. 352 CYCLOPEDIA OF0 LITERATURE [LIB sturm, in distinction from the laLndsehr, of injuries to the "majesty of the Romana or militia. In 1813 the governments of people." The emperors transferred to Northern Germany called it forth in all offences against themselves the same every part of the country. criminal character; and offences of lezeLEVI'ATHAN, a word which, in the majesty were multiplied under their ar Hebrew, signifies a great fish. Some bitrary governments. suppose, from the description of it in the LIBA'TION, among the Greeks and book of Job, it means a whale, while Romans, was an essential part of solemn others have presumed it is a crocodile. sacrifices. It was also performed alone, In Isaiah, however, it is called the crook- as a drink offering, by way of procuring ed serpent. the protection and favor of the gods, in LE'VITES, a term applied in Scripture the ordinary affairs of life. At sacrifices, to such of the tribe of Levi as were em- after the libation had been tasted by the ployed in the lower offices and ministries priest, and handed to the bystanders, it of the temple. In this particular, they was poured upon the victim. At enterwere distinguished from the priests, who, tainments a little wine was generally being descended from Aaron, were like- poured out of the cup, before the liquor wise of the tribe of Levi. The Levites began to circulate. bore some resemblance in the tabernacle, LI'BEL, in law, the malicious defamaand temple of the Jews, to the deacons tion of any person, either written or printamong Christians. They were employed ed, in order to provoke him to anger, or to in bringing wood, water, and other neces- expose him to public hatred, contempt, or saries for the sacrifice, and they sung ridicule. Any book, pamphlet, writing, and played upon instruments in the tem- or picture, containing such representaple. They also applied themselves to the tions, although only communicated to a study of the law, and were the ordinary single person, is considered in law a judges of the country, though always publication of it; and libellers may be subordinate to the priests. Their subsist- brought to punishment by a prosecution, ence was the tithes of corn, fruit and or be compelled to make reparation by a cattle throughout Israel; but the priests civil action. The civil action is grounded were entitled to a tenth of their tithes, upon the injury which the libel is supby way of first-fruits to the Lord. posed to occasion to the individual; the LEVIT/ICUS, a canonical book of the public prosecution upon its tendency to Old Testament, so called from its con- provoke a breach of the peace. In a taining the laws and regulations relating civil action, the plaintiff recovers damto the priests, Levites, and sacrifices. ages, the amount of which is settled by These duties, rites and ceremonies, formed the jury: but, upon an indictment, the what is termed the Levitical lai. jury has merely to acquit the defendant, LEXICOL/OGY, or IEXICOG'RA- or to find him guilty, after which the PHY, a word used by some writers to court passes judgment.-Libel, in the ecexpress that branch of philology which clesiastical and admiralty courts, is the treats of words alone, independently of name given to the formal written statetheir grammatical and rhetorical uses; ment of the complainant's ground of comconsidering their senses, their composi- plaint against the defendant. tion and their etymology. LIBER, in Roman mythology, a sur-'LEX'ICON, a dictionary of words, or name of Bacehus, in reference, prlhaps, vocabulary; originally, and still usually, to the idea of his being a liberator or deconfined to dictionaries of the Greek or liverer. Liber was originally an old Hebrew tongues. The oldest Greek lex- divinity, who presided over fertility, and icon is the Osnomtasticon., which was writ- who was worshipped in connection with ten 180 years before Christ: the oldest Libera (a name of Proserpine,) and Ceres. Hebrew lexicon belongs to the 9th cen- LIB'ERAL, in politics, a conventional tury. name given to that party in a country LEZE-MAJ'ESTY, in jurisprudence, which advocates progressive reform of any crime committed against the sove- abuses in the state, real or supposed. reign power in a state. The name is LIBERAL ARTS, such as depend derived from the Roman phrase, " crimen more on the exertion of the mind than lsese majestatis," which denoted a charge on manual labor, and regard intellectual brought against a citizen for acts of re- improvement and amusement, rather than bellion, usurpation of office, and general the necessity of subsistence. misdemeanors of a political character, LIBERA'LIA, a sacred festival, with which were comprehended under the title games; so called from Liber, a Latin 'lIO] AND THE FINE ARTS. 353 name of Bacchus, in honor of which god sometimes used as synonymous with civil they were celebrated at Rome. It was liberty. But it mnore properly designates on occasion of this festival that the Ro- the liberty of a nation, the freedom of a man youths who attained the ago of nation or state from all unjust abridgseventeen assumled the manly dress, or ment of its rights and independence by toa. another nation. Hence we often speak LiBER'TAS, in the mythology of the of the political liberties of Europe, or the Greeks and Romanas, was a goddess wor- nations of Europe.-Religious liberty, is shipped with peculiar veneration. By the the free right of adopting and enjoying former she was invoked by the synony- opinions on religious subjects, and of mous title Eleutheria; and throughout worshipping the Supreme Being accordall p arts, both of Greece and Italy, statues, ing to the dictates of conscience, without temples, and altars were erected in honor external control.-Liberty, in metaphysofh r. A.t Rome, her nmost famous term- ics, as opposed to necessity, is the power ple, built by T. Gracchus, was situated on of an agent to do or forbear any particuthe Avontine Mount. She was reproe- ar action, according to the determination sented under the figure of a woman, hold- or thought of the mind, by which either ing in one hand a cap, the symbol of is preferred to the other.-Liberty qf the liberty, and two poniards in the other. press, is freedoie from any restriction on In modern thies a cap is also used as a the power to publish books; the free symbol of liberty; thus, in France a red power of publishiing what one pleases, cap formed the badge of the Jacobin club. subject only to punishment for abusing In England a blue cap with a white the privilege, or publishing what is misborder is used as a symbol of the consti- chievous to the public or injurious to intutional freedomn of the nation, and Bri- dividuals. tannia sometimes bears it on the point of LI'BRARY, a. collection of books beher spear. longing to a private person, or to a pubLIB'ER'TUS, in Roman antiquity, a lie institution or a company.-An apartperson who from being a slave had ob- ment, or suite of apartments, or a. whole tained his freedom. The liberti were building appropriated to the keeping of such as had been actually made free books. The most celebrated library of themselves; the libertini were the chil- antiquity was the Alexandrian in Lower dren of such persons. Egypt. The principal libraries of modLIBsERTiY, freedom from restraint, ina ern times are the Royal library at Paris, general sense, and applicable to the body, the Bavarian State library at Munich, or to the will or mind. The body is at the Imperial library at Petersburg, the liberty, when not confined; the will or Imperial library at Vienna., the Univermind is at liberty, when not checked or sity library at Gottingen, the Royal licontrolled. A man enjoys liberty, when brary at Dresden, the [Royal library at no physical force operates to restrain his Copenhagen, the Royal library at Berlin, actions or volitions.-Nlatural liberty, the Vatican library at Rome, the Amconsists in the power of acting as one brosian library at Milan, the Bodleian thinks fit, aithout any restraint or con- library at Oxford, the University library trol, except froim the laws of nature. It at Cambridge, the library of the British is a state of exemption from the control Museum in London, the Advocates' liof others, and froin positive laws and the brary in Edinburgh, and that of Trinity institutions of social life. This liberty is Collegoe in Dublin. abridgcd by the establishment of govern- LI'CENSE, in law, an authority given rnent.-Civil liberty, is the liberty of men to a person to do some lawful act. A li in a state of society, or natural liberty, cense is a personal power, and therefore so far only abridged and restrained, as is cannot be transferred to another. If the necessary and expedient for the safety person licensed abuse the power given and interest of the society, state, or na- him, he becomes a trespasser. A license tion. A restraint of natural liberty, not may be either verbal or written; when necessary or expedient for the public, is written, the paper containing the authortyranny or oppression. Civil liberty is ity is called a license. an exemption from the arbitrary will of LICEN'TIATE, in law, one who has others, which exemption is secured by full license to practise any art or faculty; established laws, which restrain every generally, a physician who has a license man from injuring or controlling another. to practise, granted by the college of phyHence the restraints of law are essential sicians. to civil liberty.-Political liberty, is LIC'TORS, in Roman antiquity, offi23 354 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [11G cers or beadles who carried the fasces be- governor-gelnecal, the chief magistrate fore the chief magistrates whenever they of each separate colony is called lieutenappeared in public. It was also a part cant-governor. Many of the United St-ates of their duty to be the public executioners choose lieutenant-governors to act in case in beheading, scourging, &c. A dictator of the governor's death. was attended by twenty-four lictors; a LIG'ATURE, in music, the tie which consul by twelve; the master of the horse, binds several notes of like length tosix; a prxetor, six; and each vestal vir- gether, by which they appear in groups. gin had one. Thus P PP four quavers, by means LIEGEI, in law, a term used either as k b, liege lord, signifying one that acknowl- of a ligature at the top or bottom, assume edges no superior, or the chief lord of the form e fee; or as liege ma7n, he who owes hom-h the age and allegiance to the liege lord. By being the ligature. the term liege people is meant the sub- LIGHT, that imponderable ethereal jects of a monarch, because they owe him agent or matter which makes objects pertheir allegiance. ceptible to the sense of seeing, but the LI'EN, in law, the right which one particles of which are separately inperson, in certain cases, possesses of de- visible. It has been believed that light taining property belonging to another, is a fluid or real matter, existing indewhen placed in his possession, until some pendent of other substances, with propdemand, which the former has, is satis- erties peculiar to itself. Its velocity is fled. Liens are of two kinds particular astonishing, as it passes through a space liens, that is, where the person in posses- of nearly twelve millions of muiles in a sion of goods may detain them until a minute. Light, when decomposed, is claim which accrues to him from those found to consist of rays differently coloridentical goods is satisfied; and genzeral ed; as, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, liens, that is, where the person in posses- indigo, and violet. The sun is the prinsion may detain the goods, not only for cipal source of light in the solar sjystem; his claim accruing from. them, but also but light is also emitted from bodies igfor the general balance of his account nited, or in combustion, and is reflected with the owners. Some liens also are from enlightened bodies, as the m-oon. created by express agreement, and some Light is also emitted from certain putreby usage. fying substances. It is usually united LIEUTEN'ANT, this word, like cap- with heat, but it exists also independent tains, and many others, has received grad- of it. The intensity of light, at different ually a much narrower meaning than it distances from a luminous body, is inhad originally. Its true meaning is a versely as the squares of those distances, deputy, a substitute, from the French so that in this respect it follows the same lieu. (place, post,) and tenant, (holder.) law as heat, sound, and the force of gravA lieutenant general du royaucme is a ity. Light acts a very important part person invested with almost all the pow- in the vegetable economy. The green ers ofthe sovereign. Such was the count color of plants and the hues of flowers d'Artois (afterwards Charles X.) before entirely depend upon it. It is also found Louis XVII. entered France, in 1814.- to assist in developing the forms of some Lieutenat-g'eneral was formerly the ti- of the lower classes of animals. There tie of a commanding general, but at pres- are two theories respecting the nature ent it signifies the degree above major- of light. Some maintain that it is comgeneral.-Liettenant-coloitel is the ofi- posed of material particles, which are cer between the colonel and major.- constantly thrown off from the luminous Lieutenant, in military iangnuage, signi- body; while others suppose that it is a fies the officer next below a captain. fluid, diffused through all nature, and There are first lieutenants, a~~d second, or that the lumiinous body occasions waves sous-lieutenants, with different pay.- or undulations in this fluid, by which the A lieutenant in the navy is the second light is propagated in the same manner officer next in com-mand to the captain of as sound is conveyed through the air. a ship.-In England, the lord-lieutenant The first is called the corpuscular, the of a county has the authority to call out second the eundulatory theory; the latthe militia in case of invasion or rebel- ter is now more generally entertained, lion. The governor of Ireland is also several facts being wholly inexplicable called lord-lieutescant of Ireland. In on the former theory. The language, some English colonies, jointly under a however, which is employed in treating | /ITP1 AN D'-I'fI FiNE V. F TrS. T35 of light is, ftr the most part, accomme- use which Milton h'as made of the same dated to the former.-Light, in painting, superstitious belief is well known. the medium by which. objects are dis- LIM.IITA'TION, in law, a certain tim' cerned. In a picture. it means the part prescribed by statute, within which an J the most illuminated. This may happen action must be brought. Ifrom natural light, as the sun or moon; LINE, in, fortification, whatever is or from artificial light, as a fire, candle, cdrawn on the ground of the field, as a & ec. The principal light is generally trench, or a row of.gabions, &c.-Lines made to fall on the spot where the prin- are most commonly made to shut up an cipal figures are placed, and generally avenue, or entrance to some place, and near the centre of the picture. A re- are distinguished into lizes of applroac/h, fleetedl light is that which a body in shad- of ldeJece, ofcommunication, &c.-Line, ow receives from a, contiguous light ob- in genealogy, a series or succession of ject. relations, from a common progenitor. LIG}IT'NING, a sudden discharge of Direct line, is that which goes from faelectricity from a cloud to the earth, or ther to son; being the order of ascendants from the earth to a cloud, or from one and descendants. The collateral line, is cloud to another, that is, from a body the order of those who descend from a positively charged to one negatively common father related to the former, but charge-d producing a vivid flash of liht, out of the line of ascendants and descendand usually a loud report, called thun- ants: in this are placed uncles, aunts, der. Sometimes lightning is a mere in- nephews, &c.-A s/hip qf the line, in nastantaneous flash of light without thun- val affairs, any vessel of war large enough I der, as heat-ligfohtrig', lightning seen by to be drawn up in the lise ef battle.-In reflection, the lash being beyond the military affairs, regular troops, in dislimits of our horizon. When the flash tinction from the militia, volunteers, &e., of lightning takes a zigzag course, or are called troops of the li?e. when it brmnches out, it is termed forked LIN'EN, cloth made of flax, being lightrang; when it has the appearance much finer than that which-is mlade of of a sudden and wide illumination, it is hemp. In common linen the warp andc called sheet-light/ning- woof cross each other at right angles; if LIM3BO, a region, supposed by some figures are woven in, it is called damlask.. of the school theologians to lie on the The species of goods which come under edge or neighborhood of hell. This serv- the denomination of linen, are tableed as a receptacle for the souls of just cloths, sheeting, cambric, lawn, shirting, men, not admitted into purgatory or towels, &c. The ehief countries in whiel heaven. Such were, according to some linens are nmanufactured are Russia,, GerChristian writers, the patriarchs and oth- many, Switzerland, Holland, Scotltt.nd, er pious ancients who died before the and Ireland. In several parts of Gerbirth of Christ: hence the limbo was many, Switzserlalnd,'landers, and France, called Limbus Patcrum. These, it was linens are frequently embellished with believed, would be liberated at Christ's painting; and in Elngland the produce second coming, asnd a dmitted to the priv- of the Irish linen manufacture is beautiileges of the blessed in heaven. Though fully printed in the manner of calicoes.some have asserteadthat, when our Saviour In the m-iddle ages, linen and woollen rwent dow-n into hell, he liberated these cloth formed the only materials for dress souls, ani carried themn away with him and fine linen was held in very high es into heaven. This latter idea, is proba.- timation. In more ancient-times linen bly an adorned representation of the re- formed the dress of the Egyptian priests, marklable passage in St. Peter's epistle, who wore it t atll their religious cere(i. 3 19,) where he says tlht Christ monies. preached to the spirits in prison.; and, LIPO i0G,AIAMMAT'I C WORKS or boing; held by certain of the later fathers, WRIT'INGS, compositions in which a seemns to have given some influence to particular letter is omitted thlroughout. tho growing- opiniron in favor of a piurga- The ancients produced ma-r ny ingenious tory. The liimbus puerorum, or i:nfsa- trifles of this description. IEn -the OdysIturn, was a simailar receptacle allotted sey of Tryphiodorus there was no A in the by some of the sehoolmen to the sous of first book, no IB in lthe second, andl so on. sinf:ants who die unbaptized. Dante has- There are other pieces of mode-rn invrenfixed his limbo, in which the distinguished tion, such as the Pzgna Porcorure, in spirits of antiquity are confined, as the which all the words begin with the letter outermost of the circle of his hell. The P. Odes in Spanish, containing only one 356 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LI' of the vowels, are refinements on the same of literature represents the developinvention. ment and successive changes of civilLIST, the enclosed field of ground ization, so far as these are exhibited wherein the ancient knights held their in written works, and embraces the hisjousts and tournaments; so called from tory of the literature of special ages or its being encircled with pales, barriers, countries, and of the separate branches or stakes, as with a list. Some of these of literature, as poetry, rhetoric, philolwere double, one for each cavalier, which ogy, and so forth. A brief sketch of the kept them apart, and prevented them literature of different nations, in ancient from coming nearer each other than a and modern times, will be given in the spear's length. Hence the expression to present article. enter the lists is synonymous with engaging in contest. I. ANCIENT LITERATURE. LIT'ANY, signifies a general suppli-ENT ITEA cation; and was applied by the Eastern 1. Chinese Literatucre.-The antiquity church in early ages to a special form of Chinese literature is proportionate to of prayer which was introduced into the that of the language, and its developritual, or used on particular occasions. ment has been greatly promoted by the The term passed over into the Western early invention of the art of printing, church, where the words reogatio and which has been known in China for at supplicatio have been used in the same least nine hundred years. The Chinese technical sense. It is supposed that the language presents a remarkable specichange of term was occasioned by the men of philological structure, which for frequency of processional supplications ingenuity of arrangement and copiousfrom the Eastern to the Western church- ness of expression, is not surpassed in es, beginning in the fourth century. The any written literature. It. belongs to litany of the English Church is mostly that class of idioms which are called translated from the forms of the Western monosyllabic. Every word consists of litanies previously used in that country; only one syllable. The roots or original those of the breviary of Salisbury and characters of the Chinese are only 214 York. The direction in the prayer-book in number, and it is supposed that a is, that the litany shall be read on minute analysis would reduce them to Wednesdays, Fridays. and Sundays: on a still smaller amount. Each of these the two former, as fast-days in the prini- characters represents one word, and each tive Church; the one as the day in which word an idea. Their various combinaChrist was sold by Judas, the other as tions form the whole language. Taken that of the crucifixion, and therefore pe- singly, they express the principal objects riods of peculiar humiliation: on the or ideas that are suggested in the conSunday, as the day appointed for the most mon intercourse of life; and combined, complete and solemn service in the week. according to obvious analogies, they are LITERA'TI, in general, denotes men made to comprehend the entire field of of learning.-In antiquity, those who thought. Thus the character, which were branded with any letters by way originally represents the word hand, is of ignominy, were so called. so modified and combined with others, LIT'ERATES, in ecclesiastical affairs, as to denote every variety of manual a name given to those who are admitted labor and occupation. The Chinese to ordination by the bishop without hav- characters are written from top to boting taken a university degree. tom, and from right to left. The lines LITERATURE, in the general sense are not horizontal, but perpendicular and of the word, comprises the entire results parallel to each other. Much imporof knowledge and mental activity ex- tance is attached by the Chinese to the pressed in writing; but in a narrower graphic beauty of their written characsense, it is used to denote the depart- ters, which in picturesque effect, it must ment of elegant letters, excluding works be owned, are superior to most forms of of abstract science and mere erudition. alphabetic symbols. The grammar of In this limited view it comprehends the language is very limited. The nouns languages, particularly Greek and Lat- ard verbs cannot be inflected, and hence in, grammnar, etymology, logic, rhetoric, the relation of words to each other in a poetry, history, criticism, bibliography, sentence can be understood only from and a description of the attainments the context, or marked by their position. of the human mind in every sphere The Chinese literature is rich in works of research and invention. The history in every department of composition, both LIT] AND THE FINE ARTS. 35'7 verse and prose. Their scholars are prose, which consists chiefly of mathefond of discussions in moral philosophy, matical or philosophical writings. Afbut they have also numerous books of ter Athens became the centre of literahistory, geography, voyages, dramas, ry cultivation in Greece, the works of romances, tales, and fictions of all kinds. /Eschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, ArisThe labors of various European travellers tophanes, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato, and students have given us specimens of Isocrates, Demosthenes, and so forth, almost every description of Chinese liter- were regarded as standards of style, and ature. In legislation, we have a trans- made the Attic the common dialect of lation of the Penal Code of the Empire; literature. Poetry, however, was not in politics and morals, the sacred books written in the Attic dialect. The pecuof Confucius, and his successor Meng- liarities of Homer were imitated by all Tsew; in philology and belles-lettres, subsequent poets, except the dramatists, a well-executed dictionary of the lan- and even they assumed the Doric to a guage; several translations and ab- certain degree in their choruses, for the stracts of history; and selections from sake of the solemnity of expression the drama, criticism, and romance. which belonged to the oldest liturgies Among the most successful explorers of of the Greeks. According to the genthe field of Chinese literature, we may eral tradition, Cadmus the Phoenician, mention Staunton, Davis, Morrison, was the first who introduced the alphaKlaproth, and Remusat, who have fol- bet into Greece. His alphabet consisted lowed up the earlier researches of the of but sixteen letters; four are said to Jesuits at Pekin, and greatly elucidated have been invented by Palamedes in the a subject which had been supposed to be Trojan war, and four more by Sinmonides inaccessible. of Ceos. It has been maintained how2. Greek Literatzcre.-The language ever by some persons, that the art of which we call Greek, was not the prim- writing was practised by the Pelasgi itiye language of Greece, for that coun- before the time of Cadmus. On the try was originally inhabited by the Pe- other hand, many of the most sagacious lasgi, whose language had become extinct critics, place the origin of writing in in the time of Herodotus. With regard Greece at a much later period. to its origin, there is a diversity of opin- The origin of Greek literature, or the ion asmong the learned, although it intellectual cultivation of the Greeks, by evidently forms a branch of the exten- written works, dates at a period of which sive family of languages, known by the we have few historical memorials. The name of Indo-Germanie. It has existed first period of Grecian cultivation, which as a spoken language for at least three extends to 80 years after the Trojan war, thousand years, and with the exception is called the ante-Homeric period, and is of the Arabic and the English, has been destitute of any literary remains, propermore widely diffised than any other ly deserving the name. Of the poets tongue. Out of Greece, it was spoken in previous to Homer, nothing satisfactory a great part of Asia Minor, of the south is known. The most ancient was Olen, of Italy and Sicily, and in other regions who is mentioned by Pausanias. IIe was which were settled by Grecian colonies. followed by Linus; Orpheus, Mlusmeus, and The Greek lannuagce is divided into four others, but the poems which are circuleading dialects, the 2Eolic, Ionic, Doric, lated under their names cannot be reand Attic, beside which there are several garded as their genuine productions. It secondary dialects. The four principal was in the Greek colonies of Asia Minor, dialects may, however, be reduced to that the first great impulse was given two, the Hellenic-Doric, and the Ionic- to the development of literature; and Attic, the latter originally spoken in the among them we find the earliest authennorthern part of Peloponnesus and At- tic specimens of Greek poetry and histiea, the former in other parts of Greece. torical composition. Situated on the In each of these dialects, there are cile- borders of a noble sea, enjoying a climate bra.ted authors. To the Ionic dialect, of delicious softness and purity, aboundbelong in part the works of the oldest ing in the most nutritious and tempting poets, Homer, Hesiold Theognis; of products of nature, whose fertility was some prose writers, especially Herodotus not inferior to its beauty, these colonies and Hippocrates and the poems of Pin- possessed a character of refined voluptudar, Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus. ousness, which, if not favorable to the The Doric dialect was of the greatest an- performance of great deeds, allured the tiquity. We have few remains of Doric dreamy spirit to poetical contemplations, 358 C'YCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LI and was manifested In nobTe creations of this period, and served to prepare the e the fancy, which have not been surpassed way for prose composition. in the progress of cultivation. Living The philosophy of this age was marked near the scene of the Trojan war, the by its constant reference to practical bards devoted their first poems to the affairs. Among its expounders, ve lmay celebration of Grecian heroism. With consider the seven wise men of Greece, them, commenced the second period of as they are called, (Perianerr, or accordGreek literature, which we calt the Epic ing to some, Epihnenides of Crete, Pittaage. Oftlhese, Homer alone has survived. cus, Thales, Solon, Bias, Chilo, aend CleoWe have from him the two great poems, bulus,) of wh.om six acquired their fame, the Iliad and Odyssey, with several not by the teaching of speculative abhymns and epigrams. He gave his namne stactions, but by their admirable wisdom to the Iorreridoe, an Ionian school of in the affairs of life, and their skill in the nminstrels, who preserved the old iHomeric offices of state. Their celebrated sayings and epic style, and who are probably the re the maxims of experience, applied to *authors of munch that has been azcribedl the practical relations of life. But with to Homer hIils'elf. the progress of intellectual culture, a Next to the Homnerids,, come the Cyclic' taste for speculative inquiries was unpoets, whose works embrace the whole folded. This resulted in the establishcircle of mythology and tradition, de- ment of the IoTnic philosophy by Thales, scribing the origin of the gods and of the the Italian, by Pythlagoras, and the older world, the adventures of the Heroic times, andlater Eleatic. With the development the Argonautic expedition, the labors of of these schools, we are brought to the Hercules and Thescus, the principal scientific period of Greek literature. The events of the Thebin and Trojan wars, Ionic school ascribed a material origin and the fortunes of thle Greeks after the to the universe. Its principal followers fall of Troy. A tra-nsition between these were Pherecydes, Anixamander, Anaxahistoric-poets and( the later school of mines, Anaxagoeras, Diogenes of ApolloIonian msinstrelsy, is formed by Hesiod, nia, aind Archilaus of Miletus. Of the who conducted poetry btck from Asia Pythag-orean school, which explained the Minor into Greece. Of the sixteen works organization of the world by number and ascribed to himl we have the Theogony, imeasure, were Oceilus Lucanus, Timaus the Shield of Hercules, and Works and of Locris, EpicharTnus, Theages, ArchyDays, the last, an agricultural poem, ino tas, Philolaus, and Endoxus. To the terspersed with moral reflections and pru- older Eleatic school, which cherished a dential maxims. more sublime, but Iess intelligible conThe third period commences with the ception of the ori'gin of the world, as.growth of lyric poetry, of apologues an( sumning the fact of a pure necessary philosophy, with which history gained a existence, balonged Xenophanes and Parnew development and a higher degree of menides; to the later Eleatic, Melissus certainty. Lyric poetry sprung up on -and Diagores. Until about the co:nthe decline of the Epic school, and was imelncorent of' the 9Oth Olympiad, the imuch cultivated from the beffinning of philosophers and their disciples were disthe epoch of the Olympiads ('776 R.c.,) to persed throughlout the various Grecian the first Persian war. The poems of this cities. Athens s'ubsequently ybecamee their period are considered among the most chief residence, where the class of men valusable productions of Grecian litera- called Sophists first rose into importance ture. Many of them resembled the epic, as public teachers. Of these, the most and contained the subjects of heroic song. dislinguished names that have been preThey were sung b by bands of youths and served to us are ~orgias of Leontium, nridens, accompanied by instrumental Protagoras of Abdera, Ilippias of Elis, music. Among the most celebrated of Prodicus of Cos, Trasimlus and Tisias. the lyric poets were Archilochus of Paros, They were especially devoted to the subthe inventor of the Iambus; Tyrtseus, jects of po'itics and eloquence, but also Terpander, and Aleman, whose martia lmade a study of the natural sciences, strains enkindled the valor of the Spar- mathematics, the theory of the fine arts, tans; Callimachus of Ephesus, inventor and philosophy. Professing the art of of the elegiac measure; Simonides a.nd logic as a trade, they were less earnest Anacreon of Ceos; the impassioned Sap- in the pursuit of truth, than in Ihe conpho of Mitylene; Stesichorus, Hipponax, struction of plausible arguments. Their annd Pindar. Many didactic poems, fa- fallacious pretences awakened the honest fes, and proverbs were written during indignation of Socrates, who not only be LIT] AND THE FINE ART.'. 359: came their zealous antagonist, but gave may be deemed the author of the draa vigorous and original impulse to the matic art in Greece. I-Ie divided the stoprogress of philosophy. This shrewd and ry into different portions, substituted the subtle reasoner opened a new direction dialogue for recitation by a single perto philosophical research, turning it to son, and assigned the various parts to the study of human nature, and of the skilful actors. The three great tragic laws of psychology and ethics instead of writers are ZEschylus, Sophocles and barren speculations and theories. With- Euripides, while the most distinguished out leaving any written record of his rank in comedy is held by Cratinus, genius, he is known at the present day Eupolis, Crates, and especially Aristoby the affectionate and beautiful memo- phanes. rials which have been consecrated to his During this period we find several character in the productions of his disci- didactic and lyric poets, while the sister ples. Among these, Plato was pre-emi- art of eloquence was illustrated by the nent by the force and comprehensiveness names of Lysias, Demosthenes, rEschines, of his reason, the marvellous keenness of Antiphon, Gorgias, and Isocrates. his insight in the region of transcenden- The succeeding period, which is nsutal ideas, the vigor and acuteness of his ally called the Alexandrine, was charlogical faculties, and the winning sweet- acterized by the prevalence of a critical ness and grace of expression, which lend spirit; the luxuriant bloom of the eara charm to his writings that has never lier Greek literature had passed away; been equalled in philosophical literature, and the fresh creative impulses of geThe masterly conversations of Socrates, nius were made to yield to the love of in which he expounded the principles of speculation and the influence of erudihis philosophy in the streets and market- tion. The glowing imaginative philosplace of Athens, are reproduced with ad- ophy of Plato was succeeded by the mirable dramatic effect, in the glowing more rigid system of Aristotle, who pages of his eloquent disciple. founded the Peripatetic school, and gave The progress of history kept pace in order and precision to the principles of Grecian cultivation with the development reasoning. With the passion for subtle of philosophy. Among the oldest histori- analysis, which was the characteristic of cal prose writers, are Cadmus, Dionysius, his mind, he drew a sharp line of distincand Hecatseus of Miletus, Hellanicus of tion between logic and rhetoric, ethics Mitylene, and Pherecydes of Scyros. and politics, physics and mnetaphysics, After them appears Herodotus, who has thus enlarging the boundaries of philosreceived the name of the Iomer of his- ophy, and establishing a system whih' tory. He was followed by Thucydides, exercised an undisputed supremacy for the grave, condensed, and philosophical ages. The dogmatic tendencies of Arishistorian of the Peloponnesian War. totle found their counterpart in the Strongly contrasted with his sternness skeptical principles of which Pyrrho of and energy, is Xenophon, whose limpid Elis was the most distinguished advocate. narrative flows on with the charming The same principles prevailed to a cerfacility of a graceful stream, presenting tain extent in the Middle and New Acada delightful specimen of the tranquil emies founded by Arcesilaus and Carbeauty of Greek prose in its most simple neades, while the Socratic philosophy form. These three historians distin- was modified by the disciples of the Stoic guished the period from 550 to 500 B.C., school, established by Zeno, and of the during which time we have to notice the Epicurean, which bears the name of its introduction of a new class of poetical celebrated founder. At length the intelcreations. lectual sceptre which had been so long The popular festivals, which were wielded by the philosophers and poets of celebrated after the'vintage, with rude Greece, passed from Athens to Alexansongs and dances, led to the gradual ere- dria; the nation itself was absorbed in ation of the drama. A more artistic the progress of Roman conquest; Greek form was given to the wild choruses in literature ceased to give birth to original honor of Bacchus; the recitation of fa- productions; and its brilliant career bebles by an intermediate speaker was in- came the subject of history. troduced into the performances; and Hebrew Literatutre.-The language soon the games of the vintage festival and literature of the ancient Hebrews, were repeated on other occasions. The a.art from its religious character and spirit of the drama was thus cherished, claims, presents a curious and important until the appearance of Eschylus, who subject of investigation. It is the oldest 360 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LIT literature of which any remains have the remains of Hebrew literature were come down to modern times. With a collected by a college of learned men unrich poetical coloring, a profound senti- der the direction of Ezra, and from their ment of humanity, and a lofty religious labors we have received the books.-f the faith, it sustains a most intimate relation Old Testament in their present form. to the development of the intellect and Roman Literatutre. —The language of the moral and political history of the the ancient Romans is usually called race. The Hebrew language is one of the Latin, for though Rome and Latium oldest branches of the numerous family were originally separate communities, of la.nguages which have received the they always appear to have spoken the name Shemitic, on account of the sup- same language. The Latins, as far as posed descent of the nations by which we can decide on such a question at the they were spoken, from Shem, the son present day, seem to have formed a part of Noah. These are the Chaldaic, the of that great race which overspread both Arammuan, the Hebrew, the Syriac, the Greece and Italy under the name of PeArabic, the Phoenician, and the Ethio- lasgians. It is supposed that the Pelaspian. The history of the language has gians who settled in Italy originally been divided by many critics into four spoke the same language with the Pelasperiods. I. From Abraham to Moses. gians who settled in Greece. The Greek II. From Moses to Solomon. III. From and Latin languages accordingly have Solomon to Ezra. IV. From Ezra to many elements in common, though each the end of the age of the Maccabees, has its own distinctive character. when it was gradually lost in the modern The history of Roman literature may Arameuan and became a dead language. be divided into four periods. I. From The differences, however, which can be the earliest times till Cicero. II. To traced in the language are so slight, that the death of Anugustus, A.D. 14. III. To a sounder division would be into only two the death of Trojan. IV. To the conperiods, the first extending from the time quest of Rome by the Goths. During of Moses to the reign of Hezekiah, and the first five hundred years of the Roman the second from the reign of Hezekiah to history, scarcely any attention was paid its final extinction as a spoken language. to literature. Its earliest attempts were The written characters or letters, which translations and imitations of the Greek date from the time of Solomon, were the models. The Odyssey was translated into same as the Phoenician. During the Latin by Livius Andronicus, a Greek Babylonish captivity, the Hebrews re- captive of Tarentuin, and the earliest ceived from the Chaldees the square writer of whom we have any account. character in common use, and in the His tragedies and comedies were taken time of Ezra, the old Hebrew manu- entirely from the Greek. lie was folscripts were copied in these characters. lowed by Navius, who wrote an historical The punctuation of the language was not poem on the first Punic war, by the two settled until after the seventh century of tragic writers Pacuvius and Attius, and the Christian era. The. accents, vowels, by Ennius. B.c. 239, the first epic poet, points, and divisions into words, were also and who may be regarded as the founder introduced at a later period. of Roman literature. Being a Greek by The poetical and religious sentiment birth, he introduced the study of his was the foundation of Hebrew literature. native language at Rome, and had Lyric poetry received a rich development among his pupils Cato, Scipio Africanus, under David, to whom are ascribed sev- and other distinguished citizens of that eral noble specimens of song and elegy. day. At the same time, lie taught the The fragments of didactic poetry which Romans the art of easy and graceful bear the name of Solomon are stamped writing in their own language, and helped with a character of practical wisdom, and to inspire them with a love of literature often exhibit an energy of expression, by his refined taste and elegant cultivawhich authorize us to class them among tion. Contemporary with Ennius wais the most extraordinary productions of Plautus, whose dramatic pieces, in imiancient literature. After the division of tation of the later comedy of the Greeks, the kingdom, the prophets became the were remarkable for their vivacity of great teachers of the people, and have left expression and their genuine comic huvarious collections of their writings, none mor. He was followed by Cecilius and of which have come down to us with coin- Terence, of whom the latter has left pletoness. Upon the return of the exiled several admirable comedies, fully impeople from the Babylonish captivity. bued with the Grecian spirit. The first LIT] AND THE FINE ARTS. 361 prose writers were Quintus Fabius Pictor I partook of the general character of the and Lucius Cincius Alimentus, who lived Roman people. Devoted to the realizain the time of the second Punic war, and tion of practical objects, with slight tenwrote a complete history of Rome. Their dencies to the ideal aspect of things, and style was meagre and insipid, aiming absorbed in the exciting game of politics only at brevity, and entirely destitute of and war, the Romans had little taste ornament or grace. either for abstract speculation or for the With the age of Augustus, in which loftiest flights of poetical fancy. Hence some earlier writers are usually reckoned, no new system of philosophy was proa new spirit is exhibited in Roman litera- duced in their literature; their best ture. In didactic poetry, Lucretius sur- poets were essentially imitative; and of passed his Grecian masters, by the force all branches of study, those connected of thought and the splendor of diction, with popular eloquence were held in the which characterize his great philosophical greatest esteem. poem on the origin of the universe. Ca- With the death of Augustus contullus attempted various styles of poetry, menced the decline of Roman litel Fture. in all of which he obtained eminent sue- Among the poets of this period, are Phmcess. His lyric and elegiac poems, his drus, an ingenious fabulist, the satirists, epigrams and satires, are marked by Juvenal and Persius, whose works are singular versatility of feeling, frequent more important for their illustrations of flashes of wit, and rare felicity of ex- the manners of the age: than for their pression. Among the elegiac poets, of poetical merit, and Lucan, who describes whose genius we still possess the remains, the wars of Cesar and Pompey in an inthe highest distinction was gained by Ti- sipid historical epic. In prose, we have bullus; Propertius and Ovid. The former the sombre, but condensed and powerful of these poets was pronounced by Quinc- histories of Tacitus, and the quaint and tiiian to be the greatest master of elegiac artificial treatises onethics and philosophy verse; Ovid possessed an uncommon fer- by Seneca. Subsequent to the reign of tility of invention and ease of versifica- Trajan, we meet with no writers, who tion; while Propertius tempers the vo- have any claim upon our attention, and luptuous cast of his writings with a the literature of Rome, after a brief incertain dignity of thought and vigorous terval of splendor, during the golden age mode of expression. The great lyric between Cicero and Augustus, passesinto poet of the Augustan age is Horace, unimportance and obscurity. whose graceful and sportive fancy, coir- Sanscrit Literatere.-Until the close bined with his remarkable power of deli- of the last century, the Sanscrit literature cate and effective satire, continues to was almost wholly unknown to the learned make him a favorite with all who have of Europe. The Roman Catholic misthe slightest tincture of classical learning. sionaries in India, had, to a certain exThe noblest production of this period, tent, engaged in the study of the lanhowever, is the IEneid of Virgil, which, guage at an earlier period, but it is only with his elaborate poem on rural affairs, since the year 1790, that it has attracted the Geortics, and his sweet and tender the attentionof eminent scholars. Among pastorals, or Eclogues, fairly entitles him those who have given an impulse to the to the position which has been given him study of Sanscrit, and who have themby universal consent, of the most gifted selves pursued it with distinguished sucepic and didactic poet in Roman litera- cess, are Sir William Jones, Wilkins, ture. Forster, Colebrooke, Wilson. Haughfton, The prose writings of the Latin authors, Rosen, Chezy, Burnouf, A. W. Schlegel, taken as a whole, betray a higher order of and lBopp. We are indebted to their genius and cultivation than the works of labors for a knowledge of this rich and the poets. In this department, the pre- curious literature, which, on many aceminence belongs to Cicero, whose vari- counts, may be considered as one of the ons productions in eloquence, philosophy, most remarkable products in the history and criticism, are among the most valu- of intellectual culture. able treasures of antiquity. In history, The Sanscrit language is a branch of Cesar, Sallust, and Livy, are the most the Indo-Germanic family of languages, prominent names, who, each in his own and is supposed to bear the greatest repeculiar style, have left models of his- semblance to the primitive type. In its torical composition, which have been the construction, it is in the highest degree admiration of every subsequent age. ingenious and elaborate, and the variety The literature of the Augustan period and beauty of its forms are well adapted 362 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LIT to illustrate the laws of the formation of tion, and whose epic, lyric, and dramatic language. It is the sacred language of productions, must be allowed to possess the Bramins, and contains the Vedas, the considerable merit. His best descriptive oldest records of their religion. The last poem, entitled' Meghaduta," is a model century before the Christian era, was the of simplicity and elegance. It exhibits period of its richest blossoming, although a highly ideal character, tracing out the it extends back to a far more remote spiritual significance of visible phenomeantiquity. It appears in its most ancient na,, and striving to penetrate into the form in the Vedas, which date from the hidden life of the universe. The dranma thirteenth century before Christ, and in calledl'Sacontala" or the "Fatal Ring," that state exhibits many striking analo- by this -uthor, has received the warsngies with the Zend, the ancient language est commendation from modern critics. of Persia. These writings are the foun-" All its scenes," says the genial Hrder, dation of Sanscrit literature, and diffuse" are connected by flowery bands, each their influence through the whole course grows out of the subject as naturally as of its development. a beautiful plant. A multitude of subThe Vedas are divided into four classes, lime as well as tender ideas are found in the first being in poetry, the second in it, which we should look for in vain, in a prose, the third consisting of lyrical Grecian drama." A valuable translation prayers, and the fourth of devotional of this poem has been made by Sir Wil. pieces, intended to be used in sacrifices liam Jones. and other religious offices. Each Veda The influence of religious speculation is composed of two parts, the prayers and in India early gave birth to n-umerous the commandments. The Sanscrit pos- philosophical writings. With the love sesses a variety of other works in sacred of contemplation, to which the natives literature, which contain not only a co- are so strongly inclined, and the progress pious exposition of religious doctrines, of thought in opposition to the doctrines but numerous discussions of philosophi- of the Vedas, a variety of philosophical cal and scientific subjects, and an exten- systems was the natural consequence. sive collection of poetical legends. The oldest of these is called the " SankThe two oldest and most interesting hya." It teaches the duality of matter epic poems are "The Ranmayana," de- and spirit, which are essentially diflerent scribing the seventh great incarnation of in their nature, though found in such Vishnu, and' The Mahabharata," devo- intimate union. The problem of life, is ted to the wars of two rival lines descend- the emancipation of the soul from the doed from the ancient Indiann monarch, minion of the senses, and the attainment iBharata. An episode from this work of blessedness by the supremacy of the incalled " Bhagava,t Gita" has been trans- telleet. Another system of transcendenlated by Wilkins, Herder, Schlegel and tal speculal.ion is named the " yaya. others, and has excited no small interest This is constructed from strict logical as an illustration of the early Oriental deductions, which it applies to the interphilosophy. pretation of nature, and arrives at a A new character was given to Sanscrit theory of materialism, the reverse of the poetry about one hundred years before Sankhya ideality. The Nyaya school the Christian era, by the introduction of has produced a multitude of writings. themes connected with courts and princes. Opposed to each of these systems is the It lost the popular and national ten- " Mimansa," which maintains the docdency which appears in the two great trines of the Vedas in their original epics, alluded to above, and assumed a strictness, and strives to reconcile them more artificial form. With a manifest with the suggestions of philosophy. improvement in the mere externals of The Sanscrit literature, moreover, style. the new poetry shows a degeneracy abounds in works on various other in point of thought, and an entire ab- branches of learning. Its philological sence of original invention. In the treatises, especially, are of great value. principal works of this class we find la- The Indian grammarians surpass those bored descriptions of natural objects, and of any other ancient people. No less many curious artifices of composition, important are the Sanscrit works on but they are destitute both of brilliancy rhetoric, criticism, music, astronomy, and of imagination and depth of reflection. jurisprudence. They well deserve the The most fertile author of the new school attention of the scholar, not only on is undoubtedly Calidasa, who attempted account of their intrinsic character, but almost every species of poetical composi- as precious memorials of the early de LIT1 AND THE FINE ARTS. 363 velopment of the intellect, and significant lightened period of the Arabic dominion, illustrations of the history of the race. though for two centuries afterwards the nation produced many eminent geograII. MODERN LITERATURE. phers, philosophers, jurists and historiAn interval of eight centuries separates ans. Under the government of Al-Mathe period of the decline of Roman litera- mun, excellent universities were estabture from that of the first dawn of modern lished at Bagdad, Bussora and Bokhara, literature in Europe. The successive and extensive libraries in Alexandria, invasions of the barbarians during the Bagdad and Cairo. The dynasty of the rapid dismemberment of the ancient em- Abbassides in Batgdad emulated that of pire of Rome, for a time destroyed all the Ommanides in Spain; during the tenth languages, and centuries elapsed before century the University of Cordova was the new tongues were sufficiently ma- almost the only refuge of literature in tured for the cultivation of letters. In Europe. The labors of the Arabic scholthe Eastern Empire, during the third, ars and travellers contributed greatly to fourth, and fifth centuries after Christ, the spread of geographical knowledge. nothing was produced except some works Ibn Batuta, who in the thirteenth century of theology, by the Fathers of the Church. visited Africa, India, China, and Russia, The Arabs first began to cultivate litera- ranks with Marco Polo and Rubruquis. ture in the sixth, and the Persians in the In the twelfth century Abu'l Kasein ninth century after Christ. The Pro- wrote the history of the Arabs in Spain; venial, or language of the Troubadours, Bohiaddin, a biography of Sultan Salain the south of France, first attained a din; Ibn Arabschah described the exstable character towards the close of the ploits of Tamerlane, and Hadji Ihalfa, ninth century, and the Lan gue d' Oil, or in later times, has produced an encycloRomance-tongue of Normandy, about fifty pedia of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish years later. Nearly all of the living literature. The style of the Arabian languages of Europe date the first be- historians is clear, concise, and unincumginnings of their literature as far back bered with imagery. The most renowned as the tenth century, though, except to philosopher was Avicenna, who flourished gratify a philological taste, there is little in the eleventh century. Averrhoes, that will repay the student of modern whose name is also familiar to scholars, literature for going beyond the twelfth was famous as an expounder of the syscentury. The following sketches of the tern of Aristotle. In the departments literature of civilized nations, since the of medicine, astronomy, geometry, and decline of classic literature, have been arithmetic, there are many Arabic works arranged nearly in the order of time: which exhibit great research and scienArabic Literatture.-Literature, after tific knowledge. its final decay ands extinction in the East- The number and variety of the works ern and Western RPoman Empires, revived produced by the Arabian poets, is most first among tie Arabic tribes in the East. remarkable, and their influence on the Even before the era of Mahomet, there modern literature of Europe was greater were renowned poets and story-tellers in than is generally suspected. In picArabia. In the fifth century, during the turesque narration they have rarely been great fairs of Mecca, poetical contests excelled, and the "Thousand and One frenquently took place, the victorious pro- Nights." which first appeared in its colductions being lettered with gold and lected form during the reign of Caliph hung upin the Caaba. Among the most Mansur in the ninth century, has been renosvned poets of this period were naturalized in all modern languuages. Amralkeis, Tharafa, and Antar. Their Only half of this, however, is Arabic; works are distinguished by imaginative the remainder having been translated power, richness of illustration, and great from the Sanscrit and Persian. The skill in depicting the passions of love Arabian poets left many poetic chronand revenge. With Mahomet commenced icles, the most celebrated of which are: a memorable epoch in Arabic literature. "The Deeds of Antar," "The Deeds of Through the Koran, which was arranged the Warriors," and "The Deeds of the from Mahomet's teachings, by Abubekr,Heroes." Of late years, several eminent the first caliph, the method of writing French and German scholars have given and the literary style of the nation were their attention to the study of Arabic determined. The reigns of Haroun Al- literature, the best works of which aro Raschid and Al-Mamun in the seventh now accessible through their translations. and eighth centuries, were the most en- Persian Literiature.-The modern lit. 364 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LIT erature of Persia succeeded that of Arabia. the most prolific of Persian writers. His After the conquest of the country by the life was spent at Herat, where, in the caliphs, about the middle of the seventh hall of the great mosque, he taught the century, the arts and sciences of the people the precepts of virtue and religion. Arabs, together with the religion of Ma- Hle left behind him forty works, theologihornet, were transplanted upon Persian cal, poetical, and mystical. Seven of his soil, but the fruits of this new culture did principal poems were united under the not appear for several succeeding genera- title of "The Seven Stars of the Bear." tions. The first Persian books, both of IIis history of mysticism, entitled "The poetry and history, were written in the Breath of Man," is his greatest prose early part of the tenth century, and for work. Among the later Persian poems several centuries there was no interrup are the Scheh/inscheh-lYameh, a continuation in the list of renowned authors. tion of the Book of Kings, and the GeorgeLiterature was encouraged and rewarded, INameh, an account of the conquest of whatever might be the political convul- India by the British. The Persian is sions that affected the empire. Persian the only TMahometan literature containpoetry consists for the most part of small ing dramatic poetry. Its dramas strilyrics, arranged in divans, or collections. kingly resemble the old French mysteThere are also several voluminous histori- ries. Of the collections of tales, legends, cal, romantic, and allegorical poems, be- and fairy-stories, the most celebrated are sides legends and narratives told in a mix- the Aswoari soheili, or "Lights of the ture of prose and verse. The first Persian Canopy," and the Behlcri danisch, or poet is Rudegi, who flourished about the "Spring of Wisdom." The historical year 952. Firdftsi, the great epic poet works in the Persian language are very of Persia, died in the year 1030, at the numerous and valuable. They embrace age of seventy. lie wrote the "Schah- the history of the Mohammedan races, namie/.," or "Kings' Book," describing from MIongolia to Barbary. The princithe leeds of the Persian rulers, from the pal works are the Chronicle of Wassaf, a creation of the world to the downfall of history of the successors of Genghis Khan, the Sassanide dynasty in 632. He was which appeared in 1333; the " Marrow thirty years in the composition of this of the Chronicles," by Khaswini, in 1370, work, which contains sixty thousand and the Rauset Essafa, a great universal verses. The most celebrated portion is history, of which modern historians have that recounting the adventures of the made good use. It was written by Mirhero PRustem. Nisami, at the close of the chond, about the year 1450. In the detwelfth century, wrote extensive romantic partments of ethics, rhetoric, theology, poems, the most remarkable of which and medicine, the Persian scholars are were "IMedjnoun and Leila," and " Is- only second to the Arabic. They also kancder-VNameh." an epic on Alexander excelled in translation, and have reprothe Great. Chakani was a celebrated duced in Persian, nearly the entire litwriter of odes in the thirteenth century. erature of India. Saadi, one of the most celebrated Persian Italian Literature.-The Italian lanauthors, was born in 1175, and lived till guage assumed a reiglar and finished 1263. Itis poems are principally moral character at the court, of Roger I., king of and didactic, but rich with the experience Sicily, in the twelfth century. Several of a fruitful life, and written in a very poets arose, who, borrowing the forms of simple and graceful style. His best verse from the Provencal troubadours, works are the Gultstan. or "Garden of gave the people songs in their native Ioses," and the Bostan, or "Garden of language in place of the melodies of the Trees." Hlafiz, the Oriental poet of love, Moors and Arabians. The Italian soon was born at Schiraz, in the beginning of became the court language of Italy, and the fourteenth century, where he lived as Malespina's History of Florence, which a dervish in willing poverty, resisting the was written in the year 1280, is scarcely invitations of the caliphs to reside in inferior, in elegance and purity of style Bagdad. In the year 1388, he had an to any Italian prose works which have interview with Tamerlane, by whom he since been produced. The first genuine was treatec with much honor. His poems poet of Italy, however, was her greatest, consisted of odes and elegies, which have and one of the greatest of all time been collected into a "Divan." His Dante commenced his great poem of the lyrics, devoted to the praise of love and " Divina Commedia" in the year 1304, wine, are full of fire and melody, just before his exile from Florence, and Djami, who died in 1492, was one of completed it during his many years of.. _., ~ ~ ~ __ ___. _ ___. _ __ _ _. _ _ __ _ ___._ _ _ I LIT] AND THE FINE ARTS. 365 wandering from one court of Italy to of the fifteenth century, gave the first imanother. Out of the rude and imperfect pulse tb the cultivation of the Italian materials within his reach, he constructed tongue, which had been lost sight of in the an epic which places his name beside that rage for imitating Latin poets. Besides of him whom he humbly called his mas- being the author of many elegant songs ter-Virgil. Taking the religious falith and sonnets, his court was the home of all of his time as the material, he conducts the authors of that period. Among these the reader through the sad and terrible were Politiano, who wrote Ojfeo, a fable circles of Hell, the twilight region of formed on the myth of Orpheus, which was Purgatory, and the fair mount of Para- performed at the court of Mantua. in dise, showing him all forms of torture 1483; Luigi Pulci, the author of iorand punishment for the vile, all varieties gante lfraggiore, and Boiardo, author of of supreme happiness for the pure and the Orlando Jinnca orato. Both the lastgood. The poem takes a fierce and named poems are chivalrous romances, gloomy character from the wrongs and written in the ottava r'ima, aand f ull of a persecutions which. the poet endured in quaint humor, which before tha t tine had his life. Dante died in 1321, at which only appeared in the prose of Boccaccio. time Petrarch, who was born in 1304, had But the master of the gay and sparkling commenced those studies which led to the poetic narrative was Ariosto, wh' waas restoration of classic literature to Italy. born in 1474, and first appeared as a a auAs an enthusiastic admirer of antiquity, thor about the year 1500. Five years he imparted to his contemporaries that later he commenced his Orlando Fi7rioso, passion for the study of the Greek and which was not completed till 1516. This Roman authors which preserved many is a romantic poem in forty-six cantos, of their masterpieces at a moment when celebrating the adventures of lRoland, the they were about to be lost to the world. nephew of Charlemagne. It is one of the His songs and sonnets, most of which classics of Italy, and has been translated were inspired by his unfortunate love for into all modern languages. After the Laura de Sade, give him a worthy place death of Ariosto in 1533, no literary work after Dante, in Italian literature. Hle of any prominence appeared until Tordied in 1374. Contemporary with Pe- quato Tasso published his Jerusalem lDetrarch was the great master of Italian livered, in 1581. Alaianni, Trissino and prose-Boccaccio, who was born in 1313. Bernardo Tasso flourished in the interval He early devoted his life to literature. and produced labored poems, which are no and in 1341, assisted at the celebrated longer read. The subject of Tasso's poem examination of Petrarch, previous to his is the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre from coronation in the capitol. His principal the 2Moslems, by the Crusaders, under work is the Decamerone, a collection of Godfrey of Bouillon. The wrongs and one hundred tales, which, notwithstand- persecutions heaped upon Tasso clouded ing the impurities with which they are his mind and shortened his days; he died disfigured, are models of narration, and in Rome, in 1595, on the day before that exhibit the most varied powers of ima- appointed for his coronation. Three other gination and invention. Boccaccio is Italian authors of the sixteenth century considered as the inventor of romances are worthy of mention: Cardinal Bembo, of love-a branch of literature which was the most finished scholar of his day, and wholly unknown to antiquity. author of a history of Venice; Nicolo For a century following the death of Machiavelli, whose name has become syBoccaccio, the literature of Italy shows no nonymous with all that is sinister and ungreat name, though several scholars dis- scrupulous in politics, from his treatise tinguished' themselves by their attain- entitled " The Prince," for which, after ments and the aid which they rendered to his death, an anathema was pronounced the cause of classic literature. The most against him; and Pietro Aretino, one of noted of these were John of Ravenna; the most infamous and dissolute men of Lionardo Aretino, who wrote a history of his time. Machiavelli wrote an admiraFlorence in Latin; Poggio Bracciolini, a ble History of Florence, which is still a most voluminous writer, who enjoyed the standard work. patronage of Cosmo de'Medici, at Flo- In the half-century following the death rence; Francesco Fileflo and Lorenzo of Tasso, there are but two poets who Valla, both men of great erudition, whose have attained any renown; Guarini, the labors contributed to bring on a new era author of Pastor Fido, and Tassoni. who of Italian literature. Lorenzo de'Medici, wrote the Secchia Rapita (Rape of the called the Magnificent, towards the close Bucket.) Filicaja, whose impassioned ly 360 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATU'E [LIT rics are still the revolutionary inspiration Count Lucanor, a collection of tales emof Italy, belongs to the latter part of the bodying lessons of policy and morality. seventeenth century; he died in 1707. He was followed by Pedro Lopez de After another long interval arose Frugo- Ayala, and Mendoza, Marquis de Sannil a lyric poet of some celebrity, who tillana; though the latter belongs prope died in 1768. and Metastasio, the author erly to the next century. He produced of plays, operas and ballets innumerable. a number of works, both prose and poetry, He is remarkable for his wonderful corn- all of which were remarkable for the mand of the language, and the free and erudition they displayed. Some of his spirited movement of his dialogue. HIe lighter poems are very graceful and me died in Vienna, in the year 1782. During lodious. this same period, Italian dramatic litera- Under the reign of Charles V. Spanish ture received a new accession in Goldoni, literature first reached its full developwhose comedies are still the glory of the ment. After the union of Arragon'and Italian stage. He had a rival in Count Castile and the transfer of the seat of the Gazzi, whose works, nevertheless, are far government to Madrid, the Castilian beinferior to Goldoni's in humor and bril- came the court language, and thus reliancy. What Goldoni did for comedy, Al- ceived a new polish and elegance. The fieri accomplished for Italian tragedy. first author of this period was BosThis author justly stands at the head of can, an imitator of Petrarch in some remodern Italian literature. His tragedies, spects, but a poet of much native fervor odes and lyrics exhibit an eloquence and and passion. Garcilaso de la Vega, the fervor of thought which is scarcely reach- friend of Boscan, surpasses him in the ed by any other author. Iis principal sweetness of his verses and in their susworks are Saul, lfyirrha, Octavia, Bru- ceptibility and imagination. He was a tus the Second, and Philip II. Since the master of pastoral poetry, and his eccommencement of this century, Italy has logues are considered models of that not been barren of authors. Pindemonte, species of writing. Iis life was actively who has published several volumes of dra- devoted to the profession of arms. ie matic poetry; Ugo Foscolo, author of a fought under the banner of Charles XI. in poem called "The Sepulchres;" Manzoni, Tunis, Sicily, and Provence, and was who wrote I Promcessi Sposi, (The Be- finally killed while storming the walls of trothed,) a charming romance of life on Nice. Don Diego de Mendoza, one of the the shores of Lake Como; Silvio Pellico, most celebrated politicians and generals whose Le 1Mie Prigione is a narrative of of that period, is generally awarded a his sufferings in the prison at Spielberg, place next to Garcilaso. I-e was a patron and Niccolini, equally celebrated as a of classical literature, and the author poet and prose writer. Mazzini, Trium- of a history of the Moorish Revolt in vir of Rome during the brief period of the Alpuxarra, and a History of the the Republic, and Gioberti, are the most War of Grenada, but a man of cruel distinguished Italian authors of the pres- and tyrannical character. Montemayor, ent generation. who flourished at the same time, attainSpanzish Literiature.-The earliest es- ed much celebrity from his pastoral say in Spanish literature is the Chron- of Diana. These authors during the icle of the Cid, which is supposed to have reign of Charles V. gave Spanish poetry been written about the middle of the its most graceful and correct form, and twelfth centuyry. In formi the poem is have since been regardled as models of suficiently barbarous, though the lan- classic purity. The great masters of guage is remarkably spirited and pictur- Spanish literature, however, were reesque. It has been the fount of number- served for the succeeding generation. less songus and legends, through the later Herrera and Ponce de Leon, lyrical centuries. It narrates the adventures of poets, fill the interval between the age Ruy Diaz de Bivar, the Cid Campeador. of Garcilaso de lia Vegst alnd Cervantes. In the following century, Gonzales de Herrara is considered the first purely Be'rceo, a monk, wrote nine voluminous lyrical poet of Spain. Ponce de Leon, poems on the lives of the saints. Alfonso who was imprisoned five years by the X. of Catile, whose reign terminated in Inquisition for having translated the 1284, wias the author of a poem entitled song of Solomon, was the author of sevThe 7Philosopher's Stone, besides several era- volumes of religious poetry. prose works. The first author of the Two of the brightest stars of Spanish fourteenth century was Prince Don John literature, Cervantes and Lope de Vega, Manuel, who wrote a prose work entitled were contemporaries, and were followed - --------— __~_ __~~_______~~__~_~_~_~_~~__~~ _ _~ ~_~____~~~~ ~~___ j LIT] AND THE FINE ARTS, 367 in the next generation, by the third, Cal- 11782 his Literary Fables, and a few years deron. Cervantes was born in 1549. He later M,'elendez appeared as the author travelled through Italy, lost a hand at of two volumes of idyls and pastorals. the battle of Lepanto, and was five years Both of these authors display consideraa slave in Barbary. H-e commenced his ble lyric genius; but since their death, literary career by the writing of come- in the early part of the present century, dies and tragedies, the first of' which, Spain has produced no new name in lit. fGalatea, was published in 1584. Thirty erature. of his comedies have been entirely lost..Portugutese Literature.-Portugalfirst His great work, Don Quixote, was pub- acquired its position as an independent lished in 1605, and was immediately kingdom after the battle of Ourigue, in translated into all the languages of Eu- 1139. The date of the origin of its literope. From this time until his death in rature is nearly coeval with that of the 1616, he wrote many novels and comedies. monarchy. liermiguez and AMoniz, two The tragedy of.i\Tusanatia, and the corn- knights who flourished under Alfonso I., edy of Lfe in Algiers, are the only two wrote the first ballads. King Dionysius, of his plays which have been preserved. who reigned from 1279 to 1325, and his To this same period belongs Don Alonzo son, Alfonso IV. were both renov,-ed as de Ercilla, whose epic of La Aracuinac poets, but few vestiges of their writings was written during the hardships of a remain. It was not until the fifteenth campaign. against the Aracuanian In- icentury, however, that Portuguese literadians in Chili. Lope de Vega was born ture attained any considerable merit. in 1562, and after a life of the most mar- 2Macias, a Portuguese knight engaged in vellous performances died in 1635. He the wars with the Moors of Grenada, was was a prodigy of learning, imagination, called 17l Eenaemorado, on account of the and language. Out of eig-hteen hntedred tender antd glowing character of his armadramas which he wrote, one.hundred tory poems. The first distinguished poet were each produced in the space of a of the country was Bernardin Ribeyro, single day. His detached poems have who flourished under the reign of Embeen printed in 27 volumes in quarto. manuel the Great, in the beginning of Very few of his plays are now read'or the sixteenth century. His most celeperformed. The only remaining authors brated productions are his eclogues, the of eminence during this period are Que- scenes of which are laid on the banks of vedo, who wrote several moral and reli- the Tagus and the sea-shores of Portugal. gious works and three volumes of lyrics, His lyrics of love, the origin of which is pastorals, and sonnets; Villegas, an ana- attributed to an unholy passion for the creontic poet; and the Jesuit Mariana, king's daughter, are wonderfully sweet authdr of a History of Spain. The life and melodious. The first prose work in of Calderon de la Barca, the illustrious Portuguese worthy of note, is a romance head of the Spanish drama, extended entitled 2Vte Isnnocent G-irl, which apfrom 1600 to 1687. Ills plays are of four peared about this period. Saa de Mikinds: sacred dramas, from Scriptural randa, who also attained celebrity as a sources; historical dramas; classic dra- Spanish author, was born in Coimbra in ma.s; and pictures of society and man- 1495, and wrote many sonnets, lyrics and noers. The most celebrated are The Cone- eclogues in his native tongue. He also stant Prince, El Secreto a Toces aend El wrote a series of poetical epistles, after laulgico prodigioso. A number of small the manner of Horace. Antonio Ferreira, dramatists were contemporary with Cal- who was born in 1528, followed the exderon, but with his death Spanish litera- ample of lMiranda in his sonnets and ture declined., and has since produeced few eclogues, but surpassed him in entering eminent names. Luyando, counsellor the field of diramatic literature. His of state, published two tragedies in 1750, in5ez de Castro, founded on the tragic and in 1758 appeared T2he Life of Preiar story of that lady, displays much power Gerund, by Salazar-a work in the style and patthos in the delineation of the charof Don Quixote, but directed against the acters. The other poets of this genera. clergy instead of the chivalry. It abounLds tion were Andrade Caminlha, Diego Berwith wit and satire, and is perhaps the nardes and Rodriguez de Castro, all of best Spanish prose work of the last cen- whom wrote lyrics, sonnets and pastorals, fury. Towards the close of the century few of which have survived them. Hu-erta achieved considerable repluta- The sole star of Portuguese literature, tion by his attempts to revive the Spanish who is now almost its only representative drama. Tomas do Yriarte published in to other nations, was Luis de Camoens, 368 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LIT who was born in 1525. After studying Sylvez, who died in 1580, wrote the Hisat Coimbra, where he was coldly treated tory of King Emmanuel, describing the by Ferreira, he embraced the profession religious troubles of that time in a most of arms, and lost an eye in the siege of liberal and enlightened spirit. Manuel Ceuta. Sailing for India in 1533, he de Faria, born in 1590, almost rivalled reached Goa in safety, participated in an Lope de Vega in the amount of his expedition against the king of Cochin- works; his dissertations on the art of China, spent a winter in the islands of poetry are held in most value. He also Ormuz, and afterwards, on account of a wrote a History of Portugal and a Consatire entitled Follies in India, directed mentary on Camoens. After the subjuagainst the Portuguese governor, was ban- gation of Portugal by Philip II. of Spain, ished to Macao, on the coast of China. the literature of the country declined, During his residence of five years in that and presents no distinguished name for place, he wrote his great epic of The Lut- nearly a century following. The first siad, devoted to celebrating the passage author of the last century is the Count of of the Cape of Good Hope by Vasco de Ericeyra, born in 1673. He was a geneGamra, and the triumph of Portuguese ral in tl1- army, and a scholar of splendid arms and commerce in the Orient. On attainments. His chief work was the his return to Portugal he was shipwreck- Ienriqueide, a epic poem, describing ed on the coast of Cambodia, and escaped the adventures of Henry of Burgundy, by swinmming, with the Lusiad in his the founder of the Portuguese monarchy hand, held above the waves. He died in Towards the close of the last century, great poverty, in 1579. le left behind Antonio Garcao and the Countess de Vihim many sonnets, songs and pastorals, mieiro acquired some celebrity by their but most of them are penetrated with a dramatic productions. The only Portuvein of deep and settled melancholy. guese authors of note, whom the present Among the successors of Camoens, the century has brought forth, are Antonio most noted are Gil Vicente, a dramatic da Cruz e Silva, who imitalted Pope and writer, who is supposed to have served as other English poets, and J. A. da Cunha, a model to Lope de Vega and Calderon; an eminent mathematician and elegiac and Rodriguez Lobo, who was at one time poet. The Portuguese colonie's have proconsidered a rivalof Camoens. He wrote duced a few writers, the most noted of the Winter Nights, a series of philosoph- whom are Vascencellos and Claudio IManical conversations, Spring, a romance, uel da Costa. and numberless pastorals. Cortereal also French Literature.-The literature of described in a ponderous epic the adven- France was later in its development than tures of Manuel de Sousa Sepulveda, a that of the other nations of Southern Eudistinguished Portuguese. rope. It was necessary to wait tre deThe age of Camoens also gave rise to a dine of the two romance-tongues of Nornew branch of literature. John de Barros, mandy and Provence before the language born in 1496, is esteemed by his coun- could take a settled form, and a still furtrymen as the Livy of Portugal. He ther time elapsed before it was sufficiently commenced his career by a romance en- matured for the purposes of the scholar titled The Emperor Clarismond, but after and the author. During the thirteenth his return from service on the coast of and fourteenth centuries the kingdom Guinea, he devoted himself to the prepa- produced many romances, in which the ration of a grand historical work on the influence of the literature of the TrouPortuguese empire. Only one fourth of veres and Troubadours was manifest. this, entitled Portuglues Asia, which was Gilbert de Montreuil, Castellan de Coucy published in 1552, appeared. This is one and some others were noted for this spe of the most comprehensive, accurate and cies of composition; many sacred dramas interesting historical works of that age. and mysteries were written in the north Alfonso D'Albuquerque, one of the most of France, and about the smiddle of the distinguished contemporaries of Barros, fifteenth century, several romantic epics wrote a series of Cosmmentarics, and appeared. The only remarkable name Couto and Castanheda undertook to com- of this early period is the renowned plete the work which Barros had left un- chronicler, Froissart, who was born in finished. Bernardo de Brito, born in 1337, and in the course of his travels 1570, designed to give a universal History and sojourn at all the courts of Europe, of Portugal, but, commencing with the was witness of many of the chivalCreation, he died by the time he reached rous events he describes in his "Chronthe Christian Era. Osorio, Bishop of icles of France, Spain, Italy, England LIT] AND THE FINE ARTS. 369 and Germany." Philip de Comines, who lite tongue of Europe. Dramatic poetry, died in 1509, passed his life in the ser- especially, founded on the principles of vice of Louis IX., and left behind him the Greek theatre, attained a character the " lemoirs" of his time. The latter it has never since reached. Corneille, pasrt of the fifteenth century produced born in 1606, was the father of the classic many small writers of satires, odes, songs, French drama. His first play, The Cid, e&., among whom, Charles, Duke of Or- belongs rather to the romantic drama, but leans, takes the first rank. The sacred through the influence of the Academy his mysteries, the first attempt at theatrical later works, the most eminent of which representation, gradually gave place to are Les J-loracesCiina, i Polyeucle and o rude form of drama and comedy, and a 3flort de Pomp&e are strictly classical. very successful comedy of French life ap- His dranmatic works amount to thirtypeared in 1475. three. Racine, who was born in 1639, With the reign of Francis I. the study brought the classic drama to perfection. of the classics became popular in France, His language is the most elegant and and from that time till the age of Louis melodious of all French dramatists, while XIV. the progress of French literature he is inferior to none in his knowledge of was rapid and uninterrupted. The six- nature and his command of the eentiteenth century produced a few great ments and passions. His plays, though names. Scaliger and Casaubon were re- constructed on the classic model, are not nowned for their scholastic acquirements; confined strictly to classic subjects. The Clement Marot and Theodore Beza cul- most celebrated are: Andromaque, Bajativated poetry under Francis I., whose sis- zet, Mithr'idate, Phiedse, Esthier and ter, Margaret of Valois, published a col- Athalie. After these two authors ranks lection of novels, called the lieptameroon; Moliere, the father and master of French Honsard was the first French poet who comedy. His eiTartuffe has a universal showed strong original genius, and, with celebrity. He died in 1673. Crebillon, IRegnier, gave the national poetry a freer sometimes called the French ZEschylus, and more characteristic tone. The drama' was a writer of tragedies. Legr and, Regwas improved by Etienne Jodelle, who nard, and Scarron distinguished themimitated the Greek tragedians; Claude selves as dramatists of secondary note. de Seyssel wrote the History of Louis To this age belong Le Sage, the author XII.; and Lrantome and Agrippa d'Au- of Gil Blas; La Fontaine, the greatest bigne left behind them many memoirs and fabulist since Esop; and Boileau, the sathistorical essays. But the boast of the irist and didactic poet, whose Art poetiage is the names of Malherbe, Rabelais que and Lutrisl or " Battle of the Books" and Montaigne. Malherbe, born in 1554, have been made classic. Mademoiselle is considered the first French classic, in de Scudery wrote many chiva.lrous ropoetry; his language is most inflexibly mances, and Perrault's fairy tales soon pure and correct. labelais was born in became household words. The TWilea1483, and his romance of " Gargantua que of Fenelon was also produced during and Pmntagruel" was first published in this period. This author, with Bourda1533. Notwithstanding its grossness it is loue, Bossnet and Massillon, were celeone of the most lively, humorous and bril- brated as theological writers and pulpit liant books in the language. It satirizes orators. -Madamnie de Sevignr's letters the clerical and political characters of his are unsurpassed as specimens of graceful, time. Montaigne, whose life extended polished and spirited epistolary writing. from 1533 to 1592, wrote three volumes of As historians, Rollin is the most disEssays, on moral, political and religious tinguished, but Mezeraly, author of the subjects, which on account of their elega nt national Chronicles, the Jesuit D'Orleans, style no less than the treasures of thought author of Histories of Revolutions in Engthey contain, have always held their land and Spain, and Boessuet's theological place among French classics. histories, are worthy of notice. The seventeenth century is the glory of During the eighteenth century, when French literature. Under the auspices the literature of Spain, Italy and Portuof Richelieu, Colbert and Louis XIV. all gal were on the decline, and Englaknd and departments of letters, science and art Germany remained stationary, France reached a height unknown before. The still maintained her supremacy. In 1694 French Academy was founded by Riche- was born Voltaire, who in the course of lieu in 1635, and the language, at that his life made himself master of nearly time unrivalled in clearness, perspicacity every department of literature. His first and ilexibility, gradually became the po- play, (Edipe, was successfully performed 24 370 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [iJT in 1718, though his epic of the l1enriade, Chateaubriand was born in 1769, and written at the same time, was not pub- published his first work, the Essay ecl lished till 1729. Many of his succeeding Revolutions, in London, in 1797, while in plays were unsuccessful, and his satires exile. His Atala, the subject of which and philosophical essays produced only was derived from his adventures amsong banishment. His principal plays are the Natchez tribe of Indians, on the MisZaire, Alzire, Brut us, Oreste, Mahomet sissippi, appeared in 1801, and his G:inis and Tancreede. After his return from du Christiatisimc in 1802. He also pubGermany, he settled at Ferney on the hishod Les Mlartyrs in 1807, and an acLake of Geneva, where for twenty years count of his travels in the East. I-e he devoted himself to literature. Eis filled many diplomatic stations under the principal works are: History of Charles Bourbons, and was made peer of France. XII. of Stceden; HIistory of Russia under After his death, which took place in 1848, Peter the Great; Pyrrehonisme de l'his- his autobiography was published, under toire, Dr oits de l'hommie and the Diction- the title of M1l'moires d'outre Tombe. naire Plilosophlique. Jean Jaques Rous- Madame de Stael, the daughter of M. seanu, born in 1712, exercised scarcely less Neckar, afterwards minister under Louis influence on French literature, than Vol- XVI., was born in 1766, and first appeartaire. His first work, a dissertation on ed as an author in 1788, when she pubModern Music, appeared in Paris in 1743, lished a series of letters on the life and about which time he wrote several come- writings of Rousseau. During the French dies and tragedies and composed an opera. Revolution she remained in Switzerland ltis romance entitled Nouvelle I-eloise, and England, where she wrote several powas published in 1760, and his Conztr? t litical pamphlets, dramas, and essays on Social and Egmile in 1762. Its most re- life and literature. Her romance of Comarkable work, the Confessions, was corn- inne was published in 1807, and her De pleted in 1770, and he died in 1778. As' Allemag'ne, which directed ettention to bold and independent as Vroltaire in his the literature of Germany, in 1810. Her philosophical views, hle had nothing of his work entitled Ten Years of CNxile, was cynicism. His works, the style of which written in Sweden; she died in Paris in is absolutely fascinating, express a sin- 1817. Beranger, who still lives at Passy, cere sympathy with humanity. Meonies- near Paris, is the first song-writer of quieu, whose Spirit of Lawzs is a stand- France. Many of his lyrics and ballads ard work on jurisprudence, belongs to have become household words with the the first half of the eighteenth century. common people. Casimir Delavigne, who Among the historians contemporary with died in 1843, was among the first restorVoltaire were Condorcet, author of a lis- ers of that lyric school, which Lamartine, tory of Civilization, and Barthelemy, who Victor Hugo and Alfred de Musset have also wrote the Yoyage dutjeune Anachar- since carried to a high degree of perfecsis. La Bruyere. La tIarpe and Madame tion. The most renowned names in cod'Epinay distinguished themselves by temporary French literature, are, as potheir didactic and epistolary writings. ets: Alphonse de Lamartine, author of The mos-i noted novelists were MNirmon- 1seditations Poeti'ques, la. rmonoies Potel, Bernardin de St. Pierre, author of etiques and La Chute d'unAnge; Victor Paul aind Vzirginia, and Louvet. Mari- Htuo, author of three volumes of lyrical vaux attained distinction as a writer of ronances and ballads; Alfred de BMusset comedies, and Beaumarchais as a dra ma- Jean Pe6boul, a disciple of Lamartine tist and writer of operas. The well-known and Auguste Barbier, who nmingles with Barber of Seville is from his pen. France his poems a vein of keen satire. Jasmin, produced few lyric poets during the last a barber of Agen, has obtained much cecentury. Lebrun, Delille and Joseph lebrity by his poems in the Gascon diaCh6nier are the most worthy of mention, lect. The new school of French romance but the,S arseillaise of Roug'et (le Lisle hbas infected the modern literature of all is the finest lyric of the century, if not of countries. Balzac, who died in 1850, is all Frenclh literature. Mirabeau, Bar- unequalled as a painter of society and nave, Sieyes and the leaders of the R] v- manners; Eugene Sue, whose MJlysteries olution gave a new and splendid charac- of Paris and Van derinsg'- Jew have been ter to Frenlch oratory, -owards the close so widely road, delights in exciting subof the century. jects and the most intricate and improbaChateaubriand, de 1t.. anid Beranger ble plots; Alexander Doumas best known connect the age of Rousseau and Voltaire by hiss Count of Ifaonte Christo, and his with the modern literature of Fra-ce. romances of travel, is a master of pictur_______________________________________________________ _________________ _____________ -I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ LIT] AND THE FINE ARTS. 371 esque narrative; Victor Hugo is best Friesingen achieved renown for his hisknown as a novelist by his Notre Dame tories, which were written in Latin. de Paris, a brilliant historical fiction, The third period, dating from the corn, and Paul de Kock, as a lively though mencement of the fifteenth century, at unscrupulous painter of Parisian, life. which time the German language was enjoys a remarkable popularity. The fullydeveloped and subjectedto rule, exmost striking and original writer of fe- tends tothe present time. It has beensubtion is Madamle Dudevnit, better known divided by Ge-rman critics into three parts, as " Gegrge Sand." whose A4nde, Letthres viz.: 1. to the commencement of the Thirty d'un Yoyageeur and Consuelo, have placed Yearsi War; 2. to Klopstoek and Lessing; her in the first rank of French authors. 3. to our own day. The progress of the As dranmatists, Scribe, LCon Gozlan, LEti.- Reformation in the fifteenth century opeenne Arago, Germain Delavigne and le- rated very favorably upon German litelix Pyat have distinguished themselves. rature. Melancthon, Luther, lJric von The most prominent historicac and politi - Hutten and the other leaders of the cal writers are Lamartine, Thiers, Miche- movement were also distinguished schollet, G-ui ot, Louis Blanc and Thibau- ars. The celebratedPalracelsus, the natudeau; while Cousin and Cormte are th, ralist, Gesner, the painter, Albert Direr, founders of the new schools of philosophy, and the astronomers Kepler and CocerFrench oratory now occupies a higher nicus, fourished also in the fifteenth enposition than ever before; its most illus- tury. The most distinguished poet of trious names are Guizot, Thiers, Berryer, this period was HIans Sachs, the shoeLamartine, Odilon Barret and Victor maker poet of Nuremberg. lie was the IHugo. master of a school or guild of poetry, Geriman Literature. —The first period which was then considered as an elegant of German literature commenced with profession. In the number of his works the reign of Charlemagne in the eighth he rivals Lope de Vega, as he is said to century, and extends to the time of the have written 6048, 208 of which were Suabian emperors, at the close of the comedies and tragedies. I-e died in 1576. twelfth century. The first learned so- Martin Opitz, who marks the eommenceciety was instituted by Alcuin,the great- ment of a new era in German poetry, est scholar of Charlemagne's time. In was born in 1597. Ite first established a the succeeding period, Einhard, Rithard, true rhythm in poetry, by mneasuring the and Lambert von Aschaffenburg dis- length of the syllables, instead of merely tinguished themselves as historical and counting them, as formerly. I-is princitheological writers. About this time also pal poems are i'eszcius, Judith, and a originated those epic ballads and frag- number of lyrics. He was followed by ments which were afterwards collected Paul Filemmingg and Simon Dach, who under the title of the Niebellun.gcn-Lied, wrote in the low German dialect. As or''Lay of the Nibelungen," and the prose writers of the seventeenth century, 6 Song of Hildebrand." The Neibelun- Puffendorf, a writer on jurisprudence and gen-Leid, which has been called the Ger- international law, Leibnitz, the distinman Iliad, received its present form guished. philosopher and the Brothers about the year 1210. Its subject is the Baulmgarten, are most prominent. There history of Siegfried, son of the King is no great name in German literature, of the Netherlands, his marriage with however, from Opitz till the middle of Chriemhild. sister of Ginther, King of the last century, when Gellert, (Gessner, the Burgundians, and the revenge of Klopstock and iagedorn were the inauBrunhild, Queen of Ireland, who married guration of a new life. Under these auGiinther. thors, and others of less note, the la.n The second period terminates with the gruage attained a richness of expr!ession, close of the fifteenth century. Itincludes a flexibility of style, and a ha rmonya of the lfMinesingers, or German Trouba- modulation which it never possessed bedours, who were the result of the inter- fore. Gellert, born in 1715, is distincourse of Germanywith Italyand Prance, guished for his " Spiritual Songs and; which iade German scholars acquainted Odes," his letters and his romance of with the amatory literature of Provence. The Swedicsh, Coun.tess, which is the first The mrost renowned Minnesingers were domestic novel written in the GermalnL Woolfranm von Esehenbach, who wrote language. Gessner is best known througTh Parcival, Walter von der Vogoelweide, his idyls, in which he followed the cleasic the most graceful and popular of all, ani models. Hlagedorn, who dlied in i1.75i, Heinrich von Ofterdinhgen. Otto von I wrote 1any poewms; he is supposed to 372 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LIT have exercised considerable influence on ter and Die /Wahlverwandschaften, the Klopstock in his earlier years. As prose West-Ostliehe _Divan, a collection of writers, Forster, Mendelssohn, the philos- poems founded in his studies of Oriental opher, and Musgus, who made a collec- litarature, and the first part of his greattion of German legends and traditions, est work, Faust. He also published narare worthy of note. ratives of travel in France and Italy, and With Klopstock commenced the golden Wahrheit u7sd _Dichtung, an autobiograage of German literature, and the list of phy of his life. His philosophic and scirenowned names continues unbroken un- entific writings, especially his theory of til the present time. Klopstock was born color, are scarcely less celebrated than in 1724. In his odes and lyrical poems his literary works. He is equally a mashe struck out a new and bold path, cast- ter in all departments of literature, and ing aside the mechanical rules of the is generally acknowledged as the greatest older schools of German poetry. His author since Shakspeare. He died in greatest work is the Messias, a sacred 1832. Schiller, born in 1759, exercised epic, which was commenced in 1745, and scarcely less influence on German literafinished in 1771. Lessing, born in 1729, ture, than Goethe. His tragedy of the stands by the side of Klopstock as a poet, Robbers produced nearly as great a revowhile he is also distinguished as a prose lution as the Sorrows of Werter. On writer. I-e may be considered as the account of this and other works he was first successful German dramatist, his obliged to fly from his native Wurtemplays of Essmilia Galotti, Minza von berg, and after many vicissitudes, settled Barnhelm, and Nathan the TWiise, still in Weimar, with his great colleagues. keeping their place on the stage. As a After a brief but intense and laborious critical writer on all branches of the Fine life, he died in 1805. After the Robbers, Arts, he is also distinguished. Wieland he wrote the following dramatic works: follows next in the list of German classics. Fiesco, Cabal and Love, _Don Carlos, Born in 1733, he is the link between The Miaid of Orleans, lMarie Stuart, the age of Gellert and Klopstock, and William Tell, The Bride of Messina, that of Schiller and Goethe. tie died in and Wallenstein. The last is the great1813. His principal works are The New est drama in the German language. Ama.dis, which illustrates the triumph His lyrical poems are unsurpassed. His of spiritual over physical beauty, the principal prose works are the Hiistory of heroic epic of Oberon, a romance of the the Netherlands and I-Iistory of the middle ages, the drama of Alceste, the Thirty Years' W'ar. This period, so 1History of the Abderites, a satirical ro- glorious for German literature, produced mance, besides many letters, satires, and also the poets, Buirger, author of Lenore criticisms on literature and art. Herder, and The WVild Hsuntsnman; Count Stolhis cotemporary, in addition to his fame berg; Voss, author of Luise; Salis and as a poet, is celebrated for his philosoph- Matthisson, elegiac poets; Tiedge, anical and theological writings, and his thor of Urania; and the hero Korner, Spirit of fIebrewv Poetry. He died in the Tyrt;sus of the wars of 1812 and 1803. At the commencement of this 1813. The department of prose was filled century, Wieland, Herder, Goethe, and by many distinguished writers of philosoSchiller, were gathered together at the phy, history, and romance, some of whom Court of Weimar —the most illustrious are still living. Kant, who lived from congregation of poets since Shakspeare, 1724 to 1804, is the father of modern Spenser. Ben Johnson, and Fletcher, met German philosophy, and exercised a great together in London. Goethe was born in influence on allhiscotemporaries. Schle1749, and from his boyhood displayed a gel, in the department of literary critiremarkable talent for literature, science, cism, and Winckelmann, in that of art, and art. His first romance, The Sor- are renowned names. Hegel and Fichte rows of Werter, produced a great sensa- succeeded Kant as philosophers, and Altion throughout all Europe. His tragedyexander von Humboldt became the leadof Gitz von Berlichingen, written at the er of a new and splendid company of age of 22, established his fame as a poet. writers on cosmical science. The name After his settlemnent at Weimar, in 1776, of Tieck heads the school of modern Gerhis works followed each other rapidly. man romance. He was born in 1773, and I-Te produced the tragedies of Iphigenia, early attracted attention by his BlueEgmont, Tcasso, and Clavigo, the pasto- beard and Puss in Boots. In addition to ral epic of IHermzann und Dorothea, the a great number of plays, romances, and philosophical romances of Wilhelmn Meis- poems, he produced, in conjunction with LIT] AND THE FINE ARTS. 373 Schlegel, a German translation of Shak- Christ; Prince Piickler-Muskau and the speare, which is the most remarkable Countess Hahn-Hahn, critics and tourwork of its kind in all literature. Jean ists; Zschokke, (a Swiss,) distinguished Paul Richter, the most original and pe- as a novelist, and Feuerbach; Schelling, culiar of all German authors, was born as a philosopher; Strauss, author of a in 1763, and died in 1825. His first work Life of Christ and head of the German was a humorous and satirical production, "Rationalists:" Miller, as a historian, entitled The Greenlandic Lawsuit, fol- and Krummacher, a writer of fables and lowed by "Selections from the Deivil's parables. As historians, Rotteck, Niepapers." His works are distinguished buhr, and Ranke, are among the most by a great knowledge of human nature, distinguished of the present century. a bewildering richness of imagination, One of the most popular living prose and a style so quaint and involved, as writers is Adalbert Stifter, whose Stualmost to form a separate dialect. His dien are unsurpassed for exquisite purity best works are Titan, Hesperus, Die un- and picturesqueness of style. sichtbare Loge, and Flower, Fruit and Scandinavian Literature.-Under this Thorn Pieces. E. T. A. Hoffman is head we have grouped the literature of scarcely less original, in his romances, the three nations of Scandinavian origin. which have a wild, fantastic, and super- — Sweden. Norway, and Denmark. The natural character Among other Ger- old Scandinavian Eddas, or hymns of man authors, the brothers Grimm are gods and heroes, may be traced back to celebrated for their Kincder und flaczs the seventh or eighth century. The Mdhirchen, the notorious Kotzebue for earlier Edda, which was collected and his plays, and Wolngang Mentzel for his arranged by Samund in the year 1100, History of Gerumany and German litera- consists of legends of the gods, most of ture. which were probably written in the eighth Since the commencement of the present century. The latter Edda, collected by century Germany has been prolific of Snorre Sturleson in the first half of the authors, but the limits of this sketch thirteenth century, contains fragments prohibit us from much more than the of the songs of the Skalds who flourished mere mention of their names. Baron de in the ninth and tenth centuries, espe1a Motte Fouqu6 is known as the author cially in the latter, when their genius of Undine, one of the most purely poet- reached its culmination in Norway and ical creations of fiction, Siatrain and Iceland. Among the most renowned T/iodolf, the Icelander. Brne attained works of the Skalds were the Eiriksmal, celebrity as a satirist, critic, and political the apotheosis of King Eric, who died in writer. Uhland stands at the head of the 952, and the -oEakonarmal, describing the modern generation of poets. His bal- fall of Jarl Haco. A celebrated Skald lads, romances, and his epic of Ludwig was EgillSkalagrimsson, who wrote three der Baier, are among the best German epic poems, and two drapas, or elegiac poems of the day. After him rank poems. The power of the Skalds declined Rucickert, also renowned as an Oriental through the eleventh and twelfth centuscholar; Imauff, a lyric poet, and author ries, and after the fourteenth, when the of the romance of LichtensteinT; Gustav Christian element first began to appear Schvab, Justinus Ierner, author of the in Icelandie poetry, wholly disappeared. Seeress of Prevorst; Arndt, author of the Many sagas were written in prose, and Gersman Fatherland, the national lyric; the HIemlskringrla of Snorre Sturleson, Anastasius Grin, (Count Auersperg,) who died in Iceland in 1238, contains the author of the 1.faf' Aon Kahlenberg; chronicles of Scandinavian history from Nicholas Lenau, author of Savonarola; its mythic period to the year 1177. Ferdinand Freiligrath, a vigorous politi- Previous to the establishment of the catl poet; Heinrich Heine, author of University of Upsala, in 1476, the only many popular songs and ballads; Cha- literature of Sweden was a few rhymed misso, who also wrote the romance of historic legends. The two centuries sucPeter Schlezii/l; Gutzkow, distinguished ceeding this period have left no great as a dramatist; Halm, also a dramatist, names, and few distinguished ones. Saxoand'author of Der Sohn der Wi-dniss; Gramrmaticus made a collection of leand, as lyric poets, Herwegh, Geibel, and gends in the fifteenth century; Olaus Beck. Among the distinguished prose Magni wrote a history of the North in writers are Schlosser, author of a Uni- Latin; Messenius, who died in 1637, versal History; Neander, author of a wrote comedies and a historical work enHistory of the Church, and a Life of titled Scandia illustrata; Axel Oxen 374 CYCLOPiDIA OF LITERATURE [ITt stierna. the celebrated minister, was also The Neig-hbors, The Hame, and S&rifs a theologist and patron of literature;,and Peace. Olof IRudbeck. a distinguished scholar, There are few names in Danish literapublished in 1675 his Atlantic'a, wherein, tare before the last century. Ludwig from the study of the old Sagas, he en- von IIolberg, born in if685, was the first deavored to show that Sweden was the who achieved a permanent reputation as Atlantis of the ancients. George Stjern- poet and historian. To-wara-s the close hjelm, who died in 1672, was the author of the last century, Denmark produced of a poem called lierctules whence he is many distinguished scholars and men of named the father of Swedish poetry. science. tafn and Finn Magnusen resSwedenborg, the most striking character cued the old Icelandic sagas from oblivin Northern literature, was born in 1688. ion, and established the fact of the disAfter several years of travel in England covery of New England by Bj'&rne in the and on the continent, he established him- tenth century; Petersen became reself in Sweden, where he devoted his at- nowned as a classical scholar and critic; tention to science, and produced a number Oersted is a well-known name in science of works on natural philosophy, miner- and philosophy; cind Miiller and Allen ldogy, zoology, and other kindred sub- successfully labored in the doepartme nt jects. The close of his life was entirely of history. Nearly all these authors first occupied with his religious studies, andi became known in the present century. the production of his Arcana CelesSia. At the head of Denmark's poets is (Ehwhich contains his revelations of the fu- lenschliger, who died in 1850. lis nature life, and his theory of the spiritual tional tragedies, epics, and lyrics were universe. These writings gave rise to a written partly in German and partly in new religious sect, the nlumbers of which, Danish. He is considered the originator in the United Stiate,, are supposed to of the artist-drama, of which his Coregnumber about 60'. lie professed to be gio is a masterpieee. Baggesen, who visited by the IIoly Spirit, and his works commenced his career in the last century, are considered by his diseiples as equally is one of the first Danish lyric poets. inspired wuith those of the Apostles. He Heiberg devoted himself to vaudeville died in London in 1772. Dalin and Mad- and the romantic drama, and Hauch to ame Nordenflycht, were the first noted tragedy, in which he is justly distinpoets of the last century. They were guisbed. Hertz is known through his succeeded by a multitude of lyric and King$ Rdcn'es Daulgher, which has beern clidactic poet;s; but Swedish poetry did successfully produced ol the E-nglish, not attain a high character before the stage. One of the most distinguished of commencement of the present century. modern Danish authors is lians ChrisAmong the authors most worthy of note tinn Andersen, known a'ike as poet, novare Iidner, Bellman, and Thorild. A elist, and tourist. His romances of Dagrand history of Sweden, by Professors nish life are the most characteristic of Geijer, Fryxell, and Strumbolt, is nearly his works, though he is better known out completed. The present century pro- of his native country by his Iisiprovisaduced Atterbom'and Dahlgren, poets of tore and The Tr2ue Slor-yJ f imy.L/e. considerable celebrity, and Te'ner, the lRussian Lieratm.re-The first fragfirst of Swedish poets, whose Fi-ifHiqef's ments of Russian Literature belong to Saga has been translated into English, the tenth and eleventh centuries. They French, and German. Longfellow'has consist principally of ru-de songs land letranslated his Chicldren of the Lorcds geends, the hero of which is NVWldimrir the Supper. In the glow of his imagination, Great, who first introduced Christianity his fine artistic feeling and his wonderful into the country. Nestor a mronll in the coimmanid of rhythm, Tegner ranks among monastery of Kiev, who died in the year the first of modern poets. Ile died in 1116, left behind him a collection of 1850. Geijer and Runeberg are at the annals, beginning with 852, which throw head of the living poets of Sweden. As much light on the early history of Russina. writers of fiction, Count Sparrd, author After the empire was freed from the of Adolf Findlrng, Fredrika Bremer, Mongolian rule by Ivan I. in 1478, the whose fame as a painter of Swedish life, progress of literature and the arts was has extended over both hemispheres, more rapid. The first printing-press was and Madame Flygare-Carlen, author of established in Moscow in 1564, though the Rose of Thistle Island, have at- the Academy in that city was not founded tained an honorable place. The most until a century later. Peter the Great celebrated works of Miss Bremer are devoted much attention to the Russian LIT] AND THE FINE ARTS. 3'75 language and literature. At his com- comic operas, and Zukowski, following in rmand, the characters used in printing the path of Karamsin, produced some were greatly simplified and improved. vigorous and glowing poetry. Count The first Russian newspaper was printed Puschkin. one of the most celebrated Rusin 1705, in this character. sian authors, was born in 1799. His first From 1650 to 1750, Russia produced poem published at the age of fourteen, several authors, but principally among attracted so much attention that he rethe clergy, and their works are disserta- solved to devote himself to literature, tions on theology or lives of the saints. An " Ode to Freedom," however, procurTatitschev wrote a Hristory qf Russia, ed him banishment to the south of Ruswhich still retains some value. The only sia, where his best poems were written. poet of this period was Kantemir, son of His works are: Russlan and Ljudmilla, the Hospodar of Moldavia, who entered a romantic epic of the heroic age of Rusthe Russian service, devoted himself to sia; the Mnountain? Prisoner, a story of study, and obtained much reputation life in the Caucususs; the Fountains of from his satires. Towards the close of Baktsckissarai, and Boris Godunof, a the last century, and especially during dramatic poem. In his invention, the the reigns of Elizabeth and Catharine II. elegance o.e his diction and the richness the establishment of universities and of his fancy, Puschkin excels all other academies of science and art, contributed Russian authors. He was killed in a greatly to the development of the lan- duel, in 1837. His cotemporary Baratynguage and the encouragement of litera- ski, who stood nearest him in talent, ture. The distinction between the old died in 1844. Other poets of the present Slavic and modern Russian dialects is generation are Lermontow, Podolinski strongly exhibited in the works of Lomo- and Baron Delwig. Russian romance is nosow, and the predominance of the latter not yet fairly developed. The first names was still further determined by Sunara- in this department are Bestuzew, who kow, the first Russian dramatist, whose suffered banishment in Siberia and nmet plays were performed on the stage. death in the Caucusus, where his best Cheraskow, who belongs to the last half work, Amaleth-Bcg', was written-and of the eighteenth century, wrote a long Bulgarin, author of Demetrius and epic poem on the Conquest of Kazan, and liazeppa. The only histories written in another on Wladimir the Great. lie was Russia are Histories of Russia. The best considered the Homer of his time, but is of these, which have been produced by nownever read. Among his cotemporary the present generation of authors, alae poets were Prince Dolgoruki, who wrote those of Ustrialow, Pogodin, Polewoi and philosophic odes and epistles, and Count Gen. Michailowski-Danilewski. Chvostow, the author of some of the best Polish Literatule.-The Polish lanlyric and didactic poetry in the language. gugge has received a more thorough deThe first Russian poet whose name was velopment and boasts a richer literature known beyond the borders of the empire, than any other language of Slavic origin. was Derzhavin, who was born at Kazan It first reached a finished and regular in 1743, and after filling important civil form in the sixteenth century, though a posts under the Empress Catharine, died fragment of a hymn to the Virgin rein 1816. Many of his most inspired mains, which was supposed to have been odes were addressed to his imperial patro- written by St. Adalbert, in the fifteenth ness. His ode " To God," has been trans- century. The first bloom of Polish literalated into nearly all languages, and a ture happened during the reigns of SigisChinese copy, printed in letters of gold, mund I. and Augustus, from 1507 to hangs upon the walls of the palace at Pe- 1572. Michael Rey, the father of Polish kin. The prose writers of this period poetry, was a bold, spirited satirist. IHe were Platon, Lewanda and Schtscherba- died in 1586, and was followed by the tow, who wrote a History of Russia. brothers Kochanowski, Miaskowski and Under Alexander I. in the commence- Szymonowiez, who, for his Latin odes, ment of the present century, Russian was called the Latin Pindar. Bielski literature made rapid advances. Karam- wrote the Kronika, a collection of Polish sin, who stood at the head of Russian au- legends, and Gornicki, Secretary to Sigisthors during this period, first freed the rllund, a History of the Crown of Poland. popular style from the fetters of the elas- 0Or echowski, one of the most distinguishsic school, and developed the native re- ed orators of his day, wrote in the Latin sources of the language. Prince Alexan- language, the Annales Polonie. der Schakowski wrote many comedies and After the commencement of the seven 376 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LIT teenth century, Polish letters declined, Poland are the historical Lelewel, and and as the kingdom came under the as- Count Plater. It is to be feared that Pocendency of the Jesuits, a corresponding lish literature will expire with the preschange came over the character of the sent generation. literature. Kochowski, who died in 1700, English Liter atlre.-The English lanwas historiographer to King John So- guage, like other composite modern bieski, and accompanied him against the tongues, such as the French and Italian, Turks. Opalinski, the Woiwode of Posen, passed through several phases before published in 1652 his Satyres, a lively reaching its present form and character. and characteristic work, and a number of During the prevalence of the AngloJesuit historians undertook histories of Saxon tongue, from the fifth century to the country, in which few of them were the Norman conquest, England boasted saccessful. several authors, whose names and works Through the influence of French au- have in part descended to us. The venthors, Polish literature msade another ad- erable Bede, born in Northumberland, vance, at the close of the firs lhalf of the in 672, is distinguished for his scholarlast century. The first poet who servedto ship. IHe left an Ecclesiastical history concentrate the scattered elements of of the Angles, which forms the basis of Polish poetry, was Krasicki, who was early English history. The monk Cedborn in 1734, and in 1767 was made mon, who flourished in the seventh cenBishop of Ermelcaud. le wrote a mock- tury, wrote a paraphrase of Genresis and heroic poem, Illyszeis, (The Mousead,) some fragments which are supposed to an epic entitled."oynaa ClLOciisl ka (The have given Milton the first idea of " ParaWar of Chocir,) and many fables in disc Lost." The song -,f Beowulf, which verse. The most prominent of the later belongs to the eighth cc.;tury, is a spirited poets are Godebski, Wezyk, author of ro- and stirring heroic. King Alfred's poems mances and dramas, Felinski, author of belong to the best specimens of AngloBarbara RadZziovill, and Genr. Kropinski, Saxon literature. The Norman conquest who wrote Ludgarda. Tropinski, who introduced the French language and the died in 1825, was the author of many ad- literature of the Trouvbres, while the mirable lyrics and idyls, and a tragedy Anglo-Saxon was left to the peasants and called Judyta. Niemcewicz, his contem- thralls. Out of these elements, howevporary, wrote the Historical Lives of er. the English language was gradually Poland, a Hi-story of the reign of Sigis- formed, and under the reign of Edward mund III., and a romance: Jo.lann v. III., in the fourteenth century, was made Tenczyen. The university of Wilna, the language of the court. It then aswhich in 1815 was the seat of Polish learn- sumed a character which is intelligible ing, witnessed a revolution in the charac- to the educated English of the present ter of the literature. Several young au- day, and that period, therefore, may be thors, with Mickiewicz at their head, de- considered as the first age of English littermined to free themselves from the erature. classic spirit of the language, and ini- The earliest English author is Chaucer, tate the later English and German'the morning-star of English song," who schools. From this time Polish fiction was born in 1328, and produced his first took a freer, bolder and more varied form. poem, The Court of Love, in 1347, DnrMickiewicz, born in 1798, published his ing his life he enjoyed the favor of Edfirst volume of poetry in 1822. Banished ward III. and his son, John of Gaunt. to the interior of Russia, on account of He filled various diplomatic stations, political troubles, he wrote a series of among others that of ambassador to sonnets which attracted the attention of Genoa. During his residence in Italy, Prince Galizin, under whose auspices his he became familiar with the works of epic poem, lKonrad'Wallenrod. was pub- Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarch, and is lished in 1828. He is now Professor of supposed to have visited the latter. HIe Slavic literature in the College of France. also wrote Troiluzs anzd Cressida, T'he His polish epic of Pan Tadeusz first ap- House of Fa'me, and The Canterbury peared in Paris, in 1834. Among his con- Tales, his most famous work, an imitatemporary authors, the most noted are: tion, in poetry, of the Decameron. He Odyniec, author of the drama of Izora; died in 1400. The first prose works in. Korsak. a lyric and elegiac poet; Garcz- the English language were translations ynski, who wrote many fiery battle-songs-; of the gospels and of some of the classics. and Czajkowski, a noted writer of Slavic icWikliffe, the Reformer, who first made romances. The later prose writers of an English version of the Bible, was a AIT] AND THE FINE ARTS. 377 contemporary of Chaucer. Sir Thomas songs and madrigals. Sir Walter RalWyatt, and Henry Howard, Earl of Sur- eigh is more distinguished as a gallant rey, who flourished under the reign of knight and daring adventurer than as Henry VIII., in the beginning of the an author, yet his lyrics and his History sixteenth century, are the next English of the fTorld, written during twelve poets of note. They wrote principally years' imprisonment in the Tower, give songs and odes. Surrey was beheaded him full claim to the latter title. IHe )n charge of treason in 1547. was born in 1552 and was beheaded by The reign of Elizabeth, at the close of order of James I. in 1617. Beaumont the sixteenth century, was the golden age and Fletcher, contemporaries and in some.f English literature. Shakspeare, Spen- degree imitators of Shakspeare, deserve ser, Raleigh, Sidney, Ben Jonson, Beau- the next place after him, among the dramont and Fletcher, formed a constella- matists of that period. Beaumont is suption of poets and dramatists, such as no posed to have been the inventive genius other age or country ever produced. of their plays, and Fletcher to have supSpenser, born in 1553, became early as- plied the wit and fancy. The Faithful sociated with Sir Philip Sidney, to whom, Shepherdess is the work of Fletcher in 1579, he dedicated his first work, the alone. Many dramatists flourished durSIepher cd's Calendar. a pastoral. From ing this and the succeeding generation, 1586 to 1598, he was sheriff of the county whose works are now but little read, but of Cork, in Ireland, and resided at Kil- who would have attained eminence but colman Castle, where his greatest work, for the greater lights with which they The Facery Queen, was composed This are eclipsed. The most noted of them is an allegory in 12 books, written in are Marlowe, Marston, Chapman, Decker, stanza of his own invention, (modelled, Webster, Ford and Massinger. however, on the Italian ottava ria,) Between Shakspeare and Milton, the and which now bears his name. He died only name which appears in English litin 1599. Sidney, who was born in 1554, erature is Cowley, the author of the is best known as the author of Arcadia, )Davideis, a forgotten epic. Milton was a pastoral romance, and the Defence of borne in 1608, and in his early boyhood Poetry. He is the first writer who gave exhibited the genius which afterwards an elegant and correct form to English made him the first English poet, and one prose. Shakspeare, the greatest dramnat- of the great masters of English prose. ic poet of any age, was born in 1564. IHis tiyLn on the Nativity, was written He commenced his career by preparing in his twenty-first, and his mask of Cofor the stage the plays of some of his pre- cnus, in his twenty-third year. L'Alledecessors, and this fact has thrown some gro, 1 Pensseroso, and Lycidas soon afdoubt about the authenticity of two or terwards appeared. After his return three of the plays included among his from Italy, he devoted his attention to works. The order in which his own plays theology and politics. Iis treatise on appeared has never been satisfactorily wllarriage was published in 1643, his ascertained. The following, however, Areopagitica in 1644, and his fiamous reare known to have been written before ply to Salmasius in 1651. In the follow1598: The Twio Gentleeneen of Veroea; ing year he lost his sight, and was obliged Love's Labor Lost; Tlhe Comedy of Er- to retire from public service. His Pararors; Mlicdssummer Night's DDream; dise Lost appeared in 1665, and was folRonzeo antd Juliet; Merchant qf Veinice; lowed by Paradise Regained in 1671, Richard I.; Richard III.; Henry IV., and Samson Agonistes. He died in 1674. and King John. The Tempest, which Dryden, who, born in 1631, was known as appeared in 1611, is believed to be his a poet during Milton's life, introduced a last dramatic work.l He also wrote the new school of poetry-the narrative and poems of Venuts acd Adonis, and The didactic. His first noted poem, the AnRape of Ltcrece, a lyric called Tlhe nus lifirabilis, was produced in 1666, Passionate Pilgrinm, and a great num- his satire of Absalom and Achitophel in ber of sonnets, some of which are the fin- 1681, and shortly afterwards his Hindz est in the language. Ile died in 1616. ald Panther, a religious satire. IHe also Ben Jonson was born in 1574, and pub- wrote several rhymed tragedies and an lished his first dramatic work, the com- Essay on Dranmatic Poesy. Defoe, born edy of Every /ian,7 in his Hituor, in in 1663, wrote the world-renowned nar1596. In addition to other comedies, the rative of Robinson Crusoe, which was best of which are Volpone, the Fox, and first published in 1719. The seventeenth The Alchymist, he wrote many exquisite century was also an important epoch for 378 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LIT English philosophical literature. Lord gling of wit and pathos, in a style exceedBacon, born in 1561, published his De ingly lively and flexible. Richardson, digsnitate et acugmsentis Scientarum in one of the first Englishl romance-writers, 1605, and his celebrated lovoru Orgta- was born in 1689. His principal novels, nunt in 1620. These, although written in which are of immense length, are iaLatin, are the most important philosophi- mela, Clarissa ]iarlowoe, and Sir Charles cal works which have ever emanated from Grandison. Smollett, his successor, puban English author. Hobbes, a writer on lished his Roderick JRandoms, in 1748, politics, jurisprudence and moral phi- and ]Isumlphrey Clinker, his last work, in losophy, died in 1679. Locke, born in 1771. Hume, in addition to politicaland 1632, first published his Essay on the philosophical works, wrote the andistory llcsmarn Understanding, in 1690. of England, from the invasion of Caesar The commencement of the last century to the rebellion of 1688, which was pubbrings us to a group of authors of very lished in 1673-4. Smollett wrote four different character. The influence of volumes in continuation of the history. French literature began to be felt, and Gibbon, born in 1737, completed, after the characteristics of the English writers twenty years' labor, his listory of the of this period are elegance and grace. Decline and Fall of the I': -s.asn Empire, This is properly the age of English prose, which appeared from 1782 to 1788. Robwhich was enriched, successively, by Ad- ertson, the contemporary of Gibbon, pubdison, Horace Walpole, Swift, Sterne, lished his listory of Scotland in 1759, Richardson, Smollett, Fielding, fHume, and his History of the. Reign, f Ciarles Gibbon, Chesterfield, and Robertson. The V. in 1769. Dr. Johnson, whose /Rasselas, first poet who rose to eminence in the last Lives qf the sPoets, and contributions to century, was Pope, who was born in 1688, Th.e Rambler, exercised such a salutary and published his Essay ons Criticism in influence on the popular taste of his time, 1711. HiLs most celebrated poetical works died in 1784. Hils Jlictionary of the are the Rape of the Lock, the Essay on TEnglish Language, was first published lflan, and PThe iDuniciad. Thomson, au- in 1755. Edmund Burke, one of the most thor of Thfe Seasons and the Castle of finished and powerful of English orators, Insdolence, lived and died in the first half published, in 1756, his Essay ona the Subof the century. Gay, a contemporary lime and Beautiful, which is a imodel of poet, is distinguished for his Fables. philosophical writing. He died in 1797. G-ray ranks as one of the finest lyric po- With the present century commisenced ets of England. The few odes he has left, a new era in English literature. The and his Elegy in a Counstry Clusrchyard, reign of the drama and the epic were belong to the classics of the language. over; the reign of romance, in both prose Goldsmith was born in 1728, and died in and poetry, and the expression of a high1774. His poems of Th/e Traveller, and er and nmore subtle range of imagination, The Deserted V/illage, and his romance now commenced. The language lost of the Vicar of TWakefield, will live as something, perhaps, of its classic polish long as his native tongue. Cowper closes and massive strength, but became more the list of the poets of the last century. free and flowing, more varied in style, lie died in 1800, after a life darkened by and richer in epithet. The authors in religious melancholy. His Task, Table- whom this change is first apparent, are talk, and ballad of Johnr Gilpin, are his Coleridge and Wordsworth, in poetry, best poetical works. Returning to the and Scott in prose. Nearly coeval with prose writers, Addison is first in point of the two former, but different in charactime, having been born in 1672. His best ter, were Byron and Moore; the latter works are his essays, contributed to The are the poets of passion, the former of Spectator, which he established in 1711, imagination. Scott, in his Waverley novin conjunction with his friend Steele. els, first developed the neglected wealth His English has rarely been excelled for of English romance. Burns, although his purity and elegance. Chesterfield, Lady best songs are in the Scottish dialect, Montague, and Horace Walpole, are dis- stands at the head of all English songtinguished as epistolary writers. Dean writers. Campbell, in the true lyric inSwift, born in 1667, was a politician and spiration of his poems, is classed with satirist, but is now best known by his Gray. Rogers and Southey can scarcely Tale of a Tub, published in 1704, and be ranked among those poets who assisted Gulliver's Travels, in 1726. Sterne, in in developing the later English literahis Tristram Shandy and The Senti- ture. The former imitates the old modmental Journey, displayed a droll min- els; the latter, more daring in his forms LIT'l' AND THE FINE ARTS. 3 7 9 of verse, and more splendid in his imagi- this country, and the English literature nation, has never been able to touch the of the present century is as familiar to popular heart. Coleridge's prose works most Americans as their own. contain probably the most important American Literature.-The literature contributions to English philosophical of the United States belongs almost exliterature, since the time of Bacon. The elusively to the present century. The department of history has been amply language being that of England, and all filled by Scott, Alison, author of a His- the treasures of English literature the tory of Europe, Gillies and Grote, cele- common inheritance of our countrymen, brated for their Histories of Greece, Na- whatever American authors produce is pier, in his History of the Peninsula necessarily measured by the English War, Hallam, in his History of the llMid- standard. The lalnguage comes to us dile Ages,:and Macaulay in his History finished and matured, while the means of En-land. Most of these writers are of intellectual cultivation-until a cormnow (1351) liviog. Those who have died paraltively recent period-have been since the beoinning of the century. are limited, and our abundant stores of leKeats, in 1820; Shelley, in 1822; Byron, gend and history are still too fresh to be in 1824: Scott, in 1832; Coleridge, in imade available for the purposes of poetry 1834; Southey, in 1843; Campbell, in and fiction. The present generation. 1844; Thomas Hood, in 1848; and however, has witnessed the growth of' a Wordsworth, in 1850. Rogers and Moore national literature, if not peculiarly are still living, at an advanced age; Amnerican in language, at least in style Leigh Hunt, the author of The Rimiini, and the materials it has chosen. Our survives his friends, Shelley and Keats. most eminent poets and prose writers are The field' of historical romance, opened still living, and almost every year adds by Sir Walter Scott, has been success- to the list of you.nger authors, and to the fully followed by Sir Edward Bulwer regard in which American literature is Lytton and G. P. R. James. As novelists held abroad. of Engolish life and society, under all its The seventeenth century boasted two aspects, Dickens and Thackeray-and of or three authors, but none, we believe, lhite years, Miss Bronte, author of Shiir- native to thie soil. Mrs. Anne Bradstreet, ley and Joane Eyre-s-tand preieminent. wife of a governor of Massachusetts, As essayists and critics, thie names of published in 1640, a poem on the Four Lords Jeffrey and Brougham, Sidney Elements, smoothly versified, but of little Smitli, Macaulay, Professor Wilson, Do poetical merit. Cotton Mather, born in Quincey, Carlyle and Stevens, surpass 1663, is almost the only prose writer even the group who produced The Tatler worthy of note. His " Magnalia" conand the Spectator. Carlyle, in his Saurtor tains some valuable historical matter. Resartus, Past and Present, and Hieroes The last century produced some distinand l:Hero- Worship, has made use of an guished prose writers and some accomeidiom of his own-a broken, involved, plished versifiers, though no poet in the Germuanesque diction, which resembles true sense of the title. Franklin, born in that of no other English author. The 1706, was master of a singularly clear, most prominent living English poets, are compact, and vigorous style. Jonathan Thomas Moore, Leigh Hunt, Rogers, Edwards, who flourished during the last Alfred Tennyson, the present poet-lau- century, wrote a celebrated treatise on reate, Milnes, Barry Cornwall, Robert the Will, which is one of the first metaBrowning, a lyric and dramatic poet, his physical works in the language. The wife, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, prob- Revolutionary struggle, and the eircumably the most impassioned and imagina- stances which preceded and succeeded it, tive of English female authors, Walter produced a number of bold and brilliant Savage Landor, Mary Howitt, R. H. writers and speakers, among whom were I-orne, author of Orion, Croly, Philip Jefferson, Hamilton, the Adamses, RichJames Bailey, author of Festus, and T. ard Henry Lee, and Patrick Henry. The N. Talfourd, author of the tragedy of diplomatic correspondence of the RevoluIon. As prose writers, there still remain tion has rarely been surpassed. Philip Hallamn, Macaulay, Grote, Professor Wil- Freneau, who has been called the first son, Brougham, Bulwer, Dickens, Thack- American poet, wrote many patriotic eray, Miss Bronte, Miss Martineau, songs, which were sung during the strugJames, Howitt, Stevens, and a number gle, but none have retained their original of others. All English works of any vitality. Trumbull was the author of a merit are now immediately reprinted in Hudibrastic poem entitled MeFingal, in 380 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LIT which the Tories were held up to ridicule; acquirements, who has left behind her the first part was published in 1775. much admirable descriptive and critiJoel Barlow, who aspired to the rank of cal writing; and of poets of lesser note, an epic poet, published in 17S7, his Robert C. Sands, author of "Yamnoyden;" "Vision of Columbus," which, in 1808, J. G. C. B3rainard; Pinckney, a very was expanded into the " Columbiad," graceful song-writer; P. P. Cooke, auand printed in what was then a style of thor of the "Froissa.rt Ballads;" and unusual nmg nificence., Mrs. Osgood, a female writer, who gave Dana, Bryant, Washington Irving, evidence of possessing a brilliant and inCooper, Pauiding; and Everett, all born exhaustible fancy. The most eminent towards the close of the last century, are living authors, many of whom are still still living. Dana may be considered as young, and have scarcely reached the the first genuine poet the United States maturity of their powers, are Irving, has produced. I-s "Buccaneer" is a Cooper, Bryant, Dana, Paulding, author picturesque and striking poem, founded of a number of humorous stories; Miss on a legend of the pirates who formerly Sedgwick, who chose for the objects of frequented the American coast. Irving's her fictions the early history of New "Knickerbocker's History of New York" England; N. P. Willis, whose poems, appeared in 1809, and instantly gave stories, ana'ecords of travels in Europe him a position, as a writer of the purest and the East, are unsurpassed in point style and of exquisite humor and fancy. and brilliancy; Longfellow, the most His latest production, a Biography of popular poet of the country; Ralph Waldo Goldsmith, to whom he has been cor- Emerson, the essayist and poet, and the pared, was published in 1849. Many of founder of a new school of philosophy; his works-amnong them the "Sketch Nathaniel Hawthorne, author of the Book," " Bracebridge Hall," "The Al- "Scarlet Letter" and the " House of the hambra," and the "Life of Columbus," Seven Gables;" E. P. Whipple, an essaywere first published in England, where ist and critic; W. Gilmore Simms, J. P. he lived many years. Cooper's first essay Kennedy, and Dr. Bird, all of whom have in literature was a novel of society enti- written novels relating to the early histied "Precaution," but he subsequently tory of the South; IIHlleck, the author confined himself to the two fields in which of the magnificent poem of Marco Bozzahe has earned his best fame —the forest ris; Prescott, the historian, author of the and the ocean. His most successful "Conquest of Mexico," "Conquest of novels are: "The Spy," the "Pioneers," Peu," and "Lives of Ferdinand and the " Deerslayer," the " Pilot," and the Isabella;" Bancroft, who is now engaged "Pathfinder." Bryant first attracted in publishing a complete history of the noticed by his poem of'; Thanatopsis," United States; ]Hermann Melville, author written in his nineteenth year. Hiis first of " Typee," " moo," and "Whitejackvolume, "The Ages," was published in et;" Mrs. Kirkland, and C. F. Hoffman,. 1825. The most distinguished authors both of whom have admirably sketched who have died since the commencement the wild life of the West; Whittier, a of the century are Dr. Channing, whose fiery and earnest poet, who strikes unessays, criticisms, and moral, religious, hesitatingly at what he deems oppresand political writings have won him much sion; Lowell, one of the youngest and celebrity as a prose writer; William most encouraging of American poets; Wirt, author of the "British Spy," a and Donald C. Mitchell, who has lately collection of letters written in a chaste achieved an honorable reputation as a and elegant style; Charles Brockden prose writer. It is unnecessary to carry.Brown, the earliest American novelist, the enumeration further, since all the author of "Wieland;" Richard Henry remaining authors are young, and every Wilde, author of a "Life of Tasso;" day adds something to their intellectual Chief Justice IMarshall, who compiled a stature and relative positions. voluminous " Life of Washington;" Hen- LITHOG'RAPHY, the art of tracing ry Wheaton, author of standard works on letters, figures, or other designs on stone, law and political economy; Judge Story, and of transferring them to paper by imauthor of several celebrated legal works; pression; an art invented in 1793 by A. Edgar A. Poe, a most original and Sennefelder at Munich, in Bavaria. The strongly marked character, who wrote principles upon which this art is founded, the poem of "The Raven," and a num- are-1. The quality which a compact her of weird and fantastic prose stories; granular limestone has of imbibing grease Margaret Fuller, a lady of remarkable or moisture; and 2. The decided antipa LOI] AND THE FINE ARTS. 381 thy of grease and water for each other. ly diverging variations, in the different A drawing being made upon the stone patriarchates of the. empire. The earliwith an ink or crayon of a greasy compo- est period at which any liturgical forms sition, is washed over with water, which were consigned to writing is the end of sinks into all parts of the stone not de- the third or beginning of the fourth cenfended by the drawing. A cylindrical tury; at least the liturgy called of St. roller, charged with printing ink is then Basil can be traced as high as the latter passed all over the stone, and the draw- period. This practice, also, seems freing receives the ink, whilst the water de- quently to have been applied only to cerfends the other parts of the stone from it tain parts of the service. We-find, thereon account of its greasy nature. Impres- fore, great differences in the AISS. which sions of the drawing may then be taken now exist; and it becomes very difficult upon paper, by means of a lithographic to ascertain what the contents of the press. The most convenient and useful primitive rituals were, and trace the peway, however of proceeding, is to write riods at which many rites and ceremonies with proper ink on a prepared paper, have been introduced into the service. and then transfer the writing to the stone The liturgy of the Church of England is by passing it through the press.' a liturgy in the wider and lnore usual LIT'URGY, an office at Athens, by acceptation of the term, comprehending which persons of considerable property the whole of the various services used Dn were bound to perform certain public du- ordinary and extraordinary occasi ns ties, or supply the commonwealth with throughout the year. necessaries at their own expense. The LIV/ERY, a suit of clothes made of persons on whom this office was imposed different colors and trimmings by which were usually among the richest inhabit- noblemen and gentlemen have their serants; and if any one selected to fill it vants distinguished; supposed to have could find another more wealthy than originated in the practice followed by himself who was exempt from public cavaliers at tournaments, who used to duty, he could insist on being released distinguish themselves by wearing the from his charge, which then devolved on livery or badge of their mistresses. Perthe party denounced. This obnoxious in- sons of distinction formerly gave liveries stitution was abolished on the proposition to persons unconnected with their own of Deinosthenes. It is from this term household or family, to engage them in that the English litu2rgy, in ecclesiastical their quarrels for the time being. The meaning, has been derived; the sense Iomnish church has also liveries for conhaving been contracted from public min'- fessors, virgins, apostles, martyrs, peniistry or service in general to the ceremo- tents, &c. A particular dress or garb, nies of religious worship.-LITURGY, the appropriate or peculiar to particular ritual according to which the religious times or things; as, the livery of May; services of a church are performled. In the livery of autumn. Livery of seisin, the writings of the ancients, the name is in law, signifies delivering the possession restricted to the service of the Eucharist, of lands, &e. to him who has a right to which afterwards came to be distinguish- them. ed in the Western church by the term of LIV'ERYM3AN, a freeman of the city?missa, or mass. There still exist in of London, admitted member of some Greek, Latin, and some Oriental lan- one of the city companies, by which he guages, various rituals by which the Eu- enjoys certain powers and privileges. charist was celebrated in very early ages. From among their number axe elected Some have supposed that all these may the common council, sheriff, and other be referred to one original liturgy, which superior officers of the city. may have been universally adopted in LLOYD'S LIST, a London periodical the primitive church. Palmer, the latest publication, in which the shipping news English writer on this subject, conceives received at Lloyd's coffee-house is pubthat the number of original liturgies may lished. On account of the extensive inbe reduced to four, but not lower. These formation which it contains, it is of great he entitles the great Oriental liturgy, the importance to merchants. Lloyd's CofAlexandrian, the Roman, and the Galli- fee-house has long been celebrated as the can; each of which was extensively used resort of eminent merchants, under-wrifrom the Apostolic age in the quarters ters, merchants, insurance brokers, &c., from which he assigns them their names, and the books kept there are replete with and became the parents of many other valuable maritime intelligence. rituals, such as were used, with constant- LO'CUM TE'NENS, a deputy or 382 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LOG substitute: one who supplies the place of whole field of knowledge; unless we another, or executes his office. qualify it by some further limitation. LOCUS IN QUO, in law, the place showing where the domain of the other where anything is alleged to be done in arts and sciences, and of common prupleadings, &c.-Locus partitus, a di- dence ends, and that of logic begins. The vision made between two towns or coun- distinction is, that the science or knowlties, to make trial where the land or place edge of the particular subject matter in question lies. furnishes the evidence, while logic furLODGE, in architecture, a small house nishes the principles and rules of the estisituatedl in a park or domain, subordinate mation of evidence: logic points out what to the mansion; also, the cottage situ- relations must subsist between data, and ate at the gate of the avenue that leads whatever can be concluded from them. to the mansion.' Logic, then, is the science of the operaLODG'MENT, in military affairs, is a tions of the understanding which are subwork raised with earth, gabions, fascines, servient to the estimation of evidence: &c., to cover the besiegers from the ene- both the process itself of proceeding from my's fire, and to prevent their losing a known truths to unknown, and all intelplace which they have gained, and are lectual operations auxiliary to this." resolvel, if possible, to keep. Logic was highly.valued, perhaps overLOG'IC, various definitions have been valued, among the ancient philosophers. given of logic, some including too little, The Stoics in particular were celebrated and others too much. Logic has been for their application of its principles to called the Art of Reasoning; this defini- their own favorite metaphysical discustion has been properly amended by call- sions. From the abuse of logical knowling it the Science as well as the Art of edge arose the celebrated fallacies of the Reatsoning: meaning by the former, the Sophists. Zeno is called the father of analysis of the mental process which logic or dialectics; but it was then treated takes place whenever we reason; and, by with particular reference to the art of the latter, the rules grounded upon that disputation, and soon degenerated into analysis for conducting the process cor- the minister of sophistry. It is to Arisreotly. But the word Reasoning, again, totle, however, that the science owes, not is ambiguously used. In one of' its ac- only its first exposition, but its complete ceptations it means syllogizing, or that development. His logical writings were mode of inference which may be called called Orgao.1 in later ages, and for concluding from generals to particulars. almost two thousand years after him The better definition of this term, how- umaintained authority in the schools of ever, and that which accords more with the philosophers, and in the middle ages the general usage of the English lan- it became the foundation of the scholasguage, nalkes it signify the inferring of tic philosophy, which was little better any asertion from assertions already ad- than a revival under another form, of the mitted. But the province of logic is logic of the Athenian Sophists. wider than reasoning even in this exten- LOGIS'TIE, in antiquity, Athenian sive sense, for it undoubtedly includes, magistrates, ten in number, whose office for instance, precision of language and it was to receive and pass the accounts accuracy of classification; in other words, of magistrates when they went out of definition and division. These various office. operations nmiht be brought within the LOG-OG'IIAPHY, a system' of taking compass of the science, by defining logic down the words of an orator without as the science which treatts of the opera- having recourse to short-hand, which was tions of the human understanding in the put in practice during the French revopursuit of truth. This definition, how- lution. Twelve or fourteen reporters ever, includes too imuch. Truths are were seated round a table. Each had. known to us in two wa ys: some are known long slip of paper, numt.bered. The writer directly andc of themselves; somue through of No. 1 took down the first three or four the Imedicum of otlher truths. It is only words, and as soon as they were spoken with the laLter that logic has to do. gave notice to his neighbor by touching Logic is not tthe science of beiief, but the his elbow, or some other sign; No. 2 science of proof. B]ut as the far greatest passed the sign to No 3, and so on, until portion of our knowledge,.whether of the first line of each slip was filled; No. 1 general truths, or of particular facts, is then began the second line: thus all the avowedly matter of inference, our defini- 12 or 14 slips, when filled, being arranged tion of logic is in danger of including the parallel to each other, formed a single LOC1 AND THE FINE ARTS. 383 page. This mode required great atten- zealously performed-of holding many tion and quickness, and was not found to heretical opinions. It is not impossible answer well in practice. It was intro- that there might have been some degree duced in the National Assembly in Octo- of enthusiasm mixed up with so ardent ber, 1790, the expenses being paid by the and unworldly a devotion; but the civil list; and continued until the 10th charges of violent reforming views, still of August, 1792, when Louis XVI. and more those of practical vice, appear to his family, taking refuge from insurrec- rest upon no authentic grounds. In protion in the assembly, occupied the box of cess of time the term was applied by the thle logographe. After that time it was partisans of the church to the heretics not used.-Logography is also used to and schismatics of the da.y gelerMally; denote a method of printing in which and the followers of Wiclific in England whole words in type are used instead of are frequently stigmatized under the single letters. This method was at one name of Lolla.rds. time introduced into the printing of a LOM BARD, a term anciently used in daily London newspaper; but after a England for a banker or money-lender. short trial was abandoned as incon- The name is derived fi'om the Italian venient. merchants, the great usurers or moneyLOG'OGRLIPIH, a kind of riddle, which lenders of the mo iddle ages, principally consists in some allusion or mutilation of from the cities of Lombardy, who are said words, being of a middle nature between to have settled in London in the middle of an enigma and a rebus. The word is the 13th century, and to have taken up used by Ben Jonson. their residence in a street in the city L 0 K, in Northern mythology, the which still bears their name. name of a malevolent deity; correspond- LONGEVITY, length or duration of ing to the Ahriman of the Persians, who life, generally designating great length is represented to be at war with both of life. Lord Bacon observes, that the gods and men, and originating all the succession of ages. and of the generation evil with which the universe is desolated. of men seems no way to shorten the In the Edda (the great poem of the length of human life, since the age of man Norwegian nations) he is described as from the time of Moses to the present has the great serpent which encircles the stood at about eighty years, without gradearth (supposed to be emblematical of nally declining, as one might have exsin or corruption,) and as having given pecLed; but doubtless there are times birth to Hela, or Death, the queen of the wherein men live to a longer or shorter infernal regions. age in every country; and it has been LOL'LARDS, a class of persons in remarked that those generally prove Germany and the Netherlands, who pro- longest-lived who use a simple diet., and fessed, in the 14th century, to undertake take most bodily exercise; and shortestspiritual offices in behalf of the sick and lived who indulge in luxury and ease; dead, and succeeded in attracting the but these things have their changes and attention and love of the mass of the revolutions, whilst the succession of manpeople when they were, in a great inceas- kind holds on uninterrupted in its course. ure, alienated from the secular and regu- There are, however, several essential lar clergy by their general indifference circumstances which must combine to give and neglect. The origin of the name has any individual a chance of exceeding the been much disputed; but the inquiries usual period assigned to human existence. of Mosheim seem to lead to the result These may be comprehended under the that it is compounded of the German following heads: a proper configuration words lallene (identical with the lalta-re of of body; being born of healthy parents; the tRomans, and the lull of our own lan- living in a healthy climate and good atguage, signifying to sing in a murmuring nmosphere; having the command of a sufstrain) and ihard, a common affix, as in ficient supply of food; constant exercise; the somewhat similar word begghard. A a due regulation of sleep; a state of marLollard, therefore, meant one in the riage; and due command of the passions habit of singing to the praise of God, or and temper. funeral dirges and the like, as was the LOOP'IIOLES, in fortification, apercustom of the early professors of this holy tures formerly made in the battlesments, manner of life. The Lollards, however, or in the walls of fortified places, for diswere accused-probably through the envy charging arrows and javelins against the and spite of the mendicant friars and assailants. Since the invention of gunothers whose neglected duties they so powder and the substitution of cannon for 384 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [LOU such missiles, loopholes have necessarily I were represented as a mild, hospitable been discontinued in the construction of race of men. The food with which they fortresses, the assailants of which are were nourished, among other peculiar now sought to be driven back by guns qualities, is said to have had the power fired through apertures of a different of obliterating all remembrance of one's character, designated enmbrasures, which native country. see. LOT'TERY, a game of hazard in which LORA'RIUS, in antiquity, one who small sums are ventured for the chance stimulated the gladiators to continue the of obtaining a larger value, either in mofight by exercising the scourge upon ney or other articles. In general, lottethem. Also, a. slave who bound and ries consist of a certain number of tickets scourged others at his ma.ster's pleasure. drawn at the same time with a correspondLORD, a title of courtesy given to all ing number of blanks and prizes, by British and Irish noblemen, from the which the fate of the tickets is determinbaron upwards; to the eldest sons of ed. This species of gaming has been reearls; to all the sons of marquesses and sorted to at different periods by most of dukes; and, as an honorary title, to cer- the European governments, as a means tain oficial characters; as the lord mayor of raising money for public purposes. of London, the lord chamberlain of the Both state and private lotteries were enking's household, the lord chancellor, the tirely abolished in England in 1823, on lord chief justice, &c. Lord is also a the ground that they tended to foster a general term, equivalent with peer.- spirit of gambling in the great body of the Lord, in law, one who possesses a fee or people, and gave rise to many delusive manor. This is the primitive meaning of and fraudulent schemes. In 1836 they the word; and it was in right of their feofs were suppressed in France. They have that lords came to sit in parliament.-In been prohibited in most of the United Scripture, a name for the Supreme Be- States, but still exist in several of the ing. When. LORD, in the Old Testament, states of Germany. is printed in capitals, it is the translation LOUIS-D'OR, a French gold coin, of the Hebrew word for JHOVAH, and which received its name from Louis XIII., might with great propriety be so render- who first coined it in 1631. The value of ed. It is also applied to Christ, to the the old Louis-d'or was equal to 24 francs; Holy Spirit, to kings, and to prophets. the new Louis is of the value of 20 francs. LORDS, HOUSE OF, is composed of the LOU'IS, ST., KNIGHTS OF, the name of five orders of nobility, viz.-dukes, mar- a military order in France instituted by quesses, earls, viscounts, and barons, who Louis XIV. in 1693. have attained the age of 21 years, and LOU'VRE, one of the most ancient labor under no disqualification; of the 16 palaces of France. It existed in the time representative peers of Scotland; of the of Dagobert as a hunting seat, the woods 28 representative peers of Ireland; of 2 then extending all over the actual site of English archbishops and 24 bishops, and the northern portion of Paris down to the 4 representative Irish bishops. banks of the Seine. The origin of its LORD'S SUPPER, a ceremony among na.me has not been satisfactorily ascerChristians by which they commemorate tained. It was formed into a stronghold the death of Christ, and make at the by Philip Augustus, who surrounded it same time a profession of their faith. with towers and fosses, and converted it The blessed founder of our religion in- into a state prison for confining the restituted this rite when he took his last fractory vassals of the crown. It was then meal with his disciples; breaking the without the walls of Paris; but, on their bread, after the oriental manner, as a fit- extension in the latter part of the 14th ting symbol of his body, which was soon century, it was included within their cirto be broken, while the wine was sinifi- cult. Charles V. made additieons to it. cant of that blood which was about to be That part of the palace now called the shed. lieuxe. Louvre was commenced under the LORI'CA, in Roman antiquity, a cui- reign of Francis I., after the designs of rass, a brigandine, or coat of mail, which Pierre L'Escot, bbot of Clugny. When was made of leather, and set with plates Charles IX resided in the Louvre, he of various forms, or rings like a chain. began the long gallery which connects it LOTOPI'AGI, a name given to a peo- with the Tuilleries, and in which is now ple of ancient Africa who inhabited the deposited the celebrated collection of pieeegio Syrtica, so called from the lotus tures. It was finished under Henry IV. berry forming their principal food. They Louis XIV., from the designs of Lemer LUS] AND THE FINE ARTS. 385 cier, erected the peristyle which forms LUKE, or Gospel of St. Luke, a canonthe entrance to the Vieux Louvre from ical book of the New Testament, distinthe side of the Tuilleries. That monarch guished for fulness, accuracy, and traces also gave a beginning to the remainder of extensive information. Some think it of the present modern edifice, from the was properly St. Paul's gospel, and when designs of Claude Perrault. The edifice that apostle speaks of his gospel, he has never been finished; though, under means what is called St. Luke's. Irethe reigns of succeeding monarchs, and neus says, that St. Luke digested into especially during that of Napoleon, it has writing what St. Paul preached to the slowly advanced towards completion. The gentiles; and Gregory Nazianzen tells eastern front, though not finished even us, that St. Luke wrote with the assistnow, exhibits a facade of surpassing beau- ance of St. Paul. ty-perhaps, in its kind, never equalled. LU'NACY, a species of insanity or The quadrangle of the Louvre is a per- madness, supposed to be influenced by feet square on the plan. Three of its the moon, or periodical in the month. sides were from the designs of Perrault, In law, strictly, the condition of an inabove mentioned. Besides the gallery sane person who has lucid intervals; but, above adverted to, which contains some for convenience, the term is commonly of the finest pictures in the world, the used as embracing the condition of all Louvre contains a museum of sculpture, those who are under certain legal disaantiquities, and other specimens of art, bilities on account of mental deficiency; equally valuable. such as idiots, fatuous persons, &c.; in LOVE, an affection of the mind excited short, all who are of unsound mind. By by beauty and worth of any kind, or by the law of England, the sovereign has the qualities of an object which commu- the custody of lunatics. This is, in pracnicate pleasure, sensual or intellectual. tice, delegated to the keeper of the great It is opposed to hatred. Love between seal, to whom applications for a commisthe sexes, is a compound affection, con- sion of lunacy are directed. sisting of esteem, benevolence, and ani- LUPERCA'LIA, a Roman festival in mal desire. Love is excited by pleasing honor of Pan, celebrated in February; qualities of any kind, as by kindness, be- when the Luperci ran up and down the nevolence, charity, and by the qualities city naked, having only a girdle of goat's which render social intercourse agreea- skin round their waist, and thongs of the ble. In the latter case, love is ardent same in their hands, with which they friendship, or a strong attachment spring- struck those they met, particularly maring from good-will and esteem, and the ried women, who were thence supposed pleasure derived from the company, civ- to be rendered prolific. The name is deilities, and kindnesses of others. Be- rived from lupus, a wolf; because Pan tween certain natural relatives, love protected cattle from that animal. The seems to be in some cases instinctive. indecencies and excesses attending the Such is the love of a mother for her child, processions of the Lupercals, which had which manifests itself toward an infant, degenerated from high religious rites before any particular qualities in the to vulgar superstitions, provoked the inchild are unfolded. This affection it ap- dignation of Christians in the 4th and 5th parently as strong in irrational animals centuries. as in human beings. We speak of the LUPER'CI, the Roman priests of Pan, love of amusement, the love of books, the and most ancient religious order in the love of money, and the love of whatever state, having been instituted, according contributes to our pleasure or supposed to tradition, by Evander, king of Pallanprofit. The love of God is the first duty tium, a town that occupied the Palatine of man, and this springs from just views IIill before Rome was built. There were of his attributes or excellencies of his three companies of them; viz. the Fabicharacter, which afford the highest de- ani, Quintiliani, and Julii-the last of light to the pious heart. Esteem and whom were founded in honor of Julius reverence constitute ingredients in this C asar. affection, and a fear of offending him is LWU'SIAD, the name given to the great its inseparable effect. epic poem of Portugal, written by CaLITDI, in antiquity, the shows or pub- moens, and published in 1571. The sublie exhibitions which were made among ject of this poem is the establishment of the Greeks and Romans, for the display the Portuguese empire in India; but of skill and the entertainment of the whatever of chivalrous, great, beautiful, people. or noble, could be gathered from the tra25 386 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [MAl) ditions of his country, has been inter- MACARON'IC or MACARO'NIAN, woven into the story. Among all the an appellation given to a burlesque kind heroic poets, either of ancient or modern of poetry, made up of a jumble of words times, there has never, since Homer, been of different languages, of Latin words any one so intensely national, or so loved modernized, or of native words ending in or honored by his countrymen, as Ca- Latin terminations. Drummond's.Polemoens. It seems as if the national feel- mo-ilfiddinia, a Scottish burlesque, is, ings of the Portuguese had centered and perhaps, the best known macaronic form reposed themselves in the person of this of our language. poet, whom they consider as worthy to MACCABEES, two apocryphal books supply the place of a whole host of poets, of Scripture, containing the history of and as being in himself a complete liter- Judas and his brothers, and their wars ature to his country. The great defect against the Syrian kings in defence of of the Lusiad consists in its preposterous their religion and liberties. The first mythological machinery, and its clumsy book is an excellent history, and comes management; but in all the qualities of nearest to the style of the sacred histoversification and beauty of language it is rians. The second book of the Maccabees perfect, and may be regarded as the begins with two epistles sent from the. " well, pure and undefiled," of the Por- Jews of Jerusalem to the Jews of Egypt tuguese language. Few modern poems and Alexandria, to exhort them to observe have been so frequently translated as the the feast of the dedication of the new altar Lusiad. Mr. Adamson, in his Memoirs erected by Judas on his purifying the of the Life and Writings of Camoens, temple. notices one Iebrew translation of it, five MACI'IAVELISM, the principles inLatin, six Spanish, four Italian, three culcated by Machiavelli, an Italian writer, French, four German, and two English. secretary and historiographer to the reOf the two English versions one is that public of Florence. Hence the word of Sir R. Fanshawe, written during Crom- li/achiavelian denotes political cunning well's usurpation, and distinguished for and artifice, intended to favor arbitrary its fidelity to the original; the other is power. that of Mickle, who, unlike the former, MACHICOLATIONS, in architecture, took great liberties with the original, but openings made through the roofs of porwhose additions and alterations have met tals to the floor above, or in the floors with great approbation from all critics- of projecting galleries, for the purpose except, as indeed was to be expected, of defence, by pouring from the Portuguese themselves. through them boiling lead, pitch, &c., upon the enemy. air.y ~ In the galleries they are }1.(['. ~ formed by the parapet or B brecast-work B being set G' M, the thirteenth letter of the English out beyond the face of H alphabet, is a liquid and labial consonant, the wall C on corbels D; * vi pronounced by slightly striking the under the spaces E between - lip against the upper one. It is some- the corbels, being open times called a semi-vowel, as the articu- throughout, are the ma-' lation or compression of the lips is ac- chicolations. companied with ahumming soundcthrough MAC'ROCOSM. the universe, or the the nose. M. as a numeral stands for visible system of worlds; opposed to mille, a thousand; and with a dash over microcosm, or the world of man. it, 1,000,000. M. A. ma'sister artiutm7: MADON'NA. a term of compellation, M. D. nedicince doctor': MS. manuscript, equivalent to madtam. It is given to the and MSS. manuscripts. M. also stands Virgin Mary; and pictures of the Italian for noon, from the Latin smeridies: hence schools, representing the Virgin, are P.M. post meridiem (afternoon;) and generally called?madonsnas. A.M. ante meridiemn (cmorning.) M, in MAD'NESS, a dreadful kind of delirFrench, stands for Mionsieur; MM. for ium, without fever, in which the patient Messiezus. raves or is furious. Melancholy and madMAB, in northern mythology, the ness may very justly be considered as queen of the imaginary beings called diseases nearly allied; for they have both fairies; so fancifully described by the the same origin, that is, an excessive consportive inmagination of Shakspeare, in gestion of blood in the brain: they only Romeo and Juliet. differ in degree, and with respect to the MAC] AND THE FINE ARTS. 387 time of appearing; melancholy being the goodness and light, and the other of evil primary disease, of which madness is the and darkness. The priests of the Magi augmentation. were the most skilful mathematicians MAD'IRIGAL, one of the lesser kind and philosophers of the ages in which of poems, usually consisting of fewer ver- they lived, insomuch that a learned mlan ses than the sonnet or roundelay. In its and a magician became synonymous composition the fancy and convenience of terms. the poet are not subjected to very strict MAG'IC, properly signifies the docrules, rhymes and verses of different trine of the Magi; but the Magi bei:ng species being often intermixed. T'he sub- supposed to have acquired their extrajects are mostly of a tender a.nd gallant ordinary skill from familiar spirits or nature; the character often quaint, the other supernatural information, the word expression marked with great simplicity. magic acquired the signification it now Grassineau, in his Mlusicas l Dictionary, bears, viz, a science which teaches to describes the mnadrigal as " a little piece perform wonderful and surprising acts, of poetry; the verses whereof are free by the application of certain means, and easy, usually unequal: it berders on which procure the assistance and intera sonnet and an epigram, but has not the position of demons. The mag'icians of briskness of the one, nor the poignancy antiquity were generally acquainted with of the other.' certain secret powers, properties and MZESTO'SO, in music, an Italian word affinities of bodies, and were hence enasignifying majestic, and used as a direc- bled to produce surprising effects, to astion to play the part with force and tonish the vulgar; and these surprising grandeur. effects, produced by natural causes, proMAGAZINE', in literature, a pam- cured them the credit in their pretensions phlet periodically published, containing to supernatural and miraculous powermiscellaneous papers or compositions. Astrology, divination, enchantments and The first publication of this kind in Eng- witchcraft, were parts of this fanciful land, was the Genttlemana's l14agazine, science; which, from being truly respecwhich first appeared in 1731, under the table once, as having had for its object name of SylvanIus Urban, by Edward mathematics and natural philosophy, by Cave, and which is still continued. A these means became contemptible, its magazine differs fron a newspaper and professors opprobrious, its productions review; the peculiar province of a news- ridiculous, and its illusions mere jugpaper is to communicate information on gler's tricks. politics and passing events, both foreign MAG/ISTRATE, a public civil officer, and domestic; and that of the review is invested with the executive government to communicate information on literary or some branch of it. In this sense, the and scientific subjects, and to give a crit- president of the United States is the ical survey of these. The magazine, highest or first magistrate. But the word while it embraces all the features of the is more particularly applied to subornewspaper and review, is of a more mis- dinate officers, to whom the executive cellaneous character, containing, in the power of the law is committed, either form of tales, sketches, poetry, &c., a wholly or in part; as, governors, mayors, great variety of matter of an original justices of the peace, and the like. character which would be foreign to the MAG'NA CIHARITA, the Great Chaiothers. ter of Liberties, obtained by the English MAGGIO'RE, in music, an Italian epi- barons from king John, in 1215. The thet signifying greater. barons consisted of the whole nobility of MA'GI, or MA'GIANS, an ancient England; their followers comprehended religious sect in Persia,, a.nd other eastern all the yeomanry and free peasantry, countries, who maintained that there were and the accession of the capital w:.s a two principles, the one the cause of all pledge of the adherence of thle citizens good, the other the cause of all evii; and,, and burgesses. John had been obligedc abominating the adoration of imnages, to yield to this general union, and conworshipped God only by fire, which they ferences were opened, on the plain called looked upon as -the brioghtest aind most i unnymede, on the banks of the Thames, glorious symbol of the Deity. This re- near Staines, in sight of the forces of ligion was reformed by Zoroaster, who each other. At length the preliminaries maintnained that there was one supreme Ibeing agreed on, the barons presented inclependent being; and under him two heads of their grievances and means of principles or angels, one the angel of redress; and the king directed that the 38-8 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [MAXI articles should.be reduced to the form of MAHOM'ETANS, or MOHAMMEa charter, in which state it issued as a DANS, believers in the doctrines and diroyal grant. To secure the execution of vine mission of Mahomet, the warrior this charter, John was compelled to sur- and prophet of Arabia, whose creed mainrender the city and Tower of London, to tains that there is but one God, and that be temporarily held by the barons, and Mahomet is his prophet, and teaches cereconsented that the barons should choose monies by prayer, with washings, &c., twenty-five of their number, to be guar- almsgiving, fasting, sobriety, pilgrimage dians of the liberties of the kingdom, with to Mecca, &c. Besides these they have power, in case of any breach of the char- some negative precepts and institutions ter, or denial of redress, to make war on of the Koran, in which several things are the king, to seize his castle and lands, prohibited, as usury, the drinking of wine, and to distress and annoy him in every all games that depend upon chance, the possible way till justice was done. Many eating of blood and swine's flesh, and parts of the charter were pointed against whatever dies of itself, is strangled, or is the abuses of the power of the king as killed by a blow or by another beast. lord paramount; the tyrannical exercise These doctrines and practices Mahomet of the forest laws was checked, and many established by the sword, by preaching, grievances incident to feudal tenures and by the alcoran or koran, which conwere initigated or abolished. But besides tais the principles of his religion; and these provisions, it contains many for the he and his followers met with such sucbenefit of the people at large, and a few cess, as in a few years to subdue half the maxims of just government, applicable known world. to all places and times. MA'HOUND, formerly a contemptMAG'NATES, in Hungary at this day, uous name for Mohammed and the devil, and formerly also in Poland, the title of and thence applied to any character of the noble estate in the national represen- seeming power and great wickedness. In tation. The Hungarian magnates are Scotland Mahoun was formerly used, as divided into greater and lesser; certain meaning Satan. high state officers belonging to the first MAI'A, in Grecian mythology; 1, class, the counts and barons of the king- the. daughter of Atlas and Pleione, one dom to the second. The title is of Latin of the Pleiads, who became mother of derivation. Mercury by Jupiter: 2, a daughter of MAGNIF'ICO, the title given by cour- the god Faunus, and wife of Vulcan; fretesy to a nobleman of Venice. quently confounded by mythologists with MAGNIL'OQUENCE, a lofty manner the former personage. of speaking; tumid, pompous words or MAIN'PRIZE, in law, the receiving a style; language expressive of pretensions person into friendly custody who might greater than realities warrant. otherwise be committed to prison, on seMAHA'BARATA, the name of one curity given for his forthcoming on a day of the great Indian epic poems, the sub- appointed. ject of which is a long civil war between MAIN'TENANCE, in law, is an untwo dynasties of ancient India, the Kurus lawful maintaining or supporting a suit and Pandus. This poem embraces the between others, by stirring up quarrels, whole circle of Indian mythology; but it or interfering in a cause in which the is still more valuable as embodying an person has no concern. Thus if any perimmense number of historical fragments, son disinterested in a cause officiously which will be of great importance to the gives evidence, without being called upon future historian of India. Many episodes for that purpose, or acts the part of counfrom the frzahabacata have been ably sel by speaking in the cause, or retains translated by some of the most celebrated an attorney for the party, he is guilty of Orientalists; and parts of the original maintenance, and is liable to be prosecuhave been published at different periods ted by indictment. But it is no maintein Germany. The period at which the nance, where a person gives a poor man M2ahabarata was written is wholly un- money out of charity to carry on a suit. known, and it has no less baffled all the MAIN'TENANCE, CAP OF, a cap of researches of the learned to discover the dignity, anciently belonging to the rank date at which it assumed its present me- of a duke; termed by the French bonnet thodical form. ducal. MA'HADO, a name of one of the In- MAJ'ESTY, this title of honor is derivdian deities, from whom the sacred Gan- ed from the Romans, among whom it stood ges is fabled to spring. for the collective power and dignity of the MAN] AND THE FINE ARTS. 389 sovereign body; as majestas populi Ro- ity of Mount Caucasus were ravaged by mani. Ifence treason was termed crimen Genghis Khan, Nojmedden, sultan of 1sev majestatis, an injury offered to maj- Egypt, purchased several thousands of esty. Majesty was the attribute of con- the natives of those regions, especially suls, prsators, &c., only as representing Turks, and formed them into an armed the public; and hence, in later times, body of guards. These guards, or when it was transferred to the emperors Mamelukes, in the sequel, seized on all along with the sovereign power, inferior the power of the country, murdered the magistrates were entitled, in ceremonial sultan, Touran Shah, A.D. 1258, and made language, by the appellation of dignitas. Ibeg, one of their own number, his sueMajesty is now the conventional title of cessor. After that period the MaineEuropean emperors and kings. lukes, whose numbers were continually MA'JOR, the title of several military enriched by importations from their own officers, as major-general, major of a bri- country, governed Egypt 263 years. gade, major of aregiment, &c.-In logic, This military sovereignty was destroyed the Major term is, in a syllogism, the by Selim I., the Turkish sultan, who took predicate of the conclusion. The major Cairo in 1517. Nevertheless, the Mainepremise is that which contains the major lukes, under their 24 beys, continued for term. In hypothetical syllogisms, the 200 years more to exercise a power hypothetical premise is called the major. scarcely inferior to that of the Turkish -In music, an epithet applied to the pachas, whom, in the 18th century, they modes in which the third is four semi- reduced to mere ciphers in the governtones above the tonic or key-note, and ment. Their power was again considerto intervals consisting of four semitones. ably broken by the French invasion under The major mode takes a major or sharp Bonaparte, to which they offered a de3d, and is thus distinguished from that termined opposition. After the abandonhaving a minor or flat one. The major ment of Egyptby the French, the struggle mode has always a greater 3d, that is, a between the beys and the pachas was third consisting of two tones, and the renewed: finally, in 1811, the present minor mode has always a minor third; pacha, Mohammed All, having invited that is, a 3d consisting of a tone and a the principal leaders of the Mamelukes semitone. to a banquet, slew 470 of them by treachMAJORAT', in modern legal phrase- cry, and compelled the remainder to ology, as employed by several European submission. nations, the right of succession to prop- MAM'MON, in the Syriac language, erty according to age. signifies riches. It is used Matt. vi. 24, MAJOR'ITY, in law, in the United and Luke xvi. 13, and is there called the States, the age of twenty-one, at which maeamon of unrighteousness, intimating time the male citizen is allowed to exer- that riches are frequently the instruments cise the right of suffrage.-In politics, the of iniquity, or acquired by unrighteous age at which the sovereign, in hereditary means. monarchies, becomes capable of exercising MAN, mankind; the human race; the supreme authority. whole species of human beings; beings MALADMIINISTRA'TION, bad man- distinguished from all other animals by agement of public affairs, or a misde- the powers of reason and speech, as well meaner in public employments, particu- as by their shape and dignified aspect. larly of executive and ministerial duties, When opposed to woman, msan someprescribed by law. times denotes the male sex in general. MA'LjUM IN SE, (Latin,) in law, an It sometimes bears the sense of a male offence at common law, in distinction from adult of some uncommon qualifications; malum prohibitum; such as playing at particularly, the sense of strength, vigor, unlawful games, &e., which are only bravery, virile powers, or magnanimity, mala prohibita under certain eircum- as distinguished from the weakness, stances. timidity, or impotence of a boy, or from MALVERSA'TION, in law, misbehav- the narrow-mindedness of low-bred men ior in an office, employ, or commission, So, in popular language, it is said, he is as breach of trust, extortion, c. no man. Play your part like a man. MAM'ELUKE, (Arabic, memalik, a He has not the spirit of a man. An inSlave,) a name applied to the male slaves dividual of the human species. Under imported from Circassia into Egypt by this phraseology, females may be comthe master of that country. In the 13th prehended. So a law restraining man, century, when the countries in the vicin- or every man from a particular act, 390 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE rKA comprehends women and children, if of and independent of each other; the first competent age to be the subjects of law. principle, or light, the author of all good: One who is master of his mental powers, the second principle. or darkness, the or who conducts himself with his usual author of all evil-a doctrine which he judgment, we say, he is not his own man. borrowed from the Persian magi. It is sometimes used indefinitely, with- ~MANtIFEST, an invoice of a cargo of out reference to a particular individual; goods, imported or laden for export, to any person; one. This is as much as a be exhibited at the custom-house by the masn can desire. master of the vessel, or the owner or MANDA'MUS, in law, a writ issued shipper. from a court of law, and directed to any MANIFES'TO, in politics, a declaraperson, corporation, or inferior court, tion of motives publicly issued by a belcommanding the performance of some ligerent state, or by a general acting with special thing. full powers, previously to the commenceMANDARIN', the magistrates and ment of hostilities. They are in the form governors of provinces in China, who are of letters, with a superscription or headchosen out of the most learned men, and ing addressed to the public in general, whose government is always at a great and signed with the name of the authority distance from the place of their birth. who sends them forth. The usage of MANDIUCI, in antiquity, hideous fig- issuing manifestoes is said to date so far ures introduced at the public representa- back as the 14th century. The term is tions of the Romans, which served as probably derived from the Latin words bugbears. " manifestum est,"' with which such doeuMAN'EGE, the art of breaking in and ments usually commenced. riding horses, or the place set apart for MANIP'ULUS, in Roman antiquity, a equestrian exercises. body of infantry, consisting of two hunMA'NES, in the pagan system of the- dred men, and constituting the third part ology, a general namne for the infernal of a cohort. deities. The ancients comprehended un- MAN'NER, in the Fine Arts, a peeulider the term manes not only Pluto, Pros- arity of treating a subject, or of executerpine, and Minos, but the souls of the ing it, by which individual artists are deceased were likewise included. It was distinguished: the latter arising out usual to erect altars and offer libations of a particular mode of using the media to the manzes of deceased friends and re- and implements of art, the former out lations, for the superstitious notion that of a singular method of observing nathe spirits of the departed had an im- ture. portant influenee on the good or bad MAN'OR, an ancient royalty or lordfortune of the living, made people very ship, formerly called a barony, consisting cautious of offending them. When it was of demesnes, services, and a court-baron; not known whether a corpse had been and comprehending in it messuages, lands, buried or not, a cenotaph was erected, meadow, pasture, wood, rents, an advowand the manes were solemnly invited to son, &c. It may contain one or more rest there, from fear that otherwise they villages, or hamlets, or only a great part would wander about the world, terrifying of a village, &c. In these days, a'manor the living, and seeking the body which rather signifies the jurisdiction and roythey had once inhabited. alty incorporeal, than the land or site; MAN'GONEL, an engine formerly for a man may have a manor in gross, as used for throwing stones and battering the law terms it, that is, the right and walls. interest of a court-baron, with the perMAN'IHOOD, the state of one who is a quisites thereto belonging. Some estates man. of an adult male, or one who is ad- in the United States still retain the name vanced beyond puberty, boyhood, or of manor, from the times of the colonies. childhood; virility. The qualities of a MANSARD-ROOF, in architecture, a man; courage; bravery; resolution. roof of peculiar construction, named after MANICHEES', in church history, a its first practicer Julius, or as some say, sect of Christian heretics in the third cen- Francis Mansard, who used it upon all tury, the followers of Manes, who made his principal buildings. Before the time his appearance in the reign of the empe- of either of these architects, however, ror Probus; pretending to be the Corn- this kind of roof was employed by the forter whom our Saviour promised to Abbe de Clugny in the old palace of the send into the world. He taught that Louvre. there are two principles, or gods, coeternal MANSLAUGHTER, in a genera MAR] AND THE FINE ARTS. 391 sense, the killing of a man or of men; such as are embellished with ornaments, destruction of the human species; mur- drawings, emblematical figures, &c., ilder. In law, the unlawful killing of a lustrative of the text, This practice was man without malice, express or implied, introduced at a very early period; for This may be voluntary, upon a sudden we find the works of Varro. Pomponius heat or excitement of anger; or invol- Atticus, and others adorned by illuminauntary, but in the commission of some tions. But it was chiefly employed in the unlawful act. Manslaughter differs from breviaries and prayer-book of the early murder in not proceeding from malice Christian church. The colors most emprepense or deliberate, which is essential ployed for this purpose were gold and to constitute murder. It differs from azure. Illuminations were in a high homicide excusable, being done in conse- state of perfection between the 5th and quence of some unlawful act, whereas 10th centuries; after which they seemed excusable homicide happens in conse- to have partaken of the barbarism of the quence of misadventure. middle ages, which threw their chilling MAN'TELET, in fortification, a kind influence over every description of art. of movable parapet, or wooden penthouse, On the revival of the arts in the 15th and used in a siege. Mantelets are cased with 16th centuries many excellent performtin and set on wheels, so as to be driven ances were produced; but the art did not before the pioneers, to protect them from take deep root, and became extinct with the enemy's small shot. the invention of printing. MAN'TLE, in architecture, the piece MAP, a delineation of a country aclying horizontally across from one jamb cording to a scale, in which the prop, rof a chimney to the other. In mala- tion, shape. and position of places are cology, the external fold of the skin of exactly preserved. The top is usually the mollusks. the north, and the right hand the east, MAN'UAL, was applied originally to and, when otherwise, distinguished by a the Roman Catholic service book, from its flc'ur de lis pointing to the north. It is convenient size, (being such as might be called a universal map when it reprecarried in the hand;) but it now signifies sents the whole surface of the earth, or any small work used chiefly for the pur- the two hemispheres; and a particular pose of reference. map when it only represents particular MANUMIS'SION, among the Romans, regions or countries. A map is properly the solemn ceremony by which a slave a representation of land, as distinguished was emancipated, or liberated from per- from a chart, which only represents the sonal bondage. sea or sea-coast. In maps, three things MAN'USCRIPTS, literally writings of are essentially requisite: 1, that all any kind, whether on paper or any other places have the same situation and dismaterial, in contradistinction to such as tance from the great circles therein, as on are printed. Books were generally writ- the globe, to show their parallels, longiten upon vellum, after the papyrus used tudes, zones, climates, and other celestial in classical times had become obsolete, appearances; 2, that their magnitudes until the general introduction of paper be proportionable to their real magnitudes made from rags, about the 15th century on the globe; 3, that all places have the after Christ; and the finest and whitest same situation, bearing and distance, as vellum is generally indicative of great on the earth itself. The degrees of age in a manuscript. The dearness of longitude are always numbered at top this material gave rise to the practice and bottom, and the degrees of latitude of using old manuscript books on which on the east and west sides. the writing had been erased, and also to MAR'ABUTS, or MAPRABOOTS, in that of abbreviations. These were carried Northern Africa, among the Berbers, a to excess in the 12th century, and from kind of saints or sorcerers who are held that time until the invention of printing; in high estimation. They distribute amuand for a long period subsequent to that lets, affect to work miracles, and are invention, abbreviations were still in cor- thought to exercise the gift of prophecy. mnon use: in Greek printing they were They live with a good deal of pomp, and usu1al until within the last fifty years. smintain a numerous train of wives and Of Latin MSS., those prior to the reign concubines. They make no pretensions of Charlemagne (A.D. 800) are consid- to abstinence or self-denial. cred ancient. Manuscripts of the early MARANA'THA, amongst the Jews, classical age were written on sheets.rolled was a form of threatening, cursing, or together.-Illuminated manuscripts are anathematizing, and was looked upon as 392 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [MAP the most severe denunciation they had. the size of the paper; so that when the The word is said to signify the Lord comes, sheet is printed and folded, the border of or is come: which taken as a curse or white paper round them shall be regular threat may be thus paraphrased, "the and uniform in every leaf of the book. Lord come quickly to take vengeance on In architecture, that part of the upper thee for thy crimes." side of a course of slates which appears MARCH, the third month of the year, uncovered by the next superior course. according to the calendar of Numa and MAR/GRAVE, or, more properly, Julius Caesar; but in the calendar of MARKGRAVE, a title of rank formerly Romulus it stood first, in honor of his re- used in Germany, and equivalent to the puted father, Mars. This month seems English marquis. Both words spring to have a strong claim to the first place from a common origin. in the series, because in March the sun MARINA THERE'SA, ORDER OF, a enters into the sign Aries, which is reck- military order of Austria, consisting of oned the first sign of the zodiac.-lfcarch, grand crosses, commanders, and knights; in music, a military air, played by founded in 1757. inflatile and pulsatile instruments, to MIARINES', a corps of men enlisted to regulate the steps and to animate the serve as soldiers on board of ships-of-war minds of soldiers. The march, however, in naval engagements, and on shore unhas long been adapted to every species of der certain circumstances. They somemusical instrument, and some of the most times assist, particularly in the British celebrated compositions of the greatest service, in performing some naval duties masters are in this style; as the March of on board of ship. the Priests in Mozart's Zcuber-fldte, the MAR'ITIME LAW, signifies the laws Peasant's March in Weber's Freischlutz, relating to harbors, ships, and sailors. and. above all, Beethoven's Funeral It forms an important branch of the cornMarches. In most Dictionaries of musi- mercial law of all trading nations, and cal terms, it is truly said that a march embraces an infinite variety of subjects, should always be composed in com- most of which have been defined under mon time, with an odd crotchet or their respective heads. The most celequaver at the beginning. It is usually brated codes of maritime law have been, quick for ordinary marching, and slow in classical times, that of Rhodes; in for grand occasions; but no general rules modern times, the Consolato del a11are, a can be laid down for its composition. compilation supposed to have been framed -M2acrch of the Deities.-The ancients, at Barcelona as early as the 9th century; in all their representations of the super- the laws of the Isle of Oleron, in the time humnan powers, and even of heroic men of Richard I. of England; the laws of or demigods, paid great attention to their Wisby, in the island of Gothland, to step or gait. They held a grave, steady, which some northern jurists have assigned and at the same time light step to be in- an earlier origin than the laws of Oleron. dicative of dignity and even of a spiritual but which there can be little doubt were nature. Occasionally, as on a medal of merely a compilation from those above Antoninus representing the advance of specified. But by far the most complete Mars to Sylvia, the figure appears rather and well-digested system of maritime to glide over the surface of the earth jurisprudence that has ever appeared is than to tread upon it. The Belvidere that comprised in the Ordonnance de la Apollo has a similar character of step or 2Marine, issued by Louis XIV. in 1681, walk. The foot of the deity scarcely by which maritime law was elevated to presses the ground. the rank of a regular system, and has MARCHES, borders or confines, partic- formed the basis of many of the subseularly the boundaries between England quent decisions of American, English, and Wales. The office of " lords marchers" and foreign courts. This excellent code was originally to guard the frontiers. was compiled under the direction of MARCO'SIANS, a sect of Christian M. Colbert, by individuals of great talent heretics in the second century, so called and learning, after a careful revision of from their leader Marcus, who represent- all the ancient sea laws of France and ed the Deity as consisting not of a other countries, and upon consultation trinity, but a quaternity, viz. the Ineffa- with the different parliaments, the courts ble, Silence, the Father, and Truth. of admiralty, and the chambers of comMAR'GIN, in printing, is the arrange- merce of the different towns. It comment of the pages in a sheet at proper bines whatever experience and the wisdom distances from each other, according to of ages had shown to be best in the Roman MAR] AND THE FINE ARTS. 393 laws, and in the institutions of the modern or condition of being married; the legal maritime states of Europe. union of a man and woman for life. MARK, or the Gospel of ST. MARK, a Marriage is regarded by the law as a canonical book of the New Testament, civil contract binding the parties to certhe second in order. St. Mark wrote his tain reciprocal obligations, and the gengospel at Rome, where he accompanied eral principle of law respecting this, as St. Peter, in the year of Christ 44. Ter- well as other civil contracts, is, that it is tullian, and others, pretend that St. Mark to be held valid according to the usage was no more than an amanuensis to St. of the country wherein it is made. AlPeter, who dictated this gospel to him; though among protestants marriage has others assert that he wrote it after St. ceased to be regarded as a sacrament, yet Peter's death. Nor are the learned less in most protestant countries the entrance divided as to the language this gospel into the married state has continued to was written in; some affirming it to be accompanied with religious observhave been in Greek, and others in Latin. ances. These are not, however, in the It however seems plainly intended for eye of the law, essential to the constituChristian converts from paganism, and tion of a valid marriage, any fu: ther is distinguished from the other evangeli- than the legislative power may nave cal writings by its brevity, passing over seen it proper to annex them to and inmuch that relates to the character of corporate them with the civil contract. Christ as Messiah. The laws concerning marriage are differMAROONS', the name given to re- ent, in the separate states of the Union. volted negroes in the West Indies, and By the laws of most of the states, as well in some parts of South America. In as that of Scotland, a marriage is valid, many cases, by taking to the forests and when contracted by any form of ceremony mountains, they have rendered them- without the proclamation of banns, or the selves formidable to the colonies, and aid of a clergyman, provided the parties sustained a long and brave resistance to on the occasion express a solemn acceptthe white population. ance of each other as man and wife. It MARQUE, letter of, a power granted is also contracted by the writing of the by a state to its subjects, to make re- parties without any ceremony, provided prisals on the subjects of a state with the writing express their acceptance of whom it is at war. each other as man and wife. Also by a MAR'QUETRY, in architecture, inlaid verbal acceptance of each other as man work consisting of different pieces of and wife in the presence of witnesses, or divers colored woods of small thickness bya promise followed by intercourse. glued on to a ground usually of oak or MARSEILLAISE HYMN, the name fir, well dried and seasoned, which, to popularly, though erroneously, given to prevent casting and warping, is composed the national anthem of the French. The of several thicknesses. The early Italian origin of this song, which has played so builders used it in cabinet work, and John important a part in the revolutions not of Vienna, and others of his period, by its only of France but other continental means.represented figures and land- states, was long involved in obscurity; scapes; but in the present day it is but the following statement respecting chiefly confined in its use to floors, in it may be relied on as authentic: The which the various pieces of wood are.Lfarseillaise Hyzmnz was the production usually disposed in regular geometrical of Rouget de Lille, a French officer of enfigures, and are rarely of more than gineers, who was quartered at Strasburg three or four species in the year 1791, when Marshal Luckner MAR'QUIS, or MAR'QUESS, a title commanded the army, at that time enof honor, next in dignity to that of duke, tirely composed of young conscripts. first given to those who commanded the The marshal was to march the following marches, or borders and frontiers of a morning of a certain day; and, late in kingdom. Marquises were not known the evening previous, he inquired if there in England till Richard II. in the year were any men of a musical or poetical 1337, created Robert de Vere marquis of genius in the army who could compose a Dublin. The marquis's coronet is a cir- song to animate his young soldiers. cle of gold set round with four strawberry Some one mentioned Captain Rouget de leaves, and as many pearls on pyramidal Lille, who was immediately ordered into points of equal height alternate. the presence of the marshal to receive MAR/RIAGE, the act of uniting aman his commands on the subject; which and woman for life; wedlock; the state having been given, and a promise made 394: CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE' [MUAl by )e Lille that a, song would be ready parts of the British coasts at the cornthe following morning, he went to his mencement of the present century, inquarters, and during the night he not tended as a defence against the meditated only wrote the song in question, but also invasion of Napoleon. The origin of the set it to music; and next morning the name is usually supposed to be derived army marched to its tune, and carried from a fort in Mortella (Myrtle) Beay, everything before it with an enthusiasm Corsica. which, after a determined resistonly to be equalled by absolute phrensy. ance, was at last captured by the British The song is said to have been styled the in 1794. These towers were Ers.vledl Mcl;rseillaise Iymn from a body of troops, with vaulted roofs, and consisted of two on their march from Marseilles, having stories-the lower for the reception of entered Paris playing that tune at a time stores, the upper, which was shell-prootf when it was little known in the capital. for the casement of troops; and the wall The original of the Mlarseillaise is said of the building terminated in a parapet, to be in the possession of Louis Philippe. which secured the men in working the MARS, or MA/VORS, the Latin pieces of artillery, which, besides, were names of the deity called by the Greeks constructed on moving pivots, so as to be Ares. He was fabled to be the son of fired in any direction. In most places of Juno, conceived by means of the virtue England these towers have been disof a certain plant; and was worshipped mantled; those that remain either serve as the God of War. At Rome he was as stations for the coast blockade force, honored as the progenitor of Romulus, or, like that near Leith, are not employed the founder of the city, of which he was for any purpose. held to be the protector; and it was to MARTINET', a cant phrase for a sethe honor of this divinity that the Latin vere military disciplinarian; probably husbandmen used to offer up a peculiar derived from a certain Colonel Martinet, sacrifice, called suovetaurilia, which, as who served in the French army under the derivation of the word implies, con- Louis XIV., who was the inventor of a sisted of a pig, a sheep, and a. bull. peculiar whip, called by his name, for the MAR'SJIAL, a title of honor in many purpose of military punishment, and also European countries, applied to various (if Voltaire may be believed) of the dignities and high offices. The deriva- bayonet. tion of the word, and its early use, are MAR'TYR, any innocent person who extremely uncertain. The title of Mar- suffers death in defence of a cause, rather shal of England is now hereditary in the than abandon it. In the Christian sense family of the Dukes of Norfolk. William of the word, it is one who lays down his Fitz-Osborn and Roger de Montgomery life for the gospel, or suffers death for the are said to have been marshals to Wil- sake of his religion. The Christian church liam the Conqueror. The earl marshhal hs abounded in martyrs, and history is is eighth in rank among the great officers filled with surprising accounts of their of state in England. Ile has the same singular constancy and fortitude under jurisdiction over the court of chivalry the most cruel torments human nature which was formerly exercised by the con- was capable of suffering. The primitive stable and marshal jointly. Marshal of Christians believed that the martyrs enFrance is the highest military rank in joyed very singular privileges: that the French army. This officer appears upon their death they were immediately first in history under the reign of Philip admittedto the beatific vision, while other Augustus, as commander-in-chief of the souls waited for the completion of their royal armies. The number of marshals happiness till the day of judgment; al nd was increased by several successive sove- that God would grant chiefly to their reigns: in the reign of Henry IV. the prayers the hastening of his kingdom, states of Blois limited it to four, but this and shortening the times of persecution. restriction was not observed; and, in the The festivals of the martyrs are of very reign of Louis XIV., there were at one ancient date, and may be carried back at period no less than twenty. After the least till the time of Polycarp, who sufdeposition of Louis XVI. the dignity of fered martyrdom about the year of marshal ceased; but was revived by Na- Christ 168. On these days the Christians poleon, with the title of Marshal of the met at the graves of the martyrs, and Empire. offered prayers and thanksgivings to MARTEL'LO TOWERS, the name God for the examples they had afforded given to the circular buildings of mason- them; they celebrated the eucharist, and ry which were erected along different gave alms to the poor; which, together MAS] AND THE FINE ARTS. 395 with a panegyrical oration or sermon, taste for them died away in the reign of and reading the acts of the martyrs, Charles I., and after the interruption were the spiritual exercises of these an- given to the progress of dramatic art and niversiries. literature by the civil wars, they were MAIRTYROL'OGY, a catalogue or list not again brought into fashion. of niartyrs, including the history of their MASQUERADE', (Ital. mascherata,) lives and sufferings. an amusement practised in almost every MA'SONS, or FREE AND ACCEPTED civilized country of modern times, conMASONS, a term applied to a fraternity sisting of a ball and other festivities in of great antiquity, and so called probably which only those who are masked or disbeca.use the first founders of that society guised can participate. This species of were persons of that craft or occupation. amusement had its origin in Italy, where, It is generally understood that they are according to Hall's Chronicle. they had bound by an oath of secresy not to reveal become fashionable so early as the beginanything that passes within the society, ning of the 16th century. and the members throughout the whole MASS, in the church of Rome, the world are known to each other by certain prayers and ceremonies used at the celesecret signs. bration of the eucharist; or, in other MAS'ORA, a Hebrew work on the words, consecrating the bresd and wine bible, by several Rabbins. It is a collec- into the. body and blood of Cnrist, and tion of remarks, critical, grammatical, offering them so transubstantiated, as an and exegetical, on the books of the Old expiatory sacrifice for the quick and the Testament by the Jewish doctors of the dead. As the mass is believed to be a third and succeeding centuries. It is di- representation of the passion of our vided into the great and little; the for- blessed Saviour, so every action of the mer contains the whole collection in sepa- priest, and every particular part of the rate books; the little is an extract from service, is supposed to allude to the parthe observations which were written in ticular circumstances of his passion and the margins of the biblical manuscripts. death. It consists of three parts: the MASQUE, or MASK, a species of offertorium, or offering the elements on drama. It originated from the custom in the altar; the consecration, by which processions, and other solemn occasions, they are supposed to undergo the tranof introducing personages in masks to rep- substantiation into the real body and resent imaginary characters. Many of blood of Christ; and the sumption, or these characters, even in the religious actual participation in them by the cornshows of Italy, &c., were of a grotesque municants. These ceremonies are acdescription, and the performance often companied by the recitation of various internixed with dancing and buffoonery. prayers; and the priest goes through By degrees, in England, something of numerous evolutions, which are supposed a dramatic character was added to these to represent the circumstances attending exhibitions. At first, as in the well- the passion of our Lord. The general known progresses of Queen Elizabeth, division of masses consists in high and monologues or dialogues in verse were low; hi/h mlass is sung by the choristers, put into the mouths of the masked per- and celebrated with the assistance of a formiers; and in the reign of James I., deacon and sub-deacon; loiw mausses are they had ripened into regular dranmat- those in which the prayers are barely reie performances; sometimes, as in the hearsed without singing. There are a Te17Qmpest of Shakspeare, introduced by great number of different or occasional way of interlude in regular plays; at masses in the Romish church, many of other times acted as separate pieces, which have nothing peculiar but the with much machinery and decoration. name: as the masses of the'saints, &c. Ben Jonson was the first, and indeed MAS'SIVE, in architecture, sculpture, almost the only classical English writer &c., heavy, full, solid. This term is one (with the exception of Milton, in the soli- of commendation, or otherwise, according tary and noble specimen of Comus) who to the nature of the work respecting devoted much labor and taste to this which it is used. Thus in speaking of department of the drama. His masques an abutment, a wall, the pier of a bridge, were represented at court; the Queen of &c.. the architect is complimented by the James I., and after her the accomplished application of this term; whereas, the Queen Henrietta Maria, did not disdain precise contrary is generally the case, to take part, at least as silent dramatis when it is employed in speaking of a personse, in some of these pageants. The portico, an arch, column, or a roof. 396 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [MAD MAS'TER, a man who rules, governs, madness by fastening squibs upon him or directs either men or business. A man and discharging them, the matador (el who has servants is their master; he who matador, the killer,) advances with a has apprentices is their master, as he has naked sword and aims a fatal blow at the government and direction of them.- him. If this is effectual, the slaughtered In commercial navigation, the person animal is dragged away and another is intrusted with the care and navigation brought forward. of a ship; otherwise called captain.-In MATEYRIALISM, the doctrine held shrips of vwar, an officer who takes rank by those who maintain that the soul of immecdiately after the lieutenants, and man is not a spiritual substance distinct navigates the ship under the direction of from matter, but that it is the result or the captain.-The director of a school; a effect of the organization of matter in the teacher; and instructor. In this sense body. This theory, however, does not the word is giving place to the more ap- explain how matter can think, and how propriate words, teacher, instructor, and physical motion can produce mental preceptor.-A title of dignity or a degree changes, which we do not observe in so in colleges and universities; as, IIaster many organic beings. In decided oppoof Arts. In the American and English sition to materialism, is our consciousness universities this degree follows that of of the identity and liberty of man, which Bachelor; it is the highest in the faculty would be annihilated by it, because matof arts, but subordinate to that of doctor ter is governed by the necessity of nature, of divinity.-1Inm all the arts. A professor and free will therefore excluded. of either of the fine arts, who gives lee- MAT'INS, the first part of the daily tures thereon to students. In another, service, particularly in the Romish and more general sense, any distinguish- church. ed practiser of art, whose works are MATRA'LIA, in antiquity, a Roman sufficiently excellent to have attained festival celebrated by the matrons, in him an undying reputation, and to ren- honor of the goddess Mater Matula, on der his performances referred to as mo- the third of the ides of June. dels for style and execution by the young MATRIC'ULATE, to enter or admit artist. Without the existence of the to membership in a body or society, parworks of the great masters, the arts ticularly in a college or university, by would still be in their infancy. enrolling the name in a register. MA'STER-SING/ERS, a class of poets MIATRONA'LIA, a Roman festival who flourished in Germany during the instituted by Romulus, and celebrated on 15th and part of the 16th century. They the calends of March, in honor of Mars. were confined to a few imperial towns, It was kept by matrons, to whom presand their chief seat was the city of Nu- ents were made by the men, as by husremberg. They were generally of burg- bands to their wives, &c. Bachelors were her extraction; and formed regular cor- entirely excluded from any share in the porations, into which proficients were solemnity. admitted by the ordinary course of ap- MAT'THEW, or Gospel of St. 31fatprenticeship. Their poetry (generally thew, a canonical book of the New Testaconfined to devotional or scriptural pieces, ment. St. Matthew wrote his gospel in legendary tales, with some admixture of Judea, at the request of those he had satire and amatory lyrics) was subjected converted, and it is thought he began it to a peculiar and pedantic code of laws, in the year 41, eight years after Christ's both composition and versification; and resurrection. It was written, according a board of judges (styled merker) assem- to the testimony of all the ancients, in bled to hear the poems recited, and mark the Hebrew or Syriac language, which the faults which might be committed in was then common in Judea: but the either particular: he who had the fewest Greek version of it, which now passes for faults received the prize. Hans Sachs, the original, is as old as the apostolical the famonus cobbler of Nuremberg, was a times. St. Matthew's view in writing his member of these societies; although his gospel, was chiefly to show the royal degenius was of too independent a charac- scent of Jesus Christ, and to represent ter to submit to the trammels of their his life and conversation among men. poetical regulations. MAUN'DAY THURSDAY, the ThursMAT'ADOR, in Spanish bull-fights, day in passion-week, or next before Good the name given to the person who gives Friday. The word is supposed by some the death wound to the bull. After the to be derived from the Saxon mand, a banderilleros have goaded the animal to basket; because on that day princes used MEA] AND THE FINE ARTS. 397 to give alms to the poor from their bas- month; but various other derivations kets. Others think it was called llaun- have been assigned to it.-See CALENDAR. day or Marndate Thursday, from the dies MAY-DAY. The 1st of May is usually mnandati, (the day of command,) the com- so called in England, by way of eminence, mand which Christ gave his disciples to in commemoration of the festivities which commemorate him in the Lord's supper, fiom a very early period were till recentwhich he this day instituted; or from the ly, and in many parts of the country are new commandment that he gave them to still observ-ed on that day. It would be love one another, after he had washed out of place in this work to give any detheir feet as a token of his love to them. tailed account of them, as they are uniMAUR, SAINT, CONGREGATION versally known; but a few words as to OF, a learned body of religious of the their origin may not be out of place. In Benedictine order; so called from a vil- looking at the nature of these rites, which lage near Paris, where they were estab- are, to a certain extent, common to every lished in 1618. On the request of Louis place in which they are observed, it is eviXIII., Gregory XV. gave this order his dent that they had their origin in the heaapproval by an apostolic brief, dated 17th then observances practised in honor of the of May, 1621; and it obtained new priv- Latin goddess Flora; but it is impossible ileges from Urban VIII., by a bull dated to fix with accuracy the precise period at 21st of January, 1627. The fame of this which they were introduced into Engbody attracted the attention of many land. The earliest notice of the celebraother religious orders, several of which tion of May-day may be traced to the Druwere induced to submit to its rules; and ids, who on May-eve were accustomed to at last it numbered upwards of a hundred light large fires on eminences in gratitude religious houses. The literary world owes and joy for the return of Spring. At a to them a series of very valuable editions later period the observance of this day of ancient Greek authors, chiefly fathers, appears not to have been peculiar to any during the 17th century. Among the class of society, for the most exalted as most eminent of its members during that well as the lowest persons took part in it. period may be mentioned Jean Mabillon, In his Court of Love Chaucer says, that Thierri Ruinart, Iugh Menard, and Ber- on this day "forth goeth all the Court, nard de Montfaucon, &c. &c. (See Mo- most and least, to fetch the flowers fresh, sheim, Eccl. Hist., vol. v.) and braunch and bloom;" and it is well MAUSOLE'UM, a general designation known that IHenry VIII. and Katherine, of any superb and magnificent monuiment and all the court partook in their diverof the dead, adorned with rich sculpture, sion. The custom has been but partially and inscribed with an epitaph. In a introduced into the United States. more confined acceptation it signifies the iMAY'/IEM, in law, a wound or hurt, by pompous monument in honor of some em- which a man loses the use of any member. peror, prince, or very illustrious person- It originally applied to such corporeal age; but it properly and literally signi- injuries as rendered a man less fit for war. fies that particular monument built by MAYOR, (Lat. major, meaning the Artemisia, to the memory of her husband first or senior alderman,) the title of Mausolus, king of Carla, whence it de- the chief municipal officer of a borough, rives its name. This monument was so to whom it appears to have been first superb that it was reckoned one of the given by charters granted some time wonders of the world. after the conquest. In France, the first MAX'IM, an established proposition municipal officer of each commune, acor principle; in which sense, according to cording to a general system established popular usage, it denotes nearly the same by the law of 14th December, 1789, which as axiom in philosophy and mathematics. created municipalities. The maire has Maxims are self-evident propositions, one or more adjuncts or assessors, accordand the principles of all science; for on ing to the population of the commune, these, and definitions, all demonstrative chosen in the same manner. knowledge depends.-In music, the long- MEAS'URE, in music, the interval or est note formerly used, equal to two longs, space of time between raising and deor four breves. pressing the hand in a movement; being MAY, the fifth month of our year, but the same as bar. The measure is regulathe third of the Roman. The name is ted according to the different values of the supposed to be derived from Maia, the notes of a piece, by which the time asmother of Mercury, to whom the Romans signed to each note is expressed. Semioffered sacrifices on the first day of the breves, for instance, occupy one rise and 398 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [MED one fall, called a whole measure. In friends, or for foreign princes and ambaspoetry, the measure or metre is the man- sadors. That the smallness of the numner of ordering and combhiing the quan- ber of these, however, might not put to titles, or the long and short syllables. hazard the loss of the devices they bore, Thus hexameter, pentameter, iambic, the Romans generally took care to stamp Sapphic verses, &c., consist of different the subjects of them upon their ordinary neassur es.-In dancing, the interval be- coins. Medallions, in respect to other tween steps, corresponding to the interval coins, resembled what modern medals, between notes in the music. properly so speaking, are in respect to MEiDAL, a piece of metal in the form money, having had no current value, but of a coin, intending to convey to posterity merely an arbitrary one. the portrait of some great person, or the ME'DIANT, in music, the chord which memory of some illustrious action. The is a major or minor third higher than the parts of a medal are the two sides, one key note, according as the mode is major of which is called the face or head, and or minor. the other the reverse. On each side is ME'DIATIZA'TION, the annexation the area, or field, which makes the middle of the smaller German sovereignties to of the medal; the rim, or border; and larger contiguous states, which took place, the exergue, or plain circular space just on a large scale, after the dissolution of within the edge: and on the two sides the German empire in 1806. The same are distinguished the type, or the figure thing had been done on various occasions represented, and the legend, or inscrip- during the continuance of the empire; tion. Egyptian medals are the most and the dominions so annexed were said ancient; but the Grecian medals far excel to be mediatized, i. e., made mediately all others in design, attitude, strength, instead of immediately dependant on the and delicacy. Those of the Romans are empire. The term was retained when beautiful, the engraving fine, the inven- the abolition of the German union had tion simple, and the taste exquisite. rendered it in strictness inappropriate. They are distinguished into consular and A few more were mediatized after the imperial; the consular medals are the peace of 1815. most ancient, though the copper and silver MEDIA'TOR, a term applied to Jesus ones do not go farther back than the Christ, as interceding between God and 484th year of Rome, and those of gold man, and obtaining for the latter the reno farther than the year 546. Among mission of the punishment due to original the imperial medals, a distinction is made and contracted sin. The divinity of our between those of the upper and lower emr- Saviour is argued from his mediatorial pire. The first commenced under Julius character: it seeming impossible that a Casar, and continued till A.D. 260: the mere man could efficaciously intercede by lower empire includes a space of nearly the sacrifice of himself for the sins of his 1200 years, and ends with the taking fellow-men. Those reasoners, therefore, of Constantinople. The use of medals is who have arrived at the conclusion of the very considerable: they often throw great mere humanity of Christ, either expresslight on history, in confirming such pas- ly deny or essentially modify the idea of sages as are true in old authors, in his mediatorial character. reconciling such as are variously narra- MED'ICINE, the art which treats of ted, and in recording such as have been the means of preserving health when omitted. In this case a cabinet of medals present, and of restoring it when lost: an may be said to be a body of history. It art that assists nature in the preservation was, indeed, an excellent way to perpetu- of health by the use of proper remedies. ate the memory of great actions, thus to It is founded on the study of man's physicoin out the life of an emperor, and to cal and moral nature, in health and in put every exploit into the mint-a kind disease. It has struggled at all times, of printing before the art was invented. and continues to struggle, with favorite Nor are medals of less use in architec- theories; and hals, with the slowness ture, painting, poetry, &c.; for a cabinet which marks all the importanta advanceof rmedals is a collection of pictures in menits of lmankind, but lately emerged:miniature, and by them the plans of froim some of the prejudices of many many of the m.ost considerable buildings centuries, and will dou btless long continue of antiquity are preserved. subject to others. Hippocrates, who lived MIEDAL'LIONS, are medals of a about the middle of the fifth century larger size, and supposed to have been before the Christian era, is the earliest struck by the different emperors for their author on medicine whose writings ha ve. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ MEM] AND THE FINE ARTS. 399 been preserved. He was a man of very ME'I/ODY, in music, the agreeable superior medical acquirements, and, by effect of different sounds, ranged and disthe consent of posterity, he has been posed in succession; so that melody is styled the Father of Medicine. the effect of a single voice or instrument, MEDIETAS LIN'GUIE, in law, a by which it is distinguished from harmojury consisting of half natives and half ny. " Melody," says an eminent French foreigners, which is impanelled in cases musician, " is for music, what thought is where the party to be tried is a foreigner. for poetry, or drawing for painting." MEDIE'YAL, relating to the middle MELPO'MENE, the muse who preages. —lledieval arcitdtectusre, the archi- sides over tragedy; represented usually tecture of Europe during the middle ages, with a mask in one hand, a club or dagger including the Norman and early Gothic in the other, and with buskins on her feet. styles. MELUSINE, in the medisval myME'DIUM, in philosophy, the space or thology of France, a beautiful nymph or region through which a body in motion fairy, whose history occupies a large passes to any point, in logic, the mean space in the popular superstitions of that or middle term of a syllogism, being an country. She is represented as the argument or reason for which we affirm daughter of Helmas, king of Albania, or deny anything.-Medium also denotes and the fairy Persine; and as having the means or instrument by which any- married Raymund, count of Toulouse, thing is accomplished, conveyed, or car- who built her the magnificent castle oi tied on. Thus money is the mnedium of Lusignan (originally called Lusineem, commerce; bills of credit or bank-notes the ana gram' of Melusine). Like most are often used as mediums of trade in of the fairies of that period, she was the place of gold and silver; and intelli- doomed to a periodical metasmorphosis, gence is communicated through the me- during which the lower part of her body dium of the press. assumed the formin of a fish or a serpent. MEDU'SA, in mythology, the chief of On these occasions she exerted all her the Gorgons; according to Ifesiod. the ingenuity to escape observation; but hayeldest daughter of Celo and the sea-god ing been once accidentally seen by her Phorcus. Various stories are related of husband in this condition, Se swooned this mythological personage; but her away, and soon afterwards disappeared, chief peculiarity was the power she pos- none knew whither. B-Bt her form is said sessed of turning all who looked upon her to be seen from time to time on the tower into stone. She was slain by Perseus, of Lusignan, clad in mourning, and utwho placed her head in the shield of tering deep lamentations; and her apMinerva, where it continued to retain the pearance is universally believed to indisame petrifying power as before. cate an impending calamity to the royal MEGALE'SIAN GAMES, one of the family of France. most magnificent of the Roman exhibi- MEM'BER, a limb: a part appendant tions of the circus; in honor of Cybele, the to the body. We say of a figure, in the mother of the gods. arts of design, that its different muembers MEGA'RIAN SCHOOL OF GREEK are exact and well proportioned.-In arPHILOSOPHY, founded at Megara by chitecture, this word is applied to each the disciples of Socrates, who retired of the different parts of a building, to thither after his death, and distinguished each separate portion of an entablature, in later times by its logical subtlety. Itsor to each different moulding of a cornice. most celebrated names were those of MEM'OIRS, a species of history, writEuclides, Eubulides, and Stilpo. ten by persons who had some share in the MEL'ODRAME, or MEL0'-DRAMA, transactions they relate; answering to a dranmatic performance in which music what the hRomans called commeintac'ii is intermixed; or that species of drama (commentaries.) They furnish the reader in which the declanmation of certain pas- with interesting individual anecdotes, and sagess is' interrupted. by music. If only often expose the most secret motives, or only one person acts, it is a -monod cama; disclose the whole character cf events, if two, a dssodrama. It difiers from the which may be barely hinted at in books opera and operetta. in this, that the per- of general histoory. These qu lities, when formers (lo not silg, but declaim, and the the writer is to be relied on for his veramusic only fills the pauses, either prepar. city and judgment, give them an advaning or continoting the feelings expressed tage over the other kinds of historical by the actors. iMclo-dramas are ge-nei writings, since they satisfy the mere rally romantic and extravagant. Ireader for amusement as well as the stu-.. ________________ _ ____ ___ __ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ _______ 400 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [MEM dent. The French were the earliest, specting the nature and origin of the and have always been by far the most faculty of memory. Upon this point, successful writers, in this branch of however, it is not our intention to enter literature. Their historical memoirs, into any details, as this question is so partly autobiographical, and partly the mixed up with that of other faculties of works of authors who had access to the the mind, such as perception and associapapers and memorials of those whose tion, and such metaphysical questions, as lives they illustrated, form a complete personal identity, &c., as to be inseparaseries from the sixteenth century to ble from them; and to these heads we the present time, and throw the great- must refer the reader for information. est light on some portions of history; We may, however, remark, that the anwhile their memoirs of celebrated indi- cient Platonists and Peripatetics ascribed viduals in the ranks of literature and the faculty of memory to the common fashion are still more numerous and theory of ideas; that is, of images in the interesting. In the last century, this brain or in the mind, of all the objects of branch of literature became so popular, thought; and in this opinion they were that any distinguished individual who supported, with slight modifications, by did not leave authentic memoirs of him- many other philosophers of antiquity. self was sure to become the subject, after But Dr. Reid, who has examined this his death, of fabricated memoirs, pub- question with great acuteness. has satislished under his name; and this species factorily demonstrated the tho(-ry of the of falsification, of which Voltaire then ancients to be very defective. The more complained, appears to be now carried on modern theories of Locke, IHume, and as extensively as at any former period. other philosophers, also meet with little The collections of historical memoirs re- consideration from the same acute metacently edited in Paris contain three series physician, who, after exposing their falof historical memoirs relating to French lacies, sums up in these words:; Thus, history, and one of English memoirs, when philosophers have piled one suppotranslated, illustrating the period of the sition on another, as the giants piled the civil war and revolution. The latter un- mountains in order to scale the heavens, dertaking was conducted by M. Guizot. it is all to no purpose-memory remains MEMO{RABIL/IA, things remarkable unaccountable; and we know as little and worthy of remembrance. how we remember things past as how we MEM1O'RIAL, in diplomacy, a species are conscious of the present." The word of informal state of paper much used in nmemory is not employed uniformly in negotiation. Memorials are said to be the same precise sense, but it always of three classes. 1. Memorials in the expresses some modification of that facform of letters, subscribed by the writer, ulty which enables us to treasure up, and speaking in the second person as ad- and preserve for future use the knowledge dressed to another. 2. Memorials proper, which we acquire; a faculty which is obor written representations, subscribed by viously the great foundation of all intelthe writer, and with an address, but not lectual improvement. The word nmemory speaking in the second person. 3. Notes, is sometimes used to express a capacity in which there is neither subscription nor of retaining knowledge, and sometimes a address. Species of the first class of me- power of recalling it to our thoughts morials are, circulars from the bureau when we have occasion to apply it to use. of foreign affairs sent to foreign agents; The latter operation of the mind, howanswers to the memorials of ambassadors; ever, is more properly called rccollection. and notes to foreign cabinets and ambas- Hence a distinction is made between me'msadors. ory and recollection. lMenmory retains MEM'ORY, is defined to be the power past ideas without any, or with little or capacity of having what was once pres- effort; recollections implies an effort to ent to the senses or the understanding recall ideas that are past. Memory desuggested again to the mind, accompa- pends upon attention, without which even nied by a distinct consciousness of past the objects of our perceptions make no existence. The term is also employed, impression on the memory, and the perthough more rarely, to denote the act or manenee of the impression which anyoperation of remembering, or the pecu- thing leaves in the memory is proporliar state of the mind when it exercises tioned to the degree of attention which this faculty, in contradistinction to the was originally given to it. There is also faculty itself. Various opinions have a strong connection between memory and been propounded by metaphysicians re- the association of ideas. MEFt] AND THE FINE ARTS. 401 MEM'PIIIAN, pertaining to Mem- many blemishes which cannot be justified phis; a term expressive of something very or palliated: it is a system of despotism obscure: a sense borrowed from the intel- and priestcraft; both, indeed, limited by lectual darkness of Egypt in the time of law, but artfully conspiring to give mutuMoses. al support. MEN'DICANTS, a term applied to MEtCA'TOR'S CHART, a chart, in several orders of monks who live on alms, which the parallels of latitude and the or beg from door to door. meridians are represented by straight MEN'NONITES, or MENNONISTS, lines. a sect founded by a German, named Simon MER'CIANT, one who exports the Menno, in 1645, the leading tenet of produce of one country, and imports the which is, that Jesus Christ's nature did produce of another; or, according to popunot partake of that of his mother. lar usage, any trader who deals wholesale. MENOL'OGY, in the Greek church, a MER'CY-SEAT, in scripture antiquibrief calendar of the lives of the saints, or ties, a table, or cover, lined on both sides a simple remembrance of those whose with plates of gold, and set over the ark lives are not written. of the covenant, on each side of which was MEN'SA, in archeology, denotes alla cherubim of gold with wings spread over patrimony or goods necessary for a liveli- the mercy-seat. hood. IMER'CURY, the I &tin name of the MENSA'LIA, in law, such parsonages Grecian lIermes. He was the son of Juor spiritual livings as were united to the piter and Maia, and discharged the office tables of religious houses, called by the of the messenger of the gods. Part of his canonists mensal benefices. duty was also to conduct the shades of the MENSA'RII, in Roman antiquity, of- dead to the infernalregions. He presides ficers appointed to manage the public over eloquence, profit, good fortune, and treasury. theft; in which he was himself so great a MENSO'RES, in antiquity, those offi- proficient that, on the day of his birth, he cere who were sent onward to provide lodgings for the Roman emperors in their routes, and to the donestics who waited at table.-lVcensores f'rumentcarius, dis- \. ~. tributors of the corn..ME'NU, INSTITUTES OF, the name given to the most celebrated code of Indian civil and religious law; so called,, from Menu, Menou, or Mannu, the son of Brama, by whom it is supposed to have been revealed. The Hindoos themselves ascribe to this system the highest antiquity; and many of the most learned Europeans are of opinion that of all known works there is none which carries. with it more convincing proofs of high antiquity and perfect integrity. Sir W. Jones assigns the date of its origin somewhere between Homer and the Twelve Tables of the Romans; and Schlegel asserts it as his belief that it was seen by Alexander the Great in a state not materially different from that in which we stole fifty kine from the herds of Apollo, possess it. The Institutes of Menu are of whom he repaid by the gift of his invena most comprehensive nature: they em- tion. the lyre. brace all that relates to human life; the MER,'GEPR, in law, is the destruction history of the creation of the world and of a lesser estate in lands and tenements man; the nature of God and spirits; and by the acquisition of a greater estate in acomplete systen of morals, government, the same immediately succeeding by the and religion. The work, says Sir W. same party and in the same right. Thus Jones, contains abundance of curious mat- an estate for years is said to merge, or ter, interesting both to speculative law- sink, in an estate for life, if there be no yers and antiquaries, with maany beauties other estate vested in another person inwhich need not to be pointed out, and with tervening between the two; and an estate 402 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [MES for life in an estate of inheritance. There with whom he is brought into mesmeric is no merger of an estate tail. relation, and so forth. More latterlj MEIVLON, in fortification, is that part mesmerism has been associated with of a parapet which is terminated by two phrenology, so that by touching certain embrasures of a battery. organs, the patient, when mesmerized, is AMER'MAID, an imaginary or fabulous made to dance, sing, fight, or steal, &c. creature, which seamen have described as MESNE, in law, a lord of a manor who having the head and body of a woman, has tenants holding under him, though with the tail of a fish. liermen also have he holds the manor of a superior.-fMesne been seen, if we might trust the same process, an intermediate process which authority. It is not, however, any recent issues pending the suit, upon some colfiction; ancient writers having given full lateral interlocutory matter. Sometimes credence to it. it is put in contradistinction to final ]proMES'MERIS'M, the doctrine of animal cess, or process of execution., and then it magnetism, so named from its author, signifies all such processes as intervene Frederic Anthony Mesmer, a German between the beginning and end of a Suit. physician. In 1778, Mesmer propounded MESS, in military language, denotes a theory, according to which all the phe- a sort of ordinary, or public dinner, for nomena of life are referred to the motion the maintenance of which every officer, and agency of a certain universal mag- who takes his meals there, gives a certain netic fluid, which admits of being infll- proportion of his pay. In a British milienced by external agents, and especially tary mess-room the young subaltern and by magnetic instruments. Wonderful the veteran field-officer meet on equal effects were said to have been produced terms, a soldierlike frankness prevails, by him and others who co-operated with and the toils of service are, as they ought him, upon animal bodies, and many cures to be, forgotten during the moments deperformed by the agency of a certain voted to social hilarity.-In naval lanmagnetical apparatus. The use of mag- guage, the?eess denotes a particular netic instrmusents is now quite exploded, company of the officers or crew of a ship, and the principal means used to produce who eat, drink, and associate together: the effects of mesmerism are such as hence the term amessmate is applied to touching and stroking with the hands, any one of the number thus associated. according to rule, breathing on a person, MES'SAGE, an official communication fixing the eye upon him, &c. The omes- sent by a President or King to the conmerized person must always be of a gress of the nation. weaker constitution than the mesmerizer, MES'SENGERS, certain officers emand, if possible, of a different sex, and ployed in the secretary of state's departmust also believe devoutly in the science. ment to convey despatches, either at The effects produced upon the person to home or abroad. whom mesmnerism is communicated, or M1ESSI'AD, the name given to the the mess-eree, as he is called, consist only modern epic poem of Germany; the partly in bodily sensations, as chilliness, subject of which is, as the name implies, heaviness, flying pains, &c.; partly in a the sufferings and triumphs of the Mesdiminished activity of the external sen- siah. It is written in hexameter verse, ses; partly in fainting, convulsions, sleep, for which, as we have elsewhere observed, with lively dreams, in which the mesme- the German is better fitted than any ree is transported to higher regions, ob- modern language, and consists of 20 serves the internal organization of his books. The publication of this poem own body, prophesies, gives medical pre- procured for its author unbounded repuscriptions, receives inspired views of heav- tation; but posterity does not appear to en and hell, purgatory, c.; reads sealed sanction the high award pronounced on it letters laid on his stomach, and when by contemporaneous writers. Schlegol, awAs,.kened is totally unconscious of what indeed, maintains that the modern literhe has experienced. Six stages or de- ature of Germany may be said to date grces of mesmerisml have been enume- fromn the Jlfessiad; but this high praise rated, vi7. —the -walkin- stase, the stage must be understood as referring chiefly of half-sleep,'zesmeric sleep or stlor,i to its having been amongc the first prosopmnambulisns, self- contemplation or ductions in which the power and resources clairvoyance, anreiversal i.l1.mination,, in of the German language were developed, which the patient knows what is going on rather than to its innate merits as an in distant regions, and all that has hap- epic poem, or to the influence it has pened or will happen to those persons exercised over the national poetry of aM2T] AND THE FINE ARTS. 403 Geormany. The reputation of Klopstock a succession of significations, or the union among his own countrymen rests chiefly of two or more tropes of a different kind on his Odes; and it must be admitted in one word, so that the several gradathat in all those parts of his epic into t;ions or intervening senses come between which a lyric spirit could be infused-in the word expressed and the thing intendother words, whenever the feelings or the ed by it. sympathies were to be excited-there are METAMOREPHOSIS, the changing of few poets, either ancient or modern, to something into a. different form; in whom he deserves to be postponed; but, which sense it includes the transformon the other hand, the dignity and sub- ation of insects, as well as the mythololimity of his sentiments are not unfre- gical changes related by the poets of quently disfigured by the pedantry and antiquity. affectation ot his style, and the tedious- M1T'APHOR, in rhetoric, is the apness of his episodes. plication of a word in some other than its MESSI'AHI a Hebrew word signifying ordinary use, on account of some applithe azointed; a title which the Jews cability or resemblance between the two gave to their unexpectedgreat deliverer, objects: thus, if we call a hero a lion; a whose com0ing they still wait for: and a shrewd, crafty fellow, a fox; a minister, name which Christians apply to Jesus a pillar of the state, &c., we speak s7etaChrist, in whom the prophecies relat- phorically. Brevity and power are the ing to the Messiah were accomplished. characteristic excellencies of the metaAmong the Jews, anointing was the cere- phor;, novelty shows the original witmony of consecrating persons to the but metaphors indulged in merely for the highest offices and dignities; kings, sake of unexpected contrast, frequently priests, and sometimes prophets were prove more allied to the ridiculous than anointed: thus Aaron and his son re- the sublime, and ought to be but rarely ceived the sacerdotal, Elisha the prophetic, used. Metaphors have been divided by and David, Solomon, and others, the writers on rhetoric into several classes royal unction. The ancient IHebrews but the most appropriate are those which being instructed by the prophets, had are termed analogical, and which derive very clear notions of the Messiah; these, their force, not from any actual resemhowever, were changed by degrees; inso- blance between two objects, but froml a much that when Jesus Christ appeared resemblance between the relations which in Judea, they were in expectation of a they bear respectively to certain other temporal monarch, who should free them objects. Thus "the sea of life" is a confrom their subjection to the Reomans. mon and appropriate metaphor; not from I-ence they were greatly offended at the any resemblance between the idea of the outward appearance, the humility, and visible sea and the complex notion of seeming weakness of our Saviour; which that abstraction which we termi human prevented their acknowledging him to be life, but because there is a fcancied simithe Christ they expected. larity between the position of navigators MES'SUAGE, in law, is said to be in an uncertain voyage and that of human properly a dwelling-house with a small beings engaged in the manifold scenes of portion of land adjacent, or the site of the life. manor. It is now one of the general METAPI'RASIS, a bare or literal words used in the legal description of translation out of one language into dwelling-houses with t.e land attached. another. MESTIZO, in Spanish America, the METAPHYS'ICS, that branch of phichild of a Spaniard or creole and a native losophy which inquires into the science Indian. of the mind, or spiritual existence. Wfith IMEnTAB'ASIS, in rhetoric, transition; respect to animals, it takes them np where a passing from one thing to another. physiology leaves them; and, proceeding MTETAOCAR/PUS, in anatomy, that higher, ventures to speak of Deity itself. part of the hand be'tween the wrist and The end of this science is the setarch of the fingers. The inner part of the ireta- pure and abstracted truth. It casts a carpus is called the palm, and the other light upon all the objects of thoullght, nd the back of the hand. meditation, by ranging every being -with.MTETAC!I'RPONISML an error in chro- all the absolute and relative perfections noliogy, by placing an event after its real and properties, modes and attendants of noy bptimngaseetatrae.!it, in proper rankis or classes; and thereby'METALEP'SIS, in rhetoric, the con- it discovers the various relations of things tinuation of a trope in one word through to each other, and what are their general 404 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [MET or special differences from each other; METEMP'TOSIS, a term in chronolowherein a great part of human knowledge gy expressing the solar equitation necesconsists. It has been very pertinently sary to prevent the new moon from remarked that "a man who contemns happening a day too late, or the suppresmetaphysics must think his own nature sion of the bissextile once in 134 years. unworthy of examination. Metaphysical METEOROM/'ANCY, a species of inquiries, indeed, have often been disfig- divination by thunder and lightning, held ured with overstrained subtilty and revolt- in high estimation by the Romans. ing sophistry, and too often arbitrary METIIOD, a suitable and convenient analogies, bold comparisons, and unmean- arrangement of things or ideas. In logic ing mysticism have claimed and received and rhetoric, the art or rule of disposing homage as having unlocked the long- ideas in such a manner that they may be hidden truth; but the same has taken easily comprehended, either in order to place in regard to religion and politics, discover the truth, or to demonstrate it to and all the great subjects which strongly others. Method is essential to science; stir the soul of man." and without method. business of any kind MET'APLASM, in grammar, a trans- will fall into confusion. In studying a mutation or change made in a word by science, we generally mean by method, a transposing or retrenching a syllable or system of classification, or arrangement of letter. natural bodies according to their common METATH'ESIS, in literature, a figure characteristics; as the method of Ray, by which the letters or syllables of a the Linnsan method. The difference beword are transposed.-In medicine, a tween method and system is this: system change or removal of a morbid cause, is an arrangement founded, throughout without expulsion. all its parts, on some one principle; METEMPSYCHO'SIS, the doctrine of method is an arrangement less fixed and transmigration, which supposes that the determinate, and founded on more genersoul of man, upon leaving the body, be- al relations. comes the soul of some other animal. METHOD'IC SECT, a name given to This was the doctrine of Pythagoras and certain ancient physicians, who conducted his followers, and such is still the prevail- their practice by rules after the manner ing doctrine in some parts of Asia, par- of Galen and his followers, in opposition ticularly in India and China. The Indian to the empiric sect. doctrine of metempsychosis rests on the METI'ODISTS, the body of Chrissupposition that all beings derive their ori- tians to whom this name is chiefly applied gin from God, and are placed in this world are the followers of the late John Wesley, in an altogether degraded condition, from the founder of this numerous sect; hence which they all, but more particularly the called Wesleyan Methodists. But the human race, must either decline into still term bears a more extensive meaning, lower degradation, or rise gradually to being applied to several bodies or sections a higher state more accordant with their of Christians who have seceded. or withdivine original, according as they give drawn from the Wesleyan denomination. ear to the vicious or the virtuous sugges- The origin of the Methodist Society took tions of their nature. It must be re- place at Oxford in 1729. After the Revomarked, however, that the Indians make lution, when the principles of religious a wide distinction between the future toleration were recognized amid the prodestiny of those who have passed through gress of free inquiry, the clergy of the life tainted by the usual vices and infirmi- Established Church were thought by some ties of human nature, and those whose to have sunk into a state of comparative lives have been spent in the constant lukewarmness and indifference. This discharge of religious duties. In the alleged degeneracy was observed with. latter case, the soul does not pass through pain by John Wesley and his brother different stages of existence, "but pro- Charles, when students at the University ceeds directly to reunion with the Supreme of Oxford; and being joined by a few of Being, with which it is identified, as a their fellow-students who were intended river at its confluence with the sea merges for the ministryin the Established Church, therein altogether. His vital faculties, they formed the most rigid rules for the and the elements of which his body con- regulation of their time and studies, for sists, are absorbed completely and abso- reading the Scriptures, for self-examinalutely; both name and form cease; and tion, and other religious exercises. The he becomes immortal, without parts or ardent piety and rigid observance of members." system in everything connected with the MET] AND THE FINE ARTS. 405 new opinions displayed by the Wesleys and anapaestic,) each dipodia, or two feet, and their adherents, as well as in their formed a metre. Thus, the dactylic hexcollege studies, which they never neglect- ameter (the heroic verse) contains six ed, attracted the notice and excited the dactyls and spondees: the iambic, anajeers of various members of the Univer- pestie, and trochaic trimeter, six of those sity, and gained for them the appellation feet respectively. A line is said to be of Jlfetlodists; in allusion to the metho- acatalectic when the last syllable of the dici, a class of physicians at IRome who last foot is wanting; brachycatalectic, practised only by theory. when two syllables are cut off in the same METC('CI, the resident aliens, who way; hypercatalectic, when there is one formed a large class of the inhabitants superfluous syllable. of Athens. They were distinguished METROMA'NIA, a rage for composfrom the few full citizens by many disa- ing verses, which is said (upon the aubilities and burdens. They had no share thority of a respectable medical work) to in the administration of the state, and have once seized a person in a tertian were precluded from the power of pos- fever, who was otherwise by no means sessing landed estates. Each was cor- gifted with poetical powers, but who, pelled to purchase the shelter he receiv- when the fit was off, became as dull and ed from the state by the payment of a prosaic as the most unimaginative of husmall annual sum, and to place himself man beings could desire. We apprehend under the guardianship of a citizen, who that fits of this kind are more frequent was his formal representative in the than the public have any idea of. courts of law. They were generally en- MET'RONOME, an instrument for gaged in mercantile and mechanical busi- measuring musical time. It is contrived ness. on the principle of a clock, having a short MdETON'IC CY'CLE, in chronology, pendulum, whose bob being movable up the period of nineteen years, in which and down on the rod, is thus capable of the lunations of the moon return to the increasing or decreasing the length of a same days of the month; so called from note or bar as required by the character its discoverer Meton, an Athenian, who of the music. The length or duration of lived about 400 B.c. From its great use a note is often expressed at the head of a in the calendar, this is called the golden piece of music by stating that a pendulum number. of a given length in inches will vibrate a METONYtMIA, or MET'ONYMY, in minim, crotchet, or other note, as the rhetoric, a figure of speech whereby one case may be. thing is put for another, as the cause for METROP'OLIS, the capital or princithe effect, the part for the whole, and the pal city of a country or province: as Lonlike; as, " my friend keeps a good table," don or Paris. The term metropolis is instead of good provisionss; "that boy also applied to archiepiscopal churches, has a clear 1head, mieaning intellect. and sometimes to the principal or mother MAETO'PA, in architecture, the square church of a city. The Roman empire space in the frieze between the triglyphs having been divided into thirteen dioceses, of the Doric order. It is left either plain and one hundred and twenty provinces, or decorated, according to the taste of the each diocese and each province had its architect. In the most ancient examples metropolis, or capital city, where the proof this order, the metopa is left quite consul ha d his residence. To this civil open, as is manifest from a passage al- division, the ecclesiasticalwas afterwards luded to in the art. adapted, and the bishop of the capital MiTiTOPOS'COPY, the art of divina- city had the direction of affairs, and the tion by inspecting the forehe;ad, treted pre-eminence over all the bishops of the of especially by the famous Ca.rd(anus. province. His residence in the metropoThe signs of the forehead are chiefly its lis gave him the title of metropolitan. lines; but moles and spots are also sup- MET-rOPOIITAN, in early ecclesiposed to have their particular imeaning. asticea history, was a title applied to the The lines are under the dominion of their archbishop, or chief ecclesiastical digniseveral planets. tay, resident in a city. The establishlMEITE, in the classical sense of a ment of metropolitans took place at the word, a subdivision of a verse. The end of the third century, and was conGreeks measured some species of verses firmed by the council of Nice. In some (the dactylic, choriaumbic, antispastie, of the Protestant states of Germany the Ionic, &ce) by considering each foot as a title exists to the present time. and the metre in others (the iambic, troehaic, person in possession of it has rank equiv 406 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [1TIL alent to the bishops of the English MICROG'RIAPHIY, the description of church. objects which are too minute to be seen MEZ'ZANINE, in architecture, an without the help of a microscope. entresole, or little window, less in height MIDDLE AGES, a term used by histothan in breadth, serving to give light to rians to denote that period which begins an attic. with the final destruction of the -Rolman MEZ'ZO, in music, an Italian word, empire, and ends with the revival of letsignifying half. Thus mzezzo forte, mez- ters in Europe, or, as some writers have it, zo piano, mezzo voce, imply a middle with the discovery of America i. e. from degree of piano or soft. By mezzo sopra- the eighth to the fifteenth century. In genno is understood, a pitch of voice between oral, it may be said, the middle ages emthe soprano or treble and counter-tenor. brace that period of history in which the MEZZOTIN'TO, a particular manner feudal system was established and develof engraving, so called from its resem- oped, down to the most prominent events blance to drawings in Indian ink. To which necessarily led to its overthrow. perform this, the smooth surface of the MID'SHIPMAN. Midshipmen' are copper or steel plate is furrowed all over young gentlemen ranking as the highest with an instrument made for the purpose, of the class of petty officers on board a till the whole is of a regular roughness ship of war; their duty is to pass to the throughout; so that if a paper were to be seamen the orders of the captain or other worked off from it at the copper-plate superior officer, and to superintend the press it would be black all over. When performance of the duties so commanded. this is done, the plate is rubbed with MID'SUMMER, the summer solstice. charcoal, black challk, or black lea(d, and The 24th of June is Midsummer-day2 then the design is drawn with white chalk; which is also quarter day. after which the outlines and deepest MILIEU, (JUSTE,) PARTY OF THE, shades are not scraped at all, the next a French party nickname, arising, it is shades are scraped but little, the next said, out of a casual expression of King more, and so on, till the shades gradu- Louis Philippe, but which has obtained ally falling off, leave the paper white, in a notoriety -rather greater than such which places the plate is perfectly bur- ephemeral phrases usually acquire. It nished. By an artificial disposition of the has served to denote the great party opshades, and different parts of a figure on posed to the Carlists, or Legitimists, on liiferent plates, mezzotintos are printed the one hand, and to the extreme left in colors, so as to represent actual paint- section of the Chamber of Deputies, with ing.s. its allies the Republicans, on the other. MI'CAIH, a canonical bcok of the Old After the overthrow of the feeble ministry Testa-ment, written by the prophet Micnh; of Lafitte, in March, 1831, Casinir Pdrier in which the writer censures the reigning was authorized to form al new cabinet vices of Jerusalem and Samaria, anid de- and his adninistration seems to have renounces the judgments of God against alized more than any orher the idesl of both kingdoms. The birthplace of our a government of the Juste Milieu. After Saviour is thus designated by himi:; But a short interval he was succeeded by thou, Eethlehem Ephrata, little amiong Soul'c; who has been perhaps, since that the thousands of Judah, out of thee shall time, more identified with the Juste Micome forth a ruler in Israel, whose gene- lieu party than any other minister: ration is of old, from everlasting.'7. Mofl, Guizot, Dnpin, Thiers, Barrot, the MICII:AELMAS, or Feast of St. Ji- most eminent statesmen of France, havchael, a festival of the Romish church, ing each of them adopted a line and observed on the 29th of September. In formed to a certain extent a party of his England, Michaelmas is one of the regu- own, alternately aided and opposed: by lar periods for settling rents; and an old the great body of the partisans of the custom is still in use of having a roast Juste Milieu. goose for dinner on that day, probably MILITIA, a body of soldiers, regubecause geese are at that period most lfrly enrolled and trained, though not in plentiful, and in the highest perfection. constant service in time of peace, and MI'CROCOSM, man has been called so thereby distinguished from stan.?ding arby some fanciful writers on nnttural phi- mies. In England the origin of this naIosophy and metaphysics, by reason of a tional force is generally traced back to supposed correspondence between the dif- Alfred. ferent parts and qualities of his nature MIILLENA'RIANS, or CHITIASTS, and those of the universe. a name given to those- who, in the prim MIN] AND THE FINE ARTS. 407 itive ages, believed that the saints will when sought after by the mind, and again one day reign on earth with Jesus Christ brought into view, it is recollection; when a thousand years. The former appella- the ideas are taken notice of, and, as it tion is of Latin original, the latter of were, registered in the memory, it is atGreek. The Millenarians held, that af- tention; when the mind fixes its view on ter the coming of Antichrist, and the any one idea, and considers it on all sides, destruction of all nations which shall fol- it is called study. low, there shall.be a first resurrection of MINER'VA, the Latin goddess corresthe just alone; that all who shall be found pending to, and confounded with, the upon earth, both good and bad, shall con- Grecian Pallas or Athena. She was tinue alive-the good, to obey the just fabled to have sprung in full armor from who are risen as their princes-the bad the forehead of her father Jupiter. Mito be conquered by the just, and to be nerva was worshipped as the goddess of subject to them; that Jesus Christ will wisdom, and the patroness of industry then descend from heaven in his glory; and the arts. Athens, the city to which that the city of Jerusalem will be rebuilt, she gave name, was her favorite spot; enlarged, embellished, and its gates stand and there her worship was celebrated with open night and day. great splendor, and the magnificent temMILLEN'NIUM, the reign of Christ pie, the Parthenon, erected to her honor. with his saints upon earth for the space MINERVA'LIA, in Roman antiquity, of a thousand years; an idea derived festivals celebrated in honor of Minerva, from a passage in the 20th chap. of the in the month of March; at which time Apocalypse, and not uncommonly enter- the scholars had a vacation, and usuall tained by Christians in all ages, but es- made a present to their masters, called pecially in the times of the primitive from this festival ninerval. church. The opinion seems to be traced MIN'IATURE, a representation of naas far back as to Papias, a father of the ture on a very small scale. Mitniature second century. It is the subject of much paintiskg is generally executed on ivory; discussion among the writers of that and and is. as to composition, drawing, and the succeeding ages; was maintained by finishing, subject to the same laws as Justin Martyr, Irenseus, Tertullian, and Painting. many others, and powerfully refuted by MIN'IM, in music, a note equal to two Origen. crotchets, or half a semibreve. MIME, the name given by the ancient MIN'IMS, a religious order in the Greeks and Romans at once to a species church of Rome, founded by St. Francis of dranmatic entertainment, and to the de Paula, towards the end of the 15th authors and actors by whom it was re- century. spectively composed and performed. It MIN'ISTER, the pastor of a church, consisted chiefly of a rude representation duly authorized to perform religious worof comnmon life, and resembled the mood- ship in public, administer the sacraments, ern farce or vaudeville in its character &c.-In politics; one to whom a sovereign and accompaniments. Sophron of Syr- prince intrusts the administration of the racuse, who lived about 400 years be- government; as, a 7misnister of state; the fore the Christian era, is considered the prime minister; or a foreign. minister. inventor of this species of composition. -In the United States, no minister (or His pieces were read even with pleasure secretary, in the language of our governby Plato, who is said to have introduced ment) can be chosen either representative this kind of dramatic entertainment into or senator.-Foreig1n mnilster, a person Athens. sent from one government to another, and MIME'SIS, in rhetoric, imitation of accredited to the latter, in order to transthe voice and gestures of another person. act public business in the name of his MIND, the intellectual or intelligent government power in man. "When the mind," says MIN'NEIIOFE, the name given by MIr. Locke, " turns its view inward upon the Germans to the courts of love, so faitself, thinking is the first idea that oc- mous in the history of chivalry. The subcurs; wherein it observes a great variety jects brought before these courts were of modifications, whence it frames to itself chiefly connected with the Romantic galdistinct ideas. Thus the perception an- lfintry of the period, and consisted either nexed to any impression on the body by of questions proposed with the view to. an external object, is called sensation; entrap the judges into some awkward dewhen an idea-recurs without the presence cision; or of serious complaints, resulting of the object, it is called remembrance; from affairs of the heart which were dis 408 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [MIN cussed and decided upon with all the for- logic, the second proposition of a regular mality of a court of law. These mninne- syllogism.-In music, signifies less, and is hofe were for a long period looked upon applied to certain concords or intervals as forming an indispensable part in all which differ from others of the same dechivalrous exercises. Knights, ladies, and nomination by half a tone. poets participated alike in their proceed- MINOR'ITY, in law, a state of being ings; and large collections of their de- under age. Also the smaller number of cisions are still extant. A certain num- persons who give their votes on any quesber of ladies, remarkable at once for per- tions, particularly in parliament: oppossonal and mental attractions, acted as ed to majority. judges in these courts: the fair sex also MI'NOS, in mythological history, was conducted the proceedings as counsel, at- son of Jupiter and Europa, and king of torneys-general, and solicitors-general, Crete, and so celebrated as a lawgiver on &c.; and they were attended by a nume- earth that after his death he was appointrous train of nobles, knights, and others, ed judge of the infernal regions, in which who were invested by the court with gra- office he was associated with ZEacus and dations of rank and precedency analogous Rhadamanthus. to those conferred by the sovereign. MIN'OTAUR, afabled monster of clasMIN'NESINGERS, the most ancient sical antiquity, half man and half bull, school of German poets, whose name is frequently mentioned by the poets. derived from the old German word minne MIN'STER, was anciently applied only (love.) The songs and fame of the Pro- to the church of a monastery or convent; venhal troubadours appear to have pen- and forms the termination of the name of etrated into Germany under the first many places in England in which such emperors of the house of Hohenstauffen; churches formerly existed, as Westminin whose time the crusades and the fre- ster, Leominster, &c. It is sometimes, quent Italian wars combined to bring but incorrectly, used in common language their nation, seated as it is in the centre to signify a cathedral church. of Europe, to closer communication with MIN'STRELS, defined by Percy as an those surrounding it. The minnesingers order of men in the middle ages who subimitated in German the strains of those sisted by the arts of poetry and music, early poets, and, like them, made love and sang to the harp verses composed by their principal subject; which was cele- themselves or others. They appear to brated with much of pedantry and false have been the successors of the minneconceits, but, at the same time, not with- singers, scalds, and bards of different out generous and chivalric feeling. The European nations, who, even after the verses of the minnesingers are in the old age of chivalry had passed, attempted to Swabian dialect of the high German, gain a subsistence by practising those which, under the Iohelnstauffens, them- arts which at an earlier period had proselves of Swabian race, was the court lan- cured fame and honor for their predecesguage. As was the ease with the trouba- sors. In the piping times of peace, the dours, the minnesingers belonged to two minstrel sang of mimic war to the dull different classes: there were among them barons of dungeon castles, who had ears, many knights, princes, and even sove- although they could not read; who, reigns; while there was also another class doubly steeped in the ennui of wealth of more professional poets-wandering and want of occupation, listened greedily, minstrels, who attached themselves to like other great men, to their own praises. the persons of the distinguished chiefs, or Minstrelsy supplied the lack of a more wandered from court to court. The oldest refined intellectual entertainment and of of the minnesingers known to us is Henry rational conversation, as professional of Veldeck, about 1170. During the re- gentlemen do now at civic banquets: mainder of the 12th and first half of the their harpings lulled the rude Sauls to 13th century, this school of poets flourish- sleep, which is now done by quarto epics. ed; afterwards it gradually declined, and The person of the minstrel was sacred; was succeeded by the less chivalrous and his profession was a passport; he was homelier school of the master-singers. "high placed in hall a welcome guest;" We possess the names of more than 300 the assumption of his character became poets, and pieces of the composition of a the disguise of lovers of adventure. large proportion of them. who sang during MIN'UET, a dance in slow time and the short period in question. with short measured steps, which reMI'NOR, in law, an heir male or fe- quires great dignity and grace of carmale, under the age of twenty-one.-In riage. |____.______.._~.________...___ ____-~-.-.. _________~_.___ _____ MIS] AND THE FINE ARTS. 409 MIN'UTE, an architectonic measure; the Penitential Psalms, is that designated the lower diameter of a column, being by the Roman Catholic church under this divided into sixty parts, each part is call- word, on account of its first words (in ed a minute. the Vulgate translation, "miserere mei MI'QUELETS, in modern history, a Dens, secundum magnam misericordium species of partisan troops raised in the tuam.") It is the usualpsalm appointed north of Spain, and chiefly in Catalonia. for acts of penitence and mortification. The miquelets became first known in the MISNO'MER, in law, a misnaiming or wars between Spain and France in the mistaking a person's name. The Chris17th century. At several periods (in tian name of a person should always be 1689, 1789, and again in the wars of Na- perfect, but the law is not so strict in repoleon) the French have endeavored to gard to surnames, a small mistake in organize similar corps, to oppose to the which will be overlooked. miquelets in the mountain warfare of MISPRIS'ION, in law, any high ofthose districts. fence under the degree of capital, but MI:IR'ACLE, an event or effect produced bordering thereon.-l:iisprision of treain a manner different from the common son consists in a bare knowledge and conand regular method of Providence, by the cealment of treason, without assenting to interposition either of God himself, or it. Misprisions are called ne-gative, when some superior agent to whom He delega- they consist in the concealment of someted the power. Lord Bacon observes, thing that ought to be revealed; and that a mairacle was never wrought by positive, when they consist in the comGod to convert an atheist, because the mission of something which ought not to light of nature might have led him to be done. confess a God: but miracles, says he, are MIS'SAL, in the Romish church, the designed to convert idolaters, and the su- book which contains the prayers and perstitious, who have acknowledged a ceremonies of the Mass. Some early deity, but erred in the manner of adoring missals are beautifully executed, and are him; because no light of nature extends objects of bibliomania. so far as fully to declare the will and MISSA'LIA, the money paid to a true worship of God. Catholic priest for a mass read for the MIR'ZA, the common style of honor in dead. Persia, when it precedes the surname of MISSIL'IA, in antiquity, were a ceran individual. When appended to the tain kind of largesses thrown among the surname it signifies prince. Roman people, such as small coins of MISAN'THROPY signifies a general gold or silver, sweetmeats, &c. dislike or aversion to man and mankind; MIS'SIO, among the Romanns, was a in contradistinction to philanthropy, which full discharge given to a soldier after means the love of our species. twenty years' service, and differed from MIS'CELLANY, a word usually ap- the exauctoratio, which was a discharge plied to a collection of literary works or from duty after seventeen years' service. treatises. The most celebrated collection — Missi also signified a rescue sent by the of works known by this name is Constable's emperor or person who exhibited the Miscellany. games, to a wounded gladiator. MISCH'NA, or MIS'NA, the code or MIS'SIONARIES, all religious comcollection of the civil law of the Jews. munities, from the earliest ages of ChrisThe Jews pretend, that when God gave tianity, have endeavored to propagate the written law to Moses, he gave him their tenets, not by the force of arms, but also another not written, which was pre- by the persuasive precepts of the Gospel; served by tradition among the doctors of and there is scarcely a corner of the the synagogue, till through their disper- habitable globe which has not been penesion they were in danger of departing trated by men expressly sent out to carry from the traditions of their fathers, when its glad tidings to pagan nations. Foreit was judged proper to commit them to most among the Protestant countries writing which have thus distinguished themselves MISDEMEAN'OR, in law, a minor are the United States and England. offence, or one of less magnitude than MIS'SIONS, stations of missionaries that which is generally designated a in infidel countries. In geography, the crime, the latter being, in common usage. extensive districts formerly under the made to denote an offence of a more control of missionaries of the church of atrocious character. Rome, on the borders of the Spanish and MISERE'RE, the 50th Psalm, 4th of Portuguese settlements in America, were 410 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE IMOD so called. These missionaries chiefly in long and amlple drapery, and the right belonged to the orders of the Capuchins, hand raised towards the chin. Dominicans, and Jesuits; but the latter MOAT, a ditch made round the old were the most celebrated and the most castles, and filled with water. The moat successful. Their settlements in Para- surrounding a military fortress of modern guay comprehended a vast province, construction (or the ditch) is left dry; which they governed with independent but where it is capable of inundation at authority: in Brazil they had also exten- pleasure, this circumstance is considered sive districts under their control. The an advantage to the system of defence. downfall of the order was followedl by MO])E, a term used by Locke to dethe destruction of these settlements. note "such complex ideas, which, howMITH'RAS, the grand deity of the ever compounded, contain not in them Persians, supposed to be the sun or god the supposition of subsisting by themof fire, to which they paid adoration as the selves, but are considered as dependences purest emblem of the divine essence. on, or affections of, substances. Of these MIfTRA, in antiquity, a cap or cover- modes there are two kinds, simple and ing for the head, worn by the Roman mixed. Simple modes are "only varialadies, sometimes by the men, but it was tions or different combinations of the looked upon as a mark of effeminacy in same simple idea, without the mixture them, especially when it was tied upon of any other, as a dozen or a score, which their heads. Amongstthe Greeks, mitra are nothing but the ideas of so many was a piece of defensive armor made of distinct units added together." Mixed brass, lined with wool, and worn next to modes are those "compounded of simple the skin, under the coat of mail. ideas of several kinds put together to MIPTRE, a sacerdotal ornament worn on make one complex one- e. g., beauty; the head by bishops and certain abbots on and consisting of a certain composition solemn occasions; being a sort of cap. of color and figure, causing delight in the pointed and cleft at top. The high priest beholder." The term is now universally among the Jews wore a mitre or bonnet laid aside by writers on mental philosoon his head. phy.-In music, a regular disposition of MIT'TIMSUS, in law, a precept or com- the air and accompaniments relative to mand in writing under the hand and seal certain principal sounds, on which a of a justice of the peace, or other proper piece of music is formed, and which are officer, directed to the gaoler or keeper called the essential sounds of the ezode. of a prison, for the receiving and safe In the earliest Greek music there were keeping of an offender charged with any only three modes, but various new modes crime until he be delivered by due course were afterwards added. The moderns, of law. however, only reckon two modes, the MNEMON'ICS, the art of assisting major and minor. The lmajor mode is the memory-an art which, when founded that division of the octave by which the on a simple system, is of incalculable intervals between the third and fourth, use to all persons, but more especially to and seventh and eighth, become halfthose who wish to study history and the tones, and all the other intervals whole sciences to advantage. The ancients tones. The minor mode is that division were well acquainted with mnemonics; by which the intervals between the second according to some, the science came from and third, and fifth and sixth, become the East to the Greeks; others consider half-tones, and all the others whole the poet Simonides as the inventor of tones.-In logic, the form or manner of a them.-The principal difficulty in attain- syllogism with respect to the quantity ing a competent knowledge of history, and quality of its constituent propositions. consists in retaining the dates of the MOVDEL, in the Fine Arts, that which several epochas, eras, &c., to which the is an object of imitation.-In painting principal occurrences in history belong; and sculpture, it is the individual whom but this difficulty is considerably obviated the artist procures for getting up his by the employment of modern systems proportions, details, play of the musof mnemonics. les, &c.-Also in sculpture, it is the term MNEMOS'YNE, in classical mytholo- applied to the small sketch in wax or gy, the goddess of memory: daughter, clay for a work of art.-In architecture, according to the genealogists, of Uranus it is a small pattern in relief, either of (Heaven) and Gaia (Earth,) and mother, wood, plaster, or other material, of the by Jupiter, of the Nine Muses. Her building proposed to be executed. statues usually have the figure enveloped MODELLING, in the Fine Arts, the MOL] AND THE FINE ARTS. 411 art of making a mould from which works MOD'ULES, in architecture, a measin plaster are to be cast; also used for ure equal to the semi-diameter of a Doric the forming in clay of the design itself. column. It is a term only applied in the MOD'ERATES, the name given to a Doric order, and consists of thirty minparty in the Church of Scotland which utes. arose early in the eighteenth century, MODUS OPERAN'DI, a Latin phrase, claimed the character of moderation in signifying the way or method by which doctrine, discipline, and church govern- an operation or performance of any kind ment, and which has continued to exist is effected. in a greater or less degree of vigor down MOGRA'BIANS, or MEN OF THE to the present time. WEST. a name formerly given to a speMOD'ERATOR, a person who presides cies of Turkish infantry, composed of the at a public assembly, to propose ques- peasants of the northern parts of Africa, tions, preserve order, and regulate the who sought to ameliorate their condition proceedings. by entering into foreign service. MOD'ERNS, those who have lived in MO'OGUL, GREAT, the name by which times recently passed, or are now living; the chief of ile empire so called, founded opposed to the ancients. The term is in Ilindostan by Baber, in the 15th cenespecially applied to those of modern tury, was known in Europe. The last nations, or of nations which arose out of person to whom this title of right bethe ruins of the Greek and Roman em- longed was Shah Allum; and the Mogul pires, the people of which are called empire having terminated at his death in the ancients. 1806, his vast possessions fell chiefly into MODIFICA'TION, in philosophy, that the hands of the East India Company. which modifies a thing, or gives it this or MOLE, a mound or massive work that manner of being. Quantity andformed of massive stones laid in the sea quality are accidents which modify all by means of coffer-dams, extended in a bodies. According to Spinosa's system, right line or as an arch of a circle, before all the beings that compose the universe a port, which it serves to defend from the are only so many different modifications violent impulse of the waves; thus proof one and the same substance; and it tecting ships in a harbor. The word is is the different arrangement and situa- sometimes used for the harbor itself. tion of their parts, that make all the Among the Romans, a kind of mausoleum, difference between them. built like a round tower on a square base, MODIL/LION, in architecture, an or- insulated, encompassed with columns, and nanment sometimes square on its profile, covered with a dome. and sometimes scroll-shaped, with the in- MOLINISM, in Roman Catholic thetervention of one or two small horizontal ology, a system of opinions on the submembers placed at intervals under the jects of grace and predestination sonmecorona in the richer orders. They should what resembling that advocated by the stand centrally over columns when the Arminian party among Protestants. It latter are employed. They are simplest derived its name from the Jesuit Louis in the Ionic and Composite orders, more Molina, professor of theology in the unicarving being bestowed on them in the versity of Evora in Portugal. Cointhlian order. MOL'LAH, the title of the higher order MODULA'TION, in music, the art of of judges in the Turkish empire. After composing agreeable to the laws pre- the three first magistrates of the empire scribed by any particular key, or of follow fourteen mollahs, who preside over changing the mode or key. Also the reg- the fourteen principal seats of justice in ular progression of several parts through the empire; among these, the mollahs the sounds that are in the harmony of any of Mecca and Medina have the highest particular key, as well as the proceeding rank. naturally and regularly from one key to MO'LOCII, the name of the chief god another. In pieces of a mild and quiet of the Phoenicians, frequently mentioned character, it is not proper to modulate so in Scripture as the God of the Aimmonoften as in those which have to express ites, and probably the same as the Saturn violent and great passions. Where every- of the Syrians and Carthaginians. Huthing relating to expression is considered, man sacrifices were offered at the shrine modulation also must be so determined by of this divinity; and it was chiefly in the the expression, that each single idea in valley of Tophet, to the east of Jerusathe melody shall appear in the tone that lem, that this brutal idolatry was perpeis most proper for it. trated. 412 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [MON MOLOS'SUS, in Greek and Latin poe- life without any fixed residence. Monks try, a foot consisting of three long sylla- are distinguished by the color of their bles, as chrlechyard-wall. habits into black, white, gray, &c. MO'Mll ERS, the name by which cer- ON'OCI-ORD, a musical instrument tain religionists of the so-called Evangel- originally having but one string as its ical party have been designated in Swit- name imports; but it is now generally zerland, and some parts of France and constructed with two, by means of which Germany, since 1818. the musician is better enabled to try the.MONAD, in metaphysics, this word proportions of sounds and intervals, and has been used by Leibnitz and his follow- judge of the harmony of two tempered ers, partisans of what has been called the notes. Monadic Theory. " After studying," MON'OCIHROME, an ancient mode of says Stewart, "with all possible diligence painting in which only one color is what Leibnitz has said of his monads in used. The most numerous monuments different parts of his works, I find myself existing of this kind of painting are on quite incompetent to annex any precise terra cotta. idea to the word as he employed it." He MON'ODY, a species of poem of a then quotes the following as " some of his mournful character, in which a single most intelligible attempts to explain his mourner is supposed to bewail himself; meaninr:" " A simple substance has no thus distinguished from those pastoral parts: a compound substance is an aggre- elegies which are in the form of diagate of simple substances, or of monads." logues. " Monads, having no parts, are neither MONOG'AMY, the state or condition extended, figured, nor divisible. They of those who have only been once marare the real atoms of nature; in other ried, and are restrained to a single wife. words, the elements of things." MON'OGRAM, in arlchiology, a charMON'ARCI-Y, the government of a acter or cipher composed of one, two, or single person. Monarch and monarchy more letters interwoven, being an abbreare equiv.alent in common speech to king viation of a name; anciently used as a and kingdom: so that we often read of seal, badge, arms, e&. Printers, engravthe Spartan monarchs, &c., although the ers, &c., formerly made use of monograms government of Sparta was under a double to distinguish their works. race of kings reigning at the same time. MON'OGRAPH-I, a treatise on a single IMonarchies are usually said to be of four subject in literature or science. kinds-absolute, lincited, hereditary, and MONOLITH, a term recently introelective, which are self-explanatory terms. duced into the language, to signify a The only elective monarchy in Europe pillar or other large substance consisting was that of Poland. All absolute and of a single stone. Some remarkable limited monarchies have adopted the monoliths have been found in Egypt; hereditary principle. of these, the zodiac of Denderah, and the MON'ASTERY, the general name for obelisk of the Luxor, both of which have those religious houses appropriated to been removed to Paris, are well-known the reception and maintenance of monks examples. and nuns, but especially of the former. MON'OLOGUE, a dramatic scene, in MON'DAY, the second day of the week which a person appears alone on the is so called, and means, literally, the day stage, and soliloquizes. of the nnoon. Its equivalents in Fr. and MONOMA'NIA, the name given by Germ. are respectively Lundi and Mon- some physicians to that form of mania tag, signifying also day of the moon. in which the mind of the patient is abMO/I EY, in political economy, the sorbed by one idea. name given to the commodity adopted to MONOPH'YSITE, one who maintains serve as the universal equivalent of all that Jesus Christ had but one nature, or other commodities, and for which individ- that the human and the divine nature uals readily exchange their surplus pro- were so united as to form one nature ducts or services. only. MONK, a man who retires from the MONOP'OLY, an exclusive right, seordinary temporal concerns of the world, cured to one or more persons, to carry on and devotes himself to religion. Monks some branch of trade or manufacture, usually live in monasteries, on entering or the sole power of vending any species which they take a vow to observe certain of goods, obtained either by engrossing rules. Some, however, live as hermits in the articles in market by purchase, or by solitude, and others have lived a strolling a license from the government. The most: __ __I:::~:'~::: MOR] AND THE FINE ARTS. 413 frequent monopolies formerly granted, moral discourses in praise of virtue and were the right of trading to certain for- condemnation of vice. They were oceign countries, the right of importing or casionally exhibited as late as the reign exporting certain articles, and that of ex- of Henry VIII., and after various modiercising particular arts or trades. There fications, assumed the form of the masque, is, however, one species of monopoly, which became a favorite entertainment at sanctioned by the laws of all countries the court of Elizabeth and her successor. that have made any advances in the arts- MORAL PHILOSOPHY, the science the exclusive right of an invention or im- of manners and duty; the science which provement for a limited number of years. treats of the nature and condition of man MON'OTIEISM, the doctrine or he- as a social being, of the duties which relief of the existence of one God only: op- suit from his social relations, and the posed to polytheism, or a plurality of reasons on which they are founded. It gods. is denominated a science, as it deduces MON'OTONE, in rhetoric, a sameness the rules of conduct and duty from the of sound, or the utterance of successive principles and connections of our nature, syllables on one unvaried key, without and proves that the observance of them infliction or cadence. is productive of our happiness. It is MONSEIG/NEUR, a title of courtesy likewise called an art as it contains a in France, which was prefixed to the titles system of rules for becoming virtuous of dukes and peers, archbishops, bishops, and happy; and whoever practises these and some other exalted personages, and rules attains an habitual power or facilused in addressing them. llonsseigbeur ity of becoming virtuous and happy. It simply was, before the Revolution, the is an art and a science of the highest digtitle given to the dauphin. Monsieur is nity, importance, and use. Its object is now the common title of courtesy and man's duty, or his conduct in the several respect in France. moral capacities and connections which MONT DE PIETE, the name given on he sustains. Its office is to direct our some parts of the Continent to certain conduct, to show whence our obligations benevolent institutions, established for arise, and where they terminate. Its the purpose of lending money to the poor use or end is the attainment of happiness, at a moderate rate of interest. They and the means it employs are rules for originated under the papal government the right conduct of our moral powers. in the 15th century, and were intended to Like natural philosophy, it appeals to countervail the exorbitant usurious prac- nature or fact; it depends on observatices of the Jews, who formed at that pe- tion, and it builds its reasonings on plain riod the great money-lenders of Europe. incontrovertible experiments, or upon the MON'UMENT, in architecture, a fullest induction of particulars which the building or erection of any kind, destined subject will admit. The terms, moral to preserve the memory or achievements philosophy, moral science, and morals, of the person who raised it, or for whom are synonymous, though some writers it was raised; as a triumphal arch, a have employed them improperly to dcemausoleum, a pyramid, a pillar, a tomb, note the whole field of knowledge, relat&c. iing primarily to the mind of man, thus MOOD, (sometimes written mode,) in giving them a signification co-extensive grammar, the manner of forming a verb, with the word em-etaphysics. or the manner of the verb's inflections, so MORAL SENSE, an innate or natural as to express the different forms and man- sense of right and wrong; an instinctive ners of the action, or the different inten- perception of what is right or wrong in tions of the speaker. moral conduct, which approves some acMOOT'-CASE, or MOOT'-POINT, an tions and disapproves others, independent unsettled point or question to be mooted of education or the knowledge of any posor debated. itive rule or law. But the existence of MORAL'ITY, the duties of men in their any such moral sense is very much social character; or that rule of conduct doubted. which promotes the happiness of others, M O R A' I AN S, otherwise called and'renders their welfare accordant with HERNHUTTERS, or UNITED BRETHIREN, a our own. This implies, that our acts sect of Christians, among whom social must proceed from a motive of obedience polity makes a figure as conspicuous, at to the divine will.-The term nmoralities least, as religious doctrine. The United was given to a kind of allegorical plays, Brethren are much attached to instruformerly in vogue, and which consisted of mental as well as vocal music; celebrate 414 CYOLOPEDIA OF LIT.ERATURE [MO | agapso or love feasts; and cast lots, to MORT'MAIN, in law, an alienation discover the will of the Lord. These of lands, tenements, or hereditaments, to people live in communities, and provide any corporation, sole or aggregate, guild, for their poor; but do not make a com- or fraternity. The foundation of the mon stock of their property. They wear statutes of mortmain is Magna Charta; a plain, uniform dress, and are extremely by which it was rendered unlawful for methodical in all their concerns. any one to give his lands to a religious M3ORBIDEZ'ZA, delicacy or softness house, &c. in order to take them back of style, as opposed to anything harsh, again to hold of the same house; which hard, or angular. This word is more was extended, by interpretation, so as particularly applicable, in painting and to annul gifts of lands which religious sculpture, to representations of human houses did not give back to the donor flesh and its characteristics. to his own use, but kept in their own MOPI'DENTE. in music, a grace in hands after taking. use by the Indian school, which is effected MOSA'IC, in painting, a species of by turning upon a note without using representation of objects by imeans of the note below. very minute pieces of stones or pebblef MORElSQUE', in painting, a species of different colors, carefully inlaid upon of ornamlental painting, in which foliage, a round generally of metal. In St. fruits, flowers, &e., are cobined, by Peter's at Rome are to be seen some springing out of each other, without the works of this sort on a magnificent scale. introduction of the human figure, or that This art was practised at a very early of any animals; and receiving its name period, and was re-introduced to Italy from having been much used by the by the Byzantine Greeks. Moors, who, however, were not the in- MOSQUE, a iMahometan temple, or ventors of it. place of religious worship. All mosques M 0 R G ANA T'IC 1M AR R' IA GE, are square buildings, generally constructor Left-handed Miarriage, a marriage be- ed of stone, in the Moresque or Saracenic tween a man of superior and a woman of style of architecture. Before the chiefinferior rank, in which it is stipulated gate is a square court paved with white that the latter and her children shall not marble, and surrounded with a low galenjoy the rank or inherit the possessions lery whose roof is supported by marble of her husband. Such narriages are not pillars. In these galleries the Turks uncolmmono in the famnilies of sovereign wash themselves before they enter the princes, and of the higher nobility in mosque. Germany; but they are restricted to per- MOTET', in music, a composition consonages of these exalted classes. sisting of from one to eight parts, of a MOOR'ION, a kind of helmet copied by sacred character. the Spaniards from the Moors. MO'TION, in painting and sculpture, MOI) PITEUS, in ancient mythology, the change of place or position which the god of dreams; the son of Somnus, who from certain attitudes a figure seems to presided over sleep, with whom he is fre- be making in its representation in a quently confounded. The chief dislinc- picture. It can be only implied from the tion between them appears to be this: attitude which prepares the animal for Morpheus had the power of assuming the given change, and differs from action, only the human shape, while the trans- which see. Upon motion in art, depends formations of SoImnus were unlimited. that life which seenms to pervade a picture lH is generally represented as a beautiful when executed by a master. —In music, youth, with a bunch of poppies in his hand, the manner of beating the measure so as MOTlTAL'ITY, BILLS OF. Bills of to hasten or retard the pronunciation of Medortality are extracts from official regis- the words or notes. ters, showing the numbers who have died MO'TION IN COURT, in law, an in some fixed period of time, as a yeas, a occasional application to the court, by Umonth, or sa week; and hence they alre the parties or their counsel, for the purcelled yean.ly, monthly, or weekly bills. pose of obtaining some rule or order of MORT'G-AGE, literally, a dead pledge; court wvhich becomes necessary in the the g'rant of an estate in fee as security progress of ai cause. MIotions are either for the payment of money, and on the of. criminal linature, as motions for an condition that if the lmoney shall be paid atta.chiment for a misbehavior; r of a according to the contract, the grant shall civil nature. Motions are accompanied be void, and the mortg gee shall recon- by affidavits stating the facts on which vey the estate to the mortgagera. thaey are grounded, and generally prece-......................................................................... -j' UJN] AND THE FINE ARTS. 415 ded by a notice to the opposite party. the hour of prayer from the minaret, and In any public assembly, the proposing of reminds the faithful of their duty. any matter for the consideration of those MUFTI, the chief priest among the present. Mussulmans, appointed by the grand MOT'TO, is used to signify a word or seignior himself. lie is the oracle in all sentence added to a device; and when put doubtful questions of their law. upon a scroll, it is commonly employed MUGGILETO'NIANS, a religious sect as an external ornament of coat armor. which arose in England, about the year The use of mottoes for this purpose is 1657; so denominated from their leader very ancient. The term motto is also Ludowic Muggleton, a tailor, who, with applied as a sentence or quotation pre- his associate Reeves, asserted: that they fixed to any writing or publication. were the two last witnesses of God menMIOULD'INGS, in architecture, certain tioned in the Revelations. projections beyond the bare wall, column, MULAT'TO, a term in general use in &c., an assemblage of which forms a American countries, in which there exists cornice, or other decoration. a mixed population of different races and MOUNT'ING, the act of straining a colors, for the offspring of a union beprint or drawing upon canvass, or of pla- tween a white and a negro. cings it Lipon an ornamental frame. MUL'LION, in MIOV'ABLE FEASTS, certain festi- architecture, a vervals held in commemoration of different tical division beevents recorded in the Gospels and the tween the lights of / Nf Acts of the Apostles, and connected with windows, screens, the personal circumstances of Christ du- &c., in Gothic arring the last year of his earthly life, and chitecture. Mul- after his death. As they are reckoned lions are rarely backward and forward from his resur- found earlier than rection, and as the celebration of that the early English day depends on the time of new moon, style. Theirn ould- which varies at different times through ings are very vathe space of a month, these dependent rious, Sometimes festivals also vary in the same way. the styles in wainsEaster is always the first Sunday after coting are called the first new moon after the 21st of mullions. March; and from this all the others are MU'LIER, in reckoned for each year. law, a married woMOVE'MENT, in politics, an expres- man, in distinction from a concubine. sion that has been adopted of late yers Also, a name for lawful issue born in into the political vocabulary of most Eu- wedlock, who are preferred before an ropean nations, signifying that party in elder brother of illegitimate birth. a state whose principles consist in a rest- MULTO'CA, the name given to the less endeavor to obtain such concessions code of laws by which the Turkish empire in favor of popular rights as will ulti- is governed, consisting of the precepts mately place the chief functions of gov- contained in the Koran, the oral injuncernment in the hands of the people. It tions of Mohanmmed, and the decisions of is opposed to the Conservative party. the early caliphs and doctors. It relates MUCK, RUNNING A, a phrase which to every subject of life, and comprises has been adopted into the English lan- various matters appertaining to governguage to signify an indiscriminate attack ment, the sultan being the sole judge of upon friends and enemies. This expres- its application to particular cases. sion is derived from the Javan word MUNICIPAL, in the Rolan civil law, amlok, which means to kill; the inhabi- an epithet which sinifies, invested with tants of Java~, anld many other of the the rights andl privileges of Roman eitiAsiatic islands, being remarkable for asn zens. Thus the municipal cities were irresistible phrensy resulting from a de- those whose inlhabitants were capable of sire of vengeance, which ler,.ds them to enjoying civil offices in the city of Rome; aim at indiscriminate destruction, and though the greater part of them had no thus to subject themselves to be treated suffraoes or votes there. —In modern like wild beasts which it is impossible to times, I7luiscipal law pertains solely to take alive. the citizens and inhabitants of a state, MUEZ'ZIN, or MUEDTDIN, among and is thus distinguished from political the Mahosetanus, the crier who announces law, commerciae l law, and the laws of na 416 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [MUS tions. And those are called municipal apart for learned men in the royal palace officers who are elected to defend the in- of Alexandria, by Ptolemy Philadelphus, terest of cities, to maintain their rights who founded a college, and gave salaries and privileges, and to preserve order and to the several members, actding also an harmony among the citizens; such as extensive library, which was one of the mayors, sheriffs, aldermen, &c. most celebrated in the world. MU'NIMENTS, in law, the writings MU/SIC, is the science of sounds, conrelating to a person's inheritance, by sidered as capable of producing melody, which he is enabled to defend his title to and agreeably affecting the mindl by a his estate: or, in a more general sense, due disposition, combination. and proporall manner of evidences, s.ch as charters, tion. It treats of the number, time, feofmnents, releases, &c. division, succession, and combination of MUIRAL CROWN, among the ancient sounds. It is divided into theoretical Romans a golden crown or circle of gold, music, which inquires into the properties indented and embattled, bestowed on him of concords and discords, and explains who first mounted the wall of a besieged their combinations and proportions for place and there planted a standard. the production of melody and harmony; MUR'DER, in law, the wilful and felo- and practical music, which is the art of nious killing a person from premeditated applying the theory of music in the commalice; provided the party wounded or position of all sorts of tunes and airs. otherwise hurt, die within a year and a Music is also either vocal or instrumental. day after the fact be committed. To Vocal music is the melody of a single constitute murder, in law, the person voice, or the harmony of two or more killing another must be of sound mind or voices in concert; instrsumenetal music is in possession of his reason, and the act that produced by one or more instrumust be done with malice prepense and ments. As civilization advances, music, aforethought; but malice may be implied, as a science, gains new advocates; and as well as expressed. the day is evidently fast approaching MUR'ZAS, the name given to the when few will decry music on the ground hereditary nobility of the Tartars, or, that its effects are merely sensual. It is more strictly, perhaps, to the second class addressed to the ear, indeedl; but all the of their nobility, the first or principal influences which we receive from without class being designated beys. are conveyed through the medium of the MU'SES, in the poetry of the ancients, senses; and the tones of music often personifications of the various branches speak a language to the soul richer in of delightful exercises in which human meaning than words could express. genius displays itself. They were beau- Nothing is merely sensual which makes tifully said to be the daughters of Jove a lasting spiritual impression upon us; and Mnemosyne, or Memory; and they and those who deny to music such a were represented as companions of Apol- power, have not heard its sublimest lo upon Parnassus. As the subject was strains, or have not the capacity to apwholly dependent upon the fancy of the preciate them. With regard to the anpoet, it was not always treated of tiquity of music, it appears to have been alike. Thus according to some, all the almost coeval with man. Moses tells us functions of the Muses were united that Jubal, who lived before the flood, in three persons; Mnome, Acede, and was the inventor of the kinnor and the Melete; that is, Memory, Song, and huah, i. e. the harp and the organ. Meditation; but it was more usual to The Jews were fond of music in their rereckon nine, and to name them as follows: ligious ceremonies, their feasts, their Clio, to whom they attributed the inven- public rejoicings, their marriages and tion of history; 3Melpomene, the inventor their mournings. Kings and great men of tragedy; Thalia, of comedy; Euterpe, among the Jews studied music, and David of the use of the flute; Terpsichore, of made a very great proficiency in it. In the harp; Erato, of the lyre and lute; their time, indeed, music had reached Calliope, of heroic verse; Urania, of its highest perfection among the Hebrew astrology; and Polyhymnia, of rhetoric. nation, and part of their religious service MvIUSE UJM, a place set apart as a re- consisted in chanting solemn psalms, pository for curious, valuable, and inter- with instrumental accompanimlents.esting objects connected with the arts and The invention of the lyre is ascribed to sciences, more especially such as relate Hermes Trismegistus, the Mercury of the to natural history. The term was origi- Egyptians, which is a proof of its antinally applied to a study or a place set quity: but a still greater proof of the MYS] AND THE FINE ARTS. 417 existence of musical instruments amongst riety of picturesque scenes, by means of them at a very early period, is drawn several fragments or sections of landfrom the figure of an instrument said to scapes on cards, which may be placed tobe represented on an obelisk, erected, as gether in numberless combinations. is supposed, by Sesostris at IHeliopolis. MYiTRMIDONS, in classical mytholoThe (reeks, we know, were exceedingly gy, a people on the southern borders of fond of music. It had a considerable Thessaly, who accompanied Achilles to share in their education; and so great the Trojain war. was its influence over their bodies as well MYS'TERY, something secret or con as their minds, that it was thought to be cealed, impossible or difficult to cornpre a remedy for many disorders. hend. All religions, true or false, have MU'SICAL GLASSES, a musical in- their mysteries. In the religions of Pa strument consisting of a number of glass gan antiquity, the secret rites and cergoblets, resembling finger glasses, which emonies performed by a select few in are tuned by filling them more or less honor of some divinity were so called. with water, and played upon with the "Each of the Pagan gods," says Bishop end of a finger damped. Warburton, " had, besides the public and MUS'SULMAN, or MOS'LEM, a fol- open, a secret worship paid them, into lower of sMahomet. This word signifies, which none were admitted but those who in the Turkish language, a true believer. had been selected by preparatory ceremoMUSTE'R-ROLL, a specific list of the nies, called initiation; and this secret officers and men in every regiment, troop, worship was termed the mysteries." The or company, made out hy the adjutant, first mysteries of which we have any acand delivered to the inspecting field- count were those of Isis and. Osiris in officer or pay-master, &c., by which they Egypt; whence they were introduced into are paid, and their strength and condi- Greece and Italy, and in process of time tion known. disseminated through the northern and MUITE, in law, a person that stands western nations of Europe. The religion speechless when he ought to answer or of the Jetws was likewise full of mysteplead. —In gramnmar, a letter that repre- ries; their laws, nay, their whole constitusents no sound. Mutes are of two kinds: tion and nation, were mysterious; but the pur e emutes which entirely intercept the mysteries of the Old Testament were the voice, as /, p, and t, in the syllables, generally types or shadows of something ek, ep, et: and the impure smutes, which in the New. The Christian religion has intercept the voice less suddenly, as b, d, also its mysteries; but, in the scripture and g, in the syllables eb, ed, eg. language, the word mystery is used with MUTES, in the grand seignior's se- some latitude, and denotes whatever is raglio, dumb officers who are sent to stran- not to be known without a divine revelagle, with the bow-string, bashaws or other tion. persons who fall under the sultan's dis- MYS'TERIES, in modern literature, a pleasure.-ll/utes, among undertakers, species of dramatic composition, with men who are employed to stand at the characters and events drawn from sacred door of the deceased, until the body is history. Saint Gregory Nazianzen corncarried out. posed the earliest sacred dramas extant, MU'TINY, an insurrection of soldiers on the model of the Greek tragedies, but or seamen, or open resistance to the au- with Christian hymns substituted for the thority of their commanders. Any at- ancient chorus. The mysteries of the tempt to excite opposition to lawful au- middle ages are thought by some to have thority, or disobedience, of commands, is been first introduced by pilgrims returnby the laws of most nations declared to be ing from the Holy Land. They originated mutiny, and is punishable by the sentence among, and were probably first performof a court-martial. ed by, ecclesiastics. MU'ZARAB, Christians living under MYSTTICISMiI in religion, a word of the government of the Moors in Spain; so very vague signification, applied, for the called, it is said, from an Arabic werd signi- most part, indiscrininately to all those fying imitators or followers of the Arabs. views or tendencies in religion which asMYOL'OGY, the doctrine of the mus- pire towards a more direct communicacles. In the Fine Arts, the term is ap- tion between man and God, not through plied to a description of the muscles of the medium of the senses, but through animals. the inward perception of the mind, than MYRIORA'MA, a movable picture, that which is afforded us through revelacapable of forming an almost endless va- tion. 27 418 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [NAR MYS'TICS, a religious sect distinguish- prophets, was a native of Elkoshai, a ed by their professing a pure, sublime, little village of Galilee. The subject of and perfect devotion, with an entire dis- his prophecy is the destruction of Nineinterested love of God, free from all selfish veh, which he describes in the most lively considerations, and by their aspiring to a and pathetic manner; his style being bold state of passive contemplation. and figurative. MYTHIOL'OGY, the history of the NAIADS, inmythology,water-nymphs, fabulous gods and heroes of antiquity, or deities that preside over brooks and with the explanations of the fables or al- fountains. They are represented as beaulegories couched therein. According to tiful women, with their heads crowned the opinion of most writers, among whom with rushes, and reclining against an urn is that profound thinker, Lord Bacon, a from which water is flowing. great deal of concealed instruction and NAIVETE', naturalness; absence of allegory was originally intended in most artifice. The essential meaning of the part of the ancient mythology: he ob- word is a natural, unreserved expression serves, that some fables discover a great of sentiments and thoughts, without reand evident'similitude, relation, and con- gard to conventional rules, and without nection with the thing they signify, as weighing the construction which may be well in the structure of the fable, as in put upon the language or conduct. the meaning of the names whereby the NAME, a word whereby men have persons or actors are characterized. lie agreed to express some idea; or which also takes a more enlarged and higher serves to signify a thing or subject spoken view of the subject, and looks on them not of. Names are either proper or appelas the product of the age, nor the inven- lative. Proper names are those which tion of the poets, bat as sacred relics, represent some individual thing or peror, as he terms them, "gentle whispers, son, so as to distinguish it from all other and the breath of better times, that from things of the same species; and are either the tradition of more ancient nations, called Christian, as that given us at bapcame at length into the flutes and trum- tism, or surnames; the first imposed for pets of the Greeks." the distinction of persons, answering to the Roman prsenomene; the second for the distinction of families, answering to MN the noment of the Romans, and the patronymicums of the Greeks. The ancient Britons, says Camden, generally took N, the fourteenth letter and eleventh their namaes from colors, because they consonant of the English alphabet, is an painted themselves. When they were imperfect mute or semi-vowel, because subdued by the Romans, they took Ropart of its articulation may be continued man names; the Saxons introduced the for any length of time; it is also a liquid, German names; the Danes brought with and a nasal letter, the sound being formed them their names; and tle Normans inby forcing the voice strongly through the troduced theirs. mouth and nostrils, which, at the same NAR RA'TION, in rhetoric, the term time, is intercepted by applying the tip usually applied to the second division of of the tongue to the fore part of the pal- an oratorical discourse, in which the facts ate, with the lips open. It has one sound of the case are set forth from which the only, and after vs is silent, or nearly so, orator intends to draw his conclusions. as in hymn, conrdemn. Amiong the an- This part of a discourse should be characcients, N stood as a numeral for 900; terized by the greatest sim-plicity of style, and, with a dash over it, for 9000. N. as well as by absence of all rhetorical oror No. stands as an abbreviation for nus- naments. mereo, number; also for north. NrAItCIS'STTS, in mythology, the beauNA'BOB, an Indian word for a deputy; tiful sen of Cephesus and the nymph Lia title of dignity and power applied to riope, whose history formed one of the those who act under the soubah s or vice- most f-avorite topics with tle poets of roys. The term, however, has become classical antiquity. Though beloved by proverbial, of late years, to signify a all the Grecian nyphs, he treated them person who has acquired great wealth, with contemptuous indifference; but havand lives in great splendor. ing accidentally seen his own imaage reNA'.1IUM, or the preophecy of iaVhuest, fleeted in a fountain, he becamle so enaa canonical book of the 1Od Testasment. mored of it that he languished till he Nahum, the seventh of the twelve minor died, and thus realized the Drophecy of - AT]A AND TilE fINE ARTS. 419 Tiresias, that he should live until he saw we e, the whole universe-all that i himself. After his death the gods, moved comprised under the superintending care with compassion for his fite, changed of the great Creator. Thus when we say, him into the flower which bears his name. Nature is benevolent and wise, we under NATA'LIS, or NATALIs DP:ES, prop- stand either the Deity himself, or c. 1 erly signifies a, bith-day; but it was power performing the will of the Deity, used by the ancients more particularly and conducting everything in this world to signify the feast held on the anniver- under his order: a notion supported by sary of the birth-day of an emperor: some ancient systems of philosophyj hence in time it served to denote any sort adopted by poets, and most easy to popuof feast; and the primitive Christians lar idea. Independently of this, however used it in this sense. we often say Nature herself, &c. in a NA'TION, a collective appellation for merely figurative sense; personifying the; people inhabiting a certain extent of laws of nature, that is, the properties of territory under the same government. matter. When, therefore, we say, that The word is also used in seome universi- nature covers the earth with abundance, ties by way of distinguishing students of we mean that God covers the earth with different districts or countries, as the case abundance; when we say that nature is may be. This latter meaning is borrow- magnificent and inexhaustible, we mean ed from the custom that -was adopted in that creation is magnificent and inex- the University of Paris previously to the haustible. When we speak of the study institution of faculties, when those who of nature, we mean the study of creation; resorted to it from different countries which embraces first the knowledge of lived under the same institutions and things, and secondly the knowledge of masters, a com.mosn country, however, the properties of things. Nature (meanbeing the only bond of union. ing thereby the whole body of created NATIONAL GUARD (OF FRANCE;) things) presents an assemblage of objects a military institution composed of citi- in every respect worthy of the attention zens, and not incorporated with the stand- of mankind. Nature is made to conform ing army. It may in fact be considered in some degree to the hand of man, and the army of the people, in opposition to resist only when his ignorance violates its the standing force, considered as the army essential order. It yields its secrets to *of the state. It is, therefore, not liable his inquiries; to his sensibility it presents to be sent across the frontiers, except by the most engaging images; and remains, the consent of the individuals composing to all ages, a picture perpetually renewed it; but when the country is attacked, it of the primitive creation of God.-There is expected to act, with or without the is another sense, too, in which the word aid of the regulars; also to concur with nature is of continual occurrence; viz., the latter in preserving the public peace. the nature of man; by which we underThe officers are elected by their comrades, stand the peculiar constitution of his body and not appointed by the public author- or mind, or the qualities of the species ities. which distinguish him from other animals. NATIVITY, the day of a person's So also we express by this word, the esbirth. The word nativity is chiefly used sential qualities or attributes of any other in speaking of the sainLts as the nativity thing; as the natu e of blood, of a metal, of St. John the Baptist, &c. But when of plants, &c. Again, when we allude to we say the Nativitty, i is understood to the established or regular course of things, mean th-at of Jesus Chri, o Christritmas we say, this or that event is not accordDay. ing to nature. —In the Fine Arts, nlatzre NAT'URAL, in music, a character often means the successfuls imitation of marked thus!, whose office is to con- nature; but, with artists of a hif-her order, tradicet the fl4ts or sharps placed at the nature does not sig'nify a vserc copy, but beginning of a stave or elsewhere, and by as it were, the expression of tho idreal of the use of which the note to which it is nature, at which she m.imns in all her flr|prefixed returns to the diatonic scale. mttions, yet without ever absolutely'at| i ATURALIZA'TION, in law, the act taining it.-By the law of 7natL sre is unof naturaliszing n an lien, or placing himin eritood, thrat systeml of principles which Iin the condition (that is, investing him human reason has discovered to frm-ulate with the rights and privileges) of a natu- the conduct of man in all his various reral subject lations. In its most extensive sens, it i NATURE, a word of vast and copre- comprehends man's duties to -od, to himhensive signification, embracing as it self, and to all mankind. L_ ___. ___ 420 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [NEF NA'VAL AR'CHITECTURE, or SHIP- cannot be otherwise, or whatever is done BUILDING, the art of constructing vessels by a power that is irresistible; in which for the purposes of navigation, was, in all sense it stands opposed to freedom. The probability, anterior to the deluge, and schools distinguish a physical necessity is generally admitted to have been hand- and a moral necessity; and a simple. or ed down by Noah to his posterity. That, absolute necessity, and a relative one. in a rude state, it was practised in Egypt, Physical necessity, is the want of a printhere is no question; and the Greeks are ciple, or of a natural means necessary to supposed to have derived their knowledge act, which is otherwise called a physical of it from the Carthaginians. But nei- or natural impotence. Mlural necessity, is ther in Greece nor in Rome, did naval only a great difficulty, such as that arisarchitecture rise to what may be termed ing from a long habit, a strong inclinaa scientific knowledge of the art of ship- tion, or violent passion. Simple orabsobuilding. The crusades first gave the lute necessity, is that which has no impulse to improvements in ship-building. dependence on any state or conjuncture, In modern times the United States and or any particular situation of things, but England excel in naval architecture. is found everywhere, and in all the cirThe American vessels in elegance of form cumstances in which the agent can be and speed in sailing, surpass those of all supposed. Relative necessity, is that other nations. which places a man in a real incapacity NAVA/LIS CORO'NA, a crown among of acting or not acting in those circumthe Romans, given to him who first stances, and that situation he is found in, boarded an enemy's ship; it was a circle though in other circumstances, and in of gold representing the beaks of ships. another state of things, he might act or NAVE, in architecture, that part of a not act. When a man's actions are detemple enclosed by the walls. The part termined by causes beyond his control, he in front of it was called pronaos, and that acts from necessity, and is not a free in the rear posticum. In modern archi- agent. tecture, it is the middle part or alley of a NECRIOLOGY, a register of the deaths church, between the aisles or wings. of benefactors in a monastery. FormerNAVIGA/TION, the art and science ly, also, what is now called martyrology by which, in open seas, ships are conduct- was called necrology.-A register of dised from port to port. This is effected by tinguished persons who die within a cercharts of the seas, and by keeping a jour- tain period (not a record of their lives nal of the courses from hour to hour, and and actions, for that is biography) is also the distance on each by means of the log known by this term. line, each knot on which corresponds to a NEC'ROMANCY, a sort of magic pracmile of distance. Also by observations on tised by the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. the sun, moon, and stars, made with instru- by which they attempted to raise the meats, and checked by tables and alma- dead or make them appear. The witch nacs. of Endor is a striking example of a bold NAVIGA'TION LAWS, a branch of and artful deception of this kind. maritime law, defining the peculiar priv- NECROP'OLIS, in antiquity, the name ileges to be enjoyed by British ships, given to some ancient cemeteries in the and the way in which they shall be man- vicinity of large cities. It has also been ned; as also the conditions under which given to some of our modern ones. foreign ships shall be allowed to engage NEC'TAR, in mythology, the supposed in the trade of this country, either as drink of the gods, and which was imaginimporters or exporters of commodities. ed to contribute much towards their eterNA'VY, the whole naval establishment nal existence. It was, according to the of any country, including the collective fables of the poets, a most beautiful and body of ships, officers, men, stores, &c. delicious liquor, far exceeding anything NAZ'ARITE, among the Jews, one that the human mind can imagine. It who had laid himself under the obligation gave a bloom, a beauty and a vigor, which of a vow to observe the rules of Nazarite- surpassed all conception, and together ship, either for his whole life as was the with ambrosia (their solid food.) repaired case with Samuel, and John the Baptist, all the decays or accidental injuries of or only for a specified time. The rules the divine constitution. of Nazariteship, during the time specified NEFAS'TI DI'ES, an appellation in the vow, obliged the man or woman given by the Romans to those days whereto more than ordinary degrees of purity. in it was not allowed to administer jusNECES'SITY, the cause of that which tice or hold courts. NEO] AND THE FINE ARTS. 421 NEGA'TION, in logic, a declaration carried without opposition.-Nemine disthat something is not, or the affirming sentiente, (no one dissenting,) are terms one thing to be different from another; similarly applied. as, the soul is not matter. NEM'ESIS, a Greek divinity, worship NEG'ATIVE, in general, something pod as the goddess of vengeance. Acthat implies a negation: thus we say, neg- cording to Hesiod, she was the daughter ative quantities, negative signs, nega- of Night, and was represented as pursu tive powers, &c. " Our words and ideas," ing with inflexible hatred the proud and says Dr. Watts, "are so unhappily linked insolent. The reluctance of the Greeks together, that we can never know which to speak boastfully of their good fortune, are positive, which negative ideas, by lest they should incur a reverse, is well the words that express them: for some known; and from various passages in the positive terms denote a negative idea, as Anthologia, and other ancient writings, it dead; and there are both positive and is clear that this feeling originated in a negative terms invented to signify the desire to propitiate this divinity. The same and contrary ideas, as unhappy and worship of this goddess was very extennmiserable." If we say, such a thing is sive. Temples were erected to her honor, "not a man," or " not white," nothing is not only in Greece, but throughout the determined; the thing may be a dog, and Roman empire. Nowhere, however, was it may be black: something of a positive her worship so pompously celebrated as character is necessary to express what it at Rhamnus, a town of Attica, where she is.-Negative pregnant, in law, a neg- had a statue 10 cubits high of a single ative which implies an' affirmation; as stone, and so exquisitely beautiful as to when a person denies having done a thing equal even the finest productions of Phidin a certain manner or at a certain time, ias. as stated in the declaration; which im- NEOL'OGY, a new phrase or word inplies that he did it in some manner. troduced into a language, or any innovaNEIIEMAI'AH, a canonical book of the tion on ordinary modes of expression. Old Testament, so called from the name Most European tongues have their clasof its author. Nehemiah was born at sical diction fixed by precedent and auBabylon during the captivity, and sue- thority; and words introduced by bold or ceeded Ezra in the government of Judah careless writers, since this standard was and Jerusalem. He was a Jew, and was established, go by the name of neologisms promoted to the office of cup-bearer to until usage has added them at last to the Artasxerxes Longimanus, king of Persia; received national vocabulary. Areology, when the opportunities he had of being in the last century, was the name given daily in the king's presence, together by orthodox divines in Germany, to the with the favor of Esther the queen pro- novel system of interpretation which cured him the favor of being authorized then began to be applied by many to the to repair and fortify the city of Jerusa- records of revealed religion. lenm, in the same manner as it was before NEOME'NIA, in antiquity, a festival its destruction by the Babylonians. observed at the beginning of a lunar NE INJUS'TE VEX'ES, in law, a writ month in honor of all the gods, but parthat lies for a tenant who is distrained by ticularly Apollo. his lord for more services than he is NE'OPHYTE, in the primitive church obliged to perform, being a prohibition to newly converted Christians were so termthe lord not to distrain or vex his tenant. ed; and the same appellation is still NEMTI/E'AN GAMES, in antiquity, given, in the Roman Catholic church, to celebrated games in Greece, deriving converts made by missionaries among the their name from Nemaea, a village be- heathen, to any person entering on the tween the cities of Cleonm and Philus, priestly office, and to those persons newwhere they were celebrated every third ly received into the communion of the year. They were instituted in memory church. of Archemorus or Opheltes; but, after NEOPLATON'ISTS, in ancient litersome intermission, were revived by Her- ature, the mystical philosophers of the eules, in honor of Jupiter, after his vie- school of Ammonius Saccas and Plotinus tory over the Nemsean lion. The exercises are commonly so called, who mixed some were chariot races, and all the parts of tenets of ancient Platonism with others the Pentathlon. derived from a variety of sources, and NEM. CON. for Nemine contradicente, particularly from the demonology of the (no one opposing,) a term chiefly used in East. They flourished in the 4th and parliamentary bodies when anything is 5th centuries of the Christian era. 422 C'YCLOPEDIA O0 LITERIATURIE [NUW NEORA'MA, an invention of Allaux, a were formed from aqueons solution opFrenchman, in 1827, for representing the posed to the Plisutonic theory, which attiriinterior of a large building in which the butes the earth's formation to the action spectator appears to be placed. Every- of fire. thing is exhibited to the life by means of NEREIDS, in mythology, sea-nynmphs, groups and shaiding. daughters of Nereu.s and D)ois, andc celeNEPEN/THE; a species of magic po- brated for their beauty. In ancient i'ontion, mentioned by the Greeks and RPmn- uments the Nereids are represented as ans, which was supposed to have the riding upon sea-horses, sometimnes with power of obliterating all pain and sorrow the human form entire, and at others from the memory of those who partook with the tail of a fish. of it. It is now used figuratively to ex- NE'REUS, a marine Grecian deity, press any efficient remedy in giving rest son of Ocean and Earth. Ele possessed and consolation to an afflicted mind. the gift of prophecy, and was cistinguishNEPHA'LIA, Grecian festivals or ed for his lusowledge and love of truth sacrifices instituted in honor of various and justice. deities, as A}urora, Venus, &e. They N ESS, the termination of several were so called because no wine was oifer- names of places in Great Britain, where ed during their celebration. It was there is a headland or promontory, as chiefly at Athens that these festivals were Inverness, Sheerness. The word is probobserved. ably derived from the Fr. nez, or the NE PLUS ULTRA, i. e. no farther, the Germ. nase, nose. extremity or utmost extent to which any- NESTO'RIANS. the followers of Nesthing can go. torius, patriarch of Constantinople, in the NEPTUNA'LIA, in antiquity, feasts first half of the fifth century. This preobserved by the.I nanns in honor of late agitated the Christian world, after Neptune. They difibr from the Consua- the Arian controversy had been quietly lia, in which that )lod was considered as settled, by the introduction of certain presiding over horses and the manege subtle disputations concerning the incarwhereas, the Yeptttn.alio were feasts or nation of C!hrist, from whence debates Neptune, in his more general character and contentions arose which harassed as god of the sea. the clhureh for the space of mlore than NEP'TUNE, a Roman divinity, whose two cernturies. IHe affcted to cdistinattributes are nearly the same as those guishwiith peculiar precision between the of the Greek Poseidon. He was the divine and bhumn l natures united in brother of Jupiter, and presided over the Christ; and, in guarding over-c:.refully against the propensity which he di.e-overed in the Christians of his own daty to;~K ^^ ^^^confuse the two, and look upon themn as'' K~ sNEUTPAL'ITY, the state of being ~ ~ xN'1f~;.'~unengaged in disputes or contests between others; the state of taking no part on eitlhr side. —In istelm rational Lw, u that li^4^ ^ dcondition of a nation or stt;e in which,vl!v _ [ = it does not tale part directly or inlirect-?'' zli~ ~Iy in a war between other s-ttes. A.^ e/mT 4 /^neutral state has the righlt of firi-nishing to either of- tl e contendingo parties all supplies which do not fall within the de4z1V \, 1 ~oTscription of contrabands qfzoar, whi eh sig- nifies in general, arms and munit ions of sea. He is represented similar in ap- war, and those out of which munitions of pearance to Jupiter, but his symbols are war are mnade. All such articles are a trident and the dolphin. liable to be seized. A neutral state has NEPTUN'IAN, or NEPTUN'IST, one also the right to conclude such treaties with who adopts the theory that the sub- either belligerent party, as are unconatances of which the earth is composed nected with the subject of the war. NIB] AND THE FINE ARTS. 423 NEWEL, in architecture, the space, NEW TES'TAMENT, the name given either solid or open, round which the to that portion of the Bible which cornsteps of a staircase are turned about. prises the writings of the apostles and NEWS, literally, fresh information. their immediate disciples. It consists of This word has been fancifully derived five historical books, viz., the respective from the initial letters of the four cardi- Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and nal points of the compass, north, east, John, and the Acts of the Apostles (atwest, and south. tributed to Luke;) of twenty-one aposNEWS'PAPERS, publications in num- tolical epistles, of which the early fathers bers, consisting commonly of single sheets, have unanimously ascribed fourteen to and published at short and stated inter- St. Paul, three to St. John, two to St. vals, conveying intelligence of passing Peter, one to St. James, and one to St. events. In Home, under the government Jude; and of the book known by the name of the emperors, periodical notices of pass- of the Apocalypse or the Revelation of ing events (diurna, acta diurna) were St. John. compiled and distributed for general NEWTO'NIAN SYS'TEM, or Newtoreading; but our accounts of these an- niazn Philosophy, a phrase often applied cient newspapers, derived from classical to the Copernican or Solar system, which sources, are somewhat obscure and un- was generally adopted before Newton's certain. In modern Europe, the earliest time; and by others applied to the laws occasional sheets of daily intelligence of planetary motion, first promulgated seem to have appeared at Venice, during by Kepler and Hooke; but strictly applithe war of 1563 against the Turks; and cable only to certain geometrical and the earliest regular paper to have been a analytical demonstrations of those known monthly one, published in the same city laws, as developed by the genius and inby the state: but these were distributed dustry of Sir Isaac Newton. The chief in manuscript, and, owing to the jealousy parts of the Newtonian philosophy are exof the government, continued to be so plained by the author in his " Principia.' down to very late times. Extraordinary NEW YEAR'S DAY. The celebration gazettes are said to have been published of the commencement of the new year in England by authority, during the time dates from high antiquity. The Jews when the arrival of the Spanish Armada regarded it as the anniversary of Adam's was apprehended; but the specimens pre-birth-day, and celebrated it with splendid served in the British Museum, and so entertainments-a practice which they long regarded as authentic, seem now to have continued down to the present tile. be demonstrated forgeries. The Merca- The Romans also made this a holiday, ries, Intelligencers, &c. of the civil wars, and dedicated it to Janus with rich and seem to have been the first English pa- numerous sacrifices; the newly-elected pers which appeared regularly. The Ga- magistracy entered upon their duties on zette de France appeared regularly from this day; all undertakings then com1631 to 1792, forming a collection of 163 menced were considered sure to terminate volumes; it was continued, also, but with favorably; the people made each other some interruptions, through the period of presents of gilt dates, figs, and plums; the revolution; and the name still exists, and even the emperors received from the journal so called being at present, their subjects new year's gifts, which at however, but a second-rate paper. From a later period it became compulsory to their first imperfect beginning, news- bestow. papers have gradually increased in num- NIBELUN'GEN, LAY OF THE, the her, matter, and consequence, until they name given to the most ancient existing form, in many countries, one of the most monument of German epic poetry. The important features in the social economy origin of this poem is veiled in great obof the people; exercising a marked in- scurity; it is supposed to have existed, in fluence on domestic manners, literature, substance at least, two centuries before and usages, but more especially powerful the reign of Charlemagne, and, like the as a great political instrument. early compositions of poets in all ages, NEW STYLE, the method of reckon- to have consisted originally of detached ing, the days of the year in accordance ballads and poems, which were afterwards with the Gregorian Calendar, which ad- gradually collected, and at length mouldjusts the odd hours and minutes, by which ed into the complete form in which they the earth's revolution exceeds 365 days, at present exist. The last of the modifiand renders celestial phenomena and ter- cations which it underwent took place restrial reckoning equal. towards the end of the 12th century, and 424 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [NIX is attributed to the Minnesinger Hen- council was attended by upwards of 250 rich von Ofterdingen. The story turns bishops, of whom a great majority came upon the adventures of Chrirahild of from the East, by presbyters, deacons, Burgundy, who is first won by the valiant and others from all parts of the Christian Siegtried, and after he is treacherously world. The chief question, as was remurdered gives her hand to Attila, king marked above, was the Arian heresy; of the Huns, chiefly in the hope that and the council issued in the excommunithrough his power and influence she may cation of Arius. The decision of this be revenged on the murderers of her for- council had not the effect of restoring tranmer lord. The Nibelunzgen Lied formed quillity to the Eastern church, for the for many centuries the chief traditionary Arian controversy was still warmly carrecord of the romantic deeds and senti- ried on; but it has supplied that mode ments of the German nation, but at the of stating the doctrine of the Divinity (as era of the Reformation it sank wholly far as relates to the Father and Son) in into oblivion; from which, however, it has which it has ever since been received by within the last thirty years been rescued, the orthodox sects. and permanently pllacel by the labors Ni'CENE CREED, in ecclesiastical and commentaries of IIagen, Zeune, Siam- affairs, a particular creed, or confession rock, and Schlegel, among the most con- of faith, drawn up by the clergy in the spicuous monuments of human genius, council of Nice, and since adopted by the All the questions relating to its origin, church of England. nature, and characteristics are discussed NICHE, in architecture, a hollow or with great interest by the German lite- recess in a wall, for the reception of a rati, to many of whom, indeed, it forms a statue or bust. distinct branch of study. In the Nibelun- NICOLA'TIANS, one of the earliest genl Lied, in the same manner as in the Christian sects, mentioned in the Ihevelegends of Troy and of Iceland, the inter- lations of St. John, where the angel of est turns on the fate of a youthful hero, God reproaches the church of Pergamos who is represented as invested with all the with harboring persons of this denominaattributes of beauty, magnanimity, and tion. They are there characterized as triumph, but dearly purchasing all these inclining to the licentious and pagan perishable glories by the certainty of an practices of the Gentiles. early and predicted death. In his person, NIM'BUS, a circle or disk, of a lumias is usual, we have a living type both of nots nature, which, on sundry ancient the splendor and the decline of the heroic medals and other monuments, environs world. The poem closes with the deserip- the heads of divinities or sovereigns: the tion of a great catastrophe borrowed from primitive Christian artists adopted this a half-historical incident in the ealy tra- usage, and applied it to their personificaditions of the north. In this respect also, tions of the great Founder of their relias in many others, we cannot fail to per- gion, and also to the saints and martyrs ceive a resemblance to the Iliad. If the of the holy church. There can be little last catastrophe of the Goerman poem be doubt but that the origin of this custom one more tragical, bloody, and litanic arose from a desire on the part of the than anything in Homer, the death of the people of remote antiquity to compliment German hero, on the other hand, has in their kings and heroes by decorating it more solemnity and stillness, and is them with a resemblance to the rays of withal depicted with more exquisite the sun, the great apparent source of touches of tenderness than any similar life, heat, and fertility. scene in any heroic poem with which we N IOBE, in classical mythology, are acquainted. The Nibelunrgens Lied daughter of Tantalus, and one of the is, moreover, a poem abounding in vari- Pleiades, married to Amphion, king of ety; in it, both sides of human life, the Thebes. Proud of her numerous and joyftl as well as the sorrowful, are de- flourishing offspring, she provoked the anpieted in all their reality. ger of Apollo and Diana, who slew them NICE, COUN'CIL OF, the first, and. all: she was herself changed by Jupiter, according to most writers, the most im- in Phrygia, into a rock, from which a portant, oecumenical council held in the rivulet, fed by her tears, continually Christian church. It was convened, A.D. pours. The subject of Niobe and her 325, at NicTa, by the emperor Constan- children was a great favorite with the tine, in order to settle the differences tlhat poets of antiquity. had arisen in the Christian church in NIZAM', the title of great officers of respect to the doctrines of Arius. This state in the Asiatic governments. _..._____~___.________________ NON] AND THE FINE ARTS. 425 NOBIL'ITY, the general appellation NOMENCLA'TOR, in Roman antiquifor a privileged order of society which ty, was usually a slave who attended exists in every civilized country, with upon persons that stood candidates for ofthe exception of the United States and fices, and prompted or suggested to them Norway. In Roman antiquity persons the names of all the citizens th6y met, were not noble by birth, but in conse- that they might address them by their quence of the public offices held by their names; which, among that people, was esancestors, who had the sole right to be- teemed an especial act of courtesy. queath their images to their descendants. NOMENCLA'TURE, was originally An hereditary nobility is found in the applied to a eatalogue of the most ordinainfancy of most nations, ancient and ry words in any language, with their sigmodern. Its origin is to be attributed to nifications, &c., drawn up for the purpose various causes; for the most part to mil- of facilitating their use and retention to itary despotism; in somne cases, to the those who are endeavoring to acquire a honors paid to superior ability, or to the language. But, in a lmore general sense, guardians of the mysteries of religion. this term is employed to denote the lanThe priestly nobility of the remotest an- guage peculiar to any science or art: tiquity has everywhere yielded to the thus we speak of the nomenclature of superiority of military chieftains. In chemistry, botany, &c. France and Germany, the first hereditary NO'MINALISTS, a term originally nobility begins with the downfall of the applied to a scholastic sect which arose in Carlovingian dynasty; in England, with the 11th century. Its founder was John the conquest of the Normans, in the tenth Roscelin, a churchman of Compiegne, and eleventh centuries; and was after- who asserted that general terms have no wards spread over all Europe; for, since corresponding reality either in or out of that time, dignities, as well as lands, have our minds, beingo, in truth, words, and nobecome hereditary.-A contemporary thing more. This doctrine naturally exwriter has remarked, that "it is a curl- cited great consternation among the ous particular in the history of nobility, schoolmen, with whom, hitherto, all that that among the natives of O taheite, rank is was real in nature was conceived to denot only hereditary, but actually descends pend on these general notions or essences. to the son, to the degradation of the Its promulgator underwent much perfather while yet alive: thus, he who is a secution for his opinions, and was ulnobleman to-day, if a son be born to him, timately compelled to retract them, as is as commoner to-morrow, and his son inconsistent with the doctrine of the Trin takes his rank." ity as it was then stated. ie found, NO'BLE, in numismatics, a gold coin however, an able successor in the person value 6s. 8d. which was struck in the of Peter Abelard, who attracted numerreign of Edward III., and stamped with ous disciples by his dialectical slill and the impression of a ship, which emblem eloquence, and, with his followers, whom is supposed to have been conmemora- he led in a body to Paris, was the occasion tive of a naval victory obtained by of founding the celebrated university of Edward over the French at Sluys, in that city. After his death, the ancient 1340. realism was restored to its supremacy; NO'MADS, or NO'MADES, a name nor do we meet with a nominallist until given to nations whose chief occupation the 13th century, when William of Occam consists in feeding their flocks, and who revived his doctrines under some modificahave no fixed place of abode, but shift tions. their residence according to the state of NON'AGE, the time of life before a pasture. Nomnadic tribes are seldom person, according to the laws of his counfound to quit their wandering life, until try, becomes of age to manage his own they are compelled to do so by being sur- concerns. rounded by tribes in settled habitations, NON-ASSUMP'SIT, in law, is a genor unless they can make themselves mas- eral plea in a personal action, by which ters of the settlements of a civilized na- a man denies that he has made any tion, promise.-The following legal terms or NO'IMANCY, the art or practice of di- phrases, beginning with non, properly vining the destiny of persons by the let- follow in this place; viz.-Nonr compos ters which form their names. nmentis, a phrase to denote a person's not NOM DE GUERRE, a French term being of sound memory and understandcommonly used to denote an assumed or ing. A distinction is made between an fictitious name. idiot and a person non compos mentis, __ _ _______ _ ____ _ J. 426 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITERATURE [I